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diff --git a/25269.txt b/25269.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..295f541 --- /dev/null +++ b/25269.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6062 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Elements of Plumbing, by Samuel Dibble + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Elements of Plumbing + +Author: Samuel Dibble + +Release Date: May 1, 2008 [EBook #25269] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF PLUMBING *** + + + + +Produced by Suzan Flanagan and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + ELEMENTS + + OF + + PLUMBING + + BY + SAMUEL EDWARD DIBBLE + + HEAD OF SANITARY EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATION DEPT. + CARNEGIE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY + + + FIRST EDITION + + MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC. + 239 WEST 39TH STREET. NEW YORK + + LONDON: HILL PUBLISHING CO., LTD. + 6 & 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C. + 1918 + + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE + MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC. + + + + + THE MAPLE PRESS YORK PA + + + + +PREFACE + + +In preparing this manuscript the author has had in mind the needs +of young men having no technical instruction who are anxious to +become proficient in the art of Plumbing. As a consequence each +exercise is minutely described and illustrated; so much so, +perhaps, that an experienced mechanic may find it too simple for +skilled hands and a mature mind. But the beginner will not find the +exercises too elaborately described and will profit by careful +study. Years of experience and observation have shown the author +that the methods herein described are entirely practical and are in +common use today. + +The various exercises in lead work will acquaint the beginner with +the correct use of tools and metals. The exercises in iron pipe +work have also been detailed to show the correct installation of +jobs. + +Together with the study of this book the subjects of Mathematics, +Physics, Chemistry, Drawing and English should be taken. These +subjects as they bear on Plumbing are invaluable to the mechanic in +his future connection with the trade. + +The author is indebted for the illustrations of fixtures in the +chapter covering the development of plumbing fixtures, to the +Thomas Maddock's Sons Co., Standard Sanitary Mfg. Co., and The +Trenton Potteries Co. + + SAMUEL EDWARD DIBBLE. + PITTSBURGH, _December, 1917_. + + + + +CONTENTS + + PAGE + + PREFACE v + + CHAPTER + + I. Plumbing Fixtures and Trade 1 + + II. The Use and Care of the Soldering Iron--Fluxes--Making + Different Soldering Joints 11 + + III. Mixtures of Solders for Soldering Iron and Wiping--Care + of Solders--Melting Points of Metals and Alloys 21 + + IV. Making and Caring of Wiping Cloths 24 + + V. Preparing and Wiping Joints 27 + + VI. Preparing and Wiping Joints (_Continued_) 37 + + VII. Laying Terra-cotta and Making Connections to Public + Sewers--Water Connections to Mains in Streets 69 + + VIII. Installing of French or Sub-soil Drains 82 + + IX. Storm and Sanitary Drainage with Sewage Disposal in + View 86 + + X. Soil and Waste Pipes and Vents--Tests 95 + + XI. House Traps, Fresh-air Connections, Drum Traps, and + Non-syphoning Traps 104 + + XII. Pipe Threading 110 + + XIII. Cold-water Supply--Test 118 + + XIV. Hot-water Heaters--Instantaneous Coil and Storage + Tanks--Return Circulation, Hot-water Lines and Expansion 124 + + XV. Insulation of Piping to Eliminate Conduction, Radiation, + Freezing and Noise 131 + + XVI. "Durham" or "Screw Pipe" Work--Pipe and Fittings 134 + + XVII. Gas Fittings, Pipe and Fittings, Threading, Measuring + and Testing 141 + + XVIII. Plumbing Codes 153 + + INDEX 167 + + + + +ELEMENTS OF PLUMBING + + + + +CHAPTER I + +PLUMBING FIXTURES AND TRADE + + +Modern plumbing as a trade is the arranging and running of pipes to +supply pure water to buildings, the erecting of fixtures for the +use of this supply, and the installing of other pipes for the +resulting waste water. The work of the trade divides itself +therefore into two parts: first the providing an adequate supply of +water; and second, the disposing of this water after use. The first +division offers few problems to the plumber, little variety in the +layout being possible, and the result depending mostly upon the +arrangement of the pipes and fittings; but the second division +calls for careful study in the arrangement, good workmanship in the +installing, and individual attention to each fixture. + +The trade had its beginnings in merely supplying fresh water to a +community. This was done by means of trenching, or conveying water +from lakes, rivers, or springs through wooden pipes or open +troughs. By easy stages the trade improved and enlarged its scope, +until at the present time it is able to provide for the adequate +distribution of tons of water under high pressure furnished by the +city water works. + +In the early years of the trade the question of the disposal of the +waste water was easily answered, for it was allowed to be +discharged onto the ground to seek its own course. But with the +increased amount of water available, the waste-water problem has +enlarged until today it plays the most important part of plumbing, +and the trade has had to change to meet this waste-water problem. + +The first simple system of a pipe running from the sink to a point +outside the building was sufficient. As larger buildings came into +use and communities were more thickly populated, the plumbing +problem demanded thought and intense study. The waste pipes from +fixtures had to be so arranged that it would be impossible for foul +odors and germ-laden air to enter the building through a plumbing +fixture. The importance of this is evidenced by the plumbing laws +now in use throughout the country. + +One of the first plumbing fixtures put into common use was a +hollowed-out stone which served as a sink. It was with considerable +interest that the writer saw a sink of this kind in actual use in +the summer of 1915, at a house in a New England village. This sink +had been in service for about 100 years. From this beginning the +well-known fixtures of today have developed. The demand for +moderate priced, sanitary closets, lavatories, and baths has led to +the rapid improvement seen in plumbing fixtures. In the development +of these fixtures, as soon as a bad feature was recognized the +fixture was at once discarded, until now the market offers fixtures +as mechanically fine as can be produced. Plumbing fixtures were at +first manufactured so that it was necessary to support them on a +wooden frame, and this frame was enclosed in wood. The enclosure +made by this framework soon became foul and filthy and a breeding +place for all kinds of disease germs and vermin. This bad feature +was overcome by the introduction of open plumbing, that is, +fixtures so made that the enclosure of wood could be done away +with. The open plumbing allowed a free circulation of air around +the fixture and exposed pipes, thereby making the outside of the +fixture and its immediate surroundings free from all the bad +features of the closed plumbing. Plenty of fresh air and plenty of +light are necessary for good sanitary plumbing. + +The materials of which the first open-plumbing fixtures were made +consisted of marble, copper, zinc, slate, iron, and clay. Time soon +proved that marble and slate were absorbent, copper and zinc soon +leaked from wear, iron rusted, and clay cracked and lacked +strength; therefore these materials soon became insanitary, and +foul odors were easily detected rising from the fixture. Besides +these materials being insanitary, the fact that a fixture was +constructed using a number of sections proved that joints and seams +were insanitary features on a fixture. For instance, in a marble +lavatory constructed by using one piece for the top, another for +the bowl, and still another for the back, filth accumulated at +every joint and seam. Following this condition, developed the iron +enameled and earthenware fixtures, constructed without seams and +with a smooth, even, glossy white finish. The fact that these +fixtures are made of material that is non-absorbent adds to their +value as sanitary plumbing fixtures. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Pan closet (_English_).] + +Another problem which is as important as the foregoing is the +proper flushing, that is, the supplying of sufficient water in a +manner designed to cleanse the fixture properly. + +The development of sanitary earthenware illustrates how the above +problems were satisfactorily solved. In the city of London a law +compelling the use of drains was enforced, and in the early 70's +the effect of this law was felt in this country. The introduction +at this time of the mechanical water closet, known as the "pan +closet," and the English plumbing material which was brought to +this country was the beginning of "American plumbing," which today +outstrips that of any other country in the world. The "pan closet" +continued in use for some time until the "valve closet" was +introduced as a more sanitary fixture. Closely following these +closets, in 1880, the plunger closet became popular as a still more +sanitary fixture. The plunger closet continued in use until the +present all-earthenware closet bowl drove all other makes from the +market. The American development of the earthenware closet bowl +put the American sanitary fixture far ahead of the English +improvements, as the American earthenware is superior and the +sanitary features of the bowls are nearer perfection. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Pan closet (_American_).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Plunger closet.] + +When the washout bowl was introduced it was considered perfection. +The hopper closet bowl, which was nothing more than a funnel-shaped +bowl placed on top of a trap, was placed in competition with the +washout bowl. There are a number of these bowls now in use and also +being manufactured. However, large cities prohibit their use. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Plunger closet.] + +To quote Thomas Maddock's Sons Co.: "In 1876 Wm. Smith of San +Francisco patented a water closet which employed a jet to assist in +emptying the bowl and the development of this principle is due +entirely to the potter, who had gradually and by costly experiment +become the determining factor in the evolution of the water +closet." With this improvement it became possible to do away with +the boxing-in of the bowl which up to this time had been necessary. +Closet bowls of today are made of vitreous body which does not +permit crazing or discoloring of the ware. A study of the +illustrations which show the evolution of the closet bowl should be +of interest to the student as well as to the apprentice and +journeyman. The bath tub developed from a gouged-out stone, in +which water could be stored and used for bathing purposes, to our +present-day enameled iron and earthenware tubs. The development did +not progress very rapidly until about 25 years ago. Since then +every feature of the tub has been improved, and from a sanitary +standpoint the tubs of today cannot be improved. The bath tub has +become an American custom, as the people in this country have +demanded that they have sanitary equipment in their homes, while in +the European countries this demand has not developed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Modern low-tank closet.] + +The first tubs used in this country were of wood lined with copper +or zinc, and were built in or boxed in with wood panelling. The +plumbing ordinances of today prohibit this boxing as it proved to +be a breeding place for vermin, etc. As the illustration shows, the +woodwork encasing the tub was in a great many cases beautifully +carved and finished. + +The placing on the market of a steel-clad tub, a steel tub with a +copper lining, which did away with the boxing, was a big +improvement as far as sanitary reasons were concerned as well as a +reduction in cost of tubs. These tubs were set up on legs which +permitted cleaning and provided good ventilation all around. With +these features they drove all other tubs from the market. The +copper and zinc were found to be hard to keep clean and they were +soon replaced by the iron enamelled and earthenware tubs. The +finish on these tubs being white and non-absorbent makes +them highly acceptable as sanitary fixtures. A study of the +illustrations will show how progress has been made in design as +well as in sanitary features. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Encased bath tub.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Steel tub on legs.] + +THE WASH BOWL.--Succeeding the hand basin the first wash basins +used in this country were made of marble or slate, with a round +bowl of crockery. The bowl was 14 inches in diameter originally, +but later was changed to an oval bowl. Like the bath tub these +wash stands were encased in wood, the encasing being used to +support the marble top. Ornamental brackets were introduced and the +wood encasement done away with. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Modern built-in tub.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Encased wash bowl.] + +About 1902 the iron-enamelled lavatory appeared on the market and +drove all other kinds from the market at once. The reason for this +is clear. The marble stands were absorbent and were made with three +parts, top, back, and bowl; the enamelled iron lavatory is made +all in one piece of material non-absorbent. A study of the +illustrations will show clearly how the lavatory has been +improved. Strange to say, in all plumbing fixtures, and especially +the lavatory, as improvements were made to make them more sanitary +a reduction has been made in the price of an individual fixture. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Bath room of early 80's. All fixtures are +enclosed.] + +The development of the urinal, showers, wash trays, drinking +fountains and other fixtures I will not attempt to cover. As the +demand has been evident for fixtures of certain types, the plumber +has been alert to anticipate and supply it. There is need, +however, for improvement in all our fixtures, especially that part +which connects with the waste pipes, also the hanging, that is the +arrangement or lack of arrangement for hanging fixtures to the +wall. The waste and overflow of all fixtures need considerable +change to make them sanitary. The opportunity is, therefore, before +anyone who will apply himself to this development. Much money, +thought, and time have been spent by the manufacturers of iron +enamelled ware and by the potteries to gather suggestions made by +the plumber in regard to fixtures, and then to perfect them. To +these manufacturers is due the beautiful design, stability, and +perfect sanitary material which make up our plumbing fixtures of +today. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE USE AND CARE OF THE SOLDERING IRON. FLUXES. MAKING DIFFERENT +SOLDERING JOINTS + + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Copper.] + +THE SOLDERING IRON.--The soldering iron is one of the first tools a +plumber has to master. This tool is sometimes called a "copper bit" +as it is made of copper; and so throughout this book the words +"soldering iron," "copper bit," "iron," and "bit" are used +synonymously. There are several different-shaped irons in common +use today, but an iron shaped like the one in Fig. 13 is the one +for use in the following work. Take the iron as it is purchased, +having a wooden handle and the copper exposed on pointed end. +Before it can be used the point must be faced and tinned. To do +this, proceed as follows: + + _First_, heat the iron on the furnace. + + _Second_, place in vise and file the four surfaces of the point. + + _Third_, run a file over edges and point. + + _Fourth_, heat the iron until it will melt solder. + + _Fifth_, put 6 or 8 drops of solder and a piece of rosin the size + of a chestnut on an ordinary red brick. (This rosin is called a + flux.) + + _Sixth_, take the hot iron and melt the solder and rosin on the + brick. + + _Seventh_, rub the four surfaces of the point of the iron on the + brick keeping the point in the melted solder. + +The solder will soon stick to the copper surfaces and then the iron +is ready for use. + +Another way to tin the iron that is in common use is to rub the +point of a hot iron on a piece of sal-ammoniac, or dip the hot iron +in reduced muriatic acid, then rub the stick of solder on the iron. +The use of muriatic acid in tinning the iron is not recommended. In +the first place, it is not always possible to carry it, and in the +second place it eats holes in the surface of iron, which makes it +necessary to file and smooth the surfaces again. The constant use +of muriatic acid on the copper soon wears it away and makes it +unfit for use. Rosin is easily carried and applied and is by far +the best to use in regular work. + +POINTS TO REMEMBER IN THE CARE OF THE SOLDERING IRON.-- + + _First_, proper tinning is absolutely necessary for rapid and + good work. + + _Second_, do not allow the iron to heat red hot. + + _Third_, keep the point of the iron properly shaped. + + _Fourth_, use the same flux in tinning as is to be used in + soldering. + + _Fifth_, when filing iron, file as little as possible. + + _Sixth_, keep in use two irons of the same size. + + +FLUX + +A flux is used to clean the surfaces of joints and seams to be +soldered, also to keep them from oxidizing and to help the metals +to fuse. + +The following list gives the names of various fluxes in common use, +how they are applied, and on what material they are most commonly +used: + + Flux How applied Used on + + Rosin Sprinkled on Lead, tin, and brass + Tallow Melted Lead and brass + Muriatic acid (reduced) With swab Copper, galvanized iron + and brass + Muriatic acid (raw) With swab Dirty galvanized iron + +ROSIN.