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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Elements of Plumbing, by Samuel Dibble
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Elements of Plumbing
+
+Author: Samuel Dibble
+
+Release Date: May 1, 2008 [EBook #25269]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF PLUMBING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzan Flanagan and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                        ELEMENTS
+
+                           OF
+
+                        PLUMBING
+
+                           BY
+                  SAMUEL EDWARD DIBBLE
+
+     HEAD OF SANITARY EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATION DEPT.
+             CARNEGIE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
+
+
+                     FIRST EDITION
+
+              MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
+              239 WEST 39TH STREET. NEW YORK
+
+            LONDON: HILL PUBLISHING CO., LTD.
+                6 & 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C.
+                         1918
+
+
+
+
+                COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE
+              MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
+
+
+
+
+                THE MAPLE PRESS YORK PA
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In preparing this manuscript the author has had in mind the needs
+of young men having no technical instruction who are anxious to
+become proficient in the art of Plumbing. As a consequence each
+exercise is minutely described and illustrated; so much so,
+perhaps, that an experienced mechanic may find it too simple for
+skilled hands and a mature mind. But the beginner will not find the
+exercises too elaborately described and will profit by careful
+study. Years of experience and observation have shown the author
+that the methods herein described are entirely practical and are in
+common use today.
+
+The various exercises in lead work will acquaint the beginner with
+the correct use of tools and metals. The exercises in iron pipe
+work have also been detailed to show the correct installation of
+jobs.
+
+Together with the study of this book the subjects of Mathematics,
+Physics, Chemistry, Drawing and English should be taken. These
+subjects as they bear on Plumbing are invaluable to the mechanic in
+his future connection with the trade.
+
+The author is indebted for the illustrations of fixtures in the
+chapter covering the development of plumbing fixtures, to the
+Thomas Maddock's Sons Co., Standard Sanitary Mfg. Co., and The
+Trenton Potteries Co.
+
+                              SAMUEL EDWARD DIBBLE.
+                              PITTSBURGH, _December, 1917_.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+     PREFACE                                                         v
+
+     CHAPTER
+
+     I. Plumbing Fixtures and Trade                                  1
+
+     II. The Use and Care of the Soldering Iron--Fluxes--Making
+     Different Soldering Joints                                     11
+
+     III. Mixtures of Solders for Soldering Iron and Wiping--Care
+     of Solders--Melting Points of Metals and Alloys                21
+
+     IV. Making and Caring of Wiping Cloths                         24
+
+     V. Preparing and Wiping Joints                                 27
+
+     VI. Preparing and Wiping Joints (_Continued_)                  37
+
+     VII. Laying Terra-cotta and Making Connections to Public
+     Sewers--Water Connections to Mains in Streets                  69
+
+     VIII. Installing of French or Sub-soil Drains                  82
+
+     IX. Storm and Sanitary Drainage with Sewage Disposal in
+     View                                                           86
+
+     X. Soil and Waste Pipes and Vents--Tests                       95
+
+     XI. House Traps, Fresh-air Connections, Drum Traps, and
+     Non-syphoning Traps                                           104
+
+     XII. Pipe Threading                                           110
+
+     XIII. Cold-water Supply--Test                                 118
+
+     XIV. Hot-water Heaters--Instantaneous Coil and Storage
+     Tanks--Return Circulation, Hot-water Lines and Expansion      124
+
+     XV. Insulation of Piping to Eliminate Conduction, Radiation,
+     Freezing and Noise                                            131
+
+     XVI. "Durham" or "Screw Pipe" Work--Pipe and Fittings         134
+
+     XVII. Gas Fittings, Pipe and Fittings, Threading, Measuring
+     and Testing                                                   141
+
+     XVIII. Plumbing Codes                                         153
+
+     INDEX                                                         167
+
+
+
+
+ELEMENTS OF PLUMBING
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+PLUMBING FIXTURES AND TRADE
+
+
+Modern plumbing as a trade is the arranging and running of pipes to
+supply pure water to buildings, the erecting of fixtures for the
+use of this supply, and the installing of other pipes for the
+resulting waste water. The work of the trade divides itself
+therefore into two parts: first the providing an adequate supply of
+water; and second, the disposing of this water after use. The first
+division offers few problems to the plumber, little variety in the
+layout being possible, and the result depending mostly upon the
+arrangement of the pipes and fittings; but the second division
+calls for careful study in the arrangement, good workmanship in the
+installing, and individual attention to each fixture.
+
+The trade had its beginnings in merely supplying fresh water to a
+community. This was done by means of trenching, or conveying water
+from lakes, rivers, or springs through wooden pipes or open
+troughs. By easy stages the trade improved and enlarged its scope,
+until at the present time it is able to provide for the adequate
+distribution of tons of water under high pressure furnished by the
+city water works.
+
+In the early years of the trade the question of the disposal of the
+waste water was easily answered, for it was allowed to be
+discharged onto the ground to seek its own course. But with the
+increased amount of water available, the waste-water problem has
+enlarged until today it plays the most important part of plumbing,
+and the trade has had to change to meet this waste-water problem.
+
+The first simple system of a pipe running from the sink to a point
+outside the building was sufficient. As larger buildings came into
+use and communities were more thickly populated, the plumbing
+problem demanded thought and intense study. The waste pipes from
+fixtures had to be so arranged that it would be impossible for foul
+odors and germ-laden air to enter the building through a plumbing
+fixture. The importance of this is evidenced by the plumbing laws
+now in use throughout the country.
+
+One of the first plumbing fixtures put into common use was a
+hollowed-out stone which served as a sink. It was with considerable
+interest that the writer saw a sink of this kind in actual use in
+the summer of 1915, at a house in a New England village. This sink
+had been in service for about 100 years. From this beginning the
+well-known fixtures of today have developed. The demand for
+moderate priced, sanitary closets, lavatories, and baths has led to
+the rapid improvement seen in plumbing fixtures. In the development
+of these fixtures, as soon as a bad feature was recognized the
+fixture was at once discarded, until now the market offers fixtures
+as mechanically fine as can be produced. Plumbing fixtures were at
+first manufactured so that it was necessary to support them on a
+wooden frame, and this frame was enclosed in wood. The enclosure
+made by this framework soon became foul and filthy and a breeding
+place for all kinds of disease germs and vermin. This bad feature
+was overcome by the introduction of open plumbing, that is,
+fixtures so made that the enclosure of wood could be done away
+with. The open plumbing allowed a free circulation of air around
+the fixture and exposed pipes, thereby making the outside of the
+fixture and its immediate surroundings free from all the bad
+features of the closed plumbing. Plenty of fresh air and plenty of
+light are necessary for good sanitary plumbing.
+
+The materials of which the first open-plumbing fixtures were made
+consisted of marble, copper, zinc, slate, iron, and clay. Time soon
+proved that marble and slate were absorbent, copper and zinc soon
+leaked from wear, iron rusted, and clay cracked and lacked
+strength; therefore these materials soon became insanitary, and
+foul odors were easily detected rising from the fixture. Besides
+these materials being insanitary, the fact that a fixture was
+constructed using a number of sections proved that joints and seams
+were insanitary features on a fixture. For instance, in a marble
+lavatory constructed by using one piece for the top, another for
+the bowl, and still another for the back, filth accumulated at
+every joint and seam. Following this condition, developed the iron
+enameled and earthenware fixtures, constructed without seams and
+with a smooth, even, glossy white finish. The fact that these
+fixtures are made of material that is non-absorbent adds to their
+value as sanitary plumbing fixtures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Pan closet (_English_).]
+
+Another problem which is as important as the foregoing is the
+proper flushing, that is, the supplying of sufficient water in a
+manner designed to cleanse the fixture properly.
+
+The development of sanitary earthenware illustrates how the above
+problems were satisfactorily solved. In the city of London a law
+compelling the use of drains was enforced, and in the early 70's
+the effect of this law was felt in this country. The introduction
+at this time of the mechanical water closet, known as the "pan
+closet," and the English plumbing material which was brought to
+this country was the beginning of "American plumbing," which today
+outstrips that of any other country in the world. The "pan closet"
+continued in use for some time until the "valve closet" was
+introduced as a more sanitary fixture. Closely following these
+closets, in 1880, the plunger closet became popular as a still more
+sanitary fixture. The plunger closet continued in use until the
+present all-earthenware closet bowl drove all other makes from the
+market. The American development of the earthenware closet bowl
+put the American sanitary fixture far ahead of the English
+improvements, as the American earthenware is superior and the
+sanitary features of the bowls are nearer perfection.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Pan closet (_American_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Plunger closet.]
+
+When the washout bowl was introduced it was considered perfection.
+The hopper closet bowl, which was nothing more than a funnel-shaped
+bowl placed on top of a trap, was placed in competition with the
+washout bowl. There are a number of these bowls now in use and also
+being manufactured. However, large cities prohibit their use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Plunger closet.]
+
+To quote Thomas Maddock's Sons Co.: "In 1876 Wm. Smith of San
+Francisco patented a water closet which employed a jet to assist in
+emptying the bowl and the development of this principle is due
+entirely to the potter, who had gradually and by costly experiment
+become the determining factor in the evolution of the water
+closet." With this improvement it became possible to do away with
+the boxing-in of the bowl which up to this time had been necessary.
+Closet bowls of today are made of vitreous body which does not
+permit crazing or discoloring of the ware. A study of the
+illustrations which show the evolution of the closet bowl should be
+of interest to the student as well as to the apprentice and
+journeyman. The bath tub developed from a gouged-out stone, in
+which water could be stored and used for bathing purposes, to our
+present-day enameled iron and earthenware tubs. The development did
+not progress very rapidly until about 25 years ago. Since then
+every feature of the tub has been improved, and from a sanitary
+standpoint the tubs of today cannot be improved. The bath tub has
+become an American custom, as the people in this country have
+demanded that they have sanitary equipment in their homes, while in
+the European countries this demand has not developed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Modern low-tank closet.]
+
+The first tubs used in this country were of wood lined with copper
+or zinc, and were built in or boxed in with wood panelling. The
+plumbing ordinances of today prohibit this boxing as it proved to
+be a breeding place for vermin, etc. As the illustration shows, the
+woodwork encasing the tub was in a great many cases beautifully
+carved and finished.
+
+The placing on the market of a steel-clad tub, a steel tub with a
+copper lining, which did away with the boxing, was a big
+improvement as far as sanitary reasons were concerned as well as a
+reduction in cost of tubs. These tubs were set up on legs which
+permitted cleaning and provided good ventilation all around. With
+these features they drove all other tubs from the market. The
+copper and zinc were found to be hard to keep clean and they were
+soon replaced by the iron enamelled and earthenware tubs. The
+finish on these tubs being white and non-absorbent makes
+them highly acceptable as sanitary fixtures. A study of the
+illustrations will show how progress has been made in design as
+well as in sanitary features.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Encased bath tub.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Steel tub on legs.]
+
+THE WASH BOWL.--Succeeding the hand basin the first wash basins
+used in this country were made of marble or slate, with a round
+bowl of crockery. The bowl was 14 inches in diameter originally,
+but later was changed to an oval bowl. Like the bath tub these
+wash stands were encased in wood, the encasing being used to
+support the marble top. Ornamental brackets were introduced and the
+wood encasement done away with.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Modern built-in tub.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Encased wash bowl.]
+
+About 1902 the iron-enamelled lavatory appeared on the market and
+drove all other kinds from the market at once. The reason for this
+is clear. The marble stands were absorbent and were made with three
+parts, top, back, and bowl; the enamelled iron lavatory is made
+all in one piece of material non-absorbent. A study of the
+illustrations will show clearly how the lavatory has been
+improved. Strange to say, in all plumbing fixtures, and especially
+the lavatory, as improvements were made to make them more sanitary
+a reduction has been made in the price of an individual fixture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Bath room of early 80's. All fixtures are
+enclosed.]
+
+The development of the urinal, showers, wash trays, drinking
+fountains and other fixtures I will not attempt to cover. As the
+demand has been evident for fixtures of certain types, the plumber
+has been alert to anticipate and supply it. There is need,
+however, for improvement in all our fixtures, especially that part
+which connects with the waste pipes, also the hanging, that is the
+arrangement or lack of arrangement for hanging fixtures to the
+wall. The waste and overflow of all fixtures need considerable
+change to make them sanitary. The opportunity is, therefore, before
+anyone who will apply himself to this development. Much money,
+thought, and time have been spent by the manufacturers of iron
+enamelled ware and by the potteries to gather suggestions made by
+the plumber in regard to fixtures, and then to perfect them. To
+these manufacturers is due the beautiful design, stability, and
+perfect sanitary material which make up our plumbing fixtures of
+today.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE USE AND CARE OF THE SOLDERING IRON. FLUXES. MAKING DIFFERENT
+SOLDERING JOINTS
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Copper.]
+
+THE SOLDERING IRON.--The soldering iron is one of the first tools a
+plumber has to master. This tool is sometimes called a "copper bit"
+as it is made of copper; and so throughout this book the words
+"soldering iron," "copper bit," "iron," and "bit" are used
+synonymously. There are several different-shaped irons in common
+use today, but an iron shaped like the one in Fig. 13 is the one
+for use in the following work. Take the iron as it is purchased,
+having a wooden handle and the copper exposed on pointed end.
+Before it can be used the point must be faced and tinned. To do
+this, proceed as follows:
+
+     _First_, heat the iron on the furnace.
+
+     _Second_, place in vise and file the four surfaces of the point.
+
+     _Third_, run a file over edges and point.
+
+     _Fourth_, heat the iron until it will melt solder.
+
+     _Fifth_, put 6 or 8 drops of solder and a piece of rosin the size
+     of a chestnut on an ordinary red brick. (This rosin is called a
+     flux.)
+
+     _Sixth_, take the hot iron and melt the solder and rosin on the
+     brick.
+
+     _Seventh_, rub the four surfaces of the point of the iron on the
+     brick keeping the point in the melted solder.
+
+The solder will soon stick to the copper surfaces and then the iron
+is ready for use.
+
+Another way to tin the iron that is in common use is to rub the
+point of a hot iron on a piece of sal-ammoniac, or dip the hot iron
+in reduced muriatic acid, then rub the stick of solder on the iron.
+The use of muriatic acid in tinning the iron is not recommended. In
+the first place, it is not always possible to carry it, and in the
+second place it eats holes in the surface of iron, which makes it
+necessary to file and smooth the surfaces again. The constant use
+of muriatic acid on the copper soon wears it away and makes it
+unfit for use. Rosin is easily carried and applied and is by far
+the best to use in regular work.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER IN THE CARE OF THE SOLDERING IRON.--
+
+     _First_, proper tinning is absolutely necessary for rapid and
+     good work.
+
+     _Second_, do not allow the iron to heat red hot.
+
+     _Third_, keep the point of the iron properly shaped.
+
+     _Fourth_, use the same flux in tinning as is to be used in
+     soldering.
+
+     _Fifth_, when filing iron, file as little as possible.
+
+     _Sixth_, keep in use two irons of the same size.
+
+
+FLUX
+
+A flux is used to clean the surfaces of joints and seams to be
+soldered, also to keep them from oxidizing and to help the metals
+to fuse.
+
+The following list gives the names of various fluxes in common use,
+how they are applied, and on what material they are most commonly
+used:
+
+     Flux                      How applied      Used on
+
+     Rosin                     Sprinkled on     Lead, tin, and brass
+     Tallow                    Melted           Lead and brass
+     Muriatic acid (reduced)   With swab        Copper, galvanized iron
+                                                  and brass
+     Muriatic acid (raw)       With swab        Dirty galvanized iron
+
+ROSIN.--Rosin is purchased by the pound and comes in chunks. It is
+very brittle and powders easily. Plumbers generally take a piece of
+1-1/4 N. P. brass tubing, solder a trap screw in one end and a
+cone-shaped piece of copper on the other. The point of the cone is
+left open. Rosin is put into this tube and is easily sprinkled on
+work when needed.
+
+TALLOW.--A plumber's _tallow candle_ answers the purpose for tallow
+flux. Some plumbers carry a can for the tallow, making it cleaner
+to handle.
+
+MURIATIC ACID.--Muriatic acid or hydrochloric acid is used both raw
+and reduced. Raw acid is not diluted or reduced. Reduced acid is
+made as follows: Put some zinc chips in a lead receptacle and then
+pour in the muriatic acid. The acid will at once act on the zinc.
+The fumes should be allowed to escape into the outer air. When
+chemical action ceases, the liquid remaining is called reduced
+acid.
+
+
+PLUMBERS' SOILS AND PASTE
+
+It is necessary when soldering or wiping a joint to cover the parts
+of pipe adjoining the portion that is to be soldered or wiped so
+that the solder will not stick to it. There are a number of
+preparations for this. The one used by the best mechanics today is
+paste, made as follows:
+
+     8 teaspoons of flour.
+     1 teaspoon of salt.
+     1 teaspoon of sugar.
+     Mix with water and boil down to a thick paste.
+
+The advantages of paste as a soil are many:
+
+     _First_, it is made of materials easily obtained.
+
+     _Second_, solder will not stick to it.
+
+     _Third_, if pipe is thoroughly cleaned, the paste will not rub
+     off easily.
+
+     _Fourth_, poor workmanship cannot be covered up.
+
+     _Fifth_, when the work is completed, a wet cloth will wipe it
+     off and leave the work clean.
+
+Another soil used is _lampblack_ and _glue_. A quantity of glue is
+melted and then lampblack is added. This needs to be heated and
+water added each time it is used. This soil is put on pipes with a
+short stubby brush. The work when completed with the silvery joint
+and jet black borders appears to the uninitiated very artistic and
+neat, but when the black soil is worn away the uneven edges of the
+joint appear, disclosing the reason for using a black soil that
+covers all defects. The mechanic of today who takes pride in his
+ability for good workmanship will not cover his work with black
+soil.
+
+It can readily be seen that the use of lampblack soil encourages
+poor workmanship, while the use of paste forces, to a certain
+extent, good workmanship on the part of the mechanic.
+
+Before soil or paste is applied, the pipe needs to be cleansed.
+Grease and dirt accumulate on the pipe. The methods employed to
+remove all foreign matter are simply to scrape the surface with
+fine sand or emery paper; sand and water will also answer for this
+purpose. This cleans the surface and allows the soil or paste to
+stick to the pipe.
+
+
+MAKING DIFFERENT SOLDER JOINTS
+
+The tools used in making the different solder joints as described
+and illustrated in this chapter are shown in Fig. 14.
+
+CUP JOINT.--The materials necessary for the work (Fig. 15): 12
+inches of 1/2-inch AA lead pipe, paste, rosin, 1/2 and 1/2 solder.
+
+If a gas furnace is not on the bench to heat the iron, then a
+gasoline furnace is necessary.
+
+Each of the following operations must be done thoroughly to insure
+a perfect job:
+
+     _First_, with the SAW cut off 12 inches of 1/2-inch AA lead pipe
+     from the coil. When cutting off a piece of lead pipe from a coil or
+     reel, always straighten out 1 foot more than is needed. This leaves
+     1 foot of straight pipe always on the coil.
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Tools used for making solder joints.]
+
+     _Second_, with the flat side of the RASP, square the ends of the
+     12-inch piece of pipe. (A good way to do this is to hold the pipe
+     at right angles with the edge of the bench, run the rasp across the
+     end of the pipe, keeping the rasp _parallel_ with the edge of the
+     bench. Apply this to all work when necessary to square the ends of
+     pipe.)
+
+     _Third_, cut the pipe with the saw, making two pieces each 6 inches
+     in length.
+
+     _Fourth_, square the ends just cut.
+
+     _Fifth_, rasp the edges of one end as shown in the cut. Hold the
+     work in such a way that the stroke of the rasp can be seen without
+     moving the pipe.
+
+     _Sixth_, take the other 6-inch piece of pipe and with the TURN PIN
+     spread one end of it. The turn pin must be struck squarely in the
+     center with the HAMMER, the point of the turn pin being kept in the
+     center of the pipe. The pipe should be turned after each blow of
+     the hammer. The pipe must not rest on the bench but should be held
+     in the hand while using the turn pin. If the pipe bends, it can be
+     straightened with BENDING IRONS. If the pipe is spread more on one
+     side than the other, the turn pin should be hit on the opposite
+     side so as to even the spread.
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+     _Seventh_, when the pipes are properly fitted, moisten the tips of
+     the fingers with paste and rub the paste on parts of pipe marked
+     "paste." Put the pipe aside to allow the paste to dry.
+
+     _Eighth_, put the soldering iron on to heat.
+
+     _Ninth_, with the SHAVE HOOK scrape off the paste and surface dirt
+     as shown in the figure. The inside of the cup will look bright, but
+     must be scraped.
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Cup joint.]
+
+     _Tenth_, place the two pieces into position as shown in Fig. 16,
+     sprinkle rosin on the joint, melt a few drops of solder on the
+     joint and with the iron melt the solder on the joint, drawing the
+     iron around the pipe keeping the solder melted around the iron all
+     the time.
+
+     _Eleventh_, fill the joint with solder and continue to draw the hot
+     iron around the joint until a smooth and bright surface is
+     obtained. To master the correct use of the soldering iron in this
+     work, considerable practice will be necessary.
+
+OVERCAST JOINTS.--(Fig. 17.)
+
+     NOTE.--Each operation must be performed thoroughly.
+
+     _First_, saw off from a coil of 1-1/2-inch D lead pipe a 10-inch
+     piece of pipe.
+
+     _Second_, square the ends with the rasp, as previously explained.
+
+     _Third_, take a 1-1/2-inch DRIFT PLUG and drive through the pipe
+     (Fig. 18).
+
+     _Fourth_, saw the pipe into two pieces of 5 inches each.
+
+     _Fifth_, square the ends of the pipe with the rasp.
+
+     _Sixth_, rasp off the outside edge of one end of the pipe as shown.
+
+     _Seventh_, rasp off the inside edge of one end of the pipe.
+
+     _Eighth_, finish rasped surfaces with a file. Both surfaces should
+     have the same angle.
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Overcast joint.]
+
+     _Ninth_, with a shave hook scrape the outside surface of each pipe
+     for about 1 inch from the end.
+
+     _Tenth_, put the soldering iron on to heat.
+
+     _Eleventh_, paste paper on the joint as shown in the cut.
+
+     _Twelfth_, fit the pieces together and lay on the bench. Drop some
+     melted solder on the joint and with the hot iron proceed to flow
+     the solder around the joint by turning the pipe. Use plenty of flux
+     (rosin). The pipes must be tacked in three or four places at first
+     or they will have a tendency to spread.
+
+     _Thirteenth_, to finish the joint, lift the iron straight up.
+
+This joint when finished will have a bright smooth finish. The two
+foregoing joints need considerable practice and should be perfectly
+mastered before going on to the next job.
+
+
+SEAMS
+
+A description of the making of wiped seams for lead-lined tanks
+will not be attempted as very few are made now. The plumber,
+however, is often called upon to make a seam joining two pieces of
+sheet lead. The beginner will do well to go over the following
+exercise carefully and practice it thoroughly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Flat seam.]
+
+MATERIALS.--Two pieces of 8-pound sheet lead, 6 by 10 inches each;
+one bar of 1/2 and 1/2 solder; paste, paper, and rosin.
+
+TOOLS.--Rasp, shave hook, and soldering iron.
+
+The 10-inch side of each piece is rasped and fitted together. The
+edges are cleaned and paper is pasted on leaving 1/4 inch for
+solder. Paste without the paper can be put on. This will make a
+joint 1/2 inch wide.
+
+Apply the rosin to the joint, then with the heated iron and some
+solder tack the seam on the top, then on the bottom and middle.
+This will prevent the seam from spreading when the lead is heated.
+Solder and rosin can now be put on the full length of the joint.
+With a hot iron proceed to float the solder down the seam. The
+soldering iron must not rest at full length on the pieces of lead
+or it will melt the lead and render the work useless. The solder
+will flow and form a clean neat seam, if the iron is at the right
+heat and the right amount of solder is put on. If the iron is too
+hot, the solder will flow instantly when the iron is laid on it and
+the solder will disappear as it runs through the seam. If the iron
+is too cold the solder will not melt enough to flow. Too much
+solder on the seam will cause it to overflow, that is, the solder
+will spread beyond the papered edges. After a little practice this
+surplus solder can be drawn in on the seam with the iron and
+carried along the seam to some point that has not enough solder.
+When the seam is completed the edges should be perfectly straight
+and even. The iron is carried along the seam with one stroke which
+makes the seam appear smooth and bright.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+MIXTURES OF SOLDERS FOR SOLDERING IRON AND WIPING. CARE OF SOLDERS.
+MELTING POINTS OF METALS AND ALLOYS
+
+
+The importance of good solder, that is, solder correctly mixed and
+thoroughly cleaned, should not be overlooked. Work is more quickly
+and neatly done and the job presents a more finished appearance
+when solder that is correctly made is used.
+
+The solder used in the following work with the soldering iron is
+called 1/2 and 1/2. This means 1/2 (50 per cent.) lead and 1/2 (50
+per cent.) tin.
+
+In the mixture of solder, only pure metals should be used. The lead
+should be melted first and all the dross cleaned off. The tin
+should then be added and mixed.
+
+The solder to be used in wiping the joints in the following chapter
+is a mixture of 37 per cent. tin and 63 per cent. lead. This is
+called wiping solder.
+
+The following table gives the melting points, etc.:
+
+     ---------------+---------+------------------------------------------
+                    | Melting |
+          Metal     |  point  |      Mixture
+     ---------------+---------+------------------------------------------
+     Sulphur        |  228    | Pure
+     Tin            |  446    | Pure
+     Lead           |  626    | Pure
+     Zinc           |  680    | Pure
+     Fine solder    |  400    | 50 per cent. tin, 50 per cent. lead (wt.)
+     Wiping solder  |  370    | 37 per cent. tin, 63 per cent. lead (wt.)
+     ---------------+---------+------------------------------------------
+
+To recognize fine solder, run off a bar into a mold and let it
+cool. If there is a frosted streak in the center, the metal has not
+enough tin. The surface should be bright. To recognize wiping
+solder, pour some on a brick. When this is cool, the top should be
+frosty and the under side should have four or five bright spots.
+The amount poured on the brick should be about the size of a half
+dollar. If poured on iron, the metal will cool too quickly and show
+bright all over the under side.
+
+TO MAKE 1/2 AND 1/2 SOLDER OR PLUMBER'S FINE SOLDER.--The
+possibility of getting pure clean metals to mix solder is very
+remote. Old pieces of lead pipe, lead trap, old block tin pipe are
+used to make solder when pure metals are not at hand.
+
+     _First_, in a cast-iron pot melt the lead to about 800°, or a dull
+     red.
+
+     _Second_, clean off the dross.
+
+     _Third_, add (to a 15-pound pot) 1/2 pound of sulphur in three
+     applications. Each time mix the sulphur thoroughly with the metal
+     with a long stick.
+
+     _Fourth_, add tin before the last application of sulphur. Mix
+     thoroughly.
+
+     _Fifth_, pour off two bars and look for the frosty streak in the
+     center. Add a little more tin, if necessary.
+
+TO MIX WIPING SOLDER.--
+
+     _First_, proceed as described in 1/2 and 1/2, melting the metals
+     and _burning_ out with sulphur, adding the percentage of tin
+     according to the preceding table. Then test the solder for bright
+     spots on the under side.
+
+     _Second_, keep the metal thoroughly mixed when burning and keep
+     all dross cleaned off the surface.
+
+The working heat of wiping solder is 500°F. Sulphur is used to
+collect all zinc and dross. The sulphur should come in contact with
+all parts of the metal. This is why the metal should be stirred
+when the sulphur is put in.
+
+A few good points in the economical care of solder are listed
+below.
+
+CARE OF 1/2 AND 1/2 SOLDER.--
+
+     _First_, do not drop melted solder on the floor or dirty bench.
+
+     _Second_, use all small ends by melting on a new bar.
+
+     _Third_, put clean paper under work and use droppings.
+
+     _Fourth_, have the mold free from dirt when pouring.
+
+CARE OF WIPING SOLDER.--
+
+     _First_, do not heat red hot.
+
+     _Second_, do not file brass where the filings will get into the
+     solder.
+
+     _Third_, do not allow lead chips to get into the solder.
+
+     _Fourth_, clean the solder occasionally.
+
+     _Fifth_, learn to distinguish solder from lead by its hardness.
+
+     _Sixth_, have different-shaped pot for lead and solder.
+
+     _Seventh_, do not _tin_ brass by dipping into solder.
+
+     _Eighth_, do not put cold or wet ladle into hot solder.
+
+A pot holding about 15 pounds of solder is the size commonly in
+use.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+MAKING AND CARE OF WIPING CLOTHS
+
+
+A good wiping cloth is essential for wiping joints. The exact size
+and the flexibility of the cloth depend a great deal upon the
+mechanic who handles the cloth. Some mechanics like a stiff cloth,
+but the writer has always used a flexible cloth. The sizes, shape,
+and methods of folding and breaking in as shown in Fig. 21 below
+have proved successful. Cloths made of whalebone ticking are
+inexpensive and make the best for ordinary use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Folding a wiping cloth.]
+
+     Size of cloth open               Size of cloth folded
+     14-1/2 by 14-1/2 inches  equals  3-1/4 by  3-1/4 inches
+     13-1/2 by 13-1/2 inches  equals  3     by  3     inches
+      8-1/2 by 12-1/2 inches  equals  2     by  3     inches
+
+For the joint-wiping jobs to follow, the above sizes are the best.
+The largest size, 14-1/2 by 14-1/2 inches is used for _catch
+cloth_. The 13-1/2 by 13-1/2 inches is the _wiping cloth_. The
+8-1/2 by 12-1/2 inches is the _branch cloth_.
+
+Proceed as follows to cut and complete a cloth:
+
+     _First_, lay the ticking on the flat bench and square the sides
+     14-1/2 by 14-1/2 inches.
+
+     _Second_, the ticking should be cut off with shears and not torn
+     or cut with a knife.
+
+     _Third_, fold as shown in the cut.
+
+Each fold should be moistened with a little water and pressed with
+a hot iron. The cloth should not be pulled or stretched, but should
+be kept as square as possible.
+
+The first and second folds require a little care; the corners when
+folded to the center should be kept in a little, thus making the
+outside edge slightly rounded. If this is done, the corners will
+not stick out when the cloth is finished. After the cloth is
+carefully folded, pressed, and dried, take a needle and thread and
+sew the open corners about 1/2 inch in from the edge of the cloth.
+By carefully studying the cut, one can readily see each operation
+and, by following directions, make a perfect cloth.
+
+When the cloth is done, an amount of oil sufficient to soak through
+about three layers of cloth should be applied and then rubbed on a
+smooth surface. The oil should be rubbed in well about the edges.
+It will not be necessary to apply anything else to the cloth to
+prepare it for wiping. Paste, soil, chalk, etc., are not needed and
+do not benefit the cloth. When using oil on the cloth, it must not
+be used too freely, that is, the cloth must not be soaked in oil,
+as oil is a rapid conductor of heat and the cloth would soon become
+too hot to handle.
+
+CARE OF WIPING CLOTHS.--The ticking will burn if allowed to become
+too hot. If hot solder is poured directly on the cloth, it will
+soon burn and be destroyed.
+
+Keep the surface on both sides of the cloth well oiled.
+
+Use both sides of the cloth.
+
+Use both wiping edges of the cloth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Wiping cloth folded has 16 thicknesses of
+ticking.]
+
+When the cloth is not in use, it should not be thrown in with the
+other tools and allowed to curl up into all sorts of shapes, but
+should be kept in some flat place. A good way to keep the cloths is
+to have two pieces of wood between which the cloths may be kept and
+held there by means of a strap. The length of time which a wiping
+cloth can be used depends a great deal upon its making and upon the
+care which is given it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+PREPARING AND WIPING JOINTS
+
+
+When the writer first started to carry the tools for a plumber and
+to prepare joints for wiping, the remark was often heard that joint
+wiping would soon be a thing of the past. I have heard this many
+times since from many different sources. Personally, I fail to see
+the passing of the wiped joint. More lead pipe is being made today
+than ever before, which goes to show that lead pipe is being used
+and the only successful way of joining is with the wiped joint.
+Some plumbers' helpers of today seem to think that joint wiping is
+of no account. To a certain extent, I can sympathize with them.
+Most of these boys are learning a trade in large cities and working
+for concerns that do nothing but a large contracting business. This
+large work is carried on differently from the small work.
+Wrought-iron or steel pipes are used to a great extent in this work
+and a very small amount of lead is used. Sometimes the job will be
+completed without the use of lead. The boy who works continually on
+this kind of work soon comes to think that lead pipes are no longer
+in use. The writer has found that a boy who has learned to do
+nothing but screw-pipe work is absolutely lost and cannot perform
+the duties of a plumber, other than screw-pipe work. It must be
+borne in mind that lead pipe and cast-iron pipe work are being used
+today in all parts of the country and in some parts more than in
+others. Therefore, the boy must grasp all branches of the trade
+that he has chosen to follow and not be a one-sided man. Joint
+wiping belongs to the plumber alone. The plumbing trade differs
+from all other trades in that it has joint wiping for its
+distinctive feature.
+
+A few attempts at joint wiping will convince the beginner that it
+is not the easiest thing in the world to learn. Let me caution the
+beginner not to get discouraged. He must have patience and a firm
+resolve to master the art of joint wiping and not let it master him
+and keep him back.
+
+So, as we now start on exercises of joint wiping, let the beginner
+constantly keep in mind that all boys must become perfectly skilled
+in the art of joint wiping before they can be considered plumbers.
+Keep in mind also that the examination that one must take to get a
+plumber's license contains an actual exercise in joint wiping. The
+one word of advice is not to get discouraged. Continued practice is
+the only way to success.
+
+The soldering iron is, or should be, conquered by this time. As
+joint wiping is the next exercise, I shall go over a few general
+points that experience has taught me and cannot fail to be of
+assistance to the beginner if they are heeded. In fact, to become
+proficient, the beginner should remember all the points suggested
+under this heading. It is necessary in wiping to have good solder.
+In the chapter on solder, I have given the correct mixtures and how
+to recognize the proper mixtures. The place where wiping is to be
+done should be considered. No draught should be allowed to blow
+across the work as it tends to chill the solder and pipe. Proper
+support for the work should be procured. If gasoline is to be used
+for fuel to heat the solder, make sure that the tank is full before
+starting, otherwise the fire may go out just when the heat is
+needed most and the solder in the pot has become too cool to wipe
+with. Have a catch pan and keep all the solder droppings to put
+back into the pot, otherwise the solder will pile up and the
+fingers are likely to be pushed into the pile and badly burned.
+Hold the ladle about 2 inches above the work, the catch cloth
+about 1 inches below. Do not drop the solder in the same place.
+Keep moving the ladle. Do not pour the solder on the pipe in a
+steady stream, but drop it on. It is not a large amount of solder
+that is wanted on the joint at first, it is heat that is needed.
+This can be secured better by dropping the solder on than by
+pouring a large quantity on the pipe. The edges of the joint cool
+very quickly; therefore heat the edges well and keep them covered
+with molten solder until the joint is ready to wipe. When preparing
+joints for wiping, always do the work thoroughly and fit the pieces
+together tightly so that no solder can get through.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, good solder.
+
+     _Second_, place of wiping.
+
+     _Third_, support.
+
+     _Fourth_, full tank of gasoline.
+
+     _Fifth_, drip pan.
+
+     _Sixth_, ladle 2 inches above the work.
+
+     _Seventh_, cloth 1 inches below the work.
+
+     _Eighth_, move the ladle continually.
+
+     _Ninth_, _drop_ the solder.
+
+     _Tenth_, _heat_, not solder wanted at first.
+
+     _Eleventh_, heat the edges.
+
+     _Twelfth_, careful preparation.
+
+     _Thirteenth_, clean grease from the pipe.
+
+     _Fourteenth_, cut clean straight edges on paper.
+
+
+HALF-INCH ROUND WIPED JOINT
+
+PREPARATION.--Take 12 inches of 1/2-inch strong lead pipe and
+square off the ends with a rasp. Take the shave hook and scrape the
+center of the pipe perfectly bright; a space 3 inches each side of
+the center is correct. The size of the joint when completed should
+be 2-1/2 inches long. If we should undertake to wipe the joint
+with the pipe in the present condition, the solder would adhere to
+all the pipe that was shaved bright. Therefore, we take a piece of
+paper sufficient to encircle the pipe twice and after putting paste
+on one side of the paper wrap it around the pipe so that the edge
+that is cut straight and even is 1-1/4 inches from the center of
+the pipe. Another piece of paper is pasted on the other side of the
+center leaving a clean, bright space of 2-1/2 inches. All the pipe
+should be covered with paper except the 2-1/2 inches in the center.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.]
+
+TO PUT THE PIPE IN POSITION FOR WIPING.--The most practical way is
+to take two common red bricks with the 2 by 8 face down and place
+them 9 inches apart. Lay the pipe on the bricks and place a weight
+on each end. The solder will drop on to the bench, so it is best to
+place a piece of paper or a pan of black iron under the pipe to
+catch the solder that drops. The pan or paper can then be taken up
+and the solder put back into the pot without waste. A cast-iron
+pot holding 15 pounds of solder is then placed on the furnace. When
+the solder has melted and has reached 500° it is ready for use.
+This can best be determined by putting a piece of paper in the
+solder. If the paper scorches, the solder is at the right heat; if
+the paper catches fire, it is too hot.
+
+Now take a 3-inch ladle and heat it over the fire and then dip it
+into the solder and skim off any dross that may have collected.
+
+WIPING.--With the ladle full of solder in the right hand and the
+large cloth or the catch cloth in the left hand, begin to drop the
+solder on the joint. The cloth should catch all the solder as it
+falls off the pipe. If hot solder is held against the bottom of the
+pipe, it is heated to the proper heat. Always begin to drop the
+solder on the paper edges, then drop the solder on the joint
+itself. Bear in mind that the solder should not be poured on, but
+dropped on slowly. After the first few drops do not drop the solder
+directly on to the lead pipe but on to the solder previously put on
+the pipe. This will save the pipe from burning through. The pipe
+must be the same heat as the solder before the proper heat is
+obtained for good wiping. The beginner should practice dropping the
+solder on the joint, catching the solder and working it around the
+pipe. By doing this, one becomes familiar with the feeling of hot
+solder, which is the secret of successful wiping. When the solder
+works easily around the pipe, drop the ladle and take the smaller
+wiping cloth in the right hand and with both cloths draw all the
+solder on top of the pipe. With fingers on the corners of both
+cloths, clean off the left-hand edge and with the right hand draw
+the surplus solder across to the right-hand edge. Next, clean the
+right-hand edge of the joint pushing the surplus solder onto the
+cloth in the right hand. Work this solder on to the bottom of the
+joint. Now discard the catch cloth. Holding the wiping cloth with
+the index fingers on lower opposite corners, shape the under and
+front side of the joint. With the middle fingers on opposite lower
+corners of the cloth shape the back and top. Keep the index and
+middle fingers on the edge of the cloth and the edge of the cloth
+on the edge of the joint. This position together with the size and
+shape of the cloth will give the joint the desired form and
+appearance. Particular attention is called to the position of the
+fingers as shown in the figure.
+
+The last wipe should be a quick stroke coming off of joint on a
+tangent. If the solder is at right heat, the cloth will not leave a
+noticeable mark. If, however, the solder is too cold, a ragged edge
+will result. Sometimes a cross wipe is made for the last stroke and
+a good finish obtained.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, width of the joint, 2-1/2 inches.
+
+     _Second_, allow no soil or paste to get on the joint.
+
+     _Third_, a 3-inch ladle should be used.
+
+     _Fourth_, 500° is the working heat of solder.
+
+     _Fifth_, paper test for solder heat.
+
+     _Sixth_, position of wiping cloths.
+
+     _Seventh_, do not drop solder on the lead pipe.
+
+     _Eighth_, hold the ladle 2 inches above the pipe.
+
+     _Ninth_, wipe the edges of the joint first.
+
+     _Tenth_, wipe and shape the joint quickly.
+
+The above procedure of wiping will be found to work out very easily
+if followed closely. Do not pour the hot solder onto the cloth as
+the cloth will burn through and soon be useless. A little more oil
+should be put on the cloth after using it for awhile. The cloth
+should be turned around and the opposite side also used. The cloth
+will last considerably longer if sides are changed frequently. The
+solder should not accumulate on the pan, but should be continually
+put back into the pot. The "metal," as solder is sometimes called,
+should never be allowed to become red hot.
+
+The above method of preparing pipe is suggested for beginners only
+and will be found to be a great help to them. In actual practice
+the joint must be prepared differently. The method used in trade is
+as follows:
+
+The joint is used to join two pieces of lead pipe. Take two pieces
+and rasp the four ends square. With the tap borer clean out the end
+of one pipe a trifle, then with the turn pin enlarge this end just
+a little as shown in the figure. Then rasp the edge off about 1/8
+inch as shown. Take the other piece of pipe and rasp one end as was
+done in the cup joint, making it fit into the first piece. Then
+place the two ends together and with the bending iron beat the
+pipe, making the joint as tight as possible.
+
+
+ROUND JOINT--45° TO RIGHT
+
+The next position in which the beginner is to wipe a joint is on an
+angle of 45° to the right.
+
+PREPARATION.--To prepare this joint, proceed as in the horizontal
+round joint. I will enumerate a few of these points. A piece 12
+inches long of 1/2-inch pipe is cut off and the ends squared. A
+strip in the center, 6 inches long, is shaved clean. Paper and
+paste are put over the pipe except 2-1/2 inches in the center.
+Grease can be put on the pipe in between the pieces of paper and
+will keep the lead from oxidizing.
+
+PLACING PIPE IN POSITION.--There is no need of an elaborate system
+of holding the pipe in position. Take a red brick and place the 4
+by 8 face down. This will do for the bottom pipe. For the top of
+pipe to rest on, place two bricks one above the other; this will
+give the correct position. Place the pipe on the brick and with a
+ladle full of half molten solder pour a clamp of solder over the
+end of the pipe. This will hold the pipe firm for wiping. Place a
+catch pan under the joint for solder to fall in.
+
+WIPING.--The method of wiping this joint is practically the same as
+wiping the horizontal joint. The catch cloth should be held
+parallel with the bench tilting a little from front toward the
+back. The ladle is held the same and solder is dropped on as
+before. The ladle should be continually moving while dropping
+solder, not allowing the solder to drop twice in the same place.
+When the solder has been worked around the pipe and is at working
+heat, the solder is drawn up with both cloths and the top edge
+wiped first, then the bottom edge; the surplus solder is put on the
+underside of the joint, and then with three or four wipes the joint
+is made symmetrical and finished.
+
+THINGS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, prepare like the horizontal joint.
+
+     _Second_, use brick to place in position.
+
+     _Third_, hold tools as in horizontal joint.
+
+     _Fourth_, top edge cools first, therefore, wipe it first.
+
+     _Fifth_, hold the wiping cloth at an angle of 45° when wiping,
+     with fingers placed as noted in previous joint.
+
+     _Sixth_, make solder clamp for holding the pipe.
+
+
+ROUND JOINT 45°--LEFT
+
+When the preceding joint is well mastered and a number of good
+joints have been wiped, turn the pipe on an angle of 45° to the
+left.
+
+PREPARATION.--The preparation for this joint is exactly the same as
+for the horizontal joint. The beginner should turn back and read
+carefully concerning the perfection of the joint. Bear in mind that
+the pipe must be correctly prepared or a good joint cannot be made.
+The edge of the paper must be cut not torn.
+
+PLACING PIPE IN POSITION.--This pipe can be placed in position the
+same as the preceding one. If heavy weights are placed on the ends
+of the pipe, a bad habit may be formed by the one learning to wipe.
+That is, the habit of pressing hard on the joint when wiping. In
+the preceding joint, if the beginner presses too hard, the pipe
+will fall off the bricks.
+
+WIPING.--Proceed as described for previous joints. The top edge
+must be favored a little. The hot solder will run down to the
+bottom edge; therefore less solder should be dropped on it than on
+the top edge. When the solder is at the proper heat for wiping it
+requires only a light touch to wipe the joint. If it appears
+necessary to press hard on the joint to wipe off surplus solder, it
+shows that the solder is not at the correct wiping heat.
+
+
+ROUND JOINT--VERTICAL
+
+PREPARATION.--This joint can be prepared exactly like the preceding
+one. In fact, the same piece of pipe can be used throughout. When
+preparing this joint the end that is to be on the bottom should be
+well covered with paper.
+
+PLACING IN POSITION.--The best way to hold this joint in position
+for wiping is to stand the pipe upright on one end with the pan
+underneath. A piece of furring strip should be run from the top of
+the pipe to the wall. Secure the strip to the wall and drive a nail
+through the strip into the bore of the pipe. Place a weight on top
+of the strip and the pipe is ready.
+
+WIPING.--The procedure of wiping this joint is entirely different
+from that in the other positions. The solder is thrown onto the
+joint from the ladle. The catch cloth is held up to the pipe and as
+much solder as possible is held on to the pipe. Move the ladle
+around the joint, throwing a little solder on as the ladle is
+moved. Notice now that all the solder runs to the bottom edge,
+leaving the top edge cold. The solder that accumulates on the
+bottom edge should be drawn up to the top edge with the cloth.
+Then splash more solder on to the top edge and as the solder runs
+down the pipe catch it with the cloth and draw it up again. The
+solder can be worked around and up and down the joint, but always
+keep the top edge covered with hot solder. The solder is likely to
+drop off the joint entirely unless watched closely. When the
+correct heat is obtained, drop the ladle. Take the wiping cloth in
+the right hand and with the fingers spread, clean off the top edge
+quickly, then shape the joint with the one cloth. With a little
+practice you will gain this knack. The joint can then be wiped. The
+left hand can steady the pipe. Spread the index finger and third
+finger to opposite sides of the cloth and wipe around the joint.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+PREPARING AND WIPING JOINTS (_Continued_)
+
+
+TWO-INCH BRASS FERRULE
+
+MATERIALS.--The beginner should continue wiping the vertical round
+joint until he is able to obtain a symmetrical bulb. A joint should
+be wiped in each of the foregoing positions for exhibition
+purposes, so that the beginner can have before him the best work
+and strive to make the next joint better. This next joint, the
+2-inch brass ferrule, is wiped in an upright position. The
+materials necessary are the 2-inch brass ferrule, 6 inches of
+2-inch light lead pipe, paste and paper, 1/2 and 1/2 solder, rosin,
+wiping solder, catch pan, and supports.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.]
+
+TOOLS REQUIRED.--The tools necessary for this work are as follows:
+the saw, rasp, drift plug, dresser, file, soldering iron, bending
+irons, wiping cloths, shave hook, and ladle.
+
+PREPARATION.--The lead pipe must be fitted into the brass ferrule.
+The brass ferrule has to be tinned first. To do this, proceed as
+follows: file the ferrule for about 2 inches on the tapered end. Do
+not file too deep, but just enough to expose the pure bright metal.
+Now measure from the small end 1-1/4 inches down toward the beaded
+end. From this point to the bead, cover the brass with paste and
+paper. No paste must get on the 1-1/4-in. filed end. This end
+should not be touched with the fingers. If paste gets on it, the
+process of filing must be done over again as the solder will not
+stick where there is paste. If the brass ferrule is filed while the
+paper is on the brass, the filing will destroy the straight edge of
+the paper and an even joint cannot be made. It would therefore be
+necessary to re-paper the brass. Take some powdered rosin and cover
+the filed end of the ferrule with molten solder using the rosin as
+a flux. Do not dip the end of the ferrule into the hot wiping
+solder to tin it or pour wiping solder on the brass ferrule. This
+method of tinning the ferrule will spoil the wiping solder. Always
+use the soldering iron to tin the ferrule as explained above. A
+little practice will develop the use of the iron in the hands of
+the beginner so that this tinning process will be done very
+rapidly. The iron should be put on to heat when the paper is being
+pasted on the brass; the iron will then be ready for use when
+needed.
+
+PREPARING THE LEAD.--The ends of the lead pipe must be squared with
+the rasp. All kinks and dents are taken out by using the drift plug
+and driving it through the pipe. Take a piece of smooth pine stick
+and start to beat in the end of the lead pipe to fit the brass
+ferrule. The pipe should be beaten in starting about 3/4 inches
+from the end. It should be beaten in very slowly until it fits the
+ferrule. The pipe is held in the hand all the time and considerable
+time should be spent on this as it is the first time the beating in
+of lead pipe has been called for. The knack of doing this comes
+only by slow and continued practice. The lead must be "humored"
+into shape and not "driven" into shape. The end of the pipe is
+tapered still more by rasping off the end. About 3/4 inch should
+extend into the brass ferrule. With the bending irons, the lead
+extending into the brass ferrule is beaten against the inside wall
+of the ferrule. A good way to do this is to wedge the lead pipe in
+as much as possible at first, then lay the work flat on the bench,
+in which position it is more easily worked. The sketch should be
+thoroughly studied and each notation be perfectly understood,
+before proceeding with the work. Now that the lead pipe is
+perfectly fitted into place, it is prepared for wiping. The joint
+overall will be 2-1/2 inches. As we have already allowed 1-1/4
+inches on the brass ferrule for the joint, the lead will have to be
+cleaned that much more. With the shave hook, shave the end of the
+pipe that has been fitted into the brass ferrule. A space about 4
+inches should be cleaned. This will give a cleaned surface free
+from dirt and grease for the paste and paper to adhere to. Next
+paste the paper in place. The lead pipe can be entirely covered, or
+3 or 4 inches only, above the 1-1/4 inches allowed for the joint.
+The space between the paper on the brass and the paper on the lead
+should now be 2-1/2 inches. The paste and paper should now be
+allowed to dry.
+
+SUPPORTING THE PIPE.--This joint is wiped with the ferrule down on
+the bench. A flat pan is laid on the bench and the ferrule stood
+upon it. A weight on top of the lead pipe is all that is necessary.
+If this does not make the pipe rigid enough for the beginner, then
+a support similar to the round vertical joint support can be used.
+The beginner is advised, however, to practice the wiping of this
+joint with only the weight to hold it in position. The beginner
+will then be required to wipe the joint while the solder is hot,
+when it does not require a heavy pressure against the solder to
+wipe it in shape. These wiped joints should be supported in place
+near the furnace that heats the solder so that the solder will be
+handy for wiping.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Two-inch brass ferrule.]
+
+WIPING.--Wiping this joint brings in some of the methods of the
+round vertical joint. If that joint was thoroughly mastered, this
+joint will be wiped considerably more easily. The ladle is held in
+the right hand and the solder splashed on the joint. The catch
+cloth is held in the left hand and some of the solder is caught and
+brought up on the top edge. The top edge cools quickly as all the
+hot solder runs down to the bottom edge and into the pan. As the
+solder accumulates on the bottom edge, it is drawn up on the top
+edge, and in this manner the top edge is kept hot. When the solder
+can be worked freely around the pipe and the edges are hot, the
+joint is ready to wipe. The ladle is laid down and the wiping cloth
+is taken in the right hand and the top edge of the joint cleaned on
+one side. Then the wiping cloth is changed to the left hand and the
+other side of the top edge is cleaned. Holding the cloth in one
+hand with the index and the third fingers spread to the outside
+corners of the cloth, the cloth is passed around the joint quickly.
+To get an even and symmetrical joint, it is necessary to make two
+or three passes around the joint holding the cloth first in the
+right and then in the left hand. The free hand is used to steady
+the work. This joint should be wiped very slim to allow room for
+the caulking irons to pass by it and get into the hub of the pipe.
+Constant wiping on the brass ferrule will result in the tinning on
+the brass ferrule coming off. The ferrule will look black when this
+happens and will thus be recognized. The wiping should then be
+stopped and the ferrule filed and tinned in the same manner as it
+was done at first.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, material--6 inches of 2-inch light lead pipe and one
+     2-inch brass ferrule.
+
+     _Second_, tin ferrule, using soldering iron.
+
+     _Third_, use a soft pine stick for a dresser.
+
+     _Fourth_, fit the lead into the ferrule.
+
+     _Fifth_, clean and paper the lead.
+
+     _Sixth_, secure the pipe into position.
+
+     _Seventh_, using the catch cloth and ladle, splash solder on
+     the joint.
+
+     _Eighth_, keep the top edge covered with solder.
+
+     _Ninth_, wipe the top edge first.
+
+     _Tenth_, shape and finish wiping with a few strokes.
+
+     _Eleventh_, tools used.
+
+     _Twelfth_, wipe a slim joint.
+
+     _Thirteenth_, steady the work with the free hand.
+
+     _Fourteenth_, re-tin the ferrule, if necessary.
+
+
+FOUR-INCH BRASS FERRULE
+
+The 4-inch brass ferrule joint is the same as the 2-inch, except
+for size. The materials needed for this joint are 6 inches of
+4-inch, 8-pound lead pipe, and one 4-inch brass ferrule, one _full_
+pot of solder, some paste and paper, rosin, and 1/2 and 1/2 solder.
+
+TOOLS NECESSARY.--The tools required for this joint are as follows:
+saw, rasp, file, ladle, soldering iron, dresser, bending irons,
+shave hook, and wiping cloths.
+
+PREPARATION.--_Lead Pipe._--With the saw cut off 6 inches of
+4-inch lead pipe. This pipe comes in lengths and should be for this
+work about 8 pounds to the foot in weight. The pipe may be dented
+badly, but these dents can be taken out as follows: Take a piece of
+2-inch iron pipe and put it in a vise. The lead pipe can be slipped
+over this iron pipe and any dents taken out easily by beating with
+the dresser. One end of the lead pipe is beaten with the dresser
+until it fits into the ferrule. The end is then rasped a little.
+Then, after the brass ferrule has been tinned, the pipe is fitted
+into it and beaten out against the inside wall of the brass ferrule
+and a tight joint is made. The lead is next cleaned with the shave
+hook and paper is pasted on as explained under the 2-inch brass
+ferrule, the description of which should now be read over.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Four-inch brass ferrule.]
+
+_Brass Ferrule._--The first thing to do with the brass ferrule is
+to file the end that is to be wiped. When the brass ferrule is
+filed, it should be done away from any part of the room where the
+filings are likely to get into the solder. After the filing has
+been done, paper is pasted on all of it except the part that is to
+be tinned and no paste must get on to this part of the ferrule. If
+any paste does get on to it, the filing will have to be done over
+again. When using paste and paper, neatness must be cultivated, or
+paste will be spread over parts of the pipe that are supposed not
+to have any paste on them. Next, take the soldering iron and heat
+it. Take some rosin and put it on the exposed part of the ferrule.
+With the hot soldering iron proceed to tin the brass ferrule, as
+explained before, with 1/2 and 1/2 solder, using rosin as a flux.
+Now the lead pipe that has previously been prepared is fitted into
+the ferrule.
+
+SUPPORTING.--Set the brass ferrule on a catch pan. The lead pipe is
+upright. A weight placed on top of the lead pipe will steady the
+pipe for wiping. When the joint is wiped the free hand can hold the
+pipe if the weight is not sufficient to support it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Four-inch brass ferrule.]
+
+WIPING.--Splash the solder on the joint from the ladle, in the same
+manner as was employed in the two preceding joints. To get the
+proper heat on the 4-inch joint a little more speed is necessary,
+also the constant working of the solder around the pipe. The ladle
+is constantly moved around the pipe so that all parts of the pipe
+will be evenly heated and come into contact with the hot solder
+direct from the ladle. When the solder works freely around the pipe
+and the top edge is hot, the joint is shaped by holding the wiping
+cloth in the right hand, with the index and the middle fingers
+spread to the opposite corners of the cloth. The fingers are placed
+one on the top edge and one on the bottom edge. The cloth is then
+passed around the joint as far as possible. Then the cloth is taken
+in the left hand, with the fingers spread, and passed around the
+rest of the joint. If the solder does not take the shape of the
+cloth readily, then the solder is not at the right heat. This joint
+should be wiped very slim to allow room for the caulking tools.
+When this joint is once started, it should not be left until it
+has been wiped, otherwise a large amount of solder will accumulate
+on the joint and will be hard to get off.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, material.
+
+     _Second_, tools.
+
+     _Third_, tin ferrule.
+
+     _Fourth_, use the dresser to fit the lead into the ferrule.
+
+     _Fifth_, clean the lead with the shave hook, and paper.
+
+     _Sixth_, use the catch cloth and ladle.
+
+     _Seventh_, keep the top edge covered with hot solder.
+
+     _Eighth_, wipe the top edge first.
+
+     _Ninth_, make a slim joint.
+
+     _Tenth_, steady the work with the free hand.
+
+
+STOP COCK
+
+MATERIALS REQUIRED.--The materials used for this joint are as
+follows: two pieces of 5/8-inch extra strong lead pipe 9 inches
+long, each; one 1/2-inch plug stop cock for lead pipe; paste and
+paper; solder; 1/2 and 1/2 solder; rosin; catch pan and supports.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.]
+
+TOOLS NECESSARY.--The tools necessary for this job are as follows:
+saw, rasp, file, turn plug, shave hook, bending irons, hammer,
+ladle, soldering iron, and wiping cloths.
+
+PREPARATION.--There are two joints to be wiped on this job and the
+stop cock is supported only by the rigid fitting of the lead pipe.
+Therefore the preparation must be thoroughly done. The brass stop
+will be prepared first.
+
+_Brass._--The two ends of the stop cock are filed bright, then
+papered and tinned. This operation is the same, only on a smaller
+scale, as the tinning of the 2-inch and the 4-inch brass ferrule.
+The paper is pasted over the entire stop cock, except the two ends,
+which are tinned for about 1-1/4 inches.
+
+_Lead Pipe._--After the lead pipe has been cut off from the coil,
+the ends are squared with the rasp. One end of each piece is reamed
+out a little with the tap borer and spread a trifle with the turn
+pin. With the rasp, take off the outside edge of the end that has
+been spread. The sketch will show this and give the angle at which
+the edge is to be rasped. The stop cock is now fitted into the lead
+pipe. The brass should enter at least 1/4 inch, then the lead is
+beaten against the brass until a tight joint is made. The other end
+of the brass stop is fitted into the other piece of the lead pipe
+and a perfect fit is made. The fitting of these two joints must be
+rigid as upon them depends the stability of the joint support. When
+these ends of the lead pipe have been fitted, the pipe is cleaned
+with the shave hook and paper is pasted on, allowing 1-1/2 inches
+for the joint. Both pieces of pipe are prepared at the same time as
+both ends are wiped at the same time.
+
+SUPPORTING.--The three pieces of pipe should be so wedged together
+that they will not fall apart when put in position for wiping. The
+bricks for supporting the pipe are placed the same as in the
+support of the horizontal round joint. The lead pipe ends are laid
+on the bricks. This brings the stop cock in the center without any
+support. If it were not for the substantial fit between it and the
+lead pipe, it would not stay in place. Solder straps can be put
+over each end of the lead pipe. Weights can be used to advantage.
+
+WIPING.--When getting the heat up for these joints, pour the solder
+over the two joints and over the stop cock. This gets the heat
+properly distributed, so that both joints can be wiped while the
+brass stop is heated. Get the proper heat up on one joint and then
+the other. Come back to the first joint and wipe it and then the
+second one. Both joints should be wiped so as to have the same
+shape. The novice will experience some trouble when wiping this
+joint in getting the brass edge hot. Heating up the two joints
+together will in a large degree offset this trouble. Some mechanics
+take out the lever handle stop to lessen the amount of brass to
+heat. This is never done by a good mechanic as the two pieces will
+never fit together again and make a tight joint. If the plug is
+left in place, both the plug and body will expand equally and the
+pieces will fit perfectly. When wiping is started on these joints,
+the beginner must stay at it continually. When the brass is heated,
+the finished wiping can be tried over and over again. If this way
+is not followed, the beginner will find that most of his time will
+be spent trying to get a heat on the brass.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Stop cock.]
+
+
+BRANCH JOINT
+
+MATERIALS NEEDED.--The materials necessary to complete this job are
+as follows: 12 inches of 5/8-inch extra strong lead pipe for the
+run; 6 inches of 1/2-inch extra strong lead pipe for the branch;
+paste and paper, and solder.
+
+TOOLS NECESSARY.--The tools necessary for this job are the saw,
+bending irons, rasp, tap borer, ladle, wiping cloths, and the shave
+hook.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Branch joint.]
+
+PREPARATION.--The preparation of this joint requires the skill of
+the beginner more than any of the preceding joints. The tapping of
+the 5/8 pipe for the branch connection, pasting and cutting the
+paper, require the utmost care and precision. The 5/8-inch pipe is
+tapped with the tap borer in the center. The tap borer is used by
+grasping the handle firmly and putting the cutting point on the
+mark and then pressing down on the handle. This forces the point
+into the lead. Now turn the tool and a piece of lead will be bored
+out. Continue this operation and a hole will very soon appear in
+the lead. A hole just large enough to allow the bending irons to
+enter is made. The opening of the hole is completed with the
+bending iron, working the lead back slowly into place. Do not
+attempt to drive the lead back around the hole with a few strokes.
+One bending iron is inserted and this iron is struck with another
+iron or hammer. After a number of strokes the opening will be of
+sufficient size. The bent end of iron is inserted into the hole and
+the bent part enters the bore of the pipe. This iron is struck in
+such a way as to force the lead around the hole up, rather than
+back. Now with the straight end of irons open the sides. When the
+wall of pipe has been driven up a little the hole can be enlarged
+by driving back the lead. This procedure will form a collar around
+the hole to steady the branch pipe. Good workmanship will result in
+having a good substantial collar around the opening. The branch
+should now be fitted. Clean the pipe with the shave hook for about
+2 inches on each side of the opening. With compasses set at 1-1/8
+inches, mark off a space on each side of the branch on the run, or
+on the 5/8-inch pipe. On the sides of the pipe the two lines should
+be joined with an even and symmetrical curve. A good way to make
+this curve is with the shave hook. Now take a folded piece of paper
+and cut out the shape of one-half of the joint, then open the fold
+and the entire ellipse will be made. When this paper is cut, a
+sharp knife is used, otherwise a ragged edge will be made and a
+good finish of joint is impossible. The paper is now pasted and put
+on the pipe. The surplus paste on the edge of the paper should be
+wiped off with the fingers before the paper is put on the pipe.
+This prevents any paste squeezing out on the joint. The branch is
+now taken and perfectly fitted into the run. The end is cleaned
+with the shave hook and paper is pasted on the pipe, leaving 1-1/8
+inches of cleaned surface for wiping. The paste and the paper
+should now be allowed to dry. The position for wiping this joint is
+to have the run horizontal and the branch on an angle of 45°
+pointing away from the wiper. Figure 30 will bring out the above
+explanation very vividly.
+
+SUPPORTING.--The run of this joint is laid flat on the table and
+the branch inserted in its proper place. With one hand hold it in
+place, with the other, use the bending iron, tap the collar on the
+run against the branch, wedging it in place good and strong so that
+no solder can leak through. If the branch is tapered with the rasp
+as shown the joint can be made very tight. The run of the pipe is
+now laid on two bricks as was done with the horizontal joint. The
+branch is laid over on a pile of bricks or wood at an angle of 45°.
+The best way to secure this joint is to pour some half-molten
+solder on the ends of pipe and brick, making a solder clamp. This
+branch does not need any clamp or weight if it is properly entered
+into the run. A strap of solder can be run over the end of pipe if
+found necessary. Place the catch pan under the joint and then the
+pipe will be ready to wipe.
+
+WIPING.--In wiping this joint, the catch cloth is used not only to
+catch the solder as it drops off from the pipe, but also to hold
+the hot solder against the pipe to heat the under side of the
+joint. Test the solder and see if it is the correct heat for
+wiping. If so, prepare for wiping. After heating the ladle, take
+some solder in it and proceed to drop the molten solder on the
+joint. The ladle is moved constantly as the solder is dropped on
+the run and then on the branch to get the entire joint to the
+proper heat. As the solder drops off from the joint, it is caught
+on the catch cloth and brought up on the top of the joint where it
+is re-melted by dropping hot solder on it. Then the hot solder is
+held in the cloth against the under side of the joint to get the
+under side properly heated. The solder is worked around all parts
+of the joint. When the heat is got up sufficiently and the solder
+works freely around the joint, the branch cloth is taken and each
+edge of the joint is wiped clean. Any surplus solder is brought up
+on top of the joint and then wiped on the catch cloth. This solder
+is then put on the under side of the joint. With the branch cloth
+reach way around the joint and wipe each side, bringing the cloth
+each time to the top and then off the joint. The last wipe is
+directly across the top, wiping off any surplus solder that may
+have accumulated from wiping the sides. The difficulty with this
+joint is in getting the top and bottom to have an equal amount of
+solder. With a little practice and by watching each motion your
+faults can be noted and remedied. If the paper starts to come off,
+it should be re-papered at once. When the joint is finished, it
+should be left in position until the solder has had time to set and
+cool, otherwise the branch will break off and considerable time
+will be lost in correcting the trouble.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, the use of the tap borer.
+
+     _Second_, the use of the bending irons.
+
+     _Third_, do not allow the bending irons to touch the inside walls
+     of the pipe when stretching the opening.
+
+     _Fourth_, secure the branch into the run.
+
+     _Fifth_, secure the pipes into position for wiping.
+
+     _Sixth_, spread the heat on the edges and the bottom of the joint.
+
+     _Seventh_, wipe with the branch cloth.
+
+     _Eighth_, cut the paper.
+
+     _Ninth_, mark the outline of the joint.
+
+
+BRANCH JOINT PLACED FLAT
+
+When the wiper has mastered the branch joint placed at an angle of
+45°, he can proceed to wipe the joint placed in the next position,
+which is flat.
+
+PREPARATION.--The preparation of this joint is identical with the
+preceding one placed at an angle of 45°. If a new joint is to be
+prepared, it would be well to pay strict attention to the details,
+such as keeping the paste on the paper only and having the edge of
+the paper cut perfectly smooth and even. Before putting on the
+paper see that the pipe is free from all grease and dirt. The paste
+and paper will stick better if all the dirt is removed. The branch
+should be well fitted into the run of the pipe so that no solder
+will get into the bore of the pipe. The branch should not extend
+into the run of pipe enough to obstruct the bore of it. If the
+instructions for preparing the pipe are not carried out as
+detailed, the wiper will experience some trouble that he may find
+hard to overcome.
+
+SUPPORTING.--The run can be supported on bricks. The branch can be
+supported on a brick placed at its end the same height as the run.
+This will bring the joint in the correct flat position. The branch
+should point away from the wiper. Solder straps can now be poured
+over the ends of each pipe. If weights are used to hold the pipe
+firm instead of solder straps, they should be so placed that they
+will not interfere with the hands when wiping.
+
+WIPING.--The wiping of this joint is more difficult as the beginner
+will experience trouble in heating the bottom and keeping the
+solder on the bottom. Solder is dropped on the joint and along the
+pipe so as to bring the pipe to the proper wiping heat. Some solder
+will accumulate on top of the joint. This is melted off on the
+catch cloth and this hot solder held against the bottom of the
+joint. This operation is repeated until the bottom as well as the
+top of the joint is heated properly. When the solder can be worked
+freely around the pipe, the branch cloth is taken and each side is
+wiped from the bottom toward the top. Solder is accumulated on the
+top where it is wiped off on the catch cloth and put on the bottom
+of the joint. Now reach way around each side and wipe the edge and
+body of the joint, a wipe across the top completing the joint. The
+bottom can be wiped with a cross wipe also if desired. The top and
+the bottom should be identical. Notice carefully the drawing of
+this joint and endeavor to have the same lines. The perfecting of
+these joints comes only with patient practice. The beginner must
+not get discouraged because of a burn or two. As soon as confidence
+in oneself has been gained, the possibility of burning the fingers
+is entirely eliminated.
+
+
+BRANCH VERTICAL
+
+The materials, tools, and preparation for this joint placed in a
+vertical position are just the same, practically, as those in the
+preceding branch joints. One or two points wherein they differ are
+mentioned below. To rigidly support the joint for wiping, allow the
+run of the pipe to rest on some bricks as before mentioned, with
+the branch looking up. Now take a piece of wood and drive a nail
+through one end of it about 1 inch from the edge. Let this nail
+enter the bore of the vertical branch. The wood is allowed to rest
+on the back of the bench or is braced against the wall. Supporting
+the pipes in this way will allow the wiper perfect freedom. When
+wiping this joint, splash the solder on from the ladle as on the
+upright joint. As all the sides of this joint can be seen, it is
+not a difficult matter to make a perfectly symmetrical solder bulb.
+When the proper heat is gained, the top edge of the joint is wiped
+first, then the lower curved edge, using the branch cloth. The body
+of the joint is then wiped and the joint finished with a cross
+wipe, if necessary.
+
+
+BRANCH HORIZONTAL
+
+The next position for this joint is to have the branch pipe
+horizontal and the run vertical. The materials, tools and
+preparation for this joint are the same as for the preceding ones.
+The supporting and wiping differ a little.
+
+SUPPORTING.--One end of the run is placed on the catch pan. The
+other end is held in place the same way as the branch was held in
+the preceding joint. If the pictures of this joint are carefully
+looked over, the methods employed to hold the pipe will be readily
+noted. The branch is best held by inserting one end of a bending
+iron in the bore of the pipe and placing the other end of the iron
+on a brick built up to the right height. The iron should be
+weighted to keep the joint from swaying.
+
+WIPING.--The solder is now dropped on the branch as in the round
+joint, and splashed on the vertical run as in the upright joint.
+Sufficient solder is put on the joint to keep the edges covered
+with hot solder. Solder is worked around the joint until all parts
+of it are thoroughly heated and the solder works easily, then all
+the edges are wiped clean. The top half is then wiped evenly and
+the bottom half wiped to match the top half. A cross wipe in front
+completes the joint. When this cross wipe is made on any joint, a
+thick edge of solder must not be left. The edge must be wiped
+clean. This joint should be wiped first with the branch pointing to
+the right and then with the branch pointing to the left. It will
+take the beginner some time to master these branch joints, for not
+only must they be wiped symmetrically for the sake of appearances,
+but they must be wiped while the solder is hot to secure a tight
+joint. A joint that is wiped with solder that is too cold will be
+porous and will leak when put under pressure. With care the same
+pipe can be used throughout for all the positions of this branch
+joint.
+
+
+ONE AND ONE-HALF-INCH BRANCH JOINT
+
+Upon the completion of the small sized branch joint in its various
+angles, the 1-1/2-inch branch joint is to be wiped. This branch
+joint is wiped in the same positions as the 5/8 branch was wiped.
+The pipe being larger, there is more solder for the wiper to
+handle, and the edges to keep clean and to wipe are longer.
+
+MATERIALS NEEDED.--The materials needed for this job are 12 inches
+of 1-1/2-inch light lead pipe for the run, and 6 inches of
+1-1/2-inch pipe for the branch, paste, paper, solder, and catch
+pan.
+
+TOOLS NEEDED.--The tools necessary for this job are the saw, rasp,
+shave hook, bending irons, drift plug, hammer, ladle, wiping
+cloths, and tap borer.
+
+PREPARATION.--To an experienced wiper, the procedure of preparing
+this joint and wiping it are so near like the 5/8-branch joint that
+a detailed description would be unnecessary; but for the benefit of
+the beginner, I will repeat the details as they apply to this
+particular joint and thereby avoid any error. We will take the
+preparation of the run first. Square the two ends of the pipe with
+the rasp. Mark off the center of the pipe. With the round part of
+the rasp, held at right angles with the pipe, proceed to rasp down
+the crown of pipe where the center mark was made. Do not rasp
+through the wall of the pipe, but just enough so that the tap borer
+will enter the pipe with only a slight pressure. With the tap
+borer, tap a hole large enough for the bending irons to enter. Now
+proceed to enlarge the hole, first forcing the edges up and then
+forcing them back, making the hole larger and making a collar
+around the hole at the same time. Continue to open the pipe until
+the aperture is large enough for the branch pipe to enter. The
+bending irons must not come into contact with the inside wall of
+the pipe, for if they do the inside bore will be marred and be very
+ragged. As these joints are usually used on waste lines, these
+ragged places make an ideal place for lint and grease to collect
+and cause a stoppage. To make the inside of the hole even, a piece
+of 1/2-inch pipe can be used in place of the bending irons. To cut
+out the oval from a piece of paper to fit the joint, fold the
+paper and cut out one-half of the oval. Now unfold the paper and
+the complete oval is obtained. The measurements of the oval are
+taken from Fig. 30, 1-1/8 inches each side of the branch lengthwise
+of the run. These two lines are connected with a curved line as
+shown. This curved line can be made with the shave hook. Take the
+large edge of the shave hook and roll it along between the lines to
+be joined. A little practice will perfect one in doing this
+quickly. The beginner should make a number of these ovals so that
+he can get them perfect. The graceful appearance of this joint
+depends upon the neatness with which it is prepared. I do not want
+the beginner to think that a graceful shape of the joint is all
+that is to be desired or that it is the most essential point.
+Further along, perhaps, more vital requirements will be brought out
+and the beginner will be made acquainted with them.
+
+The ends of the 6-inch piece are now squared with the rasp. The
+edges of one end are rasped off as shown in the sketch, making a
+wedged fit into the run. This end is then cleaned with the shave
+hook. Paper is then pasted on to cover the pipe except the 1-1/8
+inches cleaned on the end. This cleaned part forms part of the
+joint, therefore no paste or paper must be put on it. The pipe is
+now fitted into the run and the collar beaten against it with the
+bending irons. The run is now cleaned with the shave hook for about
+3 inches each side of the center. The paper oval cut out is now
+pasted on the joint. The paste and paper are then allowed to dry
+before they are handled further.
+
+SUPPORTING.--The supporting of this joint, which is placed with the
+branch on an angle of 45° pointing away from the wiper, is not a
+difficult matter. The beginner can use his own ingenuity for
+supporting the pipe if conditions do not warrant the using of the
+methods previously described.
+
+WIPING.--The solder should now be tested for heat. If the solder is
+at the proper heat, the ladle is taken and heated. Take a ladle
+full of solder and drop the solder on the joint. The lead of which
+this branch joint is made is considerably lighter than any lead
+that has been used before. Therefore, the beginner must drop the
+solder on carefully, making sure that the solder is not dropped on
+the same spot, for a hole can be burned through the pipe very
+quickly. The ladle must be kept moving, then the solder will not
+burn through the pipe. The heat is got up on the pipe by dropping
+the solder on the run and on the branch, catching the surplus
+solder on the catch cloth and heating the under side of the joint
+with it. To form the joint, distribute the solder and then wipe it
+into shape. Notice that I said wipe it into shape. A beginner is
+very apt to try to push or poke it into shape. This must not be
+done as it has a tendency to make the joint lumpy. All the edges
+are wiped off clean first, then the body of the joint is shaped and
+wiped. When forming the joint, be sure that the bottom and the top
+are symmetrical. Do not have one-half larger than the other. The
+last wiping strokes are made swiftly and rapidly. If the wiper will
+watch his movements and note the results and then try to improve
+them, keeping in mind that a symmetrical joint is wanted with thin
+edges, perfection in wiping will come much more quickly than if no
+attention is paid to the strokes made when wiping.
+
+
+BRANCH JOINT WIPED FLAT
+
+The materials required for this joint do not differ from the
+preceding one. If the pipe used for the branch joint at a 45° angle
+is in good shape, it can be used for this joint by simply changing
+positions. The tools needed will not be any different. The ladle
+and the wiping cloths, of course will be required. A pair of pliers
+can be used to advantage in picking up the hot solder. The wiping
+cloths should receive a little more oil to keep them soft and
+pliable. Oil the edges of the cloths well.
+
+SUPPORTING.--To support this pipe for wiping have each end rest on
+a brick. Each end can be weighted to hold it in place.
+
+WIPING.--To wipe this joint, proceed to drop the solder on the
+joint. When the pipe is thoroughly heated and the solder works
+freely around the pipe the joint can be wiped. The procedure is
+like the preceding one. The wiper is cautioned to move the ladle
+constantly while dropping the solder.
+
+
+BRANCH HELD VERTICAL
+
+After a number of the previous joints have been wiped successfully,
+the pipe is placed in such a position that the branch will be
+vertical. The supporting of the pipe to hold the joint in this
+position for wiping is very easily done after handling the 5/8-in.
+joint in this position. The following points may be found helpful:
+The solder is splashed on the joint from the ladle. The top edge of
+the joint is kept hot by keeping the solder covering it. When the
+proper heat has been got up, the top edge is wiped first, then the
+bottom edges both front and back. The body of the joint is wiped
+last and a cross wipe finishes the joint. I have found that the
+beginner in many cases, when this joint is reached, tries to wipe
+it with many short strokes. The habit is a bad one and should be
+stopped as soon as noticed. Learn to wipe the top edge with only
+two strokes, the bottom edge with not more than four, the body of
+the joint with four, and one cross wipe to finish. This joint
+should be finished as symmetrically as possible and wiped while the
+solder is hot.
+
+
+RUN HELD VERTICALLY
+
+When the vertical branch has been conquered and the wiper can get a
+good joint every time it is tried, the pipe can be changed to a
+different position. The run is placed in a vertical position and
+the branch horizontally to the left. The catch pan is put under the
+end of the pipe. Follow the same directions for supporting this
+joint as were given under the 5/8-in. branch placed in a similar
+position. The wiping of this joint is so nearly like the preceding
+branch joints that I will not give any instructions at all. This
+joint is finished at the same point that the other branch joints
+are finished. However, there are one or two matters that should be
+kept in mind. Some of the small matters are often overlooked and
+should be called to mind occasionally. Do not allow the solder to
+accumulate in the pan. If the cloths are burned, they should be
+turned, or new ones made. If the paper has started to come off from
+the pipe, new paper should be put on at once. Test the solder
+occasionally and see that it does not get too hot. Upon completion
+of the joint in this position, the branch joint in its various
+positions is finished. The beginner has found out while wiping
+these various joints a number of points that were not mentioned in
+my description. No amount of detailed description will make a good
+joint wiper. Patience and practice are as important in joint wiping
+as good preparation and good solder.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, materials--18 inches of 1-1/2-in. lead pipe.
+
+     _Second_, use of tools.
+
+     _Third_, keep bending irons away from the wall of the pipe.
+
+     _Fourth_, make a good collar around the opening.
+
+     _Fifth_, make a tight fit with branch and run.
+
+     _Sixth_, hot solder will quickly burn through the lead.
+
+     _Seventh_, use branch cloth for wiping.
+
+     _Eighth_, cut out paper for joint even and symmetrical.
+
+
+BIB
+
+This joint is another brass to lead, and is the last single joint
+to be wiped in this course of joint wiping.
+
+MATERIALS NEEDED.--The materials required for this joint are as
+follows: 10 inches of 5/8-inch extra strong lead pipe; one 1/2-inch
+brass sink bib for lead pipe; one pot of solder, paste and paper,
+1/2 and 1/2 solder, catch pan, and supports.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.]
+
+TOOLS REQUIRED.--The tools required for this job are the saw, rasp,
+tap borer, bending irons, file, ladle, wiping cloths, shave hook,
+knife and rule, soldering iron.
+
+PREPARATION.--To prepare the lead pipe after cutting from the coil
+and squaring the ends with the rasp is very similar to the 5/8-inch
+branch joint. The center of the pipe is marked and a hole is made
+in it with the tap borer large enough to admit the bending irons.
+The hole is enlarged with the irons. A good substantial collar is
+made around the hole to hold the bib in place. One and one-eighth
+inches are marked off on each side of the branch and an easy curve
+connects the two. The paper is then cut out and pasted on the pipe
+after it has been scraped with the shave hook.
+
+The end of the brass bib is filed bright and tinned with the
+soldering iron and 1/2 and 1/2 solder. Before the tinning is done,
+paper is put on the brass, leaving only 1-1/8 inches exposed. The
+tinning must be thoroughly done, or it will come off and have to be
+re-tinned.
+
+SUPPORTING.--The bib is fitted into the lead opening and the collar
+is forced against the bib to hold it in place and prevent any
+solder from leaking through into the bore of the pipe. The bib
+must not extend too far into the lead pipe or it will obstruct the
+flow of water. The lead pipe is laid on two bricks the same as the
+round joint. The bib is laid on an angle of 45° pointing away from
+the wiper. Some bricks can be piled up to the right height to hold
+the bib in place and a solder strap can be made to hold it steady.
+The lead pipe can be held steady by weighting each end. The catch
+pan is now placed under the joint and everything is ready for
+wiping.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Bib.]
+
+WIPING.--When the solder is hot, getting the heat on the pipe is
+started. Solder should be dropped oftener on the brass bib than on
+the lead pipe. It takes more heat to heat the brass thoroughly than
+it does the lead. If this is followed out, little difficulty will
+be had in getting up the heat and in wiping. Use the branch cloth
+for wiping and make sure that all edges are perfectly cleaned
+before making the final strokes. As this is the only position that
+the joint will be wiped in, practice should be continued until
+perfect joints can be obtained.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, materials needed.
+
+     _Second_, tools needed.
+
+     _Third_, use tap borer.
+
+     _Fourth_, enlarge hole with bending irons.
+
+     _Fifth_, make substantial collar around the opening.
+
+     _Sixth_, paper the lead.
+
+     _Seventh_, file the bib, then paper.
+
+     _Eighth_, tin the bib.
+
+     _Ninth_, place in position and wipe.
+
+
+DRUM TRAP
+
+The making of the drum trap will bring out the skill of the
+beginner. The entire trap is made of lead pipe. The lead will
+require a great deal of handling. Therefore, care must be exercised
+in all operations to turn the trap out in a workmanlike manner.
+
+MATERIALS NEEDED.--The materials needed to complete this job are:
+10 inches of 4-inch 8-pound lead pipe; 18 inches of 1-1/2-inch
+light lead pipe; paste and paper, support, solder, and catch pan.
+
+TOOLS NEEDED.--The tools required for this job are: saw, rasp,
+bending irons, shave hook, bending spring, tap borer, dresser,
+ladle, drift plug, and wiping cloths.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Drum trap.]
+
+PREPARING.--Take the 10-inch piece of lead pipe and hold it in one
+hand, in the other hand take a pine dresser. Strike the lead pipe
+with the dresser. The pipe is struck about 2 inches from the end
+and is beaten evenly all around. The pipe is then struck nearer the
+end until finally the bore of the pipe is almost closed. This
+closed end should be rounding and symmetrical. To get this shape
+the pipe must be continually moved and turned. One side must not be
+forced in more than the other. If there are any dents in the pipe
+or part of the pipe is forced in too much it may be driven out as
+follows: Take an old piece of 1/2-inch lead pipe and round one end
+of it with a hammer; this can be used by hitting the inside of the
+closed end of the drum and forcing out the dents. The rounded end
+of the trap is not quite closed and a hole about 3/4 inch is left.
+This opening is closed by shaping the edges of it with the knife,
+making them smooth and beveled. Then a piece of lead is cut out of
+some scrap, the same shape as the hole and fitted into it. The top
+surface of this fitted piece should be a little lower than the
+surface of the pipe. Strike a circle, using the compasses, the
+center of the circle being the center of the inserted piece of
+lead. The lead inside of this circle is shaved clean with the shave
+hook, including the inserted piece. Paper is then pasted outside of
+the circle and should cover entirely the rest of the pipe. The
+inserted piece is wiped on the pipe as follows:
+
+WIPING END.--Stand the 4-in. pipe in a pan with the rounded end of
+the pipe up. Be sure that the inserted piece is fitted securely.
+The solder is now dropped on the paper and shaved portion of the
+pipe. Exercise considerable care not to burn a hole in the pipe. As
+the hot solder runs off, catch some of it and draw it back on the
+joint. When the solder can be manipulated freely and the pipe is
+hot, the joint can be wiped. The cloth is drawn across the joint,
+cleaning all the edges with one stroke. The joint should be shaped
+to complete the rounding surface of the pipe. The joint is
+comparatively easy and will not occupy much time. As soon as it is
+wiped, cover the solder with paper. This will preserve the
+freshness of the joint until all wiping is completed.
+
+
+PREPARING INLET PIPE
+
+After the above joint is completed, the 1-1/2-in. branch inlet pipe
+is prepared and wiped in place. The center of this branch is
+marked on the 4-inch pipe and a hole is tapped in the pipe, using
+the tap borer. A hole large enough to admit the bending irons is
+made. The hole is enlarged with the bending irons, bending the lead
+first _up_, then _back_. A piece of 1/2-inch iron pipe can be used
+as a tool to finish the opening. The iron pipe is larger in
+diameter than the bending irons and leaves a more finished surface.
+The opening is made of sufficient size to admit the rasped end of
+the 1-1/2-inch pipe. When using the irons to enlarge the opening in
+the pipe, be sure not to bruise any part of the trap. The
+1-1/2-inch pipe is now taken. The ends of this pipe are squared
+with the rasp. The drift plug is then driven through the pipe to
+take out any bruises or flattened places. The edge of one end is
+rasped off to fit the opening made in the 4-inch pipe. The beginner
+must strive to make a perfect fit. The accuracy with which these
+preparations are made is what helps in a large degree to bring
+about a successful job. The next operation is to paper the parts
+not to be wiped. The sizes of the joint should be followed as shown
+on the sketch. The pipe is first shaved with the shave hook, after
+which the paper is pasted on. No paste is allowed to get on the
+joint proper. The beginner should by this time have formed the
+habit of being neat with his work. Therefore the getting of paste
+on the joint surface shows that he is not as neat or as far
+advanced as he should be.
+
+SUPPORTING.--The drum is laid lengthwise on the bench and blocks
+are put on each side to keep it from rolling, the branch uppermost.
+The 1-1/2-inch pipe is held in position the same way as the
+vertical branch was held. The catch pan is put under the drum to
+catch the surplus solder.
+
+WIPING.--Splash the solder on the branch pipe, also on the drum.
+The burning through of the drum is an easy matter. Therefore do not
+keep dropping the solder on one place, but keep the ladle moving
+continually. With the catch cloth draw the solder up on the branch
+covering the top edge of the prepared surface. Splashing the solder
+on this top edge melts the solder already on and allows it to run
+down on the 4-inch pipe where it is caught with the cloth and again
+brought up on the top edge of the branch. When the solder works
+freely all around the joint, the top edge is wiped clean and even.
+Then any surplus solder is wiped off. The bottom edge is next wiped
+clean, after which the body of the joint is wiped into shape,
+together with both edges. The edges are wiped very thin so that
+when the paper is removed the outline of the joint stands out very
+distinctly. A thick edge on a joint gives an unworkmanlike
+appearance to the work. The joint is finished with a cross wipe.
+
+The other joints are prepared and wiped the same as the one just
+completed. The 1-1/2-inch branch connection taken out of the bottom
+of the trap is bent. As this is the first time it has been
+necessary to bend lead pipe in these jobs, I will cover this
+operation in detail. The pipe is first straightened and the drift
+plug driven through it. The pipe is marked where the bend is to be
+made. The bending spring, size 1-1/2 inches, is put into the pipe,
+the center of the spring coming about where the bend is to be made.
+The pipe is then heated where it was marked to be bent. The proper
+heat for this pipe is just so that the hand cannot stand being laid
+against it. The pipe is held in the hands and on the end nearest
+the heat is hit against the floor at an angle. The pipe, with the
+first blow, will start to bend. With a few more strokes the desired
+bend will be obtained. The bending spring can now be pulled out.
+Put a little water in the pipe, then put one end of the spring in
+the vise, twist the pipe, and the spring will come out when the
+pipe is pulled away from it. The bending spring holds the pipe
+cylindrical while it is being bent. Without the spring, the pipe
+would be badly crushed at the bend and rendered almost unfit for
+service. Another good way to bend pipe is to plug one end and fill
+the pipe full of sand, then plug the open end. The pipe is then
+heated where the bend is to be made. The pipe can then be bent over
+the knee. When all the joints are wiped, the paper should be taken
+off and the lead cleaned with sand and water. The trap is now
+complete except the brass clean-out to be soldered on the top. The
+inside of the trap should not have any rough edges or drops of
+solder in it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Drum trap.]
+
+There are two other drum traps to be made. The materials needed are
+the same as for the above trap except for 18 inches more of
+1-1/2-inch lead pipe. The support, preparation, and wiping are the
+same. The beginner by this time should feel very well acquainted
+with lead and solder. Therefore, the details of these two drum
+traps can be left for the beginner to work out for himself. The
+sketches are very distinct and readable and will be of considerable
+assistance. The beginner should make these traps.
+
+POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED.--
+
+     _First_, use 4-inch lead pipe, 8 pounds to the foot.
+
+     _Second_, dresser and spring are new tools. Study their use.
+
+     _Third_, gradually work the trap into shape with the dresser.
+
+     _Fourth_, plug the hole with a piece of lead pipe.
+
+     _Fifth_, prepare and wipe the plugged hole first.
+
+     _Sixth_, prepare and wipe the 1-1/2-inch branches.
+
+     _Seventh_, special care should be taken to keep the work neat.
+
+     _Eighth_, two ways of using the bending spring.
+
+     _Ninth_, wipe thin edges on joints.
+
+     _Tenth_, do not handle finished work.
+
+     _Eleventh_, clean and finish the work neatly.
+
+
+THE PRACTICAL USE OF THE PRECEDING EXERCISES
+
+In the foregoing exercises, I have confined myself to the actual
+work of making the various joints. Now I will explain the practical
+use of them.
+
+SOLDERING IRON.--The soldering iron is a tool that is used in work
+that requires heat to fuse solder and the parts to be united. Every
+plumber should have at least two irons in his kit.
+
+THE CUP JOINT.--While the cup joint is not employed to any great
+extent in modern plumbing, yet it has its use in the installation
+of some fixtures. Lavatories, bath and toilets are sometimes
+connected with a short piece of lead on the supply. The tail pieces
+on the faucets can be soldered on the lead by means of a cup joint.
+A cup joint well made with a deep cup and the solder well fused is
+as strong as a wiped joint in a place of this kind. The evil of the
+cup joint is that some mechanics will only fuse the surface and
+leave the deep cup only filled with solder and not fused. This
+makes a tight joint, but extremely weak. On tin-lined pipe and
+block-tin pipe the cup joint is commonly used. When making a cup
+joint on block-tin pipe the soldering iron must not touch the pipe
+and fine solder should be used. When tin-lined pipe is being
+soldered, the tin lining must not be melted.