--Rosin is purchased by the pound and comes in chunks. It is +very brittle and powders easily. Plumbers generally take a piece of +1-1/4 N. P. brass tubing, solder a trap screw in one end and a +cone-shaped piece of copper on the other. The point of the cone is +left open. Rosin is put into this tube and is easily sprinkled on +work when needed. + +TALLOW.--A plumber's _tallow candle_ answers the purpose for tallow +flux. Some plumbers carry a can for the tallow, making it cleaner +to handle. + +MURIATIC ACID.--Muriatic acid or hydrochloric acid is used both raw +and reduced. Raw acid is not diluted or reduced. Reduced acid is +made as follows: Put some zinc chips in a lead receptacle and then +pour in the muriatic acid. The acid will at once act on the zinc. +The fumes should be allowed to escape into the outer air. When +chemical action ceases, the liquid remaining is called reduced +acid. + + +PLUMBERS' SOILS AND PASTE + +It is necessary when soldering or wiping a joint to cover the parts +of pipe adjoining the portion that is to be soldered or wiped so +that the solder will not stick to it. There are a number of +preparations for this. The one used by the best mechanics today is +paste, made as follows: + + 8 teaspoons of flour. + 1 teaspoon of salt. + 1 teaspoon of sugar. + Mix with water and boil down to a thick paste. + +The advantages of paste as a soil are many: + + _First_, it is made of materials easily obtained. + + _Second_, solder will not stick to it. + + _Third_, if pipe is thoroughly cleaned, the paste will not rub + off easily. + + _Fourth_, poor workmanship cannot be covered up. + + _Fifth_, when the work is completed, a wet cloth will wipe it + off and leave the work clean. + +Another soil used is _lampblack_ and _glue_. A quantity of glue is +melted and then lampblack is added. This needs to be heated and +water added each time it is used. This soil is put on pipes with a +short stubby brush. The work when completed with the silvery joint +and jet black borders appears to the uninitiated very artistic and +neat, but when the black soil is worn away the uneven edges of the +joint appear, disclosing the reason for using a black soil that +covers all defects. The mechanic of today who takes pride in his +ability for good workmanship will not cover his work with black +soil. + +It can readily be seen that the use of lampblack soil encourages +poor workmanship, while the use of paste forces, to a certain +extent, good workmanship on the part of the mechanic. + +Before soil or paste is applied, the pipe needs to be cleansed. +Grease and dirt accumulate on the pipe. The methods employed to +remove all foreign matter are simply to scrape the surface with +fine sand or emery paper; sand and water will also answer for this +purpose. This cleans the surface and allows the soil or paste to +stick to the pipe. + + +MAKING DIFFERENT SOLDER JOINTS + +The tools used in making the different solder joints as described +and illustrated in this chapter are shown in Fig. 14. + +CUP JOINT.--The materials necessary for the work (Fig. 15): 12 +inches of 1/2-inch AA lead pipe, paste, rosin, 1/2 and 1/2 solder. + +If a gas furnace is not on the bench to heat the iron, then a +gasoline furnace is necessary. + +Each of the following operations must be done thoroughly to insure +a perfect job: + + _First_, with the SAW cut off 12 inches of 1/2-inch AA lead pipe + from the coil. When cutting off a piece of lead pipe from a coil or + reel, always straighten out 1 foot more than is needed. This leaves + 1 foot of straight pipe always on the coil. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Tools used for making solder joints.] + + _Second_, with the flat side of the RASP, square the ends of the + 12-inch piece of pipe. (A good way to do this is to hold the pipe + at right angles with the edge of the bench, run the rasp across the + end of the pipe, keeping the rasp _parallel_ with the edge of the + bench. Apply this to all work when necessary to square the ends of + pipe.) + + _Third_, cut the pipe with the saw, making two pieces each 6 inches + in length. + + _Fourth_, square the ends just cut. + + _Fifth_, rasp the edges of one end as shown in the cut. Hold the + work in such a way that the stroke of the rasp can be seen without + moving the pipe. + + _Sixth_, take the other 6-inch piece of pipe and with the TURN PIN + spread one end of it. The turn pin must be struck squarely in the + center with the HAMMER, the point of the turn pin being kept in the + center of the pipe. The pipe should be turned after each blow of + the hammer. The pipe must not rest on the bench but should be held + in the hand while using the turn pin. If the pipe bends, it can be + straightened with BENDING IRONS. If the pipe is spread more on one + side than the other, the turn pin should be hit on the opposite + side so as to even the spread. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.] + + _Seventh_, when the pipes are properly fitted, moisten the tips of + the fingers with paste and rub the paste on parts of pipe marked + "paste." Put the pipe aside to allow the paste to dry. + + _Eighth_, put the soldering iron on to heat. + + _Ninth_, with the SHAVE HOOK scrape off the paste and surface dirt + as shown in the figure. The inside of the cup will look bright, but + must be scraped. + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Cup joint.] + + _Tenth_, place the two pieces into position as shown in Fig. 16, + sprinkle rosin on the joint, melt a few drops of solder on the + joint and with the iron melt the solder on the joint, drawing the + iron around the pipe keeping the solder melted around the iron all + the time. + + _Eleventh_, fill the joint with solder and continue to draw the hot + iron around the joint until a smooth and bright surface is + obtained. To master the correct use of the soldering iron in this + work, considerable practice will be necessary. + +OVERCAST JOINTS.--(Fig. 17.) + + NOTE.--Each operation must be performed thoroughly. + + _First_, saw off from a coil of 1-1/2-inch D lead pipe a 10-inch + piece of pipe. + + _Second_, square the ends with the rasp, as previously explained. + + _Third_, take a 1-1/2-inch DRIFT PLUG and drive through the pipe + (Fig. 18). + + _Fourth_, saw the pipe into two pieces of 5 inches each. + + _Fifth_, square the ends of the pipe with the rasp. + + _Sixth_, rasp off the outside edge of one end of the pipe as shown. + + _Seventh_, rasp off the inside edge of one end of the pipe. + + _Eighth_, finish rasped surfaces with a file. Both surfaces should + have the same angle. + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Overcast joint.] + + _Ninth_, with a shave hook scrape the outside surface of each pipe + for about 1 inch from the end. + + _Tenth_, put the soldering iron on to heat. + + _Eleventh_, paste paper on the joint as shown in the cut. + + _Twelfth_, fit the pieces together and lay on the bench. Drop some + melted solder on the joint and with the hot iron proceed to flow + the solder around the joint by turning the pipe. Use plenty of flux + (rosin). The pipes must be tacked in three or four places at first + or they will have a tendency to spread. + + _Thirteenth_, to finish the joint, lift the iron straight up. + +This joint when finished will have a bright smooth finish. The two +foregoing joints need considerable practice and should be perfectly +mastered before going on to the next job. + + +SEAMS + +A description of the making of wiped seams for lead-lined tanks +will not be attempted as very few are made now. The plumber, +however, is often called upon to make a seam joining two pieces of +sheet lead. The beginner will do well to go over the following +exercise carefully and practice it thoroughly. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Flat seam.] + +MATERIALS.--Two pieces of 8-pound sheet lead, 6 by 10 inches each; +one bar of 1/2 and 1/2 solder; paste, paper, and rosin. + +TOOLS.--Rasp, shave hook, and soldering iron. + +The 10-inch side of each piece is rasped and fitted together. The +edges are cleaned and paper is pasted on leaving 1/4 inch for +solder. Paste without the paper can be put on. This will make a +joint 1/2 inch wide. + +Apply the rosin to the joint, then with the heated iron and some +solder tack the seam on the top, then on the bottom and middle. +This will prevent the seam from spreading when the lead is heated. +Solder and rosin can now be put on the full length of the joint. +With a hot iron proceed to float the solder down the seam. The +soldering iron must not rest at full length on the pieces of lead +or it will melt the lead and render the work useless. The solder +will flow and form a clean neat seam, if the iron is at the right +heat and the right amount of solder is put on. If the iron is too +hot, the solder will flow instantly when the iron is laid on it and +the solder will disappear as it runs through the seam. If the iron +is too cold the solder will not melt enough to flow. Too much +solder on the seam will cause it to overflow, that is, the solder +will spread beyond the papered edges. After a little practice this +surplus solder can be drawn in on the seam with the iron and +carried along the seam to some point that has not enough solder. +When the seam is completed the edges should be perfectly straight +and even. The iron is carried along the seam with one stroke which +makes the seam appear smooth and bright. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +MIXTURES OF SOLDERS FOR SOLDERING IRON AND WIPING. CARE OF SOLDERS. +MELTING POINTS OF METALS AND ALLOYS + + +The importance of good solder, that is, solder correctly mixed and +thoroughly cleaned, should not be overlooked. Work is more quickly +and neatly done and the job presents a more finished appearance +when solder that is correctly made is used. + +The solder used in the following work with the soldering iron is +called 1/2 and 1/2. This means 1/2 (50 per cent.) lead and 1/2 (50 +per cent.) tin. + +In the mixture of solder, only pure metals should be used. The lead +should be melted first and all the dross cleaned off. The tin +should then be added and mixed. + +The solder to be used in wiping the joints in the following chapter +is a mixture of 37 per cent. tin and 63 per cent. lead. This is +called wiping solder. + +The following table gives the melting points, etc.: + + ---------------+---------+------------------------------------------ + | Melting | + Metal | point | Mixture + ---------------+---------+------------------------------------------ + Sulphur | 228 | Pure + Tin | 446 | Pure + Lead | 626 | Pure + Zinc | 680 | Pure + Fine solder | 400 | 50 per cent. tin, 50 per cent. lead (wt.) + Wiping solder | 370 | 37 per cent. tin, 63 per cent. lead (wt.) + ---------------+---------+------------------------------------------ + +To recognize fine solder, run off a bar into a mold and let it +cool. If there is a frosted streak in the center, the metal has not +enough tin. The surface should be bright. To recognize wiping +solder, pour some on a brick. When this is cool, the top should be +frosty and the under side should have four or five bright spots. +The amount poured on the brick should be about the size of a half +dollar. If poured on iron, the metal will cool too quickly and show +bright all over the under side. + +TO MAKE 1/2 AND 1/2 SOLDER OR PLUMBER'S FINE SOLDER.--The +possibility of getting pure clean metals to mix solder is very +remote. Old pieces of lead pipe, lead trap, old block tin pipe are +used to make solder when pure metals are not at hand. + + _First_, in a cast-iron pot melt the lead to about 800 deg., or a dull + red. + + _Second_, clean off the dross. + + _Third_, add (to a 15-pound pot) 1/2 pound of sulphur in three + applications. Each time mix the sulphur thoroughly with the metal + with a long stick. + + _Fourth_, add tin before the last application of sulphur. Mix + thoroughly. + + _Fifth_, pour off two bars and look for the frosty streak in the + center. Add a little more tin, if necessary. + +TO MIX WIPING SOLDER.-- + + _First_, proceed as described in 1/2 and 1/2, melting the metals + and _burning_ out with sulphur, adding the percentage of tin + according to the preceding table. Then test the solder for bright + spots on the under side. + + _Second_, keep the metal thoroughly mixed when burning and keep + all dross cleaned off the surface. + +The working heat of wiping solder is 500 deg.F. Sulphur is used to +collect all zinc and dross. The sulphur should come in contact with +all parts of the metal. This is why the metal should be stirred +when the sulphur is put in. + +A few good points in the economical care of solder are listed +below. + +CARE OF 1/2 AND 1/2 SOLDER.-- + + _First_, do not drop melted solder on the floor or dirty bench. + + _Second_, use all small ends by melting on a new bar. + + _Third_, put clean paper under work and use droppings. + + _Fourth_, have the mold free from dirt when pouring. + +CARE OF WIPING SOLDER.-- + + _First_, do not heat red hot. + + _Second_, do not file brass where the filings will get into the + solder. + + _Third_, do not allow lead chips to get into the solder. + + _Fourth_, clean the solder occasionally. + + _Fifth_, learn to distinguish solder from lead by its hardness. + + _Sixth_, have different-shaped pot for lead and solder. + + _Seventh_, do not _tin_ brass by dipping into solder. + + _Eighth_, do not put cold or wet ladle into hot solder. + +A pot holding about 15 pounds of solder is the size commonly in +use. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +MAKING AND CARE OF WIPING CLOTHS + + +A good wiping cloth is essential for wiping joints. The exact size +and the flexibility of the cloth depend a great deal upon the +mechanic who handles the cloth. Some mechanics like a stiff cloth, +but the writer has always used a flexible cloth. The sizes, shape, +and methods of folding and breaking in as shown in Fig. 21 below +have proved successful. Cloths made of whalebone ticking are +inexpensive and make the best for ordinary use. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Folding a wiping cloth.] + + Size of cloth open Size of cloth folded + 14-1/2 by 14-1/2 inches equals 3-1/4 by 3-1/4 inches + 13-1/2 by 13-1/2 inches equals 3 by 3 inches + 8-1/2 by 12-1/2 inches equals 2 by 3 inches + +For the joint-wiping jobs to follow, the above sizes are the best. +The largest size, 14-1/2 by 14-1/2 inches is used for _catch +cloth_. The 13-1/2 by 13-1/2 inches is the _wiping cloth_. The +8-1/2 by 12-1/2 inches is the _branch cloth_. + +Proceed as follows to cut and complete a cloth: + + _First_, lay the ticking on the flat bench and square the sides + 14-1/2 by 14-1/2 inches. + + _Second_, the ticking should be cut off with shears and not torn + or cut with a knife. + + _Third_, fold as shown in the cut. + +Each fold should be moistened with a little water and pressed with +a hot iron. The cloth should not be pulled or stretched, but should +be kept as square as possible. + +The first and second folds require a little care; the corners when +folded to the center should be kept in a little, thus making the +outside edge slightly rounded. If this is done, the corners will +not stick out when the cloth is finished. After the cloth is +carefully folded, pressed, and dried, take a needle and thread and +sew the open corners about 1/2 inch in from the edge of the cloth. +By carefully studying the cut, one can readily see each operation +and, by following directions, make a perfect cloth. + +When the cloth is done, an amount of oil sufficient to soak through +about three layers of cloth should be applied and then rubbed on a +smooth surface. The oil should be rubbed in well about the edges. +It will not be necessary to apply anything else to the cloth to +prepare it for wiping. Paste, soil, chalk, etc., are not needed and +do not benefit the cloth. When using oil on the cloth, it must not +be used too freely, that is, the cloth must not be soaked in oil, +as oil is a rapid conductor of heat and the cloth would soon become +too hot to handle. + +CARE OF WIPING CLOTHS.--The ticking will burn if allowed to become +too hot. If hot solder is poured directly on the cloth, it will +soon burn and be destroyed. + +Keep the surface on both sides of the cloth well oiled. + +Use both sides of the cloth. + +Use both wiping edges of the cloth. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Wiping cloth folded has 16 thicknesses of +ticking.] + +When the cloth is not in use, it should not be thrown in with the +other tools and allowed to curl up into all sorts of shapes, but +should be kept in some flat place. A good way to keep the cloths is +to have two pieces of wood between which the cloths may be kept and +held there by means of a strap. The length of time which a wiping +cloth can be used depends a great deal upon its making and upon the +care which is given it. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +PREPARING AND WIPING JOINTS + + +When the writer first started to carry the tools for a plumber and +to prepare joints for wiping, the remark was often heard that joint +wiping would soon be a thing of the past. I have heard this many +times since from many different sources. Personally, I fail to see +the passing of the wiped joint. More lead pipe is being made today +than ever before, which goes to show that lead pipe is being used +and the only successful way of joining is with the wiped joint. +Some plumbers' helpers of today seem to think that joint wiping is +of no account. To a certain extent, I can sympathize with them. +Most of these boys are learning a trade in large cities and working +for concerns that do nothing but a large contracting business. This +large work is carried on differently from the small work. +Wrought-iron or steel pipes are used to a great extent in this work +and a very small amount of lead is used. Sometimes the job will be +completed without the use of lead. The boy who works continually on +this kind of work soon comes to think that lead pipes are no longer +in use. The writer has found that a boy who has learned to do +nothing but screw-pipe work is absolutely lost and cannot perform +the duties of a plumber, other than screw-pipe work. It must be +borne in mind that lead pipe and cast-iron pipe work are being used +today in all parts of the country and in some parts more than in +others. Therefore, the boy must grasp all branches of the trade +that he has chosen to follow and not be a one-sided man. Joint +wiping belongs to the plumber alone. The plumbing trade differs +from all other trades in that it has joint wiping for its +distinctive feature. + +A few attempts at joint wiping will convince the beginner that it +is not the easiest thing in the world to learn. Let me caution the +beginner not to get discouraged. He must have patience and a firm +resolve to master the art of joint wiping and not let it master him +and keep him back. + +So, as we now start on exercises of joint wiping, let the beginner +constantly keep in mind that all boys must become perfectly skilled +in the art of joint wiping before they can be considered plumbers. +Keep in mind also that the examination that one must take to get a +plumber's license contains an actual exercise in joint wiping. The +one word of advice is not to get discouraged. Continued practice is +the only way to success. + +The soldering iron is, or should be, conquered by this time. As +joint wiping is the next exercise, I shall go over a few general +points that experience has taught me and cannot fail to be of +assistance to the beginner if they are heeded. In fact, to become +proficient, the beginner should remember all the points suggested +under this heading. It is necessary in wiping to have good solder. +In the chapter on solder, I have given the correct mixtures and how +to recognize the proper mixtures. The place where wiping is to be +done should be considered. No draught should be allowed to blow +across the work as it tends to chill the solder and pipe. Proper +support for the work should be procured. If gasoline is to be used +for fuel to heat the solder, make sure that the tank is full before +starting, otherwise the fire may go out just when the heat is +needed most and the solder in the pot has become too cool to wipe +with. Have a catch pan and keep all the solder droppings to put +back into the pot, otherwise the solder will pile up and the +fingers are likely to be pushed into the pile and badly burned. +Hold the ladle about 2 inches above the work, the catch cloth +about 1 inches below. Do not drop the solder in the same place. +Keep moving the ladle. Do not pour the solder on the pipe in a +steady stream, but drop it on. It is not a large amount of solder +that is wanted on the joint at first, it is heat that is needed. +This can be secured better by dropping the solder on than by +pouring a large quantity on the pipe. The edges of the joint cool +very quickly; therefore heat the edges well and keep them covered +with molten solder until the joint is ready to wipe. When preparing +joints for wiping, always do the work thoroughly and fit the pieces +together tightly so that no solder can get through. + +POINTS TO REMEMBER.-- + + _First_, good solder. + + _Second_, place of wiping. + + _Third_, support. + + _Fourth_, full tank of gasoline. + + _Fifth_, drip pan. + + _Sixth_, ladle 2 inches above the work. + + _Seventh_, cloth 1 inches below the work. + + _Eighth_, move the ladle continually. + + _Ninth_, _drop_ the solder. + + _Tenth_, _heat_, not solder wanted at first. + + _Eleventh_, heat the edges. + + _Twelfth_, careful preparation. + + _Thirteenth_, clean grease from the pipe. + + _Fourteenth_, cut clean straight edges on paper. + + +HALF-INCH ROUND WIPED JOINT + +PREPARATION.--Take 12 inches of 1/2-inch strong lead pipe and +square off the ends with a rasp. Take the shave hook and scrape the +center of the pipe perfectly bright; a space 3 inches each side of +the center is correct. The size of the joint when completed should +be 2-1/2 inches long. If we should undertake to wipe the joint +with the pipe in the present condition, the solder would adhere to +all the pipe that was shaved bright. Therefore, we take a piece of +paper sufficient to encircle the pipe twice and after putting paste +on one side of the paper wrap it around the pipe so that the edge +that is cut straight and even is 1-1/4 inches from the center of +the pipe. Another piece of paper is pasted on the other side of the +center leaving a clean, bright space of 2-1/2 inches. All the pipe +should be covered with paper except the 2-1/2 inches in the center. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.] + +TO PUT THE PIPE IN POSITION FOR WIPING.--The most practical way is +to take two common red bricks with the 2 by 8 face down and place +them 9 inches apart. Lay the pipe on the bricks and place a weight +on each end. The solder will drop on to the bench, so it is best to +place a piece of paper or a pan of black iron under the pipe to +catch the solder that drops. The pan or paper can then be taken up +and the solder put back into the pot without waste. A cast-iron +pot holding 15 pounds of solder is then placed on the furnace. When +the solder has melted and has reached 500 deg. it is ready for use. +This can best be determined by putting a piece of paper in the +solder. If the paper scorches, the solder is at the right heat; if +the paper catches fire, it is too hot. + +Now take a 3-inch ladle and heat it over the fire and then dip it +into the solder and skim off any dross that may have collected. + +WIPING.--With the ladle full of solder in the right hand and the +large cloth or the catch cloth in the left hand, begin to drop the +solder on the joint. The cloth should catch all the solder as it +falls off the pipe. If hot solder is held against the bottom of the +pipe, it is heated to the proper heat. Always begin to drop the +solder on the paper edges, then drop the solder on the joint +itself. Bear in mind that the solder should not be poured on, but +dropped on slowly. After the first few drops do not drop the solder +directly on to the lead pipe but on to the solder previously put on +the pipe. This will save the pipe from burning through. The pipe +must be the same heat as the solder before the proper heat is +obtained for good wiping. The beginner should practice dropping the +solder on the joint, catching the solder and working it around the +pipe. By doing this, one becomes familiar with the feeling of hot +solder, which is the secret of successful wiping. When the solder +works easily around the pipe, drop the ladle and take the smaller +wiping cloth in the right hand and with both cloths draw all the +solder on top of the pipe. With fingers on the corners of both +cloths, clean off the left-hand edge and with the right hand draw +the surplus solder across to the right-hand edge. Next, clean the +right-hand edge of the joint pushing the surplus solder onto the +cloth in the right hand. Work this solder on to the bottom of the +joint. Now discard the catch cloth. Holding the wiping cloth with +the index fingers on lower opposite corners, shape the under and +front side of the joint. With the middle fingers on opposite lower +corners of the cloth shape the back and top. Keep the index and +middle fingers on the edge of the cloth and the edge of the cloth +on the edge of the joint. This position together with the size and +shape of the cloth will give the joint the desired form and +appearance. Particular attention is called to the position of the +fingers as shown in the figure. + +The last wipe should be a quick stroke coming off of joint on a +tangent. If the solder is at right heat, the cloth will not leave a +noticeable mark. If, however, the solder is too cold, a ragged edge +will result. Sometimes a cross wipe is made for the last stroke and +a good finish obtained. + +POINTS TO REMEMBER.-- + + _First_, width of the joint, 2-1/2 inches. + + _Second_, allow no soil or paste to get on the joint. + + _Third_, a 3-inch ladle should be used. + + _Fourth_, 500 deg. is the working heat of solder. + + _Fifth_, paper test for solder heat. + + _Sixth_, position of wiping cloths. + + _Seventh_, do not drop solder on the lead pipe. + + _Eighth_, hold the ladle 2 inches above the pipe. + + _Ninth_, wipe the edges of the joint first. + + _Tenth_, wipe and shape the joint quickly. + +The above procedure of wiping will be found to work out very easily +if followed closely. Do not pour the hot solder onto the cloth as +the cloth will burn through and soon be useless. A little more oil +should be put on the cloth after using it for awhile. The cloth +should be turned around and the opposite side also used. The cloth +will last considerably longer if sides are changed frequently. The +solder should not accumulate on the pan, but should be continually +put back into the pot. The "metal," as solder is sometimes called, +should never be allowed to become red hot. + +The above method of preparing pipe is suggested for beginners only +and will be found to be a great help to them. In actual practice +the joint must be prepared differently. The method used in trade is +as follows: + +The joint is used to join two pieces of lead pipe. Take two pieces +and rasp the four ends square. With the tap borer clean out the end +of one pipe a trifle, then with the turn pin enlarge this end just +a little as shown in the figure. Then rasp the edge off about 1/8 +inch as shown. Take the other piece of pipe and rasp one end as was +done in the cup joint, making it fit into the first piece. Then +place the two ends together and with the bending iron beat the +pipe, making the joint as tight as possible. + + +ROUND JOINT--45 deg. TO RIGHT + +The next position in which the beginner is to wipe a joint is on an +angle of 45 deg. to the right. + +PREPARATION.--To prepare this joint, proceed as in the horizontal +round joint. I will enumerate a few of these points. A piece 12 +inches long of 1/2-inch pipe is cut off and the ends squared. A +strip in the center, 6 inches long, is shaved clean. Paper and +paste are put over the pipe except 2-1/2 inches in the center. +Grease can be put on the pipe in between the pieces of paper and +will keep the lead from oxidizing. + +PLACING PIPE IN POSITION.--There is no need of an elaborate system +of holding the pipe in position. Take a red brick and place the 4 +by 8 face down. This will do for the bottom pipe. For the top of +pipe to rest on, place two bricks one above the other; this will +give the correct position. Place the pipe on the brick and with a +ladle full of half molten solder pour a clamp of solder over the +end of the pipe. This will hold the pipe firm for wiping. Place a +catch pan under the joint for solder to fall in. + +WIPING.--The method of wiping this joint is practically the same as +wiping the horizontal joint. The catch cloth should be held +parallel with the bench tilting a little from front toward the +back. The ladle is held the same and solder is dropped on as +before. The ladle should be continually moving while dropping +solder, not allowing the solder to drop twice in the same place. +When the solder has been worked around the pipe and is at working +heat, the solder is drawn up with both cloths and the top edge +wiped first, then the bottom edge; the surplus solder is put on the +underside of the joint, and then with three or four wipes the joint +is made symmetrical and finished. + +THINGS TO REMEMBER.-- + + _First_, prepare like the horizontal joint. + + _Second_, use brick to place in position. + + _Third_, hold tools as in horizontal joint. + + _Fourth_, top edge cools first, therefore, wipe it first. + + _Fifth_, hold the wiping cloth at an angle of 45 deg. when wiping, + with fingers placed as noted in previous joint. + + _Sixth_, make solder clamp for holding the pipe. + + +ROUND JOINT 45 deg.--LEFT + +When the preceding joint is well mastered and a number of good +joints have been wiped, turn the pipe on an angle of 45 deg. to the +left. + +PREPARATION.--The preparation for this joint is exactly the same as +for the horizontal joint. The beginner should turn back and read +carefully concerning the perfection of the joint. Bear in mind that +the pipe must be correctly prepared or a good joint cannot be made. +The edge of the paper must be cut not torn. + +PLACING PIPE IN POSITION.--This pipe can be placed in position the +same as the preceding one. If heavy weights are placed on the ends +of the pipe, a bad habit may be formed by the one learning to wipe. +That is, the habit of pressing hard on the joint when wiping. In +the preceding joint, if the beginner presses too hard, the pipe +will fall off the bricks. + +WIPING.--Proceed as described for previous joints. The top edge +must be favored a little. The hot solder will run down to the +bottom edge; therefore less solder should be dropped on it than on +the top edge. When the solder is at the proper heat for wiping it +requires only a light touch to wipe the joint. If it appears +necessary to press hard on the joint to wipe off surplus solder, it +shows that the solder is not at the correct wiping heat. + + +ROUND JOINT--VERTICAL + +PREPARATION.--This joint can be prepared exactly like the preceding +one. In fact, the same piece of pipe can be used throughout. When +preparing this joint the end that is to be on the bottom should be +well covered with paper. + +PLACING IN POSITION.--The best way to hold this joint in position +for wiping is to stand the pipe upright on one end with the pan +underneath. A piece of furring strip should be run from the top of +the pipe to the wall. Secure the strip to the wall and drive a nail +through the strip into the bore of the pipe. Place a weight on top +of the strip and the pipe is ready. + +WIPING.--The procedure of wiping this joint is entirely different +from that in the other positions. The solder is thrown onto the +joint from the ladle. The catch cloth is held up to the pipe and as +much solder as possible is held on to the pipe. Move the ladle +around the joint, throwing a little solder on as the ladle is +moved. Notice now that all the solder runs to the bottom edge, +leaving the top edge cold. The solder that accumulates on the +bottom edge should be drawn up to the top edge with the cloth. +Then splash more solder on to the top edge and as the solder runs +down the pipe catch it with the cloth and draw it up again. The +solder can be worked around and up and down the joint, but always +keep the top edge covered with hot solder. The solder is likely to +drop off the joint entirely unless watched closely. When the +correct heat is obtained, drop the ladle. Take the wiping cloth in +the right hand and with the fingers spread, clean off the top edge +quickly, then shape the joint with the one cloth. With a little +practice you will gain this knack. The joint can then be wiped. The +left hand can steady the pipe. Spread the index finger and third +finger to opposite sides of the cloth and wipe around the joint. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +PREPARING AND WIPING JOINTS (_Continued_) + + +TWO-INCH BRASS FERRULE + +MATERIALS.--The beginner should continue wiping the vertical round +joint until he is able to obtain a symmetrical bulb. A joint should +be wiped in each of the foregoing positions for exhibition +purposes, so that the beginner can have before him the best work +and strive to make the next joint better. This next joint, the +2-inch brass ferrule, is wiped in an upright position. The +materials necessary are the 2-inch brass ferrule, 6 inches of +2-inch light lead pipe, paste and paper, 1/2 and 1/2 solder, rosin, +wiping solder, catch pan, and supports. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.] + +TOOLS REQUIRED.--The tools necessary for this work are as follows: +the saw, rasp, drift plug, dresser, file, soldering iron, bending +irons, wiping cloths, shave hook, and ladle. + +PREPARATION.--The lead pipe must be fitted into the brass ferrule. +The brass ferrule has to be tinned first. To do this, proceed as +follows: file the ferrule for about 2 inches on the tapered end. Do +not file too deep, but just enough to expose the pure bright metal. +Now measure from the small end 1-1/4 inches down toward the beaded +end. From this point to the bead, cover the brass with paste and +paper. No paste must get on the 1-1/4-in. filed end. This end +should not be touched with the fingers. If paste gets on it, the +process of filing must be done over again as the solder will not +stick where there is paste. If the brass ferrule is filed while the +paper is on the brass, the filing will destroy the straight edge of +the paper and an even joint cannot be made. It would therefore be +necessary to re-paper the brass. Take some powdered rosin and cover +the filed end of the ferrule with molten solder using the rosin as +a flux. Do not dip the end of the ferrule into the hot wiping +solder to tin it or pour wiping solder on the brass ferrule. This +method of tinning the ferrule will spoil the wiping solder. Always +use the soldering iron to tin the ferrule as explained above. A +little practice will develop the use of the iron in the hands of +the beginner so that this tinning process will be done very +rapidly. The iron should be put on to heat when the paper is being +pasted on the brass; the iron will then be ready for use when +needed. + +PREPARING THE LEAD.--The ends of the lead pipe must be squared with +the rasp. All kinks and dents are taken out by using the drift plug +and driving it through the pipe. Take a piece of smooth pine stick +and start to beat in the end of the lead pipe to fit the brass +ferrule. The pipe should be beaten in starting about 3/4 inches +from the end. It should be beaten in very slowly until it fits the +ferrule. The pipe is held in the hand all the time and considerable +time should be spent on this as it is the first time the beating in +of lead pipe has been called for. The knack of doing this comes +only by slow and continued practice. The lead must be "humored" +into shape and not "driven" into shape. The end of the pipe is +tapered still more by rasping off the end. About 3/4 inch should +extend into the brass ferrule. With the bending irons, the lead +extending into the brass ferrule is beaten against the inside wall +of the ferrule. A good way to do this is to wedge the lead pipe in +as much as possible at first, then lay the work flat on the bench, +in which position it is more easily worked. The sketch should be +thoroughly studied and each notation be perfectly understood, +before proceeding with the work. Now that the lead pipe is +perfectly fitted into place, it is prepared for wiping. The joint +overall will be 2-1/2 inches. As we have already allowed 1-1/4 +inches on the brass ferrule for the joint, the lead will have to be +cleaned that much more. With the shave hook, shave the end of the +pipe that has been fitted into the brass ferrule. A space about 4 +inches should be cleaned. This will give a cleaned surface free +from dirt and grease for the paste and paper to adhere to. Next +paste the paper in place. The lead pipe can be entirely covered, or +3 or 4 inches only, above the 1-1/4 inches allowed for the joint. +The space between the paper on the brass and the paper on the lead +should now be 2-1/2 inches. The paste and paper should now be +allowed to dry. + +SUPPORTING THE PIPE.