+
+OVERCAST JOINT.--The overcast joint is not commonly used, but when
+there is considerable lead work to do the plumber finds it very
+handy in places where a wiped joint would take up too much room. We
+use it for an exercise for the reason that it teaches the beginner
+very rapidly the use and control of the soldering iron.
+
+FLAT SEAMS.--These seams are used in the construction of roof
+flashers, tanks (Sec. 33, Chapter XVIII) and lead safe wastes (Sec.
+27, plumbing code). A hatchet iron is sometimes used on these
+seams.
+
+WIPING CLOTHS.--The wiping cloths made of whalebone ticking make
+good, serviceable, and lasting cloths. Oil only should be used to
+break the cloth in. Moleskin cloths are very good, but they are
+very hard to get and cost considerably more. A plumber should
+always keep a good supply of ticking cloths on hand. The cloths are
+used only for wiping.
+
+1/2-INCH ROUND JOINT.--This joint is the one most often required in
+actual practice. It serves to connect two pieces of lead pipe of
+the same or different diameters. It is also used to connect lead
+and other materials of which pipe is made. The workman, when he
+gets out on the job, finds that his work cannot be supported for
+wiping in such an easy and convenient position as illustrated in
+the exercises. It will be necessary to wipe the joint at almost
+every conceivable angle and position. The workman must employ his
+ingenuity to overcome any difficulties that may arise. Any draught
+of air should be avoided as it will make the solder cool quickly.
+
+2-INCH BRASS FERRULE.--When it is found necessary to connect
+cast-iron and lead pipe, it is done by means of a brass ferrule
+wiped on the lead pipe. This joint is a very common joint and is
+found on sink, tray, and bath connections, as well as in many other
+connections that have lead and cast-iron pipes for wastes.
+
+4-INCH BRASS FERRULE.--The 4-inch brass ferrule wiped on lead pipe
+is found under almost every closet. There is generally a piece of
+lead connecting the toilet with the soil pipe. Therefore, a brass
+ferrule is wiped on the lead and the ferrule connected with the
+soil pipe. This joint is also found on rain leader connections near
+the roof, connecting the gutter with the rain leader stack.
+
+STOP COCK.--When a shut-off is required in a line of lead water
+pipe, these joints are used. Where it is necessary to joint lead
+and brass, this joint is required. The art of heat control over the
+lead and the brass is the essential point in these joints.
+
+BRANCH JOINTS 5/8 AND 1/2 INCHES.--Where it is found necessary to
+take a branch from a water pipe, this joint is used at the
+connection. In practice, this joint may have to be wiped in
+positions that are rather difficult to reach, so the wiping of
+joints in the positions called for in the exercises is exceedingly
+good practice.
+
+BRANCH JOINTS 1-1/2 INCHES.--These joints are very common and are
+found on waste and vent pipes. They are also found on urinal
+flush-pipe connections where the branch often is brass and the run
+lead.
+
+BIB.--When lead supplies are run directly to the bib on a sink,
+this joint is necessary. It becomes necessary to wipe in a piece of
+brass for a brass-pipe connection from a lead pipe, in which case
+this joint is called for.
+
+THE DRUM TRAP.--The drum trap is used under sinks, baths, showers,
+and trays.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+LAYING TERRA-COTTA AND MAKING CONNECTIONS TO PUBLIC SEWERS. WATER
+CONNECTIONS TO MAINS IN STREETS
+
+
+TERRA-COTTA PIPE
+
+One of the first pieces of work which a plumber is called upon to
+do, when building operations commence, is to run in the terra-cotta
+sewer from the street sewer into the foundation wall.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Connection of house sewer to main sewer.]
+
+When the street sewer is laid, Y-branches are left every few feet.
+A record of the branches and their distance from the manhole is
+kept generally in the Department of Sewers or Public Works.
+Therefore, the exact measurement of any branch can be obtained and
+the branch found by digging down to the depth of the sewer. A
+branch should be chosen so that the pipe can be laid with a pitch,
+the same way as the main sewer pitches. This can be done by getting
+the measurements of two of these branches and choosing the one that
+will serve best. When there is a brick sewer in the street and no
+branches left out, the sewer must be tapped wherever the house
+sewer requires it (see Fig. 35).
+
+DIGGING TRENCHES.--After the measurements and location of the house
+sewer and sewer branches are properly located, the digging of the
+trench is started. The methods employed to dig the trench vary
+according to the nature of the ground, that is, whether it is sand,
+rock, or wet ground. A line should be struck from sewer to
+foundation wall to insure a straight trench.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Laying of plank for trench dug in sandy
+ground.]
+
+SANDY GROUND.--If the ground is sandy, the sides of the trench will
+have to be sheathed or planked and the planks braced so as to
+prevent the bank caving in. As the trench is dug deeper, the planks
+are driven down. When the trench is very deep, a second row of
+planking is necessary. The planks must be kept well down to the
+bottom of the trench and close together, otherwise the sand will
+run in. It is well to test the planking as progress is made by
+tamping the sand on the bank side of the planks.
+
+GRAVEL.--Where the ground is mostly gravel and well packed, the
+above method of planking is unnecessary. The bank should have a few
+stringers and braces to support it. When only a few planks are used
+the term "corduroy the bank" is used (see Fig. 37).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Arrangement of plank for gravel.]
+
+ROCK.--Where rock is encountered, blasting is resorted to. The
+plumber should not attempt to handle a job requiring the use of
+powder. It is dangerous in the hands of a person not used to
+handling it and the work should be sublet.
+
+A sketch of the two methods above for planking trenches is given
+and a little study will make them clear.
+
+
+LAYING OF PIPE
+
+The pipe should be laid on the bottom of the trench to a pitch of
+at least 1/4 inch per foot fall. In laying, the start should be
+made at the street sewer with hubs of pipe toward the building. The
+trench should be dug within a few inches of the bottom of the
+pipe, then as the pipe is laid the exact depth is dug out, the
+surplus dirt being thrown on the pipe already laid. The body length
+of pipe should be on solid foundation. A space dug out for each hub
+as shown in Fig. 38 allows for this, also allows for the proper
+cementing of joints. To get the proper pitch of pipe, take for
+example 1/4 inch per foot, a level 2 feet long with a piece of wood
+or metal on one end 1/2 inch thick will answer. The end with the
+1/2-inch piece on should be on the lower hub and the other end
+resting on the hub of the pipe about to be put in place. When the
+bubble shows level, then the pipe has the 1/4-inch fall per foot.
+If a tile trap is used, it should be laid level, otherwise the seal
+will be weakened or entirely broken.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Laying terra-cotta pipe.]
+
+CUTTING.--The cutting of tile is not difficult, but must be done
+carefully or the pipe will crack or a piece will be broken out,
+thus making the pipe worthless. To cut tile or terra-cotta pipe,
+stand the pipe on end with the hub down, fill the pipe with sand to
+the point of cutting. With a sharp chisel and hammer cut around the
+pipe two or three times and the pipe will crack around practically
+straight.
+
+CEMENTING.--If the pipe is free from cracks, the only possible way
+roots can get into the inside of terra-cotta pipe is through the
+cement joint. There are two ways of making these joints. Both ways
+are explained below and are used today on terra-cotta work.
+
+     _First._--The bottom of the hub of pipe in place is filled with
+     cement and the straight end of the next piece of pipe is laid in
+     place, then more cement is placed into the hub until the space
+     between the hub and the pipe is filled. In a trench, a trowel is
+     rather unhandy to work with, while the hands can be used to better
+     advantage. The cement can be forced into place with the hands and
+     then surfaced with a trowel. The rest of the operation is to swab
+     out the inside joint to remove any cement that perchance was forced
+     through the joint (see Fig. 39). The cement used should be 1/2
+     cement and 1/2 clean sharp sand.
+
+     _Second._--Half of the space between the hub and the pipe is first
+     packed with oakum and then the other half filled with cement of the
+     same proportions as that used above.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Showing use of the swab.]
+
+
+LAYING PIPE IN TUNNELS
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Pushing pipe through tunnel.]
+
+If the pipe must be run through a tunnel and there are perhaps
+three or four joints that cannot be reached, they should be put
+into place as follows: The pipe should be laid in the trench from
+the sewer in the street as far as the tunnel, then start at the
+other end of the tunnel. Lay the first piece of pipe on a board,
+lengthwise with the board, nail two cleats in the shape of a >
+(Fig. 40) for the pipe to rest in; push this pipe and board into
+the tunnel and then cement into its hub a second piece; push the
+two pieces in 2 feet, cement a third length into the second piece
+and push the three pieces along 2 feet. A workman can be on the
+sewer side of the tunnel and receive the end of the pipe as it is
+pushed through the tunnel, and steer the pipe into the hub. The
+joints in the tunnel will not be as secure as those outside. This
+explains how pipe is run through a tunnel.
+
+CONNECTING.--The proper method of connecting the house sewer with
+the street sewer is shown in Fig. 35. The connection should be made
+above the spring of the arch. The pipe should extend well into the
+sewer so the sewage will discharge into water and not drop on
+sides.
+
+INSERTING.--To insert a tee in a line of pipe already laid, pursue
+the following method (see Fig. 41): Cut or break out one joint,
+preserve the bottom of the hub of pipe that is in. Cut away the top
+of the hub on the pipe to be inserted, then place the pipe in
+position and turn around until the part of the hub on the piece
+inserted is on the bottom. The bottom part of the pipes now will
+have a hub to receive the cement. The top part will have to be
+cemented carefully, as it is within easy access. This can be done
+without difficulty.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Inserting length of pipe.]
+
+While laying the pipe a stopper is used to prevent the sewer gases
+and foul odors from escaping. This stopper sometimes is of tile,
+sometimes a plug of paper or burlap. This stopper is sometimes
+cemented in by inexperienced men and the trouble created can only
+be guessed at. If a stopper is used, the workman must see that it
+is taken out.
+
+REFILLING.--After the pipe is laid and cemented, it should be
+covered and allowed to stand 24 hours to give the cement time to
+harden. The dirt should then be thrown in and settled by means of a
+tamper or by flooding with water. The planks should not be taken
+out until the trench is well filled. To pull the plank, a chain or
+shoe and lever will have to be used. Where the tunnels are, dirt
+will have to be rammed in with a long rammer, care being taken not
+to disturb the pipe. If the refill is not well rammed and tamped,
+the trench will settle and cause a bad depression in the street
+surface.
+
+TERRA-COTTA PIPE.--Terra-cotta pipe should be straight, free from
+fire cracks, and salt-glazed. The inside of the hub and outside of
+the plain end should not be glazed. This allows the cement to take
+hold.
+
+     TABLE OF STANDARD TERRA-COTTA PIPE
+
+     ------+------------+-----------------+----------+--------------
+     Size  | Thickness, | Weight per ft., | Depth of | Annular space
+           |   inches   |     pounds      |  socket  |
+     ------+------------+-----------------+----------+--------------
+      3    |      1/2   |         7       |  1-1/2   |    1/4
+      4    |      1/2   |         9       |  1-5/8   |    3/8
+      5    |      5/8   |        12       |  1-3/4   |    3/8
+      6    |      5/8   |        15       |  1-7/8   |    3/8
+      8    |      3/4   |        23       |  2       |    3/8
+      9    |     13/16  |       23        |  2       |    3/8
+     10    |      7/8   |        35       |  2-1/8   |    3/8
+     12    |    1       |       45        |  2-1/4   |    1/2
+     15    |    1-1/8   |       60        |  2-1/2   |    1/2
+     18    |    1-1/4   |       85        |  2-3/4   |    1/2
+     20    |    1-3/8   |      100        |  3       |    1/2
+     ------+------------+-----------------+----------+--------------
+
+Terra-cotta pipe should not be permitted in filled-in ground.
+
+Roots of trees find their way into the pipe through cracks or
+cement joints. When the roots get inside of the pipe they grow
+until the pipe is stopped up. As the roots cannot be forced or
+wired out, the sewer must be relaid. The writer has seen a solid
+mass of roots 10 feet long taken out of a tile sewer.
+
+In case terra-cotta is laid in filled-in ground, there is only one
+way to insure the pipe from breaking. The pipe should be laid on
+planks. Then, if the ground settles, the pipe will not be broken.
+
+
+WATER CONNECTION AND SERVICE
+
+TAPPING MAIN.--The water service for a building is put in at the
+same time as the sewer is connected and run into the house. For a
+1-1/4-service pipe a 1/2-inch tap is furnished. The water company
+taps the main, at the expense of the plumber, and inserts a
+corporation cock.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Showing water main and sewer in same
+ditch.]
+
+DIGGING TRENCH.--The trench for the water main should be dug at
+least 4-1/2 feet deep or below frost level and the trench should be
+kept straight. When the sewer is put in at the same time, one side
+of the sewer trench can be cut out after it is filled up to the
+level of the water main. The water pipe can then be laid on this
+shelf at least 2 feet away from the original trench of sewer.
+Sometimes the surface of the ground must not be disturbed. In this
+case small holes are dug and the pipe is pushed through or driven
+through under that portion not dug. These places are often
+tunnelled (see Fig. 42).
+
+In digging in city streets, care should be taken not to destroy any
+of the numerous pipes encountered.
+
+
+LAYING PIPE
+
+The trench should be dug straight out from the house so the pipe
+can be laid and the main tapped straight out from the building. The
+water companies keep a record of these taps so that in case of
+trouble the street can be opened and the water shut off. In laying
+the water service, the pipe from the curb to the main should be
+laid first. This takes in all the pipe in the street. At the main
+there is a shut-off in the tap. Another stop with T or wheel handle
+must be placed just inside the curb line. This is called a curb
+cock (see Fig. 43). One trench either outside or inside of the curb
+should be at least 15 feet long so that a full length of pipe can
+be laid in the trench. It is generally impossible to open a trench
+the full length the pipe is to be run. A trench 10 feet long is
+dug, then 8 feet left, and another 10- or 8-foot trench is dug and
+the two are connected with a small tunnel and pipe pushed through.
+When the pipe has been put in place between the curb and main, the
+water is turned on and the pipe flushed out. The valve at the curb
+should now be shut off, and if there are any leaks they will show.
+The street part is now ready to fill in. At this point Fig. 43
+should be studied. Note the piece of lead attached to the pipe and
+corporation cock. This piece of lead should be extra heavy and
+always laid in place the shape of the letter S or goose neck. In
+case the street should settle, this piece of lead will allow for
+it. These "lead connections" or "goose necks" are made as follows:
+3 ft. of 5/8 lead pipe; 1-inch brass solder nipple (wiped on); one
+brass corporation cock coupling (wiped on).
+
+LAYING PIPE.--This lead connection can be screwed on the pipe after
+the pipe is laid, then bent and coupled on the main with the
+coupling.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Water main from street to foundation
+wall.]
+
+After the pipe has been tested as far as the curb, the trench in
+the street can be filled as described later. The pipe from the curb
+to the building can now be laid. If necessary to push the pipe
+through a tunnel, the end of the pipe should first be capped. Start
+by screwing a length in the curb cock. If the other end of the pipe
+comes in a tunnel an additional length must be put on before
+putting in place so that an end will come in the open trench. When
+the building is reached and before the stop cock is put on, the
+valve at the curb should be opened full and the pipe flushed out.
+The valve can then be put on and water turned on to test the pipe.
+
+SETTING CURB BOX.--A cast-iron box, adjustable length, with cover
+should extend from the curb cock to the surface. This makes it
+possible with a long rod to control the water service into the
+building. To set a curb box some flat stones should be laid around
+the curb cock and the box set on these stones. Then the space
+around the box and pipe should be closed in with brick or other
+covering to keep the sand from washing in on the curb cock. The box
+should be adjusted for height and then held in place by placing the
+curb key rod in place and holding the rod and box while the trench
+is filled. The refill should be tamped evenly on all sides of the
+box.
+
+REFILL.--In refilling the trench around the corporation cock and
+goose neck, the greatest care should be taken. The writer has seen
+cases when indifferent workmen have tossed heavy stones in the
+ditch and broken off the corporation cock or destroyed the goose
+neck. After the pipe is covered with 18 inches of refill and
+tunnels have been filled, water can be run in the trench and will
+settle the refill.
+
+There are a number of special points concerning water services and
+taps at mains that should not be overlooked. Take for example a
+water service pipe which must be run through ground where
+electricity is escaping under trolley tracks, around power houses,
+etc. The electricity will enter the pipe and wherever it leaves the
+pipe a hole is burned. The surface of the pipe in a short time will
+be full of small pith marks and will soon leak. A good way to add
+to the life of the pipe under these conditions is to make a star of
+copper and solder it on to the pipe in the street. Another piece of
+copper should be put on the pipe near the building. The electricity
+will leave the pipe by way of the points on the star. This method
+may not be a cure for electrolysis, but will add to the life of the
+pipe. Another method employed is to put the pipe in the center of a
+square box, then fill the box with hot pitch. When this is hardened
+the pipe will have a covering that will keep out any moisture and
+bar electricity to a marked degree.
+
+MATERIALS USED.--Galvanized steel pipe does not last under ground.
+
+Galvanized iron, heavy lead, and brass are used. Wooden pipes were
+once used and stood years of service. No service smaller than 1-1/4
+should be used.
+
+When the water service pipe passes through the foundation wall, the
+pipe should not be built in, but a small arch should be built over
+the pipe or a piece of XX cast-iron pipe can be used as a sleeve
+(Fig. 44).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Free space around pipe passing through
+wall.]
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+
+SEWER INSTALLATION
+
+     _First_, select good sound pipe and fittings.
+
+     _Second_, locate branch connection in street sewer.
+
+     _Third_, lay out run of house sewer.
+
+     _Fourth_, take out necessary permits from departments of sewer.
+
+     _Fifth_, dig trench in the street, then into the house.
+
+     _Sixth_, lay pipe and cement joints.
+
+     _Seventh_, refill trench, tamping every foot.
+
+     _Eighth_, cast-iron pipe for sewer is found under another heading.
+
+
+WATER SERVICE
+
+     _First_, take out necessary permits.
+
+     _Second_, list material and deliver to job.
+
+     _Third_, lay out and dig trench.
+
+     _Fourth_, have main tapped.
+
+     _Fifth_, lay pipe to curb and test.
+
+     _Sixth_, fill in street trench.
+
+     _Seventh_, lay pipe into building and test.
+
+     _Eighth_, set curb box.
+
+     _Ninth_, refill trench.
+
+     _Tenth_, thoroughly consider any special conditions.
+
+     _Street Sewer._--Large pipe in streets to receive all soil and
+     waste from buildings.
+
+     _House Sewer._--Conveys sewage from building to street sewer,
+     extends from foundation wall to sewer.
+
+     _Street Main._--Water pipe running parallel with the street,
+     belonging to the water company.
+
+     _Service Pipe._--Runs from the street main into the building.
+
+     _Corporation Cock._--Brass stop tapped into street main.
+
+     _Goose Neck._--Lead pipe which connects the street main and service
+     pipe.
+
+     _Trench._--Hole dug to receive pipe.
+
+     _Main Tapped._--Hole drilled through wall of main and a thread made
+     on it while pressure is on.
+
+     _Curb Cock._--Brass shut-off placed at curb.
+
+     _Solder Nipple._--Piece of brass pipe with thread on one end and
+     plain on the other end which connects lead and iron.
+
+     _Coupling._--Fitting which connects two pieces of pipe.
+
+     _Stop Cock._--Brass fitting for stopping flow of water.
+
+     _Curb Box._--Iron box extending from curb cock to surface.
+
+     _Curb Key._--A long key to fit in side of curb box to operate curb
+     cock.
+
+     _Swab._--Stick with ball of rags or paper on one end.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+INSTALLING OF FRENCH OR SUB-SOIL DRAINS
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Sub-soil drain.]
+
+When a building is erected on a site that is wet or springy, some
+means of carrying off the surplus water in the ground must be
+provided for, or the basement of the building will be flooded with
+water. For the thorough understanding of the methods employed in
+laying a drain of this kind, I will go over it carefully and the
+beginner can read it and then study it, and understand just how it
+is done. A site may appear to be dry on the surface of the ground
+and yet be very wet under the surface. If no information can be had
+regarding the site, it is always well to drain the site if it is on
+a slope or near a body of water and on the water shed of a river or
+lake. If a building is a large one and the foundation goes down
+very deep, the site should always be drained. The drain is laid
+under the basement floor and around the outside of the foundation
+wall on a level with or lower than the basement floor. The value of
+draining a building site when the building is first started is very
+often overlooked. The cost of the drain will be saved in a few
+years as the basement will be free from all excessive dampness. The
+expense of installing a sub-soil after the building is up and in
+use is great as well as inconvenient. The drain is called "sub-soil
+drain" on account of its location under the ground and on account
+of its duty of taking off all surplus water that is underground.
+With the surface water taken off by the surface drains and the
+sub-soil drained by the sub-soil drains, a wet building site can be
+made practically dry (see Fig. 45).
+
+MATERIALS USED IN SUB-SOIL CONSTRUCTION.--The object of the drain
+is to collect water and carry it away from the building by means of
+pipes. Terra-cotta pipes, with or without hubs, are used.
+Perforated tile pipe is sometimes used. This pipe is unglazed
+terra-cotta pipe with 1-inch holes in the sides about 3 or 4 inches
+from the center. These holes allow the surplus water to enter the
+bore of the pipe and thus be carried off beyond the building site.
+
+When the sub-soil of a small building needs draining, the trenches
+made for the house drain and its branches are used as a drain in
+the following manner: The trenches are dug deeper than is required
+for the house drain. The trenches are then filled to the correct
+level with broken stones. There is space between these stones for
+the water to find passage to a point away from the building. When
+this method is employed, some provision must be made to prevent the
+house drain from settling. When locating the drain, we must
+consider approximately the amount of water that is likely to be in
+the soil and required to be carried off. If there is considerable
+water, the pipes should extend all around the outside of the
+building foundation wall, also a main pipe running under the cellar
+bottom with six branches, three branches on each side.
+
+If there is not a great deal of surplus water in the soil, the
+drain around the outside of the foundation wall should be put in
+and one drain line running through the basement will be sufficient.
+
+LAYING THE PIPE.--The drain pipe should be handled with care, for
+it is easily broken. The trench should be laid out and dug, then
+the pipe can be laid in it with a grade toward the outlet or
+discharge. If pipes with a hub on one end are used, the hub should
+not be cemented. A little oakum is packed in the hub to steady the
+pipe and keep sand out, the bottom of joint is cemented, a piece of
+tar paper can be laid over the top of the joint to keep the sand
+out. With joints made this way, the water can find its way to the
+bore of the pipe and yet the sand will be kept out of the pipe. As
+soon as the water gets into the bore of the pipe it has a clear
+passageway to some discharge point away from the building. If tile
+pipes without any hubs are used, some covering should be put around
+the joint to keep out the sand and still allow the water to find
+its way into the pipes.
+
+DISCHARGE OF SUB-SOIL DRAIN.--The water that accumulates in a
+sub-soil drain must be carried off to some point away from the
+building. As the pipes are generally under the cellar bottom and
+under the house drain, it is very evident that this drain cannot
+discharge into the house drain sewer, directly. If the building
+site is on a hill, the drain can be carried out and discharged on
+the surface at a point that is somewhat lower than the level of the
+pipe under the building. Where this cannot be done, it will be
+necessary to have the different lines of pipes discharge into a
+pit. The water is accumulated in this pit until it is filled, then
+it will automatically empty itself as later explained.
+
+PIT CONSTRUCTION.--The pit for the sub-soil water is constructed of
+cement. A pit 2 feet square or 2 feet in diameter and 3 feet deep
+will answer all requirements. A pit of this depth will allow a
+pitch for all lines of pipe, and is large enough for ordinary
+installations. The pit is built up to the surface of the cemented
+floor of the basement and covered with a removable iron cover.
+
+CELLAR DRAINER OR PUMP.--A cellar drainer is employed to empty the
+above-mentioned pit. The cellar drainer works automatically. When
+the pit is filled with water, the drainer operates and empties the
+pit and discharges the water into a sink or open sewer connection.
+When the pit is emptied, the drainer shuts off. The cellar drainer
+is operated by water pressure. When the valve is opened, a small
+jet of water is discharged into a larger pipe. The velocity of this
+small jet of water creates a suction and carries along with it some
+of the water in the pit. This suction continues until the tank is
+empty. There should always be a strainer on the suction pipe, also
+on the supply pipe, to prevent any particles of dirt getting into
+the valve. The pipes leading to and from the drainer should empty
+into an open sink where it can be seen. There is a possibility of
+the drainer valve leaking and then the water pressure will leak
+through it, causing a waste of water. If this leakage can be seen
+where it discharges, then the trouble can be rectified. The cellar
+drainer is connected directly with the water pressure and should
+have a valve close to the connection to control the supply.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+STORM AND SANITARY DRAINAGE WITH SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN VIEW
+
+
+The accompanying drawing of storm and sanitary drains should be
+studied in detail by the reader. The location of each trap and
+fitting should be studied carefully and the reason that it is put
+in that particular place should be thoroughly understood. Below,
+each plan has been taken and gone over in detail, bringing out the
+reasons for fittings and traps, also the arrangement of the piping.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.]
+
+The first thing to note in Fig. 46 is the number and kinds of
+fixtures to be drained. There is in the basement a set of
+three-part wash trays. This will require a 2-inch waste and a
+1-1/2-inch vent. There is in the drawing a 2-inch waste extending
+to the fixtures above. On the same line is a rain leader with a
+trap showing also a 4-inch floor drain. There are two 4-inch rain
+leaders on the opposite corners of the plan, in the rear of the
+building. There is a 4-inch soil stack for fixtures above and a
+4-inch soil stack in the basement on the same line for a basement
+toilet. On the front there are rain leaders in each corner. These
+will be connected outside of the house trap (this feature should be
+noted). The outlets that are to discharge into the house drain are
+as follows:
+
+     Two 4-inch rain leaders.
+
+     One 2-inch sink waste.
+
+     One 2-inch wash tray waste.
+
+     One 4-inch floor drain.
+
+     One 4-inch soil pipe.
+
+     One 4-inch closet connection.
+
+     Two 4-inch front rain leaders to discharge into house
+     sewer.
+
+If we were to install this job, we would first locate each pipe
+that enters the house drain. The lowest outlet would be
+particularly noted, in this case the 4-inch floor drain. From this
+drain we must make sure that at least 1/4 inch to the foot fall is
+secured. We must then locate the house sewer where it enters the
+foundation wall, then the work can be started. I will not attempt
+to list the material that is necessary for this work, at this time.
+With all the material at hand the house drain is started. All of
+this work is installed under the ground, therefore trenches must be
+dug for all the piping. The plumber must lay these trenches out and
+in doing so he must have in mind all connections and the fittings
+he can use so that the trenches can be dug at the right angle. The
+trenches must be dug allowing a pitch for the pipe. The height of
+the cellar is 8 feet below the joists. A stick is cut 8 feet long
+which can be used to get the trenches below the cement floor at the
+right depth. After the digging is completed, the house trap, which
+is a 6-inch running trap, is caulked into a length of 6-inch
+cast-iron pipe. This piece of pipe is pushed out toward the sewer
+bringing the trap near the foundation wall, on the inside. The
+fittings and traps and pipe are caulked in place as fast as
+possible. When possible, the joints are caulked outside of the
+trench in an upright position. There are a number of different ways
+to caulk this pipe together, and to make it clear to the beginner
+just how it is done the following exercise is suggested. This job
+brings in the caulking of pipes, traps, and fittings in various
+positions. Two or three can work on this job together. Fig. 47
+shows how the pipe and fittings are put together, which needs no
+further explanation. Therefore, we will go over in detail only the
+caulking of the joints in the various positions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.]
+
+MATERIAL NEEDED.--One length of 4-inch extra heavy cast-iron pipe,
+single hub; two lengths of 4-inch extra heavy cast-iron pipe,
+double hub; one running trap, one full Y, one 4-inch 1/4 bend; two
+4-inch clean-out screws with iron body; one 4-inch vent cap; one
+4-inch 1/8 bend; 30 pounds of block lead; 2 pounds of oakum.
+
+TOOLS REQUIRED.--Ladle, asbestos pourer, hammer, cold chisel,
+yarning iron, two caulking irons, furnace and pot.
+
+The beginner should start at the trap and caulk the joints with the
+trap held in place. The cold chisel should be sharp as it is used
+to cut the cast-iron pipe.
+
+To caulk the straight end of cast-iron pipe into the hub end and
+make a water-tight joint when the pipe is in a vertical position,
+the spigot end of the pipe is entered into the hub end of another
+piece. A wad of oakum is taken and forced into the hub with the
+yarning iron. This piece of oakum is forced to the bottom of the
+hub, then another piece is put in. The oakum is set and packed by
+using the yarning iron and hammer. The hub is half filled with
+oakum. The oakum is forced tight enough to make a water-tight
+joint. If the oakum used comes in a bale, pieces of it will have to
+be taken and rolled into long ropes about 18 inches long, the
+thickness of the rope corresponding with the space between the hub
+and the pipe. If rope oakum is used, the strands of the rope can be
+used. After the oakum is well packed into place and the pipe is
+lined up and made straight, molten lead is poured in and the hub
+filled. When the lead has cooled, set the lead with the caulking
+tool and hammer, making one blow on each side of the joint. This
+sets the lead evenly on every side. If there is any surplus lead,
+it can now be cut off, using the hammer and cold chisel. The
+caulking iron is again taken and the lead next to the pipe is
+tamped, striking the iron with the hammer at an angle to drive the
+lead against the pipe. After this has been done all around, the
+caulking iron is held in such a position that the lead around the
+hub will receive the force of the blow. After this has been done,
+the center of the lead is caulked and the joint should be tight.
+With a little practice, this can be done very rapidly. The lead
+should be poured in while it is very hot. The caulking must not be
+done by hitting heavy blows as there is a possibility of splitting
+the hub and thereby rendering the joint unfit for use.
+
+CAULKING JOINT IN HORIZONTAL POSITION.--It is necessary in a great
+many cases to caulk a joint in a position where the lead would run
+out of the joint unless provision were made to hold it in. To
+caulk a joint in a position of this kind, the pipe is lined up and
+secured, then the oakum is put in and forced to the bottom of the
+hub. Then a joint runner, which is an asbestos rope about 2 feet
+long and about 1 inch in diameter, is fitted around the pipe and
+forced against the hub where it is clamped by means of an attached
+clamp. The clamp is put on the top of the pipe and so arranged that
+a channel will be left in a V shape. This channel allows the hot
+lead to run between the asbestos runner and the hub. When the lead
+has had a chance to cool, the asbestos runner is taken off. Where
+the clamp was, there will be a triangular piece of lead sticking
+out beyond the face of the hub. This piece has to be cut off, but
+no attempt should be made to do so until it has been caulked in
+place and well set; also the rest of the lead should be set. Then
+the cold chisel can be used and this extra piece of lead taken off.
+The caulking of the lead in this position is the same as in the
+previous position and should be carried out closely. The beginner
+should understand that it is necessary to have not only the joints
+tight so that running water will not leak out of them, but that the
+joints must stand a water test. The testing of soil stacks is
+explained under another heading. The lines of cast-iron pipe depend
+to a considerable extent upon these joints to make the whole line
+rigid.
+
+CAULKING OF FITTINGS.--The caulking of fittings, while done the
+same as a straight pipe, is far more difficult. The improper making
+of these joints is the cause of many leaks. A long sweep fitting is
+caulked without a great deal of difficulty. If a short bend fitting
+is used, the matter of caulking is difficult. The fitting is so
+short that it is almost impossible to get a caulking iron into the
+throat. The mechanics will have to work at the throat from each
+side until this part has been sufficiently caulked. I call
+attention to this point, for I know it to be a failure in a large
+number of jobs when it comes to put the test on. In order to caulk
+the fittings, they must be put in their exact location and
+positions before the lead is poured in, for after the lead is once
+in the fitting cannot be moved. When there is a series of fittings
+on a line, their positions in relation to each other must be
+considered before the lead is poured.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.]
+
+Fig. 48 shows the same fixture and stack connections as Fig. 46.
+Two 4-inch lines run through the cellar, one a sanitary drain, the
+other a storm drain. Each 4-inch line has an intercepting trap. On
+the sewer side of these traps the two lines are brought together,
+beyond which point the two front rain leaders connect; each of the
+two front leaders is trapped separately.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.]
+
+Fig. 49 differs from the preceding one in only two points. First,
+the two front leaders are brought into the cellar and connected
+into the storm drain on the house side of the intercepting trap.
+Second, the storm and sanitary drains are connected on the outside
+of the building.
+
+Fig. 50 shows the same fixtures collected into a 4-inch house
+drain, and the rain leaders run entirely on the outside of the
+building. This plan is a good one as all the storm water is kept
+entirely outside the building. If the storm drains are kept 5 feet
+away from the cellar walls (see Plumbing Code) the pipes can be of
+tile. Another good feature of this plan is that all the pipes under
+the cellar are 4-inch.
+
+Fig. 51 is similar to Fig. 46, the difference being in the location
+of the floor drain and the connection of the two rear rain leaders,
+into the house drain.
+
+In Fig. 52 the drains shown take the waste and storm water from the
+apartment building, also a building set in the rear. The leader
+pipes in this case are trapped on the outside of the wall. The
+building in the rear you will note has a separate fresh air inlet
+and house trap, and the house sewer is continued through the front
+house and connected into the house drain of the front building, on
+the sewer side of the intercepting trap.
+
+These drawings should be studied carefully and the student should
+in each case list correctly all of the material required for the
+installation of these jobs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Cutting cast-iron pipe.]
+
+CUTTING CAST-IRON PIPE.--To cut cast-iron pipe, a sharp cold chisel
+and hammer are needed. The pipe is marked all around, just where it
+is to be cut. Then it is laid with the part of the pipe that is to
+be cut resting on a block of wood. A groove is cut with the hammer
+and chisel around the pipe. One person can turn the pipe while the
+other does the cutting. After a little experience one man can cut
+and roll the pipe alone. This groove is cut deeper and deeper until
+the pipe breaks apart. If standard pipe is being cut, a file is
+generally resorted to for cutting the groove. On account of the
+lightness of the pipe, a hammer and chisel will crack the pipe
+lengthwise. When cutting extra heavy cast-iron pipe, a good heavy
+blow must be struck to cause the chisel to cut into the iron. After
+a few cuts, the beginner will understand the weight of blow that
+must be struck to cut the pipe quickly.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SOIL AND WASTE PIPES AND VENTS. TESTS
+
+
+SOIL PIPES
+
+The term "soil pipes" means pipe that receives the discharge from
+water closets. The size of a soil pipe for ordinary dwellings
+should be 4 inches.
+
+SIZE OF SOIL PIPES
+
+     One   to three  closets--4-inch XX cast-iron.
+     Four  to eight  closets--5-inch XX cast-iron.
+     Eight to twelve closets--6-inch XX cast-iron.
+
+There are cases when 3-inch XX cast-iron pipe is used, but the
+practice is not recommended.
+
+The soil pipe should be well supported and held in place. The
+connection between soil pipe and closet should be of lead to allow
+for any expansion of settling that might take place.
+
+MATERIAL OF SOIL PIPES.--Soil pipe in common use today is made of
+light cast iron, tar-coated, extra heavy cast iron uncoated and
+coated, galvanized wrought-iron pipe, and steel pipe. The best kind
+to use depends upon the job and place where it is to be used.
+All kinds of bends and fittings can be had in any of the
+above-mentioned materials. In choosing the material of the pipe
+that is best to use, the following points should be carefully
+considered.
+
+     _First_, new work or overhauling.
+
+     _Second_, temporary or permanent job.
+
+     _Third_, construction of building.
+
+     _Fourth_, amount allowed for cost of materials on job.
+
+     _Fifth_, size of job, that is, the number of toilets.
+
+     _Sixth_, size of chases and pipe partitions.
+
+LOCATION OF SOIL PIPE.--The location of the soil pipe depends to a
+great extent upon the location of the toilets. The soil stack
+should be located on an inside partition. The horizontal pipe
+should not run over expensively decorated ceilings unless run
+inside of a trough made of copper or sheet lead. As far as
+possible, the pipes should be confined, to runs short, and the
+number of bends reduced.
+
+
+SOIL-PIPE FITTINGS
+
+Soil-pipe fittings can be had from stock almost to suit the
+conditions. I will enumerate a few. The names of these fittings
+should be familiar to the mechanic so that when ordering he can
+give the correct name. 1/16, 1/8, 1/6, 1/4 bend, sanitary tee,
+tapped tee, side outlet fitting, return bend, cross branches,
+double Y, double TY, traps. The uses of these cast-iron fittings
+perhaps are obvious, but a word about the use of each one will be
+of service.
+
+The 1/4 bend is used to change the direction of run of pipe 90°. A
+long-sweep 1/4 bend is used on work requiring the best practice.
+1/8, 1/16, and 1/6 bends are used to change the direction of pipe
+45°, 22-1/2°, and 16-2/3°. Two 1/8 bends should be used in
+preference to one 1/4 bend where there is sufficient room. Side
+outlet 1/4 bend is used for waste connection. They can be had with
+an outlet on either side of the heel. Their use is not recommended.
+
+Return bends are used on fresh-air inlets. Tees are used for vents
+only. Ys are used wherever possible. The use of a Y-branch together
+with an 1/8 bend for a 90° connection with the main line is always
+preferable to a TY or, as they are commonly called, sanitary T. A
+tapped fitting gets its name because it is tapped for iron pipe
+thread. Tapped fittings are used for venting and should not be
+used for waste unless the tap enters the fitting at an angle of
+45°.
+
+These fittings and pipe are joined by first caulking with oakum and
+pouring, with one continuous pour, the hub full of molten metal.
+When cool, the lead should be set and then caulked around the pipe
+and around the hub.
+
+The amount of lead and oakum required for various-sized joints is
+as follows:
+
+     Pipe size       2      3      4    5      6      8   10      12   15
+     Pounds of lead  1-1/2  2-1/4  3    3-3/4  4-1/2  6    7-1/2   9   11-1/4
+     Oakum (ounce)   4      6      8   10     12     16   20      24   30
+
+RUST JOINTS.--The plumber is called upon to run cast-iron pipe in
+places where lead and oakum will not be of service for the joints.
+In cases of this kind, a rust joint is made. This "rust" is made
+according to the following formula:
+
+      1 part flour of sulphur.
+      1 part sal-ammoniac.
+     98 parts iron borings (free from grease).
+
+This mixture is made the consistency of cement, using water to mix
+thoroughly and bring all parts into contact with each other. When
+it hardens, it becomes very hard and makes a tight joint which
+overcomes the objections to lead and oakum joints.
+
+
+WROUGHT-IRON AND STEEL PIPE
+
+This pipe comes in about 18-foot lengths and fittings of the
+following makes and shapes, and their use is fully explained. The
+lengths of pipe come with a thread on each end and a coupling
+screwed on one end. The lengths come in bundles up to 1-1/2-inches
+and in single lengths over that size. Screw pipe fittings, it will
+be noted, are called by a different name than cast-iron ones. The
+fittings in common use today are the 90 degree ell, 45, 22, and
+16-2/3. The Y and TY, tucker fittings, and inverted Ys are used in
+practically the same way as the cast-iron fittings. The 90 degree
+ell, 45, 22, and 16-2/3 are used to change the run of pipe that
+many degrees. All 90 degree fittings, ells, and Ts are tapped to
+give the pipe a pitch of 1/4 inch to the foot. It is better to use
+two 45 ells to make a 90 bend when it is possible.
+
+[Illustration: CAST-IRON SCREW FITTINGS
+FIG. 54.]
+
+INVERTED Y.--The inverted Y is used in venting to good advantage.
+The use of these fittings is illustrated in the sketches.
+
+WASTE PIPES.--Waste pipes are the pipes that run to or convey the
+discharge of waste matter to the house drain, from wash trays,
+baths, lavatories, sinks, and showers.
+
+The usual size of waste pipes is 2 inches. Waste pipes are made of
+the same material as soil pipe. Lead and brass pipe are also in
+common use. All exposed waste pipes in bath and toilet rooms are
+brass, nickel-plated. The waste pipes under kitchen sinks and wash
+trays are either lead or plain heavy brass. All waste pipes are run
+with a pitch towards the house trap and should be properly vented
+as explained under venting. The pipes should be easy of access,
+with clean-outs in convenient places. The waste pipes under a tile
+or cement floor should be covered with waterproof paper and a metal
+V-shaped shield over the entire length. If the waste pipes are over
+a decorated ceiling they should be in a copper-lined or lead-lined
+box. This box should have a tell-tale pipe running to the open
+cellar with the end of the tell-tale pipe left open. If waste pipes
+are to take the discharge from sinks in which chemicals are thrown,
+either chemical lead or terra-cotta pipe should be used. If
+terra-cotta is used, it should have at least 6 inches reinforced
+concrete around it and the joints of pipe made of keisilgar.
+
+SIZE OF WASTE PIPES
+
+     Urinals         2 inches
+     Kitchen sink    2 inches
+     Slop sink       3 inches
+     Receptacles     1-1/2 inches
+     Bath tubs       1-1/2 inches
+     Lavatories      1-1/2 or 1-1/4 inches
+     Wash trays      2 inches
+
+TELL-TALE PIPE.--The tell-tale pipe is a small pipe that extends
+from the trough, pan, or box that is under a line of pipe or
+fixtures to the open cellar. When water is seen running out of this
+pipe, it shows that a leak exists somewhere in the line of pipe
+that is in the box or trough. The use of this pipe saves the
+destruction of walls and ceilings.
+
+
+VENTS
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Circuit vent.]
+
+Vents are the most important pipes in the plumbing system. Modern
+plumbing successfully attempts to make living in crowded and
+thickly populated districts, as well as in isolated buildings, free
+from all unpleasant odors and annoyances. This could not be
+accomplished without the use of vents. Vents relieve all pressure
+in the system by furnishing an outlet for the air that is displaced
+by the waste discharged from the fixtures. Another of its functions
+is to supply air when syphonic action starts, thereby stopping the
+action that would break the seal of the trap under fixtures. The
+pipe extending from top fixture connection, up to and through the
+roof, is called the ventilation pipe. All vents that do not pass
+directly through the roof terminate in this ventilation pipe.
+
+To explain the use of vents, we might well start in the basement of
+a dwelling house. Suppose there is a set of wash trays in the
+laundry; the 2-inch trap of these trays should have a 1-1/4-inch
+vent pipe leading from the crown of the trap up along side of the
+stack. On the first floor a 1-1/4-inch pipe from the crown of the
+kitchen sink trap will lead into it. Here the pipe should be
+increased to 2 inches. On the second floor the 1-1/4-inch pipes
+leading from the lavatory and bath traps come into it. The vent
+stack now extends up into the attic and connects with the
+ventilation pipe. In a general way, the above is an example of
+venting. The old method of venting was very complicated and is
+almost beyond describing with the pen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Loop vent.]
+
+In common use today, there are several kinds of venting, namely:
+circuit and loop venting, crown venting, and continuous venting.
+The _circuit venting_, Fig. 55, is used in connection with the
+installation of closets. Take a row of toilets in which the waste
+connection of each closet discharges into a Y-branch, and there
+will be a series of Y-branches. One end of this series of branches
+discharges into the main stack while the other end continues and
+turns up at least to the height of the top of the closet and then
+enters the main vent stack. When this main vent runs up along side
+of the main stack and forces the vent pipe connected to the series
+of Y-branches to travel back, it is called a loop vent. This type
+of vent supplies air to the complete line of toilets and is very
+efficient.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Continuous vent.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.]
+
+CONTINUOUS VENTING, Figs. 57 and 58, applies more to fixtures other
+than toilets. A P-trap is used and enters a T in the stack. The
+lower part of the T acts as and connects with the waste pipe while
+the upper half is and connects with the vent pipe. A study of the
+figures will aid the reader to understand thoroughly the above
+explanations. In continuous venting the waste of the lowest fixture
+is discharged into the vent pipe and extended to the main waste
+stack where it is connected. This is done to allow any rust scales
+that occasionally drop down the vent pipe, and render it unfit to
+perform its duty, to be washed away into the sewer.
+
+CROWN VENTING, Fig. 59, is as its name implies, a vent that is
+taken from the crown of the trap, thence into the main vent.
+
+Each one of these methods of venting is used and considered good
+practice, provided it is properly installed and correctly connected
+with the use of proper fittings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Crown venting.]
+
+THINGS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, venting is to prevent traps from syphoning.
+
+     _Second_, also to allow free passage of air.
+
+     _Third_, circuit vent--loop vent.
+
+     _Fourth_, continuous venting.
+
+     _Fifth_, crown venting.
+
+     _Sixth_, ventilation pipe extends from the top of fixture through
+     roof.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+HOUSE TRAPS, FRESH-AIR CONNECTIONS, DRUM TRAPS, AND NON-SYPHONING
+TRAPS
+
+
+The _house trap_ is a deep seal trap placed inside the foundation
+wall, and intersects the house drain and house sewer. The trap is
+placed at this point for a number of reasons: first, to keep sewer
+gases from entering the pipes in the house; second, this location
+is where the house drain ends. This trap should have two
+clean-outs, one on each side of the seal. The clean-outs should be
+of extra heavy cast-iron body with a heavy brass screw cap. The cap
+should have a square nut for a wrench to tighten or unscrew the
+cap. This cap should be brought up flush with the floor. When a
+house trap is being set, it is necessary to set it perfectly level,
+otherwise the seal of the trap is weakened and sewer gases can
+enter.
+
+Sometimes the trap is located on the house sewer just outside of
+the foundation wall. In this case, a pit should be built large
+enough for a workman to get down to it to clean it out when
+necessary.
+
+_A mason's trap_ was formerly used to a considerable extent, but is
+very poor practice to use today on modern work. This trap was built
+square of brick with a center partition. The brick soon became foul
+and the trap would be better termed a small cesspool than a trap.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT HOUSE TRAPS.--
+
+     _First_, should be a running trap.
+
+     _Second_, two clean-outs.
+
+     _Third_, deep seal, at least 2 inches.
+
+     _Fourth_, set level.
+
+     _Fifth_, set inside foundation wall.
+
+     _Sixth_, accessible at all times.
+
+     _Seventh_, same size as house drain.
+
+     _Eighth_, fresh air should connect with it.
+
+
+FRESH-AIR CONNECTIONS
+
+The term "fresh-air inlet" is, as its name implies, an inlet for
+fresh air. It is placed directly on the house side of the main
+trap. The connections made vary considerably. A few good
+connections in common use are explained below.
+
+When the trap is in place, one of the clean-outs can be used for
+the fresh air. If this is done, a Y-branch should be placed in the
+hub of the clean-out. The Y-branch should be used for the fresh air
+and the run should be used for a clean-out.
+
+A Y-fitting can be inserted directly back of the trap and the
+branch used for the fresh air. An inverted Y makes a good fitting
+to use directly back of the trap. These branches should be taken
+off the top of the pipe. The branch taken off for the fresh-air
+inlet should not have any waste discharge into it and should not be
+used for a drain pipe of any description.
+
+The fresh-air inlet should run as directly as possible into the
+outer air, at least 15 feet from any window. The pipes terminate in
+a number of different ways, some with a return bend, above the
+ground, some with a cowl cap, some with a strainer. When necessary
+to run pipe through the sidewalk, a box of brick is made with a
+heavy brass strainer fitted level with the sidewalk into which the
+pipe runs. If the pipe is run into the box on the side a little up
+from the bottom, the possibility of becoming stopped up or filled
+up is not great. The fresh-air inlet sometimes terminates above the
+roof of the building.
+
+Special care should be given this fresh-air inlet as it supplies
+fresh air to the entire system and thus keeps the pipes in a much
+better sanitary condition.
+
+Sometimes when the house drain is full of sewage, air is pushed out
+of the fresh-air inlet and disagreeable odors are evident. This is
+why it should be located as far as possible from any window.
+Special care should be taken on the part of the plumber not to
+locate the fresh-air inlet nearer than 15 feet to the fresh-air
+intake of the heating system.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Fresh-air inlet.]
+
+When the pipe passes through the foundation wall, the same care
+should be exercised as with other pipes. That is, if the pipe is 4
+inches, a sleeve 6 inches should be cut in the wall for the 4-inch
+pipe to pass through.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT FRESH AIR.--
+
+     _First_, never should be smaller than 4 inches.
+
+     _Second_, one size smaller than trap.
+
+     _Third_, location, directly back of trap.
+
+     _Fourth_, leads to outer air.
+
+     _Fifth_, keep away from windows and intake of heating system.
+
+     _Sixth_, always have end of pipe covered with strainer, cowl, or
+     return bend.
+
+     _Seventh_, make as few bends as possible.
+
+     _Eighth_, supplies fresh air to system.
+
+
+DRUM TRAP
+
+The use of the drum trap is very handy to the plumber as well as
+efficient and practicable when installed. The trap can be purchased
+without any outlets or inlets, so the plumber can put them in
+according to the necessary measurements. The making of these traps
+with lead is explained in the chapter on Wiping Joints. The open
+end has a brass clean-out screw on it. When this clean-out screw
+comes below the floor, another brass screw cap and flange is
+screwed on the floor above the trap so that the clean-out screw in
+the trap is easily accessible.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Drum trap.]
+
+These drum traps are called bath traps as they are used mostly on
+bath wastes. They should never be installed with the clean-out
+exposed to the sewer side of the trap. In the best practice, heavy
+brass drum traps are used.
+
+
+NON-SYPHONING TRAP
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Flask trap.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Clean-sweep trap.]
+
+After years of experimenting to produce a trap that would not
+syphon without venting, we find in use today a large variety of
+non-syphoning traps. Traps that will hold their seal against all
+practical forms of syphonic action, or other threatening features,
+have been made and used and serve the purpose for which they are
+intended. Various means to prevent the breaking of the seal of
+these traps are employed. While some depend on a ball or other kind
+of valve, others rely on partitions and deflections of various
+kinds. All of these perform the functions for which they are
+designed, yet the devices employed offer an excellent obstruction
+for the free passage of waste; therefore, in time, these traps
+become inoperative. It should be borne in mind that any traps with
+a mechanical seal or an inside partition are not considered
+sanitary. The inside partition might wear out or be destroyed and
+thus break the seal without the knowledge of anyone and allow sewer
+gas to enter the room. The mechanical device may also be displaced
+or destroyed, leaving the trap without a seal. If the trap were
+cleaned out often or examined occasionally, these traps could be
+used with a greater degree of safety. Some of the forms of
+non-syphon traps in common use are:
+
+     The _Flask Trap_, Fig. 62. This trap gets its name from its
+     shape. There is an inside wall upon which the seal depends.
+     This trap is like the bag trap, only the two inside walls of
+     the pipe are combined into one. This wall should be of heavy
+     cast brass, free from sand holes.
+
+     _Clean Sweep Trap_, Fig. 63. Some clean sweep traps are
+     dependent upon an inside wall for their seals. They are made
+     of 1/2-S, 3/4-S, and full S.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Mechanical-seal trap.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Standard "S" trap.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Bag trap.]
+
+     _Sure Seal Trap._ The sure seal trap is designed to be
+     non-syphoning. This trap also has an interior waterway. If
+     this waterway leaks, the trap is unfit for use. If these traps
+     are made as shown in the second sketch with the way inside of
+     a larger pipe, it can be detected if the interior wall leaks.
+
+     _Centrifugal Trap._ The centrifugal trap is made similar to
+     the clean sweep, except that the wall of the inlet pipe is
+     entirely separate from the body of the trap. The inlet enters
+     the body of the trap on a tangent, thus making the trap
+     self-scouring which is a good feature.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+PIPE THREADING
+
+
+The proper cutting of threads on pipe is overlooked by some
+mechanics. There are many different kinds of dies and different
+kinds of pipe to contend with. Steel pipe threads very hard and the
+adjustable dies should be used on it. These dies cut more easily
+and leave a cleaner thread than other dies when used on steel pipe.
+When threads are cut on wrought-iron pipe the adjustable dies
+should be used as they cut a better and cleaner thread than other
+dies. To preserve the life of the dies and the quality of the
+thread, oil is used freely while the dies are cutting.
+
+THREADS.--The standard thread on pipe and fittings is a
+right-handed thread. Left threads can be cut on the pipe and the
+fitting can be tapped with a left thread. When a fitting is tapped
+with a left thread it is marked so. The following table gives the
+standard number of threads that a die will or should be allowed to
+cut on the pipe:
+
+     --------+----------------+-------------------+----------------
+       Size  | Length, inches |  Threads per inch | Threads per end
+     --------+----------------+-------------------+----------------
+       3/8   |       9/16     |        18         |      10.825
+       1/2   |       3/4      |        14         |      10.500
+       3/4   |       3/4      |        14         |      10.500
+       1     |       15/16    |        11-1/2     |      10.800
+       1-1/4 |      1         |        11-1/2     |      11.500
+       1-1/2 |      1         |        11-1/2     |      11.500
+       2     |      1-1/8     |        11-1/2     |      12.930
+     --------+----------------+-------------------+----------------
+
+To acquaint the beginner with iron pipe work, the following
+exercise is given. In it there are a great many of the actual
+problems that come up when the pipe is put in on a job. This is the
+last exercise that is required in this book. The sketch shows
+clearly just what the job is and below I have gone over each
+operation that is necessary to complete the job.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.]
+
+MATERIALS NECESSARY.--Six feet of 1-inch black pipe; four 1-inch
+black ells; two 1-inch tee; one 1-inch right and left coupling;
+oil.
+
+TOOLS NECESSARY.--Two 14-inch pipe wrenches, vise, pipe cutters,
+stock and 1-inch follower right and left die and reamer.
+
+The vise is made secure on a bench or post, care being taken before
+it is put in place to provide room enough to swing the stocks. A
+length of 1-inch pipe is put into the vise and the vise clamped
+around it. The end of the pipe that is to be threaded should stick
+out through the vise about 9 inches. If there is a thread on this
+end, the dies should be run over it to make sure that it is a
+standard thread and to clean the threads. Before proceeding further
+with this exercise the dies and stocks will be described and their
+use shown.
+
+DIES.--A full set of dies is taken. The full set of stocks and dies
+is composed of right and left dies from 1/8 inch up to 1 inch, with
+a guide for each size, also a small wrench with which to turn the
+set screws. The dies come in sets, two in a set. These are the
+Armstrong patent that I am describing. Take the stock and the
+handles, and a set of 1-inch right dies with the guides out of the
+box. The dies will have marked on them 1" R (if 1-inch left were
+wanted, the mark would be 1" L). The set screws are taken out of
+the stock and the dies inserted in their proper place. There is a
+deep mark on the edge of each die and under it a letter S. This
+letter means "standard." This mark on the die is set even with a
+similar mark on the stock and when the set screws are in place and
+tightened, a standard thread will be cut. There is an adjusting
+screw on the stock to make the proper adjustment on the dies.
+
+STOCK.--The stock is taken and the handles are put into it. There
+are two sets of set screws on the stock, one set for holding the
+dies in place and the other set for adjusting the dies. On the
+stock there is a deep mark to correspond with the standard thread
+mark on the dies. On the opposite side of the stock there is a
+place for the follower and a set screw to hold it in place. After
+the stocks have been looked over and examined thoroughly, the
+1-inch right dies are taken and inserted. Then the 1-inch follower
+is put in place. The tool is now ready to cut a 1-inch thread. Now
+take a piece of 1-inch pipe at least 15 inches long and put it in
+the vise, letting it extend out from the vise about 9 inches. The
+stock is now taken and the follower end is put on the pipe first
+and the dies brought up in place to cut. The end of the pipe is
+allowed to enter in between the two dies so that the teeth of each
+die rest on the pipe. Now, holding the handles of the stock about 6
+inches from the body of the stock and standing directly in front of
+the pipe, push and turn to the right at the same time and the dies
+will be started. Now put some oil on the dies and turn the stock,
+taking hold of the ends of the handles and standing at one side.
+The dies are run up on the pipe until the pipe extends through the
+face of the dies one thread. Oil is put on the pipe and the dies at
+least twice during the cutting. When the thread is long enough the
+stock is turned back a little and then forward a little and the
+loose chips are blown out from between the dies and pipe. If the
+dies are set right, a good clean standard thread will have been
+cut. This thread can now be cut off with the pipe cutters.
+
+PIPE CUTTERS.--To cut pipe with a one-wheel pipe cutter is a simple
+matter. I will not dwell at length on the cutter itself. There are
+one-wheel and three-wheel cutters. We will use a one-wheel cutter
+tool. This cutter is forced into the surface of the pipe with a set
+screw having a long tee handle. The pressure that is brought to
+bear on the pipe while being cut is sufficient to cause a large
+burr to form on the inside of the pipe. Sometimes the pipe is
+completely crushed and rendered unfit for use. Therefore the user
+of these cutters should exercise care when cutting pipe. The pipe
+is put in the vise and the cutters are so put on the pipe that the
+pipe will be between the two rollers and the cutter wheel, the
+cutter resting on the mark that indicates the point at which the
+pipe is to be cut. The handle is screwed down and the cutters
+turned around the pipe; each time the cutters make a complete turn
+the handle is screwed down more. This procedure is continued until
+the furrow has been cut clear through the pipe.
+
+CUTTING AND THREADING NIPPLES.--Nipples are short pieces of pipe
+threaded on each end. Pieces of pipe longer than 6 inches are not
+called nipples. When a nipple is so short that the threads cut on
+each end meet in the center of the piece, the nipple is called a
+"close nipple." When there is a space of about 1/4 inch between the
+threads, it is called a "space or shoulder" nipple. To cut and
+thread these nipples a nipple chuck or nipple holder is necessary.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Nipple chuck and nipples.]
+
+NIPPLE HOLDERS.--Take a piece of 1-inch pipe about 12 inches long
+and on one end cut a thread that is 2 inches long. Take a 1-inch
+coupling and screw it on this end until the end of the pipe is
+almost through the end of the coupling. At least four threads
+should be allowed at this end of the coupling. Now we have a piece
+of pipe 12 inches long having a thread 2 inches long on one end
+with a coupling on the thread. This is called a nipple holder. Now,
+to cut a nipple, cut a thread on a piece of pipe and cut the pipe
+off at any desired length, say 2 inches. Put the nipple holder in
+the vise with the coupling out from the vise about 8 inches. Take
+the 2-inch piece of pipe with a thread on one end, screw this
+thread into the coupling until it touches the pipe that has been
+screwed through from the other end. Now the stocks having the 1
+dies and the follower in are put on the pipe. The follower will not
+go over the coupling, therefore take the follower out of the
+stock. Now the stock will slip over the coupling and the thread can
+be cut. With this procedure a nipple of any length can be cut.
+There are a number of patented nipple chucks on the market, but as
+they are not always at hand the above method is resorted to and
+serves every purpose.
+
+LONG SCREWS.--To cut a long screw which comes in use frequently on
+vent pipe work, a piece of pipe 12 inches long is taken and a
+regular length thread is cut on one end, and a thread 4 inches long
+is cut on the other end. Then a coupling is cut while screwed on a
+pipe, so that a lock nut about 1/2 inch wide is made. The
+description and use of these long screws will come under screw pipe
+venting.
+
+Now that the proper use of the tools has been explained, we will
+proceed with the exercise according to the sketch. With a length of
+pipe in the vise and the 1-inch dies in the stock, run over the
+thread on the pipe. Note that all the measurements are center to
+center. Screw an elbow on the pipe and measure off the first
+length, which we will take as 12 inches center to center. Place the
+rule on the pipe with one end of it at the center of the opening of
+the elbow just screwed on. Mark 12 inches off on the pipe. This
+mark represents the center of another ell. Now take another ell and
+hold the center of one outlet on this mark. It will readily be seen
+that to have the measurement come right, the pipe must be cut off
+at a point where it will make up tight when screwed into the ell.
+Therefore, about 1 inch will have to be cut off, making the pipe 1
+inch shorter than where it was first marked. Cut the pipe, and
+before taking it out of the vise make a thread on the pipe still in
+the vise. After the thread is cut, take the reamer and ream out the
+burr that is on the inside of the pipe caused by the pipe cutter.
+An elbow can be screwed on this pipe. The next measurement is
+marked off as explained, the pipe cut, then the piece in the vise
+threaded and reamed. The measurements must be accurate and the
+dies should be adjusted to cut all threads the same depth. When the
+measurements are all out, there should be seven pieces of pipe,
+each piece having one thread. Now the threads on the other end can
+be cut except the 12 inch piece that screws into the right and left
+coupling. This thread is a left-handed thread and must be cut with
+the left dies. Change the dies now to the 1-inch left dies; turn
+the stock in the opposite direction of the right-hand thread, and
+the dies will cut the left thread. The pipe and the fittings can
+easily be put together as shown in the sketch by following the
+center to center measurements. The right and left coupling is the
+only fitting that will cause the beginner trouble. A right and left
+coupling can be used only when there is sufficient _give_ to the
+pipe, that is, the two ends of the pipe to be coupled together are
+only 1/2 inch apart. To get the coupling in place to start the
+threads, the pipe must spread apart at least 2 inches. If the pipe
+cannot be spread that much, a right and left coupling cannot be
+used. The proper way to make up a right and left coupling is as
+follows:
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--_F_ reads center of ell to end, _C_ reads
+center of ell to center of valve, _D_ reads center of valve to
+center of T, _E_ reads center of T to center of ell.]
+
+Screw home the coupling on the right thread. Mark with a piece of
+chalk on the coupling and the pipe showing a point on each where
+the coupling makes tight. Take off the coupling and count the turns
+and make note of the number. Now do the same on the left thread
+and make a note of the number of threads. If the left thread has
+six turns and the right has four and one-half, then to insure that
+the left thread will be tight when the right thread is, the
+coupling must be put on the left thread one and one-half turns
+before it is started on the right thread. Now with four and
+one-half turns, the right and the left threads will both be tight.
+A little thought and practice will make this connection clear. If
+all the measurements in this exercise are not cut accurately, the
+right and left coupling will not go together.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+COLD-WATER SUPPLY. TEST
+
+
+The supplying of cold water to buildings and then piping it to the
+various fixtures makes a very interesting study. We have gone over
+the methods of laying and piping for the house service pipe. We
+will go over the different systems now employed to supply the
+water, quickly.
+
+UNDERGROUND WATER.--In thinly populated districts the well is still
+employed to supply water to the building. The water is brought to
+the surface by means of a large bucket or by means of a pump. A
+well point can be driven into the ground until water is reached and
+then the water can be brought to the surface by means of a pump
+operated by hand or by power. The water can be forced to a tank
+that is open and elevated, or forced into a tank that is closed and
+put under pressure. From either tank the water will flow to any
+desired outlets. A windmill can be employed to furnish power to
+operate the pump. Water supply that is received directly from
+underground is by far the best to use. A cesspool or outhouse must
+not be allowed on the premises with a well, otherwise the well will
+be contaminated and unfit for domestic use. An open well is not as
+sanitary as a driven well, as the surface water and leaves, etc.,
+get into it and decay and pollute the water, and soon make it unfit
+for domestic use.
+
+STREAMS AND BROOKS.--The brooks and streams furnish a good source
+of supply for water to a building or community of buildings. The
+writer recently worked on a system of piping that supplied 15 or 20
+buildings. The water supply came from a brook that was higher than
+the houses. Each house had a separate pipe leading down from the
+brook into a tank from which the house was piped. The owner of the
+brook applied business ethics to the privileges of taking water
+from it. He had a scale of prices, and the highest-priced location
+was an inch or so below the bed of the brook, the next price was
+level with the bottom, the next cheaper 2 inches above the bottom.
+As the surface was reached, the privilege cost less. In the dry
+time of the year those at the bottom of the brook always had water
+while those at the top location had to wait for the water to rise,
+and had to do without water during the dry time. Where the stream
+is on a lower level than the building a hydraulic ram can be used.
+
+RIVERS AND LAKES.--Rivers and lakes make an abundant supply for
+water systems. A sluggish-moving river is bad, also a river that is
+used for carrying off the sewage of a town. Special provision is
+now made for the using of water that is polluted. A lake that is
+supplied by springs is by far the best source of supply. The water
+is pumped from the river or lake into a reservoir and then flows by
+gravity into mains and from the mains into the buildings. The water
+should always be filtered before it is allowed to enter the
+distributing mains.
+
+WATER PRESSURE.--Pressure at a fixture or outlet so that the water
+will flow is generally obtained by the force of gravity. When this
+method is not sufficient, a pneumatic system is employed. This
+method is employed to force the water to the top floors or to
+supply the whole building in high structures. The pneumatic system
+requires a pump, an air-tight tank, and pipes to the various
+outlets. The water pumped into the air-tight tank will occupy part
+of the space generally occupied by the air. The air cannot escape
+and is, therefore, compressed. Continued pumping will compress the
+air until the limit of the apparatus is reached. If a valve or
+faucet that is connected with the tank is opened, the air will
+expand and force the water out of the opening. This explains in a
+general way the operation of a pneumatic water-supply system. Water
+can be pumped into this air-tight tank from a well, cistern, river,
+lake, or from the city supply mains.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--"Banjo."]
+
+PIPING.--From the service pipe on which there has been placed a
+shut-off, a line of piping, full size, is run through the basement,
+overhead to a convenient place, perhaps to a partition in the
+center of the cellar. The pipe is brought down and connected into
+the end of a header. This header or banjo is made of Ts placed 4
+inches center to center. From each T a line of pipe is run to each
+isolated fixture or set of fixtures (see Fig. 70). A stop and waste
+cock is placed on each line at such a point that all stop cocks
+will come in a row near the header. A small pipe is run from the
+waste of each stop and discharged into a larger pipe which connects
+with a sink. This way of running pipes while it is expensive makes
+a very neat and good job. Each stop cock has a tag on it stating
+explicitly what it controls. If the building is a large one a
+number of these panelled headers are used. A less expensive way to
+run this pipe is to branch off from the main at points where the
+branch pipe will be as short as possible and use as few fittings
+as possible. Stop and waste cocks are then placed on each branch
+near the main.
+
+All pipe must follow the direct line of fitting with which it is
+connected. The line of pipe should be perfectly straight. If it
+seems necessary to bend the pipe to get around an obstacle, then
+good judgment has not been used in placing the fitting into which
+the pipe is screwed. The fitting should be re-located so that the
+pipe can be run without bending. To have true alignment of pipes
+the whole job or section of the job must be drawn out on paper
+first and any obstacles noted and avoided before the piping is cut.
+This not only saves time but it is also the forerunner of a good
+job. When getting measurements for piping the same rule or tape
+should be used to get out the pipe as was used to get the
+measurements.
+
+The water main and branches that run through the basement of a
+building are generally hung on the ceiling. Rough hangers of wood,
+rope, or wire are usually used to hold the pipe in place at first,
+then neat and strong adjustable hangers are placed every 8 feet
+apart. There are in use too many kinds of hangers to explain or
+describe them here. The essential point of all good hangers is to
+have them strong, neat, and so made that perfect alignment of the
+pipe can be had. The hangers should be so placed that no strain
+will come on the fitting or the valves. A hanger should be placed
+near each side of unions so that when the union is taken apart
+neither side of the pipe will drop and bend. Hooks and straps
+should be used to hold vertical pipes rigid and in position. A
+vertical pipe should be so held in place that its weight will come
+on the hooks and straps that hold it rather than on the horizontal
+pipe into which it connects. Where there are six or eight
+horizontal lines of pipes close together, a separate hanger for
+each pipe makes a rather cumbersome job and it consumes
+considerable time to install them properly. A hanger having one
+support run under all the pipes will allow space for proper
+alignment and adjustment for drainage. Allowance must be made on
+all lines of pipe for drainage. When a building is vacant during
+cold weather, the water is drawn off; therefore, the pipes should
+have a pitch to certain points where the pipes can be opened and
+the entire system drained of water.
+
+KINDS OF PIPE.--The kind of pipe that is used for cold-water supply
+depends on and varies according to the kind of water, the kind of
+earth through which it runs, and the construction of the building.
+Wrought iron, steel, lead, brass, tin-lined brass, are in use.
+
+The supply pipe to every fixture should have a stop on it directly
+under the fixture. This will allow the water to be shut off for
+repairs to the faucet without stopping the supply of other
+fixtures.
+
+The making of perfect threads on pipe is an important matter,
+especially on water pipes. If the pipe and the dies were perfect,
+and the mechanic used sufficient oil in cutting, and the fittings
+were perfectly tapped to correspond to the dies used on the pipe,
+of course a perfect union between pipe and fitting would result and
+the joint would be found to be perfect on screwing the pipe home.
+As all the above conditions are not found on the job, threads are
+made tight by the use of red or white lead and oil. The lead is put
+on the thread and when the thread is made up the lead will have
+been forced into any imperfection that may be in the threads and
+the joint will then be water-tight. White lead and oil should be
+used on nickel-plated pipe as other pipe compounds are too
+conspicuous and look badly. A pipe compound should be used with
+discretion, for if too much is put on a burr of it will collect in
+the bore of the pipe and reduce it considerably. This is not
+tolerated, so only a small amount is used. Water pipes should be
+run in accessible places, making it possible to get at them in case
+of trouble. In climates that have freezing weather water pipes
+should not be run in outside partitions. If it is found absolutely
+necessary to do so, as in the case of buildings which have no
+inside partitions on the first floor, the pipe should be properly
+covered and protected. The different methods of covering pipes are
+described in Chapter XV.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+HOT-WATER HEATERS. INSTANTANEOUS COIL AND STORAGE TANKS. RETURN
+CIRCULATION, HOT-WATER LINES AND EXPANSION
+
+
+The problem of supplying hot water to plumbing fixtures is one that
+has required years of study. Each job today demands considerable
+thought to make it a perfect and satisfactory hot-water system. We
+will find installations today where the water is red from rust,
+where there is water pounding and cracking. There are also jobs
+where the fixtures get practically no hot water. As each job or
+individual building has its own peculiar conditions, they must be
+solved by the designer or the mechanic, using the fundamental
+principles of hot-water circulation. We must first know how much
+hot water is to be used, also the location of the outlets and the
+construction of the building; then the size of the pipes and the
+size of the tanks and their locations can be settled. If the job is
+a large one, a pump may be employed to insure the proper
+circulation. After this the pipe sizes and connections can be
+worked out. The one great enemy of hot-water circulation is air.
+Therefore, no traps or air pockets should ever appear in the piping
+system. The boiler, as it is often referred to, is the hot-water
+storage tank. A copper or iron tank holding sufficient water to
+supply all fixtures, even when every fixture demands a supply at
+the same time, is installed in a convenient place and the heating
+arrangement connected with it. A thermostat can be placed on the
+system and the temperature of the water controlled. According to
+the size of the building the problem of furnishing the plumbing
+fixtures with hot water increases.
+
+METHODS OF HEATING HOT WATER.--There are a number of ways of
+furnishing hot water. Some of the installations are listed below.
+
+A cast-iron or brass water back is placed on the fire pot of a
+stove or furnace. A separate stove with the fire pot and water
+jacket is used. A coil of steam pipe is placed inside a hot-water
+boiler or tank. Gas coil heaters are connected with hot water
+storage tank, also gas coil instantaneous heaters are connected
+with the piping direct.
+
+Combinations of the above systems are in use and serve the purpose
+for which they are intended. For instance, the tank can be
+connected with a coal range and a gas coil heater, heat being
+furnished by the range alone or the coil heater alone, or both can
+be used at the same time. This combination can be connected with
+the furnace in the cellar, and during the winter months, when the
+furnace is in use, the water can be heated by the furnace coil. In
+warm weather, when the furnace is out, the range can supply the
+necessary heat. In hot weather the coil gas heater can supply the
+heat.
+
+CONNECTIONS OF TANK AND HEATING APPARATUS.--The ordinary house
+boiler or hot-water storage tank has four connections, two on top,
+one on the side, and one on the bottom. The top connections are
+used for the entrance of cold water into the tank and for the
+supply of hot water to the fixtures (see Fig. 71). The cold-water
+inlet has a tube extending into the tank below the side connection.
+This tube has a small hole filed in it about 6 inches from the top.
+This hole is to break any syphonic action that may occur at any
+time. The side connection is for the connection of the pipe coming
+from the top of the water back. The bottom opening in the tank is
+for the connection of the pipe coming from the lower water back
+connection, also for draining the boiler. The circulation of the
+water can be followed thus: cold water enters the boiler in the
+tube and discharges into the boiler below the side connection. From
+here it flows out of the bottom connection into the water back,
+through the upper connection into the boiler, through the side
+opening, then to the top of the boiler and out to the fixtures
+through the fixture supply opening.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Storage tank, and coil heater with
+thermostatic control valve.]
+
+Fig. 69 shows a thermostatic control valve attached to the bottom
+of a heater coil, and at the side of storage tank. The best
+arrangement is at the bottom, for it does not shut off the gas
+supply until the boiler is full of hot water.
+
+CONNECTING TANK AND COIL GAS HEATER.--The boiler and the coil gas
+heater have a different connection. The bottom of the tank and the
+bottom of the heater are connected. The top of the heater and the
+top of the boiler are connected. The accompanying sketch shows how
+this connection is made. If the tee on the top of the boiler into
+which the gas-heater connection is made is not the first fitting
+and placed as close to the outlet as possible, the water will not
+circulate freely into the boiler. This connection according to the
+drawing should be studied and memorized.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Instantaneous gas heater. Showing
+circulation heater or booster.]
+
+INSTANTANEOUS GAS-HEATER CONNECTIONS.--An instantaneous gas heater
+is placed in the basement. The copper coil in it is connected at
+the bottom with the cold-water supply and the top outlet of the
+coil is connected with the hot-water system of piping. There is no
+need of a storage tank with this heater. When a faucet is opened in
+any part of the hot-water piping system, the water passing through
+the water valve at the heater causes the gas valve to open so that
+the whole set of burners in the heater is supplied with gas, and
+the burners are lighted from a pilot light. When the faucet is
+closed, the gas supply is shut off and the burners are put out. The
+pilot is lighted all the time. Space will not permit going over
+these connections in detail. It is a large field and requires
+considerable thought.
+
+SAFETY AND CHECK VALVES.--When a meter is used on a water system,
+the water company demands that a check valve be placed on the
+hot-water system to prevent the hot water from being forced back
+into the meter in case the pressure got strong enough in the
+boiler. If a check valve is used for this purpose, or for any other
+purpose, a safety valve must be placed on the boiler piping system
+to relieve any excessive pressure that may be caused by having the
+check valve in use. There is today, with meters of modern type, no
+reason to use a check valve or a safety valve. If an excessive
+pressure is obtained in the boiler, it is relieved in the water
+main.
+
+When water is heated, it expands. If the heat becomes more intense
+and steam is formed, the expansion is much greater, and some means
+must be provided to allow for it. This expansion can be allowed to
+relieve itself in the water main as explained above. When a check
+valve is placed on the piping, this means of escape is shut off and
+a safety valve must be employed. Without these reliefs, the
+pressure would be so great that an explosion would result. When
+steel pipe and steel boilers are used for storage tanks and
+connections, the pipe and tank will shortly start to rust and parts
+of the piping are stopped up with rust scales. The water also
+becomes red with rust when the water becomes hot enough to
+circulate. When the pipes are stopped up, steam is formed and a
+snapping and cracking sound is heard. To avoid these conditions,
+the piping should be of brass or lead and the storage tank should
+be of copper. The installation cost of brass and copper is greater
+than steel, but they will not have to be replaced in two or three
+years, as is the case with other material. A valve should be placed
+on the cold-water supply to control the entire hot-water piping
+system. A pipe with a stop cock should be placed underneath the
+boiler and should extend into a sink in the basement so that the
+boiler can be drained at any time for cleaning or repairs.
+
+CONNECTING WITH FIXTURES.--To have all fixtures properly supplied
+with hot water it is necessary to run what is termed a circulating
+pipe. This circulating pipe is a circuit of pipe extending from the
+top of the boiler to the vicinity of the fixtures and then
+returning to the boiler and connecting into the pipe leading out of
+the bottom of the boiler. From this circuit all branches are taken
+to supply all fixtures requiring hot water. This circulating pipe
+has hot water circulating through it all the time. Therefore the
+fixtures are supplied with hot water very quickly. The circulating
+pipe and its branches are run without any traps or air pockets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Expansion loop. Four 90° ells.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Expansion loop. Five 90° ells.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--Expansion loop. Six 90° ells.]
+
+When running the piping, it should be borne in mind that not only
+does the water expand when heated, but the pipe expands also.
+Therefore due allowance must be made for this expansion. The long
+risers should have an expansion loop as shown in Figs. 73, 74 and
+75. There are installed on some jobs what is known as an expansion
+joint. This will allow for the expansion and contraction of the
+pipe. The writer's experience with these joints has not been very
+satisfactory. After a while these joints begin to leak and they
+must have attention which in some cases is rather expensive. An
+expansion loop as shown in the sketch, made with elbows, will prove
+satisfactory. If the threads on the fittings and pipe are good, no
+leak will appear on this joint.
+
+All gas heaters must be connected with a flue to carry off the
+products of combustion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+INSULATION OF PIPING TO ELIMINATE CONDUCTION, RADIATION, FREEZING,
+AND NOISE
+
+
+PIPE COVERING.--Pipe covering is another important branch of
+plumbing. A few years ago heating pipes were the only pipes that it
+was thought necessary to cover. The ever-increasing demands made by
+the public keep the wideawake plumber continually solving problems.
+The water running down a waste pipe, for instance, will annoy some
+people, and provision must be made to avoid this noise or to
+silence it. This is one of the many problems that the plumber must
+solve by the use of pipe covering.
+
+PIPES THAT NEED COVERING.--First of all, the covering must be put
+on properly to be of high service. _Hot-water circulating pipes_
+need covering to reduce the amount of heat loss. If the pipes and
+the tank are not covered, considerable more fuel will be needed to
+supply the necessary amount of hot water than if the pipes and tank
+were covered with a good covering. _Cold-water pipes_ need covering
+in places to keep them from freezing. They also need covering under
+some conditions to keep them from sweating. They are covered also
+to prevent the material which surrounds them from coming into
+direct contact with the pipe. _Waste pipes_ need covering to
+prevent them from freezing and to silence the noise caused by the
+rush of water through them. _Ice-water pipes_ are covered to
+prevent the water from rising in temperature and to prevent any
+condensation forming on the pipe. There is need for such a variety
+of covering that I have listed below some of them and the methods
+employed for putting them on the pipe.
+
+Magnesia, asbestos air cell, molded asbestos, wool felt, waterproof
+paper and wool felt, cork, hair felt. These coverings come in the
+form of pipe covering with a cloth jacket. They also come in the
+shape of fittings as well as in blocks and rolls of paper, and in
+powdered form. Any thickness that is desired may be had. The pipe
+covering is readily put on the pipe. The cloth jacket is pulled
+back a short distance and the covering will open like a book. It
+can then be clamped on the pipe and the jacket pulled back and
+pasted into place. Brass bands, 1 inch wide, come with the pipe
+covering. These are put on and the pipe covering is then held
+securely in place. Practically all the coverings are applied in
+this manner and are made up in 3-foot lengths to fit any size pipe.
+To cover the fittings and valves, the same kind of sectional
+covering can be obtained and applied in the same manner as the pipe
+covering. Plastic covering is often applied to the fittings and
+molded into the shape of the fitting. The plastic covering comes in
+bags and is dry. It is mixed with warm water to the consistency of
+thick cement and applied with a trowel. When the covering is put on
+the pipes and fittings, it should be done thoroughly to get
+satisfactory results. Each section of the covering has on one end
+an extra length of the jacket. This is to allow a lap over on the
+next section to make a tight joint. If the sections need fitting, a
+saw can be used and the covering cut to any desired length.
+
+     _Magnesia_ covering is employed mostly on steam pipes,
+     especially high-pressure. This material can be had in the
+     shape of pipe covering, in blocks, or cement.
+
+     _Asbestos air cell_ covering is employed to cover hot-water
+     circulating pipes. It is constructed of corrugated asbestos
+     paper. This material is manufactured in the sectional pipe
+     covering or in corrugated paper form.
+
+     _Molded asbestos_ covering is also used on hot-water pipes,
+     and is manufactured in pipe covering or in blocks.
+
+     _Wool felt_ covering is used mostly on hot-water pipes and
+     makes one of the best coverings. It is lined with asbestos
+     paper and covered with a cloth jacket.
+
+     _Waterproof paper and wool felt_ is used on cold-water pipes
+     and is made in 3-foot lengths. The covering is lined with
+     waterproof paper and covered with a cloth jacket.
+
+     _Cork._--A heavy cork covering is one of the best coverings
+     for ice-water pipes, and a light cork covering is used for
+     cold-water pipes. This covering comes in sections as other
+     coverings, also in blocks and sheets.
+
+     _Hair felt_ is used to prevent pipes from freezing. It comes
+     in bales containing 150 to 300 square feet of various
+     thicknesses.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+"DURHAM" OR "SCREW PIPE" WORK. PIPE AND FITTINGS
+
+
+"Durham" or "screw pipe" work is the name used to denote that the
+job is installed by the use of wrought-iron or steel screw pipe. We
+speak of a "cast-iron job" meaning that cast-iron pipe was used for
+the piping. A completely different method of work is used when
+screw pipe is employed for the wastes and vents. When screw pipe is
+to be used or considered for use, it is well to know something
+concerning the various makes of screw pipe. Nothing but galvanized
+pipe is ever used. The value of steel screw pipe and wrought-iron
+screw pipe should be studied, and every person interested should,
+if possible, understand how these different pipes are made and how
+the material of which they are composed is made. In some places one
+pipe is better than another and a study of their make-up would
+enlighten the user and allow him to use the best for his peculiar
+conditions. The maker's name should always be on the pipe. The
+following table shows the sizes, weights, and thicknesses of screw
+pipe:
+
+     -------+-----------+-------------
+      Size  | Thickness | No. threads
+            |           |  per inch
+     -------+-----------+-------------
+      1-1/4 |   0.140   |   11-1/2
+      1-1/2 |   0.145   |   11-1/2
+      2     |   0.154   |   11-1/2
+      2-1/2 |   0.204   |    8
+      3     |   0.217   |    8
+      3-1/2 |   0.226   |    8
+      4     |   0.237   |    8
+      5     |   0.259   |    8
+      6     |   0.280   |    8
+     -------+-----------+-------------
+
+Screw pipe work came into common use with the advance of modern
+steel structures. Some difficulty had been experienced in getting
+the cast-iron pipe joints tight and to keep the pipe so anchored
+that it would not crack. The screw pipe was found to answer all of
+the requirements of modern structures and therefore has been used
+extensively. The life of screw pipe is not as long as extra heavy
+cast-iron pipe. This is the only serious objection to screw pipe,
+which must be renewed after a term of years, while extra heavy cast
+iron lasts indefinitely. Screw pipe is never used underground. When
+piping is required underground, extra heavy cast-iron pipe is used.
+
+
+PIPING
+
+The pipe used in Durham work is galvanized extra heavy, or standard
+wrought-iron, or steel pipe. It is almost impossible to recognize
+wrought-iron from steel pipe without the aid of a chemical or a
+magnifying glass. To test the pipe to distinguish its base, take a
+sharp file and file through the surface of the pipe that is to be
+tested. If the pipe is steel, under a magnifying glass the texture
+of the filed surface will appear to be smooth and have small
+irregular-shaped grains, and there will also be an appearance of
+compactness. If the pipe is iron, the texture will have the
+appearance of being ragged and will show streaks of slag or black.
+When screw pipe is cut there is always left a large burr on the
+inside of the pipe. This burr greatly reduces the bore of the pipe
+and is a source of stoppage in waste pipes. After the pipe is cut
+this burr should be reamed out thoroughly. One of the strong points
+of screw pipe is the strength of each joint. Care should therefore
+be taken to see that perfect threads are cut on the pipe and that
+the threads of the fittings are perfect. The dies should be set
+right and not varied on each joint. There should be plenty of oil
+used when threads are cut so that the thread will be clean and
+sharp. The follower or guide on stocks should be the same size as
+the pipe that is being threaded, otherwise a crooked thread will
+result. If a pipe-threading machine is used, the pipe is set
+squarely between the jaws of the vise that holds the pipe in place.
+When cutting a thread on a long length of pipe, the end sticking
+out from the machine must be supported firmly so that no strain
+will come on the machine as the pipe turns. It is necessary to cut
+crooked threads sometimes on the pipe to allow the pipe pitch for
+drainage or to bring the pipe into alignment where fitting would
+take up too much room. To cut a crooked thread on a piece of pipe,
+simply leave the follower out of the stock or put in the size
+larger. The dies not having a guide will cut a crooked thread.
+Piping should be run with as few threads as possible. With a
+thorough knowledge of and the intelligent use of fittings, a
+minimum number of threads will result.
+
+The pipes in a building are run in compact parallel lines in chases
+designed especially for them. The tendency is to confine the pipes
+to certain localities as much as possible. This makes a very neat
+job and in case repairs are needed, the work and trouble incurred
+will be confined to one section.
+
+
+FITTINGS
+
+The fittings used in screw pipe work are cast-iron recess type (see
+Fig. 54). The fittings are so made that the inside bores of the
+pipe and the fittings come in direct line with each other, thus
+making a smooth inside surface at all bends. The fittings are all
+heavily galvanized. All fittings should be examined on the inside
+for any lumps of metal of sufficient size to catch solid waste
+matter, and these must be removed or the fitting discarded. All 90°
+bends, whether Ts or elbows, are tapped to give the pipe that
+connects with them a pitch of at least 1/4 inch to the foot.
+Except where obligatory, 90° fittings should not be used. To make a
+bend of 90° a Y-branch, a nipple and a 45° bend should be used, or
+two 45° bends will make a long easy sweep of the drainage pipes and
+reduce the possibility of stoppage.
+
+Y-branches are inserted every 30 feet at least to allow for a
+clean-out which can be placed in the branch of the fitting. When a
+clean-out is placed an iron plug should not be used. These plugs
+are not removed very often and an iron plug will rust in and be
+almost impossible to get out. Brass clean-out plugs are used and
+are easily taken out.
+
+At times it is necessary to connect cast iron and wrought iron, or
+in a line where a union could be used if the pipe were not a waste
+pipe, a tucker fitting is used. This fitting is threaded on one end
+and has a socket on the other to allow for caulking. To get a good
+idea of all the fittings in general use, the reader should get a
+catalogue from one of the fitting manufacturers and a survey of it
+will give the names and sizes of the fittings. However, I show a
+few common ones. In the writer's opinion, the studying of the
+catalogue would be of more benefit than a description of fittings
+at this point. The sizes used and the methods employed to vent the
+waste-pipe systems are the same as in cast-iron work.
+
+
+HANGERS AND SUPPORTS
+
+The hanging of screw pipe is a very essential point. The taking of
+the strain off from a fitting or line of pipe by the use of a
+hanger is the means of avoiding serious trouble after a job is
+completed. On horizontal runs hangers are placed not more than 8
+feet apart. In a building constructed of wood, the hangers are
+secured to the joists. In a building constructed of steel beams and
+concrete the hangers are secured to the steel beams by means of
+I-beam hangers that clamp on the beams; also in the case of
+concrete the hangers are extended through the floor and a T is put
+on the hanger on top of the cement floor; an iron bar or a short
+piece of smaller pipe run through the T holds the hanger in place
+and secures it rigidly. The finished floor is laid over the hanger
+so that it does not show from the top. Hangers on the vertical
+lines should be placed at every joint and under each fitting. To
+have the pipe in true alignment, the hangers must be hung and
+placed in line. Every riser line must have an extra support at the
+base to avoid any settling of the stack which will crack the
+fittings and break fixture connections.
+
+
+MEASUREMENTS
+
+The proper installation of screw pipe work requires getting correct
+and accurate measurements. Every plumber is or should be able to
+get correct center to center, center to end, end to end, center to
+back, and end to back measurements. In Durham work 45° angles are
+continually occurring. To get these measurements correctly, the
+following table has been compiled as used by the author and found
+to be correct. The reader should memorize it so that it may be used
+without referring to the book.
+
+     MEASUREMENTS
+
+     ------------+------------+-------------
+       Soil pipe | Screw pipe | Multiplier
+     ------------+------------+-------------
+       1/6  bend |     60     |    1.15
+       1/8   "   |     45     |    1.41
+       1/12  "   |     30     |    2.
+       1/16  "   |     22-1/2 |    2.61
+       1/32  "   |     11-1/4 |    5.12
+       1/64  "   |      5-5/8 |   10.22
+     ------------+------------+-------------
+
+Before any measurements are taken, the lines of pipe are laid out
+and the position of each fitting known. As I have stated before,
+the plumber must look ahead with his work. He must have the ability
+of practically seeing the pipe in place before the work is started.
+This requires experience and judgment. Before the measurements are
+taken and the pipe cut consideration must be given to the fact that
+the fittings and pipes must be screwed into position. Therefore,
+"can the fitting on the pipe be placed where it is laid out when
+this is considered?" must be one of the many questions a plumber
+should ask himself. Allowance must be made for the chain tongs to
+swing. Whenever possible, a fitting is made up on the pipe while
+the pipe is in the vise.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--The offset is B or 12 inches center to
+center. The offset is made using 45 degree fittings. Therefore the
+length of A from the center of one fitting to the center of the
+other is B × 1.41 = 12 × 1.41 = 16.92 inches.]