--This joint is wiped with the ferrule down on +the bench. A flat pan is laid on the bench and the ferrule stood +upon it. A weight on top of the lead pipe is all that is necessary. +If this does not make the pipe rigid enough for the beginner, then +a support similar to the round vertical joint support can be used. +The beginner is advised, however, to practice the wiping of this +joint with only the weight to hold it in position. The beginner +will then be required to wipe the joint while the solder is hot, +when it does not require a heavy pressure against the solder to +wipe it in shape. These wiped joints should be supported in place +near the furnace that heats the solder so that the solder will be +handy for wiping. + +[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Two-inch brass ferrule.] + +WIPING.--Wiping this joint brings in some of the methods of the +round vertical joint. If that joint was thoroughly mastered, this +joint will be wiped considerably more easily. The ladle is held in +the right hand and the solder splashed on the joint. The catch +cloth is held in the left hand and some of the solder is caught and +brought up on the top edge. The top edge cools quickly as all the +hot solder runs down to the bottom edge and into the pan. As the +solder accumulates on the bottom edge, it is drawn up on the top +edge, and in this manner the top edge is kept hot. When the solder +can be worked freely around the pipe and the edges are hot, the +joint is ready to wipe. The ladle is laid down and the wiping cloth +is taken in the right hand and the top edge of the joint cleaned on +one side. Then the wiping cloth is changed to the left hand and the +other side of the top edge is cleaned. Holding the cloth in one +hand with the index and the third fingers spread to the outside +corners of the cloth, the cloth is passed around the joint quickly. +To get an even and symmetrical joint, it is necessary to make two +or three passes around the joint holding the cloth first in the +right and then in the left hand. The free hand is used to steady +the work. This joint should be wiped very slim to allow room for +the caulking irons to pass by it and get into the hub of the pipe. +Constant wiping on the brass ferrule will result in the tinning on +the brass ferrule coming off. The ferrule will look black when this +happens and will thus be recognized. The wiping should then be +stopped and the ferrule filed and tinned in the same manner as it +was done at first. + +POINTS TO REMEMBER.-- + + _First_, material--6 inches of 2-inch light lead pipe and one + 2-inch brass ferrule. + + _Second_, tin ferrule, using soldering iron. + + _Third_, use a soft pine stick for a dresser. + + _Fourth_, fit the lead into the ferrule. + + _Fifth_, clean and paper the lead. + + _Sixth_, secure the pipe into position. + + _Seventh_, using the catch cloth and ladle, splash solder on + the joint. + + _Eighth_, keep the top edge covered with solder. + + _Ninth_, wipe the top edge first. + + _Tenth_, shape and finish wiping with a few strokes. + + _Eleventh_, tools used. + + _Twelfth_, wipe a slim joint. + + _Thirteenth_, steady the work with the free hand. + + _Fourteenth_, re-tin the ferrule, if necessary. + + +FOUR-INCH BRASS FERRULE + +The 4-inch brass ferrule joint is the same as the 2-inch, except +for size. The materials needed for this joint are 6 inches of +4-inch, 8-pound lead pipe, and one 4-inch brass ferrule, one _full_ +pot of solder, some paste and paper, rosin, and 1/2 and 1/2 solder. + +TOOLS NECESSARY.--The tools required for this joint are as follows: +saw, rasp, file, ladle, soldering iron, dresser, bending irons, +shave hook, and wiping cloths. + +PREPARATION.--_Lead Pipe._--With the saw cut off 6 inches of +4-inch lead pipe. This pipe comes in lengths and should be for this +work about 8 pounds to the foot in weight. The pipe may be dented +badly, but these dents can be taken out as follows: Take a piece of +2-inch iron pipe and put it in a vise. The lead pipe can be slipped +over this iron pipe and any dents taken out easily by beating with +the dresser. One end of the lead pipe is beaten with the dresser +until it fits into the ferrule. The end is then rasped a little. +Then, after the brass ferrule has been tinned, the pipe is fitted +into it and beaten out against the inside wall of the brass ferrule +and a tight joint is made. The lead is next cleaned with the shave +hook and paper is pasted on as explained under the 2-inch brass +ferrule, the description of which should now be read over. + +[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Four-inch brass ferrule.] + +_Brass Ferrule._--The first thing to do with the brass ferrule is +to file the end that is to be wiped. When the brass ferrule is +filed, it should be done away from any part of the room where the +filings are likely to get into the solder. After the filing has +been done, paper is pasted on all of it except the part that is to +be tinned and no paste must get on to this part of the ferrule. If +any paste does get on to it, the filing will have to be done over +again. When using paste and paper, neatness must be cultivated, or +paste will be spread over parts of the pipe that are supposed not +to have any paste on them. Next, take the soldering iron and heat +it. Take some rosin and put it on the exposed part of the ferrule. +With the hot soldering iron proceed to tin the brass ferrule, as +explained before, with 1/2 and 1/2 solder, using rosin as a flux. +Now the lead pipe that has previously been prepared is fitted into +the ferrule. + +SUPPORTING.--Set the brass ferrule on a catch pan. The lead pipe is +upright. A weight placed on top of the lead pipe will steady the +pipe for wiping. When the joint is wiped the free hand can hold the +pipe if the weight is not sufficient to support it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Four-inch brass ferrule.] + +WIPING.--Splash the solder on the joint from the ladle, in the same +manner as was employed in the two preceding joints. To get the +proper heat on the 4-inch joint a little more speed is necessary, +also the constant working of the solder around the pipe. The ladle +is constantly moved around the pipe so that all parts of the pipe +will be evenly heated and come into contact with the hot solder +direct from the ladle. When the solder works freely around the pipe +and the top edge is hot, the joint is shaped by holding the wiping +cloth in the right hand, with the index and the middle fingers +spread to the opposite corners of the cloth. The fingers are placed +one on the top edge and one on the bottom edge. The cloth is then +passed around the joint as far as possible. Then the cloth is taken +in the left hand, with the fingers spread, and passed around the +rest of the joint. If the solder does not take the shape of the +cloth readily, then the solder is not at the right heat. This joint +should be wiped very slim to allow room for the caulking tools. +When this joint is once started, it should not be left until it +has been wiped, otherwise a large amount of solder will accumulate +on the joint and will be hard to get off. + +POINTS TO REMEMBER.-- + + _First_, material. + + _Second_, tools. + + _Third_, tin ferrule. + + _Fourth_, use the dresser to fit the lead into the ferrule. + + _Fifth_, clean the lead with the shave hook, and paper. + + _Sixth_, use the catch cloth and ladle. + + _Seventh_, keep the top edge covered with hot solder. + + _Eighth_, wipe the top edge first. + + _Ninth_, make a slim joint. + + _Tenth_, steady the work with the free hand. + + +STOP COCK + +MATERIALS REQUIRED.--The materials used for this joint are as +follows: two pieces of 5/8-inch extra strong lead pipe 9 inches +long, each; one 1/2-inch plug stop cock for lead pipe; paste and +paper; solder; 1/2 and 1/2 solder; rosin; catch pan and supports. + +[Illustration: FIG. 28.] + +TOOLS NECESSARY.--The tools necessary for this job are as follows: +saw, rasp, file, turn plug, shave hook, bending irons, hammer, +ladle, soldering iron, and wiping cloths. + +PREPARATION.--There are two joints to be wiped on this job and the +stop cock is supported only by the rigid fitting of the lead pipe. +Therefore the preparation must be thoroughly done. The brass stop +will be prepared first. + +_Brass._--The two ends of the stop cock are filed bright, then +papered and tinned. This operation is the same, only on a smaller +scale, as the tinning of the 2-inch and the 4-inch brass ferrule. +The paper is pasted over the entire stop cock, except the two ends, +which are tinned for about 1-1/4 inches. + +_Lead Pipe._--After the lead pipe has been cut off from the coil, +the ends are squared with the rasp. One end of each piece is reamed +out a little with the tap borer and spread a trifle with the turn +pin. With the rasp, take off the outside edge of the end that has +been spread. The sketch will show this and give the angle at which +the edge is to be rasped. The stop cock is now fitted into the lead +pipe. The brass should enter at least 1/4 inch, then the lead is +beaten against the brass until a tight joint is made. The other end +of the brass stop is fitted into the other piece of the lead pipe +and a perfect fit is made. The fitting of these two joints must be +rigid as upon them depends the stability of the joint support. When +these ends of the lead pipe have been fitted, the pipe is cleaned +with the shave hook and paper is pasted on, allowing 1-1/2 inches +for the joint. Both pieces of pipe are prepared at the same time as +both ends are wiped at the same time. + +SUPPORTING.--The three pieces of pipe should be so wedged together +that they will not fall apart when put in position for wiping. The +bricks for supporting the pipe are placed the same as in the +support of the horizontal round joint. The lead pipe ends are laid +on the bricks. This brings the stop cock in the center without any +support. If it were not for the substantial fit between it and the +lead pipe, it would not stay in place. Solder straps can be put +over each end of the lead pipe. Weights can be used to advantage. + +WIPING.--When getting the heat up for these joints, pour the solder +over the two joints and over the stop cock. This gets the heat +properly distributed, so that both joints can be wiped while the +brass stop is heated. Get the proper heat up on one joint and then +the other. Come back to the first joint and wipe it and then the +second one. Both joints should be wiped so as to have the same +shape. The novice will experience some trouble when wiping this +joint in getting the brass edge hot. Heating up the two joints +together will in a large degree offset this trouble. Some mechanics +take out the lever handle stop to lessen the amount of brass to +heat. This is never done by a good mechanic as the two pieces will +never fit together again and make a tight joint. If the plug is +left in place, both the plug and body will expand equally and the +pieces will fit perfectly. When wiping is started on these joints, +the beginner must stay at it continually. When the brass is heated, +the finished wiping can be tried over and over again. If this way +is not followed, the beginner will find that most of his time will +be spent trying to get a heat on the brass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Stop cock.] + + +BRANCH JOINT + +MATERIALS NEEDED.--The materials necessary to complete this job are +as follows: 12 inches of 5/8-inch extra strong lead pipe for the +run; 6 inches of 1/2-inch extra strong lead pipe for the branch; +paste and paper, and solder. + +TOOLS NECESSARY.--The tools necessary for this job are the saw, +bending irons, rasp, tap borer, ladle, wiping cloths, and the shave +hook. + +[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Branch joint.] + +PREPARATION.--The preparation of this joint requires the skill of +the beginner more than any of the preceding joints. The tapping of +the 5/8 pipe for the branch connection, pasting and cutting the +paper, require the utmost care and precision. The 5/8-inch pipe is +tapped with the tap borer in the center. The tap borer is used by +grasping the handle firmly and putting the cutting point on the +mark and then pressing down on the handle. This forces the point +into the lead. Now turn the tool and a piece of lead will be bored +out. Continue this operation and a hole will very soon appear in +the lead. A hole just large enough to allow the bending irons to +enter is made. The opening of the hole is completed with the +bending iron, working the lead back slowly into place. Do not +attempt to drive the lead back around the hole with a few strokes. +One bending iron is inserted and this iron is struck with another +iron or hammer. After a number of strokes the opening will be of +sufficient size. The bent end of iron is inserted into the hole and +the bent part enters the bore of the pipe. This iron is struck in +such a way as to force the lead around the hole up, rather than +back. Now with the straight end of irons open the sides. When the +wall of pipe has been driven up a little the hole can be enlarged +by driving back the lead. This procedure will form a collar around +the hole to steady the branch pipe. Good workmanship will result in +having a good substantial collar around the opening. The branch +should now be fitted. Clean the pipe with the shave hook for about +2 inches on each side of the opening. With compasses set at 1-1/8 +inches, mark off a space on each side of the branch on the run, or +on the 5/8-inch pipe. On the sides of the pipe the two lines should +be joined with an even and symmetrical curve. A good way to make +this curve is with the shave hook. Now take a folded piece of paper +and cut out the shape of one-half of the joint, then open the fold +and the entire ellipse will be made. When this paper is cut, a +sharp knife is used, otherwise a ragged edge will be made and a +good finish of joint is impossible. The paper is now pasted and put +on the pipe. The surplus paste on the edge of the paper should be +wiped off with the fingers before the paper is put on the pipe. +This prevents any paste squeezing out on the joint. The branch is +now taken and perfectly fitted into the run. The end is cleaned +with the shave hook and paper is pasted on the pipe, leaving 1-1/8 +inches of cleaned surface for wiping. The paste and the paper +should now be allowed to dry. The position for wiping this joint is +to have the run horizontal and the branch on an angle of 45 deg. +pointing away from the wiper. Figure 30 will bring out the above +explanation very vividly. + +SUPPORTING.--The run of this joint is laid flat on the table and +the branch inserted in its proper place. With one hand hold it in +place, with the other, use the bending iron, tap the collar on the +run against the branch, wedging it in place good and strong so that +no solder can leak through. If the branch is tapered with the rasp +as shown the joint can be made very tight. The run of the pipe is +now laid on two bricks as was done with the horizontal joint. The +branch is laid over on a pile of bricks or wood at an angle of 45 deg. +The best way to secure this joint is to pour some half-molten +solder on the ends of pipe and brick, making a solder clamp. This +branch does not need any clamp or weight if it is properly entered +into the run. A strap of solder can be run over the end of pipe if +found necessary. Place the catch pan under the joint and then the +pipe will be ready to wipe. + +WIPING.--In wiping this joint, the catch cloth is used not only to +catch the solder as it drops off from the pipe, but also to hold +the hot solder against the pipe to heat the under side of the +joint. Test the solder and see if it is the correct heat for +wiping. If so, prepare for wiping. After heating the ladle, take +some solder in it and proceed to drop the molten solder on the +joint. The ladle is moved constantly as the solder is dropped on +the run and then on the branch to get the entire joint to the +proper heat. As the solder drops off from the joint, it is caught +on the catch cloth and brought up on the top of the joint where it +is re-melted by dropping hot solder on it. Then the hot solder is +held in the cloth against the under side of the joint to get the +under side properly heated. The solder is worked around all parts +of the joint. When the heat is got up sufficiently and the solder +works freely around the joint, the branch cloth is taken and each +edge of the joint is wiped clean. Any surplus solder is brought up +on top of the joint and then wiped on the catch cloth. This solder +is then put on the under side of the joint. With the branch cloth +reach way around the joint and wipe each side, bringing the cloth +each time to the top and then off the joint. The last wipe is +directly across the top, wiping off any surplus solder that may +have accumulated from wiping the sides. The difficulty with this +joint is in getting the top and bottom to have an equal amount of +solder. With a little practice and by watching each motion your +faults can be noted and remedied. If the paper starts to come off, +it should be re-papered at once. When the joint is finished, it +should be left in position until the solder has had time to set and +cool, otherwise the branch will break off and considerable time +will be lost in correcting the trouble. + +POINTS TO REMEMBER.-- + + _First_, the use of the tap borer. + + _Second_, the use of the bending irons. + + _Third_, do not allow the bending irons to touch the inside walls + of the pipe when stretching the opening. + + _Fourth_, secure the branch into the run. + + _Fifth_, secure the pipes into position for wiping. + + _Sixth_, spread the heat on the edges and the bottom of the joint. + + _Seventh_, wipe with the branch cloth. + + _Eighth_, cut the paper. + + _Ninth_, mark the outline of the joint. + + +BRANCH JOINT PLACED FLAT + +When the wiper has mastered the branch joint placed at an angle of +45 deg., he can proceed to wipe the joint placed in the next position, +which is flat. + +PREPARATION.--The preparation of this joint is identical with the +preceding one placed at an angle of 45 deg. If a new joint is to be +prepared, it would be well to pay strict attention to the details, +such as keeping the paste on the paper only and having the edge of +the paper cut perfectly smooth and even. Before putting on the +paper see that the pipe is free from all grease and dirt. The paste +and paper will stick better if all the dirt is removed. The branch +should be well fitted into the run of the pipe so that no solder +will get into the bore of the pipe. The branch should not extend +into the run of pipe enough to obstruct the bore of it. If the +instructions for preparing the pipe are not carried out as +detailed, the wiper will experience some trouble that he may find +hard to overcome. + +SUPPORTING.--The run can be supported on bricks. The branch can be +supported on a brick placed at its end the same height as the run. +This will bring the joint in the correct flat position. The branch +should point away from the wiper. Solder straps can now be poured +over the ends of each pipe. If weights are used to hold the pipe +firm instead of solder straps, they should be so placed that they +will not interfere with the hands when wiping. + +WIPING.--The wiping of this joint is more difficult as the beginner +will experience trouble in heating the bottom and keeping the +solder on the bottom. Solder is dropped on the joint and along the +pipe so as to bring the pipe to the proper wiping heat. Some solder +will accumulate on top of the joint. This is melted off on the +catch cloth and this hot solder held against the bottom of the +joint. This operation is repeated until the bottom as well as the +top of the joint is heated properly. When the solder can be worked +freely around the pipe, the branch cloth is taken and each side is +wiped from the bottom toward the top. Solder is accumulated on the +top where it is wiped off on the catch cloth and put on the bottom +of the joint. Now reach way around each side and wipe the edge and +body of the joint, a wipe across the top completing the joint. The +bottom can be wiped with a cross wipe also if desired. The top and +the bottom should be identical. Notice carefully the drawing of +this joint and endeavor to have the same lines. The perfecting of +these joints comes only with patient practice. The beginner must +not get discouraged because of a burn or two. As soon as confidence +in oneself has been gained, the possibility of burning the fingers +is entirely eliminated. + + +BRANCH VERTICAL + +The materials, tools, and preparation for this joint placed in a +vertical position are just the same, practically, as those in the +preceding branch joints. One or two points wherein they differ are +mentioned below. To rigidly support the joint for wiping, allow the +run of the pipe to rest on some bricks as before mentioned, with +the branch looking up. Now take a piece of wood and drive a nail +through one end of it about 1 inch from the edge. Let this nail +enter the bore of the vertical branch. The wood is allowed to rest +on the back of the bench or is braced against the wall. Supporting +the pipes in this way will allow the wiper perfect freedom. When +wiping this joint, splash the solder on from the ladle as on the +upright joint. As all the sides of this joint can be seen, it is +not a difficult matter to make a perfectly symmetrical solder bulb. +When the proper heat is gained, the top edge of the joint is wiped +first, then the lower curved edge, using the branch cloth. The body +of the joint is then wiped and the joint finished with a cross +wipe, if necessary. + + +BRANCH HORIZONTAL + +The next position for this joint is to have the branch pipe +horizontal and the run vertical. The materials, tools and +preparation for this joint are the same as for the preceding ones. +The supporting and wiping differ a little. + +SUPPORTING.--One end of the run is placed on the catch pan. The +other end is held in place the same way as the branch was held in +the preceding joint. If the pictures of this joint are carefully +looked over, the methods employed to hold the pipe will be readily +noted. The branch is best held by inserting one end of a bending +iron in the bore of the pipe and placing the other end of the iron +on a brick built up to the right height. The iron should be +weighted to keep the joint from swaying. + +WIPING.--The solder is now dropped on the branch as in the round +joint, and splashed on the vertical run as in the upright joint. +Sufficient solder is put on the joint to keep the edges covered +with hot solder. Solder is worked around the joint until all parts +of it are thoroughly heated and the solder works easily, then all +the edges are wiped clean. The top half is then wiped evenly and +the bottom half wiped to match the top half. A cross wipe in front +completes the joint. When this cross wipe is made on any joint, a +thick edge of solder must not be left. The edge must be wiped +clean. This joint should be wiped first with the branch pointing to +the right and then with the branch pointing to the left. It will +take the beginner some time to master these branch joints, for not +only must they be wiped symmetrically for the sake of appearances, +but they must be wiped while the solder is hot to secure a tight +joint. A joint that is wiped with solder that is too cold will be +porous and will leak when put under pressure. With care the same +pipe can be used throughout for all the positions of this branch +joint. + + +ONE AND ONE-HALF-INCH BRANCH JOINT + +Upon the completion of the small sized branch joint in its various +angles, the 1-1/2-inch branch joint is to be wiped. This branch +joint is wiped in the same positions as the 5/8 branch was wiped. +The pipe being larger, there is more solder for the wiper to +handle, and the edges to keep clean and to wipe are longer. + +MATERIALS NEEDED.--The materials needed for this job are 12 inches +of 1-1/2-inch light lead pipe for the run, and 6 inches of +1-1/2-inch pipe for the branch, paste, paper, solder, and catch +pan. + +TOOLS NEEDED.--The tools necessary for this job are the saw, rasp, +shave hook, bending irons, drift plug, hammer, ladle, wiping +cloths, and tap borer. + +PREPARATION.--To an experienced wiper, the procedure of preparing +this joint and wiping it are so near like the 5/8-branch joint that +a detailed description would be unnecessary; but for the benefit of +the beginner, I will repeat the details as they apply to this +particular joint and thereby avoid any error. We will take the +preparation of the run first. Square the two ends of the pipe with +the rasp. Mark off the center of the pipe. With the round part of +the rasp, held at right angles with the pipe, proceed to rasp down +the crown of pipe where the center mark was made. Do not rasp +through the wall of the pipe, but just enough so that the tap borer +will enter the pipe with only a slight pressure. With the tap +borer, tap a hole large enough for the bending irons to enter. Now +proceed to enlarge the hole, first forcing the edges up and then +forcing them back, making the hole larger and making a collar +around the hole at the same time. Continue to open the pipe until +the aperture is large enough for the branch pipe to enter. The +bending irons must not come into contact with the inside wall of +the pipe, for if they do the inside bore will be marred and be very +ragged. As these joints are usually used on waste lines, these +ragged places make an ideal place for lint and grease to collect +and cause a stoppage. To make the inside of the hole even, a piece +of 1/2-inch pipe can be used in place of the bending irons. To cut +out the oval from a piece of paper to fit the joint, fold the +paper and cut out one-half of the oval. Now unfold the paper and +the complete oval is obtained. The measurements of the oval are +taken from Fig. 30, 1-1/8 inches each side of the branch lengthwise +of the run. These two lines are connected with a curved line as +shown. This curved line can be made with the shave hook. Take the +large edge of the shave hook and roll it along between the lines to +be joined. A little practice will perfect one in doing this +quickly. The beginner should make a number of these ovals so that +he can get them perfect. The graceful appearance of this joint +depends upon the neatness with which it is prepared. I do not want +the beginner to think that a graceful shape of the joint is all +that is to be desired or that it is the most essential point. +Further along, perhaps, more vital requirements will be brought out +and the beginner will be made acquainted with them. + +The ends of the 6-inch piece are now squared with the rasp. The +edges of one end are rasped off as shown in the sketch, making a +wedged fit into the run. This end is then cleaned with the shave +hook. Paper is then pasted on to cover the pipe except the 1-1/8 +inches cleaned on the end. This cleaned part forms part of the +joint, therefore no paste or paper must be put on it. The pipe is +now fitted into the run and the collar beaten against it with the +bending irons. The run is now cleaned with the shave hook for about +3 inches each side of the center. The paper oval cut out is now +pasted on the joint. The paste and paper are then allowed to dry +before they are handled further. + +SUPPORTING.--The supporting of this joint, which is placed with the +branch on an angle of 45 deg. pointing away from the wiper, is not a +difficult matter. The beginner can use his own ingenuity for +supporting the pipe if conditions do not warrant the using of the +methods previously described. + +WIPING.--The solder should now be tested for heat. If the solder is +at the proper heat, the ladle is taken and heated. Take a ladle +full of solder and drop the solder on the joint. The lead of which +this branch joint is made is considerably lighter than any lead +that has been used before. Therefore, the beginner must drop the +solder on carefully, making sure that the solder is not dropped on +the same spot, for a hole can be burned through the pipe very +quickly. The ladle must be kept moving, then the solder will not +burn through the pipe. The heat is got up on the pipe by dropping +the solder on the run and on the branch, catching the surplus +solder on the catch cloth and heating the under side of the joint +with it. To form the joint, distribute the solder and then wipe it +into shape. Notice that I said wipe it into shape. A beginner is +very apt to try to push or poke it into shape. This must not be +done as it has a tendency to make the joint lumpy. All the edges +are wiped off clean first, then the body of the joint is shaped and +wiped. When forming the joint, be sure that the bottom and the top +are symmetrical. Do not have one-half larger than the other. The +last wiping strokes are made swiftly and rapidly. If the wiper will +watch his movements and note the results and then try to improve +them, keeping in mind that a symmetrical joint is wanted with thin +edges, perfection in wiping will come much more quickly than if no +attention is paid to the strokes made when wiping. + + +BRANCH JOINT WIPED FLAT + +The materials required for this joint do not differ from the +preceding one. If the pipe used for the branch joint at a 45 deg. angle +is in good shape, it can be used for this joint by simply changing +positions. The tools needed will not be any different. The ladle +and the wiping cloths, of course will be required. A pair of pliers +can be used to advantage in picking up the hot solder. The wiping +cloths should receive a little more oil to keep them soft and +pliable. Oil the edges of the cloths well. + +SUPPORTING.--To support this pipe for wiping have each end rest on +a brick. Each end can be weighted to hold it in place. + +WIPING.--To wipe this joint, proceed to drop the solder on the +joint. When the pipe is thoroughly heated and the solder works +freely around the pipe the joint can be wiped. The procedure is +like the preceding one. The wiper is cautioned to move the ladle +constantly while dropping the solder. + + +BRANCH HELD VERTICAL + +After a number of the previous joints have been wiped successfully, +the pipe is placed in such a position that the branch will be +vertical. The supporting of the pipe to hold the joint in this +position for wiping is very easily done after handling the 5/8-in. +joint in this position. The following points may be found helpful: +The solder is splashed on the joint from the ladle. The top edge of +the joint is kept hot by keeping the solder covering it. When the +proper heat has been got up, the top edge is wiped first, then the +bottom edges both front and back. The body of the joint is wiped +last and a cross wipe finishes the joint. I have found that the +beginner in many cases, when this joint is reached, tries to wipe +it with many short strokes. The habit is a bad one and should be +stopped as soon as noticed. Learn to wipe the top edge with only +two strokes, the bottom edge with not more than four, the body of +the joint with four, and one cross wipe to finish. This joint +should be finished as symmetrically as possible and wiped while the +solder is hot. + + +RUN HELD VERTICALLY + +When the vertical branch has been conquered and the wiper can get a +good joint every time it is tried, the pipe can be changed to a +different position. The run is placed in a vertical position and +the branch horizontally to the left. The catch pan is put under the +end of the pipe. Follow the same directions for supporting this +joint as were given under the 5/8-in. branch placed in a similar +position. The wiping of this joint is so nearly like the preceding +branch joints that I will not give any instructions at all. This +joint is finished at the same point that the other branch joints +are finished. However, there are one or two matters that should be +kept in mind. Some of the small matters are often overlooked and +should be called to mind occasionally. Do not allow the solder to +accumulate in the pan. If the cloths are burned, they should be +turned, or new ones made. If the paper has started to come off from +the pipe, new paper should be put on at once. Test the solder +occasionally and see that it does not get too hot. Upon completion +of the joint in this position, the branch joint in its various +positions is finished. The beginner has found out while wiping +these various joints a number of points that were not mentioned in +my description. No amount of detailed description will make a good +joint wiper. Patience and practice are as important in joint wiping +as good preparation and good solder. + +POINTS TO REMEMBER.-- + + _First_, materials--18 inches of 1-1/2-in. lead pipe. + + _Second_, use of tools. + + _Third_, keep bending irons away from the wall of the pipe. + + _Fourth_, make a good collar around the opening. + + _Fifth_, make a tight fit with branch and run. + + _Sixth_, hot solder will quickly burn through the lead. + + _Seventh_, use branch cloth for wiping. + + _Eighth_, cut out paper for joint even and symmetrical. + + +BIB + +This joint is another brass to lead, and is the last single joint +to be wiped in this course of joint wiping. + +MATERIALS NEEDED.--The materials required for this joint are as +follows: 10 inches of 5/8-inch extra strong lead pipe; one 1/2-inch +brass sink bib for lead pipe; one pot of solder, paste and paper, +1/2 and 1/2 solder, catch pan, and supports. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31.] + +TOOLS REQUIRED.--The tools required for this job are the saw, rasp, +tap borer, bending irons, file, ladle, wiping cloths, shave hook, +knife and rule, soldering iron. + +PREPARATION.--To prepare the lead pipe after cutting from the coil +and squaring the ends with the rasp is very similar to the 5/8-inch +branch joint. The center of the pipe is marked and a hole is made +in it with the tap borer large enough to admit the bending irons. +The hole is enlarged with the irons. A good substantial collar is +made around the hole to hold the bib in place. One and one-eighth +inches are marked off on each side of the branch and an easy curve +connects the two. The paper is then cut out and pasted on the pipe +after it has been scraped with the shave hook. + +The end of the brass bib is filed bright and tinned with the +soldering iron and 1/2 and 1/2 solder. Before the tinning is done, +paper is put on the brass, leaving only 1-1/8 inches exposed. The +tinning must be thoroughly done, or it will come off and have to be +re-tinned. + +SUPPORTING.--The bib is fitted into the lead opening and the collar +is forced against the bib to hold it in place and prevent any +solder from leaking through into the bore of the pipe. The bib +must not extend too far into the lead pipe or it will obstruct the +flow of water. The lead pipe is laid on two bricks the same as the +round joint. The bib is laid on an angle of 45 deg. pointing away from +the wiper. Some bricks can be piled up to the right height to hold +the bib in place and a solder strap can be made to hold it steady. +The lead pipe can be held steady by weighting each end. The catch +pan is now placed under the joint and everything is ready for +wiping. + +[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Bib.] + +WIPING.--When the solder is hot, getting the heat on the pipe is +started. Solder should be dropped oftener on the brass bib than on +the lead pipe. It takes more heat to heat the brass thoroughly than +it does the lead. If this is followed out, little difficulty will +be had in getting up the heat and in wiping. Use the branch cloth +for wiping and make sure that all edges are perfectly cleaned +before making the final strokes. As this is the only position that +the joint will be wiped in, practice should be continued until +perfect joints can be obtained. + +POINTS TO REMEMBER.