+
+
+FIXTURE CONNECTIONS
+
+The fixture connections when screw pipe is used are necessarily
+different than when cast-iron pipe is used. A brass nipple is wiped
+on a piece of lead pipe and then screwed into the fitting left for
+the closet connection. The lead is flanged over above the floor and
+the closet set on it. The lead is soldered to a brass flange. The
+brass flange is secured to the floor and then the closet bowl
+secured to the brass flange. Another method employed is to screw a
+brass flange into the fitting so that when it is made up the flange
+will come level with the floor; the closet bowl is then secured to
+this flange. There are a number of patented floor flanges for
+closet bowl connections that can be used to advantage. Slop sinks
+have practically the same connections as the closets. Other
+fixtures such as the urinal, lavatory, and bath, can be connected
+with a short piece of lead wiped on a solder nipple, or the
+trimmings for the fixture can be had with brass having iron pipe
+size threads, and the connection can then be made directly with the
+outlet on the waste line. This is a very general way to describe
+the connections, but space will not allow a detailed description of
+these connections. It is always well to allow for short lead
+connections for fixtures so that the lead will give if the stack
+settles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+GAS FITTING, PIPE AND FITTINGS, THREADING, MEASURING, AND TESTING
+
+
+GAS AND ITS USE IN BUILDINGS
+
+Gas is in common use in all classes of buildings today. Dwellings
+use it for cooking and illuminating, factories, office buildings,
+and public buildings for power. In some parts of the country
+natural gas is found. In these places it is used freely for heating
+fuel. The actual making of gas is something that every plumber
+should understand. If space permitted I would describe a gas plant
+with all of its by-products. However, we shall deal only with the
+actual installation of gas piping in buildings. Gas mains are run
+through the streets the same as water mains are run. Branches are
+taken off these mains and extended into the buildings requiring
+gas. The gas company generally installs the gas service pipe inside
+of the basement wall and places a stop cock on it free of charge.
+This stop that is placed on the pipe is a plug core type, the
+handle for turning it off is square, and a wrench is required to
+turn it. The square top has a lug on it. There is also a lug
+corresponding to it on the body of the valve. When the valve is
+shut off, these two lugs are together. Each lug has a hole in it
+large enough for a padlock ring to pass through. This gives the gas
+company absolute control of the gas in the building.
+
+SETTING OF THE METER.--Every building that is supplied with gas has
+a meter that registers the amount of gas consumed. This meter is
+placed on the service pipe on the house side of the above-mentioned
+stop cock. This meter is furnished free of charge with a trivial
+charge made for setting up. The actual setting of this meter is not
+made until the piping throughout the building has had a thorough
+and satisfactory test and is found free from all leaks. The meter
+must be set level on a substantial bracket and in a place, if
+possible, where it will not require an artificial light to read its
+dial. The dry meter is usually used in dwellings. The interesting
+construction and mechanism of this meter cannot be discussed here.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--Gas-meter dials.]
+
+The reading of the dials on a gas meter comes in the province of
+the plumber and he should be able to read them. The sketch shows
+the dial plate of a meter. The ordinary house meter has only three
+recording dials. Large meters have five or more. To read the amount
+of gas consumed according to the meter we will read the dials as
+they are indicated on Fig. 77. We will call the four dials No. 1,
+No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4. In each of these dials a complete
+revolution of the index hand denotes 1,000, 10,000, 100,000 and
+1,000,000, cubic feet respectively. The index hands on No. 1 and
+No. 3 revolve in the same direction, while No. 2 and No. 4 revolve
+in the opposite direction. Two ciphers are added to the figures
+that are indicated on the dials and the statement of the meter will
+be had. To tell just how much gas has been consumed in a given
+time, the statement of the meter is taken at the beginning of this
+given time and at the end of the time. The difference in the
+figures indicates the number of cubic feet of gas that have been
+consumed. A gas cock should be placed on the house side of the
+meter. The dials of meter read 658,800 cubic feet. The dial having
+the highest number is read first No. 4 dial points to 6, this
+indicates that No. 3 dial has revolved 6 times. Dial No. 3 reads 5,
+therefore the reading of dial No. 3 and No. 4 is 65. Dial No. 2
+reads 8 making the readings of the three dials 658. Dial No. 1
+reads 8 making the readings of the four dials 6588 add two ciphers
+to this figure and 658,800 is the correct reading.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.]
+
+PIPE AND FITTINGS.--The pipe used in gas fitting is wrought iron or
+steel. In special places, rubber hose is used. Brass pipe is
+occasionally used to advantage. The fittings used in iron pipe gas
+work should be galvanized. No plain fittings should be allowed. The
+plain fittings very often have sand holes in them and a leak will
+result. Sometimes this leak does not appear until after the piping
+has been in use some time and the expense of replacing the fitting
+can only be guessed at. By using galvanized fittings, this trouble
+will be eliminated. All fittings used should be of the beaded type.
+The fitting and measurement of this work is practically the same as
+described under iron pipe work. To have the beginner get a clearer
+idea of gas-piping a building, the piping of the small building
+sketched will be gone over in detail and studied. One of the first
+important steps that a gas fitter is confronted with is the
+locating of the various lights and openings. With these located as
+shown on the plan, Figs. 78, 79 and 80, we will proceed to work
+out the piping. The first floor rise will be 1-inch, the second
+floor will be 1-inch. The horizontal pipe supplying the first floor
+outlets will be 3/4-inch pipe. The horizontal pipe on the second
+floor will be 3/4-inch. The balance of the pipe will be 3/8- or
+1/2-inch. At this point your attention is called to the sketch of
+piping, sizes, and measurements. This sketch should be studied and
+understood in detail. The good mechanic will employ a sketch of
+this kind when installing any piping. The poor mechanic will take
+two or three measurements and get them out, put them in, and then
+get some more. This method is extremely costly and unworkmanlike.
+There is no reason, except the ability of the workman, why he
+cannot take a building like the sketch and get all the piping
+measurements for the job, then get them out, go to the job and put
+them in. The amount of time saved in this way is so great that a
+workman should not consider himself a full-fledged mechanic until
+he can get the measurements this way, and get them accurately. With
+a tape line, gimlet, and plumb-bob, a mechanic is fully equipped
+with tools to get his measurements. If the measurements are taken
+with a tape line, the same tape line should be used when measuring
+the pipe and cutting it. When laying out the piping, never allow a
+joist to be cut except within 6 inches of its bearing. It is good
+policy never to cut timber unless absolutely necessary and then
+only after consulting with the carpenter. When joists have to be
+notched they should be cut only on the top side. The pipe as it is
+put in place should be braced rigidly. Wherever there is an outlet
+pipe extending through the wall, the pipe should be braced from
+all sides so that when the fixture is screwed in it will be
+perfectly rigid.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Pipe sketch.]
+
+The measurements on the piping sketch, Fig. 81, are taken from the
+accompanying sketch of a dwelling, and if they were to be actually
+put in, they would fit. The reader would do well to copy this
+sketch and follow the piping and check the measurements according
+to the plan, and note how the different risers, drops, etc., are
+drawn. It is not necessary in a sketch of this kind to draw to a
+scale. After the different measurements are the letters _C.C._,
+_E.C._, _E.E._, _C.B._ and _E.B._, meaning center to center, end to
+center, end to end, center to back, and end to back, respectively.
+Offsetting pipe is a very convenient way of getting the pipe or
+fittings back to the wall for support. To offset pipe properly and
+with little trouble, take a piece of scantling 2 by 4 and brace it
+between the floor and ceiling. Bore a few different-sized holes
+through it and you will have a very handy device for offsetting
+pipe. There is a little trick in offsetting pipe that one will have
+to practice to obtain. The pipe must be held firmly in the place
+where the pipe is to be bent. Large offsets and bends should not be
+made; 2 to 4 inches is as large as should be used. Larger offsets
+that are required should be made with fittings. Always make the
+offsets true and have the ends perfectly straight. Before putting a
+piece of pipe permanently in place, always look or blow through it,
+to ascertain if its bore is obstructed or not. Sometimes dirt or
+slag will collect and cause stoppage.
+
+READING THE PIPE SKETCH.--Vertical lines represent vertical pipes
+(see Fig. 81). Horizontal lines represent horizontal pipes running
+parallel to the front. Diagonal lines represent horizontal pipes
+running from back to front. Any line that is drawn perpendicular to
+any other line stands for a horizontal pipe. A diagonal line
+separating a vertical line or horizontal line or set of lines
+represents a different horizontal plane. With this explanation the
+sketch will be made clear to one after drawing it. The reader
+should now take each measurement and check it on the plan. This is
+easily done by using a scale rule. The height of the ceiling is
+8-1/2 feet on the first floor, the second floor is 8 feet. The
+first floor joists are 10 inches, the second floor joists are 9
+inches. An outlet is indicated by a small circle. In the piping
+sketch, this circle is connected with the riser or drop by a
+horizontal line. At the junction of these two lines a short
+perpendicular line is drawn, and indicates the direction of the
+outlet.
+
+Let me again emphasize the need to understand thoroughly this
+piping sketch, and to become so familiar with it that it can
+readily be put to use. The value of a mechanic is determined by the
+quality and the quantity of work that he can turn out; and a
+mechanic who can lay out his work and see it completed before he
+starts, and then proceeds to install his work, is by far of more
+value to his employer than the man who can see only far enough
+ahead to cut out two or three measurements and spends most of his
+time walking between the vise and place of installing the pipe.
+
+TESTING.--The system of gas piping must be tested before the pipes
+have been covered by the advance of building operations. If the job
+is of considerable size, the job can be tested in sections, and if
+found tight the sections can be covered. The necessity of having
+the piping rigidily secured can be appropriately explained here. If
+the test has been made and the system found tight and some pipe
+that is not securely anchored is accidentally or otherwise pushed
+out of place and bent by some of the mechanics working about the
+building, a leak may be caused and yet not discovered until the
+final test is made after the plastering is finished. The expense
+and trouble thus caused is considerable and could have been avoided
+by simply putting in the proper supports for the pipe.
+
+To test the piping, an air pump and a gage connected with the pipes
+are placed in a convenient position. The job should now be
+thoroughly gone over, making sure that all plugs and caps are on
+and that no outlet is open, also that all pipe that is to be put in
+has been installed. After this has been attended to, the pump is
+operated until 10 pounds is registered on the gage. The connection
+leading to the pump and the piping is now shut off. If the gage
+drops rapidly, there is a bad leak in the system. This leak should
+be found without difficulty and repaired. If the gage drops slowly,
+it denotes a very small leak, such as a sand hole or a bad thread.
+This kind of leak is more troublesome to find. When it has been
+found, the pipe or fitting causing the leak should be taken out and
+replaced. If black caps have been used to cap the outlets, the
+chances are that a sand hole will be found in one of them. Nothing
+but galvanized fittings should be used. In case the small leak
+mentioned above cannot be found by going over the pipe once, there
+are other means of locating the leak. Two of the methods used, I
+will explain. If the job is small, each fitting is painted with
+soap suds until the fitting is found that causes the leak. If the
+leak is not in the fittings, then the pipe can be gone over in the
+same way. As soon as the soap suds strikes the leak, a large bubble
+is made and the leak discovered. It is possible that there are more
+leaks, so the gage is noted and if it still drops, the search
+should be continued. The pump should be operated to keep the
+pressure up to 10 pounds while the search is being made for the
+leak. When the gage stands at 10 pounds without dropping, the job
+is then tight. The pump and gage fitting should be gone over first
+to ascertain if they leak. The other method employed to discover
+leaks is to force a little ether or oil of peppermint (not essence)
+into the system by means of the pump. A leak can readily be noted
+by the odor. To make this method successful, the ether or
+peppermint should not be handled by the men who are to hunt for the
+leak. The bottle containing the fluid should not be opened in the
+building except to pour some into the piping, otherwise the odor
+will get into the building and as the odor comes out of the leak it
+will not be noted. For the benefit of the gas fitter, the piping
+should be tested again after the plastering is completed. The next
+test is made when the fixtures are put on, and as the piping is
+tight any leak that develops in this test indicates that the
+fixtures leak. There are in common use various methods to stop
+leaks in gas pipe when they are found. If a piece of piping or a
+fitting is defective, it should be taken out and replaced. This
+should be remembered so that while the piping is being installed
+any defects should be noted and the defective fitting or pipe
+thrown out. Before the gas job is accepted, the gas company will
+inspect it and look for traps and sags in the pipe. Therefore, the
+piping should be installed without any traps and it should be
+arranged to pitch toward the meter, or toward a convenient place
+from which any condensation can be taken out. If provision is not
+made for this condensation, it will accumulate and stop the flow of
+gas.
+
+
+SHOWER-BATH CONNECTIONS
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Shower stall with lead pan extending
+outside of stall.]
+
+The sketches show clearly the methods employed to make a
+shower-bath waste and stall water-tight. The shower bath, as a
+separate fixture, is in use and the demand for it as a separate
+fixture is increasing rapidly. This demand comes from the owners of
+private houses. The plumber must therefore devise some way to make
+these connections tight and prevent any leak from showing in the
+room below. This fixture is so constructed that all waste pipes
+and trap come under the floor level with no way of getting to them
+from below. Therefore the piping for this fixture must be of a
+permanent nature. No pipe or trap made of material that is liable
+to give out in a short time should be allowed under a shower-bath
+fixture or stall. The two sketches, Figs. 82 and 83 illustrate two
+methods of connecting and making tight a shower stall. A plumber
+should always consider it his special duty to make his work
+complete and free from all objections. He should always prepare for
+any emergency that may occur in the future. This is rather a big
+task, yet the plumber when accepting all of his responsibilities
+has a big task. I state this to the beginner and emphasize the
+all-important fact that he must learn to perform and think deeply
+of the elements of plumbing to be able later on to handle
+successfully the problems that present themselves in the plumbing
+trade.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Shower stall with lead pan extending six
+inches beyond strainer.]
+
+The heavy brass trap shown in the sketch has proved itself very
+satisfactory and can be made to fit almost any condition of piping
+or building construction. A flashing of sheet lead is soldered on
+the trap and carried out to the outside edge of the stall where it
+is turned up 1 inch, or to the floor level. When the flashing is
+carried out for only a foot on each side of the trap, the
+possibilities of a leak are greater.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+PLUMBING CODES
+
+
+The work of plumbing has a direct result on the health of the
+occupants of buildings; therefore in order that the plumbing may
+not be installed improperly and impair the health of the occupants,
+it is necessary to provide a code governing the installation of
+plumbing. Naturally these laws at first were under the control of
+the health department of cities, but of late years the building
+departments have assumed control of the codes with the result that
+coöperation with the building codes is now the practice rather than
+the exception.
+
+To make certain the carrying out of the plumbing codes, it is
+required that a plan indicating the run, size, and length of pipes,
+location and number of fixtures of the prospective job be filed in
+the building department of the city, before the work is started. If
+the plan is approved by the plumbing inspector and acceptance is
+sent, then the work can be started. After a job is completed a test
+is made and the job is inspected by the plumbing inspector, and if
+found to meet requirements a written acceptance of the work is
+given by the building department. An effort is being made
+throughout the country to have the plumbing codes under State
+control rather than have a number of different codes in as many
+different cities and towns. The State code can be so arranged that
+it will apply to either city or town.
+
+The installation of plumbing varies in different States. In the
+northern part of the United States all pipes which pass through the
+roof, if less than 4-inch must be increased to 4-inch. A pipe
+smaller than 4-inch will be filled with hoar frost during the
+winter and render the pipe useless to perform its function as a
+vent pipe. Pipes laid under ground in the Northern States must be
+at least 4 feet below the surface to protect them from freezing. In
+the Southern States the frost does not penetrate the ground to such
+a distance and the pipes can be laid on the surface.
+
+Following is a State or City plumbing code insofar as it relates to
+the actual installation of plumbing.
+
+     SEC. 1. PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS.--There shall be a separate
+     plan for each building, public or private, or any addition
+     thereto, or alterations thereof, accompanied by specifications
+     showing the location, size and kind of pipe, traps, closets
+     and fixtures to be used, which plans and specifications shall
+     be filed with the board or bureau of buildings. The said plans
+     and specifications shall be furnished by the architect,
+     plumber or owner, and filed by the plumber. All applications
+     for change in plans must be made in writing.
+
+     SEC. 2. FILING PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS.--Plumbers before
+     commencing the construction of plumbing work in any building
+     (except in case of repairs, which are here defined to relate
+     to the mending of leaks in soil, vent, or waste pipes,
+     faucets, valves and water-supply pipes, and shall not be
+     construed to admit of the replacing of any fixture, such as
+     water closets, bath tubs, lavatories, sinks, etc., or the
+     respective traps for such fixtures) shall submit to the bureau
+     plans and specifications, legibly drawn in ink, on blanks to
+     be furnished by said board or bureau. Where two or more
+     buildings are located together and on the same street, and the
+     plumbing work is identical in each, one plan will be
+     sufficient. Plans will be approved or rejected within 24 hours
+     after their receipt.
+
+     SEC. 3. MATERIAL OF HOUSE DRAIN AND SEWER.--House drains or
+     soil pipes laid beneath floor must be extra heavy cast-iron
+     pipe, with leaded and caulked joints, and carried 5 feet
+     outside cellar wall. All drains and soil pipes connected with
+     main drain where it is above the cellar floor shall be extra
+     heavy cast-iron pipe with leaded joints properly secured or of
+     heavy wrought-iron pipe with screw joints properly secured
+     and carried 5 feet outside cellar wall and all arrangements
+     for soil and waste pipes shall be run as direct as possible.
+     Changes of direction on pipes shall be made with "Y"-branches,
+     both above and below the ground, and where such pipes pass
+     through a new foundation-wall a relieving arch shall be built
+     over it, with a 2-inch space on either side of the pipe.
+
+     SEC. 4.--The size of main house drain shall be determined by
+     the total area of the buildings and paved surfaces to be
+     drained, according to the following table, if iron pipe is
+     used. If the pipe is terra-cotta the pipe shall be one size
+     larger than for the same amount of area drainage.
+
+     ----------+-----------------------------+---------------------------------
+      Diameter |      Fall 1/4 inch per foot |        Fall  1/2 inch per foot
+     ----------+-----------------------------+---------------------------------
+      4 inches |  1,800 square feet drainage |  2,500 square feet drainage area
+      5 inches |  3,000 square feet drainage |  4,500 square feet drainage area
+      6 inches |  5,000 square feet drainage |  7,500 square feet drainage area
+      8 inches |  9,100 square feet drainage | 13,600 square feet drainage area
+     10 inches | 14,000 square feet drainage | 20,000 square feet drainage area
+     ----------+-----------------------------+---------------------------------
+
+     The main house drains may be decreased in diameter beyond the
+     rain-water conductor or surface inlet by permission of the
+     bureau, when the plans show that the conditions are such as to
+     warrant such decrease, but in no case shall the main house
+     drain be less than 4 inches in diameter.
+
+     SEC. 5. MAIN TRAP.--An iron running trap with two clean-outs
+     must be placed in the house drain near the front wall of the
+     house, and on the sewer side of all connections. If placed
+     outside the house or below the cellar floor the clean-outs
+     must extend to surface with brass screw cap ferrules caulked
+     in. If outside the house, it must never be placed less than 4
+     feet below the surface of the ground.
+
+     SEC. 6. FRESH-AIR INLET.--A fresh-air inlet pipe must be
+     connected with the house drain just inside of the house trap
+     and extended to the outer air, terminating with a return bend,
+     or a vent cap or a grating with an open end 1 foot above grade
+     at the most available point to be determined by the building
+     department.
+
+     The fresh-air inlet pipe must be 4 inches in diameter for
+     house drains of 6 inches or less and as much larger as the
+     building department may direct for house drains more than 6
+     inches in diameter.
+
+     SEC. 7. LAYING OF HOUSE SEWERS AND DRAINS.--House sewers and
+     house drains must, where possible, be given an even grade to
+     the main sewer of not less than 1/4 inch to the foot.
+     Full-sized "Y"- and "T"-branch fittings for handhole
+     clean-outs must be provided where required on house drain and
+     its branches. No clean-out need be larger than 6 inches.
+
+     SEC. 8. FLOOR DRAINS.--Floor or other drains will only be
+     permitted when it can be shown to the satisfaction of the
+     department of building that their use is absolutely necessary,
+     and arrangements made to maintain a permanent water seal, and
+     be provided with check or back-water valves.
+
+     SEC. 9. WEIGHT AND THICKNESS OF CAST-IRON PIPE.--All cast-iron
+     pipes must be uncoated excepting all laid under ground, which
+     shall be thoroughly tarred, sound, cylindrical and smooth,
+     free from cracks, sand holes and other defects, and of uniform
+     thickness and of grade known to commerce as extra heavy.
+     Cast-iron pipe including the hub shall weigh not less than the
+     following weights per linear foot:
+
+     2-inch pipe     5-1/2 pounds per foot.
+     3-inch pipe     9-1/2 pounds per foot.
+     4-inch pipe     13 pounds per foot.
+     5-inch pipe     17 pounds per foot.
+     6-inch pipe     20 pounds per foot.
+     7-inch pipe     27 pounds per foot.
+     8-inch pipe     33-1/2 pounds per foot.
+     10-inch pipe    45 pounds per foot.
+     12-inch pipe    54 pounds per foot.
+
+     All cast-iron pipe must be tested to 50 pounds and marked with
+     the maker's name.
+
+     All joints in cast-iron pipe must be made with picked oakum
+     and molten lead and caulked gas-tight. Twelve ounces of soft
+     pig lead must be used at each joint for each inch in the
+     diameter of the pipe.
+
+     SEC. 10. WROUGHT-IRON AND STEEL PIPE.--All wrought-iron and
+     steel pipe shall be galvanized. Fittings used for drainage
+     must be galvanized and of recess type known as drainage
+     fittings. All fittings used for venting shall be galvanized
+     and of the style known as steam pattern. No plain black pipe
+     or fittings will be permitted.
+
+     SEC. 11. SUB-SOIL DRAINS.--Sub-soil drains must be discharged
+     into a sump or receiving tank, the contents of which must be
+     lifted and discharged into the drainage system above the
+     cellar floor by some approved method. Where directly
+     sewer-connected, they must be cut off from the rest of the
+     building and plumbing system by a brass flap valve on the
+     inlet to the catch basin and the trap on the drain from the
+     catch basin must be water-supplied.
+
+     SEC. 12. YARD AND AREA DRAINS.--All yard, area and court
+     drains when sewer-connected must have connection not less than
+     4 inches in diameter. They should be controlled by one
+     trap--the leader trap if possible. All yards, areas and courts
+     must be drained. Tenement houses and lodging houses must have
+     yards, areas and courts drained into sewer.
+
+     SEC. 13. USE OF OLD DRAINS AND SEWERS.--Old house drains and
+     sewers may be used in connection with new buildings or new
+     plumbing, only when they are found, on examination by the
+     department of building, to conform in all respects to the
+     requirements governing new sewers and drains. All extensions
+     to old house drains must be of extra heavy cast-iron pipe.
+
+     SEC. 14. LEADER PIPES.--All building shall be provided with
+     proper metallic leaders for conducting water from the roofs in
+     such manner as shall protect the walls and foundations of such
+     buildings from injury. In no case shall the water from such
+     leaders be allowed to flow upon the sidewalk but the same
+     shall be conducted by a pipe or pipes to the sewer. If there
+     is no sewer in the street upon which such building fronts,
+     then the water from said leader shall be conducted, by proper
+     pipes below the surface of the sidewalk, to the street gutter.
+
+     Inside leaders shall be constructed of cast iron, wrought iron
+     or steel, with roof connections made gas-and water-tight by
+     means of heavy copper drawn tubing slipped into the pipe. The
+     tubing must slip at least 7 inches into the pipe. Outside
+     leaders may be of sheet metal, but they must connect with the
+     house drain by means of cast-iron pipe extending vertically 5
+     feet above grade level, where the building is located along
+     public driveways or sidewalks. Where the building is located
+     off building line, and not liable to be damaged the connection
+     shall be made with iron pipe extending 1 foot above the grade
+     level.
+
+     All leaders must be trapped with running traps of cast iron,
+     so placed as to prevent freezing.
+
+     Rain leaders must not be used as soil, waste or vent pipes,
+     nor shall such pipes be used as rain leaders.
+
+     SEC. 15.--EXHAUST FROM STEAM PIPES, ETC.--No steam discharge
+     or exhaust, blow-off or drip pipe shall connect with the sewer
+     or the house drain, leader, soil pipe, waste or vent pipe.
+     Such pipes shall discharge into a tank or condenser, from
+     which suitable outlet to the sewer shall be made. Such
+     condenser shall be supplied with water, to help condensation
+     and help protect the sewer, and shall also be supplied with
+     relief vent to carry off dry steam.
+
+     SEC. 16. DIAMETER OF SOIL PIPE.--The smallest diameter of soil
+     pipe permitted to be used shall be 4 inches. The size of soil
+     pipes must not be less than those set forth in the following
+     tables.
+
+     Maximum number of fixtures connected to:
+
+     -------------+-------------------------+------------------------------
+     Size of pipe | Waste and soil combined |         Soil pipe alone
+                  +------------+------------+---------------+--------------
+                  |   Branch   |    Main    |     Branch    |     Main
+                  |  fixtures  |  fixtures  | water closets | water closets
+     -------------+------------+------------+---------------+--------------
+        4-inch    |      48    |      96    |        8      |       16
+      4.5-inch    |      96    |     192    |       16      |       32
+        6-inch    |     268    |     336    |       34      |       68
+     -------------+------------+------------+---------------+--------------
+
+     If the building is six (6) and less than twelve (12) stories
+     in height, the diameter shall not be less than 5 inches. If
+     more than twelve (12) it shall be 6 inches, in diameter. A
+     building six (6) or more stories in height, with fixtures
+     located below the sixth floor, soil pipe 4 inches in diameter
+     will be allowed to extend through the roof provided the
+     number of fixtures does not exceed the number given in the
+     table. All soil pipes must extend at least 2 feet above the
+     highest window, and must not be reduced in size. Traps will
+     not be permitted on main, vertical, soil or waste-pipe lines.
+     Each house must have a separate line of soil and vent pipes.
+     No soil or waste line shall be constructed on the outside of a
+     building.
+
+     Fixtures with:
+       1 to 1-1/4-inch traps count as one fixture.
+       1 to 1-1/2  "  traps count as one fixture.
+       1 to 2      "  traps count as two fixtures.
+       1 to 2-1/2  "  traps count as three fixtures.
+       1 to 3      "  traps (water closets) count as four fixtures.
+       1 to 4      "  traps count as five fixtures.
+
+     SEC. 17. CHANGE IN DIRECTION.--All sewer, soil, and waste
+     pipes must be as direct as possible. Changes in direction must
+     be made with "Y"- or half "Y"-branches or one-eighth bends.
+     Offsets in soil or waste pipes will not be permitted when they
+     can be avoided, nor, in any case unless suitable provision is
+     made to prevent the accumulation of rust or other obstruction.
+     Offsets must be made with fourth degree bends or similar
+     fittings. The use of T "Y"s (sanitary Ts) will be permitted on
+     upright lines only.
+
+     SEC. 18. JOINTS ON SOIL AND WASTE PIPES.--Connection on lead
+     and cast-iron pipe shall be made with brass sleeve or ferrule,
+     of the same size as the lead pipe inserted in the hub of the
+     iron pipe, and caulked with lead. The lead must be attached to
+     the ferrule by means of a wiped joint. Joints between lead and
+     wrought-iron pipes must be made with brass nipple, of same
+     size as lead pipe. The lead pipe must be attached to the brass
+     nipple by means of a wiped joint. All connections of lead
+     waste pipes must be made by means of wiped joints.
+
+     Short nipples on wrought-iron and steel pipes must be of
+     thickness and weight known as "extra heavy" or "extra strong."
+
+     Brass ferrules must be best quality, extra heavy cast brass,
+     not less than 4 inches long and 2-1/4, 3-1/2 and 4-1/2 inches
+     in diameter and not less than the following weights:
+
+       Diameters          Weights
+     2-1/4 inches    1 pound  0 ounce.
+     3-1/2 inches    1 pound 12 ounces.
+     4-1/2 inches    2 pounds 8 ounces.
+
+     SEC. 19. SOLDER NIPPLES.--Solder nipples must be heavy cast
+     brass or of brass pipe, iron pipe size. When cast they must be
+     not less than the following weights:
+
+       Diameters          Weights
+     1-1/2 inches    0 pound  8 ounces.
+     2     inches    0 pound 14 ounces.
+     2-1/2 inches    1 pound  6 ounces.
+     3     inches    2 pounds 0 ounce.
+     4     inches    3 pounds 8 ounces.
+
+     SEC. 20. BRASS CLEAN-OUTS.--Brass screw caps for clean-outs
+     must be extra heavy, not less than 1/8 inch thick. The screw
+     cap must have a solid square or hexagonal nut not less than 1
+     inch high and a least diameter of 1-1/2 inches. The body of
+     the clean-out ferrule must be at least equal in weight and
+     thickness to the caulking ferrule for the same size pipe.
+
+     SEC. 21. LEAD WASTE PIPE.--All lead waste, soil vent and flush
+     pipes must be of the best quality, known in commerce as "_D_,"
+     and of not less than the following weights per linear foot:
+
+       Diameters        Weights
+     1-1/4 inches    2-1/2 pounds.
+     1-1/2 inches    3     pounds.
+     2     inches    4     pounds.
+     3     inches    6     pounds.
+     4     inches    8     pounds.
+
+     All lead traps and bends must be of the same weight and
+     thicknesses as their corresponding pipe branches.
+
+     SEC. 22. ROOF FLASHERS.--Sheet lead for roof flashings must be
+     6-pound lead and must extend not less than 6 inches from the
+     pipe and the joint made water-tight.
+
+     SEC. 23. TRAPS FOR BATH TUBS, WATER CLOSETS, ETC.--Every sink,
+     bath tub, basin, water closet, slop hopper, or fixtures having
+     a waste pipe, must be furnished with a trap, which shall be
+     placed as close as practicable to the fixture that it serves
+     and in no case shall it be more than 1 foot. The waste pipe
+     from the bath tub or other fixtures must not be connected
+     with a water-closet trap.
+
+     SEC. 24. SIZE OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL WASTE PIPES, TRAPS
+     AND BRANCHES.--
+
+     Horizontal and vertical    Number of small fixtures
+          1-1/4-inch                      1
+          1-1/2-inch                      2
+          2    -inch                      3 to 8
+          2-1/2-inch                      9 to 20
+          3    -inch                     21 to 44
+
+     If building is ten (10) or more stories in height, the
+     vertical waste pipe shall not be less than 3 inches in
+     diameter. The use of wrought-iron pipe for waste pipe 2 inches
+     or less in diameter is prohibited.
+
+     The size of traps and waste branches, for a given fixture,
+     shall be as follows:
+
+     ---------------------------------------------+------------------
+                                                  | Size in inches
+                   Kind of fixtures               +-------+----------
+                                                  | Trap  | Branch
+     ---------------------------------------------+-------+----------
+     Water closet                                 | 3     | 4
+     Slop sink with trap combined                 | 3     | 3
+     Slop sink ordinary                           | 2     | 2
+     Pedestal urinal                              | 3     | 3
+     Floor drain or wash                          | 4     | 4
+     Yard drain or catch basin                    | 4     | 4
+     Urinal trough                                | 2     | 2
+     Laundry trays, two or five                   | 2     | 2
+     Combination sink and tray (for each fixture) | 1-1/2 | 2
+     Kitchen sinks, small                         | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2
+     Kitchen sinks, large hotel, etc.             |       |
+     Kitchen sinks, grease trap                   |       | 2
+     Pantry sinks                                 | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2
+     Wash basin, one only                         | 1-1/4 | 1-1/4
+     Bath tub                                     | 2     | 2
+     Shower baths                                 | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2
+     Shower baths, floor                          | 2     | 2
+     Sitz bath                                    | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2
+     Drinking fountains                           | 1-1/4 | 1-1/4
+     ---------------------------------------------+-------+----------
+
+     SEC. 25. OVERFLOW PIPES.--Overflow pipes from fixtures must in
+     all cases be connected on the inlet side of the traps.
+
+     SEC. 26. SETTING OF TRAPS WITHOUT RE-VENT.--All traps must be
+     substantially supported and set true with respect to their
+     water levels. No pot, bottle or "D" trap will be permitted nor
+     any form of trap that is not self-cleaning, nor that has
+     interior chambers or mechanism nor any trap except earthenware
+     ones that depend upon interior partitions for a seal. In case
+     there is an additional fixture required in building and it is
+     impossible to re-vent pipe for the trap, the building
+     department may designate the kind of trap to be used. This
+     shall not be construed to allow traps without re-vents in new
+     buildings.
+
+     SEC. 27. SAFE AND REFRIGERATOR PIPES.--Safe-waste pipes must
+     not connect directly with any part of the plumbing system.
+     Safe-waste pipes must discharge over an open, water-supplied,
+     publicly-placed, ordinary-used sink, placed not more than
+     3-1/2 feet above the cellar floor. The safe waste from a
+     refrigerator must be trapped at the bottom of the line only
+     and must not discharge upon the ground floor, but over an
+     ordinary open pan, or some properly-trapped, water-supplied
+     sink, as above. In no case shall the refrigerator waste pipe
+     discharge into a sink located in a living room.
+
+     The branches on vertical lines must be made by means of "Y"
+     fittings and be carried to the safe with as much pitch as
+     possible. Where there is an offset on the refrigerator waste
+     pipe in the cellar, there must be clean-outs placed. These
+     clean-outs must be of brass.
+
+     In tenement and lodging houses the refrigerator waste pipe
+     must extend above the roof, and not be larger than 1-1/2
+     inches and the branches not smaller than 1-1/4 inches.
+     Refrigerator waste pipes, except in tenement houses, and all
+     safe-waste pipes, must have brass flap valve on the lower
+     ends. Lead safes must be graded and neatly turned over beveled
+     strips at their edges.
+
+     SEC. 28. VENT-PIPE MATERIAL.--Material for vent pipes shall be
+     of lead, brass, enameled iron or galvanized iron.
+
+     SEC. 29. VENTILATION OF TRAPS AND SOIL LINES.--Traps shall be
+     protected from siphonage or air pressure by special vent pipes
+     of a size of not less than the following tables:
+
+     -----------------+----------------+-----------------------------
+                      |    Maximum     |   Number of traps vented
+                      | length in feet |
+       Size of pipe   +----------------+------------+----------------
+                      |     Mains      |  Branch    |  Main vertical
+     -----------------+----------------+------------+----------------
+      1-1/4-inch vent |     20 feet    |  1         |
+      1-1/2-inch vent |     40 feet    |  2 or less |
+      2-inch vent     |     65 feet    | 10 or less |   20 or less
+      2-1/2-inch vent |    100 feet    | 20 or less |   40 or less
+      3-inch vent     |   10 or more   | 60 or less |  100 or less
+                      |    stories     |            |
+     -----------------+----------------+------------+----------------
+
+     The branch vent shall not be less than the following sizes:
+
+     1-1/4 inches in diameter for 1-1/4 inch trap.
+     1-1/2 inches in diameter for 1-1/2 inch to 2-1/2 inch trap.
+     2 inches in diameter for 3 inch to 4 inch trap.
+     One-half their diameter, for traps 3 inches and over.
+
+     Where two or more closets are placed side by side, on a
+     horizontal branch, the branch line shall have a relief
+     extended as a loop. A pipe 2 inches in diameter shall be
+     sufficient as a loop vent for two closets. A pipe 3 inches in
+     diameter shall be sufficient as a relief for three or four
+     closets; and where more than four closets are located on the
+     same branch the relief shall not be less than 4 inches in
+     diameter. All house drains and soil lines on which a water
+     closet is located must have a 4-inch main vent line. Where an
+     additional closet is located in the cellar or basement, and
+     within 10 feet of main soil or vent line, no relief vent will
+     be required for said closet; but where it is more than 10
+     feet, a 2-inch vent line will be required. Relief vent pipes
+     for water closets must not be less than 2 inches in diameter,
+     for a length of 40 feet, and not less than 3 inches in
+     diameter, for more than 40 feet.
+
+     No re-vent from traps under bell traps will be required.
+
+     In any building having a sewer connection with a private or
+     public sewer used for bell-trap connections or floor drainage
+     only, a 2-inch relief line must be extended to the roof of the
+     building from rear end of main. House drains, constructed for
+     roof drainage only, will not require a relief vent.
+
+     A floor trap for a shower shall be vented, unless located in
+     the cellar or ground floor the paving of which renders the
+     trap inaccessible.
+
+     SEC. 30. HORIZONTAL VENT PIPES.--Where rows of fixtures are
+     placed in a line, fitting of not less than 45° to the
+     horizontal must be used on vent lines to prevent filling with
+     rust or condensation; except on brick or tile walls, where it
+     is necessary to channel same for pipes, 90° fittings will be
+     allowed. Trapped vent pipes are strictly prohibited. No vent
+     pipe from the house side of any trap shall connect with the
+     ventilation pipe or with sewer, soil or waste pipe.
+
+     SEC. 31. OFFSET ON VENT LINES.--All offsets on vent lines must
+     be made at an angle of not less than 45° to the horizontal,
+     and all lines must be connected at the bottom with a soil or
+     waste pipe, or the drain, in such manner as to prevent the
+     accumulation of rust, scale or condensation.
+
+     No sheet metal, brick, or other flue shall be used as a vent
+     pipe.
+
+     SEC. 32. SETTING OF FIXTURES.--All fixtures must be set open
+     and free from all enclosing woodwork. Water closets and
+     urinals must not be connected directly or flushed from the
+     water-supply pipes except when flushometer valves are used.
+     Each water closet must be flushed from a separate cistern, the
+     water from which is used for no other purpose, or may be
+     flushed through flushometer valves.
+
+     Rubber connection and elbows are not permitted.
+
+     Pan, plunger, or hopper closets will not be permitted in any
+     building. No range closet either wet or dry, nor any
+     evaporating system of closets shall be constructed or allowed
+     inside of any building.
+
+     A separate building constructed especially for the purpose,
+     must be provided in which such range closets shall be set.
+
+     All earthenware traps must have heavy brass floor flange
+     plates, soldered to the lead bends and bolted to the trap
+     flange, and the joint made permanently secure and gas-tight.
+
+     In all buildings sewer-connected there must be at least one
+     water closet in each building. There must be a sufficient
+     number of water closets so that there will never be more than
+     15 people to each water closet.
+
+     Separate water closets and toilet rooms must be provided for
+     each sex in buildings used as workshops, office buildings,
+     factories, hotels and all places of public assembly.
+
+     In all buildings the water closet and urinal apartments must
+     be ventilated into the outer air by windows opening on the
+     same lot as the building is situated on or by a ventilating
+     skylight placed over each room or apartment where such
+     fixtures are located.
+
+     In all buildings the outside partition of any water closet or
+     urinal apartment must be air-tight and extend to the ceiling
+     or be independently ceiled over. When necessary to light such
+     apartments properly the upper part of the partition must be
+     provided with translucent glass. The interior partitions of
+     such apartments must be dwarfed partitions.
+
+     In alteration work where it is not practicable to ventilate a
+     closet or urinal apartment by windows or skylight to the outer
+     air, there must be provided a sheet-iron duct extending to the
+     outer air, the area of the duct must be at least 144 square
+     inches for one water closet or urinal, and an additional 72
+     square inches for each addition closet or urinal added
+     therein.
+
+     SEC. 33. URINALS.--All urinals must be constructed of
+     materials impervious to moisture and that will not corrode
+     under the action of urine. The floors and walls of urinal
+     apartments must be lined with similar non-absorbent and
+     non-corrosive material.
+
+     The platforms and treads of urinal stalls must be connected
+     independently of the plumbing system, nor can they be
+     connected with any safe-waste pipe.
+
+     The copper lining of water closet and urinal cisterns must not
+     be lighter than 12 ounces copper, and must be stamped on
+     lining with maker's name. Where lead is used it must not weigh
+     less than 4 pounds to the square foot. All other materials are
+     prohibited.
+
+     SEC. 34. FIXTURES PROHIBITED.--Wooden wash trays, sinks, or
+     bath tubs are prohibited inside buildings. Such fixtures must
+     be constructed of non-absorbent materials. Cement or
+     artificial stone tubs will not be permitted, unless approved
+     by the plumbing inspector and building department.
+
+     Yard water closets will not be permitted except as approved by
+     the plumbing inspector and then passed by the building
+     department.
+
+     SEC. 35. PRIVY VAULTS AND CESSPOOLS.--No privy vault or
+     cesspool for sewage, shall be constructed in any part of the
+     city where a sewer is at all accessible. In parts of the city
+     where no sewer exists privy vaults and cesspools shall not be
+     located within 2 feet of party or street line nor within 20
+     feet of any building. Before these are constructed application
+     for permission therefore shall be made to the building
+     department.
+
+     SEC. 36. MATERIAL AND WORKMANSHIP.--All material used in the
+     work of plumbing and drainage must be of good quality and free
+     from defects. The work must be executed in a thorough and
+     workmanlike manner.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+
+     A
+
+     Acid, muriatic, 12
+
+
+     B
+
+     Banjo, 120
+
+     Bath-tub, 5-6-7
+       size waste, 99
+
+     Bending irons, 15, 48, 59
+
+     Bib, wiping, 59, 68
+
+     Bowls, closet, 4, 5
+
+
+     C
+
+     Caulking joints, 89, 90
+
+     Cellar drainer, 84
+
+     Cement, pipe joint, 122
+
+     Cementing, 72, 73
+
+     Circulation, hot water, 124, 129
+
+     Closets, 3, 4, 5
+
+     Cocks, stop and waste, 120
+
+     Code-plumbing, 153
+       brass clean-outs, 160
+       change in direction, 159
+       diameter of soil pipes, 158
+       exhaust from steam pipes, 158
+       filing plans, 154
+       floor drains, 156
+       fresh-air inlet, 155
+       joints, 159
+       laying of drains, 156
+       lead waste pipe, 160
+       leader pipes, 157
+       main trap, 155
+       materials of drains, 154
+       old drains and sewers, 157
+       over-flow pipes, 162
+       plans and specification, 154
+       roof flashers, 160
+       safe and refrigerator pipes, 162
+       size of drains, 155
+         of waste pipes, 161
+       solder nipples, 160
+       traps, 160
+         without vents, 162
+       yard and area drains, 157
+
+     Code, fixtures prohibited, 165
+       horizontal vents, 164
+       material and workmanship, 166
+       offsets, 164
+       privy vaults and cesspools, 166
+       setting of fixtures, 164
+       urinals, 165
+       vent, pipe material, 162
+       ventilation of traps, 162
+
+     Connecting, sewers, 74
+
+     Connections, of fixtures, 139
+
+     Corporation cock and tap, 76-77
+
+     Coupling, right and left, 116
+
+     Covering, pipe, 131
+
+     Cup joint, 14-66
+
+     Curb cock, 77-81
+       box, 78-81
+
+     Cutters, pipe, 113
+
+     Cutting, terra-cotta pipe, 72
+       cast-iron pipe, 93
+
+
+     D
+
+     Dies, 112
+
+     Drainage, 2
+
+     Drains, 82, 83, 84, 87, 92
+
+     Drift plugs, 18
+
+     Drum trap, 61, 65, 68, 107
+
+     Durham work, 134
+
+
+     E
+
+     Earthenware, 3-5
+
+     Expansion joints, 129
+
+
+     F
+
+     Ferrule, brass, 37-43
+
+     File, 15
+
+     Fittings, drainage, 136
+       gas, 143
+       screw pipe, 98
+       soil pipe, 96
+
+     Fixtures, 3
+
+     Flushing, 3
+
+     Flux, 12
+
+     Fresh-air inlet, 105
+
+
+     G
+
+     Gas pipe and fittings, 143
+       piping, 141, 144
+
+     Goose neck, 81
+
+
+     H
+
+     Half and half solder, 21
+
+     Hammer, 15
+
+     Hangers, 121, 137
+
+     Heaters, flue connection, 130
+       gas coil, 126
+       instantaneous, 127
+
+     Hot water supply, 124
+
+     House drains, 86
+       traps, 87, 104
+
+
+     I
+
+     Inserting, terra-cotta pipe, 74
+
+     Intercepting trap, 92, 93
+
+     Iron enamelled ware, 3
+
+
+     J
+
+     Joints, amount of lead and oakum, 97
+       caulk, 87, 89
+       cup, 14
+       expansion, 129
+       of sub-soil, 84
+       overcast, 17
+       runner, 90
+       rust, 97
+       seams, 19
+       solder, 14
+
+
+     K
+
+     Kitchen sinks, 99
+
+
+     L
+
+     Lavatories, 8, 99
+
+     Lead connection, 78
+       used in caulked joints, 89, 97
+
+     Lead pipe, for water mains, 80
+       preparing for wiping, 45
+       use of, 27
+
+     Leaders, pipes and traps, 93
+
+     Long screws, 115
+
+
+     M
+
+     Main sewer, 81
+
+     Mason trap, 104
+
+     Measurements of piping, 146
+
+     Melting point of metals, 21
+
+     Metal, wiping, 31
+
+     Meter, reading gas, 142
+
+
+     N
+
+     Nipples, cutting and threading, 114
+       holders, 114
+
+
+     O
+
+     Oakum, use of, 89, 97
+
+     Overcast joint, 17, 67
+
+
+     P
+
+     Paste, 13
+
+     Pipe, brass, 80
+       covering, 131
+       cutting, 93
+       kinds of, 122
+       service, 81
+       soil, location, 95
+       steel, 97
+       tell-tale, 100
+       terra-cotta, 69
+       threading, 110
+       wrought iron, 97
+
+     Pipe laying, sewer, 71
+       water, 78
+       in tunnel, 73
+
+     Piping, water, 120
+       drainage, 135
+
+     Planking, 70, 71
+
+     Pressure, water, 119
+
+
+     R
+
+     Rain leaders, 86
+
+     Reaming, 135
+
+     Receptors, showers, 99
+
+     Refill, trench, 75, 79
+       tunnels, 79
+
+     Right and left couplings, 116
+
+
+     S
+
+     Sanitary drains, 91, 92
+
+     Screw-pipe work, 134
+
+     Seams, 19, 67
+
+     Sewerage, system of, 86
+
+     Sewers, 69, 81
+
+     Shoe, use of, 75
+
+     Shower stall, 150
+
+     Sinks, 2
+
+     Soil pipe, 95, 96
+
+     Soils, 13
+
+     Soldering iron, 11, 15, 66
+
+     Solders, 21
+
+     Stopcock, 45, 68, 81, 120
+
+     Sulphur, 97
+
+     Swab, 73, 81
+
+
+     T
+
+     Tables, angle measurements, 138, 139
+       brass ferrules, 160
+       fixtures and traps, 161
+       lead waste pipe, 160
+       measurements, 116
+       roof drainage, 155
+       screw-pipe, 134
+       size of vent pipes, 163
+         of waste pipe, 99
+       soil and waste pipe, 158
+       standard, threads, 110
+       terra-cotta pipe, 75
+       waste pipe, 161
+       weight of cast-iron pipe, 156
+       of solder nipples, 160
+
+     Tallow, 13
+
+     Tank, storage connections of, 125
+
+     Tell-tale pipe, 100
+
+     Terra-cotta pipe, 69, 75, 83
+       cutting, 72
+
+     Testing, gas pipe, 148
+
+     Thermostat, 124, 126
+
+     Tinning, brass, 38, 42, 45
+       bib, 59
+
+     Tools, bending iron, 15
+       caulking iron, 89
+       cold chisel, 89, 93
+       file, 15
+       hammer, 15
+       joint runner, 90
+       ladle, 29
+       pipe cutters, 113
+       rasp, 15
+       saw, 15
+       shave hook, 15
+       soldering iron, 15
+       tap-borer, 15, 47, 59
+       turn pin, 15
+       vise, 111
+       yarning iron, 89
+
+     Traps, bag, 109
+       centrifugal, 109
+       cleansweep, 108
+       drum, 107
+       flask, 108
+       house, 104
+       intercepting, 92
+       mechanical, 109
+       non-syphoning, 107
+       "S," 109
+       sure-seal, 109
+
+     Trenches, digging, 70, 81, 87
+       refilling, 75
+       water service, 76
+
+     Tubs, bath, 6
+
+     Tunnels, 73
+
+
+     U
+
+     Urinals, 99
+
+
+     V
+
+     Valves, check, 128
+       closet, 4
+       safety, 128
+
+     Ventilation pipe, 101
+
+     Vents, 100-103
+
+
+     W
+
+     Wash trays, 86, 99
+
+     Water connection, 76
+       supply, 118
+         rivers and lakes, 119
+         streams and brooks, 118
+         under pressure, 119
+         underground, 118
+
+     Wiping, 29
+       bib, 59
+       branch joints, 49
+       cloths, 67
+       drum trap, 61
+       2-inch brass ferrule, 40
+       4-inch brass ferrule, 43
+       round joint, 31
+       solder, 21
+       stopcock, 45
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+
+Inconsistencies in hyphenation and spelling have been retained.
+
+Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved for easier reading.
+
+
+
+
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Elements of Plumbing, by Samuel Dibble
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
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+Title: Elements of Plumbing
+
+Author: Samuel Dibble
+
+Release Date: May 1, 2008 [EBook #25269]
+
+Language: English
+
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF PLUMBING ***
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+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
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+</pre>
+
+
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<table border="2" class="tn" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" summary="Transcriber's Notes">
+<tr><td align='center'><h3>TRANSCRIBER&rsquo;S NOTES</h3>
+<p>Inconsistencies in hyphenation and spelling have been retained.</p>
+
+<p>Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved for easier reading. Click the illustrations to view larger versions.</p>
+</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<hr />
+<p class="fm2"><span class="ls2">ELEMENTS</span></p>
+<p class="fmh">OF</p>
+
+<p class="fm"><span class="ls">PLUMBIN</span>&nbsp;G</p>
+
+
+<div class="pad3">
+<p class="fmh">BY</p>
+</div>
+<p class="fm3">SAMUEL EDWARD DIBBLE</p>
+
+<p class="fmh2">HEAD OF SANITARY EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATION DEPT.<br />
+CARNEGIE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY</p>
+
+<div class="pad2">
+<p class="fmh"><span class="smcap">First Edition</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="fm6">M<span class="smcap">c</span>GRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, <span class="smcap">Inc.</span></p>
+<p class="fmh">239 WEST 39TH STREET. NEW YORK</p>
+
+<hr class="fm" />
+
+<p class="fm4">LONDON: HILL PUBLISHING CO., <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span></p>
+<p class="fm5">6 &amp; 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C.</p>
+<p class="fm4">1918</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p class="fmh"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1918, by the<br />
+McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.</span></p>
+
+<div class="pad"><p class="fmh2">THE MAPLE PRESS  YORK PA</p></div>
+<hr />
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>
+In preparing this manuscript the author has had in mind
+the needs of young men having no technical instruction
+who are anxious to become proficient in the art of Plumbing.
+As a consequence each exercise is minutely described and
+illustrated; so much so, perhaps, that an experienced mechanic
+may find it too simple for skilled hands and a mature
+mind. But the beginner will not find the exercises too
+elaborately described and will profit by careful study.
+Years of experience and observation have shown the author
+that the methods herein described are entirely practical
+and are in common use today.</p>
+
+<p>The various exercises in lead work will acquaint the
+beginner with the correct use of tools and metals. The
+exercises in iron pipe work have also been detailed to show
+the correct installation of jobs.</p>
+
+<p>Together with the study of this book the subjects of
+Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Drawing and English
+should be taken. These subjects as they bear on Plumbing
+are invaluable to the mechanic in his future connection
+with the trade.</p>
+
+<p>The author is indebted for the illustrations of fixtures in
+the chapter covering the development of plumbing fixtures,
+to the Thomas Maddock's Sons Co., Standard Sanitary
+Mfg. Co., and The Trenton Potteries Co.</p>
+
+<p class="quotdate"><span class="smcap">Samuel Edward Dibble.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Pittsburgh</span>, <i>December, 1917</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<div class="toc">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="TABLE OF CONTENTS">
+<col style="width:10%" />
+<col style="width:85%" />
+<col style="width:5%" />
+
+<tr><td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right"><span class="smcap">Page</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="baseline"><span class="smcap"><a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a></span></td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_v">v</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Chapter</span></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">Plumbing Fixtures and Trade</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">The Use and Care of the Soldering Iron&mdash;Fluxes&mdash;Making Different Soldering Joints</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">Mixtures of Solders for Soldering Iron and Wiping&mdash;Care of Solders&mdash;Melting Points of Metals and Alloys</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">Making and Caring of Wiping Cloths</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">Preparing and Wiping Joints</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">Preparing and Wiping Joints (<i>Continued</i>)</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">Laying Terra-cotta and Making Connections to Public Sewers&mdash;Water Connections to Mains in Streets</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">Installing of French or Sub-soil Drains</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">Storm and Sanitary Drainage with Sewage Disposal in View</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">X.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">Soil and Waste Pipes and Vents&mdash;Tests</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">XI.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">House Traps, Fresh-air Connections, Drum Traps, and Non-syphoning Traps</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">XII.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">Pipe Threading</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">XIII.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">Cold-water Supply&mdash;Test</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">XIV.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">Hot-water Heaters&mdash;Instantaneous Coil and Storage Tanks&mdash;Return Circulation, Hot-water Lines and Expansion</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">XV.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">Insulation of Piping to Eliminate Conduction, Radiation, Freezing and Noise</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">XVI.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">"Durham" or "Screw Pipe" Work&mdash;Pipe and Fittings</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">XVII.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">Gas Fittings, Pipe and Fittings, Threading, Measuring and Testing</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">XVIII.</a></td>
+<td valign="baseline">Plumbing Codes</td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="baseline"><span class="smcap"><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></span></td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right" valign="baseline"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+<h1>ELEMENTS OF PLUMBING</h1>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Plumbing Fixtures and Trade</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>Modern plumbing as a trade is the arranging and running
+of pipes to supply pure water to buildings, the erecting of
+fixtures for the use of this supply, and the installing of other
+pipes for the resulting waste water. The work of the trade
+divides itself therefore into two parts: first the providing an
+adequate supply of water; and second, the disposing of this
+water after use. The first division offers few problems to
+the plumber, little variety in the layout being possible, and
+the result depending mostly upon the arrangement of the
+pipes and fittings; but the second division calls for careful
+study in the arrangement, good workmanship in the installing,
+and individual attention to each fixture.</p>
+
+<p>The trade had its beginnings in merely supplying fresh
+water to a community. This was done by means of trenching,
+or conveying water from lakes, rivers, or springs through
+wooden pipes or open troughs. By easy stages the trade
+improved and enlarged its scope, until at the present time
+it is able to provide for the adequate distribution of tons of
+water under high pressure furnished by the city water works.</p>
+
+<p>In the early years of the trade the question of the disposal
+of the waste water was easily answered, for it was allowed
+to be discharged onto the ground to seek its own course.
+But with the increased amount of water available, the waste-water
+problem has enlarged until today it plays the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+important part of plumbing, and the trade has had to
+change to meet this waste-water problem.</p>
+
+<p>The first simple system of a pipe running from the sink to
+a point outside the building was sufficient. As larger buildings
+came into use and communities were more thickly
+populated, the plumbing problem demanded thought and
+intense study. The waste pipes from fixtures had to be so
+arranged that it would be impossible for foul odors and
+germ-laden air to enter the building through a plumbing
+fixture. The importance of this is evidenced by the plumbing
+laws now in use throughout the country.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first plumbing fixtures put into common use
+was a hollowed-out stone which served as a sink. It was
+with considerable interest that the writer saw a sink of this
+kind in actual use in the summer of 1915, at a house in a
+New England village. This sink had been in service for
+about 100 years. From this beginning the well-known
+fixtures of today have developed. The demand for moderate
+priced, sanitary closets, lavatories, and baths has led
+to the rapid improvement seen in plumbing fixtures. In
+the development of these fixtures, as soon as a bad feature
+was recognized the fixture was at once discarded, until now
+the market offers fixtures as mechanically fine as can be
+produced. Plumbing fixtures were at first manufactured
+so that it was necessary to support them on a wooden
+frame, and this frame was enclosed in wood. The enclosure
+made by this framework soon became foul and filthy and a
+breeding place for all kinds of disease germs and vermin.
+This bad feature was overcome by the introduction of open
+plumbing, that is, fixtures so made that the enclosure
+of wood could be done away with. The open plumbing
+allowed a free circulation of air around the fixture and exposed
+pipes, thereby making the outside of the fixture and
+its immediate surroundings free from all the bad features of
+the closed plumbing. Plenty of fresh air and plenty of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+light are necessary for good sanitary plumbing.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_1" id="Fig_1"></a><a href="images/fig1.jpg"><img src="images/fig1tn.jpg" width="300" height="345" class="plain" alt="Fig. 1.--Pan closet
+(English)." title="Fig. 1.&mdash;Pan closet
+(English)." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Pan closet
+(English).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The materials of which the first open-plumbing fixtures
+were made consisted of marble, copper, zinc, slate, iron,
+and clay. Time soon proved that marble and slate were
+absorbent, copper and zinc soon leaked from wear, iron
+rusted, and clay cracked and lacked strength; therefore
+these materials soon became insanitary, and foul odors were
+easily detected rising from the fixture. Besides these
+materials being insanitary, the fact that a fixture was constructed
+using a number of sections proved that joints and
+seams were insanitary features on a fixture. For instance,
+in a marble lavatory constructed by using one piece for the
+top, another for the bowl, and still another for the back,
+filth accumulated at every joint and seam. Following this
+condition, developed the iron
+enameled and earthenware fixtures,
+constructed without seams
+and with a smooth, even, glossy
+white finish. The fact that these
+fixtures are made of material that
+is non-absorbent adds to their
+value as sanitary plumbing fixtures.</p>
+
+<p>Another problem which is as
+important as the foregoing is the
+proper flushing, that is, the supplying
+of sufficient water in a
+manner designed to cleanse the fixture properly.</p>
+
+<p>The development of sanitary earthenware illustrates
+how the above problems were satisfactorily solved. In the
+city of London a law compelling the use of drains was enforced,
+and in the early 70's the effect of this law was felt
+in this country. The introduction at this time of the mechanical
+water closet, known as the "pan closet," and the
+English plumbing material which was brought to this country<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+was the beginning of "American plumbing," which today
+outstrips that of any other country in the world. The
+"pan closet" continued in use for some time until the "valve
+closet" was introduced as a more sanitary fixture. Closely
+following these closets, in 1880, the plunger closet became
+popular as a still more sanitary fixture. The plunger
+closet continued in use until the present all-earthenware
+closet bowl drove all other makes from the market. The
+American development of the earthenware closet bowl put
+the American sanitary fixture far ahead of the English
+improvements, as the American earthenware is superior and
+the sanitary features of the bowls are nearer perfection.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 2 and 3">
+<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_2" id="Fig_2"></a><a href="images/fig2.jpg"><img src="images/fig2tn.jpg" width="500" height="230" class="plain" alt="Fig. 2.--Pan closet (American)." title="Fig. 2.&mdash;Pan closet (American)." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Pan closet (American).</span>
+</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_3" id="Fig_3"></a><a href="images/fig3.jpg"><img src="images/fig3tn.jpg" width="500" height="244" class="plain" alt="Fig. 3.--Plunger closet." title="Fig. 3.&mdash;Plunger closet." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 3.&mdash;Plunger closet.</span>
+</div></td></tr></table></div>
+
+<p>When the washout bowl was introduced it was considered
+perfection. The hopper closet bowl, which was nothing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+more than a funnel-shaped bowl placed on top of a trap,
+was placed in competition with the washout bowl. There
+are a number of these bowls now in use and also being manufactured.
+However, large cities prohibit their use.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_4" id="Fig_4"></a><a href="images/fig4.jpg"><img src="images/fig4tn.jpg" width="300" height="302" class="plain" alt="Fig. 4.--Plunger closet." title="Fig. 4.&mdash;Plunger closet." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 4.&mdash;Plunger closet.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>To quote Thomas Maddock's Sons Co.: "In 1876 Wm.
+Smith of San Francisco patented a water closet which employed
+a jet to assist in emptying the bowl and the development
+of this principle is due entirely to the potter, who had
+gradually and by costly experiment become the determining
+factor in the evolution of the water closet." With this
+improvement it became possible to do away with the boxing-in
+of the bowl which up to this time had been necessary.
+Closet bowls of today are made of vitreous body which does
+not permit crazing or discoloring of the ware. A study of
+the illustrations which show the evolution of the closet
+bowl should be of interest to the student as well as to the
+apprentice and journeyman. The bath tub developed
+from a gouged-out stone, in which water could be stored and
+used for bathing purposes, to our present-day enameled iron
+and earthenware tubs. The development did not progress
+very rapidly until about 25 years ago. Since then every
+feature of the tub has been improved, and from a sanitary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+standpoint the tubs of today cannot be improved. The
+bath tub has become an American custom, as the people
+in this country have demanded that they have sanitary
+equipment in their homes, while in the European countries
+this demand has not developed.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_5" id="Fig_5"></a><a href="images/fig5.jpg"><img src="images/fig5tn.jpg" width="300" height="425" class="plain" alt="Fig. 5.--Modern low-tank closet." title="Fig. 5.&mdash;Modern low-tank closet." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 5.&mdash;Modern low-tank closet.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The first tubs used in this country were of wood lined with
+copper or zinc, and were built in or boxed in with wood
+panelling. The plumbing ordinances of today prohibit
+this boxing as it proved to be a breeding place for vermin,
+etc. As the illustration shows, the woodwork encasing
+the tub was in a great many cases beautifully carved and
+finished.</p>
+
+<p>The placing on the market of a steel-clad tub, a steel
+tub with a copper lining, which did away with the boxing,
+was a big improvement as far as sanitary reasons were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+concerned as well as a reduction in cost of tubs. These
+tubs were set up on legs which permitted cleaning and
+provided good ventilation all around. With these features
+they drove all other tubs from the market. The copper
+and zinc were found to be hard to keep clean and they were
+soon replaced by the iron enamelled and earthenware tubs.
+The finish on these tubs being white and non-absorbent
+makes them highly acceptable as sanitary fixtures. A
+study of the illustrations will show how progress has
+been made in design as well as in sanitary features.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 6 and 7">
+<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_6" id="Fig_6"></a><a href="images/fig6.jpg"><img src="images/fig6tn.jpg" width="500" height="330" class="plain" alt="Fig. 6.--Encased bath tub." title="Fig. 6.&mdash;Encased bath tub." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 6.&mdash;Encased bath tub.</span>
+</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_7" id="Fig_7"></a><a href="images/fig7.jpg"><img src="images/fig7tn.jpg" width="500" height="250" class="plain" alt="Fig. 7.--Steel tub on legs." title="Fig. 7.&mdash;Steel tub on legs." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 7.&mdash;Steel tub on legs.</span>
+</div></td></tr></table></div>
+
+<p><b>The Wash Bowl.</b>&mdash;Succeeding the hand basin the first
+wash basins used in this country were made of marble or
+slate, with a round bowl of crockery. The bowl was 14
+inches in diameter originally, but later was changed to an
+oval bowl. Like the bath tub these wash stands were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+encased in wood, the encasing being used to support the
+marble top. Ornamental brackets were introduced and the
+wood encasement done away with.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 8 and 9">
+<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_8" id="Fig_8"></a><a href="images/fig8.jpg"><img src="images/fig8tn.jpg" width="500" height="272" class="plain" alt="Fig. 8.--Modern built-in tub." title="Fig. 8.&mdash;Modern built-in tub." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 8.&mdash;Modern built-in tub.</span>
+</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_9" id="Fig_9"></a><a href="images/fig9.jpg"><img src="images/fig9tn.jpg" width="300" height="310" class="plain" alt="Fig. 9.--Encased wash bowl." title="Fig. 9.&mdash;Encased wash bowl." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 9.&mdash;Encased wash bowl.</span>
+</div></td></tr></table></div>
+
+<p>About 1902 the iron-enamelled lavatory appeared on the
+market and drove all other kinds from the market at once.
+The reason for this is clear. The marble stands were
+absorbent and were made with three parts, top, back, and
+bowl; the enamelled iron lavatory is made all in one piece
+of material non-absorbent. A study of the illustrations
+will show clearly how the lavatory has been improved.
+Strange to say, in all plumbing fixtures, and especially the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+lavatory, as improvements were made to make them more
+sanitary a reduction has been made in the price of an
+individual fixture.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 10 and 11">
+<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_10" id="Fig_10"></a><a href="images/fig10.jpg"><img src="images/fig10tn.jpg" width="300" height="308" class="plain" alt="Fig. 10." title="Fig. 10." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 10.</span>
+</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_11" id="Fig_11"></a><a href="images/fig11.jpg"><img src="images/fig11tn.jpg" width="500" height="312" class="plain" alt="Fig. 11.--Bath room of early 80&#39;s. All fixtures are enclosed." title="Fig. 11.&mdash;Bath room of early 80&#39;s. All fixtures are enclosed." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 11.&mdash;Bath room of early 80&#39;s. All fixtures are enclosed.</span>
+</div></td></tr></table></div>
+
+<p>The development of the urinal, showers, wash trays,
+drinking fountains and other fixtures I will not attempt to
+cover. As the demand has been evident for fixtures of
+certain types, the plumber has been alert to anticipate and
+supply it. There is need, however, for improvement in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+all our fixtures, especially that part which connects with the
+waste pipes, also the hanging, that is the arrangement or
+lack of arrangement for hanging fixtures to the wall. The
+waste and overflow of all fixtures need considerable change
+to make them sanitary. The opportunity is, therefore,
+before anyone who will apply himself to this development.
+Much money, thought, and time have been spent by the
+manufacturers of iron enamelled ware and by the potteries
+to gather suggestions made by the plumber in regard to
+fixtures, and then to perfect them. To these manufacturers
+is due the beautiful design, stability, and perfect sanitary
+material which make up our plumbing fixtures of today.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_12" id="Fig_12"></a><a href="images/fig12.jpg"><img src="images/fig12tn.jpg" width="500" height="432" class="plain" alt="Fig. 12." title="Fig. 12." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 12.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Use and Care of the Soldering Iron. Fluxes.
+Making Different Soldering Joints</span></h3>
+
+<p><b>The Soldering Iron.</b>&mdash;The soldering iron is one of the
+first tools a plumber has to master. This tool is sometimes
+called a "copper bit" as it is made of copper; and so throughout
+this book the words "soldering iron," "copper bit,"
+"iron," and "bit" are used synonymously. There are
+several different-shaped irons in common use today, but
+an iron shaped like the one in <a href="#Fig_13">Fig. 13</a> is the one for use in the
+following work. Take the iron as it is purchased, having
+a wooden handle and the copper exposed on pointed end.
+Before it can be used the point must be faced and tinned.
+To do this, proceed as follows:</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, heat the iron on the furnace.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, place in vise and file the four surfaces of the point.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, run a file over edges and point.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, heat the iron until it will melt solder.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, put 6 or 8 drops of solder and a piece of rosin the
+size of a chestnut on an ordinary red brick. (This rosin is
+called a flux.)</li>
+
+<li><i>Sixth</i>, take the hot iron and melt the solder and rosin on
+the brick.</li>
+
+<li><i>Seventh</i>, rub the four surfaces of the point of the iron on
+the brick keeping the point in the melted solder.</li></ol>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_13" id="Fig_13"></a><a href="images/fig13.gif"><img src="images/fig13tn.gif" width="500" height="61" class="plain" alt="Fig. 13.--Copper." title="Fig. 13.&mdash;Copper." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 13.&mdash;Copper.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The solder will soon stick to the copper surfaces and then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+the iron is ready for use.</p>
+
+<p>Another way to tin the iron that is in common use is to
+rub the point of a hot iron on a piece of sal-ammoniac, or dip
+the hot iron in reduced muriatic acid, then rub the stick
+of solder on the iron. The use of muriatic acid in tinning
+the iron is not recommended. In the first place, it is not
+always possible to carry it, and in the second place it eats
+holes in the surface of iron, which makes it necessary to file
+and smooth the surfaces again. The constant use of
+muriatic acid on the copper soon wears it away and makes
+it unfit for use. Rosin is easily carried and applied and is
+by far the best to use in regular work.</p>
+
+<p><b>Points to Remember in the Care of the Soldering Iron.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, proper tinning is absolutely necessary for rapid and
+good work.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, do not allow the iron to heat red hot.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, keep the point of the iron properly shaped.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, use the same flux in tinning as is to be used in
+soldering.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, when filing iron, file as little as possible.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sixth</i>, keep in use two irons of the same size.</li></ol>
+
+
+<h3>FLUX</h3>
+
+<p>A flux is used to clean the surfaces of joints and seams
+to be soldered, also to keep them from oxidizing and to
+help the metals to fuse.</p>
+
+<p>The following list gives the names of various fluxes in
+common use, how they are applied, and on what material
+they are most commonly used:</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="flux uses">
+<col style="width:35%" />
+<col style="width:30%" />
+<col style="width:35%" />
+<tr><th>Flux</th><th>How applied</th><th>Used on</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Rosin</td><td><span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">Sprinkled on</span></td><td>Lead, tin, and brass</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Tallow</td><td><span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">Melted</span></td><td>Lead and brass</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Muriatic acid (reduced)</td><td><span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">With swab</span></td><td>Copper, galvanized iron</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">and brass</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Muriatic acid (raw)</td><td><span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">With swab</span></td><td>Dirty galvanized iron</td></tr></table>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Rosin.</b>&mdash;Rosin is purchased by the pound and comes in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+chunks. It is very brittle and powders easily. Plumbers
+generally take a piece of 1<span class="frac"><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></span> N. P. brass tubing, solder a
+trap screw in one end and a cone-shaped piece of copper
+on the other. The point of the cone is left open. Rosin
+is put into this tube and is easily sprinkled on work when
+needed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tallow.</b>&mdash;A plumber's <i>tallow candle</i> answers the purpose
+for tallow flux. Some plumbers carry a can for the tallow,
+making it cleaner to handle.</p>
+
+<p><b>Muriatic Acid.</b>&mdash;Muriatic acid or hydrochloric acid is
+used both raw and reduced. Raw acid is not diluted or
+reduced. Reduced acid is made as follows: Put some zinc
+chips in a lead receptacle and then pour in the muriatic
+acid. The acid will at once act on the zinc. The fumes
+should be allowed to escape into the outer air. When
+chemical action ceases, the liquid remaining is called reduced
+acid.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PLUMBERS' SOILS AND PASTE</h3>
+
+<p>It is necessary when soldering or wiping a joint to cover
+the parts of pipe adjoining the portion that is to be soldered
+or wiped so that the solder will not stick to it. There are
+a number of preparations for this. The one used by the
+best mechanics today is paste, made as follows:</p>
+
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li>8 teaspoons of flour.</li>
+<li>1 teaspoon of salt.</li>
+<li>1 teaspoon of sugar.</li>
+<li>Mix with water and boil down to a thick paste.</li></ul>
+
+<p>The advantages of paste as a soil are many:</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, it is made of materials easily obtained.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, solder will not stick to it.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, if pipe is thoroughly cleaned, the paste will not rub
+off easily.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, poor workmanship cannot be covered up.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, when the work is completed, a wet cloth will wipe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+it off and leave the work clean.</li></ol>
+
+<p>Another soil used is <i>lampblack</i> and <i>glue</i>. A quantity of
+glue is melted and then lampblack is added. This needs
+to be heated and water added each time it is used. This
+soil is put on pipes with a short stubby brush. The work
+when completed with the silvery joint and jet black borders
+appears to the uninitiated very artistic and neat, but when
+the black soil is worn away the uneven edges of the joint
+appear, disclosing the reason for using a black soil that
+covers all defects. The mechanic of today who takes pride
+in his ability for good workmanship will not cover his work
+with black soil.</p>
+
+<p>It can readily be seen that the use of lampblack soil
+encourages poor workmanship, while the use of paste forces,
+to a certain extent, good workmanship on the part of the
+mechanic.</p>
+
+<p>Before soil or paste is applied, the pipe needs to be
+cleansed. Grease and dirt accumulate on the pipe. The
+methods employed to remove all foreign matter are simply
+to scrape the surface with fine sand or emery paper; sand
+and water will also answer for this purpose. This cleans
+the surface and allows the soil or paste to stick to the pipe.</p>
+
+
+<h3>MAKING DIFFERENT SOLDER JOINTS</h3>
+
+<p>The tools used in making the different solder joints as
+described and illustrated in this chapter are shown in <a href="#Fig_14">Fig. 14</a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cup Joint.</b>&mdash;The materials necessary for the work (<a href="#Fig_15">Fig.
+15</a>): 12 inches of <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch AA lead pipe, paste, rosin, <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> and
+<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> solder.</p>
+
+<p>If a gas furnace is not on the bench to heat the iron, then
+a gasoline furnace is necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Each of the following operations must be done thoroughly
+to insure a perfect job:</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, with the <b>saw</b> cut off 12 inches of <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch AA lead<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+pipe from the coil. When cutting off a piece of lead pipe
+from a coil or reel, always straighten out 1 foot more than
+is needed. This leaves 1 foot of straight pipe always on
+the coil.</li></ol>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_14" id="Fig_14"></a><a href="images/fig14.gif"><img src="images/fig14tn.gif" width="500" height="362" class="plain" alt="Fig. 14.--Tools used for making solder joints." title="Fig. 14.&mdash;Tools used for making solder joints." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 14.&mdash;Tools used for making solder joints.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li>
+<p><i>Second</i>, with the flat side of the <b>rasp</b>, square the ends of
+the 12-inch piece of pipe. (A good way to do this is to
+hold the pipe at right angles with the edge of the bench,
+run the rasp across the end of the pipe, keeping the rasp
+<i>parallel</i> with the edge of the bench. Apply this to all work
+when necessary to square the ends of pipe.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Third</i>, cut the pipe with the saw, making two pieces each
+6 inches in length.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourth</i>, square the ends just cut.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fifth</i>, rasp the edges of one end as shown in the cut. Hold
+the work in such a way that the stroke of the rasp can be
+seen without moving the pipe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sixth</i>, take the other 6-inch piece of pipe and with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+<b>turn pin</b> spread one end of it. The turn pin must be
+struck squarely in the center with the <b>hammer</b>, the point
+of the turn pin being kept in the center of the pipe. The
+pipe should be turned after each blow of the hammer.
+The pipe must not rest on the bench but should be held
+in the hand while using the turn pin. If the pipe bends,
+it can be straightened with <b>bending irons</b>. If the pipe is
+spread more on one side than the other, the turn pin should
+be hit on the opposite side so as to even the spread.</p>
+</li></ol>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_15" id="Fig_15"></a><a href="images/fig15.gif"><img src="images/fig15tn.gif" width="300" height="443" class="plain" alt="Fig. 15." title="Fig. 15." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 15.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 141px;">
+<a name="Fig_16" id="Fig_16"></a><a href="images/fig16.gif"><img src="images/fig16tn.gif" width="141" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 16.--Cup joint." title="Fig. 16.&mdash;Cup joint." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 16.&mdash;Cup joint.</span>
+</div>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li>
+<p><i>Seventh</i>, when the pipes are properly fitted, moisten the
+tips of the fingers with paste and rub the paste on parts of
+pipe marked "paste." Put the pipe aside to allow the
+paste to dry.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eighth</i>, put the soldering iron on to heat.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Ninth</i>, with the <b>shave hook</b> scrape off the paste and surface
+dirt as shown in the figure. The inside of the cup
+will look bright, but must be scraped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tenth</i>, place the two pieces into position as shown
+in <a href="#Fig_16">Fig. 16</a>, sprinkle rosin on the joint, melt
+a few drops of solder on the joint and
+with the iron melt the solder on the joint,
+drawing the iron around the pipe keeping
+the solder melted around the iron all the
+time.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eleventh</i>, fill the joint with solder and continue
+to draw the hot iron around the joint
+until a smooth and bright surface is obtained.
+To master the correct use of the
+soldering iron in this work, considerable
+practice will be necessary.</p>
+</li></ol>
+
+<p><b>Overcast Joints.</b>&mdash;(<a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;Each operation must be performed
+thoroughly.</p></div>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li>
+<p><i>First</i>, saw off from a coil of 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch D
+lead pipe a 10-inch piece of pipe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second</i>, square the ends with the rasp,
+as previously explained.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third</i>, take a 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch <b>drift plug</b> and
+drive through the pipe (<a href="#Fig_18">Fig. 18</a>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourth</i>, saw the pipe into two pieces of
+5 inches each.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fifth</i>, square the ends of the pipe with the rasp.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sixth</i>, rasp off the outside edge of one end of the pipe as
+shown.</p>
+
+<p><i>Seventh</i>, rasp off the inside edge of one end of the pipe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eighth</i>, finish rasped surfaces with a file. Both surfaces
+should have the same angle.</p>
+</li></ol>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 17 to 19">
+<tr><td colspan="2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+<a name="Fig_17" id="Fig_17"></a><a href="images/fig17.gif"><img src="images/fig17tn.gif" width="300" height="301" class="plain" alt="Fig. 17." title="Fig. 17." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 17.</span>
+</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="baseline">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 168px;">
+<a name="Fig_18" id="Fig_18"></a><a href="images/fig18.gif"><img src="images/fig18tn.gif" width="168" height="350" class="plain" alt="Fig. 18." title="Fig. 18." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 18.</span>
+</div></td>
+
+<td valign="baseline"><div class="figright" style="width: 244px;">
+<a name="Fig_19" id="Fig_19"></a><a href="images/fig19.gif"><img src="images/fig19tn.gif" width="244" height="350" class="plain" alt="Fig. 19.--Overcast joint." title="Fig. 19.&mdash;Overcast joint." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 19.&mdash;Overcast joint.</span>
+</div></td></tr></table></div>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li>
+<p><i>Ninth</i>, with a shave hook scrape the outside surface of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+each pipe for about 1 inch from the end.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tenth</i>, put the soldering iron on to heat.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eleventh</i>, paste paper on the joint as shown in the cut.</p>
+
+<p><i>Twelfth</i>, fit the pieces together and lay on the bench.
+Drop some melted solder on the joint and with the hot
+iron proceed to flow the solder around the joint by turning
+the pipe. Use plenty of flux (rosin). The pipes must be
+tacked in three or four places at first or they will have a
+tendency to spread.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thirteenth</i>, to finish the joint, lift the iron straight up.</p>
+</li></ol>
+
+<p>This joint when finished will have a bright smooth finish.
+The two foregoing joints need considerable practice and
+should be perfectly mastered before going on to the next
+job.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SEAMS</h3>
+
+<p>A description of the making of wiped seams for lead-lined
+tanks will not be attempted as very few are made
+now. The plumber, however, is often called upon to make
+a seam joining two pieces of sheet lead. The beginner
+will do well to go over the following exercise carefully and
+practice it thoroughly.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_20" id="Fig_20"></a><a href="images/fig20.gif"><img src="images/fig20tn.gif" width="500" height="210" class="plain" alt="Fig. 20.--Flat seam." title="Fig. 20.&mdash;Flat seam." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 20.&mdash;Flat seam.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Materials.</b>&mdash;Two pieces of 8-pound sheet lead, 6 by 10
+inches each; one bar of <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> solder; paste, paper, and
+rosin.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tools.</b>&mdash;Rasp, shave hook, and soldering iron.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The 10-inch side of each piece is rasped and fitted together.
+The edges are cleaned and paper is pasted on leaving <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span>
+inch for solder. Paste without the paper can be put on.
+This will make a joint <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inch wide.</p>
+
+<p>Apply the rosin to the joint, then with the heated iron
+and some solder tack the seam on the top, then on the
+bottom and middle. This will prevent the seam from
+spreading when the lead is heated. Solder and rosin can now
+be put on the full length of the joint. With a hot iron proceed
+to float the solder down the seam. The soldering iron
+must not rest at full length on the pieces of lead or it will
+melt the lead and render the work useless. The solder will
+flow and form a clean neat seam, if the iron is at the right
+heat and the right amount of solder is put on. If the iron is
+too hot, the solder will flow instantly when the iron is laid
+on it and the solder will disappear as it runs through the
+seam. If the iron is too cold the solder will not melt
+enough to flow. Too much solder on the seam will cause it
+to overflow, that is, the solder will spread beyond the
+papered edges. After a little practice this surplus solder
+can be drawn in on the seam with the iron and carried
+along the seam to some point that has not enough solder.
+When the seam is completed the edges should be perfectly
+straight and even. The iron is carried along the seam with
+one stroke which makes the seam appear smooth and
+bright.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Mixtures of Solders for Soldering Iron and Wiping.<br />
+Care of Solders. Melting Points of<br />
+Metals and Alloys</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>The importance of good solder, that is, solder correctly
+mixed and thoroughly cleaned, should not be overlooked.
+Work is more quickly and neatly done and the job presents
+a more finished appearance when solder that is correctly
+made is used.</p>
+
+<p>The solder used in the following work with the soldering
+iron is called <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>. This means <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> (50 per cent.) lead
+and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> (50 per cent.) tin.</p>
+
+<p>In the mixture of solder, only pure metals should be used.
+The lead should be melted first and all the dross cleaned
+off. The tin should then be added and mixed.</p>
+
+<p>The solder to be used in wiping the joints in the following
+chapter is a mixture of 37 per cent. tin and 63 per cent. lead.
+This is called wiping solder.</p>
+
+<p>The following table gives the melting points, etc.:</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="melting points">
+<col style="width:22%" />
+<col style="width:23%" />
+<col style="width:55%" />
+<tr><th class="bt" align="center">Metal</th><th class="bbox" align="center">Melting point</th><th class="bt" align="center">Mixture</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="brt">Sulphur.............</td><td align="center">228</td><td class="blt">Pure</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Tin....................</td><td align="center">446</td><td class="bl">Pure</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Lead.................</td><td align="center">626</td><td class="bl">Pure</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Zinc..................</td><td align="center">680</td><td class="bl">Pure</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Fine solder........</td><td align="center">400</td><td class="bl">50 per cent. tin, 50 per cent. lead (wt.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brb">Wiping solder....</td><td align="center" class="brb">370</td><td class="bb">37 per cent. tin, 63 per cent. lead (wt.)</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>To recognize fine solder, run off a bar into a mold and let<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+it cool. If there is a frosted streak in the center, the metal
+has not enough tin. The surface should be bright. To
+recognize wiping solder, pour some on a brick. When this
+is cool, the top should be frosty and the under side should
+have four or five bright spots. The amount poured on the
+brick should be about the size of a half dollar. If poured on
+iron, the metal will cool too quickly and show bright all
+over the under side.</p>
+
+<p><b>To Make <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> Solder or Plumber's Fine Solder.</b>&mdash;The
+possibility of getting pure clean metals to mix solder is
+very remote. Old pieces of lead pipe, lead trap, old block
+tin pipe are used to make solder when pure metals are not at
+hand.</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li>
+<p><i>First</i>, in a cast-iron pot melt the lead to about 800&deg;, or a
+dull red.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second</i>, clean off the dross.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third</i>, add (to a 15-pound pot) <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> pound of sulphur in
+three applications. Each time mix the sulphur thoroughly
+with the metal with a long stick.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourth</i>, add tin before the last application of sulphur.
+Mix thoroughly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fifth</i>, pour off two bars and look for the frosty streak in
+the center. Add a little more tin, if necessary.</p>
+</li></ol>
+
+<p><b>To Mix Wiping Solder.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li>
+<p><i>First</i>, proceed as described in <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>, melting the
+metals and <i>burning</i> out with sulphur, adding the percentage
+of tin according to the preceding table. Then test the
+solder for bright spots on the under side.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second</i>, keep the metal thoroughly mixed when burning
+and keep all dross cleaned off the surface.</p>
+</li></ol>
+
+<p>The working heat of wiping solder is 500&deg;F. Sulphur is
+used to collect all zinc and dross. The sulphur should come
+in contact with all parts of the metal. This is why the
+metal should be stirred when the sulphur is put in.</p>
+
+<p>A few good points in the economical care of solder are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+listed below.</p>
+
+<p><b>Care of <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> Solder.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li>
+<p><i>First</i>, do not drop melted solder on the floor or dirty bench.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second</i>, use all small ends by melting on a new bar.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third</i>, put clean paper under work and use droppings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourth</i>, have the mold free from dirt when pouring.</p>
+</li></ol>
+
+<p><b>Care of Wiping Solder.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li>
+<p><i>First</i>, do not heat red hot.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second</i>, do not file brass where the filings will get into the
+solder.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third</i>, do not allow lead chips to get into the solder.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourth</i>, clean the solder occasionally.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fifth</i>, learn to distinguish solder from lead by its hardness.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sixth</i>, have different-shaped pot for lead and solder.</p>
+
+<p><i>Seventh</i>, do not <i>tin</i> brass by dipping into solder.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eighth</i>, do not put cold or wet ladle into hot solder.</p>
+</li></ol>
+
+<p>A pot holding about 15 pounds of solder is the size commonly
+in use.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Making and Care of Wiping Cloths</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>A good wiping cloth is essential for wiping joints. The
+exact size and the flexibility of the cloth depend a great
+deal upon the mechanic who handles the cloth. Some
+mechanics like a stiff cloth, but the writer has always used
+a flexible cloth. The sizes, shape, and methods of folding
+and breaking in as shown in <a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21</a> below have proved
+successful. Cloths made of whalebone ticking are inexpensive
+and make the best for ordinary use.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_21" id="Fig_21"></a><a href="images/fig21.gif"><img src="images/fig21tn.gif" width="500" height="294" class="plain" alt="Fig. 21.--Folding a wiping cloth." title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 21.&mdash;Folding a wiping cloth.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="wiping cloths">
+<col style="width:40%" />
+<col style="width:20%" />
+<col style="width:40%" />
+<tr><th>Size of cloth open</th><th>&nbsp;</th><th>Size of cloth folded</th></tr>
+<tr><td>14<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> by 14<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches</td><td align="center">equals</td><td>3<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> by  3<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inches</td></tr>
+<tr><td>13<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> by 13<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches</td><td align="center">equals</td><td>3 by 3 inches</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;8<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> by 12<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches</td><td align="center">equals</td><td>2 by 3 inches</td></tr> <!--Changed '&times;' to 'by' for consistency-->
+</table></div></div>
+
+<p>For the joint-wiping jobs to follow, the above sizes are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+the best. The largest size, 14<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> by 14<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches is used for
+<i>catch cloth</i>. The 13<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> by 13<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches is the <i>wiping cloth</i>.
+The 8<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> by 12<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches is the <i>branch cloth</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Proceed as follows to cut and complete a cloth:</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, lay the ticking on the flat bench and square the
+sides 14<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> by 14<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, the ticking should be cut off with shears and not
+torn or cut with a knife.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, fold as shown in the cut.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>Each fold should be moistened with a little water and
+pressed with a hot iron. The cloth should not be pulled
+or stretched, but should be kept as square as possible.</p>
+
+<p>The first and second folds require a little care; the corners
+when folded to the center should be kept in a little, thus
+making the outside edge slightly rounded. If this is done,
+the corners will not stick out when the cloth is finished.
+After the cloth is carefully folded, pressed, and dried, take
+a needle and thread and sew the open corners about <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inch
+in from the edge of the cloth. By carefully studying the
+cut, one can readily see each operation and, by following
+directions, make a perfect cloth.</p>
+
+<p>When the cloth is done, an amount of oil sufficient to soak
+through about three layers of cloth should be applied and
+then rubbed on a smooth surface. The oil should be rubbed
+in well about the edges. It will not be necessary to apply
+anything else to the cloth to prepare it for wiping. Paste,
+soil, chalk, etc., are not needed and do not benefit the cloth.
+When using oil on the cloth, it must not be used too freely,
+that is, the cloth must not be soaked in oil, as oil is a rapid
+conductor of heat and the cloth would soon become too hot
+to handle.</p>
+
+<p><b>Care of Wiping Cloths.</b>&mdash;The ticking will burn if allowed
+to become too hot. If hot solder is poured directly on the
+cloth, it will soon burn and be destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>Keep the surface on both sides of the cloth well oiled.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Use both sides of the cloth.</p>
+
+<p>Use both wiping edges of the cloth.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<a name="Fig_22" id="Fig_22"></a><a href="images/fig22.gif"><img src="images/fig22tn.gif" width="250" height="275" class="plain" alt="Fig. 22.--Wiping cloth folded has 16 thicknesses of ticking." title="Fig. 22.&mdash;Wiping cloth folded has 16 thicknesses of ticking." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 22.&mdash;Wiping cloth folded has 16 thicknesses of ticking.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>When the cloth is not in use, it should not be thrown in
+with the other tools and allowed to curl up into all sorts of
+shapes, but should be kept in some flat place. A good way
+to keep the cloths is to have two pieces of wood between
+which the cloths may be kept and held there by means of
+a strap. The length of time which a wiping cloth can be
+used depends a great deal upon its making and upon the
+care which is given it.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Preparing and Wiping Joints</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>When the writer first started to carry the tools for a
+plumber and to prepare joints for wiping, the remark was
+often heard that joint wiping would soon be a thing of the
+past. I have heard this many times since from many different
+sources. Personally, I fail to see the passing of the
+wiped joint. More lead pipe is being made today than ever
+before, which goes to show that lead pipe is being used and
+the only successful way of joining is with the wiped joint.
+Some plumbers' helpers of today seem to think that joint
+wiping is of no account. To a certain extent, I can sympathize
+with them. Most of these boys are learning a
+trade in large cities and working for concerns that do nothing
+but a large contracting business. This large work is
+carried on differently from the small work. Wrought-iron
+or steel pipes are used to a great extent in this work and a
+very small amount of lead is used. Sometimes the job
+will be completed without the use of lead. The boy who
+works continually on this kind of work soon comes to think
+that lead pipes are no longer in use. The writer has found
+that a boy who has learned to do nothing but screw-pipe
+work is absolutely lost and cannot perform the duties of a
+plumber, other than screw-pipe work. It must be borne in
+mind that lead pipe and cast-iron pipe work are being used
+today in all parts of the country and in some parts more than
+in others. Therefore, the boy must grasp all branches of
+the trade that he has chosen to follow and not be a one-sided
+man. Joint wiping belongs to the plumber alone. The
+plumbing trade differs from all other trades in that it has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+joint wiping for its distinctive feature.</p>
+
+<p>A few attempts at joint wiping will convince the beginner
+that it is not the easiest thing in the world to learn. Let me
+caution the beginner not to get discouraged. He must have
+patience and a firm resolve to master the art of joint wiping
+and not let it master him and keep him back.</p>
+
+<p>So, as we now start on exercises of joint wiping, let the
+beginner constantly keep in mind that all boys must become
+perfectly skilled in the art of joint wiping before they
+can be considered plumbers. Keep in mind also that the
+examination that one must take to get a plumber's license
+contains an actual exercise in joint wiping. The one word
+of advice is not to get discouraged. Continued practice is
+the only way to success.</p>
+
+<p>The soldering iron is, or should be, conquered by this
+time. As joint wiping is the next exercise, I shall go over
+a few general points that experience has taught me and
+cannot fail to be of assistance to the beginner if they are
+heeded. In fact, to become proficient, the beginner should
+remember all the points suggested under this heading. It is
+necessary in wiping to have good solder. In the chapter on
+solder, I have given the correct mixtures and how to recognize
+the proper mixtures. The place where wiping is to be
+done should be considered. No draught should be allowed
+to blow across the work as it tends to chill the solder and
+pipe. Proper support for the work should be procured.
+If gasoline is to be used for fuel to heat the solder, make sure
+that the tank is full before starting, otherwise the fire
+may go out just when the heat is needed most and the solder
+in the pot has become too cool to wipe with. Have a catch
+pan and keep all the solder droppings to put back into the
+pot, otherwise the solder will pile up and the fingers are
+likely to be pushed into the pile and badly burned. Hold
+the ladle about 2 inches above the work, the catch cloth
+about 1 inches below. Do not drop the solder in the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+place. Keep moving the ladle. Do not pour the solder on
+the pipe in a steady stream, but drop it on. It is not a
+large amount of solder that is wanted on the joint at first,
+it is heat that is needed. This can be secured better by
+dropping the solder on than by pouring a large quantity
+on the pipe. The edges of the joint cool very quickly;
+therefore heat the edges well and keep them covered with
+molten solder until the joint is ready to wipe. When preparing
+joints for wiping, always do the work thoroughly
+and fit the pieces together tightly so that no solder can get
+through.</p>
+
+<p><b>Points to Remember.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+
+<li><i>First</i>, good solder.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, place of wiping.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, support.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, full tank of gasoline.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, drip pan.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sixth</i>, ladle 2 inches above the work.</li>
+
+<li><i>Seventh</i>, cloth 1 inches below the work.</li>
+
+<li><i>Eighth</i>, move the ladle continually.</li>
+
+<li><i>Ninth</i>, <i>drop</i> the solder.</li>
+
+<li><i>Tenth</i>, <i>heat</i>, not solder wanted at first.</li>
+
+<li><i>Eleventh</i>, heat the edges.</li>
+
+<li><i>Twelfth</i>, careful preparation.</li>
+
+<li><i>Thirteenth</i>, clean grease from the pipe.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourteenth</i>, cut clean straight edges on paper.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<h3>HALF-INCH ROUND WIPED JOINT</h3>
+
+<p><b>Preparation.</b>&mdash;Take 12 inches of <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch strong lead pipe
+and square off the ends with a rasp. Take the shave hook
+and scrape the center of the pipe perfectly bright; a space
+3 inches each side of the center is correct. The size of the
+joint when completed should be 2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches long. If we
+should undertake to wipe the joint with the pipe in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+present condition, the solder would adhere to all the pipe
+that was shaved bright. Therefore, we take a piece of paper
+sufficient to encircle the pipe twice and after putting paste
+on one side of the paper wrap it around the pipe so that the
+edge that is cut straight and even is 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inches from the
+center of the pipe. Another piece of paper is pasted on the
+other side of the center leaving a clean, bright space of 2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>
+inches. All the pipe should be covered with paper except
+the 2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches in the center.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_23" id="Fig_23"></a><a href="images/fig23.gif"><img src="images/fig23tn.gif" width="500" height="391" class="plain" alt="Fig. 23." title="Fig. 23." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 23.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>To Put the Pipe in Position for Wiping.</b>&mdash;The most practical
+way is to take two common red bricks with the 2 by 8
+face down and place them 9 inches apart. Lay the pipe on
+the bricks and place a weight on each end. The solder will
+drop on to the bench, so it is best to place a piece of paper
+or a pan of black iron under the pipe to catch the solder
+that drops. The pan or paper can then be taken up and
+the solder put back into the pot without waste. A cast-iron<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+pot holding 15 pounds of solder is then placed on the
+furnace. When the solder has melted and has reached 500&deg;
+it is ready for use. This can best be determined by putting
+a piece of paper in the solder. If the paper scorches, the
+solder is at the right heat; if the paper catches fire, it is too
+hot.</p>
+
+<p>Now take a 3-inch ladle and heat it over the fire and then
+dip it into the solder and skim off any dross that may have
+collected.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wiping.</b>&mdash;With the ladle full of solder in the right hand
+and the large cloth or the catch cloth in the left hand, begin
+to drop the solder on the joint. The cloth should catch all
+the solder as it falls off the pipe. If hot solder is held against
+the bottom of the pipe, it is heated to the proper heat.
+Always begin to drop the solder on the paper edges, then
+drop the solder on the joint itself. Bear in mind that the
+solder should not be poured on, but dropped on slowly.
+After the first few drops do not drop the solder directly on
+to the lead pipe but on to the solder previously put on the
+pipe. This will save the pipe from burning through.
+The pipe must be the same heat as the solder before the
+proper heat is obtained for good wiping. The beginner
+should practice dropping the solder on the joint, catching
+the solder and working it around the pipe. By doing this,
+one becomes familiar with the feeling of hot solder, which is
+the secret of successful wiping. When the solder works
+easily around the pipe, drop the ladle and take the smaller
+wiping cloth in the right hand and with both cloths draw all
+the solder on top of the pipe. With fingers on the corners
+of both cloths, clean off the left-hand edge and with the right
+hand draw the surplus solder across to the right-hand edge.
+Next, clean the right-hand edge of the joint pushing the
+surplus solder onto the cloth in the right hand. Work this
+solder on to the bottom of the joint. Now discard the
+catch cloth. Holding the wiping cloth with the index<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+fingers on lower opposite corners, shape the under and
+front side of the joint. With the middle fingers on opposite
+lower corners of the cloth shape the back and top. Keep
+the index and middle fingers on the edge of the cloth and
+the edge of the cloth on the edge of the joint. This position
+together with the size and shape of the cloth will give
+the joint the desired form and appearance. Particular
+attention is called to the position of the fingers as shown in
+the figure.</p>
+
+<p>The last wipe should be a quick stroke coming off of
+joint on a tangent. If the solder is at right heat, the cloth
+will not leave a noticeable mark. If, however, the solder
+is too cold, a ragged edge will result. Sometimes a cross
+wipe is made for the last stroke and a good finish obtained.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Points to Remember.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, width of the joint, 2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, allow no soil or paste to get on the joint.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, a 3-inch ladle should be used.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, 500&deg; is the working heat of solder.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, paper test for solder heat.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sixth</i>, position of wiping cloths.</li>
+
+<li><i>Seventh</i>, do not drop solder on the lead pipe.</li>
+
+<li><i>Eighth</i>, hold the ladle 2 inches above the pipe.</li>
+
+<li><i>Ninth</i>, wipe the edges of the joint first.</li>
+
+<li><i>Tenth</i>, wipe and shape the joint quickly.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>The above procedure of wiping will be found to work
+out very easily if followed closely. Do not pour the hot
+solder onto the cloth as the cloth will burn through and soon
+be useless. A little more oil should be put on the cloth
+after using it for awhile. The cloth should be turned
+around and the opposite side also used. The cloth will
+last considerably longer if sides are changed frequently.
+The solder should not accumulate on the pan, but should be
+continually put back into the pot. The "metal," as solder
+is sometimes called, should never be allowed to become<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+red hot.</p>
+
+<p>The above method of preparing pipe is suggested for
+beginners only and will be found to be a great help to them.
+In actual practice the joint must be prepared differently.
+The method used in trade is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>The joint is used to join two pieces of lead pipe. Take
+two pieces and rasp the four ends square. With the tap
+borer clean out the end of one pipe a trifle, then with the
+turn pin enlarge this end just a little as shown in the figure.
+Then rasp the edge off about <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span> inch as shown. Take the
+other piece of pipe and rasp one end as was done in the cup
+joint, making it fit into the first piece. Then place the
+two ends together and with the bending iron beat the pipe,
+making the joint as tight as possible.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ROUND JOINT&mdash;45&deg; TO RIGHT</h3>
+
+<p>The next position in which the beginner is to wipe a joint
+is on an angle of 45&deg; to the right.</p>
+
+<p><b>Preparation.</b>&mdash;To prepare this joint, proceed as in the
+horizontal round joint. I will enumerate a few of these
+points. A piece 12 inches long of <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch pipe is cut off
+and the ends squared. A strip in the center, 6 inches long,
+is shaved clean. Paper and paste are put over the pipe
+except 2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches in the center. Grease can be put on the
+pipe in between the pieces of paper and will keep the lead
+from oxidizing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Placing Pipe in Position.</b>&mdash;There is no need of an elaborate
+system of holding the pipe in position. Take a red brick
+and place the 4 by 8 face down. This will do for the bottom
+pipe. For the top of pipe to rest on, place two bricks
+one above the other; this will give the correct position.
+Place the pipe on the brick and with a ladle full of half
+molten solder pour a clamp of solder over the end of the
+pipe. This will hold the pipe firm for wiping. Place a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+catch pan under the joint for solder to fall in.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wiping.</b>&mdash;The method of wiping this joint is practically
+the same as wiping the horizontal joint. The catch cloth
+should be held parallel with the bench tilting a little from
+front toward the back. The ladle is held the same and
+solder is dropped on as before. The ladle should be continually
+moving while dropping solder, not allowing the
+solder to drop twice in the same place. When the solder
+has been worked around the pipe and is at working heat, the
+solder is drawn up with both cloths and the top edge wiped
+first, then the bottom edge; the surplus solder is put on the
+underside of the joint, and then with three or four wipes
+the joint is made symmetrical and finished.</p>
+
+<p><b>Things to Remember.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, prepare like the horizontal joint.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, use brick to place in position.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, hold tools as in horizontal joint.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, top edge cools first, therefore, wipe it first.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, hold the wiping cloth at an angle of 45&deg; when wiping,
+with fingers placed as noted in previous joint.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sixth</i>, make solder clamp for holding the pipe.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<h3>ROUND JOINT 45&deg;&mdash;LEFT</h3>
+
+<p>When the preceding joint is well mastered and a number
+of good joints have been wiped, turn the pipe on an angle
+of 45&deg; to the left.</p>
+
+<p><b>Preparation.</b>&mdash;The preparation for this joint is exactly
+the same as for the horizontal joint. The beginner should
+turn back and read carefully concerning the perfection of
+the joint. Bear in mind that the pipe must be correctly
+prepared or a good joint cannot be made. The edge of
+the paper must be cut not torn.</p>
+
+<p><b>Placing Pipe in Position.</b>&mdash;This pipe can be placed in
+position the same as the preceding one. If heavy weights
+are placed on the ends of the pipe, a bad habit may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+formed by the one learning to wipe. That is, the habit of
+pressing hard on the joint when wiping. In the preceding
+joint, if the beginner presses too hard, the pipe will fall
+off the bricks.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wiping.</b>&mdash;Proceed as described for previous joints. The
+top edge must be favored a little. The hot solder will run
+down to the bottom edge; therefore less solder should be
+dropped on it than on the top edge. When the solder is
+at the proper heat for wiping it requires only a light touch
+to wipe the joint. If it appears necessary to press hard on
+the joint to wipe off surplus solder, it shows that the solder
+is not at the correct wiping heat.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ROUND JOINT&mdash;VERTICAL</h3>
+
+<p><b>Preparation.</b>&mdash;This joint can be prepared exactly like
+the preceding one. In fact, the same piece of pipe can be
+used throughout. When preparing this joint the end that
+is to be on the bottom should be well covered with paper.</p>
+
+<p><b>Placing in Position.</b>&mdash;The best way to hold this joint in
+position for wiping is to stand the pipe upright on one end
+with the pan underneath. A piece of furring strip should
+be run from the top of the pipe to the wall. Secure the
+strip to the wall and drive a nail through the strip into the
+bore of the pipe. Place a weight on top of the strip and the
+pipe is ready.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wiping.</b>&mdash;The procedure of wiping this joint is entirely
+different from that in the other positions. The solder is
+thrown onto the joint from the ladle. The catch cloth is
+held up to the pipe and as much solder as possible is held on
+to the pipe. Move the ladle around the joint, throwing a
+little solder on as the ladle is moved. Notice now that all
+the solder runs to the bottom edge, leaving the top edge
+cold. The solder that accumulates on the bottom edge
+should be drawn up to the top edge with the cloth. Then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+splash more solder on to the top edge and as the solder runs
+down the pipe catch it with the cloth and draw it up again.
+The solder can be worked around and up and down the joint,
+but always keep the top edge covered with hot solder. The
+solder is likely to drop off the joint entirely unless watched
+closely. When the correct heat is obtained, drop the ladle.
+Take the wiping cloth in the right hand and with the fingers
+spread, clean off the top edge quickly, then shape the joint
+with the one cloth. With a little practice you will gain this
+knack. The joint can then be wiped. The left hand can
+steady the pipe. Spread the index finger and third finger
+to opposite sides of the cloth and wipe around the joint.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Preparing and Wiping Joints</span> (<i>Continued</i>)</h3>
+
+
+<h3>TWO-INCH BRASS FERRULE</h3>
+
+<p><b>Materials.</b>&mdash;The beginner should continue wiping the
+vertical round joint until he is able to obtain a symmetrical
+bulb. A joint should be
+wiped in each of the foregoing
+positions for exhibition
+purposes, so that the
+beginner can have before
+him the best work and
+strive to make the next
+joint better. This next
+joint, the 2-inch brass ferrule,
+is wiped in an upright
+position. The materials
+necessary are the 2-inch
+brass ferrule, 6 inches of
+2-inch light lead pipe, paste
+and paper, <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>
+solder, rosin, wiping solder,
+catch pan, and supports.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_24" id="Fig_24"></a><a href="images/fig24.gif"><img src="images/fig24tn.gif" width="300" height="475" class="plain" alt="Fig. 24." title="Fig. 24." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 24.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Tools Required.</b>&mdash;The
+tools necessary for this
+work are as follows: the
+saw, rasp, drift plug,
+dresser, file, soldering iron, bending irons, wiping cloths,
+shave hook, and ladle.</p>
+
+<p><b>Preparation.</b>&mdash;The lead pipe must be fitted into the brass
+ferrule. The brass ferrule has to be tinned first. To do<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+this, proceed as follows: file the ferrule for about 2 inches
+on the tapered end. Do not file too deep, but just enough
+to expose the pure bright metal. Now measure from the
+small end 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inches down toward the beaded end. From
+this point to the bead, cover the brass with paste and paper.
+No paste must get on the 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span>-in. filed end. This end should
+not be touched with the fingers. If paste gets on it, the
+process of filing must be done over again as the solder will
+not stick where there is paste. If the brass ferrule is filed
+while the paper is on the brass, the filing will destroy the
+straight edge of the paper and an even joint cannot be made.
+It would therefore be necessary to re-paper the brass. Take
+some powdered rosin and cover the filed end of the ferrule
+with molten solder using the rosin as a flux. Do not dip
+the end of the ferrule into the hot wiping solder to tin it or
+pour wiping solder on the brass ferrule. This method of
+tinning the ferrule will spoil the wiping solder. Always use
+the soldering iron to tin the ferrule as explained above.
+A little practice will develop the use of the iron in the hands
+of the beginner so that this tinning process will be done very
+rapidly. The iron should be put on to heat when the paper
+is being pasted on the brass; the iron will then be ready
+for use when needed.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 244px;">
+<a name="Fig_25" id="Fig_25"></a><a href="images/fig25.gif"><img src="images/fig25tn.gif" width="244" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 25.--Two-inch brass ferrule." title="Fig. 25.&mdash;Two-inch brass ferrule." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 25.&mdash;Two-inch brass ferrule.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Preparing the Lead.</b>&mdash;The ends of the lead pipe must be
+squared with the rasp. All kinks and dents are taken out
+by using the drift plug and driving it through the pipe.
+Take a piece of smooth pine stick and start to beat in the
+end of the lead pipe to fit the brass ferrule. The pipe
+should be beaten in starting about <span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inches from the end.
+It should be beaten in very slowly until it fits the ferrule.
+The pipe is held in the hand all the time and considerable
+time should be spent on this as it is the first time the beating
+in of lead pipe has been called for. The knack of doing this
+comes only by slow and continued practice. The lead must
+be "humored" into shape and not "driven" into shape.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+The end of the pipe is tapered still more by rasping off
+the end. About <span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inch should extend into the brass
+ferrule. With the bending irons, the lead extending into
+the brass ferrule is beaten against the inside wall of the
+ferrule. A good way to do this is to wedge the lead pipe
+in as much as possible at first, then lay the work flat on the
+bench, in which position it is more easily worked. The
+sketch should be thoroughly studied and each notation
+be perfectly understood, before proceeding with the work.
+Now that the lead pipe is perfectly fitted into place, it is
+prepared for wiping. The joint overall will be 2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches.
+As we have already allowed 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inches on the brass ferrule
+for the joint, the lead will have to be cleaned that much
+more. With the shave hook, shave the end of the pipe that
+has been fitted into the brass ferrule. A space about 4
+inches should be cleaned. This will give a cleaned surface
+free from dirt and grease for the paste and paper to adhere
+to. Next paste the paper in place. The lead pipe can be
+entirely covered, or 3 or 4 inches only, above the 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inches
+allowed for the joint. The space between the paper on
+the brass and the paper on the lead should now be 2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches.
+The paste and paper should now be allowed to dry.</p>
+
+<p><b>Supporting the Pipe.</b>&mdash;This joint is wiped with the
+ferrule down on the bench. A flat pan is laid on the bench
+and the ferrule stood upon it. A weight on top of the lead
+pipe is all that is necessary. If this does not make the
+pipe rigid enough for the beginner, then a support similar
+to the round vertical joint support can be used. The
+beginner is advised, however, to practice the wiping of this
+joint with only the weight to hold it in position. The
+beginner will then be required to wipe the joint while the
+solder is hot, when it does not require a heavy pressure
+against the solder to wipe it in shape. These wiped
+joints should be supported in place near the furnace
+that heats the solder so that the solder will be handy for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+wiping.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wiping.</b>&mdash;Wiping this joint brings in some of the methods
+of the round vertical joint. If that joint was thoroughly
+mastered, this joint will be wiped considerably more easily.
+The ladle is held in the right hand
+and the solder splashed on the
+joint. The catch cloth is held in
+the left hand and some of the
+solder is caught and brought up on
+the top edge. The top edge cools
+quickly as all the hot solder runs
+down to the bottom edge and into
+the pan. As the solder accumulates
+on the bottom edge, it is
+drawn up on the top edge, and in
+this manner the top edge is kept
+hot. When the solder can be
+worked freely around the pipe and
+the edges are hot, the joint is ready
+to wipe. The ladle is laid down
+and the wiping cloth is taken in
+the right hand and the top edge
+of the joint cleaned on one side.
+Then the wiping cloth is changed
+to the left hand and the other side
+of the top edge is cleaned. Holding
+the cloth in one hand with the index and the third fingers
+spread to the outside corners of the cloth, the cloth is
+passed around the joint quickly. To get an even and symmetrical
+joint, it is necessary to make two or three passes
+around the joint holding the cloth first in the right and
+then in the left hand. The free hand is used to steady
+the work. This joint should be wiped very slim to allow
+room for the caulking irons to pass by it and get into the
+hub of the pipe. Constant wiping on the brass ferrule will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+result in the tinning on the brass ferrule coming off. The
+ferrule will look black when this happens and will thus be
+recognized. The wiping should then be stopped and the
+ferrule filed and tinned in the same manner as it was done
+at first.</p>
+
+<p><b>Points to Remember.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, material&mdash;6 inches of 2-inch light lead pipe and one
+2-inch brass ferrule.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, tin ferrule, using soldering iron.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, use a soft pine stick for a dresser.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, fit the lead into the ferrule.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, clean and paper the lead.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sixth</i>, secure the pipe into position.</li>
+
+<li><i>Seventh</i>, using the catch cloth and ladle, splash solder on
+the joint.</li>
+
+<li><i>Eighth</i>, keep the top edge covered with solder.</li>
+
+<li><i>Ninth</i>, wipe the top edge first.</li>
+
+<li><i>Tenth</i>, shape and finish wiping with a few strokes.</li>
+
+<li><i>Eleventh</i>, tools used.</li>
+
+<li><i>Twelfth</i>, wipe a slim joint.</li>
+
+<li><i>Thirteenth</i>, steady the work with the free hand.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourteenth</i>, re-tin the ferrule, if necessary.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<h3>FOUR-INCH BRASS FERRULE</h3>
+
+<p>The 4-inch brass ferrule joint is the same as the 2-inch,
+except for size. The materials needed for this joint are 6
+inches of 4-inch, 8-pound lead pipe, and one 4-inch brass
+ferrule, one <i>full</i> pot of solder, some paste and paper, rosin,
+and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> solder.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tools Necessary.</b>&mdash;The tools required for this joint are
+as follows: saw, rasp, file, ladle, soldering iron, dresser,
+bending irons, shave hook, and wiping cloths.</p>
+
+<p><b>Preparation.</b>&mdash;<i>Lead Pipe.</i>&mdash;With the saw cut off 6 inches
+of 4-inch lead pipe. This pipe comes in lengths and should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+be for this work about 8 pounds to the foot in weight. The
+pipe may be dented badly, but these dents can be taken out
+as follows: Take a piece of 2-inch iron pipe and put it in
+a vise. The lead pipe can be slipped over this iron pipe
+and any dents taken out easily by beating with the dresser.
+One end of the lead pipe is
+beaten with the dresser until it
+fits into the ferrule. The end
+is then rasped a little. Then,
+after the brass ferrule has been
+tinned, the pipe is fitted into it
+and beaten out against the inside
+wall of the brass ferrule and a
+tight joint is made. The lead
+is next cleaned with the shave
+hook and paper is pasted on as
+explained under the 2-inch brass
+ferrule, the description of which
+should now be read over.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 270px;">
+<a name="Fig_26" id="Fig_26"></a><a href="images/fig26.gif"><img src="images/fig26tn.gif" width="270" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 26.--Four-inch brass
+ferrule." title="Fig. 26.&mdash;Four-inch brass
+ferrule." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 26.&mdash;Four-inch brass
+ferrule.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Brass Ferrule.</i>&mdash;The first thing
+to do with the brass ferrule is to
+file the end that is to be wiped.
+When the brass ferrule is filed,
+it should be done away from
+any part of the room where the
+filings are likely to get into the solder. After the filing
+has been done, paper is pasted on all of it except the
+part that is to be tinned and no paste must get on
+to this part of the ferrule. If any paste does get on
+to it, the filing will have to be done over again. When
+using paste and paper, neatness must be cultivated, or
+paste will be spread over parts of the pipe that are supposed
+not to have any paste on them. Next, take the soldering
+iron and heat it. Take some rosin and put it on the exposed
+part of the ferrule. With the hot soldering iron<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+proceed to tin the brass ferrule, as explained before, with
+<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> solder, using rosin as a flux. Now the lead pipe
+that has previously been prepared is fitted into the ferrule.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 226px;">
+<a name="Fig_27" id="Fig_27"></a><a href="images/fig27.gif"><img src="images/fig27tn.gif" width="226" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 27.--Four-inch
+brass ferrule." title="Fig. 27.&mdash;Four-inch
+brass ferrule." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 27.&mdash;Four-inch
+brass ferrule.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Supporting.</b>&mdash;Set the brass ferrule on a catch pan. The
+lead pipe is upright. A weight placed on top of the lead
+pipe will steady the pipe for wiping.
+When the joint is wiped the free hand
+can hold the pipe if the weight is not
+sufficient to support it.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wiping.</b>&mdash;Splash the solder on the
+joint from the ladle, in the same
+manner as was employed in the two
+preceding joints. To get the proper
+heat on the 4-inch joint a little more
+speed is necessary, also the constant
+working of the solder around the pipe.
+The ladle is constantly moved around
+the pipe so that all parts of the pipe
+will be evenly heated and come into
+contact with the hot solder direct
+from the ladle. When the solder
+works freely around the pipe and the
+top edge is hot, the joint is shaped by
+holding the wiping cloth in the right
+hand, with the index and the middle
+fingers spread to the opposite corners
+of the cloth. The fingers are placed one on the top edge
+and one on the bottom edge. The cloth is then passed
+around the joint as far as possible. Then the cloth is taken
+in the left hand, with the fingers spread, and passed around
+the rest of the joint. If the solder does not take the shape
+of the cloth readily, then the solder is not at the right
+heat. This joint should be wiped very slim to allow room
+for the caulking tools. When this joint is once started,
+it should not be left until it has been wiped, otherwise a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+large amount of solder will accumulate on the joint and
+will be hard to get off.</p>
+
+<p><b>Points to Remember.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, material.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, tools.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, tin ferrule.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, use the dresser to fit the lead into the ferrule.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, clean the lead with the shave hook, and paper.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sixth</i>, use the catch cloth and ladle.</li>
+
+<li><i>Seventh</i>, keep the top edge covered with hot solder.</li>
+
+<li><i>Eighth</i>, wipe the top edge first.</li>
+
+<li><i>Ninth</i>, make a slim joint.</li>
+
+<li><i>Tenth</i>, steady the work with the free hand.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<h3>STOP COCK</h3>
+
+<p><b>Materials Required.</b>&mdash;The materials used for this joint
+are as follows: two pieces of <span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span>-inch extra strong lead pipe
+9 inches long, each; one <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch plug stop cock for lead
+pipe; paste and paper; solder; <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> solder; rosin; catch
+pan and supports.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_28" id="Fig_28"></a><a href="images/fig28.gif"><img src="images/fig28tn.gif" width="500" height="122" class="plain" alt="Fig. 28." title="Fig. 28." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 28.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Tools Necessary.</b>&mdash;The tools necessary for this job are
+as follows: saw, rasp, file, turn plug, shave hook, bending
+irons, hammer, ladle, soldering iron, and wiping cloths.</p>
+
+<p><b>Preparation.</b>&mdash;There are two joints to be wiped on this
+job and the stop cock is supported only by the rigid fitting
+of the lead pipe. Therefore the preparation must be
+thoroughly done. The brass stop will be prepared first.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brass.</i>&mdash;The two ends of the stop cock are filed bright,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+then papered and tinned. This operation is the same,
+only on a smaller scale, as the tinning of the 2-inch and the
+4-inch brass ferrule. The paper is pasted over the entire
+stop cock, except the two ends, which are tinned for
+about 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inches.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lead Pipe.</i>&mdash;After the lead pipe has been cut off from the
+coil, the ends are squared with the rasp. One end of each
+piece is reamed out a little with the tap borer and spread
+a trifle with the turn pin. With the rasp, take off the outside
+edge of the end that has been spread. The sketch
+will show this and give the angle at which the edge is to be
+rasped. The stop cock is now fitted into the lead pipe.
+The brass should enter at least <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inch, then the lead is
+beaten against the brass until a tight joint is made. The
+other end of the brass stop is fitted into the other piece
+of the lead pipe and a perfect fit is made. The fitting
+of these two joints must be rigid as upon them depends the
+stability of the joint support. When these ends of the
+lead pipe have been fitted, the pipe is cleaned with the shave
+hook and paper is pasted on, allowing 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches for the
+joint. Both pieces of pipe are prepared at the same time
+as both ends are wiped at the same time.</p>
+
+<p><b>Supporting.</b>&mdash;The three pieces of pipe should be so
+wedged together that they will not fall apart when put in
+position for wiping. The bricks for supporting the pipe
+are placed the same as in the support of the horizontal
+round joint. The lead pipe ends are laid on the bricks.
+This brings the stop cock in the center without any support.
+If it were not for the substantial fit between it and the
+lead pipe, it would not stay in place. Solder straps can
+be put over each end of the lead pipe. Weights can be
+used to advantage.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wiping.</b>&mdash;When getting the heat up for these joints,
+pour the solder over the two joints and over the stop cock.
+This gets the heat properly distributed, so that both joints<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+can be wiped while the brass stop is heated. Get the proper
+heat up on one joint and then the other. Come back to the
+first joint and wipe it and then the second one. Both
+joints should be wiped so as to have the same shape. The
+novice will experience some trouble when wiping this joint
+in getting the brass edge hot. Heating up the two joints
+together will in a large degree offset this trouble. Some
+mechanics take out the lever handle stop to lessen the
+amount of brass to heat. This is never done by a good
+mechanic as the two pieces will never fit together again
+and make a tight joint. If the plug is left in place, both
+the plug and body will expand equally and the pieces will
+fit perfectly. When wiping is started on these joints, the
+beginner must stay at it continually. When the brass is
+heated, the finished wiping can be tried over and over
+again. If this way is not followed, the beginner will find
+that most of his time will be spent trying to get a heat on
+the brass.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_29" id="Fig_29"></a><a href="images/fig29.gif"><img src="images/fig29tn.gif" width="500" height="111" class="plain" alt="Fig. 29.--Stop cock." title="Fig. 29.&mdash;Stop cock." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 29.&mdash;Stop cock.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<h3>BRANCH JOINT</h3>
+
+<p><b>Materials Needed.</b>&mdash;The materials necessary to complete
+this job are as follows: 12 inches of <span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span>-inch extra strong
+lead pipe for the run; 6 inches of <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch extra strong lead
+pipe for the branch; paste and paper, and solder.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tools Necessary.</b>&mdash;The tools necessary for this job are
+the saw, bending irons, rasp, tap borer, ladle, wiping cloths,
+and the shave hook.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_30" id="Fig_30"></a><a href="images/fig30.gif"><img src="images/fig30tn.gif" width="500" height="538" class="plain" alt="Fig. 30.--Branch joint." title="Fig. 30.&mdash;Branch joint." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 30.&mdash;Branch joint.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Preparation.</b>&mdash;The preparation of this joint requires<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+the skill of the beginner more than any of the preceding
+joints. The tapping of the <span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span> pipe for the branch connection,
+pasting and cutting the paper, require the utmost
+care and precision. The <span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span>-inch pipe is tapped with the
+tap borer in the center. The tap borer is used by grasping
+the handle firmly and putting the cutting point on the
+mark and then pressing down on the handle. This
+forces the point into the lead. Now turn the tool and
+a piece of lead will be bored out. Continue this operation
+and a hole will very soon appear in the lead. A
+hole just large enough to allow the bending irons to enter
+is made. The opening of the hole is completed with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+bending iron, working the lead back slowly into place.
+Do not attempt to drive the lead back around the hole
+with a few strokes. One bending iron is inserted and this
+iron is struck with another iron or hammer. After a number
+of strokes the opening will be of sufficient size. The
+bent end of iron is inserted into the hole and the bent part
+enters the bore of the pipe. This iron is struck in such a
+way as to force the lead around the hole up, rather than
+back. Now with the straight end of irons open the sides.
+When the wall of pipe has been driven up a little the hole
+can be enlarged by driving back the lead. This procedure
+will form a collar around the hole to steady the branch
+pipe. Good workmanship will result in having a good
+substantial collar around the opening. The branch should
+now be fitted. Clean the pipe with the shave hook for
+about 2 inches on each side of the opening. With compasses
+set at 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span> inches, mark off a space on each side of the
+branch on the run, or on the <span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span>-inch pipe. On the sides of
+the pipe the two lines should be joined with an even and
+symmetrical curve. A good way to make this curve is
+with the shave hook. Now take a folded piece of paper
+and cut out the shape of one-half of the joint, then open the
+fold and the entire ellipse will be made. When this paper
+is cut, a sharp knife is used, otherwise a ragged edge will
+be made and a good finish of joint is impossible. The paper
+is now pasted and put on the pipe. The surplus paste on
+the edge of the paper should be wiped off with the fingers
+before the paper is put on the pipe. This prevents any
+paste squeezing out on the joint. The branch is now taken
+and perfectly fitted into the run. The end is cleaned with
+the shave hook and paper is pasted on the pipe, leaving 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span>
+inches of cleaned surface for wiping. The paste and the
+paper should now be allowed to dry. The position for
+wiping this joint is to have the run horizontal and the branch
+on an angle of 45&deg; pointing away from the wiper. Figure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+30 will bring out the above explanation very vividly.</p>
+
+<p><b>Supporting.</b>&mdash;The run of this joint is laid flat on the table
+and the branch inserted in its proper place. With one hand
+hold it in place, with the other, use the bending iron, tap
+the collar on the run against the branch, wedging it in
+place good and strong so that no solder can leak through.
+If the branch is tapered with the rasp as shown the joint
+can be made very tight. The run of the pipe is now laid
+on two bricks as was done with the horizontal joint. The
+branch is laid over on a pile of bricks or wood at an angle of
+45&deg;. The best way to secure this joint is to pour some
+half-molten solder on the ends of pipe and brick, making a
+solder clamp. This branch does not need any clamp or
+weight if it is properly entered into the run. A strap of
+solder can be run over the end of pipe if found necessary.
+Place the catch pan under the joint and then the pipe will
+be ready to wipe.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wiping.</b>&mdash;In wiping this joint, the catch cloth is used not
+only to catch the solder as it drops off from the pipe, but
+also to hold the hot solder against the pipe to heat the
+under side of the joint. Test the solder and see if it is the
+correct heat for wiping. If so, prepare for wiping. After
+heating the ladle, take some solder in it and proceed to drop
+the molten solder on the joint. The ladle is moved constantly
+as the solder is dropped on the run and then on
+the branch to get the entire joint to the proper heat. As
+the solder drops off from the joint, it is caught on the catch
+cloth and brought up on the top of the joint where it is
+re-melted by dropping hot solder on it. Then the hot solder
+is held in the cloth against the under side of the joint to
+get the under side properly heated. The solder is worked
+around all parts of the joint. When the heat is got up
+sufficiently and the solder works freely around the joint,
+the branch cloth is taken and each edge of the joint is wiped
+clean. Any surplus solder is brought up on top of the joint<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+and then wiped on the catch cloth. This solder is then put
+on the under side of the joint. With the branch cloth
+reach way around the joint and wipe each side, bringing
+the cloth each time to the top and then off the joint. The
+last wipe is directly across the top, wiping off any surplus
+solder that may have accumulated from wiping the sides.
+The difficulty with this joint is in getting the top and bottom
+to have an equal amount of solder. With a little practice
+and by watching each motion your faults can be noted and
+remedied. If the paper starts to come off, it should be
+re-papered at once. When the joint is finished, it should
+be left in position until the solder has had time to set and
+cool, otherwise the branch will break off and considerable
+time will be lost in correcting the trouble.</p>
+
+<p><b>Points to Remember.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, the use of the tap borer.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, the use of the bending irons.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, do not allow the bending irons to touch the inside
+walls of the pipe when stretching the opening.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, secure the branch into the run.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, secure the pipes into position for wiping.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sixth</i>, spread the heat on the edges and the bottom of the
+joint.</li>
+
+<li><i>Seventh</i>, wipe with the branch cloth.</li>
+
+<li><i>Eighth</i>, cut the paper.</li>
+
+<li><i>Ninth</i>, mark the outline of the joint.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<h3>BRANCH JOINT PLACED FLAT</h3>
+
+<p>When the wiper has mastered the branch joint placed at
+an angle of 45&deg;, he can proceed to wipe the joint placed in
+the next position, which is flat.</p>
+
+<p><b>Preparation.</b>&mdash;The preparation of this joint is identical
+with the preceding one placed at an angle of 45&deg;. If a new
+joint is to be prepared, it would be well to pay strict attention<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+to the details, such as keeping the paste on the paper
+only and having the edge of the paper cut perfectly smooth
+and even. Before putting on the paper see that the pipe is
+free from all grease and dirt. The paste and paper will
+stick better if all the dirt is removed. The branch should
+be well fitted into the run of the pipe so that no solder will
+get into the bore of the pipe. The branch should not extend
+into the run of pipe enough to obstruct the bore of it. If
+the instructions for preparing the pipe are not carried out
+as detailed, the wiper will experience some trouble that he
+may find hard to overcome.</p>
+
+<p><b>Supporting.</b>&mdash;The run can be supported on bricks. The
+branch can be supported on a brick placed at its end the
+same height as the run. This will bring the joint in the
+correct flat position. The branch should point away from
+the wiper. Solder straps can now be poured over the ends
+of each pipe. If weights are used to hold the pipe firm instead
+of solder straps, they should be so placed that they
+will not interfere with the hands when wiping.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wiping.</b>&mdash;The wiping of this joint is more difficult as the
+beginner will experience trouble in heating the bottom and
+keeping the solder on the bottom. Solder is dropped on
+the joint and along the pipe so as to bring the pipe to the
+proper wiping heat. Some solder will accumulate on top of
+the joint. This is melted off on the catch cloth and this
+hot solder held against the bottom of the joint. This operation
+is repeated until the bottom as well as the top of the
+joint is heated properly. When the solder can be worked
+freely around the pipe, the branch cloth is taken and each
+side is wiped from the bottom toward the top. Solder is
+accumulated on the top where it is wiped off on the catch
+cloth and put on the bottom of the joint. Now reach way
+around each side and wipe the edge and body of the joint,
+a wipe across the top completing the joint. The bottom
+can be wiped with a cross wipe also if desired. The top and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+the bottom should be identical. Notice carefully the drawing
+of this joint and endeavor to have the same lines. The
+perfecting of these joints comes only with patient practice.
+The beginner must not get discouraged because of a burn or
+two. As soon as confidence in oneself has been gained, the
+possibility of burning the fingers is entirely eliminated.</p>
+
+
+<h3>BRANCH VERTICAL</h3>
+
+<p>The materials, tools, and preparation for this joint placed
+in a vertical position are just the same, practically, as those
+in the preceding branch joints. One or two points wherein
+they differ are mentioned below. To rigidly support the
+joint for wiping, allow the run of the pipe to rest on some
+bricks as before mentioned, with the branch looking up.
+Now take a piece of wood and drive a nail through one end
+of it about 1 inch from the edge. Let this nail enter the
+bore of the vertical branch. The wood is allowed to rest on
+the back of the bench or is braced against the wall. Supporting
+the pipes in this way will allow the wiper perfect
+freedom. When wiping this joint, splash the solder on
+from the ladle as on the upright joint. As all the sides of
+this joint can be seen, it is not a difficult matter to make a
+perfectly symmetrical solder bulb. When the proper heat
+is gained, the top edge of the joint is wiped first, then the
+lower curved edge, using the branch cloth. The body of
+the joint is then wiped and the joint finished with a cross
+wipe, if necessary.</p>
+
+
+<h3>BRANCH HORIZONTAL</h3>
+
+<p>The next position for this joint is to have the branch pipe
+horizontal and the run vertical. The materials, tools and
+preparation for this joint are the same as for the preceding
+ones. The supporting and wiping differ a little.</p>
+
+<p><b>Supporting.</b>&mdash;One end of the run is placed on the catch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+pan. The other end is held in place the same way as the
+branch was held in the preceding joint. If the pictures of
+this joint are carefully looked over, the methods employed
+to hold the pipe will be readily noted. The branch is best
+held by inserting one end of a bending iron in the bore of
+the pipe and placing the other end of the iron on a brick
+built up to the right height. The iron should be weighted
+to keep the joint from swaying.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wiping.</b>&mdash;The solder is now dropped on the branch as
+in the round joint, and splashed on the vertical run as in
+the upright joint. Sufficient solder is put on the joint to
+keep the edges covered with hot solder. Solder is worked
+around the joint until all parts of it are thoroughly heated
+and the solder works easily, then all the edges are wiped
+clean. The top half is then wiped evenly and the bottom
+half wiped to match the top half. A cross wipe in front
+completes the joint. When this cross wipe is made on any
+joint, a thick edge of solder must not be left. The edge
+must be wiped clean. This joint should be wiped first
+with the branch pointing to the right and then with the
+branch pointing to the left. It will take the beginner some
+time to master these branch joints, for not only must they
+be wiped symmetrically for the sake of appearances, but
+they must be wiped while the solder is hot to secure a tight
+joint. A joint that is wiped with solder that is too cold
+will be porous and will leak when put under pressure. With
+care the same pipe can be used throughout for all the
+positions of this branch joint.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ONE AND ONE-HALF-INCH BRANCH JOINT</h3>
+
+<p>Upon the completion of the small sized branch joint in
+its various angles, the 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch branch joint is to be wiped.
+This branch joint is wiped in the same positions as the <span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span>
+branch was wiped. The pipe being larger, there is more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+solder for the wiper to handle, and the edges to keep clean
+and to wipe are longer.</p>
+
+<p><b>Materials Needed.</b>&mdash;The materials needed for this job
+are 12 inches of 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch light lead pipe for the run, and 6
+inches of 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch pipe for the branch, paste, paper, solder,
+and catch pan.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tools Needed.</b>&mdash;The tools necessary for this job are the
+saw, rasp, shave hook, bending irons, drift plug, hammer,
+ladle, wiping cloths, and tap borer.</p>
+
+<p><b>Preparation.</b>&mdash;To an experienced wiper, the procedure
+of preparing this joint and wiping it are so near like the
+<span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span>-branch joint that a detailed description would be unnecessary;
+but for the benefit of the beginner, I will repeat
+the details as they apply to this particular joint and thereby
+avoid any error. We will take the preparation of the run
+first. Square the two ends of the pipe with the rasp. Mark
+off the center of the pipe. With the round part of the rasp,
+held at right angles with the pipe, proceed to rasp down the
+crown of pipe where the center mark was made. Do not
+rasp through the wall of the pipe, but just enough so that
+the tap borer will enter the pipe with only a slight pressure.
+With the tap borer, tap a hole large enough for the bending
+irons to enter. Now proceed to enlarge the hole, first
+forcing the edges up and then forcing them back, making
+the hole larger and making a collar around the hole at the
+same time. Continue to open the pipe until the aperture
+is large enough for the branch pipe to enter. The bending
+irons must not come into contact with the inside wall of
+the pipe, for if they do the inside bore will be marred and
+be very ragged. As these joints are usually used on waste
+lines, these ragged places make an ideal place for lint and
+grease to collect and cause a stoppage. To make the inside
+of the hole even, a piece of <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch pipe can be used in place
+of the bending irons. To cut out the oval from a piece of
+paper to fit the joint, fold the paper and cut out one-half<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+of the oval. Now unfold the paper and the complete oval
+is obtained. The measurements of the oval are taken from
+<a href="#Fig_30">Fig. 30</a>, 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span> inches each side of the branch lengthwise of
+the run. These two lines are connected with a curved line
+as shown. This curved line can be made with the shave
+hook. Take the large edge of the shave hook and roll it
+along between the lines to be joined. A little practice
+will perfect one in doing this quickly. The beginner should
+make a number of these ovals so that he can get them perfect.
+The graceful appearance of this joint depends upon
+the neatness with which it is prepared. I do not want the
+beginner to think that a graceful shape of the joint is all
+that is to be desired or that it is the most essential point.
+Further along, perhaps, more vital requirements will be
+brought out and the beginner will be made acquainted with
+them.</p>
+
+<p>The ends of the 6-inch piece are now squared with the
+rasp. The edges of one end are rasped off as shown in the
+sketch, making a wedged fit into the run. This end is then
+cleaned with the shave hook. Paper is then pasted on to
+cover the pipe except the 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span> inches cleaned on the end.
+This cleaned part forms part of the joint, therefore no paste
+or paper must be put on it. The pipe is now fitted into the
+run and the collar beaten against it with the bending irons.
+The run is now cleaned with the shave hook for about 3
+inches each side of the center. The paper oval cut out is
+now pasted on the joint. The paste and paper are then
+allowed to dry before they are handled further.</p>
+
+<p><b>Supporting.</b>&mdash;The supporting of this joint, which is
+placed with the branch on an angle of 45&deg; pointing away
+from the wiper, is not a difficult matter. The beginner can
+use his own ingenuity for supporting the pipe if conditions
+do not warrant the using of the methods previously
+described.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wiping.</b>&mdash;The solder should now be tested for heat. If<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+the solder is at the proper heat, the ladle is taken and
+heated. Take a ladle full of solder and drop the solder on
+the joint. The lead of which this branch joint is made is
+considerably lighter than any lead that has been used before.
+Therefore, the beginner must drop the solder on
+carefully, making sure that the solder is not dropped on the
+same spot, for a hole can be burned through the pipe very
+quickly. The ladle must be kept moving, then the solder
+will not burn through the pipe. The heat is got up on the
+pipe by dropping the solder on the run and on the branch,
+catching the surplus solder on the catch cloth and heating
+the under side of the joint with it. To form the joint, distribute
+the solder and then wipe it into shape. Notice that
+I said wipe it into shape. A beginner is very apt to try to
+push or poke it into shape. This must not be done as it has
+a tendency to make the joint lumpy. All the edges are
+wiped off clean first, then the body of the joint is shaped and
+wiped. When forming the joint, be sure that the bottom
+and the top are symmetrical. Do not have one-half larger
+than the other. The last wiping strokes are made swiftly
+and rapidly. If the wiper will watch his movements and
+note the results and then try to improve them, keeping in
+mind that a symmetrical joint is wanted with thin edges,
+perfection in wiping will come much more quickly than if
+no attention is paid to the strokes made when wiping.</p>
+
+
+<h3>BRANCH JOINT WIPED FLAT</h3>
+
+<p>The materials required for this joint do not differ from
+the preceding one. If the pipe used for the branch joint
+at a 45&deg; angle is in good shape, it can be used for this joint
+by simply changing positions. The tools needed will not
+be any different. The ladle and the wiping cloths, of
+course will be required. A pair of pliers can be used to
+advantage in picking up the hot solder. The wiping cloths<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+should receive a little more oil to keep them soft and pliable.
+Oil the edges of the cloths well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Supporting.</b>&mdash;To support this pipe for wiping have each
+end rest on a brick. Each end can be weighted to hold it in
+place.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wiping.</b>&mdash;To wipe this joint, proceed to drop the solder
+on the joint. When the pipe is thoroughly heated and the
+solder works freely around the pipe the joint can be wiped.
+The procedure is like the preceding one. The wiper is
+cautioned to move the ladle constantly while dropping the
+solder.</p>
+
+
+<h3>BRANCH HELD VERTICAL</h3>
+
+<p>After a number of the previous joints have been wiped
+successfully, the pipe is placed in such a position that the
+branch will be vertical. The supporting of the pipe to
+hold the joint in this position for wiping is very easily done
+after handling the <span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span>-in. joint in this position. The following
+points may be found helpful: The solder is splashed on
+the joint from the ladle. The top edge of the joint is kept
+hot by keeping the solder covering it. When the proper
+heat has been got up, the top edge is wiped first, then the
+bottom edges both front and back. The body of the joint
+is wiped last and a cross wipe finishes the joint. I have
+found that the beginner in many cases, when this joint is
+reached, tries to wipe it with many short strokes. The
+habit is a bad one and should be stopped as soon as noticed.
+Learn to wipe the top edge with only two strokes, the bottom
+edge with not more than four, the body of the joint with
+four, and one cross wipe to finish. This joint should be
+finished as symmetrically as possible and wiped while the
+solder is hot.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p>
+<h3>RUN HELD VERTICALLY</h3>
+
+<p>When the vertical branch has been conquered and the
+wiper can get a good joint every time it is tried, the pipe
+can be changed to a different position. The run is placed
+in a vertical position and the branch horizontally to the
+left. The catch pan is put under the end of the pipe.
+Follow the same directions for supporting this joint as were
+given under the <span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span>-in. branch placed in a similar position.
+The wiping of this joint is so nearly like the preceding
+branch joints that I will not give any instructions at all.
+This joint is finished at the same point that the other branch
+joints are finished. However, there are one or two matters
+that should be kept in mind. Some of the small matters
+are often overlooked and should be called to mind occasionally.
+Do not allow the solder to accumulate in the pan.
+If the cloths are burned, they should be turned, or new ones
+made. If the paper has started to come off from the pipe,
+new paper should be put on at once. Test the solder occasionally
+and see that it does not get too hot. Upon completion
+of the joint in this position, the branch joint in its
+various positions is finished. The beginner has found out
+while wiping these various joints a number of points that
+were not mentioned in my description. No amount of
+detailed description will make a good joint wiper. Patience
+and practice are as important in joint wiping as good preparation
+and good solder.</p>
+
+<p><b>Points to Remember.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, materials&mdash;18 inches of 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-in. lead pipe.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, use of tools.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, keep bending irons away from the wall of the pipe.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, make a good collar around the opening.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, make a tight fit with branch and run.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sixth</i>, hot solder will quickly burn through the lead.</li>
+
+<li><i>Seventh</i>, use branch cloth for wiping.</li>
+
+<li><i>Eighth</i>, cut out paper for joint even and symmetrical.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p>
+<h3>BIB</h3>
+
+<p>This joint is another brass to lead, and is the last single
+joint to be wiped in this course of joint wiping.</p>
+
+<p><b>Materials Needed.</b>&mdash;The materials required for this
+joint are as follows: 10 inches of <span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span>-inch extra strong lead
+pipe; one <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch brass sink bib for lead pipe; one pot of
+solder, paste and paper, <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>
+and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> solder, <!--Page 59: changed typo "." to ","--> catch pan, and
+supports.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 327px;">
+<a name="Fig_31" id="Fig_31"></a><a href="images/fig31.gif"><img src="images/fig31tn.gif" width="327" height="300" class="plain" alt="Fig. 31." title="Fig. 31." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 31.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Tools Required.</b>&mdash;The tools
+required for this job are the
+saw, rasp, tap borer, bending
+irons, file, ladle, wiping cloths,
+shave hook, knife and rule,
+soldering iron.</p>
+
+<p><b>Preparation.</b>&mdash;To prepare
+the lead pipe after cutting
+from the coil and squaring
+the ends with the rasp is very similar to the <span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span>-inch branch
+joint. The center of the pipe is marked and a hole is made
+in it with the tap borer large enough to admit the bending
+irons. The hole is enlarged with the irons. A good substantial
+collar is made around the hole to hold the bib in
+place. One and one-eighth inches are marked off on each
+side of the branch and an easy curve connects the two.
+The paper is then cut out and pasted on the pipe after it
+has been scraped with the shave hook.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_32" id="Fig_32"></a><a href="images/fig32.gif"><img src="images/fig32tn.gif" width="300" height="299" class="plain" alt="Fig. 32.--Bib." title="Fig. 32.&mdash;Bib." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 32.&mdash;Bib.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The end of the brass bib is filed bright and tinned with
+the soldering iron and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> solder. Before the tinning
+is done, paper is put on the brass, leaving only 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span> inches
+exposed. The tinning must be thoroughly done, or it will
+come off and have to be re-tinned.</p>
+
+<p><b>Supporting.</b>&mdash;The bib is fitted into the lead opening and
+the collar is forced against the bib to hold it in place and
+prevent any solder from leaking through into the bore of the
+pipe. The bib must not extend too far into the lead pipe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+or it will obstruct the flow of water. The lead pipe is
+laid on two bricks the same as the round joint. The bib
+is laid on an angle of 45&deg; pointing away from the wiper.
+Some bricks can be piled up to the right height to hold the
+bib in place and a solder strap can be made to hold it
+steady. The lead pipe can be
+held steady by weighting each
+end. The catch pan is now
+placed under the joint and everything
+is ready for wiping.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wiping.</b>&mdash;When the solder is
+hot, getting the heat on the pipe
+is started. Solder should be
+dropped oftener on the brass bib
+than on the lead pipe. It takes
+more heat to heat the brass
+thoroughly than it does the
+lead. If this is followed out, little difficulty will be had in
+getting up the heat and in wiping. Use the branch cloth
+for wiping and make sure that all edges are perfectly
+cleaned before making the final strokes. As this is the
+only position that the joint will be wiped in, practice should
+be continued until perfect joints can be obtained.</p>
+
+<p><b>Points to Remember.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, materials needed.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, tools needed.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, use tap borer.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, enlarge hole with bending irons.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, make substantial collar around the opening.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sixth</i>, paper the lead.</li>
+
+<li><i>Seventh</i>, file the bib, then paper.</li>
+
+<li><i>Eighth</i>, tin the bib.</li>
+
+<li><i>Ninth</i>, place in position and wipe.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p>
+<h3>DRUM TRAP</h3>
+
+<p>The making of the drum trap will bring out the skill of
+the beginner. The entire trap is made of lead pipe. The
+lead will require a great deal of handling. Therefore,
+care must be exercised in all operations to turn the trap out
+in a workmanlike manner.</p>
+
+<p><b>Materials Needed.</b>&mdash;The materials needed to complete
+this job are: 10 inches of 4-inch 8-pound lead pipe; 18 inches
+of 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch light lead pipe; paste and paper, support, solder,
+and catch pan.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tools Needed.</b>&mdash;The tools required for this job are:
+saw, rasp, bending irons, shave hook, bending spring, tap
+borer, dresser, ladle, drift plug, and wiping cloths.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_33" id="Fig_33"></a><a href="images/fig33.gif"><img src="images/fig33tn.gif" width="500" height="246" class="plain" alt="Fig. 33.--Drum trap." title="Fig. 33.&mdash;Drum trap." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 33.&mdash;Drum trap.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Preparing.</b>&mdash;Take the 10-inch piece of lead pipe and hold
+it in one hand, in the other hand take a pine dresser.
+Strike the lead pipe with the dresser. The pipe is struck
+about 2 inches from the end and is beaten evenly all around.
+The pipe is then struck nearer the end until finally the bore
+of the pipe is almost closed. This closed end should be
+rounding and symmetrical. To get this shape the pipe
+must be continually moved and turned. One side must not
+be forced in more than the other. If there are any dents
+in the pipe or part of the pipe is forced in too much it may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+be driven out as follows: Take an old piece of <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch lead
+pipe and round one end of it with a hammer; this can be
+used by hitting the inside of the closed end of the drum and
+forcing out the dents. The rounded end of the trap is not
+quite closed and a hole about <span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inch is left. This opening
+is closed by shaping the edges of it with the knife, making
+them smooth and beveled. Then a piece of lead is cut out
+of some scrap, the same shape as the hole and fitted into
+it. The top surface of this fitted piece should be a little
+lower than the surface of the pipe. Strike a circle, using
+the compasses, the center of the circle being the center of
+the inserted piece of lead. The lead inside of this circle is
+shaved clean with the shave hook, including the inserted
+piece. Paper is then pasted outside of the circle and should
+cover entirely the rest of the pipe. The inserted piece is
+wiped on the pipe as follows:</p>
+
+<p><b>Wiping End.</b>&mdash;Stand the 4-in. pipe in a pan with the
+rounded end of the pipe up. Be sure that the inserted
+piece is fitted securely. The solder is now dropped on the
+paper and shaved portion of the pipe. Exercise considerable
+care not to burn a hole in the pipe. As the hot solder
+runs off, catch some of it and draw it back on the joint.
+When the solder can be manipulated freely and the pipe is
+hot, the joint can be wiped. The cloth is drawn across the
+joint, cleaning all the edges with one stroke. The joint
+should be shaped to complete the rounding surface of the
+pipe. The joint is comparatively easy and will not occupy
+much time. As soon as it is wiped, cover the solder with
+paper. This will preserve the freshness of the joint until
+all wiping is completed.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PREPARING INLET PIPE</h3>
+
+<p>After the above joint is completed, the 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-in. branch
+inlet pipe is prepared and wiped in place. The center of
+this branch is marked on the 4-inch pipe and a hole is tapped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+in the pipe, using the tap borer. A hole large enough
+to admit the bending irons is made. The hole is enlarged
+with the bending irons, bending the lead first <i>up</i>, then <i>back</i>.
+A piece of <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch iron pipe can be used as a tool to finish
+the opening. The iron pipe is larger in diameter than the
+bending irons and leaves a more finished surface. The
+opening is made of sufficient size to admit the rasped end
+of the 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch pipe. When using the irons to enlarge the
+opening in the pipe, be sure not to bruise any part of the
+trap. The 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch pipe is now taken. The ends of this
+pipe are squared with the rasp. The drift plug is then
+driven through the pipe to take out any bruises or flattened
+places. The edge of one end is rasped off to fit the opening
+made in the 4-inch pipe. The beginner must strive to make
+a perfect fit. The accuracy with which these preparations
+are made is what helps in a large degree to bring about a
+successful job. The next operation is to paper the parts
+not to be wiped. The sizes of the joint should be followed
+as shown on the sketch. The pipe is first shaved with the
+shave hook, after which the paper is pasted on. No paste
+is allowed to get on the joint proper. The beginner should
+by this time have formed the habit of being neat with his
+work. Therefore the getting of paste on the joint surface
+shows that he is not as neat or as far advanced as he
+should be.</p>
+
+<p><b>Supporting.</b>&mdash;The drum is laid lengthwise on the bench
+and blocks are put on each side to keep it from rolling, the
+branch uppermost. The 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch pipe is held in position
+the same way as the vertical branch was held. The catch
+pan is put under the drum to catch the surplus solder.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wiping.</b>&mdash;Splash the solder on the branch pipe, also on
+the drum. The burning through of the drum is an easy
+matter. Therefore do not keep dropping the solder on one
+place, but keep the ladle moving continually. With the
+catch cloth draw the solder up on the branch covering the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+top edge of the prepared surface. Splashing the solder on
+this top edge melts the solder already on and allows it to
+run down on the 4-inch pipe where it is caught with the
+cloth and again brought up on the top edge of the branch.
+When the solder works freely all around the joint, the top
+edge is wiped clean and even. Then any surplus solder is
+wiped off. The bottom edge is next wiped clean, after
+which the body of the joint is wiped into shape, together
+with both edges. The edges are wiped very thin so that
+when the paper is removed the outline of the joint stands out
+very distinctly. A thick edge on a joint gives an unworkmanlike
+appearance to the work. The joint is finished with
+a cross wipe.</p>
+
+<p>The other joints are prepared and wiped the same as the
+one just completed. The 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch branch connection
+taken out of the bottom of the trap is bent. As this is the
+first time it has been necessary to bend lead pipe in these
+jobs, I will cover this operation in detail. The pipe is
+first straightened and the drift plug driven through it. The
+pipe is marked where the bend is to be made. The bending
+spring, size 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches, is put into the pipe, the center of
+the spring coming about where the bend is to be made.
+The pipe is then heated where it was marked to be bent.
+The proper heat for this pipe is just so that the hand cannot
+stand being laid against it. The pipe is held in the hands
+and on the end nearest the heat is hit against the floor at an
+angle. The pipe, with the first blow, will start to bend.
+With a few more strokes the desired bend will be obtained.
+The bending spring can now be pulled out. Put a little
+water in the pipe, then put one end of the spring in the
+vise, twist the pipe, and the spring will come out when
+the pipe is pulled away from it. The bending spring
+holds the pipe cylindrical while it is being bent. Without
+the spring, the pipe would be badly crushed at the bend
+and rendered almost unfit for service. Another good way<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+to bend pipe is to plug one end and fill the pipe full of sand,
+then plug the open end. The pipe is then heated where the
+bend is to be made. The pipe can then be bent over the
+knee. When all the joints are wiped, the paper should be
+taken off and the lead cleaned with sand and water. The
+trap is now complete except the brass clean-out to be soldered
+on the top. The inside of the trap should not have
+any rough edges or drops of solder in it.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_34" id="Fig_34"></a><a href="images/fig34.gif"><img src="images/fig34tn.gif" width="500" height="297" class="plain" alt="Fig. 34.--Drum trap." title="Fig. 34.&mdash;Drum trap." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 34.&mdash;Drum trap.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>There are two other drum traps to be made. The
+materials needed are the same as for the above trap except
+for 18 inches more of 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch lead pipe. The support,
+preparation, and wiping are the same. The beginner by
+this time should feel very well acquainted with lead and
+solder. Therefore, the details of these two drum traps
+can be left for the beginner to work out for himself. The
+sketches are very distinct and readable and will be of considerable
+assistance. The beginner should make these
+traps.</p>
+
+<p><b>Points to be Remembered.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, use 4-inch lead pipe, 8 pounds to the foot.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, dresser and spring are new tools. Study their use.</li>
+
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, gradually work the trap into shape with the dresser.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, plug the hole with a piece of lead pipe.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, prepare and wipe the plugged hole first.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sixth</i>, prepare and wipe the 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch branches.</li>
+
+<li><i>Seventh</i>, special care should be taken to keep the work neat.</li>
+
+<li><i>Eighth</i>, two ways of using the bending spring.</li>
+
+<li><i>Ninth</i>, wipe thin edges on joints.</li>
+
+<li><i>Tenth</i>, do not handle finished work.</li>
+
+<li><i>Eleventh</i>, clean and finish the work neatly.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<h3>THE PRACTICAL USE OF THE PRECEDING EXERCISES</h3>
+
+<p>In the foregoing exercises, I have confined myself to the
+actual work of making the various joints. Now I will
+explain the practical use of them.</p>
+
+<p><b>Soldering Iron.</b>&mdash;The soldering iron is a tool that is used
+in work that requires heat to fuse solder and the parts to
+be united. Every plumber should have at least two irons
+in his kit.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Cup Joint.</b>&mdash;While the cup joint is not employed to
+any great extent in modern plumbing, yet it has its use in
+the installation of some fixtures. Lavatories, bath and
+toilets are sometimes connected with a short piece of lead on
+the supply. The tail pieces on the faucets can be soldered
+on the lead by means of a cup joint. A cup joint well made
+with a deep cup and the solder well fused is as strong as a
+wiped joint in a place of this kind. The evil of the cup
+joint is that some mechanics will only fuse the surface and
+leave the deep cup only filled with solder and not fused.
+This makes a tight joint, but extremely weak. On tin-lined
+pipe and block-tin pipe the cup joint is commonly
+used. When making a cup joint on block-tin pipe the soldering
+iron must not touch the pipe and fine solder should
+be used. When tin-lined pipe is being soldered, the tin
+lining must not be melted.</p>
+
+<p><b>Overcast Joint.</b>&mdash;The overcast joint is not commonly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+used, but when there is considerable lead work to do the
+plumber finds it very handy in places where a wiped joint
+would take up too much room. We use it for an exercise
+for the reason that it teaches the beginner very rapidly
+the use and control of the soldering iron.</p>
+
+<p><b>Flat Seams.</b>&mdash;These seams are used in the construction
+of roof flashers, tanks (<a href="#Sec_33">Sec. 33</a>, Chapter XVIII) and lead
+safe wastes (<a href="#Sec_27">Sec. 27</a>, plumbing code). A hatchet iron is
+sometimes used on these seams.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wiping Cloths.</b>&mdash;The wiping cloths made of whalebone
+ticking make good, serviceable, and lasting cloths. Oil
+only should be used to break the cloth in. Moleskin cloths
+are very good, but they are very hard to get and cost considerably
+more. A plumber should always keep a good
+supply of ticking cloths on hand. The cloths are used
+only for wiping.</p>
+
+<p><b><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch Round Joint.</b>&mdash;This joint is the one most often
+required in actual practice. It serves to connect two pieces
+of lead pipe of the same or different diameters. It is also
+used to connect lead and other materials of which pipe is
+made. The workman, when he gets out on the job, finds
+that his work cannot be supported for wiping in such an
+easy and convenient position as illustrated in the exercises.
+It will be necessary to wipe the joint at almost every conceivable
+angle and position. The workman must employ
+his ingenuity to overcome any difficulties that may arise.
+Any draught of air should be avoided as it will make the
+solder cool quickly.</p>
+
+<p><b>2-inch Brass Ferrule.</b>&mdash;When it is found necessary to
+connect cast-iron and lead pipe, it is done by means of a
+brass ferrule wiped on the lead pipe. This joint is a very
+common joint and is found on sink, tray, and bath connections,
+as well as in many other connections that have lead
+and cast-iron pipes for wastes.</p>
+
+<p><b>4-inch Brass Ferrule.</b>&mdash;The 4-inch brass ferrule wiped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+on lead pipe is found under almost every closet. There is
+generally a piece of lead connecting the toilet with the soil
+pipe. Therefore, a brass ferrule is wiped on the lead and
+the ferrule connected with the soil pipe. This joint is also
+found on rain leader connections near the roof, connecting
+the gutter with the rain leader stack.</p>
+
+<p><b>Stop Cock.</b>&mdash;When a shut-off is required in a line of lead
+water pipe, these joints are used. Where it is necessary to
+joint lead and brass, this joint is required. The art of heat
+control over the lead and the brass is the essential point in
+these joints.</p>
+
+<p><b>Branch Joints <span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span> and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> Inches.</b>&mdash;Where it is found necessary
+to take a branch from a water pipe, this joint is used at
+the connection. In practice, this joint may have to be
+wiped in positions that are rather difficult to reach, so the
+wiping of joints in the positions called for in the exercises
+is exceedingly good practice.</p>
+
+<p><b>Branch Joints 1&frac12; Inches.</b>&mdash;These joints are very common
+and are found on waste and vent pipes. They are also found
+on urinal flush-pipe connections where the branch often is
+brass and the run lead.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bib.</b>&mdash;When lead supplies are run directly to the bib on a
+sink, this joint is necessary. It becomes necessary to wipe
+in a piece of brass for a brass-pipe connection from a lead
+pipe, in which case this joint is called for.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Drum Trap.</b>&mdash;The drum trap is used under sinks,
+baths, showers, and trays.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Laying Terra-cotta and Making Connections to<br />
+Public Sewers. Water Connections To<br />
+Mains in Streets</span></h3>
+
+
+<h3>TERRA-COTTA PIPE</h3>
+
+<p>One of the first pieces of work which a plumber is called
+upon to do, when building operations commence, is to run
+in the terra-cotta sewer from the street sewer into the
+foundation wall.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 441px;">
+<a name="Fig_35" id="Fig_35"></a><a href="images/fig35.gif"><img src="images/fig35tn.gif" width="441" height="400" class="plain" alt="Fig. 35.--Connection of house sewer to main sewer." title="Fig. 35.&mdash;Connection of house sewer to main sewer." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 35.&mdash;Connection of house sewer to main sewer.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>When the street sewer is laid, Y-branches are left every
+few feet. A record of the branches and their distance from
+the manhole is kept generally in the Department of Sewers
+or Public Works. Therefore, the exact measurement of
+any branch can be obtained and the branch found by digging
+down to the depth of the sewer. A branch should be chosen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+so that the pipe can be laid with a pitch, the same way as the
+main sewer pitches. This can be done by getting the
+measurements of two of these branches and choosing the
+one that will serve best. When there is a brick sewer in
+the street and no branches left out, the sewer must be tapped
+wherever the house sewer requires it (see <a href="#Fig_35">Fig. 35</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Digging Trenches.</b>&mdash;After the measurements and location
+of the house sewer and sewer branches are properly
+located, the digging of the trench is started. The methods
+employed to dig the trench vary according to the nature of
+the ground, that is, whether it is sand, rock, or wet ground.
+A line should be struck from sewer to foundation wall to
+insure a straight trench.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_36" id="Fig_36"></a><a href="images/fig36.gif"><img src="images/fig36tn.gif" width="500" height="286" class="plain" alt="Fig. 36.--Laying of plank for trench dug in sandy ground." title="Fig. 36.&mdash;Laying of plank for trench dug in sandy ground." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 36.&mdash;Laying of plank for trench dug in sandy ground.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Sandy Ground.</b>&mdash;If the ground is sandy, the sides of the
+trench will have to be sheathed or planked and the planks
+braced so as to prevent the bank caving in. As the trench
+is dug deeper, the planks are driven down. When the
+trench is very deep, a second row of planking is necessary.
+The planks must be kept well down to the bottom of the
+trench and close together, otherwise the sand will run in.
+It is well to test the planking as progress is made by tamping<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+the sand on the bank side of the planks.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gravel.</b>&mdash;Where the ground is mostly gravel and well
+packed, the above method of planking is unnecessary. The
+bank should have a few stringers and braces to support it.
+When only a few planks are used the term "corduroy the
+bank" is used (see <a href="#Fig_37">Fig. 37</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_37" id="Fig_37"></a><a href="images/fig37.gif"><img src="images/fig37tn.gif" width="500" height="319" class="plain" alt="Fig. 37.--Arrangement of plank for gravel." title="Fig. 37.&mdash;Arrangement of plank for gravel." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 37.&mdash;Arrangement of plank for gravel.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Rock.</b>&mdash;Where rock is encountered, blasting is resorted
+to. The plumber should not attempt to handle a job requiring
+the use of powder. It is dangerous in the hands
+of a person not used to handling it and the work should be
+sublet.</p>
+
+<p>A sketch of the two methods above for planking trenches
+is given and a little study will make them clear.</p>
+
+
+<h3>LAYING OF PIPE</h3>
+
+<p>The pipe should be laid on the bottom of the trench to a
+pitch of at least <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inch per foot fall. In laying, the
+start should be made at the street sewer with hubs of pipe
+toward the building. The trench should be dug within
+a few inches of the bottom of the pipe, then as the pipe is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+laid the exact depth is dug out, the surplus dirt being thrown
+on the pipe already laid. The body length of pipe should
+be on solid foundation. A space dug out for each hub as
+shown in <a href="#Fig_38">Fig. 38</a> allows for this, also allows for the proper
+cementing of joints. To get the proper pitch of pipe, take
+for example <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inch per foot, a level 2 feet long with a
+piece of wood or metal on one end <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inch thick will answer.
+The end with the <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch piece on should be on the lower
+hub and the other end resting on the hub of the pipe about
+to be put in place. When the bubble shows level, then the
+pipe has the <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span>-inch fall per foot. If a tile trap is used,
+it should be laid level, otherwise the seal will be weakened
+or entirely broken.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_38" id="Fig_38"></a><a href="images/fig38.gif"><img src="images/fig38tn.gif" width="500" height="161" class="plain" alt="Fig. 38.--Laying terra-cotta pipe." title="Fig. 38.&mdash;Laying terra-cotta pipe." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 38.&mdash;Laying terra-cotta pipe.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Cutting.</b>&mdash;The cutting of tile is not difficult, but must be
+done carefully or the pipe will crack or a piece will be broken
+out, thus making the pipe worthless. To cut tile or terra-cotta
+pipe, stand the pipe on end with the hub down, fill the
+pipe with sand to the point of cutting. With a sharp chisel
+and hammer cut around the pipe two or three times and the
+pipe will crack around practically straight.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cementing.</b>&mdash;If the pipe is free from cracks, the only
+possible way roots can get into the inside of terra-cotta
+pipe is through the cement joint. There are two ways of
+making these joints. Both ways are explained below and
+are used today on terra-cotta work.</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li>
+<p><i>First.</i>&mdash;The bottom of the hub of pipe in place is filled
+with cement and the straight end of the next piece of pipe is
+laid in place, then more cement is placed into the hub until<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+the space between the hub and the pipe is filled. In a
+trench, a trowel is rather unhandy to work with, while the
+hands can be used to better advantage. The cement can
+be forced into place with the hands and then surfaced with
+a trowel. The rest of the operation is to swab out the
+inside joint to remove any cement that perchance was
+forced through the joint (see <a href="#Fig_39">Fig. 39</a>). The cement used
+should be <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> cement and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> clean sharp sand.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second.</i>&mdash;Half of the space between the hub and the pipe
+is first packed with oakum and then the other half filled
+with cement of the same proportions as that used above.</p>
+</li></ol>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_39" id="Fig_39"></a><a href="images/fig39.gif"><img src="images/fig39tn.gif" width="500" height="82" class="plain" alt="Fig. 39.--Showing use of the swab." title="Fig. 39.&mdash;Showing use of the swab." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 39.&mdash;Showing use of the swab.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<h3>LAYING PIPE IN TUNNELS</h3>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_40" id="Fig_40"></a><a href="images/fig40.gif"><img src="images/fig40tn.gif" width="500" height="176" class="plain" alt="Fig. 40.--Pushing pipe through tunnel." title="Fig. 40.&mdash;Pushing pipe through tunnel." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 40.&mdash;Pushing pipe through tunnel.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>If the pipe must be run through a tunnel and there are
+perhaps three or four joints that cannot be reached, they
+should be put into place as follows: The pipe should be
+laid in the trench from the sewer in the street as far as the
+tunnel, then start at the other end of the tunnel. Lay the
+first piece of pipe on a board, lengthwise with the board,
+nail two cleats in the shape of a &gt; (<a href="#Fig_40">Fig. 40</a>) for the pipe to
+rest in; push this pipe and board into the tunnel and then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+cement into its hub a second piece; push the two pieces in
+2 feet, cement a third length into the second piece and push
+the three pieces along 2 feet. A workman can be on the
+sewer side of the tunnel and receive the end of the pipe as
+it is pushed through the tunnel, and steer the pipe into the
+hub. The joints in the tunnel will not be as secure as those
+outside. This explains how pipe is run through a tunnel.</p>
+
+<p><b>Connecting.</b>&mdash;The proper method of connecting the house
+sewer with the street sewer is shown in <a href="#Fig_35">Fig. 35</a>. The connection
+should be made above the spring of the arch. The
+pipe should extend well into the sewer so the sewage will
+discharge into water and not drop on sides.</p>
+
+<p><b>Inserting.</b>&mdash;To insert a tee in a line of pipe already laid,
+pursue the following method (see <a href="#Fig_41">Fig. 41</a>): Cut or break
+out one joint, preserve the bottom of the hub of pipe that
+is in. Cut away the top of the hub on the pipe to be inserted,
+then place the pipe in position and turn around
+until the part of the hub on the piece inserted is on the
+bottom. The bottom part of the pipes now will have a
+hub to receive the cement. The top part will have to be
+cemented carefully, as it is within easy access. This can
+be done without difficulty.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_41" id="Fig_41"></a><a href="images/fig41.gif"><img src="images/fig41tn.gif" width="500" height="197" class="plain" alt="Fig. 41.--Inserting length of pipe." title="Fig. 41.&mdash;Inserting length of pipe." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 41.&mdash;Inserting length of pipe.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>While laying the pipe a stopper is used to prevent the
+sewer gases and foul odors from escaping. This stopper
+sometimes is of tile, sometimes a plug of paper or burlap.
+This stopper is sometimes cemented in by inexperienced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+men and the trouble created can only be guessed at. If a
+stopper is used, the workman must see that it is taken out.</p>
+
+<p><b>Refilling.</b>&mdash;After the pipe is laid and cemented, it should
+be covered and allowed to stand 24 hours to give the cement
+time to harden. The dirt should then be thrown in and
+settled by means of a tamper or by flooding with water.
+The planks should not be taken out until the trench is well
+filled. To pull the plank, a chain or shoe and lever will
+have to be used. Where the tunnels are, dirt will have to
+be rammed in with a long rammer, care being taken not to
+disturb the pipe. If the refill is not well rammed and
+tamped, the trench will settle and cause a bad depression
+in the street surface.</p>
+
+<p><b>Terra-cotta Pipe.</b>&mdash;Terra-cotta pipe should be straight,
+free from fire cracks, and salt-glazed. The inside of the
+hub and outside of the plain end should not be glazed. This
+allows the cement to take hold.</p>
+
+<h3>
+<span class="smcap">Table of Standard Terra-cotta Pipe</span></h3>
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0" summary="terra-cotta pipe standards">
+<tr><th class="btb">Size</th>
+<th class="bbox">Thickness,<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">inches</span></th>
+<th class="bbox">Weight per ft.,<br /><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">pounds</span></th>
+<th class="bbox">Depth of<br /><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">socket</span></th>
+<th class="btb">Annular space</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1.0em;">7</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></td>
+<td align="center"><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1.0em;">9</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">1<span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span></td>
+<td align="center"><span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">12</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">1<span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></td>
+<td align="center"><span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">15</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">1<span class="above">7</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span></td>
+<td align="center"><span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">23</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1.2em;">2</span></td>
+<td align="center"><span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span class="above">13</span>&#8260;<span class="below">16</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">23</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1.2em;">2</span></td>
+<td align="center"><span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center" class="br">10</td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span class="above">7</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">35</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span></td>
+<td align="center"><span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center" class="br">12</td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1.2em;">1</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">45</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></td>
+<td align="center"><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center" class="br">15</td>
+<td align="center" class="br">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">60</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></td>
+<td align="center"><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center" class="br">18</td>
+<td align="center" class="br">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">85</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">2<span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></td>
+<td align="center"><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center" class="brb">20</td>
+<td align="center" class="brb">1<span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="brb">100</td>
+<td align="center" class="brb"><span style="margin-left: -1.2em;">3</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="bb"><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>Terra-cotta pipe should not be permitted in filled-in
+ground.</p>
+
+<p>Roots of trees find their way into the pipe through cracks<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+or cement joints. When the roots get inside of the pipe
+they grow until the pipe is stopped up. As the roots cannot
+be forced or wired out, the sewer must be relaid. The
+writer has seen a solid mass of roots 10 feet long taken out
+of a tile sewer.</p>
+
+<p>In case terra-cotta is laid in filled-in ground, there is only
+one way to insure the pipe from breaking. The pipe should
+be laid on planks. Then, if the ground settles, the pipe
+will not be broken.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WATER CONNECTION AND SERVICE</h3>
+
+<p><b>Tapping Main.</b>&mdash;The water service for a building is put
+in at the same time as the sewer is connected and run into
+the house. For a 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span>-service pipe a <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch tap is furnished.
+The water company taps the main, at the expense of the
+plumber, and inserts a corporation cock.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_42" id="Fig_42"></a><a href="images/fig42.gif"><img src="images/fig42tn.gif" width="300" height="283" class="plain" alt="Fig. 42.--Showing water main and sewer in same ditch." title="Fig. 42.&mdash;Showing water main and sewer in same dit" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 42.&mdash;Showing water main and sewer in same ditch.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Digging Trench.</b>&mdash;The trench for the water main should
+be dug at least 4<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> feet deep or below frost level and the
+trench should be kept straight. When the sewer is put in
+at the same time, one side of the sewer trench can be cut<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+out after it is filled up to the level of the water main. The
+water pipe can then be laid on this shelf at least 2 feet
+away from the original trench of sewer. Sometimes the
+surface of the ground must not be disturbed. In this
+case small holes are dug and the pipe is pushed through or
+driven through under that portion not dug. These places
+are often tunnelled (see <a href="#Fig_42">Fig. 42</a>).</p>
+
+<p>In digging in city streets, care should be taken not to
+destroy any of the numerous pipes encountered.</p>
+
+
+<h3>LAYING PIPE</h3>
+
+<p>The trench should be dug straight out from the house so
+the pipe can be laid and the main tapped straight out from
+the building. The water companies keep a record of these
+taps so that in case of trouble the street can be opened and
+the water shut off. In laying the water service, the pipe
+from the curb to the main should be laid first. This takes
+in all the pipe in the street. At the main there is a shut-off
+in the tap. Another stop with T or wheel handle must
+be placed just inside the curb line. This is called a curb
+cock (see <a href="#Fig_43">Fig. 43</a>). One trench either outside or inside of the
+curb should be at least 15 feet long so that a full length of
+pipe can be laid in the trench. It is generally impossible to
+open a trench the full length the pipe is to be run. A trench
+10 feet long is dug, then 8 feet left, and another 10- or 8-foot
+trench is dug and the two are connected with a small tunnel
+and pipe pushed through. When the pipe has been put in
+place between the curb and main, the water is turned on and
+the pipe flushed out. The valve at the curb should now be
+shut off, and if there are any leaks they will show. The
+street part is now ready to fill in. At this point <a href="#Fig_43">Fig. 43</a>
+should be studied. Note the piece of lead attached to the
+pipe and corporation cock. This piece of lead should be
+extra heavy and always laid in place the shape of the letter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+S or goose neck. In case the street should settle, this piece
+of lead will allow for it. These "lead connections" or
+"goose necks" are made as follows: 3 ft. of <span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span> lead pipe;
+1-inch brass solder nipple (wiped on); one brass corporation
+cock coupling (wiped on).</p>
+
+<p><b>Laying Pipe.</b>&mdash;This lead connection can be screwed on
+the pipe after the pipe is laid, then bent and coupled on
+the main with the coupling.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_43" id="Fig_43"></a><a href="images/fig43.gif"><img src="images/fig43tn.gif" width="500" height="272" class="plain" alt="Fig. 43.--Water main from street to foundation wall." title="Fig. 43.&mdash;Water main from street to foundation wall." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 43.&mdash;Water main from street to foundation wall.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>After the pipe has been tested as far as the curb, the
+trench in the street can be filled as described later. The
+pipe from the curb to the building can now be laid. If
+necessary to push the pipe through a tunnel, the end of the
+pipe should first be capped. Start by screwing a length
+in the curb cock. If the other end of the pipe comes in a
+tunnel an additional length must be put on before putting
+in place so that an end will come in the open trench. When
+the building is reached and before the stop cock is put on,
+the valve at the curb should be opened full and the pipe
+flushed out. The valve can then be put on and water
+turned on to test the pipe.</p>
+
+<p><b>Setting Curb Box.</b>&mdash;A cast-iron box, adjustable length,
+with cover should extend from the curb cock to the surface.
+This makes it possible with a long rod to control<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+the water service into the building. To set a curb box
+some flat stones should be laid around the curb cock and the
+box set on these stones. Then the space around the box
+and pipe should be closed in with brick or other covering
+to keep the sand from washing in on the curb cock. The
+box should be adjusted for height and then held in place
+by placing the curb key rod in place and holding the rod
+and box while the trench is filled. The refill should be
+tamped evenly on all sides of the box.</p>
+
+<p><b>Refill.</b>&mdash;In refilling the trench around the corporation
+cock and goose neck, the greatest care should be taken.
+The writer has seen cases when indifferent workmen have
+tossed heavy stones in the ditch and broken off the corporation
+cock or destroyed the goose neck. After the pipe is
+covered with 18 inches of refill and tunnels have been filled,
+water can be run in the trench and will settle the refill.</p>
+
+<p>There are a number of special points concerning water
+services and taps at mains that should not be overlooked.
+Take for example a water service pipe which must be run
+through ground where electricity is escaping under trolley
+tracks, around power houses, etc. The electricity will enter
+the pipe and wherever it leaves the pipe a hole is burned.
+The surface of the pipe in a short time will be full of small
+pith marks and will soon leak. A good way to add to the
+life of the pipe under these conditions is to make a star
+of copper and solder it on to the pipe in the street. Another
+piece of copper should be put on the pipe near the building.
+The electricity will leave the pipe by way of the points on
+the star. This method may not be a cure for electrolysis,
+but will add to the life of the pipe. Another method employed
+is to put the pipe in the center of a square box, then
+fill the box with hot pitch. When this is hardened the
+pipe will have a covering that will keep out any moisture
+and bar electricity to a marked degree.</p>
+
+<p><b>Materials Used.</b>&mdash;Galvanized steel pipe does not last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+under ground.</p>
+
+<p>Galvanized iron, heavy lead, and brass are used. Wooden
+pipes were once used and stood years of service. No service
+smaller than 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> should be used.</p>
+
+<p>When the water service pipe passes through the foundation
+wall, the pipe should not be built in, but a small arch
+should be built over the pipe or a piece of XX cast-iron pipe
+can be used as a sleeve (<a href="#Fig_44">Fig. 44</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_44" id="Fig_44"></a><a href="images/fig44.gif"><img src="images/fig44tn.gif" width="500" height="292" class="plain" alt="Fig. 44.--Free space around pipe passing through wall." title="Fig. 44.&mdash;Free space around pipe passing through wall." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 44.&mdash;Free space around pipe passing through wall.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Points to Remember.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Sewer Installation</span></h3>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, select good sound pipe and fittings.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, locate branch connection in street sewer.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, lay out run of house sewer.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, take out necessary permits from departments of
+sewer.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, dig trench in the street, then into the house.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sixth</i>, lay pipe and cement joints.</li>
+
+<li><i>Seventh</i>, refill trench, tamping every foot.</li>
+
+<li><i>Eighth</i>, cast-iron pipe for sewer is found under another
+heading.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p>
+<h3><span class="smcap">Water Service</span></h3>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, take out necessary permits.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, list material and deliver to job.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, lay out and dig trench.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, have main tapped.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, lay pipe to curb and test.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sixth</i>, fill in street trench.</li>
+
+<li><i>Seventh</i>, lay pipe into building and test.</li>
+
+<li><i>Eighth</i>, set curb box.</li>
+
+<li><i>Ninth</i>, refill trench.</li>
+
+<li><i>Tenth</i>, thoroughly consider any special conditions.</li>
+
+<li><i>Street Sewer.</i>&mdash;Large pipe in streets to receive all soil and
+waste from buildings.</li>
+
+<li><i>House Sewer.</i>&mdash;Conveys sewage from building to street
+sewer, extends from foundation wall to sewer.</li>
+
+<li><i>Street Main.</i>&mdash;Water pipe running parallel with the street,
+belonging to the water company.</li>
+
+<li><i>Service Pipe.</i>&mdash;Runs from the street main into the
+building.</li>
+
+<li><i>Corporation Cock.</i>&mdash;Brass stop tapped into street main.</li>
+
+<li><i>Goose Neck.</i>&mdash;Lead pipe which connects the street main
+and service pipe.</li>
+
+<li><i>Trench.</i>&mdash;Hole dug to receive pipe.</li>
+
+<li><i>Main Tapped.</i>&mdash;Hole drilled through wall of main and
+a thread made on it while pressure is on.</li>
+
+<li><i>Curb Cock.</i>&mdash;Brass shut-off placed at curb.</li>
+
+<li><i>Solder Nipple.</i>&mdash;Piece of brass pipe with thread on one
+end and plain on the other end which connects lead and
+iron.</li>
+
+<li><i>Coupling.</i>&mdash;Fitting which connects two pieces of pipe.</li>
+
+<li><i>Stop Cock.</i>&mdash;Brass fitting for stopping flow of water.</li>
+
+<li><i>Curb Box.</i>&mdash;Iron box extending from curb cock to surface.</li>
+
+<li><i>Curb Key.</i>&mdash;A long key to fit in side of curb box to operate
+curb cock.</li>
+
+<li><i>Swab.</i>&mdash;Stick with ball of rags or paper on one end.</li>
+</ol>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Installing of French or Sub-soil Drains</span></h3>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_45" id="Fig_45"></a><a href="images/fig45.gif"><img src="images/fig45tn.gif" width="300" height="317" class="plain" alt="Fig. 45.--Sub-soil drain." title="Fig. 45.&mdash;Sub-soil drain." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 45.&mdash;Sub-soil drain.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When a building is erected on a site that is wet or springy,
+some means of carrying off the surplus water in the ground
+must be provided for, or the basement of the building will
+be flooded with water. For the thorough understanding of
+the methods employed in laying a drain of this kind, I will
+go over it carefully and the beginner can read it and then
+study it, and understand just how it is done. A site may
+appear to be dry on the surface of the ground and yet be
+very wet under the surface. If no information can be had
+regarding the site, it is always well
+to drain the site if it is on a slope
+or near a body of water and on
+the water shed of a river or lake.
+If a building is a large one and
+the foundation goes down very
+deep, the site should always be
+drained. The drain is laid under
+the basement floor and around
+the outside of the foundation wall
+on a level with or lower than the
+basement floor. The value of
+draining a building site when the building is first started is
+very often overlooked. The cost of the drain will be saved
+in a few years as the basement will be free from all excessive
+dampness. The expense of installing a sub-soil
+after the building is up and in use is great as well as inconvenient.
+The drain is called "sub-soil drain" on account
+of its location under the ground and on account of its duty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+of taking off all surplus water that is underground. With
+the surface water taken off by the surface drains and the
+sub-soil drained by the sub-soil drains, a wet building site
+can be made practically dry (see <a href="#Fig_45">Fig. 45</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Materials Used in Sub-soil Construction.</b>&mdash;The object
+of the drain is to collect water and carry it away from the
+building by means of pipes. Terra-cotta pipes, with or
+without hubs, are used. Perforated tile pipe is sometimes
+used. This pipe is unglazed terra-cotta pipe with 1-inch
+holes in the sides about 3 or 4 inches from the center.
+These holes allow the surplus water to enter the bore of the
+pipe and thus be carried off beyond the building site.</p>
+
+<p>When the sub-soil of a small building needs draining,
+the trenches made for the house drain and its branches are
+used as a drain in the following manner: The trenches are
+dug deeper than is required for the house drain. The
+trenches are then filled to the correct level with broken
+stones. There is space between these stones for the water
+to find passage to a point away from the building. When
+this method is employed, some provision must be made to
+prevent the house drain from settling. When locating the
+drain, we must consider approximately the amount of water
+that is likely to be in the soil and required to be carried off.
+If there is considerable water, the pipes should extend all
+around the outside of the building foundation wall, also
+a main pipe running under the cellar bottom with six
+branches, three branches on each side.</p>
+
+<p>If there is not a great deal of surplus water in the soil, the
+drain around the outside of the foundation wall should be
+put in and one drain line running through the basement
+will be sufficient.</p>
+
+<p><b>Laying the Pipe.</b>&mdash;The drain pipe should be handled with
+care, for it is easily broken. The trench should be laid out
+and dug, then the pipe can be laid in it with a grade toward
+the outlet or discharge. If pipes with a hub on one end are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+used, the hub should not be cemented. A little oakum
+is packed in the hub to steady the pipe and keep sand out,
+the bottom of joint is cemented, a piece of tar paper can be
+laid over the top of the joint to keep the sand out. With
+joints made this way, the water can find its way to the bore
+of the pipe and yet the sand will be kept out of the pipe.
+As soon as the water gets into the bore of the pipe it has a
+clear passageway to some discharge point away from the
+building. If tile pipes without any hubs are used, some
+covering should be put around the joint to keep out the sand
+and still allow the water to find its way into the pipes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Discharge of Sub-soil Drain.</b>&mdash;The water that accumulates
+in a sub-soil drain must be carried off to some point
+away from the building. As the pipes are generally under
+the cellar bottom and under the house drain, it is very
+evident that this drain cannot discharge into the house
+drain sewer, directly. If the building site is on a hill, the
+drain can be carried out and discharged on the surface at
+a point that is somewhat lower than the level of the pipe
+under the building. Where this cannot be done, it will be
+necessary to have the different lines of pipes discharge into
+a pit. The water is accumulated in this pit until it is
+filled, then it will automatically empty itself as later
+explained.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pit Construction.</b>&mdash;The pit for the sub-soil water is
+constructed of cement. A pit 2 feet square or 2 feet in
+diameter and 3 feet deep will answer all requirements. A
+pit of this depth will allow a pitch for all lines of pipe, and
+is large enough for ordinary installations. The pit is built
+up to the surface of the cemented floor of the basement
+and covered with a removable iron cover.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cellar Drainer or Pump.</b>&mdash;A cellar drainer is employed
+to empty the above-mentioned pit. The cellar drainer
+works automatically. When the pit is filled with water,
+the drainer operates and empties the pit and discharges<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+the water into a sink or open sewer connection. When the
+pit is emptied, the drainer shuts off. The cellar drainer
+is operated by water pressure. When the valve is opened,
+a small jet of water is discharged into a larger pipe. The
+velocity of this small jet of water creates a suction and
+carries along with it some of the water in the pit. This
+suction continues until the tank is empty. There should
+always be a strainer on the suction pipe, also on the supply
+pipe, to prevent any particles of dirt getting into the valve.