-- + + _First_, materials needed. + + _Second_, tools needed. + + _Third_, use tap borer. + + _Fourth_, enlarge hole with bending irons. + + _Fifth_, make substantial collar around the opening. + + _Sixth_, paper the lead. + + _Seventh_, file the bib, then paper. + + _Eighth_, tin the bib. + + _Ninth_, place in position and wipe. + + +DRUM TRAP + +The making of the drum trap will bring out the skill of the +beginner. The entire trap is made of lead pipe. The lead will +require a great deal of handling. Therefore, care must be exercised +in all operations to turn the trap out in a workmanlike manner. + +MATERIALS NEEDED.--The materials needed to complete this job are: +10 inches of 4-inch 8-pound lead pipe; 18 inches of 1-1/2-inch +light lead pipe; paste and paper, support, solder, and catch pan. + +TOOLS NEEDED.--The tools required for this job are: saw, rasp, +bending irons, shave hook, bending spring, tap borer, dresser, +ladle, drift plug, and wiping cloths. + +[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Drum trap.] + +PREPARING.--Take the 10-inch piece of lead pipe and hold it in one +hand, in the other hand take a pine dresser. Strike the lead pipe +with the dresser. The pipe is struck about 2 inches from the end +and is beaten evenly all around. The pipe is then struck nearer the +end until finally the bore of the pipe is almost closed. This +closed end should be rounding and symmetrical. To get this shape +the pipe must be continually moved and turned. One side must not be +forced in more than the other. If there are any dents in the pipe +or part of the pipe is forced in too much it may be driven out as +follows: Take an old piece of 1/2-inch lead pipe and round one end +of it with a hammer; this can be used by hitting the inside of the +closed end of the drum and forcing out the dents. The rounded end +of the trap is not quite closed and a hole about 3/4 inch is left. +This opening is closed by shaping the edges of it with the knife, +making them smooth and beveled. Then a piece of lead is cut out of +some scrap, the same shape as the hole and fitted into it. The top +surface of this fitted piece should be a little lower than the +surface of the pipe. Strike a circle, using the compasses, the +center of the circle being the center of the inserted piece of +lead. The lead inside of this circle is shaved clean with the shave +hook, including the inserted piece. Paper is then pasted outside of +the circle and should cover entirely the rest of the pipe. The +inserted piece is wiped on the pipe as follows: + +WIPING END.--Stand the 4-in. pipe in a pan with the rounded end of +the pipe up. Be sure that the inserted piece is fitted securely. +The solder is now dropped on the paper and shaved portion of the +pipe. Exercise considerable care not to burn a hole in the pipe. As +the hot solder runs off, catch some of it and draw it back on the +joint. When the solder can be manipulated freely and the pipe is +hot, the joint can be wiped. The cloth is drawn across the joint, +cleaning all the edges with one stroke. The joint should be shaped +to complete the rounding surface of the pipe. The joint is +comparatively easy and will not occupy much time. As soon as it is +wiped, cover the solder with paper. This will preserve the +freshness of the joint until all wiping is completed. + + +PREPARING INLET PIPE + +After the above joint is completed, the 1-1/2-in. branch inlet pipe +is prepared and wiped in place. The center of this branch is +marked on the 4-inch pipe and a hole is tapped in the pipe, using +the tap borer. A hole large enough to admit the bending irons is +made. The hole is enlarged with the bending irons, bending the lead +first _up_, then _back_. A piece of 1/2-inch iron pipe can be used +as a tool to finish the opening. The iron pipe is larger in +diameter than the bending irons and leaves a more finished surface. +The opening is made of sufficient size to admit the rasped end of +the 1-1/2-inch pipe. When using the irons to enlarge the opening in +the pipe, be sure not to bruise any part of the trap. The +1-1/2-inch pipe is now taken. The ends of this pipe are squared +with the rasp. The drift plug is then driven through the pipe to +take out any bruises or flattened places. The edge of one end is +rasped off to fit the opening made in the 4-inch pipe. The beginner +must strive to make a perfect fit. The accuracy with which these +preparations are made is what helps in a large degree to bring +about a successful job. The next operation is to paper the parts +not to be wiped. The sizes of the joint should be followed as shown +on the sketch. The pipe is first shaved with the shave hook, after +which the paper is pasted on. No paste is allowed to get on the +joint proper. The beginner should by this time have formed the +habit of being neat with his work. Therefore the getting of paste +on the joint surface shows that he is not as neat or as far +advanced as he should be. + +SUPPORTING.--The drum is laid lengthwise on the bench and blocks +are put on each side to keep it from rolling, the branch uppermost. +The 1-1/2-inch pipe is held in position the same way as the +vertical branch was held. The catch pan is put under the drum to +catch the surplus solder. + +WIPING.--Splash the solder on the branch pipe, also on the drum. +The burning through of the drum is an easy matter. Therefore do not +keep dropping the solder on one place, but keep the ladle moving +continually. With the catch cloth draw the solder up on the branch +covering the top edge of the prepared surface. Splashing the solder +on this top edge melts the solder already on and allows it to run +down on the 4-inch pipe where it is caught with the cloth and again +brought up on the top edge of the branch. When the solder works +freely all around the joint, the top edge is wiped clean and even. +Then any surplus solder is wiped off. The bottom edge is next wiped +clean, after which the body of the joint is wiped into shape, +together with both edges. The edges are wiped very thin so that +when the paper is removed the outline of the joint stands out very +distinctly. A thick edge on a joint gives an unworkmanlike +appearance to the work. The joint is finished with a cross wipe. + +The other joints are prepared and wiped the same as the one just +completed. The 1-1/2-inch branch connection taken out of the bottom +of the trap is bent. As this is the first time it has been +necessary to bend lead pipe in these jobs, I will cover this +operation in detail. The pipe is first straightened and the drift +plug driven through it. The pipe is marked where the bend is to be +made. The bending spring, size 1-1/2 inches, is put into the pipe, +the center of the spring coming about where the bend is to be made. +The pipe is then heated where it was marked to be bent. The proper +heat for this pipe is just so that the hand cannot stand being laid +against it. The pipe is held in the hands and on the end nearest +the heat is hit against the floor at an angle. The pipe, with the +first blow, will start to bend. With a few more strokes the desired +bend will be obtained. The bending spring can now be pulled out. +Put a little water in the pipe, then put one end of the spring in +the vise, twist the pipe, and the spring will come out when the +pipe is pulled away from it. The bending spring holds the pipe +cylindrical while it is being bent. Without the spring, the pipe +would be badly crushed at the bend and rendered almost unfit for +service. Another good way to bend pipe is to plug one end and fill +the pipe full of sand, then plug the open end. The pipe is then +heated where the bend is to be made. The pipe can then be bent over +the knee. When all the joints are wiped, the paper should be taken +off and the lead cleaned with sand and water. The trap is now +complete except the brass clean-out to be soldered on the top. The +inside of the trap should not have any rough edges or drops of +solder in it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Drum trap.] + +There are two other drum traps to be made. The materials needed are +the same as for the above trap except for 18 inches more of +1-1/2-inch lead pipe. The support, preparation, and wiping are the +same. The beginner by this time should feel very well acquainted +with lead and solder. Therefore, the details of these two drum +traps can be left for the beginner to work out for himself. The +sketches are very distinct and readable and will be of considerable +assistance. The beginner should make these traps. + +POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED.-- + + _First_, use 4-inch lead pipe, 8 pounds to the foot. + + _Second_, dresser and spring are new tools. Study their use. + + _Third_, gradually work the trap into shape with the dresser. + + _Fourth_, plug the hole with a piece of lead pipe. + + _Fifth_, prepare and wipe the plugged hole first. + + _Sixth_, prepare and wipe the 1-1/2-inch branches. + + _Seventh_, special care should be taken to keep the work neat. + + _Eighth_, two ways of using the bending spring. + + _Ninth_, wipe thin edges on joints. + + _Tenth_, do not handle finished work. + + _Eleventh_, clean and finish the work neatly. + + +THE PRACTICAL USE OF THE PRECEDING EXERCISES + +In the foregoing exercises, I have confined myself to the actual +work of making the various joints. Now I will explain the practical +use of them. + +SOLDERING IRON.--The soldering iron is a tool that is used in work +that requires heat to fuse solder and the parts to be united. Every +plumber should have at least two irons in his kit. + +THE CUP JOINT.--While the cup joint is not employed to any great +extent in modern plumbing, yet it has its use in the installation +of some fixtures. Lavatories, bath and toilets are sometimes +connected with a short piece of lead on the supply. The tail pieces +on the faucets can be soldered on the lead by means of a cup joint. +A cup joint well made with a deep cup and the solder well fused is +as strong as a wiped joint in a place of this kind. The evil of the +cup joint is that some mechanics will only fuse the surface and +leave the deep cup only filled with solder and not fused. This +makes a tight joint, but extremely weak. On tin-lined pipe and +block-tin pipe the cup joint is commonly used. When making a cup +joint on block-tin pipe the soldering iron must not touch the pipe +and fine solder should be used. When tin-lined pipe is being +soldered, the tin lining must not be melted. + +OVERCAST JOINT.--The overcast joint is not commonly used, but when +there is considerable lead work to do the plumber finds it very +handy in places where a wiped joint would take up too much room. We +use it for an exercise for the reason that it teaches the beginner +very rapidly the use and control of the soldering iron. + +FLAT SEAMS.--These seams are used in the construction of roof +flashers, tanks (Sec. 33, Chapter XVIII) and lead safe wastes (Sec. +27, plumbing code). A hatchet iron is sometimes used on these +seams. + +WIPING CLOTHS.--The wiping cloths made of whalebone ticking make +good, serviceable, and lasting cloths. Oil only should be used to +break the cloth in. Moleskin cloths are very good, but they are +very hard to get and cost considerably more. A plumber should +always keep a good supply of ticking cloths on hand. The cloths are +used only for wiping. + +1/2-INCH ROUND JOINT.--This joint is the one most often required in +actual practice. It serves to connect two pieces of lead pipe of +the same or different diameters. It is also used to connect lead +and other materials of which pipe is made. The workman, when he +gets out on the job, finds that his work cannot be supported for +wiping in such an easy and convenient position as illustrated in +the exercises. It will be necessary to wipe the joint at almost +every conceivable angle and position. The workman must employ his +ingenuity to overcome any difficulties that may arise. Any draught +of air should be avoided as it will make the solder cool quickly. + +2-INCH BRASS FERRULE.--When it is found necessary to connect +cast-iron and lead pipe, it is done by means of a brass ferrule +wiped on the lead pipe. This joint is a very common joint and is +found on sink, tray, and bath connections, as well as in many other +connections that have lead and cast-iron pipes for wastes. + +4-INCH BRASS FERRULE.--The 4-inch brass ferrule wiped on lead pipe +is found under almost every closet. There is generally a piece of +lead connecting the toilet with the soil pipe. Therefore, a brass +ferrule is wiped on the lead and the ferrule connected with the +soil pipe. This joint is also found on rain leader connections near +the roof, connecting the gutter with the rain leader stack. + +STOP COCK.--When a shut-off is required in a line of lead water +pipe, these joints are used. Where it is necessary to joint lead +and brass, this joint is required. The art of heat control over the +lead and the brass is the essential point in these joints. + +BRANCH JOINTS 5/8 AND 1/2 INCHES.--Where it is found necessary to +take a branch from a water pipe, this joint is used at the +connection. In practice, this joint may have to be wiped in +positions that are rather difficult to reach, so the wiping of +joints in the positions called for in the exercises is exceedingly +good practice. + +BRANCH JOINTS 1-1/2 INCHES.--These joints are very common and are +found on waste and vent pipes. They are also found on urinal +flush-pipe connections where the branch often is brass and the run +lead. + +BIB.--When lead supplies are run directly to the bib on a sink, +this joint is necessary. It becomes necessary to wipe in a piece of +brass for a brass-pipe connection from a lead pipe, in which case +this joint is called for. + +THE DRUM TRAP.--The drum trap is used under sinks, baths, showers, +and trays. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +LAYING TERRA-COTTA AND MAKING CONNECTIONS TO PUBLIC SEWERS. WATER +CONNECTIONS TO MAINS IN STREETS + + +TERRA-COTTA PIPE + +One of the first pieces of work which a plumber is called upon to +do, when building operations commence, is to run in the terra-cotta +sewer from the street sewer into the foundation wall. + +[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Connection of house sewer to main sewer.] + +When the street sewer is laid, Y-branches are left every few feet. +A record of the branches and their distance from the manhole is +kept generally in the Department of Sewers or Public Works. +Therefore, the exact measurement of any branch can be obtained and +the branch found by digging down to the depth of the sewer. A +branch should be chosen so that the pipe can be laid with a pitch, +the same way as the main sewer pitches. This can be done by getting +the measurements of two of these branches and choosing the one that +will serve best. When there is a brick sewer in the street and no +branches left out, the sewer must be tapped wherever the house +sewer requires it (see Fig. 35). + +DIGGING TRENCHES.--After the measurements and location of the house +sewer and sewer branches are properly located, the digging of the +trench is started. The methods employed to dig the trench vary +according to the nature of the ground, that is, whether it is sand, +rock, or wet ground. A line should be struck from sewer to +foundation wall to insure a straight trench. + +[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Laying of plank for trench dug in sandy +ground.] + +SANDY GROUND.--If the ground is sandy, the sides of the trench will +have to be sheathed or planked and the planks braced so as to +prevent the bank caving in. As the trench is dug deeper, the planks +are driven down. When the trench is very deep, a second row of +planking is necessary. The planks must be kept well down to the +bottom of the trench and close together, otherwise the sand will +run in. It is well to test the planking as progress is made by +tamping the sand on the bank side of the planks. + +GRAVEL.--Where the ground is mostly gravel and well packed, the +above method of planking is unnecessary. The bank should have a few +stringers and braces to support it. When only a few planks are used +the term "corduroy the bank" is used (see Fig. 37). + +[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Arrangement of plank for gravel.] + +ROCK.--Where rock is encountered, blasting is resorted to. The +plumber should not attempt to handle a job requiring the use of +powder. It is dangerous in the hands of a person not used to +handling it and the work should be sublet. + +A sketch of the two methods above for planking trenches is given +and a little study will make them clear. + + +LAYING OF PIPE + +The pipe should be laid on the bottom of the trench to a pitch of +at least 1/4 inch per foot fall. In laying, the start should be +made at the street sewer with hubs of pipe toward the building. The +trench should be dug within a few inches of the bottom of the +pipe, then as the pipe is laid the exact depth is dug out, the +surplus dirt being thrown on the pipe already laid. The body length +of pipe should be on solid foundation. A space dug out for each hub +as shown in Fig. 38 allows for this, also allows for the proper +cementing of joints. To get the proper pitch of pipe, take for +example 1/4 inch per foot, a level 2 feet long with a piece of wood +or metal on one end 1/2 inch thick will answer. The end with the +1/2-inch piece on should be on the lower hub and the other end +resting on the hub of the pipe about to be put in place. When the +bubble shows level, then the pipe has the 1/4-inch fall per foot. +If a tile trap is used, it should be laid level, otherwise the seal +will be weakened or entirely broken. + +[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Laying terra-cotta pipe.] + +CUTTING.--The cutting of tile is not difficult, but must be done +carefully or the pipe will crack or a piece will be broken out, +thus making the pipe worthless. To cut tile or terra-cotta pipe, +stand the pipe on end with the hub down, fill the pipe with sand to +the point of cutting. With a sharp chisel and hammer cut around the +pipe two or three times and the pipe will crack around practically +straight. + +CEMENTING.