+The pipes leading to and from the drainer should empty into
+an open sink where it can be seen. There is a possibility
+of the drainer valve leaking and then the water pressure
+will leak through it, causing a waste of water. If this leakage
+can be seen where it discharges, then the trouble can be
+rectified. The cellar drainer is connected directly with the
+water pressure and should have a valve close to the connection
+to control the supply.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Storm and Sanitary Drainage with Sewage Disposal<br />
+in View</span></h3>
+
+<p>The accompanying drawing of storm and sanitary drains
+should be studied in detail by the reader. The location of
+each trap and fitting should be studied carefully and the
+reason that it is put in that particular place should be
+thoroughly understood. Below, each plan has been taken
+and gone over in detail, bringing out the reasons for fittings
+and traps, also the arrangement of the piping.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 271px;">
+<a name="Fig_46" id="Fig_46"></a><a href="images/fig46.gif"><img src="images/fig46tn.gif" width="272" height="450" class="plain" alt="Fig. 46." title="Fig. 46." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 46.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first thing to note in <a href="#Fig_46">Fig. 46</a> is the number and kinds
+of fixtures to be drained. There is in the basement a set
+of three-part wash trays. This will require
+a 2-inch waste and a 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch
+vent. There is in the drawing a 2-inch
+waste extending to the fixtures above.
+On the same line is a rain leader with
+a trap showing also a 4-inch floor drain.
+There are two 4-inch rain leaders on the
+opposite corners of the plan, in the rear
+of the building. There is a 4-inch soil
+stack for fixtures above and a 4-inch soil
+stack in the basement on the same line
+for a basement toilet. On the front
+there are rain leaders in each corner.
+These will be connected outside of the house trap (this
+feature should be noted). The outlets that are to discharge
+into the house drain are as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="indent">
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li>Two 4-inch rain leaders.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></li>
+<li>One 2-inch sink waste.</li>
+<li>One 2-inch wash tray waste.</li>
+<li>One 4-inch floor drain.</li>
+<li>One 4-inch soil pipe.</li>
+<li>One 4-inch closet connection.</li>
+<li>Two 4-inch front rain leaders to discharge into house
+sewer.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p>If we were to install this job, we would first locate each
+pipe that enters the house drain. The lowest outlet would
+be particularly noted, in this case the 4-inch floor drain.
+From this drain we must make sure that at least <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inch
+to the foot fall is secured. We must then locate the house
+sewer where it enters the foundation wall, then the work can
+be started. I will not attempt to list the material that is
+necessary for this work, at this time. With all the material
+at hand the house drain is started. All of this work is
+installed under the ground, therefore trenches must be
+dug for all the piping. The plumber must lay these trenches
+out and in doing so he must have in mind all connections
+and the fittings he can use so that the trenches can be dug
+at the right angle. The trenches must be dug allowing a
+pitch for the pipe. The height of the cellar is 8 feet below
+the joists. A stick is cut 8 feet long which can be used to
+get the trenches below the cement floor at the right depth.
+After the digging is completed, the house trap, which is a
+6-inch running trap, is caulked into a length of 6-inch
+cast-iron pipe. This piece of pipe is pushed out toward
+the sewer bringing the trap near the foundation wall, on
+the inside. The fittings and traps and pipe are caulked
+in place as fast as possible. When possible, the joints are
+caulked outside of the trench in an upright position.
+There are a number of different ways to caulk this pipe
+together, and to make it clear to the beginner just how it
+is done the following exercise is suggested. This job
+brings in the caulking of pipes, traps, and fittings in various<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+positions. Two or three can work on this job together.
+<a href="#Fig_47">Fig. 47</a> shows how the pipe and fittings are put together,
+which needs no further explanation. Therefore, we will
+go over in detail only the caulking of the joints in the various
+positions.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_47" id="Fig_47"></a><a href="images/fig47.gif"><img src="images/fig47tn.gif" width="300" height="336" class="plain" alt="Fig. 47." title="Fig. 47." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 47.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Material Needed.</b>&mdash;One length of 4-inch extra heavy
+cast-iron pipe, single hub; two lengths of 4-inch extra
+heavy cast-iron pipe, double hub; one running trap, one
+full Y, one 4-inch <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> bend; two 4-inch clean-out screws with
+iron body; one 4-inch vent cap; one 4-inch <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span> bend; 30
+pounds of block lead; 2 pounds of oakum.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tools Required.</b>&mdash;Ladle, asbestos pourer, hammer, cold
+chisel, yarning iron, two caulking irons, furnace and pot.</p>
+
+<p>The beginner should start at the trap and caulk the joints
+with the trap held in place. The cold chisel should be
+sharp as it is used to cut the cast-iron pipe.</p>
+
+<p>To caulk the straight end of cast-iron pipe into the hub<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+end and make a water-tight joint when the pipe is in a
+vertical position, the spigot end of the pipe is entered into
+the hub end of another piece. A wad of oakum is taken
+and forced into the hub with the yarning iron. This piece
+of oakum is forced to the bottom of the hub, then another
+piece is put in. The oakum is set and packed by using the
+yarning iron and hammer. The hub is half filled with
+oakum. The oakum is forced tight enough to make a
+water-tight joint. If the oakum used comes in a bale,
+pieces of it will have to be taken and rolled into long ropes
+about 18 inches long, the thickness of the rope corresponding
+with the space between the hub and the pipe. If
+rope oakum is used, the strands of the rope can be used.
+After the oakum is well packed into place and the pipe is
+lined up and made straight, molten lead is poured in and
+the hub filled. When the lead has cooled, set the lead with
+the caulking tool and hammer, making one blow on each
+side of the joint. This sets the lead evenly on every side.
+If there is any surplus lead, it can now be cut off, using
+the hammer and cold chisel. The caulking iron is again
+taken and the lead next to the pipe is tamped, striking the
+iron with the hammer at an angle to drive the lead against
+the pipe. After this has been done all around, the caulking
+iron is held in such a position that the lead around the
+hub will receive the force of the blow. After this has been
+done, the center of the lead is caulked and the joint should
+be tight. With a little practice, this can be done very
+rapidly. The lead should be poured in while it is very
+hot. The caulking must not be done by hitting heavy
+blows as there is a possibility of splitting the hub and
+thereby rendering the joint unfit for use.</p>
+
+<p><b>Caulking Joint in Horizontal Position.</b>&mdash;It is necessary
+in a great many cases to caulk a joint in a position where
+the lead would run out of the joint unless provision were
+made to hold it in. To caulk a joint in a position of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+kind, the pipe is lined up and secured, then the oakum is put
+in and forced to the bottom of the hub. Then a joint runner,
+which is an asbestos rope about 2 feet long and about
+1 inch in diameter, is fitted around the pipe and forced
+against the hub where it is clamped by means of an attached
+clamp. The clamp is put on the top of the pipe and so
+arranged that a channel will be left in a V shape. This
+channel allows the hot lead to run between the asbestos
+runner and the hub. When the lead has had a chance to
+cool, the asbestos runner is taken off. Where the clamp
+was, there will be a triangular piece of lead sticking out
+beyond the face of the hub. This piece has to be cut off,
+but no attempt should be made to do so until it has been
+caulked in place and well set; also the rest of the lead should
+be set. Then the cold chisel can be used and this extra
+piece of lead taken off. The caulking of the lead in this
+position is the same as in the previous position and should
+be carried out closely. The beginner should understand
+that it is necessary to have not only the joints tight so
+that running water will not leak out of them, but that
+the joints must stand a water test. The testing of soil
+stacks is explained under another heading. The lines of
+cast-iron pipe depend to a considerable extent upon these
+joints to make the whole line rigid.</p>
+
+<p><b>Caulking of Fittings.</b>&mdash;The caulking of fittings, while
+done the same as a straight pipe, is far more difficult. The
+improper making of these joints is the cause of many
+leaks. A long sweep fitting is caulked without a great
+deal of difficulty. If a short bend fitting is used, the matter
+of caulking is difficult. The fitting is so short that it is
+almost impossible to get a caulking iron into the throat.
+The mechanics will have to work at the throat from each
+side until this part has been sufficiently caulked. I call
+attention to this point, for I know it to be a failure in a
+large number of jobs when it comes to put the test on. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+order to caulk the fittings, they must be put in their exact
+location and positions before the lead is poured in, for after
+the lead is once in the fitting cannot be moved. When
+there is a series of fittings on a line, their positions in relation
+to each other must be considered before the lead is
+poured.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 48 to 51">
+<tr><td valign="middle"><div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_48" id="Fig_48"></a><a href="images/fig48.gif"><img src="images/fig48tn.gif" width="300" height="499" class="plain" alt="Fig. 48." title="Fig. 48." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 48.</span>
+</div></td>
+
+<td valign="middle"><div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_49" id="Fig_49"></a><a href="images/fig49.gif"><img src="images/fig49tn.gif" width="300" height="519" class="plain" alt="Fig. 49." title="Fig. 49." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 49.</span>
+</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="middle"><div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_50" id="Fig_50"></a><a href="images/fig50.gif"><img src="images/fig50tn.gif" width="300" height="463" class="plain" alt="Fig. 50." title="Fig. 50." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 50.</span>
+</div></td>
+
+<td valign="middle"><div class="figright" style="width: 260px;">
+<a name="Fig_51" id="Fig_51"></a><a href="images/fig51.gif"><img src="images/fig51tn.gif" width="260" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 51." title="Fig. 51." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 51.</span>
+</div></td></tr></table></div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_48">Fig. 48</a> shows the same fixture and stack connections as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+<a href="#Fig_46">Fig. 46</a>. Two 4-inch lines run through the cellar, one a
+sanitary drain, the other a storm drain. Each 4-inch line
+has an intercepting trap. On the sewer side of these traps
+the two lines are brought together, beyond which point the
+two front rain leaders connect; each of the two front
+leaders is trapped separately.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 452px;">
+<a name="Fig_52" id="Fig_52"></a><a href="images/fig52.gif"><img src="images/fig52tn.gif" width="452" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 52." title="Fig. 52." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 52.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_49">Fig. 49</a> differs from the preceding one in only two points.
+First, the two front leaders are brought into the cellar and
+connected into the storm drain on the house side of the
+intercepting trap. Second, the storm and sanitary drains<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+are connected on the outside of the building.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_50">Fig. 50</a> shows the same fixtures collected into a 4-inch
+house drain, and the rain leaders run entirely on the outside
+of the building. This plan is a good one as all the storm
+water is kept entirely outside the building. If the storm
+drains are kept 5 feet away from the cellar walls (see <a href="#plumbing_code">Plumbing
+Code</a>) the pipes can be of tile. Another good feature
+of this plan is that all the pipes under the cellar are 4-inch.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a> is similar to <a href="#Fig_46">Fig. 46</a>, the difference being in the
+location of the floor drain and the connection of the two
+rear rain leaders, into the house drain.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#Fig_52">Fig. 52</a> the drains shown take the waste and storm
+water from the apartment building, also a building set in
+the rear. The leader pipes in this case are trapped on the
+outside of the wall. The building in the rear you will
+note has a separate fresh air inlet and house trap, and the
+house sewer is continued through the front house and
+connected into the house drain of the front building, on
+the sewer side of the intercepting trap.</p>
+
+<p>These drawings should be studied carefully and the
+student should in each case list correctly all of the material
+required for the installation of these jobs.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_53" id="Fig_53"></a><a href="images/fig53.gif"><img src="images/fig53tn.gif" width="500" height="146" class="plain" alt="Fig. 53.--Cutting cast-iron pipe." title="Fig. 53.&mdash;Cutting cast-iron pipe." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 53.&mdash;Cutting cast-iron pipe.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Cutting Cast-iron Pipe.</b>&mdash;To cut cast-iron pipe, a sharp
+cold chisel and hammer are needed. The pipe is marked
+all around, just where it is to be cut. Then it is laid with
+the part of the pipe that is to be cut resting on a block of
+wood. A groove is cut with the hammer and chisel around
+the pipe. One person can turn the pipe while the other
+does the cutting. After a little experience one man can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+cut and roll the pipe alone. This groove is cut deeper and
+deeper until the pipe breaks apart. If standard pipe is
+being cut, a file is generally resorted to for cutting the
+groove. On account of the lightness of the pipe, a hammer
+and chisel will crack the pipe lengthwise. When cutting
+extra heavy cast-iron pipe, a good heavy blow must be
+struck to cause the chisel to cut into the iron. After a
+few cuts, the beginner will understand the weight of blow
+that must be struck to cut the pipe quickly.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Soil and Waste Pipes and Vents. Tests</span></h3>
+
+
+<h3>SOIL PIPES</h3>
+
+<p>The term "soil pipes" means pipe that receives the discharge
+from water closets. The size of a soil pipe for ordinary
+dwellings should be 4 inches.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Size of Soil Pipes</span></h3>
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="soil pipe sizes">
+<tr><td>One   to three  closets&mdash;4-inch XX cast-iron.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Four  to eight  closets&mdash;5-inch XX cast-iron.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Eight to twelve closets&mdash;6-inch XX cast-iron.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>There are cases when 3-inch XX cast-iron pipe is used,
+but the practice is not recommended.</p>
+
+<p>The soil pipe should be well supported and held in place.
+The connection between soil pipe and closet should be of
+lead to allow for any expansion of settling that might take
+place.</p>
+
+<p><b>Material of Soil Pipes.</b>&mdash;Soil pipe in common use today
+is made of light cast iron, tar-coated, extra heavy cast
+iron uncoated and coated, galvanized wrought-iron pipe,
+and steel pipe. The best kind to use depends upon the
+job and place where it is to be used. All kinds of bends
+and fittings can be had in any of the above-mentioned
+materials. In choosing the material of the pipe that is
+best to use, the following points should be carefully considered.</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, new work or overhauling.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, temporary or permanent job.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, construction of building.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, amount allowed for cost of materials on job.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, size of job, that is, the number of toilets.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sixth</i>, size of chases and pipe partitions.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p><b>Location of Soil Pipe.</b>&mdash;The location of the soil pipe depends
+to a great extent upon the location of the toilets.
+The soil stack should be located on an inside partition.
+The horizontal pipe should not run over expensively
+decorated ceilings unless run inside of a trough made of
+copper or sheet lead. As far as possible, the pipes should
+be confined, to runs short, and the number of bends
+reduced.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SOIL-PIPE FITTINGS</h3>
+
+<p>Soil-pipe fittings can be had from stock almost to suit
+the conditions. I will enumerate a few. The names of
+these fittings should be familiar to the mechanic so that
+when ordering he can give the correct name. <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">16</span>, <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span>, <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">6</span>,
+<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> bend, sanitary tee, tapped tee, side outlet fitting, return
+bend, cross branches, double Y, double TY, traps. The
+uses of these cast-iron fittings perhaps are obvious, but
+a word about the use of each one will be of service.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> bend is used to change the direction of run of pipe
+90&deg;. A long-sweep <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> bend is used on work requiring the
+best practice. <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span>, <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">16</span>, and <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">6</span> bends are used to change
+the direction of pipe 45&deg;, 22<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>&deg;, and 16<span class="above">2</span>&#8260;<span class="below">3</span>&deg;. Two <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span> bends
+should be used in preference to one <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> bend where there is
+sufficient room. Side outlet <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> bend is used for waste
+connection. They can be had with an outlet on either side
+of the heel. Their use is not recommended.</p>
+
+<p>Return bends are used on fresh-air inlets. Tees are used
+for vents only. Ys are used wherever possible. The use
+of a Y-branch together with an <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span> bend for a 90&deg; connection
+with the main line is always preferable to a TY or, as they
+are commonly called, sanitary T. A tapped fitting gets
+its name because it is tapped for iron pipe thread. Tapped
+fittings are used for venting and should not be used for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+waste unless the tap enters the fitting at an angle of 45&deg;.</p>
+
+<p>These fittings and pipe are joined by first caulking with
+oakum and pouring, with one continuous pour, the hub
+full of molten metal. When cool, the lead should be set
+and then caulked around the pipe and around the hub.</p>
+
+<p>The amount of lead and oakum required for various-sized
+joints is as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="3" summary="joints">
+<tr><td>Pipe size.............</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5</span></td>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6</span></td>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></td><td>10</td><td>12&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td>15</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Pounds of lead....</td><td>1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></td>
+<td>2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></td><td>3</td>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3</span><span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></td>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4</span><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></td>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6</span></td><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></span></td>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9</span></td><td>11<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Oakum (ounce)...</td><td>4</td><td>6</td><td>8</td><td>10</td><td>12</td><td>16</td><td>20</td><td>24</td><td>30</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><b>Rust Joints.</b>&mdash;The plumber is called upon to run cast-iron
+pipe in places where lead and oakum will not be of
+service for the joints. In cases of this kind, a rust joint is
+made. This "rust" is made according to the following
+formula:</p>
+
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1 part flour of sulphur.</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1 part sal-ammoniac.</span></li>
+<li>98 parts iron borings (free from grease).</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>This mixture is made the consistency of cement, using
+water to mix thoroughly and bring all parts into contact
+with each other. When it hardens, it becomes very hard
+and makes a tight joint which overcomes the objections to
+lead and oakum joints.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WROUGHT-IRON AND STEEL PIPE</h3>
+
+<p>This pipe comes in about 18-foot lengths and fittings of
+the following makes and shapes, and their use is fully
+explained. The lengths of pipe come with a thread on each
+end and a coupling screwed on one end. The lengths come
+in bundles up to 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inches and in single lengths over that
+size. Screw pipe fittings, it will be noted, are called by a
+different name than cast-iron ones. The fittings in common
+use today are the 90 degree ell, 45, 22, and 16<span class="above">2</span>&#8260;<span class="below">3</span>. The
+Y and TY, tucker fittings, and inverted Ys are used in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+practically the same way as the cast-iron fittings. The 90
+degree ell, 45, 22, and 16<span class="above">2</span>&#8260;<span class="below">3</span> are used to change the run of pipe
+that many degrees. All 90 degree fittings, ells, and Ts are
+tapped to give the pipe a pitch of <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inch to the foot. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+is better to use two 45 ells to make a 90 bend when it is
+possible.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_54" id="Fig_54"></a><a href="images/fig54.gif"><img src="images/fig54tn.gif" width="500" height="681" class="plain" alt="CAST-IRON SCREW FITTINGS
+Fig. 54." title="CAST-IRON SCREW FITTINGS
+Fig. 54." /></a>
+<span class="caption">CAST-IRON SCREW FITTINGS
+Fig. 54.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Inverted Y.</b>&mdash;The inverted Y is used in venting to good
+advantage. The use of these fittings is illustrated in the
+sketches.</p>
+
+<p><b>Waste Pipes.</b>&mdash;Waste pipes are the pipes that run to or
+convey the discharge of waste matter to the house drain,
+from wash trays, baths, lavatories, sinks, and showers.</p>
+
+<p>The usual size of waste pipes is 2 inches. Waste pipes
+are made of the same material as soil pipe. Lead and brass
+pipe are also in common use. All exposed waste pipes in
+bath and toilet rooms are brass, nickel-plated. The waste
+pipes under kitchen sinks and wash trays are either lead or
+plain heavy brass. All waste pipes are run with a pitch
+towards the house trap and should be properly vented as
+explained under venting. The pipes should be easy of access,
+with clean-outs in convenient places. The waste
+pipes under a tile or cement floor should be covered with
+waterproof paper and a metal V-shaped shield over the
+entire length. If the waste pipes are over a decorated
+ceiling they should be in a copper-lined or lead-lined box.
+This box should have a tell-tale pipe running to the open
+cellar with the end of the tell-tale pipe left open. If waste
+pipes are to take the discharge from sinks in which chemicals
+are thrown, either chemical lead or terra-cotta pipe should
+be used. If terra-cotta is used, it should have at least
+6 inches reinforced concrete around it and the joints of pipe
+made of keisilgar.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Size of Waste Pipes</span></h3>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="waste pipe sizes">
+<tr><td>Urinals...................</td><td>2 inches</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Kitchen sink...........</td><td>2 inches</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Slop sink................</td><td>3 inches</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Receptacles............</td><td>1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bath tubs................</td><td>1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Lavatories..............</td><td>1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> or 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inches</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Wash trays.............</td><td>2 inches</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><b>Tell-tale Pipe.</b>&mdash;The tell-tale pipe is a small pipe that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+extends from the trough, pan, or box that is under a line of
+pipe or fixtures to the open cellar. When water is seen
+running out of this pipe, it shows that a leak exists somewhere
+in the line of pipe that is in the box or trough. The
+use of this pipe saves the destruction of walls and ceilings.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VENTS</h3>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_55" id="Fig_55"></a><a href="images/fig55.gif"><img src="images/fig55tn.gif" width="300" height="284" class="plain" alt="Fig. 55.--Circuit vent." title="Fig. 55.&mdash;Circuit vent." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 55.&mdash;Circuit vent.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Vents are the most important pipes in the plumbing
+system. Modern plumbing successfully attempts to make
+living in crowded and thickly populated districts, as well
+as in isolated buildings, free from all unpleasant odors and
+annoyances. This could not be accomplished without the
+use of vents. Vents relieve all pressure in the system by
+furnishing an outlet for the air that is displaced by the waste
+discharged from the fixtures. Another of its functions is
+to supply air when syphonic action starts, thereby stopping<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+the action that would break the seal of the trap under
+fixtures. The pipe extending from top fixture connection,
+up to and through the roof, is called the ventilation pipe.
+All vents that do not pass directly through the roof terminate
+in this ventilation pipe.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_56" id="Fig_56"></a><a href="images/fig56.gif"><img src="images/fig56tn.gif" width="300" height="242" class="plain" alt="Fig. 56.--Loop vent." title="Fig. 56.&mdash;Loop vent." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 56.&mdash;Loop vent.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To explain the use of vents, we might well start in the
+basement of a dwelling house. Suppose there is a set of
+wash trays in the laundry; the 2-inch trap of these trays
+should have a 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span>-inch vent pipe
+leading from the crown of the
+trap up along side of the stack.
+On the first floor a 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span>-inch pipe
+from the crown of the kitchen
+sink trap will lead into it. Here
+the pipe should be increased to 2
+inches. On the second floor the
+1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span>-inch pipes leading from the
+lavatory and bath traps come
+into it. The vent stack now extends up into the attic and
+connects with the ventilation pipe. In a general way, the
+above is an example of venting. The old method of venting
+was very complicated and is almost beyond describing
+with the pen.</p>
+
+<p>In common use today, there are several kinds of venting,
+namely: circuit and loop venting, crown venting, and continuous
+venting. The <i>circuit venting</i>, <a href="#Fig_55">Fig. 55</a>, is used in
+connection with the installation of closets. Take a row of
+toilets in which the waste connection of each closet discharges
+into a Y-branch, and there will be a series of
+Y-branches. One end of this series of branches discharges
+into the main stack while the other end continues and turns
+up at least to the height of the top of the closet and then
+enters the main vent stack. When this main vent runs
+up along side of the main stack and forces the vent pipe connected
+to the series of Y-branches to travel back, it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+called a loop vent. This type of vent supplies air to the
+complete line of toilets and is very efficient.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 57 and 58">
+<tr><td valign="baseline">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 206px;">
+<a name="Fig_57" id="Fig_57"></a><a href="images/fig57.gif"><img src="images/fig57tn.gif" width="206" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 57.--Continuous vent." title="Fig. 57.&mdash;Continuous vent." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 57.&mdash;Continuous vent.</span>
+</div></td>
+<td valign="baseline">
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_58" id="Fig_58"></a><a href="images/fig58.gif"><img src="images/fig58tn.gif" width="300" height="467" class="plain" alt="Fig. 58." title="Fig. 58." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 58.</span>
+</div></td></tr></table></div></div>
+
+<p><b>Continuous venting</b>, <a href="#Fig_57">Figs. 57</a> and <a href="#Fig_58">58</a>, applies more to
+fixtures other than toilets. A P-trap is used and enters a T
+in the stack. The lower part of the T acts as and connects
+with the waste pipe while the upper half is and connects
+with the vent pipe. A study of the figures will aid the
+reader to understand thoroughly the above explanations.
+In continuous venting the waste of the lowest fixture is discharged
+into the vent pipe and extended to the main waste
+stack where it is connected. This is done to allow any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+rust scales that occasionally drop down the vent pipe, and
+render it unfit to perform its duty, to be washed away into
+the sewer.</p>
+
+<p><b>Crown venting</b>, <a href="#Fig_59">Fig. 59</a>, is as its name implies, a vent that
+is taken from the crown of the trap, thence into the main
+vent.</p>
+
+<p>Each one of these methods of venting is used and considered
+good practice, provided it is properly installed and
+correctly connected with the use of proper fittings.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_59" id="Fig_59"></a><a href="images/fig59.gif"><img src="images/fig59tn.gif" width="500" height="401" class="plain" alt="Fig. 59.--Crown venting." title="Fig. 59.&mdash;Crown venting." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 59.&mdash;Crown venting.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Things to Remember.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, venting is to prevent traps from syphoning.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, also to allow free passage of air.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, circuit vent&mdash;loop vent.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, continuous venting.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, crown venting.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sixth</i>, ventilation pipe extends from the top of fixture through
+roof.</li>
+</ol>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">House Traps, Fresh-air Connections, Drum Traps,<br />
+and Non-syphoning Traps</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>The <i>house trap</i> is a deep seal trap placed inside the foundation
+wall, and intersects the house drain and house sewer.
+The trap is placed at this point for a number of reasons:
+first, to keep sewer gases from entering the pipes in the
+house; second, this location is where the house drain ends.
+This trap should have two clean-outs, one on each side of
+the seal. The clean-outs should be of extra heavy cast-iron
+body with a heavy brass screw cap. The cap should
+have a square nut for a wrench to tighten or unscrew the cap.
+This cap should be brought up flush with the floor. When a
+house trap is being set, it is necessary to set it perfectly
+level, otherwise the seal of the trap is weakened and sewer
+gases can enter.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the trap is located on the house sewer just
+outside of the foundation wall. In this case, a pit should
+be built large enough for a workman to get down to it to
+clean it out when necessary.</p>
+
+<p><i>A mason's trap</i> was formerly used to a considerable
+extent, but is very poor practice to use today on modern
+work. This trap was built square of brick with a center
+partition. The brick soon became foul and the trap would
+be better termed a small cesspool than a trap.</p>
+
+<p><b>Points to Remember about House Traps.</b>&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, should be a running trap.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, two clean-outs.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, deep seal, at least 2 inches.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, set level.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, set inside foundation wall.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sixth</i>, accessible at all times.</li>
+
+<li><i>Seventh</i>, same size as house drain.</li>
+
+<li><i>Eighth</i>, fresh air should connect with it.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<h3>FRESH-AIR CONNECTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>The term "fresh-air inlet" is, as its name implies, an inlet
+for fresh air. It is placed directly on the house side of
+the main trap. The connections made vary considerably.
+A few good connections in common use are explained below.</p>
+
+<p>When the trap is in place, one of the clean-outs can be
+used for the fresh air. If this is done, a Y-branch should
+be placed in the hub of the clean-out. The Y-branch should
+be used for the fresh air and the run should be used for a
+clean-out.</p>
+
+<p>A Y-fitting can be inserted directly back of the trap and
+the branch used for the fresh air. An inverted Y makes a
+good fitting to use directly back of the trap. These
+branches should be taken off the top of the pipe. The
+branch taken off for the fresh-air inlet should not have any
+waste discharge into it and should not be used for a drain
+pipe of any description.</p>
+
+<p>The fresh-air inlet should run as directly as possible into
+the outer air, at least 15 feet from any window. The pipes
+terminate in a number of different ways, some with a return
+bend, above the ground, some with a cowl cap, some with a
+strainer. When necessary to run pipe through the sidewalk,
+a box of brick is made with a heavy brass strainer
+fitted level with the sidewalk into which the pipe runs. If
+the pipe is run into the box on the side a little up from the
+bottom, the possibility of becoming stopped up or filled up
+is not great. The fresh-air inlet sometimes terminates
+above the roof of the building.</p>
+
+<p>Special care should be given this fresh-air inlet as it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+supplies fresh air to the entire system and thus keeps the
+pipes in a much better sanitary condition.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes when the house drain is full of sewage, air is
+pushed out of the fresh-air inlet and disagreeable odors are
+evident. This is why it should be located as far as possible
+from any window. Special care should be taken on the part
+of the plumber not to locate the fresh-air inlet nearer than
+15 feet to the fresh-air intake of the heating system.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_60" id="Fig_60"></a><a href="images/fig60.gif"><img src="images/fig60tn.gif" width="500" height="455" class="plain" alt="Fig. 60.--Fresh-air inlet." title="Fig. 60.&mdash;Fresh-air inlet." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 60.&mdash;Fresh-air inlet.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>When the pipe passes through the foundation wall, the
+same care should be exercised as with other pipes. That is,
+if the pipe is 4 inches, a sleeve 6 inches should be cut in the
+wall for the 4-inch pipe to pass through.</p>
+
+<p><b>Points to Remember about Fresh Air.</b>&mdash;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p>
+
+<ol class="lsoff">
+<li><i>First</i>, never should be smaller than 4 inches.</li>
+
+<li><i>Second</i>, one size smaller than trap.</li>
+
+<li><i>Third</i>, location, directly back of trap.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fourth</i>, leads to outer air.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fifth</i>, keep away from windows and intake of heating system.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sixth</i>, always have end of pipe covered with strainer, cowl, or
+return bend.</li>
+
+<li><i>Seventh</i>, make as few bends as possible.</li>
+
+<li><i>Eighth</i>, supplies fresh air to system.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<h3>DRUM TRAP</h3>
+
+<p>The use of the drum trap is very handy to the plumber
+as well as efficient and practicable when installed. The
+trap can be purchased without any outlets
+or inlets, so the plumber can put them in
+according to the necessary measurements.
+The making of these traps with lead is explained
+in the chapter on Wiping Joints.
+The open end has a brass clean-out screw
+on it. When this clean-out screw comes
+below the floor, another brass screw cap
+and flange is screwed on the floor above
+the trap so that the clean-out screw in the
+trap is easily accessible.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 251px;">
+<a name="Fig_61" id="Fig_61"></a><a href="images/fig61.gif"><img src="images/fig61tn.gif" width="251" height="300" class="plain" alt="Fig. 61.--Drum trap." title="Fig. 61.&mdash;Drum trap." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 61.&mdash;Drum trap.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>These drum traps are called bath traps as they are used
+mostly on bath wastes. They should never be installed
+with the clean-out exposed to the sewer side of the trap.
+In the best practice, heavy brass drum traps are used.</p>
+
+<h3>NON-SYPHONING TRAP</h3>
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 62 and 63">
+<tr><td valign="baseline">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 192px;">
+<a name="Fig_62" id="Fig_62"></a><a href="images/fig62.gif"><img src="images/fig62tn.gif" width="192" height="300" class="plain" alt="Fig. 62.--Flask trap." title="Fig. 62.&mdash;Flask trap." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 62.&mdash;Flask trap.</span>
+</div></td>
+
+<td valign="baseline"><div class="figright" style="width: 269px;">
+<a name="Fig_63" id="Fig_63"></a><a href="images/fig63.gif"><img src="images/fig63tn.gif" width="269" height="300" class="plain" alt="Fig. 63.--Clean-sweep trap." title="Fig. 63.&mdash;Clean-sweep trap." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 63.&mdash;Clean-sweep trap.</span>
+</div></td></tr></table></div>
+
+<p>After years of experimenting to produce a trap that would
+not syphon without venting, we find in use today a large
+variety of non-syphoning traps. Traps that will hold their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+seal against all practical forms of syphonic action, or other
+threatening features, have been made and used and serve
+the purpose for which they are intended. Various means
+to prevent the breaking of the seal of these traps are employed.
+While some depend on a ball or other kind of
+valve, others rely on partitions and deflections of various
+kinds. All of these perform the functions for which they
+are designed, yet the devices employed offer an excellent
+obstruction for the free passage of waste; therefore, in
+time, these traps become inoperative. It should be borne
+in mind that any traps with a mechanical seal or an inside
+partition are not considered sanitary. The inside partition
+might wear out or be destroyed and thus break the seal
+without the knowledge of anyone and allow sewer gas to
+enter the room. The mechanical device may also be displaced
+or destroyed, leaving the trap without a seal. If the
+trap were cleaned out often or examined occasionally,
+these traps could be used with a greater degree of safety.
+Some of the forms of non-syphon traps in common use are:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>The <i>Flask Trap</i>, <a href="#Fig_62">Fig. 62</a>. This trap gets its name from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+its shape. There is an inside wall upon which the seal
+depends. This trap is like the bag trap, only the two inside
+walls of the pipe are combined into one. This wall should
+be of heavy cast brass, free from sand holes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Clean Sweep Trap</i>, <a href="#Fig_63">Fig. 63</a>. Some clean sweep traps are
+dependent upon an inside wall for their seals. They are
+made of <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-S, <span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span>-S, and full S.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 64 and 65 and 66">
+<tr><td valign="baseline">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 230px;">
+<a name="Fig_64" id="Fig_64"></a><a href="images/fig64.gif"><img src="images/fig64tn.gif" width="230" height="300" class="plain" alt="Fig. 64.--Mechanical-seal trap." title="Fig. 64.&mdash;Mechanical-seal trap." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 64.&mdash;Mechanical-seal trap.</span>
+</div></td>
+
+<td valign="middle"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_65" id="Fig_65"></a><a href="images/fig65.gif"><img src="images/fig65tn.gif" width="300" height="229" class="plain" alt="Fig. 65.--Standard &quot;S&quot; trap." title="Fig. 65.&mdash;Standard &quot;S&quot; trap." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 65.&mdash;Standard &quot;S&quot; trap.</span>
+</div></td>
+
+<td valign="baseline"><div class="figright" style="width: 205px;">
+<a name="Fig_66" id="Fig_66"></a><a href="images/fig66.gif"><img src="images/fig66tn.gif" width="205" height="300" class="plain" alt="Fig. 66.--Bag trap." title="Fig. 66.&mdash;Bag trap." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 66.&mdash;Bag trap.</span>
+</div></td></tr></table></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><i>Sure Seal Trap.</i> The sure seal trap is designed to be
+non-syphoning. This trap also has an interior waterway.
+If this waterway leaks, the trap is unfit for use. If these
+traps are made as shown in the second sketch with the way
+inside of a larger pipe, it can be detected if the interior
+wall leaks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Centrifugal Trap.</i> The centrifugal trap is made similar
+to the clean sweep, except that the wall of the inlet pipe is
+entirely separate from the body of the trap. The inlet
+enters the body of the trap on a tangent, thus making the
+trap self-scouring which is a good feature.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Pipe Threading</span></h3>
+
+<p>The proper cutting of threads on pipe is overlooked by
+some mechanics. There are many different kinds of dies
+and different kinds of pipe to contend with. Steel pipe
+threads very hard and the adjustable dies should be used
+on it. These dies cut more easily and leave a cleaner
+thread than other dies when used on steel pipe. When
+threads are cut on wrought-iron pipe the adjustable dies
+should be used as they cut a better and cleaner thread
+than other dies. To preserve the life of the dies and the
+quality of the thread, oil is used freely while the dies are
+cutting.</p>
+
+<p><b>Threads.</b>&mdash;The standard thread on pipe and fittings is a
+right-handed thread. Left threads can be cut on the pipe
+and the fitting can be tapped with a left thread. When a
+fitting is tapped with a left thread it is marked so. The
+following table gives the standard number of threads that
+a die will or should be allowed to cut on the pipe:</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="pipe threads">
+<tr><th class="btb" align="center">Size</th>
+<th class="bbox">Length, inches</th>
+<th class="bbox">Threads per inch</th>
+<th class="btb">Threads per end</th></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span></span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">9</span>&#8260;<span class="below">16</span></span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">18</td>
+<td align="center">10.825</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">14</td>
+<td align="center">10.500</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">14</td>
+<td align="center">10.500</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="center" class="br">1</td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">15</span>&#8260;<span class="below">16</span></span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">11<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></span></td>
+<td align="center">10.800</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1em;">1</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">11<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></span></td>
+<td align="center">11.500</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1em;">1</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">11<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></span></td>
+<td align="center">11.500</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="center" class="brb">2</td>
+<td align="center" class="brb">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="brb"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">11<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></span></td>
+<td align="center" class="bb">12.930</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>To acquaint the beginner with iron pipe work, the following<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+exercise is given. In it there are a great many of
+the actual problems that come up when the pipe is put in on
+a job. This is the last exercise that is required in this book.
+The sketch shows clearly just what the job is and below I
+have gone over each operation that is necessary to complete
+the job.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 426px;">
+<a name="Fig_67" id="Fig_67"></a><a href="images/fig67.gif"><img src="images/fig67tn.gif" width="426" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 67." title="Fig. 67." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 67.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Materials Necessary.</b>&mdash;Six feet of 1-inch black pipe;
+four 1-inch black ells; two 1-inch tee; one 1-inch right
+and left coupling; oil.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tools Necessary.</b>&mdash;Two 14-inch pipe wrenches, vise,
+pipe cutters, stock and 1-inch follower right and left die
+and reamer.</p>
+
+<p>The vise is made secure on a bench or post, care being
+taken before it is put in place to provide room enough to
+swing the stocks. A length of 1-inch pipe is put into the
+vise and the vise clamped around it. The end of the pipe
+that is to be threaded should stick out through the vise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+about 9 inches. If there is a thread on this end, the dies
+should be run over it to make sure that it is a standard
+thread and to clean the threads. Before proceeding further
+with this exercise the dies and stocks will be described and
+their use shown.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dies.</b>&mdash;A full set of dies is taken. The full set of stocks
+and dies is composed of right and left dies from <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span> inch up
+to 1 inch, with a guide for each size, also a small wrench
+with which to turn the set screws. The dies come in sets,
+two in a set. These are the Armstrong patent that I am
+describing. Take the stock and the handles, and a set
+of 1-inch right dies with the guides out of the box. The
+dies will have marked on them 1" R (if 1-inch left were
+wanted, the mark would be 1" L). The set screws are
+taken out of the stock and the dies inserted in their proper
+place. There is a deep mark on the edge of each die and
+under it a letter S. This letter means "standard." This
+mark on the die is set even with a similar mark on the stock
+and when the set screws are in place and tightened, a standard
+thread will be cut. There is an adjusting screw on the
+stock to make the proper adjustment on the dies.</p>
+
+<p><b>Stock.</b>&mdash;The stock is taken and the handles are put into
+it. There are two sets of set screws on the stock, one set
+for holding the dies in place and the other set for adjusting
+the dies. On the stock there is a deep mark to correspond
+with the standard thread mark on the dies. On the
+opposite side of the stock there is a place for the follower
+and a set screw to hold it in place. After the stocks have
+been looked over and examined thoroughly, the 1-inch
+right dies are taken and inserted. Then the 1-inch follower
+is put in place. The tool is now ready to cut a 1-inch
+thread. Now take a piece of 1-inch pipe at least 15 inches
+long and put it in the vise, letting it extend out from the vise
+about 9 inches. The stock is now taken and the follower
+end is put on the pipe first and the dies brought up in place<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+to cut. The end of the pipe is allowed to enter in between
+the two dies so that the teeth of each die rest on the pipe.
+Now, holding the handles of the stock about 6 inches from
+the body of the stock and standing directly in front of the
+pipe, push and turn to the right at the same time and the
+dies will be started. Now put some oil on the dies and
+turn the stock, taking hold of the ends of the handles
+and standing at one side. The dies are run up on the pipe
+until the pipe extends through the face of the dies one
+thread. Oil is put on the pipe and the dies at least twice
+during the cutting. When the thread is long enough the
+stock is turned back a little and then forward a little and the
+loose chips are blown out from between the dies and pipe.
+If the dies are set right, a good clean standard thread will
+have been cut. This thread can now be cut off with the
+pipe cutters.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pipe Cutters.</b>&mdash;To cut pipe with a one-wheel pipe cutter
+is a simple matter. I will not dwell at length on the cutter
+itself. There are one-wheel and three-wheel cutters. We
+will use a one-wheel cutter tool. This cutter is forced into
+the surface of the pipe with a set screw having a long tee
+handle. The pressure that is brought to bear on the pipe
+while being cut is sufficient to cause a large burr to form on
+the inside of the pipe. Sometimes the pipe is completely
+crushed and rendered unfit for use. Therefore the user of
+these cutters should exercise care when cutting pipe. The
+pipe is put in the vise and the cutters are so put on the pipe
+that the pipe will be between the two rollers and the cutter
+wheel, the cutter resting on the mark that indicates the
+point at which the pipe is to be cut. The handle is screwed
+down and the cutters turned around the pipe; each time the
+cutters make a complete turn the handle is screwed down
+more. This procedure is continued until the furrow has
+been cut clear through the pipe.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cutting and Threading Nipples.</b>&mdash;Nipples are short<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+pieces of pipe threaded on each end. Pieces of pipe longer
+than 6 inches are not called nipples. When a nipple is so
+short that the threads cut on each end meet in the center of
+the piece, the nipple is called a "close nipple." When there
+is a space of about <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inch between the threads, it is called
+a "space or shoulder" nipple. To cut and thread these
+nipples a nipple chuck or nipple holder is necessary.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_68" id="Fig_68"></a><a href="images/fig68.gif"><img src="images/fig68tn.gif" width="500" height="277" class="plain" alt="Fig. 68.--Nipple chuck and nipples." title="Fig. 68.&mdash;Nipple chuck and nipples." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 68.&mdash;Nipple chuck and nipples.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Nipple Holders.</b>&mdash;Take a piece of 1-inch pipe about 12
+inches long and on one end cut a thread that is 2 inches
+long. Take a 1-inch coupling and screw it on this end
+until the end of the pipe is almost through the end of the
+coupling. At least four threads should be allowed at this
+end of the coupling. Now we have a piece of pipe 12 inches
+long having a thread 2 inches long on one end with a coupling
+on the thread. This is called a nipple holder. Now, to
+cut a nipple, cut a thread on a piece of pipe and cut the
+pipe off at any desired length, say 2 inches. Put the nipple
+holder in the vise with the coupling out from the vise about
+8 inches. Take the 2-inch piece of pipe with a thread on
+one end, screw this thread into the coupling until it touches
+the pipe that has been screwed through from the other end.
+Now the stocks having the 1 dies and the follower in are
+put on the pipe. The follower will not go over the coupling,
+therefore take the follower out of the stock. Now the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+stock will slip over the coupling and the thread can be
+cut. With this procedure a nipple of any length can be
+cut. There are a number of patented nipple chucks on the
+market, but as they are not always at hand the above
+method is resorted to and serves every purpose.</p>
+
+<p><b>Long Screws.</b>&mdash;To cut a long screw which comes in use
+frequently on vent pipe work, a piece of pipe 12 inches long
+is taken and a regular length thread is cut on one end, and
+a thread 4 inches long is cut on the other end. Then a
+coupling is cut while screwed on a pipe, so that a lock nut
+about <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inch wide is made. The description and use of
+these long screws will come under screw pipe venting.</p>
+
+<p>Now that the proper use of the tools has been explained,
+we will proceed with the exercise according to the sketch.
+With a length of pipe in the vise and the 1-inch dies in the
+stock, run over the thread on the pipe. Note that all the
+measurements are center to center. Screw an elbow on
+the pipe and measure off the first length, which we will take
+as 12 inches center to center. Place the rule on the pipe
+with one end of it at the center of the opening of the elbow
+just screwed on. Mark 12 inches off on the pipe. This
+mark represents the center of another ell. Now take
+another ell and hold the center of one outlet on this mark.
+It will readily be seen that to have the measurement come
+right, the pipe must be cut off at a point where it will make
+up tight when screwed into the ell. Therefore, about
+1 inch will have to be cut off, making the pipe 1 inch shorter
+than where it was first marked. Cut the pipe, and before
+taking it out of the vise make a thread on the pipe still
+in the vise. After the thread is cut, take the reamer and
+ream out the burr that is on the inside of the pipe caused
+by the pipe cutter. An elbow can be screwed on this pipe.
+The next measurement is marked off as explained, the pipe
+cut, then the piece in the vise threaded and reamed. The
+measurements must be accurate and the dies should be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+adjusted to cut all threads the same depth. When the
+measurements are all out, there should be seven pieces of
+pipe, each piece having one thread. Now the threads on
+the other end can be cut except the 12 inch piece that screws
+into the right and left coupling. This thread is a left-handed
+thread and must be cut with the left dies. Change
+the dies now to the 1-inch left dies; turn the stock in the
+opposite direction of the right-hand thread, and the dies
+will cut the left thread. The pipe and the fittings can easily
+be put together as shown in the sketch by following the
+center to center measurements. The right and left coupling
+is the only fitting that will cause the beginner trouble. A
+right and left coupling can be used only when there is
+sufficient <i>give</i> to the pipe, that is, the two ends of the pipe
+to be coupled together are only <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inch apart. To get the
+coupling in place to start the threads, the pipe must spread
+apart at least 2 inches. If the pipe cannot be spread that
+much, a right and left coupling cannot be used. The proper
+way to make up a right and left coupling is as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_69" id="Fig_69"></a><a href="images/fig69.gif"><img src="images/fig69tn.gif" width="500" height="215" class="plain" alt="Fig. 69.--F reads center of ell to end, C reads center of ell to center
+of valve, D reads center of valve to center of T, E reads center of T to
+center of ell." title="Fig. 69.&mdash;F reads center of ell to end, C reads center " /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 69.&mdash;F reads center of ell to end, C reads center of ell to center
+of valve, D reads center of valve to center of T, E reads center of T to
+center of ell.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Screw home the coupling on the right thread. Mark with
+a piece of chalk on the coupling and the pipe showing a point
+on each where the coupling makes tight. Take off the
+coupling and count the turns and make note of the number.
+Now do the same on the left thread and make a note of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+number of threads. If the left thread has six turns and the
+right has four and one-half, then to insure that the left
+thread will be tight when the right thread is, the coupling
+must be put on the left thread one and one-half turns before
+it is started on the right thread. Now with four and one-half
+turns, the right and the left threads will both be tight.
+A little thought and practice will make this connection
+clear. If all the measurements in this exercise are not cut
+accurately, the right and left coupling will not go together.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Cold-water Supply. Test</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>The supplying of cold water to buildings and then piping
+it to the various fixtures makes a very interesting study.
+We have gone over the methods of laying and piping for
+the house service pipe. We will go over the different systems
+now employed to supply the water, quickly.</p>
+
+<p><b>Underground Water.</b>&mdash;In thinly populated districts the
+well is still employed to supply water to the building.
+The water is brought to the surface by means of a large
+bucket or by means of a pump. A well point can be driven
+into the ground until water is reached and then the water
+can be brought to the surface by means of a pump operated
+by hand or by power. The water can be forced to a tank
+that is open and elevated, or forced into a tank that is
+closed and put under pressure. From either tank the water
+will flow to any desired outlets. A windmill can be employed
+to furnish power to operate the pump. Water
+supply that is received directly from underground is by far
+the best to use. A cesspool or outhouse must not be allowed
+on the premises with a well, otherwise the well will
+be contaminated and unfit for domestic use. An open
+well is not as sanitary as a driven well, as the surface water
+and leaves, etc., get into it and decay and pollute the water,
+and soon make it unfit for domestic use.</p>
+
+<p><b>Streams and Brooks.</b>&mdash;The brooks and streams furnish
+a good source of supply for water to a building or community
+of buildings. The writer recently worked on a system
+of piping that supplied 15 or 20 buildings. The water
+supply came from a brook that was higher than the houses.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+Each house had a separate pipe leading down from the brook
+into a tank from which the house was piped. The owner
+of the brook applied business ethics to the privileges of
+taking water from it. He had a scale of prices, and the
+highest-priced location was an inch or so below the bed of
+the brook, the next price was level with the bottom, the
+next cheaper 2 inches above the bottom. As the surface
+was reached, the privilege cost less. In the dry time of the
+year those at the bottom of the brook always had water
+while those at the top location had to wait for the water to
+rise, and had to do without water during the dry time.
+Where the stream is on a lower level than the building a
+hydraulic ram can be used.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rivers and Lakes.</b>&mdash;Rivers and lakes make an abundant
+supply for water systems. A sluggish-moving river is bad,
+also a river that is used for carrying off the sewage of a town.
+Special provision is now made for the using of water that is
+polluted. A lake that is supplied by springs is by far the
+best source of supply. The water is pumped from the river
+or lake into a reservoir and then flows by gravity into mains
+and from the mains into the buildings. The water should
+always be filtered before it is allowed to enter the distributing
+mains.</p>
+
+<p><b>Water Pressure.</b>&mdash;Pressure at a fixture or outlet so that
+the water will flow is generally obtained by the force of
+gravity. When this method is not sufficient, a pneumatic
+system is employed. This method is employed to force the
+water to the top floors or to supply the whole building in
+high structures. The pneumatic system requires a pump,
+an air-tight tank, and pipes to the various outlets. The
+water pumped into the air-tight tank will occupy part of
+the space generally occupied by the air. The air cannot
+escape and is, therefore, compressed. Continued pumping
+will compress the air until the limit of the apparatus is
+reached. If a valve or faucet that is connected with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+tank is opened, the air will expand and force the water out
+of the opening. This explains in a general way the operation
+of a pneumatic water-supply system. Water can be
+pumped into this air-tight tank from a well, cistern, river,
+lake, or from the city supply mains.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_70" id="Fig_70"></a><a href="images/fig70.gif"><img src="images/fig70tn.gif" width="500" height="184" class="plain" alt="Fig. 70.--&quot;Banjo.&quot;" title="Fig. 70.&mdash;&quot;Banjo.&quot;" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 70.&mdash;&quot;Banjo.&quot;</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Piping.</b>&mdash;From the service pipe on which there has been
+placed a shut-off, a line of piping, full size, is run through
+the basement, overhead to a convenient place, perhaps to
+a partition in the center of the cellar. The pipe is brought
+down and connected into the end of a header. This header
+or banjo is made of Ts placed 4 inches center to center.
+From each T a line of pipe is run to each isolated fixture
+or set of fixtures (see <a href="#Fig_70">Fig. 70</a>). A stop and waste cock is
+placed on each line at such a point that all stop cocks will
+come in a row near the header. A small pipe is run from
+the waste of each stop and discharged into a larger pipe
+which connects with a sink. This way of running pipes
+while it is expensive makes a very neat and good job. Each
+stop cock has a tag on it stating explicitly what it controls.
+If the building is a large one a number of these panelled
+headers are used. A less expensive way to run this pipe
+is to branch off from the main at points where the branch
+pipe will be as short as possible and use as few fittings as
+possible. Stop and waste cocks are then placed on each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+branch near the main.</p>
+
+<p>All pipe must follow the direct line of fitting with which
+it is connected. The line of pipe should be perfectly
+straight. If it seems necessary to bend the pipe to get
+around an obstacle, then good judgment has not been used
+in placing the fitting into which the pipe is screwed. The
+fitting should be re-located so that the pipe can be run
+without bending. To have true alignment of pipes the
+whole job or section of the job must be drawn out on paper
+first and any obstacles noted and avoided before the piping
+is cut. This not only saves time but it is also the forerunner
+of a good job. When getting measurements for
+piping the same rule or tape should be used to get out the
+pipe as was used to get the measurements.</p>
+
+<p>The water main and branches that run through the
+basement of a building are generally hung on the ceiling.
+Rough hangers of wood, rope, or wire are usually used to
+hold the pipe in place at first, then neat and strong adjustable
+hangers are placed every 8 feet apart. There are in
+use too many kinds of hangers to explain or describe them
+here. The essential point of all good hangers is to have
+them strong, neat, and so made that perfect alignment of
+the pipe can be had. The hangers should be so placed that
+no strain will come on the fitting or the valves. A hanger
+should be placed near each side of unions so that when the
+union is taken apart neither side of the pipe will drop and
+bend. Hooks and straps should be used to hold vertical
+pipes rigid and in position. A vertical pipe should be so
+held in place that its weight will come on the hooks and
+straps that hold it rather than on the horizontal pipe into
+which it connects. Where there are six or eight horizontal
+lines of pipes close together, a separate hanger for each
+pipe makes a rather cumbersome job and it consumes considerable
+time to install them properly. A hanger having
+one support run under all the pipes will allow space for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+proper alignment and adjustment for drainage. Allowance
+must be made on all lines of pipe for drainage. When
+a building is vacant during cold weather, the water is
+drawn off; therefore, the pipes should have a pitch to certain
+points where the pipes can be opened and the entire
+system drained of water.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kinds of Pipe.</b>&mdash;The kind of pipe that is used for cold-water
+supply depends on and varies according to the kind
+of water, the kind of earth through which it runs, and the
+construction of the building. Wrought iron, steel, lead,
+brass, tin-lined brass, are in use.</p>
+
+<p>The supply pipe to every fixture should have a stop on it
+directly under the fixture. This will allow the water to be
+shut off for repairs to the faucet without stopping the supply
+of other fixtures.</p>
+
+<p>The making of perfect threads on pipe is an important
+matter, especially on water pipes. If the pipe and the dies
+were perfect, and the mechanic used sufficient oil in cutting,
+and the fittings were perfectly tapped to correspond to the
+dies used on the pipe, of course a perfect union between pipe
+and fitting would result and the joint would be found to be
+perfect on screwing the pipe home. As all the above conditions
+are not found on the job, threads are made tight by
+the use of red or white lead and oil. The lead is put on the
+thread and when the thread is made up the lead will have
+been forced into any imperfection that may be in the threads
+and the joint will then be water-tight. White lead and oil
+should be used on nickel-plated pipe as other pipe compounds
+are too conspicuous and look badly. A pipe compound
+should be used with discretion, for if too much is put on a
+burr of it will collect in the bore of the pipe and reduce it
+considerably. This is not tolerated, so only a small amount
+is used. Water pipes should be run in accessible places,
+making it possible to get at them in case of trouble. In
+climates that have freezing weather water pipes should not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+be run in outside partitions. If it is found absolutely
+necessary to do so, as in the case of buildings which have
+no inside partitions on the first floor, the pipe should be
+properly covered and protected. The different methods
+of covering pipes are described in <a href="#CHAPTER_XV">Chapter XV</a>.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Hot-water Heaters. Instantaneous Coil and<br />
+Storage Tanks. Return Circulation,<br />
+Hot-water Lines and Expansion</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>The problem of supplying hot water to plumbing fixtures
+is one that has required years of study. Each job today
+demands considerable thought to make it a perfect and
+satisfactory hot-water system. We will find installations
+today where the water is red from rust, where there is
+water pounding and cracking. There are also jobs where
+the fixtures get practically no hot water. As each job or
+individual building has its own peculiar conditions, they
+must be solved by the designer or the mechanic, using the
+fundamental principles of hot-water circulation. We must
+first know how much hot water is to be used, also the location
+of the outlets and the construction of the building;
+then the size of the pipes and the size of the tanks and their
+locations can be settled. If the job is a large one, a pump
+may be employed to insure the proper circulation. After
+this the pipe sizes and connections can be worked out. The
+one great enemy of hot-water circulation is air. Therefore,
+no traps or air pockets should ever appear in the piping
+system. The boiler, as it is often referred to, is the hot-water
+storage tank. A copper or iron tank holding sufficient
+water to supply all fixtures, even when every fixture
+demands a supply at the same time, is installed in a convenient
+place and the heating arrangement connected with
+it. A thermostat can be placed on the system and the
+temperature of the water controlled. According to the size
+of the building the problem of furnishing the plumbing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+fixtures with hot water increases.</p>
+
+<p><b>Methods of Heating Hot Water.</b>&mdash;There are a number of
+ways of furnishing hot water. Some of the installations
+are listed below.</p>
+
+<p>A cast-iron or brass water back is placed on the fire pot
+of a stove or furnace. A separate stove with the fire pot
+and water jacket is used. A coil of steam pipe is placed
+inside a hot-water boiler or tank. Gas coil heaters are
+connected with hot water storage tank, also gas coil instantaneous
+heaters are connected with the piping direct.</p>
+
+<p>Combinations of the above systems are in use and serve
+the purpose for which they are intended. For instance,
+the tank can be connected with a coal range and a gas coil
+heater, heat being furnished by the range alone or the coil
+heater alone, or both can be used at the same time. This
+combination can be connected with the furnace in the cellar,
+and during the winter months, when the furnace is in
+use, the water can be heated by the furnace coil. In warm
+weather, when the furnace is out, the range can supply the
+necessary heat. In hot weather the coil gas heater can
+supply the heat.</p>
+
+<p><b>Connections of Tank and Heating Apparatus.</b>&mdash;The ordinary
+house boiler or hot-water storage tank has four connections,
+two on top, one on the side, and one on the bottom.
+The top connections are used for the entrance of cold water
+into the tank and for the supply of hot water to the fixtures
+(see <a href="#Fig_71">Fig. 71</a>). The cold-water inlet has a tube extending
+into the tank below the side connection. This tube has
+a small hole filed in it about 6 inches from the top. This
+hole is to break any syphonic action that may occur at any
+time. The side connection is for the connection of the pipe
+coming from the top of the water back. The bottom opening
+in the tank is for the connection of the pipe coming from
+the lower water back connection, also for draining the
+boiler. The circulation of the water can be followed thus:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+cold water enters the boiler in the tube and discharges
+into the boiler below the side connection. From here it
+flows out of the bottom connection into the water back,
+through the upper connection into the boiler, through the
+side opening, then to the top of the boiler and out to the
+fixtures through the fixture supply opening.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_71" id="Fig_71"></a><a href="images/fig71.gif"><img src="images/fig71tn.gif" width="300" height="381" class="plain" alt="Fig. 71.--Storage tank, and coil heater with thermostatic control valve." title="Fig. 71.&mdash;Storage tank, and coil heater with thermostatic control valve." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 71.&mdash;Storage tank, and coil heater with thermostatic control valve.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_69">Fig. 69</a> shows a thermostatic control valve attached to
+the bottom of a heater coil, and at the side of storage tank.
+The best arrangement is at the bottom, for it does not
+shut off the gas supply until the boiler is full of hot water.</p>
+
+<p><b>Connecting Tank and Coil Gas Heater.</b>&mdash;The boiler and
+the coil gas heater have a different connection. The
+bottom of the tank and the bottom of the heater are connected.
+The top of the heater and the top of the boiler
+are connected. The accompanying sketch shows how this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+connection is made. If the tee on the top of the boiler
+into which the gas-heater connection is made is not the
+first fitting and placed as close to the outlet as possible,
+the water will not circulate freely into the boiler. This
+connection according to the drawing should be studied
+and memorized.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_72" id="Fig_72"></a><a href="images/fig72.gif"><img src="images/fig72tn.gif" width="500" height="324" class="plain" alt="Fig. 72.--Instantaneous gas heater. Showing circulation heater or
+booster." title="Fig. 72.&mdash;Instantaneous gas heater. Showing circulation heater or
+booster." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 72.&mdash;Instantaneous gas heater. Showing circulation heater or
+booster.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Instantaneous Gas-heater Connections.</b>&mdash;An instantaneous
+gas heater is placed in the basement. The copper
+coil in it is connected at the bottom with the cold-water
+supply and the top outlet of the coil is connected with the
+hot-water system of piping. There is no need of a storage
+tank with this heater. When a faucet is opened in any part
+of the hot-water piping system, the water passing through
+the water valve at the heater causes the gas valve to open
+so that the whole set of burners in the heater is supplied
+with gas, and the burners are lighted from a pilot light.
+When the faucet is closed, the gas supply is shut off and
+the burners are put out. The pilot is lighted all the time.
+Space will not permit going over these connections in detail.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+It is a large field and requires considerable thought.</p>
+
+<p><b>Safety and Check Valves.</b>&mdash;When a meter is used on a
+water system, the water company demands that a check
+valve be placed on the hot-water system to prevent the
+hot water from being forced back into the meter in case the
+pressure got strong enough in the boiler. If a check valve
+is used for this purpose, or for any other purpose, a safety
+valve must be placed on the boiler piping system to relieve
+any excessive pressure that may be caused by having the
+check valve in use. There is today, with meters of modern
+type, no reason to use a check valve or a safety valve. If
+an excessive pressure is obtained in the boiler, it is relieved
+in the water main.</p>
+
+<p>When water is heated, it expands. If the heat becomes
+more intense and steam is formed, the expansion is much
+greater, and some means must be provided to allow for it.
+This expansion can be allowed to relieve itself in the water
+main as explained above. When a check valve is placed
+on the piping, this means of escape is shut off and a safety
+valve must be employed. Without these reliefs, the pressure
+would be so great that an explosion would result.
+When steel pipe and steel boilers are used for storage tanks
+and connections, the pipe and tank will shortly start to
+rust and parts of the piping are stopped up with rust
+scales. The water also becomes red with rust when the
+water becomes hot enough to circulate. When the pipes
+are stopped up, steam is formed and a snapping and cracking
+sound is heard. To avoid these conditions, the piping
+should be of brass or lead and the storage tank should be
+of copper. The installation cost of brass and copper is
+greater than steel, but they will not have to be replaced in
+two or three years, as is the case with other material. A
+valve should be placed on the cold-water supply to control
+the entire hot-water piping system. A pipe with a stop cock
+should be placed underneath the boiler and should extend<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+into a sink in the basement so that the boiler can be drained
+at any time for cleaning or repairs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Connecting with Fixtures.</b>&mdash;To have all fixtures properly
+supplied with hot water it is necessary to run what is termed
+a circulating pipe. This circulating pipe is a circuit of
+pipe extending from the top of the boiler to the vicinity of
+the fixtures and then returning to the boiler and connecting
+into the pipe leading out of the bottom of the boiler. From
+this circuit all branches are taken to supply all fixtures
+requiring hot water. This circulating pipe has hot water
+circulating through it all the time. Therefore the fixtures
+are supplied with hot water very quickly. The circulating
+pipe and its branches are run without any traps or air
+pockets.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures 73 and 74 and 75">
+<tr><td valign="top"><div class="figleft" style="width: 204px;">
+<a name="Fig_73" id="Fig_73"></a><a href="images/fig73.gif"><img src="images/fig73tn.gif" width="204" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 73.--Expansion
+loop. Four 90&deg; ells." title="Fig. 73.&mdash;Expansion
+loop. Four 90&deg; ells." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 73.&mdash;Expansion
+loop. Four 90&deg; ells.</span>
+</div></td>
+
+<td valign="middle"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 222px;">
+<a name="Fig_74" id="Fig_74"></a><a href="images/fig74.gif"><img src="images/fig74tn.gif" width="222" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 74.--Expansion
+loop. Five 90&deg; ells." title="Fig. 74.&mdash;Expansion
+loop. Five 90&deg; ells." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 74.&mdash;Expansion
+loop. Five 90&deg; ells.</span>
+</div></td>
+
+<td valign="baseline"><div class="figright" style="width: 188px;">
+<a name="Fig_75" id="Fig_75"></a><a href="images/fig75.gif"><img src="images/fig75tn.gif" width="188" height="500" class="plain" alt="Fig. 75.--Expansion
+loop. Six 90&deg; ells." title="Fig. 75.&mdash;Expansion
+loop. Six 90&deg; ells." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 75.&mdash;Expansion
+loop. Six 90&deg; ells.</span>
+</div></td></tr></table></div>
+
+<p>When running the piping, it should be borne in mind that
+not only does the water expand when heated, but the pipe
+expands also. Therefore due allowance must be made for
+this expansion. The long risers should have an expansion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+loop as shown in Figs. <a href="#Fig_73">73</a>, <a href="#Fig_74">74</a> and <a href="#Fig_75">75</a>. There are installed on
+some jobs what is known as an expansion joint. This will
+allow for the expansion and contraction of the pipe. The
+writer's experience with these joints has not been very
+satisfactory. After a while these joints begin to leak and
+they must have attention which in some cases is rather expensive.
+An expansion loop as shown in the sketch, made
+with elbows, will prove satisfactory. If the threads on the
+fittings and pipe are good, no leak will appear on this joint.</p>
+
+<p>All gas heaters must be connected with a flue to carry
+off the products of combustion.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Insulation of Piping to Eliminate Conduction,<br />
+Radiation, Freezing, and Noise</span></h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Pipe Covering.</b>&mdash;Pipe covering is another important
+branch of plumbing. A few years ago heating pipes were
+the only pipes that it was thought necessary to cover.
+The ever-increasing demands made by the public keep the
+wideawake plumber continually solving problems. The
+water running down a waste pipe, for instance, will annoy
+some people, and provision must be made to avoid this
+noise or to silence it. This is one of the many problems
+that the plumber must solve by the use of pipe covering.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pipes that Need Covering.</b>&mdash;First of all, the covering
+must be put on properly to be of high service. <i>Hot-water
+circulating pipes</i> need covering to reduce the amount of
+heat loss. If the pipes and the tank are not covered, considerable
+more fuel will be needed to supply the necessary
+amount of hot water than if the pipes and tank were covered
+with a good covering. <i>Cold-water pipes</i> need covering in
+places to keep them from freezing. They also need covering
+under some conditions to keep them from sweating. They
+are covered also to prevent the material which surrounds
+them from coming into direct contact with the pipe.
+<i>Waste pipes</i> need covering to prevent them from freezing
+and to silence the noise caused by the rush of water through
+them. <i>Ice-water pipes</i> are covered to prevent the water
+from rising in temperature and to prevent any condensation
+forming on the pipe. There is need for such a variety
+of covering that I have listed below some of them and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+methods employed for putting them on the pipe.</p>
+
+<p>Magnesia, asbestos air cell, molded asbestos, wool felt,
+waterproof paper and wool felt, cork, hair felt. These
+coverings come in the form of pipe covering with a cloth
+jacket. They also come in the shape of fittings as well as
+in blocks and rolls of paper, and in powdered form. Any
+thickness that is desired may be had. The pipe covering
+is readily put on the pipe. The cloth jacket is pulled back
+a short distance and the covering will open like a book.
+It can then be clamped on the pipe and the jacket pulled
+back and pasted into place. Brass bands, 1 inch wide,
+come with the pipe covering. These are put on and the
+pipe covering is then held securely in place. Practically
+all the coverings are applied in this manner and are made up
+in 3-foot lengths to fit any size pipe. To cover the fittings
+and valves, the same kind of sectional covering can be
+obtained and applied in the same manner as the pipe
+covering. Plastic covering is often applied to the fittings
+and molded into the shape of the fitting. The plastic
+covering comes in bags and is dry. It is mixed with warm
+water to the consistency of thick cement and applied with a
+trowel. When the covering is put on the pipes and fittings,
+it should be done thoroughly to get satisfactory results.
+Each section of the covering has on one end an extra length
+of the jacket. This is to allow a lap over on the next section
+to make a tight joint. If the sections need fitting, a
+saw can be used and the covering cut to any desired length.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><i>Magnesia</i> covering is employed mostly on steam pipes,
+especially high-pressure. This material can be had in the
+shape of pipe covering, in blocks, or cement.</p>
+
+<p><i>Asbestos air cell</i> covering is employed to cover hot-water
+circulating pipes. It is constructed of corrugated asbestos
+paper. This material is manufactured in the sectional pipe
+covering or in corrugated paper form.</p>
+
+<p><i>Molded asbestos</i> covering is also used on hot-water pipes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+and is manufactured in pipe covering or in blocks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wool felt</i> covering is used mostly on hot-water pipes and
+makes one of the best coverings. It is lined with asbestos
+paper and covered with a cloth jacket.</p>
+
+<p><i>Waterproof paper and wool felt</i> is used on cold-water
+pipes and is made in 3-foot lengths. The covering is lined
+with waterproof paper and covered with a cloth jacket.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cork.</i>&mdash;A heavy cork covering is one of the best coverings
+for ice-water pipes, and a light cork covering is used for cold-water
+pipes. This covering comes in sections as other
+coverings, also in blocks and sheets.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hair felt</i> is used to prevent pipes from freezing. It
+comes in bales containing 150 to 300 square feet of various
+thicknesses.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">"Durham" or "Screw Pipe" Work. Pipe and<br />
+Fittings</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>"Durham" or "screw pipe" work is the name used to denote
+that the job is installed by the use of wrought-iron or
+steel screw pipe. We speak of a "cast-iron job" meaning
+that cast-iron pipe was used for the piping. A completely
+different method of work is used when screw pipe is employed
+for the wastes and vents. When screw pipe is to
+be used or considered for use, it is well to know something
+concerning the various makes of screw pipe. Nothing but
+galvanized pipe is ever used. The value of steel screw pipe
+and wrought-iron screw pipe should be studied, and every
+person interested should, if possible, understand how these
+different pipes are made and how the material of which they
+are composed is made. In some places one pipe is better
+than another and a study of their make-up would enlighten
+the user and allow him to use the best for his peculiar conditions.
+The maker's name should always be on the pipe.
+The following table shows the sizes, weights, and thicknesses
+of screw pipe:</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="screw pipe stats">
+<tr><th class="btb" align="center">Size</th><th class="bbox">Thickness</th><th class="btb">No. threads<br />per inch </th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">0.140</td>
+<td align="center">11<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">0.145</td>
+<td align="center">11<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">0.154</td>
+<td align="center">11<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">0.204</td>
+<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: -0.75em;">8</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">0.217</td>
+<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: -0.75em;">8</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">0.226</td>
+<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: -0.75em;">8</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">0.237</td>
+<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: -0.75em;">8</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">0.259</td>
+<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: -0.75em;">8</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="brb"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="brb">0.280</td>
+<td align="center" class="bb"><span style="margin-left: -0.75em;">8</span></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Screw pipe work came into common use with the advance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+of modern steel structures. Some difficulty had been experienced
+in getting the cast-iron pipe joints tight and to
+keep the pipe so anchored that it would not crack. The
+screw pipe was found to answer all of the requirements of
+modern structures and therefore has been used extensively.
+The life of screw pipe is not as long as extra heavy cast-iron
+pipe. This is the only serious objection to screw pipe,
+which must be renewed after a term of years, while extra
+heavy cast iron lasts indefinitely. Screw pipe is never used
+underground. When piping is required underground, extra
+heavy cast-iron pipe is used.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PIPING</h3>
+
+<p>The pipe used in Durham work is galvanized extra heavy,
+or standard wrought-iron, or steel pipe. It is almost impossible
+to recognize wrought-iron from steel pipe without
+the aid of a chemical or a magnifying glass. To test the
+pipe to distinguish its base, take a sharp file and file through
+the surface of the pipe that is to be tested. If the pipe is
+steel, under a magnifying glass the texture of the filed surface
+will appear to be smooth and have small irregular-shaped
+grains, and there will also be an appearance of
+compactness. If the pipe is iron, the texture will have the
+appearance of being ragged and will show streaks of slag
+or black. When screw pipe is cut there is always left a
+large burr on the inside of the pipe. This burr greatly
+reduces the bore of the pipe and is a source of stoppage in
+waste pipes. After the pipe is cut this burr should be
+reamed out thoroughly. One of the strong points of screw
+pipe is the strength of each joint. Care should therefore
+be taken to see that perfect threads are cut on the pipe and
+that the threads of the fittings are perfect. The dies should
+be set right and not varied on each joint. There should be
+plenty of oil used when threads are cut so that the thread<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+will be clean and sharp. The follower or guide on stocks
+should be the same size as the pipe that is being threaded,
+otherwise a crooked thread will result. If a pipe-threading
+machine is used, the pipe is set squarely between the jaws
+of the vise that holds the pipe in place. When cutting
+a thread on a long length of pipe, the end sticking out from
+the machine must be supported firmly so that no strain
+will come on the machine as the pipe turns. It is necessary
+to cut crooked threads sometimes on the pipe to allow
+the pipe pitch for drainage or to bring the pipe into alignment
+where fitting would take up too much room. To cut
+a crooked thread on a piece of pipe, simply leave the follower
+out of the stock or put in the size larger. The dies not having
+a guide will cut a crooked thread. Piping should be
+run with as few threads as possible. With a thorough knowledge
+of and the intelligent use of fittings, a minimum number
+of threads will result.</p>
+
+<p>The pipes in a building are run in compact parallel lines
+in chases designed especially for them. The tendency is to
+confine the pipes to certain localities as much as possible.
+This makes a very neat job and in case repairs are needed,
+the work and trouble incurred will be confined to one section.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FITTINGS</h3>
+
+<p>The fittings used in screw pipe work are cast-iron recess
+type (see <a href="#Fig_54">Fig. 54</a>). The fittings are so made that the inside
+bores of the pipe and the fittings come in direct line with
+each other, thus making a smooth inside surface at all bends.
+The fittings are all heavily galvanized. All fittings should be
+examined on the inside for any lumps of metal of sufficient
+size to catch solid waste matter, and these must be removed
+or the fitting discarded. All 90&deg; bends, whether Ts or
+elbows, are tapped to give the pipe that connects with them
+a pitch of at least <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inch to the foot. Except where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+obligatory, 90&deg; fittings should not be used. To make a
+bend of 90&deg; a Y-branch, a nipple and a 45&deg; bend should be
+used, or two 45&deg; bends will make a long easy sweep of the
+drainage pipes and reduce the possibility of stoppage.</p>
+
+<p>Y-branches are inserted every 30 feet at least to allow for
+a clean-out which can be placed in the branch of the fitting.
+When a clean-out is placed an iron plug should not be used.
+These plugs are not removed very often and an iron plug
+will rust in and be almost impossible to get out. Brass
+clean-out plugs are used and are easily taken out.</p>
+
+<p>At times it is necessary to connect cast iron and wrought
+iron, or in a line where a union could be used if the pipe were
+not a waste pipe, a tucker fitting is used. This fitting is
+threaded on one end and has a socket on the other to allow
+for caulking. To get a good idea of all the fittings in general
+use, the reader should get a catalogue from one of the fitting
+manufacturers and a survey of it will give the names and
+sizes of the fittings. However, I show a few common ones.
+In the writer's opinion, the studying of the catalogue would
+be of more benefit than a description of fittings at this
+point. The sizes used and the methods employed to vent
+the waste-pipe systems are the same as in cast-iron work.</p>
+
+
+<h3>HANGERS AND SUPPORTS</h3>
+
+<p>The hanging of screw pipe is a very essential point. The
+taking of the strain off from a fitting or line of pipe by the
+use of a hanger is the means of avoiding serious trouble
+after a job is completed. On horizontal runs hangers are
+placed not more than 8 feet apart. In a building constructed
+of wood, the hangers are secured to the joists.
+In a building constructed of steel beams and concrete the
+hangers are secured to the steel beams by means of I-beam
+hangers that clamp on the beams; also in the case of concrete
+the hangers are extended through the floor and a T<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+is put on the hanger on top of the cement floor; an iron bar
+or a short piece of smaller pipe run through the T holds the
+hanger in place and secures it rigidly. The finished floor is
+laid over the hanger so that it does not show from the top.
+Hangers on the vertical lines should be placed at every
+joint and under each fitting. To have the pipe in true
+alignment, the hangers must be hung and placed in line.
+Every riser line must have an extra support at the base to
+avoid any settling of the stack which will crack the fittings
+and break fixture connections.</p>
+
+
+<h3>MEASUREMENTS</h3>
+
+<p>The proper installation of screw pipe work requires getting
+correct and accurate measurements. Every plumber
+is or should be able to get correct center to center, center to
+end, end to end, center to back, and end to back measurements.
+In Durham work 45&deg; angles are continually occurring.
+To get these measurements correctly, the following
+table has been compiled as used by the author and found to
+be correct. The reader should memorize it so that it may
+be used without referring to the book.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Measurements</span></h3>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="measurements">
+<tr><th class="btb" align="center">Soil pipe</th><th class="bbox" align="center">Screw pipe</th><th class="btb" align="center">Multiplier</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">6</span>&nbsp; bend</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1.0em;">60</span></td>
+<td align="center">1.15</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span>&nbsp; &nbsp; "</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1.0em;">45</span></td>
+<td align="center">1.41</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">12</span>&nbsp; "</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1.0em;">30</span></td>
+<td align="center">2.00</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">16</span>&nbsp; "</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">22<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></td>
+<td align="center">2.61</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">32</span>&nbsp; "</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">11<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></td>
+<td align="center">5.12</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="brb"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">64</span>&nbsp; "</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="brb"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5<span class="above">5</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span></span></td>
+<td align="center" class="bb"><span style="margin-left: -0.5em;">10.22</span></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Before any measurements are taken, the lines of pipe are
+laid out and the position of each fitting known. As I
+have stated before, the plumber must look ahead with his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+work. He must have the ability of practically seeing the
+pipe in place before the work is started. This requires
+experience and judgment. Before the measurements are
+taken and the pipe cut consideration must be given to the
+fact that the fittings and pipes must be screwed into position.
+Therefore, "can the fitting on the pipe be placed
+where it is laid out when this is considered?" must be one of
+the many questions a plumber should ask himself. Allowance
+must be made for the chain tongs to swing. Whenever
+possible, a fitting is made up on the pipe while the pipe
+is in the vise.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_76" id="Fig_76"></a><a href="images/fig76.gif"><img src="images/fig76tn.gif" width="500" height="206" class="plain" alt="Fig. 76.--The offset is B or 12 inches center to center. The offset is
+made using 45 degree fittings. Therefore the length of A from the center
+of one fitting to the center of the other is B &times; 1.41 = 12 &times; 1.41 = 16.92
+inches." title="Fig. 76.&mdash;The offset is B or 12 inches center to cente" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 76.&mdash;The offset is B or 12 inches center to center. The offset is
+made using 45 degree fittings. Therefore the length of A from the center
+of one fitting to the center of the other is B &times; 1.41 = 12 &times; 1.41 = 16.92
+inches.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<h3>FIXTURE CONNECTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>The fixture connections when screw pipe is used are necessarily
+different than when cast-iron pipe is used. A brass
+nipple is wiped on a piece of lead pipe and then screwed into
+the fitting left for the closet connection. The lead is
+flanged over above the floor and the closet set on it. The
+lead is soldered to a brass flange. The brass flange is
+secured to the floor and then the closet bowl secured to the
+brass flange. Another method employed is to screw a brass
+flange into the fitting so that when it is made up the flange
+will come level with the floor; the closet bowl is then secured
+to this flange. There are a number of patented floor
+flanges for closet bowl connections that can be used to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+advantage. Slop sinks have practically the same connections
+as the closets. Other fixtures such as the urinal,
+lavatory, and bath, can be connected with a short piece of
+lead wiped on a solder nipple, or the trimmings for the fixture
+can be had with brass having iron pipe size threads,
+and the connection can then be made directly with the
+outlet on the waste line. This is a very general way to
+describe the connections, but space will not allow a detailed
+description of these connections. It is always well
+to allow for short lead connections for fixtures so that the
+lead will give if the stack settles.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Gas Fitting, Pipe and Fittings, Threading, Measuring,<br />
+and Testing</span></h3>
+
+
+<h3>GAS AND ITS USE IN BUILDINGS</h3>
+
+<p>Gas is in common use in all classes of buildings today.
+Dwellings use it for cooking and illuminating, factories,
+office buildings, and public buildings for power. In some
+parts of the country natural gas is found. In these places
+it is used freely for heating fuel. The actual making of
+gas is something that every plumber should understand.
+If space permitted I would describe a gas plant with all of
+its by-products. However, we shall deal only with the
+actual installation of gas piping in buildings. Gas mains
+are run through the streets the same as water mains are
+run. Branches are taken off these mains and extended
+into the buildings requiring gas. The gas company
+generally installs the gas service pipe inside of the basement
+wall and places a stop cock on it free of charge. This stop
+that is placed on the pipe is a plug core type, the handle
+for turning it off is square, and a wrench is required to
+turn it. The square top has a lug on it. There is also a
+lug corresponding to it on the body of the valve. When
+the valve is shut off, these two lugs are together. Each
+lug has a hole in it large enough for a padlock ring to pass
+through. This gives the gas company absolute control of
+the gas in the building.</p>
+
+<p><b>Setting of the Meter.</b>&mdash;Every building that is supplied
+with gas has a meter that registers the amount of gas consumed.
+This meter is placed on the service pipe on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+house side of the above-mentioned stop cock. This meter
+is furnished free of charge with a trivial charge made for
+setting up. The actual setting of this meter is not made
+until the piping throughout the building has had a thorough
+and satisfactory test and is found free from all leaks. The
+meter must be set level on a substantial bracket and in a
+place, if possible, where it will not require an artificial light
+to read its dial. The dry meter is usually used in dwellings.
+The interesting construction and mechanism of this meter
+cannot be discussed here.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_77" id="Fig_77"></a><a href="images/fig77.gif"><img src="images/fig77tn.gif" width="500" height="326" class="plain" alt="Fig. 77.--Gas-meter dials." title="Fig. 77.&mdash;Gas-meter dials." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 77.&mdash;Gas-meter dials.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The reading of the dials on a gas meter comes in the province
+of the plumber and he should be able to read them.
+The sketch shows the dial plate of a meter. The ordinary
+house meter has only three recording dials. Large meters
+have five or more. To read the amount of gas consumed
+according to the meter we will read the dials as they are
+indicated on <a href="#Fig_77">Fig. 77</a>. We will call the four dials No. 1,
+No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4. In each of these dials a complete revolution
+of the index hand denotes 1,000, 10,000, 100,000 and
+1,000,000, cubic feet respectively. The index hands on No.
+1 and No. 3 revolve in the same direction, while No. 2 and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+No. 4 revolve in the opposite direction. Two ciphers are
+added to the figures that are indicated on the dials and the
+statement of the meter will be had. To tell just how much
+gas has been consumed in a given time, the statement of the
+meter is taken at the beginning of this given time and at the
+end of the time. The difference in the figures indicates the
+number of cubic feet of gas that have been consumed. A
+gas cock should be placed on the house side of the meter.
+The dials of meter read 658,800 cubic feet. The dial
+having the highest number is read first No. 4 dial points
+to 6, this indicates that No. 3 dial has revolved 6 times.
+Dial No. 3 reads 5, therefore the reading of dial No. 3 and
+No. 4 is 65. Dial No. 2 reads 8 making the readings of
+the three dials 658. Dial No. 1 reads 8 making the readings
+of the four dials 6588 add two ciphers to this figure
+and 658,800 is the correct reading.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="figures">
+<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_78" id="Fig_78"></a><a href="images/fig78.gif"><img src="images/fig78tn.gif" width="500" height="260" class="plain" alt="Fig. 78." title="Fig. 78." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 78.</span>
+</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_79" id="Fig_79"></a><a href="images/fig79.gif"><img src="images/fig79tn.gif" width="500" height="301" class="plain" alt="Fig. 79." title="Fig. 79." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 79.</span>
+</div></td></tr></table></div>
+
+<p><b>Pipe and Fittings.</b>&mdash;The pipe used in gas fitting is wrought
+iron or steel. In special places, rubber hose is used. Brass
+pipe is occasionally used to advantage. The fittings used
+in iron pipe gas work should be galvanized. No plain fittings
+should be allowed. The plain fittings very often
+have sand holes in them and a leak will result. Sometimes
+this leak does not appear until after the piping has been
+in use some time and the expense of replacing the fitting
+can only be guessed at. By using galvanized fittings, this
+trouble will be eliminated. All fittings used should be of
+the beaded type. The fitting and measurement of this
+work is practically the same as described under iron pipe
+work. To have the beginner get a clearer idea of gas-piping
+a building, the piping of the small building sketched
+will be gone over in detail and studied. One of the first
+important steps that a gas fitter is confronted with is the
+locating of the various lights and openings. With these
+located as shown on the plan, Figs. <a href="#Fig_78">78</a>, <a href="#Fig_79">79</a> and <a href="#Fig_80">80</a>, we will
+proceed to work out the piping. The first floor rise will be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+1-inch, the second floor will be 1-inch. The horizontal pipe
+supplying the first floor outlets will be <span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span>-inch pipe. The
+horizontal pipe on the second floor will be <span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span>-inch. The
+balance of the pipe will be <span class="above">3</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span>- or <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch. At this point
+your attention is called to the sketch of piping, sizes, and
+measurements. This sketch should be studied and understood
+in detail. The good mechanic will employ a sketch
+of this kind when installing any piping. The poor mechanic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+will take two or three measurements and get them out,
+put them in, and then get some more. This method is
+extremely costly and unworkmanlike. There is no reason,
+except the ability of the workman, why he cannot take a
+building like the sketch and get all the piping measurements
+for the job, then get them out, go to the job and put
+them in. The amount of time saved in this way is so great
+that a workman should not consider himself a full-fledged
+mechanic until he can get the measurements this way, and
+get them accurately. With a tape line, gimlet, and plumb-bob,
+a mechanic is fully equipped with tools to get his
+measurements. If the measurements are taken with a tape
+line, the same tape line should be used when measuring
+the pipe and cutting it. When laying out the piping, never
+allow a joist to be cut except within 6 inches of its bearing.
+It is good policy never to cut timber unless absolutely
+necessary and then only after consulting with the carpenter.
+When joists have to be notched they should be
+cut only on the top side. The pipe as it is put in place
+should be braced rigidly. Wherever there is an outlet
+pipe extending through the wall, the pipe should be braced
+from all sides so that when the fixture is screwed in it will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+be perfectly rigid.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_80" id="Fig_80"></a><a href="images/fig80.gif"><img src="images/fig80tn.gif" width="500" height="255" class="plain" alt="Fig. 80." title="Fig. 80." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 80.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The measurements on the piping sketch, <a href="#Fig_81">Fig. 81</a>, are
+taken from the accompanying sketch of a dwelling, and if
+they were to be actually put in, they would fit. The reader
+would do well to copy this sketch and follow the piping
+and check the measurements according to the plan, and
+note how the different risers, drops, etc., are drawn. It
+is not necessary in a sketch of this kind to draw to a scale.
+After the different measurements are the letters <i>C.C.</i>,
+<i>E.C.</i>, <i>E.E.</i>, <i>C.B.</i> and <i>E.B.</i>, meaning center to center, end
+to center, end to end, center to back, and end to back,
+respectively. Offsetting pipe is a very convenient way of
+getting the pipe or fittings back to the wall for support.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+To offset pipe properly and with little trouble, take a piece
+of scantling 2 by 4 and brace it between the floor and
+ceiling. Bore a few different-sized holes through it and
+you will have a very handy device for offsetting pipe.
+There is a little trick in offsetting pipe that one will have to
+practice to obtain. The pipe must be held firmly in the
+place where the pipe is to be bent. Large offsets and bends
+should not be made; 2 to 4 inches is as large as should be
+used. Larger offsets that are required should be made
+with fittings. Always make the offsets true and have the
+ends perfectly straight. Before putting a piece of pipe permanently
+in place, always look or blow through it, to ascertain
+if its bore is obstructed or not. Sometimes dirt or slag
+will collect and cause stoppage.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="Fig_81" id="Fig_81"></a><a href="images/fig81.gif"><img src="images/fig81tn.gif" width="300" height="406" class="plain" alt="Fig. 81.--Pipe sketch." title="Fig. 81.&mdash;Pipe sketch." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 81.&mdash;Pipe sketch.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Reading the Pipe Sketch.</b>&mdash;Vertical lines represent
+vertical pipes (see <a href="#Fig_81">Fig. 81</a>). Horizontal lines represent
+horizontal pipes running parallel to the front. Diagonal
+lines represent horizontal pipes running from back to
+front. Any line that is drawn perpendicular to any other
+line stands for a horizontal pipe. A diagonal line separating
+a vertical line or horizontal line or set of lines represents
+a different horizontal plane. With this explanation the
+sketch will be made clear to one after drawing it. The
+reader should now take each measurement and check it on
+the plan. This is easily done by using a scale rule. The
+height of the ceiling is 8<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> feet on the first floor, the second
+floor is 8 feet. The first floor joists are 10 inches, the second
+floor joists are 9 inches. An outlet is indicated by a small
+circle. In the piping sketch, this circle is connected with
+the riser or drop by a horizontal line. At the junction of
+these two lines a short perpendicular line is drawn, and indicates
+the direction of the outlet.</p>
+
+<p>Let me again emphasize the need to understand thoroughly
+this piping sketch, and to become so familiar with
+it that it can readily be put to use. The value of a mechanic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+is determined by the quality and the quantity of work
+that he can turn out; and a mechanic who can lay out his
+work and see it completed before he starts, and then proceeds
+to install his work, is by far of more value to his employer
+than the man who can see only far enough ahead to
+cut out two or three measurements and spends most of his
+time walking between the vise and place of installing the
+pipe.</p>
+
+<p><b>Testing.</b>&mdash;The system of gas piping must be tested before
+the pipes have been covered by the advance of building
+operations. If the job is of considerable size, the job can
+be tested in sections, and if found tight the sections can be
+covered. The necessity of having the piping rigidily
+secured can be appropriately explained here. If the test
+has been made and the system found tight and some pipe
+that is not securely anchored is accidentally or otherwise
+pushed out of place and bent by some of the mechanics
+working about the building, a leak may be caused and yet
+not discovered until the final test is made after the plastering
+is finished. The expense and trouble thus caused is considerable
+and could have been avoided by simply putting
+in the proper supports for the pipe.</p>
+
+<p>To test the piping, an air pump and a gage connected
+with the pipes are placed in a convenient position. The
+job should now be thoroughly gone over, making sure that
+all plugs and caps are on and that no outlet is open, also
+that all pipe that is to be put in has been installed. After
+this has been attended to, the pump is operated until 10
+pounds is registered on the gage. The connection leading
+to the pump and the piping is now shut off. If the gage
+drops rapidly, there is a bad leak in the system. This
+leak should be found without difficulty and repaired. If
+the gage drops slowly, it denotes a very small leak, such as
+a sand hole or a bad thread. This kind of leak is more
+troublesome to find. When it has been found, the pipe or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+fitting causing the leak should be taken out and replaced.
+If black caps have been used to cap the outlets, the chances
+are that a sand hole will be found in one of them. Nothing
+but galvanized fittings should be used. In case the small
+leak mentioned above cannot be found by going over the
+pipe once, there are other means of locating the leak. Two
+of the methods used, I will explain. If the job is small,
+each fitting is painted with soap suds until the fitting is
+found that causes the leak. If the leak is not in the fittings,
+then the pipe can be gone over in the same way. As soon as
+the soap suds strikes the leak, a large bubble is made and
+the leak discovered. It is possible that there are more leaks,
+so the gage is noted and if it still drops, the search should
+be continued. The pump should be operated to keep the
+pressure up to 10 pounds while the search is being made
+for the leak. When the gage stands at 10 pounds without
+dropping, the job is then tight. The pump and gage fitting
+should be gone over first to ascertain if they leak. The
+other method employed to discover leaks is to force a little
+ether or oil of peppermint (not essence) into the system by
+means of the pump. A leak can readily be noted by the
+odor. To make this method successful, the ether or peppermint
+should not be handled by the men who are to hunt
+for the leak. The bottle containing the fluid should not
+be opened in the building except to pour some into the
+piping, otherwise the odor will get into the building and as
+the odor comes out of the leak it will not be noted. For
+the benefit of the gas fitter, the piping should be tested again
+after the plastering is completed. The next test is made
+when the fixtures are put on, and as the piping is tight any
+leak that develops in this test indicates that the fixtures
+leak. There are in common use various methods to stop
+leaks in gas pipe when they are found. If a piece of piping
+or a fitting is defective, it should be taken out and replaced.
+This should be remembered so that while the piping is being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+installed any defects should be noted and the defective fitting
+or pipe thrown out. Before the gas job is accepted,
+the gas company will inspect it and look for traps and sags
+in the pipe. Therefore, the piping should be installed without
+any traps and it should be arranged to pitch toward
+the meter, or toward a convenient place from which any
+condensation can be taken out. If provision is not made
+for this condensation, it will accumulate and stop the flow
+of gas.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SHOWER-BATH CONNECTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>The sketches show clearly the methods employed to make
+a shower-bath waste and stall water-tight. The shower
+bath, as a separate fixture, is in use and the demand for it
+as a separate fixture is increasing rapidly. This demand
+comes from the owners of private houses. The plumber
+must therefore devise some way to make these connections
+tight and prevent any leak from showing in the room below.
+This fixture is so constructed that all waste pipes and trap<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+come under the floor level with no way of getting to them
+from below. Therefore the piping for this fixture must be
+of a permanent nature. No pipe or trap made of material
+that is liable to give out in a short time should be allowed
+under a shower-bath fixture or stall. The two sketches,
+Figs. <a href="#Fig_82">82</a> and <a href="#Fig_83">83</a> illustrate two methods of connecting and
+making tight a shower stall. A plumber should always
+consider it his special duty to make his work complete and
+free from all objections. He should always prepare for
+any emergency that may occur in the future. This is
+rather a big task, yet the plumber when accepting all of
+his responsibilities has a big task. I state this to the
+beginner and emphasize the all-important fact that he must
+learn to perform and think deeply of the elements of
+plumbing to be able later on to handle successfully the
+problems that present themselves in the plumbing trade.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_82" id="Fig_82"></a><a href="images/fig82.gif"><img src="images/fig82tn.gif" width="500" height="324" class="plain" alt="Fig. 82.--Shower stall with lead pan extending outside of stall." title="Fig. 82.&mdash;Shower stall with lead pan extending outside of stall." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 82.&mdash;Shower stall with lead pan extending outside of stall.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The heavy brass trap shown in the sketch has proved
+itself very satisfactory and can be made to fit almost any
+condition of piping or building construction. A flashing
+of sheet lead is soldered on the trap and carried out to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+outside edge of the stall where it is turned up 1 inch, or to
+the floor level. When the flashing is carried out for only a
+foot on each side of the trap, the possibilities of a leak are
+greater.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="Fig_83" id="Fig_83"></a><a href="images/fig83.gif"><img src="images/fig83tn.gif" width="500" height="315" class="plain" alt="Fig. 83.--Shower stall with lead pan extending six inches beyond strainer." title="Fig. 83.&mdash;Shower stall with lead pan extending six inches beyond strainer." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 83.&mdash;Shower stall with lead pan extending six inches beyond strainer.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
+
+<h3><a name="plumbing_code" id="plumbing_code"></a><span class="smcap">Plumbing Codes</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>The work of plumbing has a direct result on the health of
+the occupants of buildings; therefore in order that the
+plumbing may not be installed improperly and impair the
+health of the occupants, it is necessary to provide a code
+governing the installation of plumbing. Naturally these
+laws at first were under the control of the health department
+of cities, but of late years the building departments have
+assumed control of the codes with the result that co&ouml;peration
+with the building codes is now the practice rather than
+the exception.</p>
+
+<p>To make certain the carrying out of the plumbing codes,
+it is required that a plan indicating the run, size, and length
+of pipes, location and number of fixtures of the prospective
+job be filed in the building department of the city, before
+the work is started. If the plan is approved by the plumbing
+inspector and acceptance is sent, then the work can be
+started. After a job is completed a test is made and the
+job is inspected by the plumbing inspector, and if found to
+meet requirements a written acceptance of the work is
+given by the building department. An effort is being made
+throughout the country to have the plumbing codes under
+State control rather than have a number of different codes
+in as many different cities and towns. The State code can
+be so arranged that it will apply to either city or town.</p>
+
+<p>The installation of plumbing varies in different States.
+In the northern part of the United States all pipes which
+pass through the roof, if less than 4-inch must be increased
+to 4-inch. A pipe smaller than 4-inch will be filled with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+hoar frost during the winter and render the pipe useless to
+perform its function as a vent pipe. Pipes laid under
+ground in the Northern States must be at least 4 feet below
+the surface to protect them from freezing. In the Southern
+States the frost does not penetrate the ground to such a
+distance and the pipes can be laid on the surface.</p>
+
+<p>Following is a State or City plumbing code insofar as
+it relates to the actual installation of plumbing.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_1" id="Sec_1"></a>Sec. 1. Plans and Specifications.</span>&mdash;There shall be a separate
+plan for each building, public or private, or any addition thereto,
+or alterations thereof, accompanied by specifications showing
+the location, size and kind of pipe, traps, closets and fixtures to
+be used, which plans and specifications shall be filed with the board
+or bureau of buildings. The said plans and specifications shall
+be furnished by the architect, plumber or owner, and filed by the
+plumber. All applications for change in plans must be made in
+writing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_2" id="Sec_2"></a>Sec. 2. Filing Plans and Specifications.</span>&mdash;Plumbers before
+commencing the construction of plumbing work in any building
+(except in case of repairs, which are here defined to relate to the
+mending of leaks in soil, vent, or waste pipes, faucets, valves and
+water-supply pipes, and shall not be construed to admit of the
+replacing of any fixture, such as water closets, bath tubs, lavatories,
+sinks, etc., or the respective traps for such fixtures) shall
+submit to the bureau plans and specifications, legibly drawn in
+ink, on blanks to be furnished by said board or bureau. Where
+two or more buildings are located together and on the same
+street, and the plumbing work is identical in each, one plan will
+be sufficient. Plans will be approved or rejected within 24 hours
+after their receipt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_3" id="Sec_3"></a>Sec. 3. Material of House Drain and Sewer.</span>&mdash;House
+drains or soil pipes laid beneath floor must be extra heavy cast-iron
+pipe, with leaded and caulked joints, and carried 5 feet
+outside cellar wall. All drains and soil pipes connected with
+main drain where it is above the cellar floor shall be extra heavy
+cast-iron pipe with leaded joints properly secured or of heavy
+wrought-iron pipe with screw joints properly secured and carried<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+5 feet outside cellar wall and all arrangements for soil and waste
+pipes shall be run as direct as possible. Changes of direction on
+pipes shall be made with "Y"-branches, both above and below
+the ground, and where such pipes pass through a new foundation-wall
+a relieving arch shall be built over it, with a 2-inch space on
+either side of the pipe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_4" id="Sec_4"></a>Sec.</span> 4.&mdash;The size of main house drain shall be determined by
+the total area of the buildings and paved surfaces to be drained,
+according to the following table, if iron pipe is used. If the pipe
+is terra-cotta the pipe shall be one size larger than for the same
+amount of area drainage.</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="drainage pipes">
+<tr><th align="center" class="btb">Diameter</th>
+<th align="center" class="bbox">Fall <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inch per foot</th>
+<th align="center" class="btb">Fall  <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inch per foot</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4 inches.....</span></td>
+<td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1,800 square feet drainage</span></td>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2,500 square feet drainage area</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5 inches.....</span></td>
+<td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3,000 square feet drainage</span></td>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4,500 square feet drainage area</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6 inches.....</span></td>
+<td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5,000 square feet drainage</span></td>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7,500 square feet drainage area</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8 inches.....</span></td>
+<td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9,100 square feet drainage</span></td>
+<td>13,600 square feet drainage area</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="brb">10 inches.....</td>
+<td class="brb">14,000 square feet drainage</td>
+<td class="bb">20,000 square feet drainage area</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The main house drains may be decreased in diameter beyond
+the rain-water conductor or surface inlet by permission of the
+bureau, when the plans show that the conditions are such as to
+warrant such decrease, but in no case shall the main house drain
+be less than 4 inches in diameter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_5" id="Sec_5"></a>Sec. 5. Main Trap.</span>&mdash;An iron running trap with two clean-outs
+must be placed in the house drain near the front wall of the
+house, and on the sewer side of all connections. If placed outside
+the house or below the cellar floor the clean-outs must extend to
+surface with brass screw cap ferrules caulked in. If outside the
+house, it must never be placed less than 4 feet below the surface
+of the ground.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_6" id="Sec_6"></a>Sec. 6. Fresh-air Inlet.</span>&mdash;A fresh-air inlet pipe must be
+connected with the house drain just inside of the house trap and
+extended to the outer air, terminating with a return bend, or a
+vent cap or a grating with an open end 1 foot above grade at the
+most available point to be determined by the building department.</p>
+
+<p>The fresh-air inlet pipe must be 4 inches in diameter for house<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+drains of 6 inches or less and as much larger as the building department
+may direct for house drains more than 6 inches in diameter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_7" id="Sec_7"></a>Sec. 7. Laying of House Sewers and Drains.</span>&mdash;House
+sewers and house drains must, where possible, be given an even
+grade to the main sewer of not less than <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inch to the foot.
+Full-sized "Y"- and "T"-branch fittings for handhole clean-outs
+must be provided where required on house drain and its branches.
+No clean-out need be larger than 6 inches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_8" id="Sec_8"></a>Sec. 8. Floor Drains.</span>&mdash;Floor or other drains will only be
+permitted when it can be shown to the satisfaction of the department
+of building that their use is absolutely necessary, and arrangements
+made to maintain a permanent water seal, and be provided
+with check or back-water valves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_9" id="Sec_9"></a>Sec. 9. Weight and Thickness of Cast-iron Pipe.</span>&mdash;All cast-iron
+pipes must be uncoated excepting all laid under ground,
+which shall be thoroughly tarred, sound, cylindrical and smooth,
+free from cracks, sand holes and other defects, and of uniform
+thickness and of grade known to commerce as extra heavy. Cast-iron
+pipe including the hub shall weigh not less than the following
+weights per linear foot:</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="cast-iron pipes">
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2-inch pipe...............</span></td><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> pounds per foot.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3-inch pipe...............</span></td><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> pounds per foot.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4-inch pipe...............</span></td><td>13 <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pounds per foot.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5-inch pipe...............</span></td><td>17 <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pounds per foot.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6-inch pipe...............</span></td><td>20 <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pounds per foot.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7-inch pipe...............</span></td><td>27 <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pounds per foot.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8-inch pipe...............</span></td><td>33<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> pounds per foot.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>10-inch pipe...............</td><td>45 <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pounds per foot.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>12-inch pipe...............</td><td>54 <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pounds per foot.</span></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>All cast-iron pipe must be tested to 50 pounds and marked with
+the maker's name.</p>
+
+<p>All joints in cast-iron pipe must be made with picked oakum
+and molten lead and caulked gas-tight. Twelve ounces of soft
+pig lead must be used at each joint for each inch in the diameter
+of the pipe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_10" id="Sec_10"></a>Sec. 10. Wrought-iron and Steel Pipe.</span>&mdash;All wrought-iron
+and steel pipe shall be galvanized. Fittings used for drainage
+must be galvanized and of recess type known as drainage fittings.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+All fittings used for venting shall be galvanized and of the style
+known as steam pattern. No plain black pipe or fittings will be
+permitted.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_11" id="Sec_11"></a>Sec. 11. Sub-soil Drains.</span>&mdash;Sub-soil drains must be discharged
+into a sump or receiving tank, the contents of which must be
+lifted and discharged into the drainage system above the cellar
+floor by some approved method. Where directly sewer-connected,
+they must be cut off from the rest of the building and plumbing
+system by a brass flap valve on the inlet to the catch basin and
+the trap on the drain from the catch basin must be water-supplied.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_12" id="Sec_12"></a>Sec. 12. Yard and Area Drains.</span>&mdash;All yard, area and court
+drains when sewer-connected must have connection not less than
+4 inches in diameter. They should be controlled by one trap&mdash;the
+leader trap if possible. All yards, areas and courts must be drained.
+Tenement houses and lodging houses must have yards, areas and
+courts drained into sewer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_13" id="Sec_13"></a>Sec. 13. Use of Old Drains and Sewers.</span>&mdash;Old house drains
+and sewers may be used in connection with new buildings or new
+plumbing, only when they are found, on examination by the
+department of building, to conform in all respects to the requirements
+governing new sewers and drains. All extensions to old
+house drains must be of extra heavy cast-iron pipe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_14" id="Sec_14"></a>Sec. 14. Leader Pipes.</span>&mdash;All building shall be provided with
+proper metallic leaders for conducting water from the roofs in
+such manner as shall protect the walls and foundations of such
+buildings from injury. In no case shall the water from such
+leaders be allowed to flow upon the sidewalk but the same shall
+be conducted by a pipe or pipes to the sewer. If there is no
+sewer in the street upon which such building fronts, then the
+water from said leader shall be conducted, by proper pipes below
+the surface of the sidewalk, to the street gutter.</p>
+
+<p>Inside leaders shall be constructed of cast iron, wrought iron
+or steel, with roof connections made gas-and water-tight by means
+of heavy copper drawn tubing slipped into the pipe. The tubing
+must slip at least 7 inches into the pipe. Outside leaders may
+be of sheet metal, but they must connect with the house drain
+by means of cast-iron pipe extending vertically 5 feet above grade<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+level, where the building is located along public driveways or sidewalks.
+Where the building is located off building line, and not
+liable to be damaged the connection shall be made with iron pipe
+extending 1 foot above the grade level.</p>
+
+<p>All leaders must be trapped with running traps of cast iron, so
+placed as to prevent freezing.</p>
+
+<p>Rain leaders must not be used as soil, waste or vent pipes, nor
+shall such pipes be used as rain leaders.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_15" id="Sec_15"></a>Sec. 15.&mdash;Exhaust from Steam Pipes, Etc.</span>&mdash;No steam discharge
+or exhaust, blow-off or drip pipe shall connect with the
+sewer or the house drain, leader, soil pipe, waste or vent pipe.
+Such pipes shall discharge into a tank or condenser, from which
+suitable outlet to the sewer shall be made. Such condenser
+shall be supplied with water, to help condensation and help
+protect the sewer, and shall also be supplied with relief vent to
+carry off dry steam.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_16" id="Sec_16"></a>Sec. 16. Diameter of Soil Pipe.</span>&mdash;The smallest diameter
+of soil pipe permitted to be used shall be 4 inches. The size of
+soil pipes must not be less than those set forth in the following
+tables.</p>
+
+<p>Maximum number of fixtures connected to:</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0" summary="maximum fixtures">
+<tr><th rowspan="2" align="center" class="btb">Size of pipe</th>
+<th colspan="2"  align="center" class="bbox">Waste and soil combined</th>
+<th colspan="2" align="center" class="btb" >Soil pipe alone</th></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th align="center" class="bbox">Branch<br />fixtures</th>
+<th align="center" class="bbox">Main<br />fixtures</th>
+<th align="center" class="bbox">Branch<br />water closets</th>
+<th align="center" class="bb">Main<br />water closets</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4-inch</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">48</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">96</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8</span></td>
+<td align="center">16</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center" class="br">4.5-inch</td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">96</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">192</td>
+<td align="center" class="br">16</td>
+<td align="center">32</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center" class="brb"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6-inch</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="brb">268</td>
+<td align="center" class="brb">336</td>
+<td align="center" class="brb">34</td>
+<td align="center" class="bb">68</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>If the building is six (6) and less than twelve (12) stories in
+height, the diameter shall not be less than 5 inches. If more than
+twelve (12) it shall be 6 inches, in diameter. A building six
+(6) or more stories in height, with fixtures located below the sixth
+floor, soil pipe 4 inches in diameter will be allowed to extend
+through the roof provided the number of fixtures does not exceed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+the number given in the table. All soil pipes must extend at
+least 2 feet above the highest window, and must not be reduced
+in size. Traps will not be permitted on main, vertical, soil or
+waste-pipe lines. Each house must have a separate line of soil
+and vent pipes. No soil or waste line shall be constructed on the
+outside of a building.</p>
+
+<p>
+Fixtures with: <br /></p>
+
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li>1&ndash;1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span>-inch traps count as one fixture.</li>
+<li>1&ndash;1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 0.75em;">traps count as one fixture.</span></li>
+<li>1&ndash;2<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 0.75em;">traps count as two fixtures.</span></li>
+<li>1&ndash;2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 0.75em;">traps count as three fixtures.</span></li>
+<li>1&ndash;3<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 0.75em;">traps (water closets) count as four fixtures.</span></li>
+<li>1&ndash;4<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 0.75em;">traps count as five fixtures.</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_17" id="Sec_17"></a>Sec. 17. Change in Direction.</span>&mdash;All sewer, soil, and waste
+pipes must be as direct as possible. Changes in direction must
+be made with "Y"- or half "Y"-branches or one-eighth bends.
+Offsets in soil or waste pipes will not be permitted when they
+can be avoided, nor, in any case unless suitable provision is made
+to prevent the accumulation of rust or other obstruction. Offsets
+must be made with fourth degree bends or similar fittings. The
+use of T "Y"s (sanitary Ts) will be permitted on upright lines
+only.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_18" id="Sec_18"></a>Sec. 18. Joints on Soil and Waste Pipes.</span>&mdash;Connection on
+lead and cast-iron pipe shall be made with brass sleeve or ferrule,
+of the same size as the lead pipe inserted in the hub of the iron
+pipe, and caulked with lead. The lead must be attached to the
+ferrule by means of a wiped joint. Joints between lead and
+wrought-iron pipes must be made with brass nipple, of same size
+as lead pipe. The lead pipe must be attached to the brass nipple
+by means of a wiped joint. All connections of lead waste pipes
+must be made by means of wiped joints.</p>
+
+<p>Short nipples on wrought-iron and steel pipes must be of thickness
+and weight known as "extra heavy" or "extra strong."</p>
+
+<p>Brass ferrules must be best quality, extra heavy cast brass, not
+less than 4 inches long and 2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span>, 3<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> and 4<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches in diameter
+and not less than the following weights:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figs">
+<table summary="brass ferrules" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><th align="center">Diameters</th><th align="center">Weights</th></tr>
+<tr><td>2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inches.........................</td><td>1 pound  <span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">0 ounce.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>3<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches.........................</td><td>1 pound 12 ounces.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>4<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches.........................</td><td>2 pounds <span style="margin-left: 0.2em;">8 ounces.</span></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_19" id="Sec_19"></a>Sec. 19. Solder Nipples.</span>&mdash;Solder nipples must be heavy cast
+brass or of brass pipe, iron pipe size. When cast they must be
+not less than the following weights:</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table summary="solder nipples" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><th align="center">Diameters</th><th align="center">Weights</th></tr>
+<tr><td>1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches.........................</td><td>0 pound  <span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8 ounces.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>2<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">inches.........................</span></td><td>0 pound 14 ounces.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches.........................</td><td>1 pound  <span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6 ounces.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>3<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">inches.........................</span></td><td>2 pounds <span style="margin-left: 0.2em;">0 ounce.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>4<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">inches.........................</span></td><td>3 pounds <span style="margin-left: 0.2em;">8 ounces.</span></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_20" id="Sec_20"></a>Sec. 20. Brass Clean-outs.</span>&mdash;Brass screw caps for clean-outs
+must be extra heavy, not less than <span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">8</span> inch thick. The screw cap
+must have a solid square or hexagonal nut not less than 1 inch
+high and a least diameter of 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches. The body of the clean-out
+ferrule must be at least equal in weight and thickness to the
+caulking ferrule for the same size pipe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_21" id="Sec_21"></a>Sec. 21. Lead Waste Pipe.</span>&mdash;All lead waste, soil vent and flush
+pipes must be of the best quality, known in commerce as "<i>D</i>,"
+and of not less than the following weights per linear foot:</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table summary="lead waste pipes" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><th align="center">Diameters</th><th align="center">Weights</th></tr>
+<tr><td>1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inches..............................</td><td>2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> pounds.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches..............................</td><td>3 <span style="margin-left: 1.0em;">pounds.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>2<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">inches..............................</span></td><td>4 <span style="margin-left: 1.0em;">pounds.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>3<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">inches..............................</span></td><td>6 <span style="margin-left: 1.0em;">pounds.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>4<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">inches..............................</span></td><td>8 <span style="margin-left: 1.0em;">pounds.</span></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>All lead traps and bends must be of the same weight and thicknesses
+as their corresponding pipe branches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_22" id="Sec_22"></a>Sec. 22. Roof Flashers.</span>&mdash;Sheet lead for roof flashings must
+be 6-pound lead and must extend not less than 6 inches from the
+pipe and the joint made water-tight.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_23" id="Sec_23"></a>Sec. 23. Traps for Bath Tubs, Water Closets, Etc.</span>&mdash;Every
+sink, bath tub, basin, water closet, slop hopper, or fixtures
+having a waste pipe, must be furnished with a trap, which shall
+be placed as close as practicable to the fixture that it serves and
+in no case shall it be more than 1 foot. The waste pipe from the
+bath tub or other fixtures must not be connected with a water-closet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+trap.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_24" id="Sec_24"></a>Sec. 24. Size of Horizontal and Vertical Waste Pipes,
+Traps and Branches.</span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table summary="pipe sizes" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><th align="center">Horizontal and vertical</th><th align="center">Number of small fixtures</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span>-inch..............................</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch..............................</td><td align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;    -inch..............................</td><td align="center">3 to 8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch..............................</td><td align="center">9 to 20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;    -inch..............................</td><td align="center">21 to 44</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>If building is ten (10) or more stories in height, the vertical
+waste pipe shall not be less than 3 inches in diameter. The use
+of wrought-iron pipe for waste pipe 2 inches or less in diameter
+is prohibited.</p>
+
+<p>The size of traps and waste branches, for a given fixture, shall
+be as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table summary="fixtures" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><th align="center" rowspan="2" class="btb">Kind of fixtures</th>
+<th align="center" colspan="2" class="blt">Size in inches</th></tr>
+
+<tr><th align="center" class="bbox">Trap</th>
+<th align="center" class="btb">Branch</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br">Water closet...................................................</td><td align="center" class="br">3</td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Slop sink with trap combined..........................</td><td align="center" class="br">3</td><td align="center">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Slop sink ordinary...........................................</td><td align="center" class="br">2</td><td align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Pedestal urinal................................................</td><td align="center" class="br">3</td><td align="center">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Floor drain or wash.........................................</td><td align="center" class="br">4</td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Yard drain or catch basin................................</td><td align="center" class="br">4</td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Urinal trough...................................................</td><td align="center" class="br">2</td><td align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Laundry trays, two or five................................</td><td align="center" class="br">2</td><td align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Combination sink and tray (for each fixture).....</td><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>&nbsp;</span></td><td align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Kitchen sinks, small.........................................</td><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></span></td>
+<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Kitchen sinks, large hotel, etc..........................</td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Kitchen sinks, grease trap...............................</td><td class="br"></td><td align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Pantry sinks....................................................</td><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></span></td><td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Wash basin, one only......................................</td><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></span></td><td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Bath tub..........................................................</td><td align="center" class="br">2</td><td align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Shower baths..................................................</td><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></span></td><td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Shower baths, floor.........................................</td><td align="center" class="br">2</td><td align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Sitz bath..........................................................</td><td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></span></td><td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brb">Drinking fountains............................................</td><td align="center" class="brb"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></span></td><td align="center" class="bb"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span></span></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_25" id="Sec_25"></a>Sec. 25. Overflow Pipes.</span>&mdash;Overflow pipes from fixtures must<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+in all cases be connected on the inlet side of the traps.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_26" id="Sec_26"></a>Sec. 26. Setting of Traps Without Re-vent.</span>&mdash;All traps
+must be substantially supported and set true with respect to
+their water levels. No pot, bottle or "D" trap will be permitted
+nor any form of trap that is not self-cleaning, nor that has interior
+chambers or mechanism nor any trap except earthenware ones
+that depend upon interior partitions for a seal. In case there is
+an additional fixture required in building and it is impossible to
+re-vent pipe for the trap, the building department may designate
+the kind of trap to be used. This shall not be construed to allow
+traps without re-vents in new buildings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_27" id="Sec_27"></a>Sec. 27. Safe and Refrigerator Pipes.</span>&mdash;Safe-waste pipes
+must not connect directly with any part of the plumbing system.
+Safe-waste pipes must discharge over an open, water-supplied,
+publicly-placed, ordinary-used sink, placed not more than 3<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>
+feet above the cellar floor. The safe waste from a refrigerator
+must be trapped at the bottom of the line only and must not discharge
+upon the ground floor, but over an ordinary open pan, or
+some properly-trapped, water-supplied sink, as above. In no
+case shall the refrigerator waste pipe discharge into a sink located
+in a living room.</p>
+
+<p>The branches on vertical lines must be made by means of "Y"
+fittings and be carried to the safe with as much pitch as possible.
+Where there is an offset on the refrigerator waste pipe in the cellar,
+there must be clean-outs placed. These clean-outs must be of
+brass.</p>
+
+<p>In tenement and lodging houses the refrigerator waste pipe
+must extend above the roof, and not be larger than 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches and
+the branches not smaller than 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inches. Refrigerator waste
+pipes, except in tenement houses, and all safe-waste pipes, must
+have brass flap valve on the lower ends. Lead safes must be
+graded and neatly turned over beveled strips at their edges.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_28" id="Sec_28"></a>Sec. 28. Vent-pipe Material.</span>&mdash;Material for vent pipes shall
+be of lead, brass, enameled iron or galvanized iron.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_29" id="Sec_29"></a>Sec. 29. Ventilation of Traps and Soil Lines.</span>&mdash;Traps
+shall be protected from siphonage or air pressure by special vent
+pipes of a size of not less than the following tables:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table summary="traps" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><th align="center" rowspan="2" class="btb">Size of pipe</th>
+<th align="center" class="bbox">Maximum<br />length in feet</th>
+<th align="center" colspan="2" class="btb">Number of traps vented</th></tr>
+
+<tr><th align="center" class="bbox">Mains</th>
+<th align="center" class="bbox">Branch</th>
+<th align="center" class="btb">Main vertical</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span>-inch vent..........</td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -0.5em;">20 feet</span></td>
+<td align="left" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br">1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch vent..........</td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -0.5em;">40 feet</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2 or less</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br">2-inch vent..............</td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -0.5em;">65 feet</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">10 or less</td>
+<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">20 or less</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="br">2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span>-inch vent..........</td>
+<td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: -1.0em;">100 feet</span></td>
+<td align="center" class="br">20 or less</td>
+<td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">40 or less</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="brb">3-inch vent..............</td>
+<td align="center" class="brb">10 or more<br />stories</td>
+<td align="center" class="brb">60 or less</td>
+<td align="center" class="bb">100 or less</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The branch vent shall not be less than the following sizes:</p>
+
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li>1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inches in diameter for 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">4</span> inch trap.</li>
+<li>1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inches in diameter for 1<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inch to 2<span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">2</span> inch trap.</li>
+<li>2 inches in diameter for 3 inch to 4 inch trap.</li>
+<li>One-half their diameter, for traps 3 inches and over.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Where two or more closets are placed side by side, on a horizontal
+branch, the branch line shall have a relief extended as a
+loop. A pipe 2 inches in diameter shall be sufficient as a loop vent
+for two closets. A pipe 3 inches in diameter shall be sufficient
+as a relief for three or four closets; and where more than four
+closets are located on the same branch the relief shall not be less
+than 4 inches in diameter. All house drains and soil lines on
+which a water closet is located must have a 4-inch main vent line.
+Where an additional closet is located in the cellar or basement,
+and within 10 feet of main soil or vent line, no relief vent will be
+required for said closet; but where it is more than 10 feet, a 2-inch
+vent line will be required. Relief vent pipes for water closets
+must not be less than 2 inches in diameter, for a length of 40 feet,
+and not less than 3 inches in diameter, for more than 40 feet.</p>
+
+<p>No re-vent from traps under bell traps will be required.</p>
+
+<p>In any building having a sewer connection with a private or
+public sewer used for bell-trap connections or floor drainage only,
+a 2-inch relief line must be extended to the roof of the building
+from rear end of main. House drains, constructed for roof drainage
+only, will not require a relief vent.</p>
+
+<p>A floor trap for a shower shall be vented, unless located in the
+cellar or ground floor the paving of which renders the trap<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+inaccessible.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_30" id="Sec_30"></a>Sec. 30. Horizontal Vent Pipes.</span>&mdash;Where rows of fixtures
+are placed in a line, fitting of not less than 45&deg; to the horizontal
+must be used on vent lines to prevent filling with rust or condensation;
+except on brick or tile walls, where it is necessary to channel
+same for pipes, 90&deg; fittings will be allowed. Trapped vent pipes
+are strictly prohibited. No vent pipe from the house side of any
+trap shall connect with the ventilation pipe or with sewer, soil or
+waste pipe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_31" id="Sec_31"></a>Sec. 31. Offset on Vent Lines.</span>&mdash;All offsets on vent lines
+must be made at an angle of not less than 45&deg; to the horizontal,
+and all lines must be connected at the bottom with a soil or waste
+pipe, or the drain, in such manner as to prevent the accumulation
+of rust, scale or condensation.</p>
+
+<p>No sheet metal, brick, or other flue shall be used as a vent pipe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_32" id="Sec_32"></a>Sec. 32. Setting of Fixtures.</span>&mdash;All fixtures must be set open
+and free from all enclosing woodwork. Water closets and urinals
+must not be connected directly or flushed from the water-supply
+pipes except when flushometer valves are used. Each water
+closet must be flushed from a separate cistern, the water from
+which is used for no other purpose, or may be flushed through
+flushometer valves.</p>
+
+<p>Rubber connection and elbows are not permitted.</p>
+
+<p>Pan, plunger, or hopper closets will not be permitted in any
+building. No range closet either wet or dry, nor any evaporating
+system of closets shall be constructed or allowed inside of any
+building.</p>
+
+<p>A separate building constructed especially for the purpose, must
+be provided in which such range closets shall be set.</p>
+
+<p>All earthenware traps must have heavy brass floor flange plates,
+soldered to the lead bends and bolted to the trap flange, and the
+joint made permanently secure and gas-tight.</p>
+
+<p>In all buildings sewer-connected there must be at least one water
+closet in each building. There must be a sufficient number of
+water closets so that there will never be more than 15 people
+to each water closet.</p>
+
+<p>Separate water closets and toilet rooms must be provided for
+each sex in buildings used as workshops, office buildings, factories,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+hotels and all places of public assembly.</p>
+
+<p>In all buildings the water closet and urinal apartments must be
+ventilated into the outer air by windows opening on the same lot
+as the building is situated on or by a ventilating skylight placed
+over each room or apartment where such fixtures are located.</p>
+
+<p>In all buildings the outside partition of any water closet or
+urinal apartment must be air-tight and extend to the ceiling or
+be independently ceiled over. When necessary to light such
+apartments properly the upper part of the partition must be
+provided with translucent glass. The interior partitions of such
+apartments must be dwarfed partitions.</p>
+
+<p>In alteration work where it is not practicable to ventilate a
+closet or urinal apartment by windows or skylight to the outer
+air, there must be provided a sheet-iron duct extending to the
+outer air, the area of the duct must be at least 144 square inches
+for one water closet or urinal, and an additional 72 square inches
+for each addition closet or urinal added therein.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_33" id="Sec_33"></a>Sec. 33. Urinals.</span>&mdash;All urinals must be constructed of materials
+impervious to moisture and that will not corrode under the action
+of urine. The floors and walls of urinal apartments must be lined
+with similar non-absorbent and non-corrosive material.</p>
+
+<p>The platforms and treads of urinal stalls must be connected
+independently of the plumbing system, nor can they be connected
+with any safe-waste pipe.</p>
+
+<p>The copper lining of water closet and urinal cisterns must not
+be lighter than 12 ounces copper, and must be stamped on lining
+with maker's name. Where lead is used it must not weigh less
+than 4 pounds to the square foot. All other materials are
+prohibited.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_34" id="Sec_34"></a>Sec. 34. Fixtures Prohibited.</span>&mdash;Wooden wash trays, sinks,
+or bath tubs are prohibited inside buildings. Such fixtures must
+be constructed of non-absorbent materials. Cement or artificial
+stone tubs will not be permitted, unless approved by the plumbing
+inspector and building department.</p>
+
+<p>Yard water closets will not be permitted except as approved
+by the plumbing inspector and then passed by the building
+department.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_35" id="Sec_35"></a>Sec. 35. Privy Vaults and Cesspools.</span>&mdash;No privy vault or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+cesspool for sewage, shall be constructed in any part of the city
+where a sewer is at all accessible. In parts of the city where no
+sewer exists privy vaults and cesspools shall not be located within
+2 feet of party or street line nor within 20 feet of any building.
+Before these are constructed application for permission therefore
+shall be made to the building department.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sec_36" id="Sec_36"></a>Sec. 36. Material and Workmanship.</span>&mdash;All material used in
+the work of plumbing and drainage must be of good quality and
+free from defects. The work must be executed in a thorough and
+workmanlike manner.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+<div class="figs">
+<table style="width:65%;" border="0" summary="index jumps">
+	<tr align="center">
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_A">A</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_B">B</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_C">C</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_D">D</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_E">E</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_F">F</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_G">G</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_H">H</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_I">I</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_J">J</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_K">K</a></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr align="center">
+        	<td>  <a href="#IX_L">L</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_M">M</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_N">N</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_O">O</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_P">P</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_R">R</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_S">S</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_T">T</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_U">U</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_V">V</a></td>
+		<td>  <a href="#IX_W">W</a></td>
+         </tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<div class="index">
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_A" id="IX_A">A</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Acid, muriatic, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_B" id="IX_B">B</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Banjo, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+<li>Bath-tub, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_6">6</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_7">7</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>size waste, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Bending irons, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+<li>Bib, wiping, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+<li>Bowls, closet, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_C" id="IX_C">C</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Caulking joints, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+<li>Cellar drainer, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li>Cement, pipe joint, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+<li>Cementing, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+<li>Circulation, hot water, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+<li>Closets, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+<li>Cocks, stop and waste, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+<li>Code-plumbing, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>brass clean-outs, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+    <li>change in direction, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+    <li>diameter of soil pipes, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+    <li>exhaust from steam pipes, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+    <li>filing plans, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+    <li>floor drains, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+    <li>fresh-air inlet, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+    <li>joints, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+    <li>laying of drains, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+    <li>lead waste pipe, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+    <li>leader pipes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+    <li>main trap, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+    <li>materials of drains, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+    <li>old drains and sewers, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+    <li>over-flow pipes, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+    <li>plans and specification, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+    <li>roof flashers, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+    <li>safe and refrigerator pipes, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+    <li>size of drains, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+    <li>of waste pipes, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+    <li>solder nipples, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+    <li>traps, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+    <li>without vents, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+    <li>yard and area drains, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Code, fixtures prohibited, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>horizontal vents, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+    <li>material and workmanship, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+    <li>offsets, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+    <li>privy vaults and cesspools, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+    <li>setting of fixtures, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+    <li>urinals, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+    <li>vent, pipe material, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+    <li>ventilation of traps, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Connecting, sewers, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+<li>Connections, of fixtures, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+<li>Corporation cock and tap, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+<li>Coupling, right and left, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+<li>Covering, pipe, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+<li>Cup joint, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+<li>Curb cock, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_81">81</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>box, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Cutters, pipe, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+<li>Cutting, terra-cotta pipe, <a href="#Page_72">72</a> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>cast-iron pipe, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_D" id="IX_D">D</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Dies, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+<li>Drainage, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+<li>Drains, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+<li>Drift plugs, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+<li>Drum trap, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+<li>Durham work, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_E" id="IX_E">E</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Earthenware, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+<li>Expansion joints, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_F" id="IX_F">F</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Ferrule, brass, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+<li>File, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+<li>Fittings, drainage, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>gas, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+    <li>screw pipe, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+    <li>soil pipe, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Fixtures, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+<li>Flushing, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+<li>Flux, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+<li>Fresh-air inlet, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_G" id="IX_G">G</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Gas pipe and fittings, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>piping, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Goose neck, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_H" id="IX_H">H</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Half and half solder, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li>Hammer, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+<li>Hangers, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+<li>Heaters, flue connection, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>gas coil, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+    <li>instantaneous, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Hot water supply, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+<li>House drains, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>traps, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_I" id="IX_I">I</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Inserting, terra-cotta pipe, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+<li>Intercepting trap, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+<li>Iron enamelled ware, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_J" id="IX_J">J</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Joints, amount of lead and oakum, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>caulk, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+    <li>cup, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+    <li>expansion, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+    <li>of sub-soil, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+    <li>overcast, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+    <li>runner, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+    <li>rust, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+    <li>seams, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+    <li>solder, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_K" id="IX_K">K</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Kitchen sinks, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_L" id="IX_L">L</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Lavatories, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+<li>Lead connection, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>used in caulked joints, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Lead pipe, for water mains, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>preparing for wiping, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+    <li>use of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Leaders, pipes and traps, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+<li>Long screws, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_M" id="IX_M">M</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Main sewer, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+<li>Mason trap, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li>Measurements of piping, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></li>
+<li>Melting point of metals, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li>Metal, wiping, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+<li>Meter, reading gas, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_N" id="IX_N">N</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Nipples, cutting and threading, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>holders, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_O" id="IX_O">O</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Oakum, use of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+<li>Overcast joint, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_P" id="IX_P">P</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Paste, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+<li>Pipe, brass, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>covering, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+    <li>cutting, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+    <li>kinds of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+    <li>service, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+    <li>soil, location, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+    <li>steel, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+    <li>tell-tale, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+    <li>terra-cotta, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+    <li>threading, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+    <li>wrought iron, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Pipe laying, sewer, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>water, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+    <li>in tunnel, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Piping, water, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>drainage, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Planking, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+<li>Pressure, water, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_R" id="IX_R">R</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Rain leaders, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+<li>Reaming, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+<li>Receptors, showers, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+<li>Refill, trench, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>tunnels, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Right and left couplings, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_S" id="IX_S">S</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Sanitary drains, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+<li>Screw-pipe work, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+<li>Seams, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+<li>Sewerage, system of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+<li>Sewers, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+<li>Shoe, use of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+<li>Shower stall, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+<li>Sinks, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+<li>Soil pipe, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+<li>Soils, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+<li>Soldering iron, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+<li>Solders, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li>Stopcock, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+<li>Sulphur, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+<li>Swab, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_T" id="IX_T">T</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Tables, angle measurements, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>brass ferrules, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+    <li>fixtures and traps, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+    <li>lead waste pipe, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+    <li>measurements, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+    <li>roof drainage, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+    <li>screw-pipe, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+    <li>size of vent pipes, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+    <li>of waste pipe, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+    <li>soil and waste pipe, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+    <li>standard, threads, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+    <li>terra-cotta pipe, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+    <li>waste pipe, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+    <li>weight of cast-iron pipe, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+    <li>of solder nipples, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Tallow, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+<li>Tank, storage connections of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></li>
+<li>Tell-tale pipe, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+<li>Terra-cotta pipe, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>cutting, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Testing, gas pipe, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+<li>Thermostat, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+<li>Tinning, brass, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>bib, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Tools, bending iron, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>caulking iron, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+    <li>cold chisel, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+    <li>file, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+    <li>hammer, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+    <li>joint runner, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+    <li>ladle, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+    <li>pipe cutters, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+    <li>rasp, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+    <li>saw, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+    <li>shave hook, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+    <li>soldering iron, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+    <li>tap-borer, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+    <li>turn pin, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+    <li>vise, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+    <li>yarning iron, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Traps, bag, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>centrifugal, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+    <li>cleansweep, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+    <li>drum, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+    <li>flask, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+    <li>house, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+    <li>intercepting, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+    <li>mechanical, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+    <li>non-syphoning, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+    <li>"S," <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+    <li>sure-seal, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Trenches, digging, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>refilling, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+    <li>water service, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Tubs, bath, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+<li>Tunnels, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_U" id="IX_U">U</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Urinals, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_V" id="IX_V">V</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Valves, check, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>closet, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+    <li>safety, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Ventilation pipe, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li>Vents, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>&ndash;<a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="letter"><a name="IX_W" id="IX_W">W</a></span>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Wash trays, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+<li>Water connection, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>supply, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+    <li>rivers and lakes, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+    <li>streams and brooks, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+    <li>under pressure, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+    <li>underground, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Wiping, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li>bib, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+    <li>branch joints, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+    <li>cloths, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+    <li>drum trap, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+    <li>2-inch brass ferrule, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+    <li>4-inch brass ferrule, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+    <li>round joint, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+    <li>solder, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+    <li>stopcock, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,6062 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Elements of Plumbing, by Samuel Dibble
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Elements of Plumbing
+
+Author: Samuel Dibble
+
+Release Date: May 1, 2008 [EBook #25269]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF PLUMBING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzan Flanagan and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                        ELEMENTS
+
+                           OF
+
+                        PLUMBING
+
+                           BY
+                  SAMUEL EDWARD DIBBLE
+
+     HEAD OF SANITARY EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATION DEPT.
+             CARNEGIE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
+
+
+                     FIRST EDITION
+
+              MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
+              239 WEST 39TH STREET. NEW YORK
+
+            LONDON: HILL PUBLISHING CO., LTD.
+                6 & 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C.
+                         1918
+
+
+
+
+                COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE
+              MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
+
+
+
+
+                THE MAPLE PRESS YORK PA
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In preparing this manuscript the author has had in mind the needs
+of young men having no technical instruction who are anxious to
+become proficient in the art of Plumbing. As a consequence each
+exercise is minutely described and illustrated; so much so,
+perhaps, that an experienced mechanic may find it too simple for
+skilled hands and a mature mind. But the beginner will not find the
+exercises too elaborately described and will profit by careful
+study. Years of experience and observation have shown the author
+that the methods herein described are entirely practical and are in
+common use today.
+
+The various exercises in lead work will acquaint the beginner with
+the correct use of tools and metals. The exercises in iron pipe
+work have also been detailed to show the correct installation of
+jobs.
+
+Together with the study of this book the subjects of Mathematics,
+Physics, Chemistry, Drawing and English should be taken. These
+subjects as they bear on Plumbing are invaluable to the mechanic in
+his future connection with the trade.
+
+The author is indebted for the illustrations of fixtures in the
+chapter covering the development of plumbing fixtures, to the
+Thomas Maddock's Sons Co., Standard Sanitary Mfg. Co., and The
+Trenton Potteries Co.
+
+                              SAMUEL EDWARD DIBBLE.
+                              PITTSBURGH, _December, 1917_.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+     PREFACE                                                         v
+
+     CHAPTER
+
+     I. Plumbing Fixtures and Trade                                  1
+
+     II. The Use and Care of the Soldering Iron--Fluxes--Making
+     Different Soldering Joints                                     11
+
+     III. Mixtures of Solders for Soldering Iron and Wiping--Care
+     of Solders--Melting Points of Metals and Alloys                21
+
+     IV. Making and Caring of Wiping Cloths                         24
+
+     V. Preparing and Wiping Joints                                 27
+
+     VI. Preparing and Wiping Joints (_Continued_)                  37
+
+     VII. Laying Terra-cotta and Making Connections to Public
+     Sewers--Water Connections to Mains in Streets                  69
+
+     VIII. Installing of French or Sub-soil Drains                  82
+
+     IX. Storm and Sanitary Drainage with Sewage Disposal in
+     View                                                           86
+
+     X. Soil and Waste Pipes and Vents--Tests                       95
+
+     XI. House Traps, Fresh-air Connections, Drum Traps, and
+     Non-syphoning Traps                                           104
+
+     XII. Pipe Threading                                           110
+
+     XIII. Cold-water Supply--Test                                 118
+
+     XIV. Hot-water Heaters--Instantaneous Coil and Storage
+     Tanks--Return Circulation, Hot-water Lines and Expansion      124
+
+     XV. Insulation of Piping to Eliminate Conduction, Radiation,
+     Freezing and Noise                                            131
+
+     XVI. "Durham" or "Screw Pipe" Work--Pipe and Fittings         134
+
+     XVII. Gas Fittings, Pipe and Fittings, Threading, Measuring
+     and Testing                                                   141
+
+     XVIII. Plumbing Codes                                         153
+
+     INDEX                                                         167
+
+
+
+
+ELEMENTS OF PLUMBING
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+PLUMBING FIXTURES AND TRADE
+
+
+Modern plumbing as a trade is the arranging and running of pipes to
+supply pure water to buildings, the erecting of fixtures for the
+use of this supply, and the installing of other pipes for the
+resulting waste water. The work of the trade divides itself
+therefore into two parts: first the providing an adequate supply of
+water; and second, the disposing of this water after use. The first
+division offers few problems to the plumber, little variety in the
+layout being possible, and the result depending mostly upon the
+arrangement of the pipes and fittings; but the second division
+calls for careful study in the arrangement, good workmanship in the
+installing, and individual attention to each fixture.
+
+The trade had its beginnings in merely supplying fresh water to a
+community. This was done by means of trenching, or conveying water
+from lakes, rivers, or springs through wooden pipes or open
+troughs. By easy stages the trade improved and enlarged its scope,
+until at the present time it is able to provide for the adequate
+distribution of tons of water under high pressure furnished by the
+city water works.
+
+In the early years of the trade the question of the disposal of the
+waste water was easily answered, for it was allowed to be
+discharged onto the ground to seek its own course. But with the
+increased amount of water available, the waste-water problem has
+enlarged until today it plays the most important part of plumbing,
+and the trade has had to change to meet this waste-water problem.
+
+The first simple system of a pipe running from the sink to a point
+outside the building was sufficient. As larger buildings came into
+use and communities were more thickly populated, the plumbing
+problem demanded thought and intense study. The waste pipes from
+fixtures had to be so arranged that it would be impossible for foul
+odors and germ-laden air to enter the building through a plumbing
+fixture. The importance of this is evidenced by the plumbing laws
+now in use throughout the country.
+
+One of the first plumbing fixtures put into common use was a
+hollowed-out stone which served as a sink. It was with considerable
+interest that the writer saw a sink of this kind in actual use in
+the summer of 1915, at a house in a New England village. This sink
+had been in service for about 100 years. From this beginning the
+well-known fixtures of today have developed. The demand for
+moderate priced, sanitary closets, lavatories, and baths has led to
+the rapid improvement seen in plumbing fixtures. In the development
+of these fixtures, as soon as a bad feature was recognized the
+fixture was at once discarded, until now the market offers fixtures
+as mechanically fine as can be produced. Plumbing fixtures were at
+first manufactured so that it was necessary to support them on a
+wooden frame, and this frame was enclosed in wood. The enclosure
+made by this framework soon became foul and filthy and a breeding
+place for all kinds of disease germs and vermin. This bad feature
+was overcome by the introduction of open plumbing, that is,
+fixtures so made that the enclosure of wood could be done away
+with. The open plumbing allowed a free circulation of air around
+the fixture and exposed pipes, thereby making the outside of the
+fixture and its immediate surroundings free from all the bad
+features of the closed plumbing. Plenty of fresh air and plenty of
+light are necessary for good sanitary plumbing.
+
+The materials of which the first open-plumbing fixtures were made
+consisted of marble, copper, zinc, slate, iron, and clay. Time soon
+proved that marble and slate were absorbent, copper and zinc soon
+leaked from wear, iron rusted, and clay cracked and lacked
+strength; therefore these materials soon became insanitary, and
+foul odors were easily detected rising from the fixture. Besides
+these materials being insanitary, the fact that a fixture was
+constructed using a number of sections proved that joints and seams
+were insanitary features on a fixture. For instance, in a marble
+lavatory constructed by using one piece for the top, another for
+the bowl, and still another for the back, filth accumulated at
+every joint and seam. Following this condition, developed the iron
+enameled and earthenware fixtures, constructed without seams and
+with a smooth, even, glossy white finish. The fact that these
+fixtures are made of material that is non-absorbent adds to their
+value as sanitary plumbing fixtures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Pan closet (_English_).]
+
+Another problem which is as important as the foregoing is the
+proper flushing, that is, the supplying of sufficient water in a
+manner designed to cleanse the fixture properly.
+
+The development of sanitary earthenware illustrates how the above
+problems were satisfactorily solved. In the city of London a law
+compelling the use of drains was enforced, and in the early 70's
+the effect of this law was felt in this country. The introduction
+at this time of the mechanical water closet, known as the "pan
+closet," and the English plumbing material which was brought to
+this country was the beginning of "American plumbing," which today
+outstrips that of any other country in the world. The "pan closet"
+continued in use for some time until the "valve closet" was
+introduced as a more sanitary fixture. Closely following these
+closets, in 1880, the plunger closet became popular as a still more
+sanitary fixture. The plunger closet continued in use until the
+present all-earthenware closet bowl drove all other makes from the
+market. The American development of the earthenware closet bowl
+put the American sanitary fixture far ahead of the English
+improvements, as the American earthenware is superior and the
+sanitary features of the bowls are nearer perfection.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Pan closet (_American_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Plunger closet.]
+
+When the washout bowl was introduced it was considered perfection.
+The hopper closet bowl, which was nothing more than a funnel-shaped
+bowl placed on top of a trap, was placed in competition with the
+washout bowl. There are a number of these bowls now in use and also
+being manufactured. However, large cities prohibit their use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Plunger closet.]
+
+To quote Thomas Maddock's Sons Co.: "In 1876 Wm. Smith of San
+Francisco patented a water closet which employed a jet to assist in
+emptying the bowl and the development of this principle is due
+entirely to the potter, who had gradually and by costly experiment
+become the determining factor in the evolution of the water
+closet." With this improvement it became possible to do away with
+the boxing-in of the bowl which up to this time had been necessary.
+Closet bowls of today are made of vitreous body which does not
+permit crazing or discoloring of the ware. A study of the
+illustrations which show the evolution of the closet bowl should be
+of interest to the student as well as to the apprentice and
+journeyman. The bath tub developed from a gouged-out stone, in
+which water could be stored and used for bathing purposes, to our
+present-day enameled iron and earthenware tubs. The development did
+not progress very rapidly until about 25 years ago. Since then
+every feature of the tub has been improved, and from a sanitary
+standpoint the tubs of today cannot be improved. The bath tub has
+become an American custom, as the people in this country have
+demanded that they have sanitary equipment in their homes, while in
+the European countries this demand has not developed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Modern low-tank closet.]
+
+The first tubs used in this country were of wood lined with copper
+or zinc, and were built in or boxed in with wood panelling. The
+plumbing ordinances of today prohibit this boxing as it proved to
+be a breeding place for vermin, etc. As the illustration shows, the
+woodwork encasing the tub was in a great many cases beautifully
+carved and finished.
+
+The placing on the market of a steel-clad tub, a steel tub with a
+copper lining, which did away with the boxing, was a big
+improvement as far as sanitary reasons were concerned as well as a
+reduction in cost of tubs. These tubs were set up on legs which
+permitted cleaning and provided good ventilation all around. With
+these features they drove all other tubs from the market. The
+copper and zinc were found to be hard to keep clean and they were
+soon replaced by the iron enamelled and earthenware tubs. The
+finish on these tubs being white and non-absorbent makes
+them highly acceptable as sanitary fixtures. A study of the
+illustrations will show how progress has been made in design as
+well as in sanitary features.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Encased bath tub.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Steel tub on legs.]
+
+THE WASH BOWL.--Succeeding the hand basin the first wash basins
+used in this country were made of marble or slate, with a round
+bowl of crockery. The bowl was 14 inches in diameter originally,
+but later was changed to an oval bowl. Like the bath tub these
+wash stands were encased in wood, the encasing being used to
+support the marble top. Ornamental brackets were introduced and the
+wood encasement done away with.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Modern built-in tub.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Encased wash bowl.]
+
+About 1902 the iron-enamelled lavatory appeared on the market and
+drove all other kinds from the market at once. The reason for this
+is clear. The marble stands were absorbent and were made with three
+parts, top, back, and bowl; the enamelled iron lavatory is made
+all in one piece of material non-absorbent. A study of the
+illustrations will show clearly how the lavatory has been
+improved. Strange to say, in all plumbing fixtures, and especially
+the lavatory, as improvements were made to make them more sanitary
+a reduction has been made in the price of an individual fixture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Bath room of early 80's. All fixtures are
+enclosed.]
+
+The development of the urinal, showers, wash trays, drinking
+fountains and other fixtures I will not attempt to cover. As the
+demand has been evident for fixtures of certain types, the plumber
+has been alert to anticipate and supply it. There is need,
+however, for improvement in all our fixtures, especially that part
+which connects with the waste pipes, also the hanging, that is the
+arrangement or lack of arrangement for hanging fixtures to the
+wall. The waste and overflow of all fixtures need considerable
+change to make them sanitary. The opportunity is, therefore, before
+anyone who will apply himself to this development. Much money,
+thought, and time have been spent by the manufacturers of iron
+enamelled ware and by the potteries to gather suggestions made by
+the plumber in regard to fixtures, and then to perfect them. To
+these manufacturers is due the beautiful design, stability, and
+perfect sanitary material which make up our plumbing fixtures of
+today.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE USE AND CARE OF THE SOLDERING IRON. FLUXES. MAKING DIFFERENT
+SOLDERING JOINTS
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Copper.]
+
+THE SOLDERING IRON.--The soldering iron is one of the first tools a
+plumber has to master. This tool is sometimes called a "copper bit"
+as it is made of copper; and so throughout this book the words
+"soldering iron," "copper bit," "iron," and "bit" are used
+synonymously. There are several different-shaped irons in common
+use today, but an iron shaped like the one in Fig. 13 is the one
+for use in the following work. Take the iron as it is purchased,
+having a wooden handle and the copper exposed on pointed end.
+Before it can be used the point must be faced and tinned. To do
+this, proceed as follows:
+
+     _First_, heat the iron on the furnace.
+
+     _Second_, place in vise and file the four surfaces of the point.
+
+     _Third_, run a file over edges and point.
+
+     _Fourth_, heat the iron until it will melt solder.
+
+     _Fifth_, put 6 or 8 drops of solder and a piece of rosin the size
+     of a chestnut on an ordinary red brick. (This rosin is called a
+     flux.)
+
+     _Sixth_, take the hot iron and melt the solder and rosin on the
+     brick.
+
+     _Seventh_, rub the four surfaces of the point of the iron on the
+     brick keeping the point in the melted solder.
+
+The solder will soon stick to the copper surfaces and then the iron
+is ready for use.
+
+Another way to tin the iron that is in common use is to rub the
+point of a hot iron on a piece of sal-ammoniac, or dip the hot iron
+in reduced muriatic acid, then rub the stick of solder on the iron.
+The use of muriatic acid in tinning the iron is not recommended. In
+the first place, it is not always possible to carry it, and in the
+second place it eats holes in the surface of iron, which makes it
+necessary to file and smooth the surfaces again. The constant use
+of muriatic acid on the copper soon wears it away and makes it
+unfit for use. Rosin is easily carried and applied and is by far
+the best to use in regular work.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER IN THE CARE OF THE SOLDERING IRON.--
+
+     _First_, proper tinning is absolutely necessary for rapid and
+     good work.
+
+     _Second_, do not allow the iron to heat red hot.
+
+     _Third_, keep the point of the iron properly shaped.
+
+     _Fourth_, use the same flux in tinning as is to be used in
+     soldering.
+
+     _Fifth_, when filing iron, file as little as possible.
+
+     _Sixth_, keep in use two irons of the same size.
+
+
+FLUX
+
+A flux is used to clean the surfaces of joints and seams to be
+soldered, also to keep them from oxidizing and to help the metals
+to fuse.
+
+The following list gives the names of various fluxes in common use,
+how they are applied, and on what material they are most commonly
+used:
+
+     Flux                      How applied      Used on
+
+     Rosin                     Sprinkled on     Lead, tin, and brass
+     Tallow                    Melted           Lead and brass
+     Muriatic acid (reduced)   With swab        Copper, galvanized iron
+                                                  and brass
+     Muriatic acid (raw)       With swab        Dirty galvanized iron
+
+ROSIN.--Rosin is purchased by the pound and comes in chunks. It is
+very brittle and powders easily. Plumbers generally take a piece of
+1-1/4 N. P. brass tubing, solder a trap screw in one end and a
+cone-shaped piece of copper on the other. The point of the cone is
+left open. Rosin is put into this tube and is easily sprinkled on
+work when needed.
+
+TALLOW.--A plumber's _tallow candle_ answers the purpose for tallow
+flux. Some plumbers carry a can for the tallow, making it cleaner
+to handle.
+
+MURIATIC ACID.--Muriatic acid or hydrochloric acid is used both raw
+and reduced. Raw acid is not diluted or reduced. Reduced acid is
+made as follows: Put some zinc chips in a lead receptacle and then
+pour in the muriatic acid. The acid will at once act on the zinc.
+The fumes should be allowed to escape into the outer air. When
+chemical action ceases, the liquid remaining is called reduced
+acid.
+
+
+PLUMBERS' SOILS AND PASTE
+
+It is necessary when soldering or wiping a joint to cover the parts
+of pipe adjoining the portion that is to be soldered or wiped so
+that the solder will not stick to it. There are a number of
+preparations for this. The one used by the best mechanics today is
+paste, made as follows:
+
+     8 teaspoons of flour.
+     1 teaspoon of salt.
+     1 teaspoon of sugar.
+     Mix with water and boil down to a thick paste.
+
+The advantages of paste as a soil are many:
+
+     _First_, it is made of materials easily obtained.
+
+     _Second_, solder will not stick to it.
+
+     _Third_, if pipe is thoroughly cleaned, the paste will not rub
+     off easily.
+
+     _Fourth_, poor workmanship cannot be covered up.
+
+     _Fifth_, when the work is completed, a wet cloth will wipe it
+     off and leave the work clean.
+
+Another soil used is _lampblack_ and _glue_. A quantity of glue is
+melted and then lampblack is added. This needs to be heated and
+water added each time it is used. This soil is put on pipes with a
+short stubby brush. The work when completed with the silvery joint
+and jet black borders appears to the uninitiated very artistic and
+neat, but when the black soil is worn away the uneven edges of the
+joint appear, disclosing the reason for using a black soil that
+covers all defects. The mechanic of today who takes pride in his
+ability for good workmanship will not cover his work with black
+soil.
+
+It can readily be seen that the use of lampblack soil encourages
+poor workmanship, while the use of paste forces, to a certain
+extent, good workmanship on the part of the mechanic.
+
+Before soil or paste is applied, the pipe needs to be cleansed.
+Grease and dirt accumulate on the pipe. The methods employed to
+remove all foreign matter are simply to scrape the surface with
+fine sand or emery paper; sand and water will also answer for this
+purpose. This cleans the surface and allows the soil or paste to
+stick to the pipe.
+
+
+MAKING DIFFERENT SOLDER JOINTS
+
+The tools used in making the different solder joints as described
+and illustrated in this chapter are shown in Fig. 14.
+
+CUP JOINT.--The materials necessary for the work (Fig. 15): 12
+inches of 1/2-inch AA lead pipe, paste, rosin, 1/2 and 1/2 solder.
+
+If a gas furnace is not on the bench to heat the iron, then a
+gasoline furnace is necessary.
+
+Each of the following operations must be done thoroughly to insure
+a perfect job:
+
+     _First_, with the SAW cut off 12 inches of 1/2-inch AA lead pipe
+     from the coil. When cutting off a piece of lead pipe from a coil or
+     reel, always straighten out 1 foot more than is needed. This leaves
+     1 foot of straight pipe always on the coil.
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Tools used for making solder joints.]
+
+     _Second_, with the flat side of the RASP, square the ends of the
+     12-inch piece of pipe. (A good way to do this is to hold the pipe
+     at right angles with the edge of the bench, run the rasp across the
+     end of the pipe, keeping the rasp _parallel_ with the edge of the
+     bench. Apply this to all work when necessary to square the ends of
+     pipe.)
+
+     _Third_, cut the pipe with the saw, making two pieces each 6 inches
+     in length.
+
+     _Fourth_, square the ends just cut.
+
+     _Fifth_, rasp the edges of one end as shown in the cut. Hold the
+     work in such a way that the stroke of the rasp can be seen without
+     moving the pipe.
+
+     _Sixth_, take the other 6-inch piece of pipe and with the TURN PIN
+     spread one end of it. The turn pin must be struck squarely in the
+     center with the HAMMER, the point of the turn pin being kept in the
+     center of the pipe. The pipe should be turned after each blow of
+     the hammer. The pipe must not rest on the bench but should be held
+     in the hand while using the turn pin. If the pipe bends, it can be
+     straightened with BENDING IRONS. If the pipe is spread more on one
+     side than the other, the turn pin should be hit on the opposite
+     side so as to even the spread.
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+     _Seventh_, when the pipes are properly fitted, moisten the tips of
+     the fingers with paste and rub the paste on parts of pipe marked
+     "paste." Put the pipe aside to allow the paste to dry.
+
+     _Eighth_, put the soldering iron on to heat.
+
+     _Ninth_, with the SHAVE HOOK scrape off the paste and surface dirt
+     as shown in the figure. The inside of the cup will look bright, but
+     must be scraped.
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Cup joint.]
+
+     _Tenth_, place the two pieces into position as shown in Fig. 16,
+     sprinkle rosin on the joint, melt a few drops of solder on the
+     joint and with the iron melt the solder on the joint, drawing the
+     iron around the pipe keeping the solder melted around the iron all
+     the time.
+
+     _Eleventh_, fill the joint with solder and continue to draw the hot
+     iron around the joint until a smooth and bright surface is
+     obtained. To master the correct use of the soldering iron in this
+     work, considerable practice will be necessary.
+
+OVERCAST JOINTS.--(Fig. 17.)
+
+     NOTE.--Each operation must be performed thoroughly.
+
+     _First_, saw off from a coil of 1-1/2-inch D lead pipe a 10-inch
+     piece of pipe.
+
+     _Second_, square the ends with the rasp, as previously explained.
+
+     _Third_, take a 1-1/2-inch DRIFT PLUG and drive through the pipe
+     (Fig. 18).
+
+     _Fourth_, saw the pipe into two pieces of 5 inches each.
+
+     _Fifth_, square the ends of the pipe with the rasp.
+
+     _Sixth_, rasp off the outside edge of one end of the pipe as shown.
+
+     _Seventh_, rasp off the inside edge of one end of the pipe.
+
+     _Eighth_, finish rasped surfaces with a file. Both surfaces should
+     have the same angle.
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+     [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Overcast joint.]
+
+     _Ninth_, with a shave hook scrape the outside surface of each pipe
+     for about 1 inch from the end.
+
+     _Tenth_, put the soldering iron on to heat.
+
+     _Eleventh_, paste paper on the joint as shown in the cut.
+
+     _Twelfth_, fit the pieces together and lay on the bench. Drop some
+     melted solder on the joint and with the hot iron proceed to flow
+     the solder around the joint by turning the pipe. Use plenty of flux
+     (rosin). The pipes must be tacked in three or four places at first
+     or they will have a tendency to spread.
+
+     _Thirteenth_, to finish the joint, lift the iron straight up.
+
+This joint when finished will have a bright smooth finish. The two
+foregoing joints need considerable practice and should be perfectly
+mastered before going on to the next job.
+
+
+SEAMS
+
+A description of the making of wiped seams for lead-lined tanks
+will not be attempted as very few are made now. The plumber,
+however, is often called upon to make a seam joining two pieces of
+sheet lead. The beginner will do well to go over the following
+exercise carefully and practice it thoroughly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Flat seam.]
+
+MATERIALS.--Two pieces of 8-pound sheet lead, 6 by 10 inches each;
+one bar of 1/2 and 1/2 solder; paste, paper, and rosin.
+
+TOOLS.--Rasp, shave hook, and soldering iron.
+
+The 10-inch side of each piece is rasped and fitted together. The
+edges are cleaned and paper is pasted on leaving 1/4 inch for
+solder. Paste without the paper can be put on. This will make a
+joint 1/2 inch wide.
+
+Apply the rosin to the joint, then with the heated iron and some
+solder tack the seam on the top, then on the bottom and middle.
+This will prevent the seam from spreading when the lead is heated.
+Solder and rosin can now be put on the full length of the joint.
+With a hot iron proceed to float the solder down the seam. The
+soldering iron must not rest at full length on the pieces of lead
+or it will melt the lead and render the work useless. The solder
+will flow and form a clean neat seam, if the iron is at the right
+heat and the right amount of solder is put on. If the iron is too
+hot, the solder will flow instantly when the iron is laid on it and
+the solder will disappear as it runs through the seam. If the iron
+is too cold the solder will not melt enough to flow. Too much
+solder on the seam will cause it to overflow, that is, the solder
+will spread beyond the papered edges. After a little practice this
+surplus solder can be drawn in on the seam with the iron and
+carried along the seam to some point that has not enough solder.
+When the seam is completed the edges should be perfectly straight
+and even. The iron is carried along the seam with one stroke which
+makes the seam appear smooth and bright.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+MIXTURES OF SOLDERS FOR SOLDERING IRON AND WIPING. CARE OF SOLDERS.
+MELTING POINTS OF METALS AND ALLOYS
+
+
+The importance of good solder, that is, solder correctly mixed and
+thoroughly cleaned, should not be overlooked. Work is more quickly
+and neatly done and the job presents a more finished appearance
+when solder that is correctly made is used.
+
+The solder used in the following work with the soldering iron is
+called 1/2 and 1/2. This means 1/2 (50 per cent.) lead and 1/2 (50
+per cent.) tin.
+
+In the mixture of solder, only pure metals should be used. The lead
+should be melted first and all the dross cleaned off. The tin
+should then be added and mixed.
+
+The solder to be used in wiping the joints in the following chapter
+is a mixture of 37 per cent. tin and 63 per cent. lead. This is
+called wiping solder.
+
+The following table gives the melting points, etc.:
+
+     ---------------+---------+------------------------------------------
+                    | Melting |
+          Metal     |  point  |      Mixture
+     ---------------+---------+------------------------------------------
+     Sulphur        |  228    | Pure
+     Tin            |  446    | Pure
+     Lead           |  626    | Pure
+     Zinc           |  680    | Pure
+     Fine solder    |  400    | 50 per cent. tin, 50 per cent. lead (wt.)
+     Wiping solder  |  370    | 37 per cent. tin, 63 per cent. lead (wt.)
+     ---------------+---------+------------------------------------------
+
+To recognize fine solder, run off a bar into a mold and let it
+cool. If there is a frosted streak in the center, the metal has not
+enough tin. The surface should be bright. To recognize wiping
+solder, pour some on a brick. When this is cool, the top should be
+frosty and the under side should have four or five bright spots.
+The amount poured on the brick should be about the size of a half
+dollar. If poured on iron, the metal will cool too quickly and show
+bright all over the under side.
+
+TO MAKE 1/2 AND 1/2 SOLDER OR PLUMBER'S FINE SOLDER.--The
+possibility of getting pure clean metals to mix solder is very
+remote. Old pieces of lead pipe, lead trap, old block tin pipe are
+used to make solder when pure metals are not at hand.
+
+     _First_, in a cast-iron pot melt the lead to about 800 deg., or a dull
+     red.
+
+     _Second_, clean off the dross.
+
+     _Third_, add (to a 15-pound pot) 1/2 pound of sulphur in three
+     applications. Each time mix the sulphur thoroughly with the metal
+     with a long stick.
+
+     _Fourth_, add tin before the last application of sulphur. Mix
+     thoroughly.
+
+     _Fifth_, pour off two bars and look for the frosty streak in the
+     center. Add a little more tin, if necessary.
+
+TO MIX WIPING SOLDER.--
+
+     _First_, proceed as described in 1/2 and 1/2, melting the metals
+     and _burning_ out with sulphur, adding the percentage of tin
+     according to the preceding table. Then test the solder for bright
+     spots on the under side.
+
+     _Second_, keep the metal thoroughly mixed when burning and keep
+     all dross cleaned off the surface.
+
+The working heat of wiping solder is 500 deg.F. Sulphur is used to
+collect all zinc and dross. The sulphur should come in contact with
+all parts of the metal. This is why the metal should be stirred
+when the sulphur is put in.
+
+A few good points in the economical care of solder are listed
+below.
+
+CARE OF 1/2 AND 1/2 SOLDER.--
+
+     _First_, do not drop melted solder on the floor or dirty bench.
+
+     _Second_, use all small ends by melting on a new bar.
+
+     _Third_, put clean paper under work and use droppings.
+
+     _Fourth_, have the mold free from dirt when pouring.
+
+CARE OF WIPING SOLDER.--
+
+     _First_, do not heat red hot.
+
+     _Second_, do not file brass where the filings will get into the
+     solder.
+
+     _Third_, do not allow lead chips to get into the solder.
+
+     _Fourth_, clean the solder occasionally.
+
+     _Fifth_, learn to distinguish solder from lead by its hardness.
+
+     _Sixth_, have different-shaped pot for lead and solder.
+
+     _Seventh_, do not _tin_ brass by dipping into solder.
+
+     _Eighth_, do not put cold or wet ladle into hot solder.
+
+A pot holding about 15 pounds of solder is the size commonly in
+use.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+MAKING AND CARE OF WIPING CLOTHS
+
+
+A good wiping cloth is essential for wiping joints. The exact size
+and the flexibility of the cloth depend a great deal upon the
+mechanic who handles the cloth. Some mechanics like a stiff cloth,
+but the writer has always used a flexible cloth. The sizes, shape,
+and methods of folding and breaking in as shown in Fig. 21 below
+have proved successful. Cloths made of whalebone ticking are
+inexpensive and make the best for ordinary use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Folding a wiping cloth.]
+
+     Size of cloth open               Size of cloth folded
+     14-1/2 by 14-1/2 inches  equals  3-1/4 by  3-1/4 inches
+     13-1/2 by 13-1/2 inches  equals  3     by  3     inches
+      8-1/2 by 12-1/2 inches  equals  2     by  3     inches
+
+For the joint-wiping jobs to follow, the above sizes are the best.
+The largest size, 14-1/2 by 14-1/2 inches is used for _catch
+cloth_. The 13-1/2 by 13-1/2 inches is the _wiping cloth_. The
+8-1/2 by 12-1/2 inches is the _branch cloth_.
+
+Proceed as follows to cut and complete a cloth:
+
+     _First_, lay the ticking on the flat bench and square the sides
+     14-1/2 by 14-1/2 inches.
+
+     _Second_, the ticking should be cut off with shears and not torn
+     or cut with a knife.
+
+     _Third_, fold as shown in the cut.
+
+Each fold should be moistened with a little water and pressed with
+a hot iron. The cloth should not be pulled or stretched, but should
+be kept as square as possible.
+
+The first and second folds require a little care; the corners when
+folded to the center should be kept in a little, thus making the
+outside edge slightly rounded. If this is done, the corners will
+not stick out when the cloth is finished. After the cloth is
+carefully folded, pressed, and dried, take a needle and thread and
+sew the open corners about 1/2 inch in from the edge of the cloth.
+By carefully studying the cut, one can readily see each operation
+and, by following directions, make a perfect cloth.
+
+When the cloth is done, an amount of oil sufficient to soak through
+about three layers of cloth should be applied and then rubbed on a
+smooth surface. The oil should be rubbed in well about the edges.
+It will not be necessary to apply anything else to the cloth to
+prepare it for wiping. Paste, soil, chalk, etc., are not needed and
+do not benefit the cloth. When using oil on the cloth, it must not
+be used too freely, that is, the cloth must not be soaked in oil,
+as oil is a rapid conductor of heat and the cloth would soon become
+too hot to handle.
+
+CARE OF WIPING CLOTHS.--The ticking will burn if allowed to become
+too hot. If hot solder is poured directly on the cloth, it will
+soon burn and be destroyed.
+
+Keep the surface on both sides of the cloth well oiled.
+
+Use both sides of the cloth.
+
+Use both wiping edges of the cloth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Wiping cloth folded has 16 thicknesses of
+ticking.]
+
+When the cloth is not in use, it should not be thrown in with the
+other tools and allowed to curl up into all sorts of shapes, but
+should be kept in some flat place. A good way to keep the cloths is
+to have two pieces of wood between which the cloths may be kept and
+held there by means of a strap. The length of time which a wiping
+cloth can be used depends a great deal upon its making and upon the
+care which is given it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+PREPARING AND WIPING JOINTS
+
+
+When the writer first started to carry the tools for a plumber and
+to prepare joints for wiping, the remark was often heard that joint
+wiping would soon be a thing of the past. I have heard this many
+times since from many different sources. Personally, I fail to see
+the passing of the wiped joint. More lead pipe is being made today
+than ever before, which goes to show that lead pipe is being used
+and the only successful way of joining is with the wiped joint.
+Some plumbers' helpers of today seem to think that joint wiping is
+of no account. To a certain extent, I can sympathize with them.
+Most of these boys are learning a trade in large cities and working
+for concerns that do nothing but a large contracting business. This
+large work is carried on differently from the small work.
+Wrought-iron or steel pipes are used to a great extent in this work
+and a very small amount of lead is used. Sometimes the job will be
+completed without the use of lead. The boy who works continually on
+this kind of work soon comes to think that lead pipes are no longer
+in use. The writer has found that a boy who has learned to do
+nothing but screw-pipe work is absolutely lost and cannot perform
+the duties of a plumber, other than screw-pipe work. It must be
+borne in mind that lead pipe and cast-iron pipe work are being used
+today in all parts of the country and in some parts more than in
+others. Therefore, the boy must grasp all branches of the trade
+that he has chosen to follow and not be a one-sided man. Joint
+wiping belongs to the plumber alone. The plumbing trade differs
+from all other trades in that it has joint wiping for its
+distinctive feature.
+
+A few attempts at joint wiping will convince the beginner that it
+is not the easiest thing in the world to learn. Let me caution the
+beginner not to get discouraged. He must have patience and a firm
+resolve to master the art of joint wiping and not let it master him
+and keep him back.
+
+So, as we now start on exercises of joint wiping, let the beginner
+constantly keep in mind that all boys must become perfectly skilled
+in the art of joint wiping before they can be considered plumbers.
+Keep in mind also that the examination that one must take to get a
+plumber's license contains an actual exercise in joint wiping. The
+one word of advice is not to get discouraged. Continued practice is
+the only way to success.
+
+The soldering iron is, or should be, conquered by this time. As
+joint wiping is the next exercise, I shall go over a few general
+points that experience has taught me and cannot fail to be of
+assistance to the beginner if they are heeded. In fact, to become
+proficient, the beginner should remember all the points suggested
+under this heading. It is necessary in wiping to have good solder.
+In the chapter on solder, I have given the correct mixtures and how
+to recognize the proper mixtures. The place where wiping is to be
+done should be considered. No draught should be allowed to blow
+across the work as it tends to chill the solder and pipe. Proper
+support for the work should be procured. If gasoline is to be used
+for fuel to heat the solder, make sure that the tank is full before
+starting, otherwise the fire may go out just when the heat is
+needed most and the solder in the pot has become too cool to wipe
+with. Have a catch pan and keep all the solder droppings to put
+back into the pot, otherwise the solder will pile up and the
+fingers are likely to be pushed into the pile and badly burned.
+Hold the ladle about 2 inches above the work, the catch cloth
+about 1 inches below. Do not drop the solder in the same place.
+Keep moving the ladle. Do not pour the solder on the pipe in a
+steady stream, but drop it on. It is not a large amount of solder
+that is wanted on the joint at first, it is heat that is needed.
+This can be secured better by dropping the solder on than by
+pouring a large quantity on the pipe. The edges of the joint cool
+very quickly; therefore heat the edges well and keep them covered
+with molten solder until the joint is ready to wipe. When preparing
+joints for wiping, always do the work thoroughly and fit the pieces
+together tightly so that no solder can get through.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, good solder.
+
+     _Second_, place of wiping.
+
+     _Third_, support.
+
+     _Fourth_, full tank of gasoline.
+
+     _Fifth_, drip pan.
+
+     _Sixth_, ladle 2 inches above the work.
+
+     _Seventh_, cloth 1 inches below the work.
+
+     _Eighth_, move the ladle continually.
+
+     _Ninth_, _drop_ the solder.
+
+     _Tenth_, _heat_, not solder wanted at first.
+
+     _Eleventh_, heat the edges.
+
+     _Twelfth_, careful preparation.
+
+     _Thirteenth_, clean grease from the pipe.
+
+     _Fourteenth_, cut clean straight edges on paper.
+
+
+HALF-INCH ROUND WIPED JOINT
+
+PREPARATION.--Take 12 inches of 1/2-inch strong lead pipe and
+square off the ends with a rasp. Take the shave hook and scrape the
+center of the pipe perfectly bright; a space 3 inches each side of
+the center is correct. The size of the joint when completed should
+be 2-1/2 inches long. If we should undertake to wipe the joint
+with the pipe in the present condition, the solder would adhere to
+all the pipe that was shaved bright. Therefore, we take a piece of
+paper sufficient to encircle the pipe twice and after putting paste
+on one side of the paper wrap it around the pipe so that the edge
+that is cut straight and even is 1-1/4 inches from the center of
+the pipe. Another piece of paper is pasted on the other side of the
+center leaving a clean, bright space of 2-1/2 inches. All the pipe
+should be covered with paper except the 2-1/2 inches in the center.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.]
+
+TO PUT THE PIPE IN POSITION FOR WIPING.--The most practical way is
+to take two common red bricks with the 2 by 8 face down and place
+them 9 inches apart. Lay the pipe on the bricks and place a weight
+on each end. The solder will drop on to the bench, so it is best to
+place a piece of paper or a pan of black iron under the pipe to
+catch the solder that drops. The pan or paper can then be taken up
+and the solder put back into the pot without waste. A cast-iron
+pot holding 15 pounds of solder is then placed on the furnace. When
+the solder has melted and has reached 500 deg. it is ready for use.
+This can best be determined by putting a piece of paper in the
+solder. If the paper scorches, the solder is at the right heat; if
+the paper catches fire, it is too hot.
+
+Now take a 3-inch ladle and heat it over the fire and then dip it
+into the solder and skim off any dross that may have collected.
+
+WIPING.--With the ladle full of solder in the right hand and the
+large cloth or the catch cloth in the left hand, begin to drop the
+solder on the joint. The cloth should catch all the solder as it
+falls off the pipe. If hot solder is held against the bottom of the
+pipe, it is heated to the proper heat. Always begin to drop the
+solder on the paper edges, then drop the solder on the joint
+itself. Bear in mind that the solder should not be poured on, but
+dropped on slowly. After the first few drops do not drop the solder
+directly on to the lead pipe but on to the solder previously put on
+the pipe. This will save the pipe from burning through. The pipe
+must be the same heat as the solder before the proper heat is
+obtained for good wiping. The beginner should practice dropping the
+solder on the joint, catching the solder and working it around the
+pipe. By doing this, one becomes familiar with the feeling of hot
+solder, which is the secret of successful wiping. When the solder
+works easily around the pipe, drop the ladle and take the smaller
+wiping cloth in the right hand and with both cloths draw all the
+solder on top of the pipe. With fingers on the corners of both
+cloths, clean off the left-hand edge and with the right hand draw
+the surplus solder across to the right-hand edge. Next, clean the
+right-hand edge of the joint pushing the surplus solder onto the
+cloth in the right hand. Work this solder on to the bottom of the
+joint. Now discard the catch cloth. Holding the wiping cloth with
+the index fingers on lower opposite corners, shape the under and
+front side of the joint. With the middle fingers on opposite lower
+corners of the cloth shape the back and top. Keep the index and
+middle fingers on the edge of the cloth and the edge of the cloth
+on the edge of the joint. This position together with the size and
+shape of the cloth will give the joint the desired form and
+appearance. Particular attention is called to the position of the
+fingers as shown in the figure.
+
+The last wipe should be a quick stroke coming off of joint on a
+tangent. If the solder is at right heat, the cloth will not leave a
+noticeable mark. If, however, the solder is too cold, a ragged edge
+will result. Sometimes a cross wipe is made for the last stroke and
+a good finish obtained.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, width of the joint, 2-1/2 inches.
+
+     _Second_, allow no soil or paste to get on the joint.
+
+     _Third_, a 3-inch ladle should be used.
+
+     _Fourth_, 500 deg. is the working heat of solder.
+
+     _Fifth_, paper test for solder heat.
+
+     _Sixth_, position of wiping cloths.
+
+     _Seventh_, do not drop solder on the lead pipe.
+
+     _Eighth_, hold the ladle 2 inches above the pipe.
+
+     _Ninth_, wipe the edges of the joint first.
+
+     _Tenth_, wipe and shape the joint quickly.
+
+The above procedure of wiping will be found to work out very easily
+if followed closely. Do not pour the hot solder onto the cloth as
+the cloth will burn through and soon be useless. A little more oil
+should be put on the cloth after using it for awhile. The cloth
+should be turned around and the opposite side also used. The cloth
+will last considerably longer if sides are changed frequently. The
+solder should not accumulate on the pan, but should be continually
+put back into the pot. The "metal," as solder is sometimes called,
+should never be allowed to become red hot.
+
+The above method of preparing pipe is suggested for beginners only
+and will be found to be a great help to them. In actual practice
+the joint must be prepared differently. The method used in trade is
+as follows:
+
+The joint is used to join two pieces of lead pipe. Take two pieces
+and rasp the four ends square. With the tap borer clean out the end
+of one pipe a trifle, then with the turn pin enlarge this end just
+a little as shown in the figure. Then rasp the edge off about 1/8
+inch as shown. Take the other piece of pipe and rasp one end as was
+done in the cup joint, making it fit into the first piece. Then
+place the two ends together and with the bending iron beat the
+pipe, making the joint as tight as possible.
+
+
+ROUND JOINT--45 deg. TO RIGHT
+
+The next position in which the beginner is to wipe a joint is on an
+angle of 45 deg. to the right.
+
+PREPARATION.--To prepare this joint, proceed as in the horizontal
+round joint. I will enumerate a few of these points. A piece 12
+inches long of 1/2-inch pipe is cut off and the ends squared. A
+strip in the center, 6 inches long, is shaved clean. Paper and
+paste are put over the pipe except 2-1/2 inches in the center.
+Grease can be put on the pipe in between the pieces of paper and
+will keep the lead from oxidizing.
+
+PLACING PIPE IN POSITION.--There is no need of an elaborate system
+of holding the pipe in position. Take a red brick and place the 4
+by 8 face down. This will do for the bottom pipe. For the top of
+pipe to rest on, place two bricks one above the other; this will
+give the correct position. Place the pipe on the brick and with a
+ladle full of half molten solder pour a clamp of solder over the
+end of the pipe. This will hold the pipe firm for wiping. Place a
+catch pan under the joint for solder to fall in.
+
+WIPING.--The method of wiping this joint is practically the same as
+wiping the horizontal joint. The catch cloth should be held
+parallel with the bench tilting a little from front toward the
+back. The ladle is held the same and solder is dropped on as
+before. The ladle should be continually moving while dropping
+solder, not allowing the solder to drop twice in the same place.
+When the solder has been worked around the pipe and is at working
+heat, the solder is drawn up with both cloths and the top edge
+wiped first, then the bottom edge; the surplus solder is put on the
+underside of the joint, and then with three or four wipes the joint
+is made symmetrical and finished.
+
+THINGS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, prepare like the horizontal joint.
+
+     _Second_, use brick to place in position.
+
+     _Third_, hold tools as in horizontal joint.
+
+     _Fourth_, top edge cools first, therefore, wipe it first.
+
+     _Fifth_, hold the wiping cloth at an angle of 45 deg. when wiping,
+     with fingers placed as noted in previous joint.
+
+     _Sixth_, make solder clamp for holding the pipe.
+
+
+ROUND JOINT 45 deg.--LEFT
+
+When the preceding joint is well mastered and a number of good
+joints have been wiped, turn the pipe on an angle of 45 deg. to the
+left.
+
+PREPARATION.--The preparation for this joint is exactly the same as
+for the horizontal joint. The beginner should turn back and read
+carefully concerning the perfection of the joint. Bear in mind that
+the pipe must be correctly prepared or a good joint cannot be made.
+The edge of the paper must be cut not torn.
+
+PLACING PIPE IN POSITION.--This pipe can be placed in position the
+same as the preceding one. If heavy weights are placed on the ends
+of the pipe, a bad habit may be formed by the one learning to wipe.
+That is, the habit of pressing hard on the joint when wiping. In
+the preceding joint, if the beginner presses too hard, the pipe
+will fall off the bricks.
+
+WIPING.--Proceed as described for previous joints. The top edge
+must be favored a little. The hot solder will run down to the
+bottom edge; therefore less solder should be dropped on it than on
+the top edge. When the solder is at the proper heat for wiping it
+requires only a light touch to wipe the joint. If it appears
+necessary to press hard on the joint to wipe off surplus solder, it
+shows that the solder is not at the correct wiping heat.
+
+
+ROUND JOINT--VERTICAL
+
+PREPARATION.--This joint can be prepared exactly like the preceding
+one. In fact, the same piece of pipe can be used throughout. When
+preparing this joint the end that is to be on the bottom should be
+well covered with paper.
+
+PLACING IN POSITION.--The best way to hold this joint in position
+for wiping is to stand the pipe upright on one end with the pan
+underneath. A piece of furring strip should be run from the top of
+the pipe to the wall. Secure the strip to the wall and drive a nail
+through the strip into the bore of the pipe. Place a weight on top
+of the strip and the pipe is ready.
+
+WIPING.--The procedure of wiping this joint is entirely different
+from that in the other positions. The solder is thrown onto the
+joint from the ladle. The catch cloth is held up to the pipe and as
+much solder as possible is held on to the pipe. Move the ladle
+around the joint, throwing a little solder on as the ladle is
+moved. Notice now that all the solder runs to the bottom edge,
+leaving the top edge cold. The solder that accumulates on the
+bottom edge should be drawn up to the top edge with the cloth.
+Then splash more solder on to the top edge and as the solder runs
+down the pipe catch it with the cloth and draw it up again. The
+solder can be worked around and up and down the joint, but always
+keep the top edge covered with hot solder. The solder is likely to
+drop off the joint entirely unless watched closely. When the
+correct heat is obtained, drop the ladle. Take the wiping cloth in
+the right hand and with the fingers spread, clean off the top edge
+quickly, then shape the joint with the one cloth. With a little
+practice you will gain this knack. The joint can then be wiped. The
+left hand can steady the pipe. Spread the index finger and third
+finger to opposite sides of the cloth and wipe around the joint.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+PREPARING AND WIPING JOINTS (_Continued_)
+
+
+TWO-INCH BRASS FERRULE
+
+MATERIALS.--The beginner should continue wiping the vertical round
+joint until he is able to obtain a symmetrical bulb. A joint should
+be wiped in each of the foregoing positions for exhibition
+purposes, so that the beginner can have before him the best work
+and strive to make the next joint better. This next joint, the
+2-inch brass ferrule, is wiped in an upright position. The
+materials necessary are the 2-inch brass ferrule, 6 inches of
+2-inch light lead pipe, paste and paper, 1/2 and 1/2 solder, rosin,
+wiping solder, catch pan, and supports.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.]
+
+TOOLS REQUIRED.--The tools necessary for this work are as follows:
+the saw, rasp, drift plug, dresser, file, soldering iron, bending
+irons, wiping cloths, shave hook, and ladle.
+
+PREPARATION.--The lead pipe must be fitted into the brass ferrule.
+The brass ferrule has to be tinned first. To do this, proceed as
+follows: file the ferrule for about 2 inches on the tapered end. Do
+not file too deep, but just enough to expose the pure bright metal.
+Now measure from the small end 1-1/4 inches down toward the beaded
+end. From this point to the bead, cover the brass with paste and
+paper. No paste must get on the 1-1/4-in. filed end. This end
+should not be touched with the fingers. If paste gets on it, the
+process of filing must be done over again as the solder will not
+stick where there is paste. If the brass ferrule is filed while the
+paper is on the brass, the filing will destroy the straight edge of
+the paper and an even joint cannot be made. It would therefore be
+necessary to re-paper the brass. Take some powdered rosin and cover
+the filed end of the ferrule with molten solder using the rosin as
+a flux. Do not dip the end of the ferrule into the hot wiping
+solder to tin it or pour wiping solder on the brass ferrule. This
+method of tinning the ferrule will spoil the wiping solder. Always
+use the soldering iron to tin the ferrule as explained above. A
+little practice will develop the use of the iron in the hands of
+the beginner so that this tinning process will be done very
+rapidly. The iron should be put on to heat when the paper is being
+pasted on the brass; the iron will then be ready for use when
+needed.