--If the pipe is free from cracks, the only possible way +roots can get into the inside of terra-cotta pipe is through the +cement joint. There are two ways of making these joints. Both ways +are explained below and are used today on terra-cotta work. + + _First._--The bottom of the hub of pipe in place is filled with + cement and the straight end of the next piece of pipe is laid in + place, then more cement is placed into the hub until the space + between the hub and the pipe is filled. In a trench, a trowel is + rather unhandy to work with, while the hands can be used to better + advantage. The cement can be forced into place with the hands and + then surfaced with a trowel. The rest of the operation is to swab + out the inside joint to remove any cement that perchance was forced + through the joint (see Fig. 39). The cement used should be 1/2 + cement and 1/2 clean sharp sand. + + _Second._--Half of the space between the hub and the pipe is first + packed with oakum and then the other half filled with cement of the + same proportions as that used above. + +[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Showing use of the swab.] + + +LAYING PIPE IN TUNNELS + +[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Pushing pipe through tunnel.] + +If the pipe must be run through a tunnel and there are perhaps +three or four joints that cannot be reached, they should be put +into place as follows: The pipe should be laid in the trench from +the sewer in the street as far as the tunnel, then start at the +other end of the tunnel. Lay the first piece of pipe on a board, +lengthwise with the board, nail two cleats in the shape of a > +(Fig. 40) for the pipe to rest in; push this pipe and board into +the tunnel and then cement into its hub a second piece; push the +two pieces in 2 feet, cement a third length into the second piece +and push the three pieces along 2 feet. A workman can be on the +sewer side of the tunnel and receive the end of the pipe as it is +pushed through the tunnel, and steer the pipe into the hub. The +joints in the tunnel will not be as secure as those outside. This +explains how pipe is run through a tunnel. + +CONNECTING.--The proper method of connecting the house sewer with +the street sewer is shown in Fig. 35. The connection should be made +above the spring of the arch. The pipe should extend well into the +sewer so the sewage will discharge into water and not drop on +sides. + +INSERTING.--To insert a tee in a line of pipe already laid, pursue +the following method (see Fig. 41): Cut or break out one joint, +preserve the bottom of the hub of pipe that is in. Cut away the top +of the hub on the pipe to be inserted, then place the pipe in +position and turn around until the part of the hub on the piece +inserted is on the bottom. The bottom part of the pipes now will +have a hub to receive the cement. The top part will have to be +cemented carefully, as it is within easy access. This can be done +without difficulty. + +[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Inserting length of pipe.] + +While laying the pipe a stopper is used to prevent the sewer gases +and foul odors from escaping. This stopper sometimes is of tile, +sometimes a plug of paper or burlap. This stopper is sometimes +cemented in by inexperienced men and the trouble created can only +be guessed at. If a stopper is used, the workman must see that it +is taken out. + +REFILLING.--After the pipe is laid and cemented, it should be +covered and allowed to stand 24 hours to give the cement time to +harden. The dirt should then be thrown in and settled by means of a +tamper or by flooding with water. The planks should not be taken +out until the trench is well filled. To pull the plank, a chain or +shoe and lever will have to be used. Where the tunnels are, dirt +will have to be rammed in with a long rammer, care being taken not +to disturb the pipe. If the refill is not well rammed and tamped, +the trench will settle and cause a bad depression in the street +surface. + +TERRA-COTTA PIPE.--Terra-cotta pipe should be straight, free from +fire cracks, and salt-glazed. The inside of the hub and outside of +the plain end should not be glazed. This allows the cement to take +hold. + + TABLE OF STANDARD TERRA-COTTA PIPE + + ------+------------+-----------------+----------+-------------- + Size | Thickness, | Weight per ft., | Depth of | Annular space + | inches | pounds | socket | + ------+------------+-----------------+----------+-------------- + 3 | 1/2 | 7 | 1-1/2 | 1/4 + 4 | 1/2 | 9 | 1-5/8 | 3/8 + 5 | 5/8 | 12 | 1-3/4 | 3/8 + 6 | 5/8 | 15 | 1-7/8 | 3/8 + 8 | 3/4 | 23 | 2 | 3/8 + 9 | 13/16 | 23 | 2 | 3/8 + 10 | 7/8 | 35 | 2-1/8 | 3/8 + 12 | 1 | 45 | 2-1/4 | 1/2 + 15 | 1-1/8 | 60 | 2-1/2 | 1/2 + 18 | 1-1/4 | 85 | 2-3/4 | 1/2 + 20 | 1-3/8 | 100 | 3 | 1/2 + ------+------------+-----------------+----------+-------------- + +Terra-cotta pipe should not be permitted in filled-in ground. + +Roots of trees find their way into the pipe through cracks or +cement joints. When the roots get inside of the pipe they grow +until the pipe is stopped up. As the roots cannot be forced or +wired out, the sewer must be relaid. The writer has seen a solid +mass of roots 10 feet long taken out of a tile sewer. + +In case terra-cotta is laid in filled-in ground, there is only one +way to insure the pipe from breaking. The pipe should be laid on +planks. Then, if the ground settles, the pipe will not be broken. + + +WATER CONNECTION AND SERVICE + +TAPPING MAIN.--The water service for a building is put in at the +same time as the sewer is connected and run into the house. For a +1-1/4-service pipe a 1/2-inch tap is furnished. The water company +taps the main, at the expense of the plumber, and inserts a +corporation cock. + +[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Showing water main and sewer in same +ditch.] + +DIGGING TRENCH.--The trench for the water main should be dug at +least 4-1/2 feet deep or below frost level and the trench should be +kept straight. When the sewer is put in at the same time, one side +of the sewer trench can be cut out after it is filled up to the +level of the water main. The water pipe can then be laid on this +shelf at least 2 feet away from the original trench of sewer. +Sometimes the surface of the ground must not be disturbed. In this +case small holes are dug and the pipe is pushed through or driven +through under that portion not dug. These places are often +tunnelled (see Fig. 42). + +In digging in city streets, care should be taken not to destroy any +of the numerous pipes encountered. + + +LAYING PIPE + +The trench should be dug straight out from the house so the pipe +can be laid and the main tapped straight out from the building. The +water companies keep a record of these taps so that in case of +trouble the street can be opened and the water shut off. In laying +the water service, the pipe from the curb to the main should be +laid first. This takes in all the pipe in the street. At the main +there is a shut-off in the tap. Another stop with T or wheel handle +must be placed just inside the curb line. This is called a curb +cock (see Fig. 43). One trench either outside or inside of the curb +should be at least 15 feet long so that a full length of pipe can +be laid in the trench. It is generally impossible to open a trench +the full length the pipe is to be run. A trench 10 feet long is +dug, then 8 feet left, and another 10- or 8-foot trench is dug and +the two are connected with a small tunnel and pipe pushed through. +When the pipe has been put in place between the curb and main, the +water is turned on and the pipe flushed out. The valve at the curb +should now be shut off, and if there are any leaks they will show. +The street part is now ready to fill in. At this point Fig. 43 +should be studied. Note the piece of lead attached to the pipe and +corporation cock. This piece of lead should be extra heavy and +always laid in place the shape of the letter S or goose neck. In +case the street should settle, this piece of lead will allow for +it. These "lead connections" or "goose necks" are made as follows: +3 ft. of 5/8 lead pipe; 1-inch brass solder nipple (wiped on); one +brass corporation cock coupling (wiped on). + +LAYING PIPE.--This lead connection can be screwed on the pipe after +the pipe is laid, then bent and coupled on the main with the +coupling. + +[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Water main from street to foundation +wall.] + +After the pipe has been tested as far as the curb, the trench in +the street can be filled as described later. The pipe from the curb +to the building can now be laid. If necessary to push the pipe +through a tunnel, the end of the pipe should first be capped. Start +by screwing a length in the curb cock. If the other end of the pipe +comes in a tunnel an additional length must be put on before +putting in place so that an end will come in the open trench. When +the building is reached and before the stop cock is put on, the +valve at the curb should be opened full and the pipe flushed out. +The valve can then be put on and water turned on to test the pipe. + +SETTING CURB BOX.--A cast-iron box, adjustable length, with cover +should extend from the curb cock to the surface. This makes it +possible with a long rod to control the water service into the +building. To set a curb box some flat stones should be laid around +the curb cock and the box set on these stones. Then the space +around the box and pipe should be closed in with brick or other +covering to keep the sand from washing in on the curb cock. The box +should be adjusted for height and then held in place by placing the +curb key rod in place and holding the rod and box while the trench +is filled. The refill should be tamped evenly on all sides of the +box. + +REFILL.--In refilling the trench around the corporation cock and +goose neck, the greatest care should be taken. The writer has seen +cases when indifferent workmen have tossed heavy stones in the +ditch and broken off the corporation cock or destroyed the goose +neck. After the pipe is covered with 18 inches of refill and +tunnels have been filled, water can be run in the trench and will +settle the refill. + +There are a number of special points concerning water services and +taps at mains that should not be overlooked. Take for example a +water service pipe which must be run through ground where +electricity is escaping under trolley tracks, around power houses, +etc. The electricity will enter the pipe and wherever it leaves the +pipe a hole is burned. The surface of the pipe in a short time will +be full of small pith marks and will soon leak. A good way to add +to the life of the pipe under these conditions is to make a star of +copper and solder it on to the pipe in the street. Another piece of +copper should be put on the pipe near the building. The electricity +will leave the pipe by way of the points on the star. This method +may not be a cure for electrolysis, but will add to the life of the +pipe. Another method employed is to put the pipe in the center of a +square box, then fill the box with hot pitch. When this is hardened +the pipe will have a covering that will keep out any moisture and +bar electricity to a marked degree. + +MATERIALS USED.--Galvanized steel pipe does not last under ground. + +Galvanized iron, heavy lead, and brass are used. Wooden pipes were +once used and stood years of service. No service smaller than 1-1/4 +should be used. + +When the water service pipe passes through the foundation wall, the +pipe should not be built in, but a small arch should be built over +the pipe or a piece of XX cast-iron pipe can be used as a sleeve +(Fig. 44). + +[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Free space around pipe passing through +wall.] + +POINTS TO REMEMBER.-- + + +SEWER INSTALLATION + + _First_, select good sound pipe and fittings. + + _Second_, locate branch connection in street sewer. + + _Third_, lay out run of house sewer. + + _Fourth_, take out necessary permits from departments of sewer. + + _Fifth_, dig trench in the street, then into the house. + + _Sixth_, lay pipe and cement joints. + + _Seventh_, refill trench, tamping every foot. + + _Eighth_, cast-iron pipe for sewer is found under another heading. + + +WATER SERVICE + + _First_, take out necessary permits. + + _Second_, list material and deliver to job. + + _Third_, lay out and dig trench. + + _Fourth_, have main tapped. + + _Fifth_, lay pipe to curb and test. + + _Sixth_, fill in street trench. + + _Seventh_, lay pipe into building and test. + + _Eighth_, set curb box. + + _Ninth_, refill trench. + + _Tenth_, thoroughly consider any special conditions. + + _Street Sewer._--Large pipe in streets to receive all soil and + waste from buildings. + + _House Sewer._--Conveys sewage from building to street sewer, + extends from foundation wall to sewer. + + _Street Main._--Water pipe running parallel with the street, + belonging to the water company. + + _Service Pipe._--Runs from the street main into the building. + + _Corporation Cock._--Brass stop tapped into street main. + + _Goose Neck._--Lead pipe which connects the street main and service + pipe. + + _Trench._--Hole dug to receive pipe. + + _Main Tapped._--Hole drilled through wall of main and a thread made + on it while pressure is on. + + _Curb Cock._--Brass shut-off placed at curb. + + _Solder Nipple._--Piece of brass pipe with thread on one end and + plain on the other end which connects lead and iron. + + _Coupling._--Fitting which connects two pieces of pipe. + + _Stop Cock._--Brass fitting for stopping flow of water. + + _Curb Box._--Iron box extending from curb cock to surface. + + _Curb Key._--A long key to fit in side of curb box to operate curb + cock. + + _Swab._--Stick with ball of rags or paper on one end. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +INSTALLING OF FRENCH OR SUB-SOIL DRAINS + + +[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Sub-soil drain.] + +When a building is erected on a site that is wet or springy, some +means of carrying off the surplus water in the ground must be +provided for, or the basement of the building will be flooded with +water. For the thorough understanding of the methods employed in +laying a drain of this kind, I will go over it carefully and the +beginner can read it and then study it, and understand just how it +is done. A site may appear to be dry on the surface of the ground +and yet be very wet under the surface. If no information can be had +regarding the site, it is always well to drain the site if it is on +a slope or near a body of water and on the water shed of a river or +lake. If a building is a large one and the foundation goes down +very deep, the site should always be drained. The drain is laid +under the basement floor and around the outside of the foundation +wall on a level with or lower than the basement floor. The value of +draining a building site when the building is first started is very +often overlooked. The cost of the drain will be saved in a few +years as the basement will be free from all excessive dampness. The +expense of installing a sub-soil after the building is up and in +use is great as well as inconvenient. The drain is called "sub-soil +drain" on account of its location under the ground and on account +of its duty of taking off all surplus water that is underground. +With the surface water taken off by the surface drains and the +sub-soil drained by the sub-soil drains, a wet building site can be +made practically dry (see Fig. 45). + +MATERIALS USED IN SUB-SOIL CONSTRUCTION.--The object of the drain +is to collect water and carry it away from the building by means of +pipes. Terra-cotta pipes, with or without hubs, are used. +Perforated tile pipe is sometimes used. This pipe is unglazed +terra-cotta pipe with 1-inch holes in the sides about 3 or 4 inches +from the center. These holes allow the surplus water to enter the +bore of the pipe and thus be carried off beyond the building site. + +When the sub-soil of a small building needs draining, the trenches +made for the house drain and its branches are used as a drain in +the following manner: The trenches are dug deeper than is required +for the house drain. The trenches are then filled to the correct +level with broken stones. There is space between these stones for +the water to find passage to a point away from the building. When +this method is employed, some provision must be made to prevent the +house drain from settling. When locating the drain, we must +consider approximately the amount of water that is likely to be in +the soil and required to be carried off. If there is considerable +water, the pipes should extend all around the outside of the +building foundation wall, also a main pipe running under the cellar +bottom with six branches, three branches on each side. + +If there is not a great deal of surplus water in the soil, the +drain around the outside of the foundation wall should be put in +and one drain line running through the basement will be sufficient. + +LAYING THE PIPE.--The drain pipe should be handled with care, for +it is easily broken. The trench should be laid out and dug, then +the pipe can be laid in it with a grade toward the outlet or +discharge. If pipes with a hub on one end are used, the hub should +not be cemented. A little oakum is packed in the hub to steady the +pipe and keep sand out, the bottom of joint is cemented, a piece of +tar paper can be laid over the top of the joint to keep the sand +out. With joints made this way, the water can find its way to the +bore of the pipe and yet the sand will be kept out of the pipe. As +soon as the water gets into the bore of the pipe it has a clear +passageway to some discharge point away from the building. If tile +pipes without any hubs are used, some covering should be put around +the joint to keep out the sand and still allow the water to find +its way into the pipes. + +DISCHARGE OF SUB-SOIL DRAIN.