+
+PREPARING THE LEAD.--The ends of the lead pipe must be squared with
+the rasp. All kinks and dents are taken out by using the drift plug
+and driving it through the pipe. Take a piece of smooth pine stick
+and start to beat in the end of the lead pipe to fit the brass
+ferrule. The pipe should be beaten in starting about 3/4 inches
+from the end. It should be beaten in very slowly until it fits the
+ferrule. The pipe is held in the hand all the time and considerable
+time should be spent on this as it is the first time the beating in
+of lead pipe has been called for. The knack of doing this comes
+only by slow and continued practice. The lead must be "humored"
+into shape and not "driven" into shape. The end of the pipe is
+tapered still more by rasping off the end. About 3/4 inch should
+extend into the brass ferrule. With the bending irons, the lead
+extending into the brass ferrule is beaten against the inside wall
+of the ferrule. A good way to do this is to wedge the lead pipe in
+as much as possible at first, then lay the work flat on the bench,
+in which position it is more easily worked. The sketch should be
+thoroughly studied and each notation be perfectly understood,
+before proceeding with the work. Now that the lead pipe is
+perfectly fitted into place, it is prepared for wiping. The joint
+overall will be 2-1/2 inches. As we have already allowed 1-1/4
+inches on the brass ferrule for the joint, the lead will have to be
+cleaned that much more. With the shave hook, shave the end of the
+pipe that has been fitted into the brass ferrule. A space about 4
+inches should be cleaned. This will give a cleaned surface free
+from dirt and grease for the paste and paper to adhere to. Next
+paste the paper in place. The lead pipe can be entirely covered, or
+3 or 4 inches only, above the 1-1/4 inches allowed for the joint.
+The space between the paper on the brass and the paper on the lead
+should now be 2-1/2 inches. The paste and paper should now be
+allowed to dry.
+
+SUPPORTING THE PIPE.--This joint is wiped with the ferrule down on
+the bench. A flat pan is laid on the bench and the ferrule stood
+upon it. A weight on top of the lead pipe is all that is necessary.
+If this does not make the pipe rigid enough for the beginner, then
+a support similar to the round vertical joint support can be used.
+The beginner is advised, however, to practice the wiping of this
+joint with only the weight to hold it in position. The beginner
+will then be required to wipe the joint while the solder is hot,
+when it does not require a heavy pressure against the solder to
+wipe it in shape. These wiped joints should be supported in place
+near the furnace that heats the solder so that the solder will be
+handy for wiping.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Two-inch brass ferrule.]
+
+WIPING.--Wiping this joint brings in some of the methods of the
+round vertical joint. If that joint was thoroughly mastered, this
+joint will be wiped considerably more easily. The ladle is held in
+the right hand and the solder splashed on the joint. The catch
+cloth is held in the left hand and some of the solder is caught and
+brought up on the top edge. The top edge cools quickly as all the
+hot solder runs down to the bottom edge and into the pan. As the
+solder accumulates on the bottom edge, it is drawn up on the top
+edge, and in this manner the top edge is kept hot. When the solder
+can be worked freely around the pipe and the edges are hot, the
+joint is ready to wipe. The ladle is laid down and the wiping cloth
+is taken in the right hand and the top edge of the joint cleaned on
+one side. Then the wiping cloth is changed to the left hand and the
+other side of the top edge is cleaned. Holding the cloth in one
+hand with the index and the third fingers spread to the outside
+corners of the cloth, the cloth is passed around the joint quickly.
+To get an even and symmetrical joint, it is necessary to make two
+or three passes around the joint holding the cloth first in the
+right and then in the left hand. The free hand is used to steady
+the work. This joint should be wiped very slim to allow room for
+the caulking irons to pass by it and get into the hub of the pipe.
+Constant wiping on the brass ferrule will result in the tinning on
+the brass ferrule coming off. The ferrule will look black when this
+happens and will thus be recognized. The wiping should then be
+stopped and the ferrule filed and tinned in the same manner as it
+was done at first.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, material--6 inches of 2-inch light lead pipe and one
+     2-inch brass ferrule.
+
+     _Second_, tin ferrule, using soldering iron.
+
+     _Third_, use a soft pine stick for a dresser.
+
+     _Fourth_, fit the lead into the ferrule.
+
+     _Fifth_, clean and paper the lead.
+
+     _Sixth_, secure the pipe into position.
+
+     _Seventh_, using the catch cloth and ladle, splash solder on
+     the joint.
+
+     _Eighth_, keep the top edge covered with solder.
+
+     _Ninth_, wipe the top edge first.
+
+     _Tenth_, shape and finish wiping with a few strokes.
+
+     _Eleventh_, tools used.
+
+     _Twelfth_, wipe a slim joint.
+
+     _Thirteenth_, steady the work with the free hand.
+
+     _Fourteenth_, re-tin the ferrule, if necessary.
+
+
+FOUR-INCH BRASS FERRULE
+
+The 4-inch brass ferrule joint is the same as the 2-inch, except
+for size. The materials needed for this joint are 6 inches of
+4-inch, 8-pound lead pipe, and one 4-inch brass ferrule, one _full_
+pot of solder, some paste and paper, rosin, and 1/2 and 1/2 solder.
+
+TOOLS NECESSARY.--The tools required for this joint are as follows:
+saw, rasp, file, ladle, soldering iron, dresser, bending irons,
+shave hook, and wiping cloths.
+
+PREPARATION.--_Lead Pipe._--With the saw cut off 6 inches of
+4-inch lead pipe. This pipe comes in lengths and should be for this
+work about 8 pounds to the foot in weight. The pipe may be dented
+badly, but these dents can be taken out as follows: Take a piece of
+2-inch iron pipe and put it in a vise. The lead pipe can be slipped
+over this iron pipe and any dents taken out easily by beating with
+the dresser. One end of the lead pipe is beaten with the dresser
+until it fits into the ferrule. The end is then rasped a little.
+Then, after the brass ferrule has been tinned, the pipe is fitted
+into it and beaten out against the inside wall of the brass ferrule
+and a tight joint is made. The lead is next cleaned with the shave
+hook and paper is pasted on as explained under the 2-inch brass
+ferrule, the description of which should now be read over.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Four-inch brass ferrule.]
+
+_Brass Ferrule._--The first thing to do with the brass ferrule is
+to file the end that is to be wiped. When the brass ferrule is
+filed, it should be done away from any part of the room where the
+filings are likely to get into the solder. After the filing has
+been done, paper is pasted on all of it except the part that is to
+be tinned and no paste must get on to this part of the ferrule. If
+any paste does get on to it, the filing will have to be done over
+again. When using paste and paper, neatness must be cultivated, or
+paste will be spread over parts of the pipe that are supposed not
+to have any paste on them. Next, take the soldering iron and heat
+it. Take some rosin and put it on the exposed part of the ferrule.
+With the hot soldering iron proceed to tin the brass ferrule, as
+explained before, with 1/2 and 1/2 solder, using rosin as a flux.
+Now the lead pipe that has previously been prepared is fitted into
+the ferrule.
+
+SUPPORTING.--Set the brass ferrule on a catch pan. The lead pipe is
+upright. A weight placed on top of the lead pipe will steady the
+pipe for wiping. When the joint is wiped the free hand can hold the
+pipe if the weight is not sufficient to support it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Four-inch brass ferrule.]
+
+WIPING.--Splash the solder on the joint from the ladle, in the same
+manner as was employed in the two preceding joints. To get the
+proper heat on the 4-inch joint a little more speed is necessary,
+also the constant working of the solder around the pipe. The ladle
+is constantly moved around the pipe so that all parts of the pipe
+will be evenly heated and come into contact with the hot solder
+direct from the ladle. When the solder works freely around the pipe
+and the top edge is hot, the joint is shaped by holding the wiping
+cloth in the right hand, with the index and the middle fingers
+spread to the opposite corners of the cloth. The fingers are placed
+one on the top edge and one on the bottom edge. The cloth is then
+passed around the joint as far as possible. Then the cloth is taken
+in the left hand, with the fingers spread, and passed around the
+rest of the joint. If the solder does not take the shape of the
+cloth readily, then the solder is not at the right heat. This joint
+should be wiped very slim to allow room for the caulking tools.
+When this joint is once started, it should not be left until it
+has been wiped, otherwise a large amount of solder will accumulate
+on the joint and will be hard to get off.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, material.
+
+     _Second_, tools.
+
+     _Third_, tin ferrule.
+
+     _Fourth_, use the dresser to fit the lead into the ferrule.
+
+     _Fifth_, clean the lead with the shave hook, and paper.
+
+     _Sixth_, use the catch cloth and ladle.
+
+     _Seventh_, keep the top edge covered with hot solder.
+
+     _Eighth_, wipe the top edge first.
+
+     _Ninth_, make a slim joint.
+
+     _Tenth_, steady the work with the free hand.
+
+
+STOP COCK
+
+MATERIALS REQUIRED.--The materials used for this joint are as
+follows: two pieces of 5/8-inch extra strong lead pipe 9 inches
+long, each; one 1/2-inch plug stop cock for lead pipe; paste and
+paper; solder; 1/2 and 1/2 solder; rosin; catch pan and supports.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.]
+
+TOOLS NECESSARY.--The tools necessary for this job are as follows:
+saw, rasp, file, turn plug, shave hook, bending irons, hammer,
+ladle, soldering iron, and wiping cloths.
+
+PREPARATION.--There are two joints to be wiped on this job and the
+stop cock is supported only by the rigid fitting of the lead pipe.
+Therefore the preparation must be thoroughly done. The brass stop
+will be prepared first.
+
+_Brass._--The two ends of the stop cock are filed bright, then
+papered and tinned. This operation is the same, only on a smaller
+scale, as the tinning of the 2-inch and the 4-inch brass ferrule.
+The paper is pasted over the entire stop cock, except the two ends,
+which are tinned for about 1-1/4 inches.
+
+_Lead Pipe._--After the lead pipe has been cut off from the coil,
+the ends are squared with the rasp. One end of each piece is reamed
+out a little with the tap borer and spread a trifle with the turn
+pin. With the rasp, take off the outside edge of the end that has
+been spread. The sketch will show this and give the angle at which
+the edge is to be rasped. The stop cock is now fitted into the lead
+pipe. The brass should enter at least 1/4 inch, then the lead is
+beaten against the brass until a tight joint is made. The other end
+of the brass stop is fitted into the other piece of the lead pipe
+and a perfect fit is made. The fitting of these two joints must be
+rigid as upon them depends the stability of the joint support. When
+these ends of the lead pipe have been fitted, the pipe is cleaned
+with the shave hook and paper is pasted on, allowing 1-1/2 inches
+for the joint. Both pieces of pipe are prepared at the same time as
+both ends are wiped at the same time.
+
+SUPPORTING.--The three pieces of pipe should be so wedged together
+that they will not fall apart when put in position for wiping. The
+bricks for supporting the pipe are placed the same as in the
+support of the horizontal round joint. The lead pipe ends are laid
+on the bricks. This brings the stop cock in the center without any
+support. If it were not for the substantial fit between it and the
+lead pipe, it would not stay in place. Solder straps can be put
+over each end of the lead pipe. Weights can be used to advantage.
+
+WIPING.--When getting the heat up for these joints, pour the solder
+over the two joints and over the stop cock. This gets the heat
+properly distributed, so that both joints can be wiped while the
+brass stop is heated. Get the proper heat up on one joint and then
+the other. Come back to the first joint and wipe it and then the
+second one. Both joints should be wiped so as to have the same
+shape. The novice will experience some trouble when wiping this
+joint in getting the brass edge hot. Heating up the two joints
+together will in a large degree offset this trouble. Some mechanics
+take out the lever handle stop to lessen the amount of brass to
+heat. This is never done by a good mechanic as the two pieces will
+never fit together again and make a tight joint. If the plug is
+left in place, both the plug and body will expand equally and the
+pieces will fit perfectly. When wiping is started on these joints,
+the beginner must stay at it continually. When the brass is heated,
+the finished wiping can be tried over and over again. If this way
+is not followed, the beginner will find that most of his time will
+be spent trying to get a heat on the brass.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Stop cock.]
+
+
+BRANCH JOINT
+
+MATERIALS NEEDED.--The materials necessary to complete this job are
+as follows: 12 inches of 5/8-inch extra strong lead pipe for the
+run; 6 inches of 1/2-inch extra strong lead pipe for the branch;
+paste and paper, and solder.
+
+TOOLS NECESSARY.--The tools necessary for this job are the saw,
+bending irons, rasp, tap borer, ladle, wiping cloths, and the shave
+hook.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Branch joint.]
+
+PREPARATION.--The preparation of this joint requires the skill of
+the beginner more than any of the preceding joints. The tapping of
+the 5/8 pipe for the branch connection, pasting and cutting the
+paper, require the utmost care and precision. The 5/8-inch pipe is
+tapped with the tap borer in the center. The tap borer is used by
+grasping the handle firmly and putting the cutting point on the
+mark and then pressing down on the handle. This forces the point
+into the lead. Now turn the tool and a piece of lead will be bored
+out. Continue this operation and a hole will very soon appear in
+the lead. A hole just large enough to allow the bending irons to
+enter is made. The opening of the hole is completed with the
+bending iron, working the lead back slowly into place. Do not
+attempt to drive the lead back around the hole with a few strokes.
+One bending iron is inserted and this iron is struck with another
+iron or hammer. After a number of strokes the opening will be of
+sufficient size. The bent end of iron is inserted into the hole and
+the bent part enters the bore of the pipe. This iron is struck in
+such a way as to force the lead around the hole up, rather than
+back. Now with the straight end of irons open the sides. When the
+wall of pipe has been driven up a little the hole can be enlarged
+by driving back the lead. This procedure will form a collar around
+the hole to steady the branch pipe. Good workmanship will result in
+having a good substantial collar around the opening. The branch
+should now be fitted. Clean the pipe with the shave hook for about
+2 inches on each side of the opening. With compasses set at 1-1/8
+inches, mark off a space on each side of the branch on the run, or
+on the 5/8-inch pipe. On the sides of the pipe the two lines should
+be joined with an even and symmetrical curve. A good way to make
+this curve is with the shave hook. Now take a folded piece of paper
+and cut out the shape of one-half of the joint, then open the fold
+and the entire ellipse will be made. When this paper is cut, a
+sharp knife is used, otherwise a ragged edge will be made and a
+good finish of joint is impossible. The paper is now pasted and put
+on the pipe. The surplus paste on the edge of the paper should be
+wiped off with the fingers before the paper is put on the pipe.
+This prevents any paste squeezing out on the joint. The branch is
+now taken and perfectly fitted into the run. The end is cleaned
+with the shave hook and paper is pasted on the pipe, leaving 1-1/8
+inches of cleaned surface for wiping. The paste and the paper
+should now be allowed to dry. The position for wiping this joint is
+to have the run horizontal and the branch on an angle of 45 deg.
+pointing away from the wiper. Figure 30 will bring out the above
+explanation very vividly.
+
+SUPPORTING.--The run of this joint is laid flat on the table and
+the branch inserted in its proper place. With one hand hold it in
+place, with the other, use the bending iron, tap the collar on the
+run against the branch, wedging it in place good and strong so that
+no solder can leak through. If the branch is tapered with the rasp
+as shown the joint can be made very tight. The run of the pipe is
+now laid on two bricks as was done with the horizontal joint. The
+branch is laid over on a pile of bricks or wood at an angle of 45 deg.
+The best way to secure this joint is to pour some half-molten
+solder on the ends of pipe and brick, making a solder clamp. This
+branch does not need any clamp or weight if it is properly entered
+into the run. A strap of solder can be run over the end of pipe if
+found necessary. Place the catch pan under the joint and then the
+pipe will be ready to wipe.
+
+WIPING.--In wiping this joint, the catch cloth is used not only to
+catch the solder as it drops off from the pipe, but also to hold
+the hot solder against the pipe to heat the under side of the
+joint. Test the solder and see if it is the correct heat for
+wiping. If so, prepare for wiping. After heating the ladle, take
+some solder in it and proceed to drop the molten solder on the
+joint. The ladle is moved constantly as the solder is dropped on
+the run and then on the branch to get the entire joint to the
+proper heat. As the solder drops off from the joint, it is caught
+on the catch cloth and brought up on the top of the joint where it
+is re-melted by dropping hot solder on it. Then the hot solder is
+held in the cloth against the under side of the joint to get the
+under side properly heated. The solder is worked around all parts
+of the joint. When the heat is got up sufficiently and the solder
+works freely around the joint, the branch cloth is taken and each
+edge of the joint is wiped clean. Any surplus solder is brought up
+on top of the joint and then wiped on the catch cloth. This solder
+is then put on the under side of the joint. With the branch cloth
+reach way around the joint and wipe each side, bringing the cloth
+each time to the top and then off the joint. The last wipe is
+directly across the top, wiping off any surplus solder that may
+have accumulated from wiping the sides. The difficulty with this
+joint is in getting the top and bottom to have an equal amount of
+solder. With a little practice and by watching each motion your
+faults can be noted and remedied. If the paper starts to come off,
+it should be re-papered at once. When the joint is finished, it
+should be left in position until the solder has had time to set and
+cool, otherwise the branch will break off and considerable time
+will be lost in correcting the trouble.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, the use of the tap borer.
+
+     _Second_, the use of the bending irons.
+
+     _Third_, do not allow the bending irons to touch the inside walls
+     of the pipe when stretching the opening.
+
+     _Fourth_, secure the branch into the run.
+
+     _Fifth_, secure the pipes into position for wiping.
+
+     _Sixth_, spread the heat on the edges and the bottom of the joint.
+
+     _Seventh_, wipe with the branch cloth.
+
+     _Eighth_, cut the paper.
+
+     _Ninth_, mark the outline of the joint.
+
+
+BRANCH JOINT PLACED FLAT
+
+When the wiper has mastered the branch joint placed at an angle of
+45 deg., he can proceed to wipe the joint placed in the next position,
+which is flat.
+
+PREPARATION.--The preparation of this joint is identical with the
+preceding one placed at an angle of 45 deg. If a new joint is to be
+prepared, it would be well to pay strict attention to the details,
+such as keeping the paste on the paper only and having the edge of
+the paper cut perfectly smooth and even. Before putting on the
+paper see that the pipe is free from all grease and dirt. The paste
+and paper will stick better if all the dirt is removed. The branch
+should be well fitted into the run of the pipe so that no solder
+will get into the bore of the pipe. The branch should not extend
+into the run of pipe enough to obstruct the bore of it. If the
+instructions for preparing the pipe are not carried out as
+detailed, the wiper will experience some trouble that he may find
+hard to overcome.
+
+SUPPORTING.--The run can be supported on bricks. The branch can be
+supported on a brick placed at its end the same height as the run.
+This will bring the joint in the correct flat position. The branch
+should point away from the wiper. Solder straps can now be poured
+over the ends of each pipe. If weights are used to hold the pipe
+firm instead of solder straps, they should be so placed that they
+will not interfere with the hands when wiping.
+
+WIPING.--The wiping of this joint is more difficult as the beginner
+will experience trouble in heating the bottom and keeping the
+solder on the bottom. Solder is dropped on the joint and along the
+pipe so as to bring the pipe to the proper wiping heat. Some solder
+will accumulate on top of the joint. This is melted off on the
+catch cloth and this hot solder held against the bottom of the
+joint. This operation is repeated until the bottom as well as the
+top of the joint is heated properly. When the solder can be worked
+freely around the pipe, the branch cloth is taken and each side is
+wiped from the bottom toward the top. Solder is accumulated on the
+top where it is wiped off on the catch cloth and put on the bottom
+of the joint. Now reach way around each side and wipe the edge and
+body of the joint, a wipe across the top completing the joint. The
+bottom can be wiped with a cross wipe also if desired. The top and
+the bottom should be identical. Notice carefully the drawing of
+this joint and endeavor to have the same lines. The perfecting of
+these joints comes only with patient practice. The beginner must
+not get discouraged because of a burn or two. As soon as confidence
+in oneself has been gained, the possibility of burning the fingers
+is entirely eliminated.
+
+
+BRANCH VERTICAL
+
+The materials, tools, and preparation for this joint placed in a
+vertical position are just the same, practically, as those in the
+preceding branch joints. One or two points wherein they differ are
+mentioned below. To rigidly support the joint for wiping, allow the
+run of the pipe to rest on some bricks as before mentioned, with
+the branch looking up. Now take a piece of wood and drive a nail
+through one end of it about 1 inch from the edge. Let this nail
+enter the bore of the vertical branch. The wood is allowed to rest
+on the back of the bench or is braced against the wall. Supporting
+the pipes in this way will allow the wiper perfect freedom. When
+wiping this joint, splash the solder on from the ladle as on the
+upright joint. As all the sides of this joint can be seen, it is
+not a difficult matter to make a perfectly symmetrical solder bulb.
+When the proper heat is gained, the top edge of the joint is wiped
+first, then the lower curved edge, using the branch cloth. The body
+of the joint is then wiped and the joint finished with a cross
+wipe, if necessary.
+
+
+BRANCH HORIZONTAL
+
+The next position for this joint is to have the branch pipe
+horizontal and the run vertical. The materials, tools and
+preparation for this joint are the same as for the preceding ones.
+The supporting and wiping differ a little.
+
+SUPPORTING.--One end of the run is placed on the catch pan. The
+other end is held in place the same way as the branch was held in
+the preceding joint. If the pictures of this joint are carefully
+looked over, the methods employed to hold the pipe will be readily
+noted. The branch is best held by inserting one end of a bending
+iron in the bore of the pipe and placing the other end of the iron
+on a brick built up to the right height. The iron should be
+weighted to keep the joint from swaying.
+
+WIPING.--The solder is now dropped on the branch as in the round
+joint, and splashed on the vertical run as in the upright joint.
+Sufficient solder is put on the joint to keep the edges covered
+with hot solder. Solder is worked around the joint until all parts
+of it are thoroughly heated and the solder works easily, then all
+the edges are wiped clean. The top half is then wiped evenly and
+the bottom half wiped to match the top half. A cross wipe in front
+completes the joint. When this cross wipe is made on any joint, a
+thick edge of solder must not be left. The edge must be wiped
+clean. This joint should be wiped first with the branch pointing to
+the right and then with the branch pointing to the left. It will
+take the beginner some time to master these branch joints, for not
+only must they be wiped symmetrically for the sake of appearances,
+but they must be wiped while the solder is hot to secure a tight
+joint. A joint that is wiped with solder that is too cold will be
+porous and will leak when put under pressure. With care the same
+pipe can be used throughout for all the positions of this branch
+joint.
+
+
+ONE AND ONE-HALF-INCH BRANCH JOINT
+
+Upon the completion of the small sized branch joint in its various
+angles, the 1-1/2-inch branch joint is to be wiped. This branch
+joint is wiped in the same positions as the 5/8 branch was wiped.
+The pipe being larger, there is more solder for the wiper to
+handle, and the edges to keep clean and to wipe are longer.
+
+MATERIALS NEEDED.--The materials needed for this job are 12 inches
+of 1-1/2-inch light lead pipe for the run, and 6 inches of
+1-1/2-inch pipe for the branch, paste, paper, solder, and catch
+pan.
+
+TOOLS NEEDED.--The tools necessary for this job are the saw, rasp,
+shave hook, bending irons, drift plug, hammer, ladle, wiping
+cloths, and tap borer.
+
+PREPARATION.--To an experienced wiper, the procedure of preparing
+this joint and wiping it are so near like the 5/8-branch joint that
+a detailed description would be unnecessary; but for the benefit of
+the beginner, I will repeat the details as they apply to this
+particular joint and thereby avoid any error. We will take the
+preparation of the run first. Square the two ends of the pipe with
+the rasp. Mark off the center of the pipe. With the round part of
+the rasp, held at right angles with the pipe, proceed to rasp down
+the crown of pipe where the center mark was made. Do not rasp
+through the wall of the pipe, but just enough so that the tap borer
+will enter the pipe with only a slight pressure. With the tap
+borer, tap a hole large enough for the bending irons to enter. Now
+proceed to enlarge the hole, first forcing the edges up and then
+forcing them back, making the hole larger and making a collar
+around the hole at the same time. Continue to open the pipe until
+the aperture is large enough for the branch pipe to enter. The
+bending irons must not come into contact with the inside wall of
+the pipe, for if they do the inside bore will be marred and be very
+ragged. As these joints are usually used on waste lines, these
+ragged places make an ideal place for lint and grease to collect
+and cause a stoppage. To make the inside of the hole even, a piece
+of 1/2-inch pipe can be used in place of the bending irons. To cut
+out the oval from a piece of paper to fit the joint, fold the
+paper and cut out one-half of the oval. Now unfold the paper and
+the complete oval is obtained. The measurements of the oval are
+taken from Fig. 30, 1-1/8 inches each side of the branch lengthwise
+of the run. These two lines are connected with a curved line as
+shown. This curved line can be made with the shave hook. Take the
+large edge of the shave hook and roll it along between the lines to
+be joined. A little practice will perfect one in doing this
+quickly. The beginner should make a number of these ovals so that
+he can get them perfect. The graceful appearance of this joint
+depends upon the neatness with which it is prepared. I do not want
+the beginner to think that a graceful shape of the joint is all
+that is to be desired or that it is the most essential point.
+Further along, perhaps, more vital requirements will be brought out
+and the beginner will be made acquainted with them.
+
+The ends of the 6-inch piece are now squared with the rasp. The
+edges of one end are rasped off as shown in the sketch, making a
+wedged fit into the run. This end is then cleaned with the shave
+hook. Paper is then pasted on to cover the pipe except the 1-1/8
+inches cleaned on the end. This cleaned part forms part of the
+joint, therefore no paste or paper must be put on it. The pipe is
+now fitted into the run and the collar beaten against it with the
+bending irons. The run is now cleaned with the shave hook for about
+3 inches each side of the center. The paper oval cut out is now
+pasted on the joint. The paste and paper are then allowed to dry
+before they are handled further.
+
+SUPPORTING.--The supporting of this joint, which is placed with the
+branch on an angle of 45 deg. pointing away from the wiper, is not a
+difficult matter. The beginner can use his own ingenuity for
+supporting the pipe if conditions do not warrant the using of the
+methods previously described.
+
+WIPING.--The solder should now be tested for heat. If the solder is
+at the proper heat, the ladle is taken and heated. Take a ladle
+full of solder and drop the solder on the joint. The lead of which
+this branch joint is made is considerably lighter than any lead
+that has been used before. Therefore, the beginner must drop the
+solder on carefully, making sure that the solder is not dropped on
+the same spot, for a hole can be burned through the pipe very
+quickly. The ladle must be kept moving, then the solder will not
+burn through the pipe. The heat is got up on the pipe by dropping
+the solder on the run and on the branch, catching the surplus
+solder on the catch cloth and heating the under side of the joint
+with it. To form the joint, distribute the solder and then wipe it
+into shape. Notice that I said wipe it into shape. A beginner is
+very apt to try to push or poke it into shape. This must not be
+done as it has a tendency to make the joint lumpy. All the edges
+are wiped off clean first, then the body of the joint is shaped and
+wiped. When forming the joint, be sure that the bottom and the top
+are symmetrical. Do not have one-half larger than the other. The
+last wiping strokes are made swiftly and rapidly. If the wiper will
+watch his movements and note the results and then try to improve
+them, keeping in mind that a symmetrical joint is wanted with thin
+edges, perfection in wiping will come much more quickly than if no
+attention is paid to the strokes made when wiping.
+
+
+BRANCH JOINT WIPED FLAT
+
+The materials required for this joint do not differ from the
+preceding one. If the pipe used for the branch joint at a 45 deg. angle
+is in good shape, it can be used for this joint by simply changing
+positions. The tools needed will not be any different. The ladle
+and the wiping cloths, of course will be required. A pair of pliers
+can be used to advantage in picking up the hot solder. The wiping
+cloths should receive a little more oil to keep them soft and
+pliable. Oil the edges of the cloths well.
+
+SUPPORTING.--To support this pipe for wiping have each end rest on
+a brick. Each end can be weighted to hold it in place.
+
+WIPING.--To wipe this joint, proceed to drop the solder on the
+joint. When the pipe is thoroughly heated and the solder works
+freely around the pipe the joint can be wiped. The procedure is
+like the preceding one. The wiper is cautioned to move the ladle
+constantly while dropping the solder.
+
+
+BRANCH HELD VERTICAL
+
+After a number of the previous joints have been wiped successfully,
+the pipe is placed in such a position that the branch will be
+vertical. The supporting of the pipe to hold the joint in this
+position for wiping is very easily done after handling the 5/8-in.
+joint in this position. The following points may be found helpful:
+The solder is splashed on the joint from the ladle. The top edge of
+the joint is kept hot by keeping the solder covering it. When the
+proper heat has been got up, the top edge is wiped first, then the
+bottom edges both front and back. The body of the joint is wiped
+last and a cross wipe finishes the joint. I have found that the
+beginner in many cases, when this joint is reached, tries to wipe
+it with many short strokes. The habit is a bad one and should be
+stopped as soon as noticed. Learn to wipe the top edge with only
+two strokes, the bottom edge with not more than four, the body of
+the joint with four, and one cross wipe to finish. This joint
+should be finished as symmetrically as possible and wiped while the
+solder is hot.
+
+
+RUN HELD VERTICALLY
+
+When the vertical branch has been conquered and the wiper can get a
+good joint every time it is tried, the pipe can be changed to a
+different position. The run is placed in a vertical position and
+the branch horizontally to the left. The catch pan is put under the
+end of the pipe. Follow the same directions for supporting this
+joint as were given under the 5/8-in. branch placed in a similar
+position. The wiping of this joint is so nearly like the preceding
+branch joints that I will not give any instructions at all. This
+joint is finished at the same point that the other branch joints
+are finished. However, there are one or two matters that should be
+kept in mind. Some of the small matters are often overlooked and
+should be called to mind occasionally. Do not allow the solder to
+accumulate in the pan. If the cloths are burned, they should be
+turned, or new ones made. If the paper has started to come off from
+the pipe, new paper should be put on at once. Test the solder
+occasionally and see that it does not get too hot. Upon completion
+of the joint in this position, the branch joint in its various
+positions is finished. The beginner has found out while wiping
+these various joints a number of points that were not mentioned in
+my description. No amount of detailed description will make a good
+joint wiper. Patience and practice are as important in joint wiping
+as good preparation and good solder.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, materials--18 inches of 1-1/2-in. lead pipe.
+
+     _Second_, use of tools.
+
+     _Third_, keep bending irons away from the wall of the pipe.
+
+     _Fourth_, make a good collar around the opening.
+
+     _Fifth_, make a tight fit with branch and run.
+
+     _Sixth_, hot solder will quickly burn through the lead.
+
+     _Seventh_, use branch cloth for wiping.
+
+     _Eighth_, cut out paper for joint even and symmetrical.
+
+
+BIB
+
+This joint is another brass to lead, and is the last single joint
+to be wiped in this course of joint wiping.
+
+MATERIALS NEEDED.--The materials required for this joint are as
+follows: 10 inches of 5/8-inch extra strong lead pipe; one 1/2-inch
+brass sink bib for lead pipe; one pot of solder, paste and paper,
+1/2 and 1/2 solder, catch pan, and supports.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.]
+
+TOOLS REQUIRED.--The tools required for this job are the saw, rasp,
+tap borer, bending irons, file, ladle, wiping cloths, shave hook,
+knife and rule, soldering iron.
+
+PREPARATION.--To prepare the lead pipe after cutting from the coil
+and squaring the ends with the rasp is very similar to the 5/8-inch
+branch joint. The center of the pipe is marked and a hole is made
+in it with the tap borer large enough to admit the bending irons.
+The hole is enlarged with the irons. A good substantial collar is
+made around the hole to hold the bib in place. One and one-eighth
+inches are marked off on each side of the branch and an easy curve
+connects the two. The paper is then cut out and pasted on the pipe
+after it has been scraped with the shave hook.
+
+The end of the brass bib is filed bright and tinned with the
+soldering iron and 1/2 and 1/2 solder. Before the tinning is done,
+paper is put on the brass, leaving only 1-1/8 inches exposed. The
+tinning must be thoroughly done, or it will come off and have to be
+re-tinned.
+
+SUPPORTING.--The bib is fitted into the lead opening and the collar
+is forced against the bib to hold it in place and prevent any
+solder from leaking through into the bore of the pipe. The bib
+must not extend too far into the lead pipe or it will obstruct the
+flow of water. The lead pipe is laid on two bricks the same as the
+round joint. The bib is laid on an angle of 45 deg. pointing away from
+the wiper. Some bricks can be piled up to the right height to hold
+the bib in place and a solder strap can be made to hold it steady.
+The lead pipe can be held steady by weighting each end. The catch
+pan is now placed under the joint and everything is ready for
+wiping.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Bib.]
+
+WIPING.--When the solder is hot, getting the heat on the pipe is
+started. Solder should be dropped oftener on the brass bib than on
+the lead pipe. It takes more heat to heat the brass thoroughly than
+it does the lead. If this is followed out, little difficulty will
+be had in getting up the heat and in wiping. Use the branch cloth
+for wiping and make sure that all edges are perfectly cleaned
+before making the final strokes. As this is the only position that
+the joint will be wiped in, practice should be continued until
+perfect joints can be obtained.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, materials needed.
+
+     _Second_, tools needed.
+
+     _Third_, use tap borer.
+
+     _Fourth_, enlarge hole with bending irons.
+
+     _Fifth_, make substantial collar around the opening.
+
+     _Sixth_, paper the lead.
+
+     _Seventh_, file the bib, then paper.
+
+     _Eighth_, tin the bib.
+
+     _Ninth_, place in position and wipe.
+
+
+DRUM TRAP
+
+The making of the drum trap will bring out the skill of the
+beginner. The entire trap is made of lead pipe. The lead will
+require a great deal of handling. Therefore, care must be exercised
+in all operations to turn the trap out in a workmanlike manner.
+
+MATERIALS NEEDED.--The materials needed to complete this job are:
+10 inches of 4-inch 8-pound lead pipe; 18 inches of 1-1/2-inch
+light lead pipe; paste and paper, support, solder, and catch pan.
+
+TOOLS NEEDED.--The tools required for this job are: saw, rasp,
+bending irons, shave hook, bending spring, tap borer, dresser,
+ladle, drift plug, and wiping cloths.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Drum trap.]
+
+PREPARING.--Take the 10-inch piece of lead pipe and hold it in one
+hand, in the other hand take a pine dresser. Strike the lead pipe
+with the dresser. The pipe is struck about 2 inches from the end
+and is beaten evenly all around. The pipe is then struck nearer the
+end until finally the bore of the pipe is almost closed. This
+closed end should be rounding and symmetrical. To get this shape
+the pipe must be continually moved and turned. One side must not be
+forced in more than the other. If there are any dents in the pipe
+or part of the pipe is forced in too much it may be driven out as
+follows: Take an old piece of 1/2-inch lead pipe and round one end
+of it with a hammer; this can be used by hitting the inside of the
+closed end of the drum and forcing out the dents. The rounded end
+of the trap is not quite closed and a hole about 3/4 inch is left.
+This opening is closed by shaping the edges of it with the knife,
+making them smooth and beveled. Then a piece of lead is cut out of
+some scrap, the same shape as the hole and fitted into it. The top
+surface of this fitted piece should be a little lower than the
+surface of the pipe. Strike a circle, using the compasses, the
+center of the circle being the center of the inserted piece of
+lead. The lead inside of this circle is shaved clean with the shave
+hook, including the inserted piece. Paper is then pasted outside of
+the circle and should cover entirely the rest of the pipe. The
+inserted piece is wiped on the pipe as follows:
+
+WIPING END.--Stand the 4-in. pipe in a pan with the rounded end of
+the pipe up. Be sure that the inserted piece is fitted securely.
+The solder is now dropped on the paper and shaved portion of the
+pipe. Exercise considerable care not to burn a hole in the pipe. As
+the hot solder runs off, catch some of it and draw it back on the
+joint. When the solder can be manipulated freely and the pipe is
+hot, the joint can be wiped. The cloth is drawn across the joint,
+cleaning all the edges with one stroke. The joint should be shaped
+to complete the rounding surface of the pipe. The joint is
+comparatively easy and will not occupy much time. As soon as it is
+wiped, cover the solder with paper. This will preserve the
+freshness of the joint until all wiping is completed.
+
+
+PREPARING INLET PIPE
+
+After the above joint is completed, the 1-1/2-in. branch inlet pipe
+is prepared and wiped in place. The center of this branch is
+marked on the 4-inch pipe and a hole is tapped in the pipe, using
+the tap borer. A hole large enough to admit the bending irons is
+made. The hole is enlarged with the bending irons, bending the lead
+first _up_, then _back_. A piece of 1/2-inch iron pipe can be used
+as a tool to finish the opening. The iron pipe is larger in
+diameter than the bending irons and leaves a more finished surface.
+The opening is made of sufficient size to admit the rasped end of
+the 1-1/2-inch pipe. When using the irons to enlarge the opening in
+the pipe, be sure not to bruise any part of the trap. The
+1-1/2-inch pipe is now taken. The ends of this pipe are squared
+with the rasp. The drift plug is then driven through the pipe to
+take out any bruises or flattened places. The edge of one end is
+rasped off to fit the opening made in the 4-inch pipe. The beginner
+must strive to make a perfect fit. The accuracy with which these
+preparations are made is what helps in a large degree to bring
+about a successful job. The next operation is to paper the parts
+not to be wiped. The sizes of the joint should be followed as shown
+on the sketch. The pipe is first shaved with the shave hook, after
+which the paper is pasted on. No paste is allowed to get on the
+joint proper. The beginner should by this time have formed the
+habit of being neat with his work. Therefore the getting of paste
+on the joint surface shows that he is not as neat or as far
+advanced as he should be.
+
+SUPPORTING.--The drum is laid lengthwise on the bench and blocks
+are put on each side to keep it from rolling, the branch uppermost.
+The 1-1/2-inch pipe is held in position the same way as the
+vertical branch was held. The catch pan is put under the drum to
+catch the surplus solder.
+
+WIPING.--Splash the solder on the branch pipe, also on the drum.
+The burning through of the drum is an easy matter. Therefore do not
+keep dropping the solder on one place, but keep the ladle moving
+continually. With the catch cloth draw the solder up on the branch
+covering the top edge of the prepared surface. Splashing the solder
+on this top edge melts the solder already on and allows it to run
+down on the 4-inch pipe where it is caught with the cloth and again
+brought up on the top edge of the branch. When the solder works
+freely all around the joint, the top edge is wiped clean and even.
+Then any surplus solder is wiped off. The bottom edge is next wiped
+clean, after which the body of the joint is wiped into shape,
+together with both edges. The edges are wiped very thin so that
+when the paper is removed the outline of the joint stands out very
+distinctly. A thick edge on a joint gives an unworkmanlike
+appearance to the work. The joint is finished with a cross wipe.
+
+The other joints are prepared and wiped the same as the one just
+completed. The 1-1/2-inch branch connection taken out of the bottom
+of the trap is bent. As this is the first time it has been
+necessary to bend lead pipe in these jobs, I will cover this
+operation in detail. The pipe is first straightened and the drift
+plug driven through it. The pipe is marked where the bend is to be
+made. The bending spring, size 1-1/2 inches, is put into the pipe,
+the center of the spring coming about where the bend is to be made.
+The pipe is then heated where it was marked to be bent. The proper
+heat for this pipe is just so that the hand cannot stand being laid
+against it. The pipe is held in the hands and on the end nearest
+the heat is hit against the floor at an angle. The pipe, with the
+first blow, will start to bend. With a few more strokes the desired
+bend will be obtained. The bending spring can now be pulled out.
+Put a little water in the pipe, then put one end of the spring in
+the vise, twist the pipe, and the spring will come out when the
+pipe is pulled away from it. The bending spring holds the pipe
+cylindrical while it is being bent. Without the spring, the pipe
+would be badly crushed at the bend and rendered almost unfit for
+service. Another good way to bend pipe is to plug one end and fill
+the pipe full of sand, then plug the open end. The pipe is then
+heated where the bend is to be made. The pipe can then be bent over
+the knee. When all the joints are wiped, the paper should be taken
+off and the lead cleaned with sand and water. The trap is now
+complete except the brass clean-out to be soldered on the top. The
+inside of the trap should not have any rough edges or drops of
+solder in it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Drum trap.]
+
+There are two other drum traps to be made. The materials needed are
+the same as for the above trap except for 18 inches more of
+1-1/2-inch lead pipe. The support, preparation, and wiping are the
+same. The beginner by this time should feel very well acquainted
+with lead and solder. Therefore, the details of these two drum
+traps can be left for the beginner to work out for himself. The
+sketches are very distinct and readable and will be of considerable
+assistance. The beginner should make these traps.
+
+POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED.--
+
+     _First_, use 4-inch lead pipe, 8 pounds to the foot.
+
+     _Second_, dresser and spring are new tools. Study their use.
+
+     _Third_, gradually work the trap into shape with the dresser.
+
+     _Fourth_, plug the hole with a piece of lead pipe.
+
+     _Fifth_, prepare and wipe the plugged hole first.
+
+     _Sixth_, prepare and wipe the 1-1/2-inch branches.
+
+     _Seventh_, special care should be taken to keep the work neat.
+
+     _Eighth_, two ways of using the bending spring.
+
+     _Ninth_, wipe thin edges on joints.
+
+     _Tenth_, do not handle finished work.
+
+     _Eleventh_, clean and finish the work neatly.
+
+
+THE PRACTICAL USE OF THE PRECEDING EXERCISES
+
+In the foregoing exercises, I have confined myself to the actual
+work of making the various joints. Now I will explain the practical
+use of them.
+
+SOLDERING IRON.--The soldering iron is a tool that is used in work
+that requires heat to fuse solder and the parts to be united. Every
+plumber should have at least two irons in his kit.
+
+THE CUP JOINT.--While the cup joint is not employed to any great
+extent in modern plumbing, yet it has its use in the installation
+of some fixtures. Lavatories, bath and toilets are sometimes
+connected with a short piece of lead on the supply. The tail pieces
+on the faucets can be soldered on the lead by means of a cup joint.
+A cup joint well made with a deep cup and the solder well fused is
+as strong as a wiped joint in a place of this kind. The evil of the
+cup joint is that some mechanics will only fuse the surface and
+leave the deep cup only filled with solder and not fused. This
+makes a tight joint, but extremely weak. On tin-lined pipe and
+block-tin pipe the cup joint is commonly used. When making a cup
+joint on block-tin pipe the soldering iron must not touch the pipe
+and fine solder should be used. When tin-lined pipe is being
+soldered, the tin lining must not be melted.
+
+OVERCAST JOINT.--The overcast joint is not commonly used, but when
+there is considerable lead work to do the plumber finds it very
+handy in places where a wiped joint would take up too much room. We
+use it for an exercise for the reason that it teaches the beginner
+very rapidly the use and control of the soldering iron.
+
+FLAT SEAMS.--These seams are used in the construction of roof
+flashers, tanks (Sec. 33, Chapter XVIII) and lead safe wastes (Sec.
+27, plumbing code). A hatchet iron is sometimes used on these
+seams.
+
+WIPING CLOTHS.--The wiping cloths made of whalebone ticking make
+good, serviceable, and lasting cloths. Oil only should be used to
+break the cloth in. Moleskin cloths are very good, but they are
+very hard to get and cost considerably more. A plumber should
+always keep a good supply of ticking cloths on hand. The cloths are
+used only for wiping.
+
+1/2-INCH ROUND JOINT.--This joint is the one most often required in
+actual practice. It serves to connect two pieces of lead pipe of
+the same or different diameters. It is also used to connect lead
+and other materials of which pipe is made. The workman, when he
+gets out on the job, finds that his work cannot be supported for
+wiping in such an easy and convenient position as illustrated in
+the exercises. It will be necessary to wipe the joint at almost
+every conceivable angle and position. The workman must employ his
+ingenuity to overcome any difficulties that may arise. Any draught
+of air should be avoided as it will make the solder cool quickly.
+
+2-INCH BRASS FERRULE.--When it is found necessary to connect
+cast-iron and lead pipe, it is done by means of a brass ferrule
+wiped on the lead pipe. This joint is a very common joint and is
+found on sink, tray, and bath connections, as well as in many other
+connections that have lead and cast-iron pipes for wastes.
+
+4-INCH BRASS FERRULE.--The 4-inch brass ferrule wiped on lead pipe
+is found under almost every closet. There is generally a piece of
+lead connecting the toilet with the soil pipe. Therefore, a brass
+ferrule is wiped on the lead and the ferrule connected with the
+soil pipe. This joint is also found on rain leader connections near
+the roof, connecting the gutter with the rain leader stack.
+
+STOP COCK.--When a shut-off is required in a line of lead water
+pipe, these joints are used. Where it is necessary to joint lead
+and brass, this joint is required. The art of heat control over the
+lead and the brass is the essential point in these joints.
+
+BRANCH JOINTS 5/8 AND 1/2 INCHES.--Where it is found necessary to
+take a branch from a water pipe, this joint is used at the
+connection. In practice, this joint may have to be wiped in
+positions that are rather difficult to reach, so the wiping of
+joints in the positions called for in the exercises is exceedingly
+good practice.
+
+BRANCH JOINTS 1-1/2 INCHES.--These joints are very common and are
+found on waste and vent pipes. They are also found on urinal
+flush-pipe connections where the branch often is brass and the run
+lead.
+
+BIB.--When lead supplies are run directly to the bib on a sink,
+this joint is necessary. It becomes necessary to wipe in a piece of
+brass for a brass-pipe connection from a lead pipe, in which case
+this joint is called for.
+
+THE DRUM TRAP.--The drum trap is used under sinks, baths, showers,
+and trays.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+LAYING TERRA-COTTA AND MAKING CONNECTIONS TO PUBLIC SEWERS. WATER
+CONNECTIONS TO MAINS IN STREETS
+
+
+TERRA-COTTA PIPE
+
+One of the first pieces of work which a plumber is called upon to
+do, when building operations commence, is to run in the terra-cotta
+sewer from the street sewer into the foundation wall.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Connection of house sewer to main sewer.]
+
+When the street sewer is laid, Y-branches are left every few feet.
+A record of the branches and their distance from the manhole is
+kept generally in the Department of Sewers or Public Works.
+Therefore, the exact measurement of any branch can be obtained and
+the branch found by digging down to the depth of the sewer. A
+branch should be chosen so that the pipe can be laid with a pitch,
+the same way as the main sewer pitches. This can be done by getting
+the measurements of two of these branches and choosing the one that
+will serve best. When there is a brick sewer in the street and no
+branches left out, the sewer must be tapped wherever the house
+sewer requires it (see Fig. 35).
+
+DIGGING TRENCHES.--After the measurements and location of the house
+sewer and sewer branches are properly located, the digging of the
+trench is started. The methods employed to dig the trench vary
+according to the nature of the ground, that is, whether it is sand,
+rock, or wet ground. A line should be struck from sewer to
+foundation wall to insure a straight trench.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Laying of plank for trench dug in sandy
+ground.]
+
+SANDY GROUND.--If the ground is sandy, the sides of the trench will
+have to be sheathed or planked and the planks braced so as to
+prevent the bank caving in. As the trench is dug deeper, the planks
+are driven down. When the trench is very deep, a second row of
+planking is necessary. The planks must be kept well down to the
+bottom of the trench and close together, otherwise the sand will
+run in. It is well to test the planking as progress is made by
+tamping the sand on the bank side of the planks.
+
+GRAVEL.--Where the ground is mostly gravel and well packed, the
+above method of planking is unnecessary. The bank should have a few
+stringers and braces to support it. When only a few planks are used
+the term "corduroy the bank" is used (see Fig. 37).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Arrangement of plank for gravel.]
+
+ROCK.--Where rock is encountered, blasting is resorted to. The
+plumber should not attempt to handle a job requiring the use of
+powder. It is dangerous in the hands of a person not used to
+handling it and the work should be sublet.
+
+A sketch of the two methods above for planking trenches is given
+and a little study will make them clear.
+
+
+LAYING OF PIPE
+
+The pipe should be laid on the bottom of the trench to a pitch of
+at least 1/4 inch per foot fall. In laying, the start should be
+made at the street sewer with hubs of pipe toward the building. The
+trench should be dug within a few inches of the bottom of the
+pipe, then as the pipe is laid the exact depth is dug out, the
+surplus dirt being thrown on the pipe already laid. The body length
+of pipe should be on solid foundation. A space dug out for each hub
+as shown in Fig. 38 allows for this, also allows for the proper
+cementing of joints. To get the proper pitch of pipe, take for
+example 1/4 inch per foot, a level 2 feet long with a piece of wood
+or metal on one end 1/2 inch thick will answer. The end with the
+1/2-inch piece on should be on the lower hub and the other end
+resting on the hub of the pipe about to be put in place. When the
+bubble shows level, then the pipe has the 1/4-inch fall per foot.
+If a tile trap is used, it should be laid level, otherwise the seal
+will be weakened or entirely broken.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Laying terra-cotta pipe.]
+
+CUTTING.--The cutting of tile is not difficult, but must be done
+carefully or the pipe will crack or a piece will be broken out,
+thus making the pipe worthless. To cut tile or terra-cotta pipe,
+stand the pipe on end with the hub down, fill the pipe with sand to
+the point of cutting. With a sharp chisel and hammer cut around the
+pipe two or three times and the pipe will crack around practically
+straight.
+
+CEMENTING.--If the pipe is free from cracks, the only possible way
+roots can get into the inside of terra-cotta pipe is through the
+cement joint. There are two ways of making these joints. Both ways
+are explained below and are used today on terra-cotta work.
+
+     _First._--The bottom of the hub of pipe in place is filled with
+     cement and the straight end of the next piece of pipe is laid in
+     place, then more cement is placed into the hub until the space
+     between the hub and the pipe is filled. In a trench, a trowel is
+     rather unhandy to work with, while the hands can be used to better
+     advantage. The cement can be forced into place with the hands and
+     then surfaced with a trowel. The rest of the operation is to swab
+     out the inside joint to remove any cement that perchance was forced
+     through the joint (see Fig. 39). The cement used should be 1/2
+     cement and 1/2 clean sharp sand.
+
+     _Second._--Half of the space between the hub and the pipe is first
+     packed with oakum and then the other half filled with cement of the
+     same proportions as that used above.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Showing use of the swab.]
+
+
+LAYING PIPE IN TUNNELS
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Pushing pipe through tunnel.]
+
+If the pipe must be run through a tunnel and there are perhaps
+three or four joints that cannot be reached, they should be put
+into place as follows: The pipe should be laid in the trench from
+the sewer in the street as far as the tunnel, then start at the
+other end of the tunnel. Lay the first piece of pipe on a board,
+lengthwise with the board, nail two cleats in the shape of a >
+(Fig. 40) for the pipe to rest in; push this pipe and board into
+the tunnel and then cement into its hub a second piece; push the
+two pieces in 2 feet, cement a third length into the second piece
+and push the three pieces along 2 feet. A workman can be on the
+sewer side of the tunnel and receive the end of the pipe as it is
+pushed through the tunnel, and steer the pipe into the hub. The
+joints in the tunnel will not be as secure as those outside. This
+explains how pipe is run through a tunnel.
+
+CONNECTING.--The proper method of connecting the house sewer with
+the street sewer is shown in Fig. 35. The connection should be made
+above the spring of the arch. The pipe should extend well into the
+sewer so the sewage will discharge into water and not drop on
+sides.
+
+INSERTING.--To insert a tee in a line of pipe already laid, pursue
+the following method (see Fig. 41): Cut or break out one joint,
+preserve the bottom of the hub of pipe that is in. Cut away the top
+of the hub on the pipe to be inserted, then place the pipe in
+position and turn around until the part of the hub on the piece
+inserted is on the bottom. The bottom part of the pipes now will
+have a hub to receive the cement. The top part will have to be
+cemented carefully, as it is within easy access. This can be done
+without difficulty.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Inserting length of pipe.]
+
+While laying the pipe a stopper is used to prevent the sewer gases
+and foul odors from escaping. This stopper sometimes is of tile,
+sometimes a plug of paper or burlap. This stopper is sometimes
+cemented in by inexperienced men and the trouble created can only
+be guessed at. If a stopper is used, the workman must see that it
+is taken out.
+
+REFILLING.--After the pipe is laid and cemented, it should be
+covered and allowed to stand 24 hours to give the cement time to
+harden. The dirt should then be thrown in and settled by means of a
+tamper or by flooding with water. The planks should not be taken
+out until the trench is well filled. To pull the plank, a chain or
+shoe and lever will have to be used. Where the tunnels are, dirt
+will have to be rammed in with a long rammer, care being taken not
+to disturb the pipe. If the refill is not well rammed and tamped,
+the trench will settle and cause a bad depression in the street
+surface.
+
+TERRA-COTTA PIPE.--Terra-cotta pipe should be straight, free from
+fire cracks, and salt-glazed. The inside of the hub and outside of
+the plain end should not be glazed. This allows the cement to take
+hold.
+
+     TABLE OF STANDARD TERRA-COTTA PIPE
+
+     ------+------------+-----------------+----------+--------------
+     Size  | Thickness, | Weight per ft., | Depth of | Annular space
+           |   inches   |     pounds      |  socket  |
+     ------+------------+-----------------+----------+--------------
+      3    |      1/2   |         7       |  1-1/2   |    1/4
+      4    |      1/2   |         9       |  1-5/8   |    3/8
+      5    |      5/8   |        12       |  1-3/4   |    3/8
+      6    |      5/8   |        15       |  1-7/8   |    3/8
+      8    |      3/4   |        23       |  2       |    3/8
+      9    |     13/16  |       23        |  2       |    3/8
+     10    |      7/8   |        35       |  2-1/8   |    3/8
+     12    |    1       |       45        |  2-1/4   |    1/2
+     15    |    1-1/8   |       60        |  2-1/2   |    1/2
+     18    |    1-1/4   |       85        |  2-3/4   |    1/2
+     20    |    1-3/8   |      100        |  3       |    1/2
+     ------+------------+-----------------+----------+--------------
+
+Terra-cotta pipe should not be permitted in filled-in ground.
+
+Roots of trees find their way into the pipe through cracks or
+cement joints. When the roots get inside of the pipe they grow
+until the pipe is stopped up. As the roots cannot be forced or
+wired out, the sewer must be relaid. The writer has seen a solid
+mass of roots 10 feet long taken out of a tile sewer.
+
+In case terra-cotta is laid in filled-in ground, there is only one
+way to insure the pipe from breaking. The pipe should be laid on
+planks. Then, if the ground settles, the pipe will not be broken.
+
+
+WATER CONNECTION AND SERVICE
+
+TAPPING MAIN.--The water service for a building is put in at the
+same time as the sewer is connected and run into the house. For a
+1-1/4-service pipe a 1/2-inch tap is furnished. The water company
+taps the main, at the expense of the plumber, and inserts a
+corporation cock.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Showing water main and sewer in same
+ditch.]
+
+DIGGING TRENCH.--The trench for the water main should be dug at
+least 4-1/2 feet deep or below frost level and the trench should be
+kept straight. When the sewer is put in at the same time, one side
+of the sewer trench can be cut out after it is filled up to the
+level of the water main. The water pipe can then be laid on this
+shelf at least 2 feet away from the original trench of sewer.
+Sometimes the surface of the ground must not be disturbed. In this
+case small holes are dug and the pipe is pushed through or driven
+through under that portion not dug. These places are often
+tunnelled (see Fig. 42).
+
+In digging in city streets, care should be taken not to destroy any
+of the numerous pipes encountered.
+
+
+LAYING PIPE
+
+The trench should be dug straight out from the house so the pipe
+can be laid and the main tapped straight out from the building. The
+water companies keep a record of these taps so that in case of
+trouble the street can be opened and the water shut off. In laying
+the water service, the pipe from the curb to the main should be
+laid first. This takes in all the pipe in the street. At the main
+there is a shut-off in the tap. Another stop with T or wheel handle
+must be placed just inside the curb line. This is called a curb
+cock (see Fig. 43). One trench either outside or inside of the curb
+should be at least 15 feet long so that a full length of pipe can
+be laid in the trench. It is generally impossible to open a trench
+the full length the pipe is to be run. A trench 10 feet long is
+dug, then 8 feet left, and another 10- or 8-foot trench is dug and
+the two are connected with a small tunnel and pipe pushed through.
+When the pipe has been put in place between the curb and main, the
+water is turned on and the pipe flushed out. The valve at the curb
+should now be shut off, and if there are any leaks they will show.
+The street part is now ready to fill in. At this point Fig. 43
+should be studied. Note the piece of lead attached to the pipe and
+corporation cock. This piece of lead should be extra heavy and
+always laid in place the shape of the letter S or goose neck. In
+case the street should settle, this piece of lead will allow for
+it. These "lead connections" or "goose necks" are made as follows:
+3 ft. of 5/8 lead pipe; 1-inch brass solder nipple (wiped on); one
+brass corporation cock coupling (wiped on).
+
+LAYING PIPE.--This lead connection can be screwed on the pipe after
+the pipe is laid, then bent and coupled on the main with the
+coupling.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Water main from street to foundation
+wall.]
+
+After the pipe has been tested as far as the curb, the trench in
+the street can be filled as described later. The pipe from the curb
+to the building can now be laid. If necessary to push the pipe
+through a tunnel, the end of the pipe should first be capped. Start
+by screwing a length in the curb cock. If the other end of the pipe
+comes in a tunnel an additional length must be put on before
+putting in place so that an end will come in the open trench. When
+the building is reached and before the stop cock is put on, the
+valve at the curb should be opened full and the pipe flushed out.
+The valve can then be put on and water turned on to test the pipe.
+
+SETTING CURB BOX.--A cast-iron box, adjustable length, with cover
+should extend from the curb cock to the surface. This makes it
+possible with a long rod to control the water service into the
+building. To set a curb box some flat stones should be laid around
+the curb cock and the box set on these stones. Then the space
+around the box and pipe should be closed in with brick or other
+covering to keep the sand from washing in on the curb cock. The box
+should be adjusted for height and then held in place by placing the
+curb key rod in place and holding the rod and box while the trench
+is filled. The refill should be tamped evenly on all sides of the
+box.
+
+REFILL.--In refilling the trench around the corporation cock and
+goose neck, the greatest care should be taken. The writer has seen
+cases when indifferent workmen have tossed heavy stones in the
+ditch and broken off the corporation cock or destroyed the goose
+neck. After the pipe is covered with 18 inches of refill and
+tunnels have been filled, water can be run in the trench and will
+settle the refill.
+
+There are a number of special points concerning water services and
+taps at mains that should not be overlooked. Take for example a
+water service pipe which must be run through ground where
+electricity is escaping under trolley tracks, around power houses,
+etc. The electricity will enter the pipe and wherever it leaves the
+pipe a hole is burned. The surface of the pipe in a short time will
+be full of small pith marks and will soon leak. A good way to add
+to the life of the pipe under these conditions is to make a star of
+copper and solder it on to the pipe in the street. Another piece of
+copper should be put on the pipe near the building. The electricity
+will leave the pipe by way of the points on the star. This method
+may not be a cure for electrolysis, but will add to the life of the
+pipe. Another method employed is to put the pipe in the center of a
+square box, then fill the box with hot pitch. When this is hardened
+the pipe will have a covering that will keep out any moisture and
+bar electricity to a marked degree.
+
+MATERIALS USED.--Galvanized steel pipe does not last under ground.
+
+Galvanized iron, heavy lead, and brass are used. Wooden pipes were
+once used and stood years of service. No service smaller than 1-1/4
+should be used.
+
+When the water service pipe passes through the foundation wall, the
+pipe should not be built in, but a small arch should be built over
+the pipe or a piece of XX cast-iron pipe can be used as a sleeve
+(Fig. 44).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Free space around pipe passing through
+wall.]
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+
+SEWER INSTALLATION
+
+     _First_, select good sound pipe and fittings.
+
+     _Second_, locate branch connection in street sewer.
+
+     _Third_, lay out run of house sewer.
+
+     _Fourth_, take out necessary permits from departments of sewer.
+
+     _Fifth_, dig trench in the street, then into the house.
+
+     _Sixth_, lay pipe and cement joints.
+
+     _Seventh_, refill trench, tamping every foot.
+
+     _Eighth_, cast-iron pipe for sewer is found under another heading.
+
+
+WATER SERVICE
+
+     _First_, take out necessary permits.
+
+     _Second_, list material and deliver to job.
+
+     _Third_, lay out and dig trench.
+
+     _Fourth_, have main tapped.
+
+     _Fifth_, lay pipe to curb and test.
+
+     _Sixth_, fill in street trench.
+
+     _Seventh_, lay pipe into building and test.
+
+     _Eighth_, set curb box.
+
+     _Ninth_, refill trench.
+
+     _Tenth_, thoroughly consider any special conditions.
+
+     _Street Sewer._--Large pipe in streets to receive all soil and
+     waste from buildings.
+
+     _House Sewer._--Conveys sewage from building to street sewer,
+     extends from foundation wall to sewer.
+
+     _Street Main._--Water pipe running parallel with the street,
+     belonging to the water company.
+
+     _Service Pipe._--Runs from the street main into the building.
+
+     _Corporation Cock._--Brass stop tapped into street main.
+
+     _Goose Neck._--Lead pipe which connects the street main and service
+     pipe.
+
+     _Trench._--Hole dug to receive pipe.
+
+     _Main Tapped._--Hole drilled through wall of main and a thread made
+     on it while pressure is on.
+
+     _Curb Cock._--Brass shut-off placed at curb.
+
+     _Solder Nipple._--Piece of brass pipe with thread on one end and
+     plain on the other end which connects lead and iron.
+
+     _Coupling._--Fitting which connects two pieces of pipe.
+
+     _Stop Cock._--Brass fitting for stopping flow of water.
+
+     _Curb Box._--Iron box extending from curb cock to surface.
+
+     _Curb Key._--A long key to fit in side of curb box to operate curb
+     cock.
+
+     _Swab._--Stick with ball of rags or paper on one end.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+INSTALLING OF FRENCH OR SUB-SOIL DRAINS
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Sub-soil drain.]
+
+When a building is erected on a site that is wet or springy, some
+means of carrying off the surplus water in the ground must be
+provided for, or the basement of the building will be flooded with
+water. For the thorough understanding of the methods employed in
+laying a drain of this kind, I will go over it carefully and the
+beginner can read it and then study it, and understand just how it
+is done. A site may appear to be dry on the surface of the ground
+and yet be very wet under the surface. If no information can be had
+regarding the site, it is always well to drain the site if it is on
+a slope or near a body of water and on the water shed of a river or
+lake. If a building is a large one and the foundation goes down
+very deep, the site should always be drained. The drain is laid
+under the basement floor and around the outside of the foundation
+wall on a level with or lower than the basement floor. The value of
+draining a building site when the building is first started is very
+often overlooked. The cost of the drain will be saved in a few
+years as the basement will be free from all excessive dampness. The
+expense of installing a sub-soil after the building is up and in
+use is great as well as inconvenient. The drain is called "sub-soil
+drain" on account of its location under the ground and on account
+of its duty of taking off all surplus water that is underground.
+With the surface water taken off by the surface drains and the
+sub-soil drained by the sub-soil drains, a wet building site can be
+made practically dry (see Fig. 45).
+
+MATERIALS USED IN SUB-SOIL CONSTRUCTION.--The object of the drain
+is to collect water and carry it away from the building by means of
+pipes. Terra-cotta pipes, with or without hubs, are used.
+Perforated tile pipe is sometimes used. This pipe is unglazed
+terra-cotta pipe with 1-inch holes in the sides about 3 or 4 inches
+from the center. These holes allow the surplus water to enter the
+bore of the pipe and thus be carried off beyond the building site.
+
+When the sub-soil of a small building needs draining, the trenches
+made for the house drain and its branches are used as a drain in
+the following manner: The trenches are dug deeper than is required
+for the house drain. The trenches are then filled to the correct
+level with broken stones. There is space between these stones for
+the water to find passage to a point away from the building. When
+this method is employed, some provision must be made to prevent the
+house drain from settling. When locating the drain, we must
+consider approximately the amount of water that is likely to be in
+the soil and required to be carried off. If there is considerable
+water, the pipes should extend all around the outside of the
+building foundation wall, also a main pipe running under the cellar
+bottom with six branches, three branches on each side.
+
+If there is not a great deal of surplus water in the soil, the
+drain around the outside of the foundation wall should be put in
+and one drain line running through the basement will be sufficient.
+
+LAYING THE PIPE.--The drain pipe should be handled with care, for
+it is easily broken. The trench should be laid out and dug, then
+the pipe can be laid in it with a grade toward the outlet or
+discharge. If pipes with a hub on one end are used, the hub should
+not be cemented. A little oakum is packed in the hub to steady the
+pipe and keep sand out, the bottom of joint is cemented, a piece of
+tar paper can be laid over the top of the joint to keep the sand
+out. With joints made this way, the water can find its way to the
+bore of the pipe and yet the sand will be kept out of the pipe. As
+soon as the water gets into the bore of the pipe it has a clear
+passageway to some discharge point away from the building. If tile
+pipes without any hubs are used, some covering should be put around
+the joint to keep out the sand and still allow the water to find
+its way into the pipes.
+
+DISCHARGE OF SUB-SOIL DRAIN.--The water that accumulates in a
+sub-soil drain must be carried off to some point away from the
+building. As the pipes are generally under the cellar bottom and
+under the house drain, it is very evident that this drain cannot
+discharge into the house drain sewer, directly. If the building
+site is on a hill, the drain can be carried out and discharged on
+the surface at a point that is somewhat lower than the level of the
+pipe under the building. Where this cannot be done, it will be
+necessary to have the different lines of pipes discharge into a
+pit. The water is accumulated in this pit until it is filled, then
+it will automatically empty itself as later explained.
+
+PIT CONSTRUCTION.--The pit for the sub-soil water is constructed of
+cement. A pit 2 feet square or 2 feet in diameter and 3 feet deep
+will answer all requirements. A pit of this depth will allow a
+pitch for all lines of pipe, and is large enough for ordinary
+installations. The pit is built up to the surface of the cemented
+floor of the basement and covered with a removable iron cover.
+
+CELLAR DRAINER OR PUMP.--A cellar drainer is employed to empty the
+above-mentioned pit. The cellar drainer works automatically. When
+the pit is filled with water, the drainer operates and empties the
+pit and discharges the water into a sink or open sewer connection.
+When the pit is emptied, the drainer shuts off. The cellar drainer
+is operated by water pressure. When the valve is opened, a small
+jet of water is discharged into a larger pipe. The velocity of this
+small jet of water creates a suction and carries along with it some
+of the water in the pit. This suction continues until the tank is
+empty. There should always be a strainer on the suction pipe, also
+on the supply pipe, to prevent any particles of dirt getting into
+the valve. The pipes leading to and from the drainer should empty
+into an open sink where it can be seen. There is a possibility of
+the drainer valve leaking and then the water pressure will leak
+through it, causing a waste of water. If this leakage can be seen
+where it discharges, then the trouble can be rectified. The cellar
+drainer is connected directly with the water pressure and should
+have a valve close to the connection to control the supply.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+STORM AND SANITARY DRAINAGE WITH SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN VIEW
+
+
+The accompanying drawing of storm and sanitary drains should be
+studied in detail by the reader. The location of each trap and
+fitting should be studied carefully and the reason that it is put
+in that particular place should be thoroughly understood. Below,
+each plan has been taken and gone over in detail, bringing out the
+reasons for fittings and traps, also the arrangement of the piping.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.]
+
+The first thing to note in Fig. 46 is the number and kinds of
+fixtures to be drained. There is in the basement a set of
+three-part wash trays. This will require a 2-inch waste and a
+1-1/2-inch vent. There is in the drawing a 2-inch waste extending
+to the fixtures above. On the same line is a rain leader with a
+trap showing also a 4-inch floor drain. There are two 4-inch rain
+leaders on the opposite corners of the plan, in the rear of the
+building. There is a 4-inch soil stack for fixtures above and a
+4-inch soil stack in the basement on the same line for a basement
+toilet. On the front there are rain leaders in each corner. These
+will be connected outside of the house trap (this feature should be
+noted). The outlets that are to discharge into the house drain are
+as follows:
+
+     Two 4-inch rain leaders.
+
+     One 2-inch sink waste.
+
+     One 2-inch wash tray waste.
+
+     One 4-inch floor drain.
+
+     One 4-inch soil pipe.
+
+     One 4-inch closet connection.
+
+     Two 4-inch front rain leaders to discharge into house
+     sewer.
+
+If we were to install this job, we would first locate each pipe
+that enters the house drain. The lowest outlet would be
+particularly noted, in this case the 4-inch floor drain. From this
+drain we must make sure that at least 1/4 inch to the foot fall is
+secured. We must then locate the house sewer where it enters the
+foundation wall, then the work can be started. I will not attempt
+to list the material that is necessary for this work, at this time.
+With all the material at hand the house drain is started. All of
+this work is installed under the ground, therefore trenches must be
+dug for all the piping. The plumber must lay these trenches out and
+in doing so he must have in mind all connections and the fittings
+he can use so that the trenches can be dug at the right angle. The
+trenches must be dug allowing a pitch for the pipe. The height of
+the cellar is 8 feet below the joists. A stick is cut 8 feet long
+which can be used to get the trenches below the cement floor at the
+right depth. After the digging is completed, the house trap, which
+is a 6-inch running trap, is caulked into a length of 6-inch
+cast-iron pipe. This piece of pipe is pushed out toward the sewer
+bringing the trap near the foundation wall, on the inside. The
+fittings and traps and pipe are caulked in place as fast as
+possible. When possible, the joints are caulked outside of the
+trench in an upright position. There are a number of different ways
+to caulk this pipe together, and to make it clear to the beginner
+just how it is done the following exercise is suggested. This job
+brings in the caulking of pipes, traps, and fittings in various
+positions. Two or three can work on this job together. Fig. 47
+shows how the pipe and fittings are put together, which needs no
+further explanation. Therefore, we will go over in detail only the
+caulking of the joints in the various positions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.]
+
+MATERIAL NEEDED.--One length of 4-inch extra heavy cast-iron pipe,
+single hub; two lengths of 4-inch extra heavy cast-iron pipe,
+double hub; one running trap, one full Y, one 4-inch 1/4 bend; two
+4-inch clean-out screws with iron body; one 4-inch vent cap; one
+4-inch 1/8 bend; 30 pounds of block lead; 2 pounds of oakum.
+
+TOOLS REQUIRED.--Ladle, asbestos pourer, hammer, cold chisel,
+yarning iron, two caulking irons, furnace and pot.
+
+The beginner should start at the trap and caulk the joints with the
+trap held in place. The cold chisel should be sharp as it is used
+to cut the cast-iron pipe.
+
+To caulk the straight end of cast-iron pipe into the hub end and
+make a water-tight joint when the pipe is in a vertical position,
+the spigot end of the pipe is entered into the hub end of another
+piece. A wad of oakum is taken and forced into the hub with the
+yarning iron. This piece of oakum is forced to the bottom of the
+hub, then another piece is put in. The oakum is set and packed by
+using the yarning iron and hammer. The hub is half filled with
+oakum. The oakum is forced tight enough to make a water-tight
+joint. If the oakum used comes in a bale, pieces of it will have to
+be taken and rolled into long ropes about 18 inches long, the
+thickness of the rope corresponding with the space between the hub
+and the pipe. If rope oakum is used, the strands of the rope can be
+used. After the oakum is well packed into place and the pipe is
+lined up and made straight, molten lead is poured in and the hub
+filled. When the lead has cooled, set the lead with the caulking
+tool and hammer, making one blow on each side of the joint. This
+sets the lead evenly on every side. If there is any surplus lead,
+it can now be cut off, using the hammer and cold chisel. The
+caulking iron is again taken and the lead next to the pipe is
+tamped, striking the iron with the hammer at an angle to drive the
+lead against the pipe. After this has been done all around, the
+caulking iron is held in such a position that the lead around the
+hub will receive the force of the blow. After this has been done,
+the center of the lead is caulked and the joint should be tight.
+With a little practice, this can be done very rapidly. The lead
+should be poured in while it is very hot. The caulking must not be
+done by hitting heavy blows as there is a possibility of splitting
+the hub and thereby rendering the joint unfit for use.
+
+CAULKING JOINT IN HORIZONTAL POSITION.--It is necessary in a great
+many cases to caulk a joint in a position where the lead would run
+out of the joint unless provision were made to hold it in. To
+caulk a joint in a position of this kind, the pipe is lined up and
+secured, then the oakum is put in and forced to the bottom of the
+hub. Then a joint runner, which is an asbestos rope about 2 feet
+long and about 1 inch in diameter, is fitted around the pipe and
+forced against the hub where it is clamped by means of an attached
+clamp. The clamp is put on the top of the pipe and so arranged that
+a channel will be left in a V shape. This channel allows the hot
+lead to run between the asbestos runner and the hub. When the lead
+has had a chance to cool, the asbestos runner is taken off. Where
+the clamp was, there will be a triangular piece of lead sticking
+out beyond the face of the hub. This piece has to be cut off, but
+no attempt should be made to do so until it has been caulked in
+place and well set; also the rest of the lead should be set. Then
+the cold chisel can be used and this extra piece of lead taken off.
+The caulking of the lead in this position is the same as in the
+previous position and should be carried out closely. The beginner
+should understand that it is necessary to have not only the joints
+tight so that running water will not leak out of them, but that the
+joints must stand a water test. The testing of soil stacks is
+explained under another heading. The lines of cast-iron pipe depend
+to a considerable extent upon these joints to make the whole line
+rigid.
+
+CAULKING OF FITTINGS.--The caulking of fittings, while done the
+same as a straight pipe, is far more difficult. The improper making
+of these joints is the cause of many leaks. A long sweep fitting is
+caulked without a great deal of difficulty. If a short bend fitting
+is used, the matter of caulking is difficult. The fitting is so
+short that it is almost impossible to get a caulking iron into the
+throat. The mechanics will have to work at the throat from each
+side until this part has been sufficiently caulked. I call
+attention to this point, for I know it to be a failure in a large
+number of jobs when it comes to put the test on. In order to caulk
+the fittings, they must be put in their exact location and
+positions before the lead is poured in, for after the lead is once
+in the fitting cannot be moved. When there is a series of fittings
+on a line, their positions in relation to each other must be
+considered before the lead is poured.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.]
+
+Fig. 48 shows the same fixture and stack connections as Fig. 46.
+Two 4-inch lines run through the cellar, one a sanitary drain, the
+other a storm drain. Each 4-inch line has an intercepting trap. On
+the sewer side of these traps the two lines are brought together,
+beyond which point the two front rain leaders connect; each of the
+two front leaders is trapped separately.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.]
+
+Fig. 49 differs from the preceding one in only two points. First,
+the two front leaders are brought into the cellar and connected
+into the storm drain on the house side of the intercepting trap.
+Second, the storm and sanitary drains are connected on the outside
+of the building.
+
+Fig. 50 shows the same fixtures collected into a 4-inch house
+drain, and the rain leaders run entirely on the outside of the
+building. This plan is a good one as all the storm water is kept
+entirely outside the building. If the storm drains are kept 5 feet
+away from the cellar walls (see Plumbing Code) the pipes can be of
+tile. Another good feature of this plan is that all the pipes under
+the cellar are 4-inch.
+
+Fig. 51 is similar to Fig. 46, the difference being in the location
+of the floor drain and the connection of the two rear rain leaders,
+into the house drain.
+
+In Fig. 52 the drains shown take the waste and storm water from the
+apartment building, also a building set in the rear. The leader
+pipes in this case are trapped on the outside of the wall. The
+building in the rear you will note has a separate fresh air inlet
+and house trap, and the house sewer is continued through the front
+house and connected into the house drain of the front building, on
+the sewer side of the intercepting trap.
+
+These drawings should be studied carefully and the student should
+in each case list correctly all of the material required for the
+installation of these jobs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Cutting cast-iron pipe.]
+
+CUTTING CAST-IRON PIPE.--To cut cast-iron pipe, a sharp cold chisel
+and hammer are needed. The pipe is marked all around, just where it
+is to be cut. Then it is laid with the part of the pipe that is to
+be cut resting on a block of wood. A groove is cut with the hammer
+and chisel around the pipe. One person can turn the pipe while the
+other does the cutting. After a little experience one man can cut
+and roll the pipe alone. This groove is cut deeper and deeper until
+the pipe breaks apart. If standard pipe is being cut, a file is
+generally resorted to for cutting the groove. On account of the
+lightness of the pipe, a hammer and chisel will crack the pipe
+lengthwise. When cutting extra heavy cast-iron pipe, a good heavy
+blow must be struck to cause the chisel to cut into the iron. After
+a few cuts, the beginner will understand the weight of blow that
+must be struck to cut the pipe quickly.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SOIL AND WASTE PIPES AND VENTS. TESTS
+
+
+SOIL PIPES
+
+The term "soil pipes" means pipe that receives the discharge from
+water closets. The size of a soil pipe for ordinary dwellings
+should be 4 inches.
+
+SIZE OF SOIL PIPES
+
+     One   to three  closets--4-inch XX cast-iron.
+     Four  to eight  closets--5-inch XX cast-iron.
+     Eight to twelve closets--6-inch XX cast-iron.
+
+There are cases when 3-inch XX cast-iron pipe is used, but the
+practice is not recommended.
+
+The soil pipe should be well supported and held in place. The
+connection between soil pipe and closet should be of lead to allow
+for any expansion of settling that might take place.
+
+MATERIAL OF SOIL PIPES.--Soil pipe in common use today is made of
+light cast iron, tar-coated, extra heavy cast iron uncoated and
+coated, galvanized wrought-iron pipe, and steel pipe. The best kind
+to use depends upon the job and place where it is to be used.
+All kinds of bends and fittings can be had in any of the
+above-mentioned materials. In choosing the material of the pipe
+that is best to use, the following points should be carefully
+considered.
+
+     _First_, new work or overhauling.
+
+     _Second_, temporary or permanent job.
+
+     _Third_, construction of building.
+
+     _Fourth_, amount allowed for cost of materials on job.
+
+     _Fifth_, size of job, that is, the number of toilets.
+
+     _Sixth_, size of chases and pipe partitions.
+
+LOCATION OF SOIL PIPE.--The location of the soil pipe depends to a
+great extent upon the location of the toilets. The soil stack
+should be located on an inside partition. The horizontal pipe
+should not run over expensively decorated ceilings unless run
+inside of a trough made of copper or sheet lead. As far as
+possible, the pipes should be confined, to runs short, and the
+number of bends reduced.
+
+
+SOIL-PIPE FITTINGS
+
+Soil-pipe fittings can be had from stock almost to suit the
+conditions. I will enumerate a few. The names of these fittings
+should be familiar to the mechanic so that when ordering he can
+give the correct name. 1/16, 1/8, 1/6, 1/4 bend, sanitary tee,
+tapped tee, side outlet fitting, return bend, cross branches,
+double Y, double TY, traps. The uses of these cast-iron fittings
+perhaps are obvious, but a word about the use of each one will be
+of service.
+
+The 1/4 bend is used to change the direction of run of pipe 90 deg. A
+long-sweep 1/4 bend is used on work requiring the best practice.
+1/8, 1/16, and 1/6 bends are used to change the direction of pipe
+45 deg., 22-1/2 deg., and 16-2/3 deg. Two 1/8 bends should be used in
+preference to one 1/4 bend where there is sufficient room. Side
+outlet 1/4 bend is used for waste connection. They can be had with
+an outlet on either side of the heel. Their use is not recommended.
+
+Return bends are used on fresh-air inlets. Tees are used for vents
+only. Ys are used wherever possible. The use of a Y-branch together
+with an 1/8 bend for a 90 deg. connection with the main line is always
+preferable to a TY or, as they are commonly called, sanitary T. A
+tapped fitting gets its name because it is tapped for iron pipe
+thread. Tapped fittings are used for venting and should not be
+used for waste unless the tap enters the fitting at an angle of
+45 deg.
+
+These fittings and pipe are joined by first caulking with oakum and
+pouring, with one continuous pour, the hub full of molten metal.
+When cool, the lead should be set and then caulked around the pipe
+and around the hub.
+
+The amount of lead and oakum required for various-sized joints is
+as follows:
+
+     Pipe size       2      3      4    5      6      8   10      12   15
+     Pounds of lead  1-1/2  2-1/4  3    3-3/4  4-1/2  6    7-1/2   9   11-1/4
+     Oakum (ounce)   4      6      8   10     12     16   20      24   30
+
+RUST JOINTS.--The plumber is called upon to run cast-iron pipe in
+places where lead and oakum will not be of service for the joints.
+In cases of this kind, a rust joint is made. This "rust" is made
+according to the following formula:
+
+      1 part flour of sulphur.
+      1 part sal-ammoniac.
+     98 parts iron borings (free from grease).
+
+This mixture is made the consistency of cement, using water to mix
+thoroughly and bring all parts into contact with each other. When
+it hardens, it becomes very hard and makes a tight joint which
+overcomes the objections to lead and oakum joints.
+
+
+WROUGHT-IRON AND STEEL PIPE
+
+This pipe comes in about 18-foot lengths and fittings of the
+following makes and shapes, and their use is fully explained. The
+lengths of pipe come with a thread on each end and a coupling
+screwed on one end. The lengths come in bundles up to 1-1/2-inches
+and in single lengths over that size. Screw pipe fittings, it will
+be noted, are called by a different name than cast-iron ones. The
+fittings in common use today are the 90 degree ell, 45, 22, and
+16-2/3. The Y and TY, tucker fittings, and inverted Ys are used in
+practically the same way as the cast-iron fittings. The 90 degree
+ell, 45, 22, and 16-2/3 are used to change the run of pipe that
+many degrees. All 90 degree fittings, ells, and Ts are tapped to
+give the pipe a pitch of 1/4 inch to the foot. It is better to use
+two 45 ells to make a 90 bend when it is possible.
+
+[Illustration: CAST-IRON SCREW FITTINGS
+FIG. 54.]
+
+INVERTED Y.--The inverted Y is used in venting to good advantage.
+The use of these fittings is illustrated in the sketches.
+
+WASTE PIPES.--Waste pipes are the pipes that run to or convey the
+discharge of waste matter to the house drain, from wash trays,
+baths, lavatories, sinks, and showers.
+
+The usual size of waste pipes is 2 inches. Waste pipes are made of
+the same material as soil pipe. Lead and brass pipe are also in
+common use. All exposed waste pipes in bath and toilet rooms are
+brass, nickel-plated. The waste pipes under kitchen sinks and wash
+trays are either lead or plain heavy brass. All waste pipes are run
+with a pitch towards the house trap and should be properly vented
+as explained under venting. The pipes should be easy of access,
+with clean-outs in convenient places. The waste pipes under a tile
+or cement floor should be covered with waterproof paper and a metal
+V-shaped shield over the entire length. If the waste pipes are over
+a decorated ceiling they should be in a copper-lined or lead-lined
+box. This box should have a tell-tale pipe running to the open
+cellar with the end of the tell-tale pipe left open. If waste pipes
+are to take the discharge from sinks in which chemicals are thrown,
+either chemical lead or terra-cotta pipe should be used. If
+terra-cotta is used, it should have at least 6 inches reinforced
+concrete around it and the joints of pipe made of keisilgar.
+
+SIZE OF WASTE PIPES
+
+     Urinals         2 inches
+     Kitchen sink    2 inches
+     Slop sink       3 inches
+     Receptacles     1-1/2 inches
+     Bath tubs       1-1/2 inches
+     Lavatories      1-1/2 or 1-1/4 inches
+     Wash trays      2 inches
+
+TELL-TALE PIPE.--The tell-tale pipe is a small pipe that extends
+from the trough, pan, or box that is under a line of pipe or
+fixtures to the open cellar. When water is seen running out of this
+pipe, it shows that a leak exists somewhere in the line of pipe
+that is in the box or trough. The use of this pipe saves the
+destruction of walls and ceilings.
+
+
+VENTS
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Circuit vent.]
+
+Vents are the most important pipes in the plumbing system. Modern
+plumbing successfully attempts to make living in crowded and
+thickly populated districts, as well as in isolated buildings, free
+from all unpleasant odors and annoyances. This could not be
+accomplished without the use of vents. Vents relieve all pressure
+in the system by furnishing an outlet for the air that is displaced
+by the waste discharged from the fixtures. Another of its functions
+is to supply air when syphonic action starts, thereby stopping the
+action that would break the seal of the trap under fixtures. The
+pipe extending from top fixture connection, up to and through the
+roof, is called the ventilation pipe. All vents that do not pass
+directly through the roof terminate in this ventilation pipe.
+
+To explain the use of vents, we might well start in the basement of
+a dwelling house. Suppose there is a set of wash trays in the
+laundry; the 2-inch trap of these trays should have a 1-1/4-inch
+vent pipe leading from the crown of the trap up along side of the
+stack. On the first floor a 1-1/4-inch pipe from the crown of the
+kitchen sink trap will lead into it. Here the pipe should be
+increased to 2 inches. On the second floor the 1-1/4-inch pipes
+leading from the lavatory and bath traps come into it. The vent
+stack now extends up into the attic and connects with the
+ventilation pipe. In a general way, the above is an example of
+venting. The old method of venting was very complicated and is
+almost beyond describing with the pen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Loop vent.]
+
+In common use today, there are several kinds of venting, namely:
+circuit and loop venting, crown venting, and continuous venting.
+The _circuit venting_, Fig. 55, is used in connection with the
+installation of closets. Take a row of toilets in which the waste
+connection of each closet discharges into a Y-branch, and there
+will be a series of Y-branches. One end of this series of branches
+discharges into the main stack while the other end continues and
+turns up at least to the height of the top of the closet and then
+enters the main vent stack. When this main vent runs up along side
+of the main stack and forces the vent pipe connected to the series
+of Y-branches to travel back, it is called a loop vent. This type
+of vent supplies air to the complete line of toilets and is very
+efficient.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Continuous vent.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.]
+
+CONTINUOUS VENTING, Figs. 57 and 58, applies more to fixtures other
+than toilets. A P-trap is used and enters a T in the stack. The
+lower part of the T acts as and connects with the waste pipe while
+the upper half is and connects with the vent pipe. A study of the
+figures will aid the reader to understand thoroughly the above
+explanations. In continuous venting the waste of the lowest fixture
+is discharged into the vent pipe and extended to the main waste
+stack where it is connected. This is done to allow any rust scales
+that occasionally drop down the vent pipe, and render it unfit to
+perform its duty, to be washed away into the sewer.
+
+CROWN VENTING, Fig. 59, is as its name implies, a vent that is
+taken from the crown of the trap, thence into the main vent.
+
+Each one of these methods of venting is used and considered good
+practice, provided it is properly installed and correctly connected
+with the use of proper fittings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Crown venting.]
+
+THINGS TO REMEMBER.--
+
+     _First_, venting is to prevent traps from syphoning.
+
+     _Second_, also to allow free passage of air.
+
+     _Third_, circuit vent--loop vent.
+
+     _Fourth_, continuous venting.
+
+     _Fifth_, crown venting.
+
+     _Sixth_, ventilation pipe extends from the top of fixture through
+     roof.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+HOUSE TRAPS, FRESH-AIR CONNECTIONS, DRUM TRAPS, AND NON-SYPHONING
+TRAPS
+
+
+The _house trap_ is a deep seal trap placed inside the foundation
+wall, and intersects the house drain and house sewer. The trap is
+placed at this point for a number of reasons: first, to keep sewer
+gases from entering the pipes in the house; second, this location
+is where the house drain ends. This trap should have two
+clean-outs, one on each side of the seal. The clean-outs should be
+of extra heavy cast-iron body with a heavy brass screw cap. The cap
+should have a square nut for a wrench to tighten or unscrew the
+cap. This cap should be brought up flush with the floor. When a
+house trap is being set, it is necessary to set it perfectly level,
+otherwise the seal of the trap is weakened and sewer gases can
+enter.
+
+Sometimes the trap is located on the house sewer just outside of
+the foundation wall. In this case, a pit should be built large
+enough for a workman to get down to it to clean it out when
+necessary.
+
+_A mason's trap_ was formerly used to a considerable extent, but is
+very poor practice to use today on modern work. This trap was built
+square of brick with a center partition. The brick soon became foul
+and the trap would be better termed a small cesspool than a trap.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT HOUSE TRAPS.--
+
+     _First_, should be a running trap.
+
+     _Second_, two clean-outs.
+
+     _Third_, deep seal, at least 2 inches.
+
+     _Fourth_, set level.
+
+     _Fifth_, set inside foundation wall.
+
+     _Sixth_, accessible at all times.
+
+     _Seventh_, same size as house drain.
+
+     _Eighth_, fresh air should connect with it.
+
+
+FRESH-AIR CONNECTIONS
+
+The term "fresh-air inlet" is, as its name implies, an inlet for
+fresh air. It is placed directly on the house side of the main
+trap. The connections made vary considerably. A few good
+connections in common use are explained below.
+
+When the trap is in place, one of the clean-outs can be used for
+the fresh air. If this is done, a Y-branch should be placed in the
+hub of the clean-out. The Y-branch should be used for the fresh air
+and the run should be used for a clean-out.
+
+A Y-fitting can be inserted directly back of the trap and the
+branch used for the fresh air. An inverted Y makes a good fitting
+to use directly back of the trap. These branches should be taken
+off the top of the pipe. The branch taken off for the fresh-air
+inlet should not have any waste discharge into it and should not be
+used for a drain pipe of any description.
+
+The fresh-air inlet should run as directly as possible into the
+outer air, at least 15 feet from any window. The pipes terminate in
+a number of different ways, some with a return bend, above the
+ground, some with a cowl cap, some with a strainer. When necessary
+to run pipe through the sidewalk, a box of brick is made with a
+heavy brass strainer fitted level with the sidewalk into which the
+pipe runs. If the pipe is run into the box on the side a little up
+from the bottom, the possibility of becoming stopped up or filled
+up is not great. The fresh-air inlet sometimes terminates above the
+roof of the building.
+
+Special care should be given this fresh-air inlet as it supplies
+fresh air to the entire system and thus keeps the pipes in a much
+better sanitary condition.
+
+Sometimes when the house drain is full of sewage, air is pushed out
+of the fresh-air inlet and disagreeable odors are evident. This is
+why it should be located as far as possible from any window.
+Special care should be taken on the part of the plumber not to
+locate the fresh-air inlet nearer than 15 feet to the fresh-air
+intake of the heating system.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Fresh-air inlet.]
+
+When the pipe passes through the foundation wall, the same care
+should be exercised as with other pipes. That is, if the pipe is 4
+inches, a sleeve 6 inches should be cut in the wall for the 4-inch
+pipe to pass through.
+
+POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT FRESH AIR.--
+
+     _First_, never should be smaller than 4 inches.
+
+     _Second_, one size smaller than trap.
+
+     _Third_, location, directly back of trap.
+
+     _Fourth_, leads to outer air.
+
+     _Fifth_, keep away from windows and intake of heating system.
+
+     _Sixth_, always have end of pipe covered with strainer, cowl, or
+     return bend.
+
+     _Seventh_, make as few bends as possible.
+
+     _Eighth_, supplies fresh air to system.
+
+
+DRUM TRAP
+
+The use of the drum trap is very handy to the plumber as well as
+efficient and practicable when installed. The trap can be purchased
+without any outlets or inlets, so the plumber can put them in
+according to the necessary measurements. The making of these traps
+with lead is explained in the chapter on Wiping Joints. The open
+end has a brass clean-out screw on it. When this clean-out screw
+comes below the floor, another brass screw cap and flange is
+screwed on the floor above the trap so that the clean-out screw in
+the trap is easily accessible.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Drum trap.]
+
+These drum traps are called bath traps as they are used mostly on
+bath wastes. They should never be installed with the clean-out
+exposed to the sewer side of the trap. In the best practice, heavy
+brass drum traps are used.
+
+
+NON-SYPHONING TRAP
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Flask trap.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Clean-sweep trap.]
+
+After years of experimenting to produce a trap that would not
+syphon without venting, we find in use today a large variety of
+non-syphoning traps. Traps that will hold their seal against all
+practical forms of syphonic action, or other threatening features,
+have been made and used and serve the purpose for which they are
+intended. Various means to prevent the breaking of the seal of
+these traps are employed. While some depend on a ball or other kind
+of valve, others rely on partitions and deflections of various
+kinds. All of these perform the functions for which they are
+designed, yet the devices employed offer an excellent obstruction
+for the free passage of waste; therefore, in time, these traps
+become inoperative. It should be borne in mind that any traps with
+a mechanical seal or an inside partition are not considered
+sanitary. The inside partition might wear out or be destroyed and
+thus break the seal without the knowledge of anyone and allow sewer
+gas to enter the room. The mechanical device may also be displaced
+or destroyed, leaving the trap without a seal. If the trap were
+cleaned out often or examined occasionally, these traps could be
+used with a greater degree of safety. Some of the forms of
+non-syphon traps in common use are:
+
+     The _Flask Trap_, Fig. 62. This trap gets its name from its
+     shape. There is an inside wall upon which the seal depends.
+     This trap is like the bag trap, only the two inside walls of
+     the pipe are combined into one. This wall should be of heavy
+     cast brass, free from sand holes.
+
+     _Clean Sweep Trap_, Fig. 63. Some clean sweep traps are
+     dependent upon an inside wall for their seals. They are made
+     of 1/2-S, 3/4-S, and full S.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Mechanical-seal trap.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Standard "S" trap.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Bag trap.]
+
+     _Sure Seal Trap._ The sure seal trap is designed to be
+     non-syphoning. This trap also has an interior waterway. If
+     this waterway leaks, the trap is unfit for use. If these traps
+     are made as shown in the second sketch with the way inside of
+     a larger pipe, it can be detected if the interior wall leaks.
+
+     _Centrifugal Trap._ The centrifugal trap is made similar to
+     the clean sweep, except that the wall of the inlet pipe is
+     entirely separate from the body of the trap. The inlet enters
+     the body of the trap on a tangent, thus making the trap
+     self-scouring which is a good feature.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+PIPE THREADING
+
+
+The proper cutting of threads on pipe is overlooked by some
+mechanics. There are many different kinds of dies and different
+kinds of pipe to contend with. Steel pipe threads very hard and the
+adjustable dies should be used on it. These dies cut more easily
+and leave a cleaner thread than other dies when used on steel pipe.
+When threads are cut on wrought-iron pipe the adjustable dies
+should be used as they cut a better and cleaner thread than other
+dies. To preserve the life of the dies and the quality of the
+thread, oil is used freely while the dies are cutting.
+
+THREADS.--The standard thread on pipe and fittings is a
+right-handed thread. Left threads can be cut on the pipe and the
+fitting can be tapped with a left thread. When a fitting is tapped
+with a left thread it is marked so. The following table gives the
+standard number of threads that a die will or should be allowed to
+cut on the pipe:
+
+     --------+----------------+-------------------+----------------
+       Size  | Length, inches |  Threads per inch | Threads per end
+     --------+----------------+-------------------+----------------
+       3/8   |       9/16     |        18         |      10.825
+       1/2   |       3/4      |        14         |      10.500
+       3/4   |       3/4      |        14         |      10.500
+       1     |       15/16    |        11-1/2     |      10.800
+       1-1/4 |      1         |        11-1/2     |      11.500
+       1-1/2 |      1         |        11-1/2     |      11.500
+       2     |      1-1/8     |        11-1/2     |      12.930
+     --------+----------------+-------------------+----------------
+
+To acquaint the beginner with iron pipe work, the following
+exercise is given. In it there are a great many of the actual
+problems that come up when the pipe is put in on a job. This is the
+last exercise that is required in this book. The sketch shows
+clearly just what the job is and below I have gone over each
+operation that is necessary to complete the job.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.]
+
+MATERIALS NECESSARY.--Six feet of 1-inch black pipe; four 1-inch
+black ells; two 1-inch tee; one 1-inch right and left coupling;
+oil.
+
+TOOLS NECESSARY.--Two 14-inch pipe wrenches, vise, pipe cutters,
+stock and 1-inch follower right and left die and reamer.
+
+The vise is made secure on a bench or post, care being taken before
+it is put in place to provide room enough to swing the stocks. A
+length of 1-inch pipe is put into the vise and the vise clamped
+around it. The end of the pipe that is to be threaded should stick
+out through the vise about 9 inches. If there is a thread on this
+end, the dies should be run over it to make sure that it is a
+standard thread and to clean the threads. Before proceeding further
+with this exercise the dies and stocks will be described and their
+use shown.
+
+DIES.--A full set of dies is taken. The full set of stocks and dies
+is composed of right and left dies from 1/8 inch up to 1 inch, with
+a guide for each size, also a small wrench with which to turn the
+set screws. The dies come in sets, two in a set. These are the
+Armstrong patent that I am describing. Take the stock and the
+handles, and a set of 1-inch right dies with the guides out of the
+box. The dies will have marked on them 1" R (if 1-inch left were
+wanted, the mark would be 1" L). The set screws are taken out of
+the stock and the dies inserted in their proper place. There is a
+deep mark on the edge of each die and under it a letter S. This
+letter means "standard." This mark on the die is set even with a
+similar mark on the stock and when the set screws are in place and
+tightened, a standard thread will be cut. There is an adjusting
+screw on the stock to make the proper adjustment on the dies.
+
+STOCK.--The stock is taken and the handles are put into it. There
+are two sets of set screws on the stock, one set for holding the
+dies in place and the other set for adjusting the dies. On the
+stock there is a deep mark to correspond with the standard thread
+mark on the dies. On the opposite side of the stock there is a
+place for the follower and a set screw to hold it in place. After
+the stocks have been looked over and examined thoroughly, the
+1-inch right dies are taken and inserted. Then the 1-inch follower
+is put in place. The tool is now ready to cut a 1-inch thread. Now
+take a piece of 1-inch pipe at least 15 inches long and put it in
+the vise, letting it extend out from the vise about 9 inches. The
+stock is now taken and the follower end is put on the pipe first
+and the dies brought up in place to cut. The end of the pipe is
+allowed to enter in between the two dies so that the teeth of each
+die rest on the pipe. Now, holding the handles of the stock about 6
+inches from the body of the stock and standing directly in front of
+the pipe, push and turn to the right at the same time and the dies
+will be started. Now put some oil on the dies and turn the stock,
+taking hold of the ends of the handles and standing at one side.
+The dies are run up on the pipe until the pipe extends through the
+face of the dies one thread. Oil is put on the pipe and the dies at
+least twice during the cutting. When the thread is long enough the
+stock is turned back a little and then forward a little and the
+loose chips are blown out from between the dies and pipe. If the
+dies are set right, a good clean standard thread will have been
+cut. This thread can now be cut off with the pipe cutters.
+
+PIPE CUTTERS.--To cut pipe with a one-wheel pipe cutter is a simple
+matter. I will not dwell at length on the cutter itself. There are
+one-wheel and three-wheel cutters. We will use a one-wheel cutter
+tool. This cutter is forced into the surface of the pipe with a set
+screw having a long tee handle. The pressure that is brought to
+bear on the pipe while being cut is sufficient to cause a large
+burr to form on the inside of the pipe. Sometimes the pipe is
+completely crushed and rendered unfit for use. Therefore the user
+of these cutters should exercise care when cutting pipe. The pipe
+is put in the vise and the cutters are so put on the pipe that the
+pipe will be between the two rollers and the cutter wheel, the
+cutter resting on the mark that indicates the point at which the
+pipe is to be cut. The handle is screwed down and the cutters
+turned around the pipe; each time the cutters make a complete turn
+the handle is screwed down more. This procedure is continued until
+the furrow has been cut clear through the pipe.
+
+CUTTING AND THREADING NIPPLES.--Nipples are short pieces of pipe
+threaded on each end. Pieces of pipe longer than 6 inches are not
+called nipples. When a nipple is so short that the threads cut on
+each end meet in the center of the piece, the nipple is called a
+"close nipple." When there is a space of about 1/4 inch between the
+threads, it is called a "space or shoulder" nipple. To cut and
+thread these nipples a nipple chuck or nipple holder is necessary.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Nipple chuck and nipples.]
+
+NIPPLE HOLDERS.--Take a piece of 1-inch pipe about 12 inches long
+and on one end cut a thread that is 2 inches long. Take a 1-inch
+coupling and screw it on this end until the end of the pipe is
+almost through the end of the coupling. At least four threads
+should be allowed at this end of the coupling. Now we have a piece
+of pipe 12 inches long having a thread 2 inches long on one end
+with a coupling on the thread. This is called a nipple holder. Now,
+to cut a nipple, cut a thread on a piece of pipe and cut the pipe
+off at any desired length, say 2 inches. Put the nipple holder in
+the vise with the coupling out from the vise about 8 inches. Take
+the 2-inch piece of pipe with a thread on one end, screw this
+thread into the coupling until it touches the pipe that has been
+screwed through from the other end. Now the stocks having the 1
+dies and the follower in are put on the pipe. The follower will not
+go over the coupling, therefore take the follower out of the
+stock. Now the stock will slip over the coupling and the thread can
+be cut. With this procedure a nipple of any length can be cut.
+There are a number of patented nipple chucks on the market, but as
+they are not always at hand the above method is resorted to and
+serves every purpose.
+
+LONG SCREWS.--To cut a long screw which comes in use frequently on
+vent pipe work, a piece of pipe 12 inches long is taken and a
+regular length thread is cut on one end, and a thread 4 inches long
+is cut on the other end. Then a coupling is cut while screwed on a
+pipe, so that a lock nut about 1/2 inch wide is made. The
+description and use of these long screws will come under screw pipe
+venting.
+
+Now that the proper use of the tools has been explained, we will
+proceed with the exercise according to the sketch. With a length of
+pipe in the vise and the 1-inch dies in the stock, run over the
+thread on the pipe. Note that all the measurements are center to
+center. Screw an elbow on the pipe and measure off the first
+length, which we will take as 12 inches center to center. Place the
+rule on the pipe with one end of it at the center of the opening of
+the elbow just screwed on. Mark 12 inches off on the pipe. This
+mark represents the center of another ell. Now take another ell and
+hold the center of one outlet on this mark. It will readily be seen
+that to have the measurement come right, the pipe must be cut off
+at a point where it will make up tight when screwed into the ell.
+Therefore, about 1 inch will have to be cut off, making the pipe 1
+inch shorter than where it was first marked. Cut the pipe, and
+before taking it out of the vise make a thread on the pipe still in
+the vise. After the thread is cut, take the reamer and ream out the
+burr that is on the inside of the pipe caused by the pipe cutter.
+An elbow can be screwed on this pipe. The next measurement is
+marked off as explained, the pipe cut, then the piece in the vise
+threaded and reamed. The measurements must be accurate and the
+dies should be adjusted to cut all threads the same depth. When the
+measurements are all out, there should be seven pieces of pipe,
+each piece having one thread. Now the threads on the other end can
+be cut except the 12 inch piece that screws into the right and left
+coupling. This thread is a left-handed thread and must be cut with
+the left dies. Change the dies now to the 1-inch left dies; turn
+the stock in the opposite direction of the right-hand thread, and
+the dies will cut the left thread. The pipe and the fittings can
+easily be put together as shown in the sketch by following the
+center to center measurements. The right and left coupling is the
+only fitting that will cause the beginner trouble. A right and left
+coupling can be used only when there is sufficient _give_ to the
+pipe, that is, the two ends of the pipe to be coupled together are
+only 1/2 inch apart. To get the coupling in place to start the
+threads, the pipe must spread apart at least 2 inches. If the pipe
+cannot be spread that much, a right and left coupling cannot be
+used. The proper way to make up a right and left coupling is as
+follows:
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--_F_ reads center of ell to end, _C_ reads
+center of ell to center of valve, _D_ reads center of valve to
+center of T, _E_ reads center of T to center of ell.]
+
+Screw home the coupling on the right thread. Mark with a piece of
+chalk on the coupling and the pipe showing a point on each where
+the coupling makes tight. Take off the coupling and count the turns
+and make note of the number. Now do the same on the left thread
+and make a note of the number of threads. If the left thread has
+six turns and the right has four and one-half, then to insure that
+the left thread will be tight when the right thread is, the
+coupling must be put on the left thread one and one-half turns
+before it is started on the right thread. Now with four and
+one-half turns, the right and the left threads will both be tight.
+A little thought and practice will make this connection clear. If
+all the measurements in this exercise are not cut accurately, the
+right and left coupling will not go together.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+COLD-WATER SUPPLY. TEST
+
+
+The supplying of cold water to buildings and then piping it to the
+various fixtures makes a very interesting study. We have gone over
+the methods of laying and piping for the house service pipe. We
+will go over the different systems now employed to supply the
+water, quickly.
+
+UNDERGROUND WATER.--In thinly populated districts the well is still
+employed to supply water to the building. The water is brought to
+the surface by means of a large bucket or by means of a pump. A
+well point can be driven into the ground until water is reached and
+then the water can be brought to the surface by means of a pump
+operated by hand or by power. The water can be forced to a tank
+that is open and elevated, or forced into a tank that is closed and
+put under pressure. From either tank the water will flow to any
+desired outlets. A windmill can be employed to furnish power to
+operate the pump. Water supply that is received directly from
+underground is by far the best to use. A cesspool or outhouse must
+not be allowed on the premises with a well, otherwise the well will
+be contaminated and unfit for domestic use. An open well is not as
+sanitary as a driven well, as the surface water and leaves, etc.,
+get into it and decay and pollute the water, and soon make it unfit
+for domestic use.
+
+STREAMS AND BROOKS.--The brooks and streams furnish a good source
+of supply for water to a building or community of buildings. The
+writer recently worked on a system of piping that supplied 15 or 20
+buildings. The water supply came from a brook that was higher than
+the houses. Each house had a separate pipe leading down from the
+brook into a tank from which the house was piped. The owner of the
+brook applied business ethics to the privileges of taking water
+from it. He had a scale of prices, and the highest-priced location
+was an inch or so below the bed of the brook, the next price was
+level with the bottom, the next cheaper 2 inches above the bottom.
+As the surface was reached, the privilege cost less. In the dry
+time of the year those at the bottom of the brook always had water
+while those at the top location had to wait for the water to rise,
+and had to do without water during the dry time. Where the stream
+is on a lower level than the building a hydraulic ram can be used.
+
+RIVERS AND LAKES.--Rivers and lakes make an abundant supply for
+water systems. A sluggish-moving river is bad, also a river that is
+used for carrying off the sewage of a town. Special provision is
+now made for the using of water that is polluted. A lake that is
+supplied by springs is by far the best source of supply. The water
+is pumped from the river or lake into a reservoir and then flows by
+gravity into mains and from the mains into the buildings. The water
+should always be filtered before it is allowed to enter the
+distributing mains.
+
+WATER PRESSURE.--Pressure at a fixture or outlet so that the water
+will flow is generally obtained by the force of gravity. When this
+method is not sufficient, a pneumatic system is employed. This
+method is employed to force the water to the top floors or to
+supply the whole building in high structures. The pneumatic system
+requires a pump, an air-tight tank, and pipes to the various
+outlets. The water pumped into the air-tight tank will occupy part
+of the space generally occupied by the air. The air cannot escape
+and is, therefore, compressed. Continued pumping will compress the
+air until the limit of the apparatus is reached. If a valve or
+faucet that is connected with the tank is opened, the air will
+expand and force the water out of the opening. This explains in a
+general way the operation of a pneumatic water-supply system. Water
+can be pumped into this air-tight tank from a well, cistern, river,
+lake, or from the city supply mains.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--"Banjo."]
+
+PIPING.--From the service pipe on which there has been placed a
+shut-off, a line of piping, full size, is run through the basement,
+overhead to a convenient place, perhaps to a partition in the
+center of the cellar. The pipe is brought down and connected into
+the end of a header. This header or banjo is made of Ts placed 4
+inches center to center. From each T a line of pipe is run to each
+isolated fixture or set of fixtures (see Fig. 70). A stop and waste
+cock is placed on each line at such a point that all stop cocks
+will come in a row near the header. A small pipe is run from the
+waste of each stop and discharged into a larger pipe which connects
+with a sink. This way of running pipes while it is expensive makes
+a very neat and good job. Each stop cock has a tag on it stating
+explicitly what it controls. If the building is a large one a
+number of these panelled headers are used. A less expensive way to
+run this pipe is to branch off from the main at points where the
+branch pipe will be as short as possible and use as few fittings
+as possible. Stop and waste cocks are then placed on each branch
+near the main.
+
+All pipe must follow the direct line of fitting with which it is
+connected. The line of pipe should be perfectly straight. If it
+seems necessary to bend the pipe to get around an obstacle, then
+good judgment has not been used in placing the fitting into which
+the pipe is screwed. The fitting should be re-located so that the
+pipe can be run without bending. To have true alignment of pipes
+the whole job or section of the job must be drawn out on paper
+first and any obstacles noted and avoided before the piping is cut.
+This not only saves time but it is also the forerunner of a good
+job. When getting measurements for piping the same rule or tape
+should be used to get out the pipe as was used to get the
+measurements.
+
+The water main and branches that run through the basement of a
+building are generally hung on the ceiling. Rough hangers of wood,
+rope, or wire are usually used to hold the pipe in place at first,
+then neat and strong adjustable hangers are placed every 8 feet
+apart. There are in use too many kinds of hangers to explain or
+describe them here. The essential point of all good hangers is to
+have them strong, neat, and so made that perfect alignment of the
+pipe can be had. The hangers should be so placed that no strain
+will come on the fitting or the valves. A hanger should be placed
+near each side of unions so that when the union is taken apart
+neither side of the pipe will drop and bend. Hooks and straps
+should be used to hold vertical pipes rigid and in position. A
+vertical pipe should be so held in place that its weight will come
+on the hooks and straps that hold it rather than on the horizontal
+pipe into which it connects. Where there are six or eight
+horizontal lines of pipes close together, a separate hanger for
+each pipe makes a rather cumbersome job and it consumes
+considerable time to install them properly. A hanger having one
+support run under all the pipes will allow space for proper
+alignment and adjustment for drainage. Allowance must be made on
+all lines of pipe for drainage. When a building is vacant during
+cold weather, the water is drawn off; therefore, the pipes should
+have a pitch to certain points where the pipes can be opened and
+the entire system drained of water.
+
+KINDS OF PIPE.--The kind of pipe that is used for cold-water supply
+depends on and varies according to the kind of water, the kind of
+earth through which it runs, and the construction of the building.
+Wrought iron, steel, lead, brass, tin-lined brass, are in use.
+
+The supply pipe to every fixture should have a stop on it directly
+under the fixture. This will allow the water to be shut off for
+repairs to the faucet without stopping the supply of other
+fixtures.
+
+The making of perfect threads on pipe is an important matter,
+especially on water pipes. If the pipe and the dies were perfect,
+and the mechanic used sufficient oil in cutting, and the fittings
+were perfectly tapped to correspond to the dies used on the pipe,
+of course a perfect union between pipe and fitting would result and
+the joint would be found to be perfect on screwing the pipe home.
+As all the above conditions are not found on the job, threads are
+made tight by the use of red or white lead and oil. The lead is put
+on the thread and when the thread is made up the lead will have
+been forced into any imperfection that may be in the threads and
+the joint will then be water-tight. White lead and oil should be
+used on nickel-plated pipe as other pipe compounds are too
+conspicuous and look badly. A pipe compound should be used with
+discretion, for if too much is put on a burr of it will collect in
+the bore of the pipe and reduce it considerably. This is not
+tolerated, so only a small amount is used. Water pipes should be
+run in accessible places, making it possible to get at them in case
+of trouble. In climates that have freezing weather water pipes
+should not be run in outside partitions. If it is found absolutely
+necessary to do so, as in the case of buildings which have no
+inside partitions on the first floor, the pipe should be properly
+covered and protected. The different methods of covering pipes are
+described in Chapter XV.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+HOT-WATER HEATERS. INSTANTANEOUS COIL AND STORAGE TANKS. RETURN
+CIRCULATION, HOT-WATER LINES AND EXPANSION
+
+
+The problem of supplying hot water to plumbing fixtures is one that
+has required years of study. Each job today demands considerable
+thought to make it a perfect and satisfactory hot-water system. We
+will find installations today where the water is red from rust,
+where there is water pounding and cracking. There are also jobs
+where the fixtures get practically no hot water. As each job or
+individual building has its own peculiar conditions, they must be
+solved by the designer or the mechanic, using the fundamental
+principles of hot-water circulation. We must first know how much
+hot water is to be used, also the location of the outlets and the
+construction of the building; then the size of the pipes and the
+size of the tanks and their locations can be settled. If the job is
+a large one, a pump may be employed to insure the proper
+circulation. After this the pipe sizes and connections can be
+worked out. The one great enemy of hot-water circulation is air.
+Therefore, no traps or air pockets should ever appear in the piping
+system. The boiler, as it is often referred to, is the hot-water
+storage tank. A copper or iron tank holding sufficient water to
+supply all fixtures, even when every fixture demands a supply at
+the same time, is installed in a convenient place and the heating
+arrangement connected with it. A thermostat can be placed on the
+system and the temperature of the water controlled. According to
+the size of the building the problem of furnishing the plumbing
+fixtures with hot water increases.
+
+METHODS OF HEATING HOT WATER.--There are a number of ways of
+furnishing hot water. Some of the installations are listed below.
+
+A cast-iron or brass water back is placed on the fire pot of a
+stove or furnace. A separate stove with the fire pot and water
+jacket is used. A coil of steam pipe is placed inside a hot-water
+boiler or tank. Gas coil heaters are connected with hot water
+storage tank, also gas coil instantaneous heaters are connected
+with the piping direct.
+
+Combinations of the above systems are in use and serve the purpose
+for which they are intended. For instance, the tank can be
+connected with a coal range and a gas coil heater, heat being
+furnished by the range alone or the coil heater alone, or both can
+be used at the same time. This combination can be connected with
+the furnace in the cellar, and during the winter months, when the
+furnace is in use, the water can be heated by the furnace coil. In
+warm weather, when the furnace is out, the range can supply the
+necessary heat. In hot weather the coil gas heater can supply the
+heat.
+
+CONNECTIONS OF TANK AND HEATING APPARATUS.--The ordinary house
+boiler or hot-water storage tank has four connections, two on top,
+one on the side, and one on the bottom. The top connections are
+used for the entrance of cold water into the tank and for the
+supply of hot water to the fixtures (see Fig. 71). The cold-water
+inlet has a tube extending into the tank below the side connection.
+This tube has a small hole filed in it about 6 inches from the top.
+This hole is to break any syphonic action that may occur at any
+time. The side connection is for the connection of the pipe coming
+from the top of the water back. The bottom opening in the tank is
+for the connection of the pipe coming from the lower water back
+connection, also for draining the boiler. The circulation of the
+water can be followed thus: cold water enters the boiler in the
+tube and discharges into the boiler below the side connection. From
+here it flows out of the bottom connection into the water back,
+through the upper connection into the boiler, through the side
+opening, then to the top of the boiler and out to the fixtures
+through the fixture supply opening.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Storage tank, and coil heater with
+thermostatic control valve.]
+
+Fig. 69 shows a thermostatic control valve attached to the bottom
+of a heater coil, and at the side of storage tank. The best
+arrangement is at the bottom, for it does not shut off the gas
+supply until the boiler is full of hot water.
+
+CONNECTING TANK AND COIL GAS HEATER.--The boiler and the coil gas
+heater have a different connection. The bottom of the tank and the
+bottom of the heater are connected. The top of the heater and the
+top of the boiler are connected. The accompanying sketch shows how
+this connection is made. If the tee on the top of the boiler into
+which the gas-heater connection is made is not the first fitting
+and placed as close to the outlet as possible, the water will not
+circulate freely into the boiler. This connection according to the
+drawing should be studied and memorized.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Instantaneous gas heater. Showing
+circulation heater or booster.]
+
+INSTANTANEOUS GAS-HEATER CONNECTIONS.--An instantaneous gas heater
+is placed in the basement. The copper coil in it is connected at
+the bottom with the cold-water supply and the top outlet of the
+coil is connected with the hot-water system of piping. There is no
+need of a storage tank with this heater. When a faucet is opened in
+any part of the hot-water piping system, the water passing through
+the water valve at the heater causes the gas valve to open so that
+the whole set of burners in the heater is supplied with gas, and
+the burners are lighted from a pilot light. When the faucet is
+closed, the gas supply is shut off and the burners are put out. The
+pilot is lighted all the time. Space will not permit going over
+these connections in detail. It is a large field and requires
+considerable thought.
+
+SAFETY AND CHECK VALVES.--When a meter is used on a water system,
+the water company demands that a check valve be placed on the
+hot-water system to prevent the hot water from being forced back
+into the meter in case the pressure got strong enough in the
+boiler. If a check valve is used for this purpose, or for any other
+purpose, a safety valve must be placed on the boiler piping system
+to relieve any excessive pressure that may be caused by having the
+check valve in use. There is today, with meters of modern type, no
+reason to use a check valve or a safety valve. If an excessive
+pressure is obtained in the boiler, it is relieved in the water
+main.
+
+When water is heated, it expands. If the heat becomes more intense
+and steam is formed, the expansion is much greater, and some means
+must be provided to allow for it. This expansion can be allowed to
+relieve itself in the water main as explained above. When a check
+valve is placed on the piping, this means of escape is shut off and
+a safety valve must be employed. Without these reliefs, the
+pressure would be so great that an explosion would result. When
+steel pipe and steel boilers are used for storage tanks and
+connections, the pipe and tank will shortly start to rust and parts
+of the piping are stopped up with rust scales. The water also
+becomes red with rust when the water becomes hot enough to
+circulate. When the pipes are stopped up, steam is formed and a
+snapping and cracking sound is heard. To avoid these conditions,
+the piping should be of brass or lead and the storage tank should
+be of copper. The installation cost of brass and copper is greater
+than steel, but they will not have to be replaced in two or three
+years, as is the case with other material. A valve should be placed
+on the cold-water supply to control the entire hot-water piping
+system. A pipe with a stop cock should be placed underneath the
+boiler and should extend into a sink in the basement so that the
+boiler can be drained at any time for cleaning or repairs.
+
+CONNECTING WITH FIXTURES.--To have all fixtures properly supplied
+with hot water it is necessary to run what is termed a circulating
+pipe. This circulating pipe is a circuit of pipe extending from the
+top of the boiler to the vicinity of the fixtures and then
+returning to the boiler and connecting into the pipe leading out of
+the bottom of the boiler. From this circuit all branches are taken
+to supply all fixtures requiring hot water. This circulating pipe
+has hot water circulating through it all the time. Therefore the
+fixtures are supplied with hot water very quickly. The circulating
+pipe and its branches are run without any traps or air pockets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Expansion loop. Four 90 deg. ells.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Expansion loop. Five 90 deg. ells.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--Expansion loop. Six 90 deg. ells.]
+
+When running the piping, it should be borne in mind that not only
+does the water expand when heated, but the pipe expands also.
+Therefore due allowance must be made for this expansion. The long
+risers should have an expansion loop as shown in Figs. 73, 74 and
+75. There are installed on some jobs what is known as an expansion
+joint. This will allow for the expansion and contraction of the
+pipe. The writer's experience with these joints has not been very
+satisfactory. After a while these joints begin to leak and they
+must have attention which in some cases is rather expensive. An
+expansion loop as shown in the sketch, made with elbows, will prove
+satisfactory. If the threads on the fittings and pipe are good, no
+leak will appear on this joint.
+
+All gas heaters must be connected with a flue to carry off the
+products of combustion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+INSULATION OF PIPING TO ELIMINATE CONDUCTION, RADIATION, FREEZING,
+AND NOISE
+
+
+PIPE COVERING.--Pipe covering is another important branch of
+plumbing. A few years ago heating pipes were the only pipes that it
+was thought necessary to cover. The ever-increasing demands made by
+the public keep the wideawake plumber continually solving problems.
+The water running down a waste pipe, for instance, will annoy some
+people, and provision must be made to avoid this noise or to
+silence it. This is one of the many problems that the plumber must
+solve by the use of pipe covering.
+
+PIPES THAT NEED COVERING.--First of all, the covering must be put
+on properly to be of high service. _Hot-water circulating pipes_
+need covering to reduce the amount of heat loss. If the pipes and
+the tank are not covered, considerable more fuel will be needed to
+supply the necessary amount of hot water than if the pipes and tank
+were covered with a good covering. _Cold-water pipes_ need covering
+in places to keep them from freezing. They also need covering under
+some conditions to keep them from sweating. They are covered also
+to prevent the material which surrounds them from coming into
+direct contact with the pipe. _Waste pipes_ need covering to
+prevent them from freezing and to silence the noise caused by the
+rush of water through them. _Ice-water pipes_ are covered to
+prevent the water from rising in temperature and to prevent any
+condensation forming on the pipe. There is need for such a variety
+of covering that I have listed below some of them and the methods
+employed for putting them on the pipe.
+
+Magnesia, asbestos air cell, molded asbestos, wool felt, waterproof
+paper and wool felt, cork, hair felt. These coverings come in the
+form of pipe covering with a cloth jacket. They also come in the
+shape of fittings as well as in blocks and rolls of paper, and in
+powdered form. Any thickness that is desired may be had. The pipe
+covering is readily put on the pipe. The cloth jacket is pulled
+back a short distance and the covering will open like a book. It
+can then be clamped on the pipe and the jacket pulled back and
+pasted into place. Brass bands, 1 inch wide, come with the pipe
+covering. These are put on and the pipe covering is then held
+securely in place. Practically all the coverings are applied in
+this manner and are made up in 3-foot lengths to fit any size pipe.
+To cover the fittings and valves, the same kind of sectional
+covering can be obtained and applied in the same manner as the pipe
+covering. Plastic covering is often applied to the fittings and
+molded into the shape of the fitting. The plastic covering comes in
+bags and is dry. It is mixed with warm water to the consistency of
+thick cement and applied with a trowel. When the covering is put on
+the pipes and fittings, it should be done thoroughly to get
+satisfactory results. Each section of the covering has on one end
+an extra length of the jacket. This is to allow a lap over on the
+next section to make a tight joint. If the sections need fitting, a
+saw can be used and the covering cut to any desired length.
+
+     _Magnesia_ covering is employed mostly on steam pipes,
+     especially high-pressure. This material can be had in the
+     shape of pipe covering, in blocks, or cement.
+
+     _Asbestos air cell_ covering is employed to cover hot-water
+     circulating pipes. It is constructed of corrugated asbestos
+     paper. This material is manufactured in the sectional pipe
+     covering or in corrugated paper form.
+
+     _Molded asbestos_ covering is also used on hot-water pipes,
+     and is manufactured in pipe covering or in blocks.
+
+     _Wool felt_ covering is used mostly on hot-water pipes and
+     makes one of the best coverings. It is lined with asbestos
+     paper and covered with a cloth jacket.
+
+     _Waterproof paper and wool felt_ is used on cold-water pipes
+     and is made in 3-foot lengths. The covering is lined with
+     waterproof paper and covered with a cloth jacket.
+
+     _Cork._--A heavy cork covering is one of the best coverings
+     for ice-water pipes, and a light cork covering is used for
+     cold-water pipes. This covering comes in sections as other
+     coverings, also in blocks and sheets.
+
+     _Hair felt_ is used to prevent pipes from freezing. It comes
+     in bales containing 150 to 300 square feet of various
+     thicknesses.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+"DURHAM" OR "SCREW PIPE" WORK. PIPE AND FITTINGS
+
+
+"Durham" or "screw pipe" work is the name used to denote that the
+job is installed by the use of wrought-iron or steel screw pipe. We
+speak of a "cast-iron job" meaning that cast-iron pipe was used for
+the piping. A completely different method of work is used when
+screw pipe is employed for the wastes and vents. When screw pipe is
+to be used or considered for use, it is well to know something
+concerning the various makes of screw pipe. Nothing but galvanized
+pipe is ever used. The value of steel screw pipe and wrought-iron
+screw pipe should be studied, and every person interested should,
+if possible, understand how these different pipes are made and how
+the material of which they are composed is made. In some places one
+pipe is better than another and a study of their make-up would
+enlighten the user and allow him to use the best for his peculiar
+conditions. The maker's name should always be on the pipe. The
+following table shows the sizes, weights, and thicknesses of screw
+pipe:
+
+     -------+-----------+-------------
+      Size  | Thickness | No. threads
+            |           |  per inch
+     -------+-----------+-------------
+      1-1/4 |   0.140   |   11-1/2
+      1-1/2 |   0.145   |   11-1/2
+      2     |   0.154   |   11-1/2
+      2-1/2 |   0.204   |    8
+      3     |   0.217   |    8
+      3-1/2 |   0.226   |    8
+      4     |   0.237   |    8
+      5     |   0.259   |    8
+      6     |   0.280   |    8
+     -------+-----------+-------------
+
+Screw pipe work came into common use with the advance of modern
+steel structures. Some difficulty had been experienced in getting
+the cast-iron pipe joints tight and to keep the pipe so anchored
+that it would not crack. The screw pipe was found to answer all of
+the requirements of modern structures and therefore has been used
+extensively. The life of screw pipe is not as long as extra heavy
+cast-iron pipe. This is the only serious objection to screw pipe,
+which must be renewed after a term of years, while extra heavy cast
+iron lasts indefinitely. Screw pipe is never used underground. When
+piping is required underground, extra heavy cast-iron pipe is used.
+
+
+PIPING
+
+The pipe used in Durham work is galvanized extra heavy, or standard
+wrought-iron, or steel pipe. It is almost impossible to recognize
+wrought-iron from steel pipe without the aid of a chemical or a
+magnifying glass. To test the pipe to distinguish its base, take a
+sharp file and file through the surface of the pipe that is to be
+tested. If the pipe is steel, under a magnifying glass the texture
+of the filed surface will appear to be smooth and have small
+irregular-shaped grains, and there will also be an appearance of
+compactness. If the pipe is iron, the texture will have the
+appearance of being ragged and will show streaks of slag or black.
+When screw pipe is cut there is always left a large burr on the
+inside of the pipe. This burr greatly reduces the bore of the pipe
+and is a source of stoppage in waste pipes. After the pipe is cut
+this burr should be reamed out thoroughly. One of the strong points
+of screw pipe is the strength of each joint. Care should therefore
+be taken to see that perfect threads are cut on the pipe and that
+the threads of the fittings are perfect. The dies should be set
+right and not varied on each joint. There should be plenty of oil
+used when threads are cut so that the thread will be clean and
+sharp. The follower or guide on stocks should be the same size as
+the pipe that is being threaded, otherwise a crooked thread will
+result. If a pipe-threading machine is used, the pipe is set
+squarely between the jaws of the vise that holds the pipe in place.
+When cutting a thread on a long length of pipe, the end sticking
+out from the machine must be supported firmly so that no strain
+will come on the machine as the pipe turns. It is necessary to cut
+crooked threads sometimes on the pipe to allow the pipe pitch for
+drainage or to bring the pipe into alignment where fitting would
+take up too much room. To cut a crooked thread on a piece of pipe,
+simply leave the follower out of the stock or put in the size
+larger. The dies not having a guide will cut a crooked thread.
+Piping should be run with as few threads as possible. With a
+thorough knowledge of and the intelligent use of fittings, a
+minimum number of threads will result.
+
+The pipes in a building are run in compact parallel lines in chases
+designed especially for them. The tendency is to confine the pipes
+to certain localities as much as possible. This makes a very neat
+job and in case repairs are needed, the work and trouble incurred
+will be confined to one section.
+
+
+FITTINGS
+
+The fittings used in screw pipe work are cast-iron recess type (see
+Fig. 54). The fittings are so made that the inside bores of the
+pipe and the fittings come in direct line with each other, thus
+making a smooth inside surface at all bends. The fittings are all
+heavily galvanized. All fittings should be examined on the inside
+for any lumps of metal of sufficient size to catch solid waste
+matter, and these must be removed or the fitting discarded. All 90 deg.
+bends, whether Ts or elbows, are tapped to give the pipe that
+connects with them a pitch of at least 1/4 inch to the foot.
+Except where obligatory, 90 deg. fittings should not be used. To make a
+bend of 90 deg. a Y-branch, a nipple and a 45 deg. bend should be used, or
+two 45 deg. bends will make a long easy sweep of the drainage pipes and
+reduce the possibility of stoppage.
+
+Y-branches are inserted every 30 feet at least to allow for a
+clean-out which can be placed in the branch of the fitting. When a
+clean-out is placed an iron plug should not be used. These plugs
+are not removed very often and an iron plug will rust in and be
+almost impossible to get out. Brass clean-out plugs are used and
+are easily taken out.
+
+At times it is necessary to connect cast iron and wrought iron, or
+in a line where a union could be used if the pipe were not a waste
+pipe, a tucker fitting is used. This fitting is threaded on one end
+and has a socket on the other to allow for caulking. To get a good
+idea of all the fittings in general use, the reader should get a
+catalogue from one of the fitting manufacturers and a survey of it
+will give the names and sizes of the fittings. However, I show a
+few common ones. In the writer's opinion, the studying of the
+catalogue would be of more benefit than a description of fittings
+at this point. The sizes used and the methods employed to vent the
+waste-pipe systems are the same as in cast-iron work.
+
+
+HANGERS AND SUPPORTS
+
+The hanging of screw pipe is a very essential point. The taking of
+the strain off from a fitting or line of pipe by the use of a
+hanger is the means of avoiding serious trouble after a job is
+completed. On horizontal runs hangers are placed not more than 8
+feet apart. In a building constructed of wood, the hangers are
+secured to the joists. In a building constructed of steel beams and
+concrete the hangers are secured to the steel beams by means of
+I-beam hangers that clamp on the beams; also in the case of
+concrete the hangers are extended through the floor and a T is put
+on the hanger on top of the cement floor; an iron bar or a short
+piece of smaller pipe run through the T holds the hanger in place
+and secures it rigidly. The finished floor is laid over the hanger
+so that it does not show from the top. Hangers on the vertical
+lines should be placed at every joint and under each fitting. To
+have the pipe in true alignment, the hangers must be hung and
+placed in line. Every riser line must have an extra support at the
+base to avoid any settling of the stack which will crack the
+fittings and break fixture connections.
+
+
+MEASUREMENTS
+
+The proper installation of screw pipe work requires getting correct
+and accurate measurements. Every plumber is or should be able to
+get correct center to center, center to end, end to end, center to
+back, and end to back measurements. In Durham work 45 deg. angles are
+continually occurring. To get these measurements correctly, the
+following table has been compiled as used by the author and found
+to be correct. The reader should memorize it so that it may be used
+without referring to the book.
+
+     MEASUREMENTS
+
+     ------------+------------+-------------
+       Soil pipe | Screw pipe | Multiplier
+     ------------+------------+-------------
+       1/6  bend |     60     |    1.15
+       1/8   "   |     45     |    1.41
+       1/12  "   |     30     |    2.
+       1/16  "   |     22-1/2 |    2.61
+       1/32  "   |     11-1/4 |    5.12
+       1/64  "   |      5-5/8 |   10.22
+     ------------+------------+-------------
+
+Before any measurements are taken, the lines of pipe are laid out
+and the position of each fitting known. As I have stated before,
+the plumber must look ahead with his work. He must have the ability
+of practically seeing the pipe in place before the work is started.
+This requires experience and judgment. Before the measurements are
+taken and the pipe cut consideration must be given to the fact that
+the fittings and pipes must be screwed into position. Therefore,
+"can the fitting on the pipe be placed where it is laid out when
+this is considered?" must be one of the many questions a plumber
+should ask himself. Allowance must be made for the chain tongs to
+swing. Whenever possible, a fitting is made up on the pipe while
+the pipe is in the vise.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--The offset is B or 12 inches center to
+center. The offset is made using 45 degree fittings. Therefore the
+length of A from the center of one fitting to the center of the
+other is B x 1.41 = 12 x 1.41 = 16.92 inches.]
+
+
+FIXTURE CONNECTIONS
+
+The fixture connections when screw pipe is used are necessarily
+different than when cast-iron pipe is used. A brass nipple is wiped
+on a piece of lead pipe and then screwed into the fitting left for
+the closet connection. The lead is flanged over above the floor and
+the closet set on it. The lead is soldered to a brass flange. The
+brass flange is secured to the floor and then the closet bowl
+secured to the brass flange. Another method employed is to screw a
+brass flange into the fitting so that when it is made up the flange
+will come level with the floor; the closet bowl is then secured to
+this flange. There are a number of patented floor flanges for
+closet bowl connections that can be used to advantage. Slop sinks
+have practically the same connections as the closets. Other
+fixtures such as the urinal, lavatory, and bath, can be connected
+with a short piece of lead wiped on a solder nipple, or the
+trimmings for the fixture can be had with brass having iron pipe
+size threads, and the connection can then be made directly with the
+outlet on the waste line. This is a very general way to describe
+the connections, but space will not allow a detailed description of
+these connections. It is always well to allow for short lead
+connections for fixtures so that the lead will give if the stack
+settles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+GAS FITTING, PIPE AND FITTINGS, THREADING, MEASURING, AND TESTING
+
+
+GAS AND ITS USE IN BUILDINGS
+
+Gas is in common use in all classes of buildings today. Dwellings
+use it for cooking and illuminating, factories, office buildings,
+and public buildings for power. In some parts of the country
+natural gas is found. In these places it is used freely for heating
+fuel. The actual making of gas is something that every plumber
+should understand. If space permitted I would describe a gas plant
+with all of its by-products. However, we shall deal only with the
+actual installation of gas piping in buildings. Gas mains are run
+through the streets the same as water mains are run. Branches are
+taken off these mains and extended into the buildings requiring
+gas. The gas company generally installs the gas service pipe inside
+of the basement wall and places a stop cock on it free of charge.
+This stop that is placed on the pipe is a plug core type, the
+handle for turning it off is square, and a wrench is required to
+turn it. The square top has a lug on it. There is also a lug
+corresponding to it on the body of the valve. When the valve is
+shut off, these two lugs are together. Each lug has a hole in it
+large enough for a padlock ring to pass through. This gives the gas
+company absolute control of the gas in the building.
+
+SETTING OF THE METER.--Every building that is supplied with gas has
+a meter that registers the amount of gas consumed. This meter is
+placed on the service pipe on the house side of the above-mentioned
+stop cock. This meter is furnished free of charge with a trivial
+charge made for setting up. The actual setting of this meter is not
+made until the piping throughout the building has had a thorough
+and satisfactory test and is found free from all leaks. The meter
+must be set level on a substantial bracket and in a place, if
+possible, where it will not require an artificial light to read its
+dial. The dry meter is usually used in dwellings. The interesting
+construction and mechanism of this meter cannot be discussed here.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--Gas-meter dials.]
+
+The reading of the dials on a gas meter comes in the province of
+the plumber and he should be able to read them. The sketch shows
+the dial plate of a meter. The ordinary house meter has only three
+recording dials. Large meters have five or more. To read the amount
+of gas consumed according to the meter we will read the dials as
+they are indicated on Fig. 77. We will call the four dials No. 1,
+No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4. In each of these dials a complete
+revolution of the index hand denotes 1,000, 10,000, 100,000 and
+1,000,000, cubic feet respectively. The index hands on No. 1 and
+No. 3 revolve in the same direction, while No. 2 and No. 4 revolve
+in the opposite direction. Two ciphers are added to the figures
+that are indicated on the dials and the statement of the meter will
+be had. To tell just how much gas has been consumed in a given
+time, the statement of the meter is taken at the beginning of this
+given time and at the end of the time. The difference in the
+figures indicates the number of cubic feet of gas that have been
+consumed. A gas cock should be placed on the house side of the
+meter. The dials of meter read 658,800 cubic feet. The dial having
+the highest number is read first No. 4 dial points to 6, this
+indicates that No. 3 dial has revolved 6 times. Dial No. 3 reads 5,
+therefore the reading of dial No. 3 and No. 4 is 65. Dial No. 2
+reads 8 making the readings of the three dials 658. Dial No. 1
+reads 8 making the readings of the four dials 6588 add two ciphers
+to this figure and 658,800 is the correct reading.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.]
+
+PIPE AND FITTINGS.--The pipe used in gas fitting is wrought iron or
+steel. In special places, rubber hose is used. Brass pipe is
+occasionally used to advantage. The fittings used in iron pipe gas
+work should be galvanized. No plain fittings should be allowed. The
+plain fittings very often have sand holes in them and a leak will
+result. Sometimes this leak does not appear until after the piping
+has been in use some time and the expense of replacing the fitting
+can only be guessed at. By using galvanized fittings, this trouble
+will be eliminated. All fittings used should be of the beaded type.
+The fitting and measurement of this work is practically the same as
+described under iron pipe work. To have the beginner get a clearer
+idea of gas-piping a building, the piping of the small building
+sketched will be gone over in detail and studied. One of the first
+important steps that a gas fitter is confronted with is the
+locating of the various lights and openings. With these located as
+shown on the plan, Figs. 78, 79 and 80, we will proceed to work
+out the piping. The first floor rise will be 1-inch, the second
+floor will be 1-inch. The horizontal pipe supplying the first floor
+outlets will be 3/4-inch pipe. The horizontal pipe on the second
+floor will be 3/4-inch. The balance of the pipe will be 3/8- or
+1/2-inch. At this point your attention is called to the sketch of
+piping, sizes, and measurements. This sketch should be studied and
+understood in detail. The good mechanic will employ a sketch of
+this kind when installing any piping. The poor mechanic will take
+two or three measurements and get them out, put them in, and then
+get some more. This method is extremely costly and unworkmanlike.
+There is no reason, except the ability of the workman, why he
+cannot take a building like the sketch and get all the piping
+measurements for the job, then get them out, go to the job and put
+them in. The amount of time saved in this way is so great that a
+workman should not consider himself a full-fledged mechanic until
+he can get the measurements this way, and get them accurately. With
+a tape line, gimlet, and plumb-bob, a mechanic is fully equipped
+with tools to get his measurements. If the measurements are taken
+with a tape line, the same tape line should be used when measuring
+the pipe and cutting it. When laying out the piping, never allow a
+joist to be cut except within 6 inches of its bearing. It is good
+policy never to cut timber unless absolutely necessary and then
+only after consulting with the carpenter. When joists have to be
+notched they should be cut only on the top side. The pipe as it is
+put in place should be braced rigidly. Wherever there is an outlet
+pipe extending through the wall, the pipe should be braced from
+all sides so that when the fixture is screwed in it will be
+perfectly rigid.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Pipe sketch.]
+
+The measurements on the piping sketch, Fig. 81, are taken from the
+accompanying sketch of a dwelling, and if they were to be actually
+put in, they would fit. The reader would do well to copy this
+sketch and follow the piping and check the measurements according
+to the plan, and note how the different risers, drops, etc., are
+drawn. It is not necessary in a sketch of this kind to draw to a
+scale. After the different measurements are the letters _C.C._,
+_E.C._, _E.E._, _C.B._ and _E.B._, meaning center to center, end to
+center, end to end, center to back, and end to back, respectively.
+Offsetting pipe is a very convenient way of getting the pipe or
+fittings back to the wall for support. To offset pipe properly and
+with little trouble, take a piece of scantling 2 by 4 and brace it
+between the floor and ceiling. Bore a few different-sized holes
+through it and you will have a very handy device for offsetting
+pipe. There is a little trick in offsetting pipe that one will have
+to practice to obtain. The pipe must be held firmly in the place
+where the pipe is to be bent. Large offsets and bends should not be
+made; 2 to 4 inches is as large as should be used. Larger offsets
+that are required should be made with fittings. Always make the
+offsets true and have the ends perfectly straight. Before putting a
+piece of pipe permanently in place, always look or blow through it,
+to ascertain if its bore is obstructed or not. Sometimes dirt or
+slag will collect and cause stoppage.
+
+READING THE PIPE SKETCH.--Vertical lines represent vertical pipes
+(see Fig. 81). Horizontal lines represent horizontal pipes running
+parallel to the front. Diagonal lines represent horizontal pipes
+running from back to front. Any line that is drawn perpendicular to
+any other line stands for a horizontal pipe. A diagonal line
+separating a vertical line or horizontal line or set of lines
+represents a different horizontal plane. With this explanation the
+sketch will be made clear to one after drawing it. The reader
+should now take each measurement and check it on the plan. This is
+easily done by using a scale rule. The height of the ceiling is
+8-1/2 feet on the first floor, the second floor is 8 feet. The
+first floor joists are 10 inches, the second floor joists are 9
+inches. An outlet is indicated by a small circle. In the piping
+sketch, this circle is connected with the riser or drop by a
+horizontal line. At the junction of these two lines a short
+perpendicular line is drawn, and indicates the direction of the
+outlet.
+
+Let me again emphasize the need to understand thoroughly this
+piping sketch, and to become so familiar with it that it can
+readily be put to use. The value of a mechanic is determined by the
+quality and the quantity of work that he can turn out; and a
+mechanic who can lay out his work and see it completed before he
+starts, and then proceeds to install his work, is by far of more
+value to his employer than the man who can see only far enough
+ahead to cut out two or three measurements and spends most of his
+time walking between the vise and place of installing the pipe.
+
+TESTING.--The system of gas piping must be tested before the pipes
+have been covered by the advance of building operations. If the job
+is of considerable size, the job can be tested in sections, and if
+found tight the sections can be covered. The necessity of having
+the piping rigidily secured can be appropriately explained here. If
+the test has been made and the system found tight and some pipe
+that is not securely anchored is accidentally or otherwise pushed
+out of place and bent by some of the mechanics working about the
+building, a leak may be caused and yet not discovered until the
+final test is made after the plastering is finished. The expense
+and trouble thus caused is considerable and could have been avoided
+by simply putting in the proper supports for the pipe.
+
+To test the piping, an air pump and a gage connected with the pipes
+are placed in a convenient position. The job should now be
+thoroughly gone over, making sure that all plugs and caps are on
+and that no outlet is open, also that all pipe that is to be put in
+has been installed. After this has been attended to, the pump is
+operated until 10 pounds is registered on the gage. The connection
+leading to the pump and the piping is now shut off. If the gage
+drops rapidly, there is a bad leak in the system. This leak should
+be found without difficulty and repaired. If the gage drops slowly,
+it denotes a very small leak, such as a sand hole or a bad thread.
+This kind of leak is more troublesome to find. When it has been
+found, the pipe or fitting causing the leak should be taken out and
+replaced. If black caps have been used to cap the outlets, the
+chances are that a sand hole will be found in one of them. Nothing
+but galvanized fittings should be used. In case the small leak
+mentioned above cannot be found by going over the pipe once, there
+are other means of locating the leak. Two of the methods used, I
+will explain. If the job is small, each fitting is painted with
+soap suds until the fitting is found that causes the leak. If the
+leak is not in the fittings, then the pipe can be gone over in the
+same way. As soon as the soap suds strikes the leak, a large bubble
+is made and the leak discovered. It is possible that there are more
+leaks, so the gage is noted and if it still drops, the search
+should be continued. The pump should be operated to keep the
+pressure up to 10 pounds while the search is being made for the
+leak. When the gage stands at 10 pounds without dropping, the job
+is then tight. The pump and gage fitting should be gone over first
+to ascertain if they leak. The other method employed to discover
+leaks is to force a little ether or oil of peppermint (not essence)
+into the system by means of the pump. A leak can readily be noted
+by the odor. To make this method successful, the ether or
+peppermint should not be handled by the men who are to hunt for the
+leak. The bottle containing the fluid should not be opened in the
+building except to pour some into the piping, otherwise the odor
+will get into the building and as the odor comes out of the leak it
+will not be noted. For the benefit of the gas fitter, the piping
+should be tested again after the plastering is completed. The next
+test is made when the fixtures are put on, and as the piping is
+tight any leak that develops in this test indicates that the
+fixtures leak. There are in common use various methods to stop
+leaks in gas pipe when they are found. If a piece of piping or a
+fitting is defective, it should be taken out and replaced. This
+should be remembered so that while the piping is being installed
+any defects should be noted and the defective fitting or pipe
+thrown out. Before the gas job is accepted, the gas company will
+inspect it and look for traps and sags in the pipe. Therefore, the
+piping should be installed without any traps and it should be
+arranged to pitch toward the meter, or toward a convenient place
+from which any condensation can be taken out. If provision is not
+made for this condensation, it will accumulate and stop the flow of
+gas.
+
+
+SHOWER-BATH CONNECTIONS
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Shower stall with lead pan extending
+outside of stall.]
+
+The sketches show clearly the methods employed to make a
+shower-bath waste and stall water-tight. The shower bath, as a
+separate fixture, is in use and the demand for it as a separate
+fixture is increasing rapidly. This demand comes from the owners of
+private houses. The plumber must therefore devise some way to make
+these connections tight and prevent any leak from showing in the
+room below. This fixture is so constructed that all waste pipes
+and trap come under the floor level with no way of getting to them
+from below. Therefore the piping for this fixture must be of a
+permanent nature. No pipe or trap made of material that is liable
+to give out in a short time should be allowed under a shower-bath
+fixture or stall. The two sketches, Figs. 82 and 83 illustrate two
+methods of connecting and making tight a shower stall. A plumber
+should always consider it his special duty to make his work
+complete and free from all objections. He should always prepare for
+any emergency that may occur in the future. This is rather a big
+task, yet the plumber when accepting all of his responsibilities
+has a big task. I state this to the beginner and emphasize the
+all-important fact that he must learn to perform and think deeply
+of the elements of plumbing to be able later on to handle
+successfully the problems that present themselves in the plumbing
+trade.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Shower stall with lead pan extending six
+inches beyond strainer.]
+
+The heavy brass trap shown in the sketch has proved itself very
+satisfactory and can be made to fit almost any condition of piping
+or building construction. A flashing of sheet lead is soldered on
+the trap and carried out to the outside edge of the stall where it
+is turned up 1 inch, or to the floor level. When the flashing is
+carried out for only a foot on each side of the trap, the
+possibilities of a leak are greater.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+PLUMBING CODES
+
+
+The work of plumbing has a direct result on the health of the
+occupants of buildings; therefore in order that the plumbing may
+not be installed improperly and impair the health of the occupants,
+it is necessary to provide a code governing the installation of
+plumbing. Naturally these laws at first were under the control of
+the health department of cities, but of late years the building
+departments have assumed control of the codes with the result that
+cooperation with the building codes is now the practice rather than
+the exception.
+
+To make certain the carrying out of the plumbing codes, it is
+required that a plan indicating the run, size, and length of pipes,
+location and number of fixtures of the prospective job be filed in
+the building department of the city, before the work is started. If
+the plan is approved by the plumbing inspector and acceptance is
+sent, then the work can be started. After a job is completed a test
+is made and the job is inspected by the plumbing inspector, and if
+found to meet requirements a written acceptance of the work is
+given by the building department. An effort is being made
+throughout the country to have the plumbing codes under State
+control rather than have a number of different codes in as many
+different cities and towns. The State code can be so arranged that
+it will apply to either city or town.
+
+The installation of plumbing varies in different States. In the
+northern part of the United States all pipes which pass through the
+roof, if less than 4-inch must be increased to 4-inch. A pipe
+smaller than 4-inch will be filled with hoar frost during the
+winter and render the pipe useless to perform its function as a
+vent pipe. Pipes laid under ground in the Northern States must be
+at least 4 feet below the surface to protect them from freezing. In
+the Southern States the frost does not penetrate the ground to such
+a distance and the pipes can be laid on the surface.
+
+Following is a State or City plumbing code insofar as it relates to
+the actual installation of plumbing.
+
+     SEC. 1. PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS.--There shall be a separate
+     plan for each building, public or private, or any addition
+     thereto, or alterations thereof, accompanied by specifications
+     showing the location, size and kind of pipe, traps, closets
+     and fixtures to be used, which plans and specifications shall
+     be filed with the board or bureau of buildings. The said plans
+     and specifications shall be furnished by the architect,
+     plumber or owner, and filed by the plumber. All applications
+     for change in plans must be made in writing.
+
+     SEC. 2. FILING PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS.--Plumbers before
+     commencing the construction of plumbing work in any building
+     (except in case of repairs, which are here defined to relate
+     to the mending of leaks in soil, vent, or waste pipes,
+     faucets, valves and water-supply pipes, and shall not be
+     construed to admit of the replacing of any fixture, such as
+     water closets, bath tubs, lavatories, sinks, etc., or the
+     respective traps for such fixtures) shall submit to the bureau
+     plans and specifications, legibly drawn in ink, on blanks to
+     be furnished by said board or bureau. Where two or more
+     buildings are located together and on the same street, and the
+     plumbing work is identical in each, one plan will be
+     sufficient. Plans will be approved or rejected within 24 hours
+     after their receipt.
+
+     SEC. 3. MATERIAL OF HOUSE DRAIN AND SEWER.--House drains or
+     soil pipes laid beneath floor must be extra heavy cast-iron
+     pipe, with leaded and caulked joints, and carried 5 feet
+     outside cellar wall. All drains and soil pipes connected with
+     main drain where it is above the cellar floor shall be extra
+     heavy cast-iron pipe with leaded joints properly secured or of
+     heavy wrought-iron pipe with screw joints properly secured
+     and carried 5 feet outside cellar wall and all arrangements
+     for soil and waste pipes shall be run as direct as possible.
+     Changes of direction on pipes shall be made with "Y"-branches,
+     both above and below the ground, and where such pipes pass
+     through a new foundation-wall a relieving arch shall be built
+     over it, with a 2-inch space on either side of the pipe.
+
+     SEC. 4.--The size of main house drain shall be determined by
+     the total area of the buildings and paved surfaces to be
+     drained, according to the following table, if iron pipe is
+     used. If the pipe is terra-cotta the pipe shall be one size
+     larger than for the same amount of area drainage.
+
+     ----------+-----------------------------+---------------------------------
+      Diameter |      Fall 1/4 inch per foot |        Fall  1/2 inch per foot
+     ----------+-----------------------------+---------------------------------
+      4 inches |  1,800 square feet drainage |  2,500 square feet drainage area
+      5 inches |  3,000 square feet drainage |  4,500 square feet drainage area
+      6 inches |  5,000 square feet drainage |  7,500 square feet drainage area
+      8 inches |  9,100 square feet drainage | 13,600 square feet drainage area
+     10 inches | 14,000 square feet drainage | 20,000 square feet drainage area
+     ----------+-----------------------------+---------------------------------
+
+     The main house drains may be decreased in diameter beyond the
+     rain-water conductor or surface inlet by permission of the
+     bureau, when the plans show that the conditions are such as to
+     warrant such decrease, but in no case shall the main house
+     drain be less than 4 inches in diameter.
+
+     SEC. 5. MAIN TRAP.--An iron running trap with two clean-outs
+     must be placed in the house drain near the front wall of the
+     house, and on the sewer side of all connections. If placed
+     outside the house or below the cellar floor the clean-outs
+     must extend to surface with brass screw cap ferrules caulked
+     in. If outside the house, it must never be placed less than 4
+     feet below the surface of the ground.
+
+     SEC. 6. FRESH-AIR INLET.--A fresh-air inlet pipe must be
+     connected with the house drain just inside of the house trap
+     and extended to the outer air, terminating with a return bend,
+     or a vent cap or a grating with an open end 1 foot above grade
+     at the most available point to be determined by the building
+     department.
+
+     The fresh-air inlet pipe must be 4 inches in diameter for
+     house drains of 6 inches or less and as much larger as the
+     building department may direct for house drains more than 6
+     inches in diameter.
+
+     SEC. 7. LAYING OF HOUSE SEWERS AND DRAINS.--House sewers and
+     house drains must, where possible, be given an even grade to
+     the main sewer of not less than 1/4 inch to the foot.
+     Full-sized "Y"- and "T"-branch fittings for handhole
+     clean-outs must be provided where required on house drain and
+     its branches. No clean-out need be larger than 6 inches.
+
+     SEC. 8. FLOOR DRAINS.--Floor or other drains will only be
+     permitted when it can be shown to the satisfaction of the
+     department of building that their use is absolutely necessary,
+     and arrangements made to maintain a permanent water seal, and
+     be provided with check or back-water valves.
+
+     SEC. 9. WEIGHT AND THICKNESS OF CAST-IRON PIPE.--All cast-iron
+     pipes must be uncoated excepting all laid under ground, which
+     shall be thoroughly tarred, sound, cylindrical and smooth,
+     free from cracks, sand holes and other defects, and of uniform
+     thickness and of grade known to commerce as extra heavy.
+     Cast-iron pipe including the hub shall weigh not less than the
+     following weights per linear foot:
+
+     2-inch pipe     5-1/2 pounds per foot.
+     3-inch pipe     9-1/2 pounds per foot.
+     4-inch pipe     13 pounds per foot.
+     5-inch pipe     17 pounds per foot.
+     6-inch pipe     20 pounds per foot.
+     7-inch pipe     27 pounds per foot.
+     8-inch pipe     33-1/2 pounds per foot.
+     10-inch pipe    45 pounds per foot.
+     12-inch pipe    54 pounds per foot.
+
+     All cast-iron pipe must be tested to 50 pounds and marked with
+     the maker's name.
+
+     All joints in cast-iron pipe must be made with picked oakum
+     and molten lead and caulked gas-tight. Twelve ounces of soft
+     pig lead must be used at each joint for each inch in the
+     diameter of the pipe.
+
+     SEC. 10. WROUGHT-IRON AND STEEL PIPE.--All wrought-iron and
+     steel pipe shall be galvanized. Fittings used for drainage
+     must be galvanized and of recess type known as drainage
+     fittings. All fittings used for venting shall be galvanized
+     and of the style known as steam pattern. No plain black pipe
+     or fittings will be permitted.
+
+     SEC. 11. SUB-SOIL DRAINS.--Sub-soil drains must be discharged
+     into a sump or receiving tank, the contents of which must be
+     lifted and discharged into the drainage system above the
+     cellar floor by some approved method. Where directly
+     sewer-connected, they must be cut off from the rest of the
+     building and plumbing system by a brass flap valve on the
+     inlet to the catch basin and the trap on the drain from the
+     catch basin must be water-supplied.
+
+     SEC. 12. YARD AND AREA DRAINS.--All yard, area and court
+     drains when sewer-connected must have connection not less than
+     4 inches in diameter. They should be controlled by one
+     trap--the leader trap if possible. All yards, areas and courts
+     must be drained. Tenement houses and lodging houses must have
+     yards, areas and courts drained into sewer.
+
+     SEC. 13. USE OF OLD DRAINS AND SEWERS.--Old house drains and
+     sewers may be used in connection with new buildings or new
+     plumbing, only when they are found, on examination by the
+     department of building, to conform in all respects to the
+     requirements governing new sewers and drains. All extensions
+     to old house drains must be of extra heavy cast-iron pipe.
+
+     SEC. 14. LEADER PIPES.--All building shall be provided with
+     proper metallic leaders for conducting water from the roofs in
+     such manner as shall protect the walls and foundations of such
+     buildings from injury. In no case shall the water from such
+     leaders be allowed to flow upon the sidewalk but the same
+     shall be conducted by a pipe or pipes to the sewer. If there
+     is no sewer in the street upon which such building fronts,
+     then the water from said leader shall be conducted, by proper
+     pipes below the surface of the sidewalk, to the street gutter.
+
+     Inside leaders shall be constructed of cast iron, wrought iron
+     or steel, with roof connections made gas-and water-tight by
+     means of heavy copper drawn tubing slipped into the pipe. The
+     tubing must slip at least 7 inches into the pipe. Outside
+     leaders may be of sheet metal, but they must connect with the
+     house drain by means of cast-iron pipe extending vertically 5
+     feet above grade level, where the building is located along
+     public driveways or sidewalks. Where the building is located
+     off building line, and not liable to be damaged the connection
+     shall be made with iron pipe extending 1 foot above the grade
+     level.
+
+     All leaders must be trapped with running traps of cast iron,
+     so placed as to prevent freezing.
+
+     Rain leaders must not be used as soil, waste or vent pipes,
+     nor shall such pipes be used as rain leaders.
+
+     SEC. 15.--EXHAUST FROM STEAM PIPES, ETC.--No steam discharge
+     or exhaust, blow-off or drip pipe shall connect with the sewer
+     or the house drain, leader, soil pipe, waste or vent pipe.
+     Such pipes shall discharge into a tank or condenser, from
+     which suitable outlet to the sewer shall be made. Such
+     condenser shall be supplied with water, to help condensation
+     and help protect the sewer, and shall also be supplied with
+     relief vent to carry off dry steam.
+
+     SEC. 16. DIAMETER OF SOIL PIPE.--The smallest diameter of soil
+     pipe permitted to be used shall be 4 inches. The size of soil
+     pipes must not be less than those set forth in the following
+     tables.
+
+     Maximum number of fixtures connected to:
+
+     -------------+-------------------------+------------------------------
+     Size of pipe | Waste and soil combined |         Soil pipe alone
+                  +------------+------------+---------------+--------------
+                  |   Branch   |    Main    |     Branch    |     Main
+                  |  fixtures  |  fixtures  | water closets | water closets
+     -------------+------------+------------+---------------+--------------
+        4-inch    |      48    |      96    |        8      |       16
+      4.5-inch    |      96    |     192    |       16      |       32
+        6-inch    |     268    |     336    |       34      |       68
+     -------------+------------+------------+---------------+--------------
+
+     If the building is six (6) and less than twelve (12) stories
+     in height, the diameter shall not be less than 5 inches. If
+     more than twelve (12) it shall be 6 inches, in diameter. A
+     building six (6) or more stories in height, with fixtures
+     located below the sixth floor, soil pipe 4 inches in diameter
+     will be allowed to extend through the roof provided the
+     number of fixtures does not exceed the number given in the
+     table. All soil pipes must extend at least 2 feet above the
+     highest window, and must not be reduced in size. Traps will
+     not be permitted on main, vertical, soil or waste-pipe lines.
+     Each house must have a separate line of soil and vent pipes.
+     No soil or waste line shall be constructed on the outside of a
+     building.
+
+     Fixtures with:
+       1 to 1-1/4-inch traps count as one fixture.
+       1 to 1-1/2  "  traps count as one fixture.
+       1 to 2      "  traps count as two fixtures.
+       1 to 2-1/2  "  traps count as three fixtures.
+       1 to 3      "  traps (water closets) count as four fixtures.
+       1 to 4      "  traps count as five fixtures.
+
+     SEC. 17. CHANGE IN DIRECTION.--All sewer, soil, and waste
+     pipes must be as direct as possible. Changes in direction must
+     be made with "Y"- or half "Y"-branches or one-eighth bends.
+     Offsets in soil or waste pipes will not be permitted when they
+     can be avoided, nor, in any case unless suitable provision is
+     made to prevent the accumulation of rust or other obstruction.
+     Offsets must be made with fourth degree bends or similar
+     fittings. The use of T "Y"s (sanitary Ts) will be permitted on
+     upright lines only.
+
+     SEC. 18. JOINTS ON SOIL AND WASTE PIPES.--Connection on lead
+     and cast-iron pipe shall be made with brass sleeve or ferrule,
+     of the same size as the lead pipe inserted in the hub of the
+     iron pipe, and caulked with lead. The lead must be attached to
+     the ferrule by means of a wiped joint. Joints between lead and
+     wrought-iron pipes must be made with brass nipple, of same
+     size as lead pipe. The lead pipe must be attached to the brass
+     nipple by means of a wiped joint. All connections of lead
+     waste pipes must be made by means of wiped joints.
+
+     Short nipples on wrought-iron and steel pipes must be of
+     thickness and weight known as "extra heavy" or "extra strong."
+
+     Brass ferrules must be best quality, extra heavy cast brass,
+     not less than 4 inches long and 2-1/4, 3-1/2 and 4-1/2 inches
+     in diameter and not less than the following weights:
+
+       Diameters          Weights
+     2-1/4 inches    1 pound  0 ounce.
+     3-1/2 inches    1 pound 12 ounces.
+     4-1/2 inches    2 pounds 8 ounces.
+
+     SEC. 19. SOLDER NIPPLES.--Solder nipples must be heavy cast
+     brass or of brass pipe, iron pipe size. When cast they must be
+     not less than the following weights:
+
+       Diameters          Weights
+     1-1/2 inches    0 pound  8 ounces.
+     2     inches    0 pound 14 ounces.
+     2-1/2 inches    1 pound  6 ounces.
+     3     inches    2 pounds 0 ounce.
+     4     inches    3 pounds 8 ounces.
+
+     SEC. 20. BRASS CLEAN-OUTS.--Brass screw caps for clean-outs
+     must be extra heavy, not less than 1/8 inch thick. The screw
+     cap must have a solid square or hexagonal nut not less than 1
+     inch high and a least diameter of 1-1/2 inches. The body of
+     the clean-out ferrule must be at least equal in weight and
+     thickness to the caulking ferrule for the same size pipe.
+
+     SEC. 21. LEAD WASTE PIPE.--All lead waste, soil vent and flush
+     pipes must be of the best quality, known in commerce as "_D_,"
+     and of not less than the following weights per linear foot:
+
+       Diameters        Weights
+     1-1/4 inches    2-1/2 pounds.
+     1-1/2 inches    3     pounds.
+     2     inches    4     pounds.
+     3     inches    6     pounds.
+     4     inches    8     pounds.
+
+     All lead traps and bends must be of the same weight and
+     thicknesses as their corresponding pipe branches.
+
+     SEC. 22. ROOF FLASHERS.--Sheet lead for roof flashings must be
+     6-pound lead and must extend not less than 6 inches from the
+     pipe and the joint made water-tight.
+
+     SEC. 23. TRAPS FOR BATH TUBS, WATER CLOSETS, ETC.--Every sink,
+     bath tub, basin, water closet, slop hopper, or fixtures having
+     a waste pipe, must be furnished with a trap, which shall be
+     placed as close as practicable to the fixture that it serves
+     and in no case shall it be more than 1 foot. The waste pipe
+     from the bath tub or other fixtures must not be connected
+     with a water-closet trap.
+
+     SEC. 24. SIZE OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL WASTE PIPES, TRAPS
+     AND BRANCHES.--
+
+     Horizontal and vertical    Number of small fixtures
+          1-1/4-inch                      1
+          1-1/2-inch                      2
+          2    -inch                      3 to 8
+          2-1/2-inch                      9 to 20
+          3    -inch                     21 to 44
+
+     If building is ten (10) or more stories in height, the
+     vertical waste pipe shall not be less than 3 inches in
+     diameter. The use of wrought-iron pipe for waste pipe 2 inches
+     or less in diameter is prohibited.
+
+     The size of traps and waste branches, for a given fixture,
+     shall be as follows:
+
+     ---------------------------------------------+------------------
+                                                  | Size in inches
+                   Kind of fixtures               +-------+----------
+                                                  | Trap  | Branch
+     ---------------------------------------------+-------+----------
+     Water closet                                 | 3     | 4
+     Slop sink with trap combined                 | 3     | 3
+     Slop sink ordinary                           | 2     | 2
+     Pedestal urinal                              | 3     | 3
+     Floor drain or wash                          | 4     | 4
+     Yard drain or catch basin                    | 4     | 4
+     Urinal trough                                | 2     | 2
+     Laundry trays, two or five                   | 2     | 2
+     Combination sink and tray (for each fixture) | 1-1/2 | 2
+     Kitchen sinks, small                         | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2
+     Kitchen sinks, large hotel, etc.             |       |
+     Kitchen sinks, grease trap                   |       | 2
+     Pantry sinks                                 | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2
+     Wash basin, one only                         | 1-1/4 | 1-1/4
+     Bath tub                                     | 2     | 2
+     Shower baths                                 | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2
+     Shower baths, floor                          | 2     | 2
+     Sitz bath                                    | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2
+     Drinking fountains                           | 1-1/4 | 1-1/4
+     ---------------------------------------------+-------+----------
+
+     SEC. 25. OVERFLOW PIPES.--Overflow pipes from fixtures must in
+     all cases be connected on the inlet side of the traps.
+
+     SEC. 26. SETTING OF TRAPS WITHOUT RE-VENT.--All traps must be
+     substantially supported and set true with respect to their
+     water levels. No pot, bottle or "D" trap will be permitted nor
+     any form of trap that is not self-cleaning, nor that has
+     interior chambers or mechanism nor any trap except earthenware
+     ones that depend upon interior partitions for a seal. In case
+     there is an additional fixture required in building and it is
+     impossible to re-vent pipe for the trap, the building
+     department may designate the kind of trap to be used. This
+     shall not be construed to allow traps without re-vents in new
+     buildings.
+
+     SEC. 27. SAFE AND REFRIGERATOR PIPES.--Safe-waste pipes must
+     not connect directly with any part of the plumbing system.
+     Safe-waste pipes must discharge over an open, water-supplied,
+     publicly-placed, ordinary-used sink, placed not more than
+     3-1/2 feet above the cellar floor. The safe waste from a
+     refrigerator must be trapped at the bottom of the line only
+     and must not discharge upon the ground floor, but over an
+     ordinary open pan, or some properly-trapped, water-supplied
+     sink, as above. In no case shall the refrigerator waste pipe
+     discharge into a sink located in a living room.
+
+     The branches on vertical lines must be made by means of "Y"
+     fittings and be carried to the safe with as much pitch as
+     possible. Where there is an offset on the refrigerator waste
+     pipe in the cellar, there must be clean-outs placed. These
+     clean-outs must be of brass.
+
+     In tenement and lodging houses the refrigerator waste pipe
+     must extend above the roof, and not be larger than 1-1/2
+     inches and the branches not smaller than 1-1/4 inches.
+     Refrigerator waste pipes, except in tenement houses, and all
+     safe-waste pipes, must have brass flap valve on the lower
+     ends. Lead safes must be graded and neatly turned over beveled
+     strips at their edges.
+
+     SEC. 28. VENT-PIPE MATERIAL.--Material for vent pipes shall be
+     of lead, brass, enameled iron or galvanized iron.
+
+     SEC. 29. VENTILATION OF TRAPS AND SOIL LINES.--Traps shall be
+     protected from siphonage or air pressure by special vent pipes
+     of a size of not less than the following tables:
+
+     -----------------+----------------+-----------------------------
+                      |    Maximum     |   Number of traps vented
+                      | length in feet |
+       Size of pipe   +----------------+------------+----------------
+                      |     Mains      |  Branch    |  Main vertical
+     -----------------+----------------+------------+----------------
+      1-1/4-inch vent |     20 feet    |  1         |
+      1-1/2-inch vent |     40 feet    |  2 or less |
+      2-inch vent     |     65 feet    | 10 or less |   20 or less
+      2-1/2-inch vent |    100 feet    | 20 or less |   40 or less
+      3-inch vent     |   10 or more   | 60 or less |  100 or less
+                      |    stories     |            |
+     -----------------+----------------+------------+----------------
+
+     The branch vent shall not be less than the following sizes:
+
+     1-1/4 inches in diameter for 1-1/4 inch trap.
+     1-1/2 inches in diameter for 1-1/2 inch to 2-1/2 inch trap.
+     2 inches in diameter for 3 inch to 4 inch trap.
+     One-half their diameter, for traps 3 inches and over.
+
+     Where two or more closets are placed side by side, on a
+     horizontal branch, the branch line shall have a relief
+     extended as a loop. A pipe 2 inches in diameter shall be
+     sufficient as a loop vent for two closets. A pipe 3 inches in
+     diameter shall be sufficient as a relief for three or four
+     closets; and where more than four closets are located on the
+     same branch the relief shall not be less than 4 inches in
+     diameter. All house drains and soil lines on which a water
+     closet is located must have a 4-inch main vent line. Where an
+     additional closet is located in the cellar or basement, and
+     within 10 feet of main soil or vent line, no relief vent will
+     be required for said closet; but where it is more than 10
+     feet, a 2-inch vent line will be required. Relief vent pipes
+     for water closets must not be less than 2 inches in diameter,
+     for a length of 40 feet, and not less than 3 inches in
+     diameter, for more than 40 feet.
+
+     No re-vent from traps under bell traps will be required.
+
+     In any building having a sewer connection with a private or
+     public sewer used for bell-trap connections or floor drainage
+     only, a 2-inch relief line must be extended to the roof of the
+     building from rear end of main. House drains, constructed for
+     roof drainage only, will not require a relief vent.
+
+     A floor trap for a shower shall be vented, unless located in
+     the cellar or ground floor the paving of which renders the
+     trap inaccessible.
+
+     SEC. 30. HORIZONTAL VENT PIPES.--Where rows of fixtures are
+     placed in a line, fitting of not less than 45 deg. to the
+     horizontal must be used on vent lines to prevent filling with
+     rust or condensation; except on brick or tile walls, where it
+     is necessary to channel same for pipes, 90 deg. fittings will be
+     allowed. Trapped vent pipes are strictly prohibited. No vent
+     pipe from the house side of any trap shall connect with the
+     ventilation pipe or with sewer, soil or waste pipe.
+
+     SEC. 31. OFFSET ON VENT LINES.--All offsets on vent lines must
+     be made at an angle of not less than 45 deg. to the horizontal,
+     and all lines must be connected at the bottom with a soil or
+     waste pipe, or the drain, in such manner as to prevent the
+     accumulation of rust, scale or condensation.
+
+     No sheet metal, brick, or other flue shall be used as a vent
+     pipe.
+
+     SEC. 32. SETTING OF FIXTURES.--All fixtures must be set open
+     and free from all enclosing woodwork. Water closets and
+     urinals must not be connected directly or flushed from the
+     water-supply pipes except when flushometer valves are used.
+     Each water closet must be flushed from a separate cistern, the
+     water from which is used for no other purpose, or may be
+     flushed through flushometer valves.
+
+     Rubber connection and elbows are not permitted.
+
+     Pan, plunger, or hopper closets will not be permitted in any
+     building. No range closet either wet or dry, nor any
+     evaporating system of closets shall be constructed or allowed
+     inside of any building.
+
+     A separate building constructed especially for the purpose,
+     must be provided in which such range closets shall be set.
+
+     All earthenware traps must have heavy brass floor flange
+     plates, soldered to the lead bends and bolted to the trap
+     flange, and the joint made permanently secure and gas-tight.
+
+     In all buildings sewer-connected there must be at least one
+     water closet in each building. There must be a sufficient
+     number of water closets so that there will never be more than
+     15 people to each water closet.
+
+     Separate water closets and toilet rooms must be provided for
+     each sex in buildings used as workshops, office buildings,
+     factories, hotels and all places of public assembly.
+
+     In all buildings the water closet and urinal apartments must
+     be ventilated into the outer air by windows opening on the
+     same lot as the building is situated on or by a ventilating
+     skylight placed over each room or apartment where such
+     fixtures are located.
+
+     In all buildings the outside partition of any water closet or
+     urinal apartment must be air-tight and extend to the ceiling
+     or be independently ceiled over. When necessary to light such
+     apartments properly the upper part of the partition must be
+     provided with translucent glass. The interior partitions of
+     such apartments must be dwarfed partitions.
+
+     In alteration work where it is not practicable to ventilate a
+     closet or urinal apartment by windows or skylight to the outer
+     air, there must be provided a sheet-iron duct extending to the
+     outer air, the area of the duct must be at least 144 square
+     inches for one water closet or urinal, and an additional 72
+     square inches for each addition closet or urinal added
+     therein.
+
+     SEC. 33. URINALS.--All urinals must be constructed of
+     materials impervious to moisture and that will not corrode
+     under the action of urine. The floors and walls of urinal
+     apartments must be lined with similar non-absorbent and
+     non-corrosive material.
+
+     The platforms and treads of urinal stalls must be connected
+     independently of the plumbing system, nor can they be
+     connected with any safe-waste pipe.
+
+     The copper lining of water closet and urinal cisterns must not
+     be lighter than 12 ounces copper, and must be stamped on
+     lining with maker's name. Where lead is used it must not weigh
+     less than 4 pounds to the square foot. All other materials are
+     prohibited.
+
+     SEC. 34. FIXTURES PROHIBITED.--Wooden wash trays, sinks, or
+     bath tubs are prohibited inside buildings. Such fixtures must
+     be constructed of non-absorbent materials. Cement or
+     artificial stone tubs will not be permitted, unless approved
+     by the plumbing inspector and building department.
+
+     Yard water closets will not be permitted except as approved by
+     the plumbing inspector and then passed by the building
+     department.
+
+     SEC. 35. PRIVY VAULTS AND CESSPOOLS.--No privy vault or
+     cesspool for sewage, shall be constructed in any part of the
+     city where a sewer is at all accessible. In parts of the city
+     where no sewer exists privy vaults and cesspools shall not be
+     located within 2 feet of party or street line nor within 20
+     feet of any building. Before these are constructed application
+     for permission therefore shall be made to the building
+     department.
+
+     SEC. 36. MATERIAL AND WORKMANSHIP.--All material used in the
+     work of plumbing and drainage must be of good quality and free
+     from defects. The work must be executed in a thorough and
+     workmanlike manner.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+
+     A
+
+     Acid, muriatic, 12
+
+
+     B
+
+     Banjo, 120
+
+     Bath-tub, 5-6-7
+       size waste, 99
+
+     Bending irons, 15, 48, 59
+
+     Bib, wiping, 59, 68
+
+     Bowls, closet, 4, 5
+
+
+     C
+
+     Caulking joints, 89, 90
+
+     Cellar drainer, 84
+
+     Cement, pipe joint, 122
+
+     Cementing, 72, 73
+
+     Circulation, hot water, 124, 129
+
+     Closets, 3, 4, 5
+
+     Cocks, stop and waste, 120
+
+     Code-plumbing, 153
+       brass clean-outs, 160
+       change in direction, 159
+       diameter of soil pipes, 158
+       exhaust from steam pipes, 158
+       filing plans, 154
+       floor drains, 156
+       fresh-air inlet, 155
+       joints, 159
+       laying of drains, 156
+       lead waste pipe, 160
+       leader pipes, 157
+       main trap, 155
+       materials of drains, 154
+       old drains and sewers, 157
+       over-flow pipes, 162
+       plans and specification, 154
+       roof flashers, 160
+       safe and refrigerator pipes, 162
+       size of drains, 155
+         of waste pipes, 161
+       solder nipples, 160
+       traps, 160
+         without vents, 162
+       yard and area drains, 157
+
+     Code, fixtures prohibited, 165
+       horizontal vents, 164
+       material and workmanship, 166
+       offsets, 164
+       privy vaults and cesspools, 166
+       setting of fixtures, 164
+       urinals, 165
+       vent, pipe material, 162
+       ventilation of traps, 162
+
+     Connecting, sewers, 74
+
+     Connections, of fixtures, 139
+
+     Corporation cock and tap, 76-77
+
+     Coupling, right and left, 116
+
+     Covering, pipe, 131
+
+     Cup joint, 14-66
+
+     Curb cock, 77-81
+       box, 78-81
+
+     Cutters, pipe, 113
+
+     Cutting, terra-cotta pipe, 72
+       cast-iron pipe, 93
+
+
+     D
+
+     Dies, 112
+
+     Drainage, 2
+
+     Drains, 82, 83, 84, 87, 92
+
+     Drift plugs, 18
+
+     Drum trap, 61, 65, 68, 107
+
+     Durham work, 134
+
+
+     E
+
+     Earthenware, 3-5
+
+     Expansion joints, 129
+
+
+     F
+
+     Ferrule, brass, 37-43
+
+     File, 15
+
+     Fittings, drainage, 136
+       gas, 143
+       screw pipe, 98
+       soil pipe, 96
+
+     Fixtures, 3
+
+     Flushing, 3
+
+     Flux, 12
+
+     Fresh-air inlet, 105
+
+
+     G
+
+     Gas pipe and fittings, 143
+       piping, 141, 144
+
+     Goose neck, 81
+
+
+     H
+
+     Half and half solder, 21
+
+     Hammer, 15
+
+     Hangers, 121, 137
+
+     Heaters, flue connection, 130
+       gas coil, 126
+       instantaneous, 127
+
+     Hot water supply, 124
+
+     House drains, 86
+       traps, 87, 104
+
+
+     I
+
+     Inserting, terra-cotta pipe, 74
+
+     Intercepting trap, 92, 93
+
+     Iron enamelled ware, 3
+
+
+     J
+
+     Joints, amount of lead and oakum, 97
+       caulk, 87, 89
+       cup, 14
+       expansion, 129
+       of sub-soil, 84
+       overcast, 17
+       runner, 90
+       rust, 97
+       seams, 19
+       solder, 14
+
+
+     K
+
+     Kitchen sinks, 99
+
+
+     L
+
+     Lavatories, 8, 99
+
+     Lead connection, 78
+       used in caulked joints, 89, 97
+
+     Lead pipe, for water mains, 80
+       preparing for wiping, 45
+       use of, 27
+
+     Leaders, pipes and traps, 93
+
+     Long screws, 115
+
+
+     M
+
+     Main sewer, 81
+
+     Mason trap, 104
+
+     Measurements of piping, 146
+
+     Melting point of metals, 21
+
+     Metal, wiping, 31
+
+     Meter, reading gas, 142
+
+
+     N
+
+     Nipples, cutting and threading, 114
+       holders, 114
+
+
+     O
+
+     Oakum, use of, 89, 97
+
+     Overcast joint, 17, 67
+
+
+     P
+
+     Paste, 13
+
+     Pipe, brass, 80
+       covering, 131
+       cutting, 93
+       kinds of, 122
+       service, 81
+       soil, location, 95
+       steel, 97
+       tell-tale, 100
+       terra-cotta, 69
+       threading, 110
+       wrought iron, 97
+
+     Pipe laying, sewer, 71
+       water, 78
+       in tunnel, 73
+
+     Piping, water, 120
+       drainage, 135
+
+     Planking, 70, 71
+
+     Pressure, water, 119
+
+
+     R
+
+     Rain leaders, 86
+
+     Reaming, 135
+
+     Receptors, showers, 99
+
+     Refill, trench, 75, 79
+       tunnels, 79
+
+     Right and left couplings, 116
+
+
+     S
+
+     Sanitary drains, 91, 92
+
+     Screw-pipe work, 134
+
+     Seams, 19, 67
+
+     Sewerage, system of, 86
+
+     Sewers, 69, 81
+
+     Shoe, use of, 75
+
+     Shower stall, 150
+
+     Sinks, 2
+
+     Soil pipe, 95, 96
+
+     Soils, 13
+
+     Soldering iron, 11, 15, 66
+
+     Solders, 21
+
+     Stopcock, 45, 68, 81, 120
+
+     Sulphur, 97
+
+     Swab, 73, 81
+
+
+     T
+
+     Tables, angle measurements, 138, 139
+       brass ferrules, 160
+       fixtures and traps, 161
+       lead waste pipe, 160
+       measurements, 116
+       roof drainage, 155
+       screw-pipe, 134
+       size of vent pipes, 163
+         of waste pipe, 99
+       soil and waste pipe, 158
+       standard, threads, 110
+       terra-cotta pipe, 75
+       waste pipe, 161
+       weight of cast-iron pipe, 156
+       of solder nipples, 160
+
+     Tallow, 13
+
+     Tank, storage connections of, 125
+
+     Tell-tale pipe, 100
+
+     Terra-cotta pipe, 69, 75, 83
+       cutting, 72
+
+     Testing, gas pipe, 148
+
+     Thermostat, 124, 126
+
+     Tinning, brass, 38, 42, 45
+       bib, 59
+
+     Tools, bending iron, 15
+       caulking iron, 89
+       cold chisel, 89, 93
+       file, 15
+       hammer, 15
+       joint runner, 90
+       ladle, 29
+       pipe cutters, 113
+       rasp, 15
+       saw, 15
+       shave hook, 15
+       soldering iron, 15
+       tap-borer, 15, 47, 59
+       turn pin, 15
+       vise, 111
+       yarning iron, 89
+
+     Traps, bag, 109
+       centrifugal, 109
+       cleansweep, 108
+       drum, 107
+       flask, 108
+       house, 104
+       intercepting, 92
+       mechanical, 109
+       non-syphoning, 107
+       "S," 109
+       sure-seal, 109
+
+     Trenches, digging, 70, 81, 87
+       refilling, 75
+       water service, 76
+
+     Tubs, bath, 6
+
+     Tunnels, 73
+
+
+     U
+
+     Urinals, 99
+
+
+     V
+
+     Valves, check, 128
+       closet, 4
+       safety, 128
+
+     Ventilation pipe, 101
+
+     Vents, 100-103
+
+
+     W
+
+     Wash trays, 86, 99
+
+     Water connection, 76
+       supply, 118
+         rivers and lakes, 119
+         streams and brooks, 118
+         under pressure, 119
+         underground, 118
+
+     Wiping, 29
+       bib, 59
+       branch joints, 49
+       cloths, 67
+       drum trap, 61
+       2-inch brass ferrule, 40
+       4-inch brass ferrule, 43
+       round joint, 31
+       solder, 21
+       stopcock, 45
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+
+Inconsistencies in hyphenation and spelling have been retained.
+
+Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved for easier reading.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Elements of Plumbing, by Samuel Dibble
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