--The water that accumulates in a +sub-soil drain must be carried off to some point away from the +building. As the pipes are generally under the cellar bottom and +under the house drain, it is very evident that this drain cannot +discharge into the house drain sewer, directly. If the building +site is on a hill, the drain can be carried out and discharged on +the surface at a point that is somewhat lower than the level of the +pipe under the building. Where this cannot be done, it will be +necessary to have the different lines of pipes discharge into a +pit. The water is accumulated in this pit until it is filled, then +it will automatically empty itself as later explained. + +PIT CONSTRUCTION.--The pit for the sub-soil water is constructed of +cement. A pit 2 feet square or 2 feet in diameter and 3 feet deep +will answer all requirements. A pit of this depth will allow a +pitch for all lines of pipe, and is large enough for ordinary +installations. The pit is built up to the surface of the cemented +floor of the basement and covered with a removable iron cover. + +CELLAR DRAINER OR PUMP.--A cellar drainer is employed to empty the +above-mentioned pit. The cellar drainer works automatically. When +the pit is filled with water, the drainer operates and empties the +pit and discharges the water into a sink or open sewer connection. +When the pit is emptied, the drainer shuts off. The cellar drainer +is operated by water pressure. When the valve is opened, a small +jet of water is discharged into a larger pipe. The velocity of this +small jet of water creates a suction and carries along with it some +of the water in the pit. This suction continues until the tank is +empty. There should always be a strainer on the suction pipe, also +on the supply pipe, to prevent any particles of dirt getting into +the valve. The pipes leading to and from the drainer should empty +into an open sink where it can be seen. There is a possibility of +the drainer valve leaking and then the water pressure will leak +through it, causing a waste of water. If this leakage can be seen +where it discharges, then the trouble can be rectified. The cellar +drainer is connected directly with the water pressure and should +have a valve close to the connection to control the supply. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +STORM AND SANITARY DRAINAGE WITH SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN VIEW + + +The accompanying drawing of storm and sanitary drains should be +studied in detail by the reader. The location of each trap and +fitting should be studied carefully and the reason that it is put +in that particular place should be thoroughly understood. Below, +each plan has been taken and gone over in detail, bringing out the +reasons for fittings and traps, also the arrangement of the piping. + +[Illustration: FIG. 46.] + +The first thing to note in Fig. 46 is the number and kinds of +fixtures to be drained. There is in the basement a set of +three-part wash trays. This will require a 2-inch waste and a +1-1/2-inch vent. There is in the drawing a 2-inch waste extending +to the fixtures above. On the same line is a rain leader with a +trap showing also a 4-inch floor drain. There are two 4-inch rain +leaders on the opposite corners of the plan, in the rear of the +building. There is a 4-inch soil stack for fixtures above and a +4-inch soil stack in the basement on the same line for a basement +toilet. On the front there are rain leaders in each corner. These +will be connected outside of the house trap (this feature should be +noted). The outlets that are to discharge into the house drain are +as follows: + + Two 4-inch rain leaders. + + One 2-inch sink waste. + + One 2-inch wash tray waste. + + One 4-inch floor drain. + + One 4-inch soil pipe. + + One 4-inch closet connection. + + Two 4-inch front rain leaders to discharge into house + sewer. + +If we were to install this job, we would first locate each pipe +that enters the house drain. The lowest outlet would be +particularly noted, in this case the 4-inch floor drain. From this +drain we must make sure that at least 1/4 inch to the foot fall is +secured. We must then locate the house sewer where it enters the +foundation wall, then the work can be started. I will not attempt +to list the material that is necessary for this work, at this time. +With all the material at hand the house drain is started. All of +this work is installed under the ground, therefore trenches must be +dug for all the piping. The plumber must lay these trenches out and +in doing so he must have in mind all connections and the fittings +he can use so that the trenches can be dug at the right angle. The +trenches must be dug allowing a pitch for the pipe. The height of +the cellar is 8 feet below the joists. A stick is cut 8 feet long +which can be used to get the trenches below the cement floor at the +right depth. After the digging is completed, the house trap, which +is a 6-inch running trap, is caulked into a length of 6-inch +cast-iron pipe. This piece of pipe is pushed out toward the sewer +bringing the trap near the foundation wall, on the inside. The +fittings and traps and pipe are caulked in place as fast as +possible. When possible, the joints are caulked outside of the +trench in an upright position. There are a number of different ways +to caulk this pipe together, and to make it clear to the beginner +just how it is done the following exercise is suggested. This job +brings in the caulking of pipes, traps, and fittings in various +positions. Two or three can work on this job together. Fig. 47 +shows how the pipe and fittings are put together, which needs no +further explanation. Therefore, we will go over in detail only the +caulking of the joints in the various positions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 47.] + +MATERIAL NEEDED.--One length of 4-inch extra heavy cast-iron pipe, +single hub; two lengths of 4-inch extra heavy cast-iron pipe, +double hub; one running trap, one full Y, one 4-inch 1/4 bend; two +4-inch clean-out screws with iron body; one 4-inch vent cap; one +4-inch 1/8 bend; 30 pounds of block lead; 2 pounds of oakum. + +TOOLS REQUIRED.--Ladle, asbestos pourer, hammer, cold chisel, +yarning iron, two caulking irons, furnace and pot. + +The beginner should start at the trap and caulk the joints with the +trap held in place. The cold chisel should be sharp as it is used +to cut the cast-iron pipe. + +To caulk the straight end of cast-iron pipe into the hub end and +make a water-tight joint when the pipe is in a vertical position, +the spigot end of the pipe is entered into the hub end of another +piece. A wad of oakum is taken and forced into the hub with the +yarning iron. This piece of oakum is forced to the bottom of the +hub, then another piece is put in. The oakum is set and packed by +using the yarning iron and hammer. The hub is half filled with +oakum. The oakum is forced tight enough to make a water-tight +joint. If the oakum used comes in a bale, pieces of it will have to +be taken and rolled into long ropes about 18 inches long, the +thickness of the rope corresponding with the space between the hub +and the pipe. If rope oakum is used, the strands of the rope can be +used. After the oakum is well packed into place and the pipe is +lined up and made straight, molten lead is poured in and the hub +filled. When the lead has cooled, set the lead with the caulking +tool and hammer, making one blow on each side of the joint. This +sets the lead evenly on every side. If there is any surplus lead, +it can now be cut off, using the hammer and cold chisel. The +caulking iron is again taken and the lead next to the pipe is +tamped, striking the iron with the hammer at an angle to drive the +lead against the pipe. After this has been done all around, the +caulking iron is held in such a position that the lead around the +hub will receive the force of the blow. After this has been done, +the center of the lead is caulked and the joint should be tight. +With a little practice, this can be done very rapidly. The lead +should be poured in while it is very hot. The caulking must not be +done by hitting heavy blows as there is a possibility of splitting +the hub and thereby rendering the joint unfit for use. + +CAULKING JOINT IN HORIZONTAL POSITION.--It is necessary in a great +many cases to caulk a joint in a position where the lead would run +out of the joint unless provision were made to hold it in. To +caulk a joint in a position of this kind, the pipe is lined up and +secured, then the oakum is put in and forced to the bottom of the +hub. Then a joint runner, which is an asbestos rope about 2 feet +long and about 1 inch in diameter, is fitted around the pipe and +forced against the hub where it is clamped by means of an attached +clamp. The clamp is put on the top of the pipe and so arranged that +a channel will be left in a V shape. This channel allows the hot +lead to run between the asbestos runner and the hub. When the lead +has had a chance to cool, the asbestos runner is taken off. Where +the clamp was, there will be a triangular piece of lead sticking +out beyond the face of the hub. This piece has to be cut off, but +no attempt should be made to do so until it has been caulked in +place and well set; also the rest of the lead should be set. Then +the cold chisel can be used and this extra piece of lead taken off. +The caulking of the lead in this position is the same as in the +previous position and should be carried out closely. The beginner +should understand that it is necessary to have not only the joints +tight so that running water will not leak out of them, but that the +joints must stand a water test. The testing of soil stacks is +explained under another heading. The lines of cast-iron pipe depend +to a considerable extent upon these joints to make the whole line +rigid. + +CAULKING OF FITTINGS.--The caulking of fittings, while done the +same as a straight pipe, is far more difficult. The improper making +of these joints is the cause of many leaks. A long sweep fitting is +caulked without a great deal of difficulty. If a short bend fitting +is used, the matter of caulking is difficult. The fitting is so +short that it is almost impossible to get a caulking iron into the +throat. The mechanics will have to work at the throat from each +side until this part has been sufficiently caulked. I call +attention to this point, for I know it to be a failure in a large +number of jobs when it comes to put the test on. In order to caulk +the fittings, they must be put in their exact location and +positions before the lead is poured in, for after the lead is once +in the fitting cannot be moved. When there is a series of fittings +on a line, their positions in relation to each other must be +considered before the lead is poured. + +[Illustration: FIG. 48.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 49.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 50.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 51.] + +Fig. 48 shows the same fixture and stack connections as Fig. 46. +Two 4-inch lines run through the cellar, one a sanitary drain, the +other a storm drain. Each 4-inch line has an intercepting trap. On +the sewer side of these traps the two lines are brought together, +beyond which point the two front rain leaders connect; each of the +two front leaders is trapped separately. + +[Illustration: FIG. 52.] + +Fig. 49 differs from the preceding one in only two points. First, +the two front leaders are brought into the cellar and connected +into the storm drain on the house side of the intercepting trap. +Second, the storm and sanitary drains are connected on the outside +of the building. + +Fig. 50 shows the same fixtures collected into a 4-inch house +drain, and the rain leaders run entirely on the outside of the +building. This plan is a good one as all the storm water is kept +entirely outside the building. If the storm drains are kept 5 feet +away from the cellar walls (see Plumbing Code) the pipes can be of +tile. Another good feature of this plan is that all the pipes under +the cellar are 4-inch. + +Fig. 51 is similar to Fig. 46, the difference being in the location +of the floor drain and the connection of the two rear rain leaders, +into the house drain. + +In Fig. 52 the drains shown take the waste and storm water from the +apartment building, also a building set in the rear. The leader +pipes in this case are trapped on the outside of the wall. The +building in the rear you will note has a separate fresh air inlet +and house trap, and the house sewer is continued through the front +house and connected into the house drain of the front building, on +the sewer side of the intercepting trap. + +These drawings should be studied carefully and the student should +in each case list correctly all of the material required for the +installation of these jobs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Cutting cast-iron pipe.] + +CUTTING CAST-IRON PIPE.--To cut cast-iron pipe, a sharp cold chisel +and hammer are needed. The pipe is marked all around, just where it +is to be cut. Then it is laid with the part of the pipe that is to +be cut resting on a block of wood. A groove is cut with the hammer +and chisel around the pipe. One person can turn the pipe while the +other does the cutting. After a little experience one man can cut +and roll the pipe alone. This groove is cut deeper and deeper until +the pipe breaks apart. If standard pipe is being cut, a file is +generally resorted to for cutting the groove. On account of the +lightness of the pipe, a hammer and chisel will crack the pipe +lengthwise. When cutting extra heavy cast-iron pipe, a good heavy +blow must be struck to cause the chisel to cut into the iron. After +a few cuts, the beginner will understand the weight of blow that +must be struck to cut the pipe quickly. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +SOIL AND WASTE PIPES AND VENTS. TESTS + + +SOIL PIPES + +The term "soil pipes" means pipe that receives the discharge from +water closets. The size of a soil pipe for ordinary dwellings +should be 4 inches. + +SIZE OF SOIL PIPES + + One to three closets--4-inch XX cast-iron. + Four to eight closets--5-inch XX cast-iron. + Eight to twelve closets--6-inch XX cast-iron. + +There are cases when 3-inch XX cast-iron pipe is used, but the +practice is not recommended. + +The soil pipe should be well supported and held in place. The +connection between soil pipe and closet should be of lead to allow +for any expansion of settling that might take place. + +MATERIAL OF SOIL PIPES.--Soil pipe in common use today is made of +light cast iron, tar-coated, extra heavy cast iron uncoated and +coated, galvanized wrought-iron pipe, and steel pipe. The best kind +to use depends upon the job and place where it is to be used. +All kinds of bends and fittings can be had in any of the +above-mentioned materials. In choosing the material of the pipe +that is best to use, the following points should be carefully +considered. + + _First_, new work or overhauling. + + _Second_, temporary or permanent job. + + _Third_, construction of building. + + _Fourth_, amount allowed for cost of materials on job. + + _Fifth_, size of job, that is, the number of toilets. + + _Sixth_, size of chases and pipe partitions. + +LOCATION OF SOIL PIPE.--The location of the soil pipe depends to a +great extent upon the location of the toilets. The soil stack +should be located on an inside partition. The horizontal pipe +should not run over expensively decorated ceilings unless run +inside of a trough made of copper or sheet lead. As far as +possible, the pipes should be confined, to runs short, and the +number of bends reduced. + + +SOIL-PIPE FITTINGS + +Soil-pipe fittings can be had from stock almost to suit the +conditions. I will enumerate a few. The names of these fittings +should be familiar to the mechanic so that when ordering he can +give the correct name. 1/16, 1/8, 1/6, 1/4 bend, sanitary tee, +tapped tee, side outlet fitting, return bend, cross branches, +double Y, double TY, traps. The uses of these cast-iron fittings +perhaps are obvious, but a word about the use of each one will be +of service. + +The 1/4 bend is used to change the direction of run of pipe 90 deg. A +long-sweep 1/4 bend is used on work requiring the best practice. +1/8, 1/16, and 1/6 bends are used to change the direction of pipe +45 deg., 22-1/2 deg., and 16-2/3 deg. Two 1/8 bends should be used in +preference to one 1/4 bend where there is sufficient room. Side +outlet 1/4 bend is used for waste connection. They can be had with +an outlet on either side of the heel. Their use is not recommended. + +Return bends are used on fresh-air inlets. Tees are used for vents +only. Ys are used wherever possible. The use of a Y-branch together +with an 1/8 bend for a 90 deg. connection with the main line is always +preferable to a TY or, as they are commonly called, sanitary T. A +tapped fitting gets its name because it is tapped for iron pipe +thread. Tapped fittings are used for venting and should not be +used for waste unless the tap enters the fitting at an angle of +45 deg. + +These fittings and pipe are joined by first caulking with oakum and +pouring, with one continuous pour, the hub full of molten metal. +When cool, the lead should be set and then caulked around the pipe +and around the hub. + +The amount of lead and oakum required for various-sized joints is +as follows: + + Pipe size 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 15 + Pounds of lead 1-1/2 2-1/4 3 3-3/4 4-1/2 6 7-1/2 9 11-1/4 + Oakum (ounce) 4 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 30 + +RUST JOINTS.--The plumber is called upon to run cast-iron pipe in +places where lead and oakum will not be of service for the joints. +In cases of this kind, a rust joint is made. This "rust" is made +according to the following formula: + + 1 part flour of sulphur. + 1 part sal-ammoniac. + 98 parts iron borings (free from grease). + +This mixture is made the consistency of cement, using water to mix +thoroughly and bring all parts into contact with each other. When +it hardens, it becomes very hard and makes a tight joint which +overcomes the objections to lead and oakum joints. + + +WROUGHT-IRON AND STEEL PIPE + +This pipe comes in about 18-foot lengths and fittings of the +following makes and shapes, and their use is fully explained. The +lengths of pipe come with a thread on each end and a coupling +screwed on one end. The lengths come in bundles up to 1-1/2-inches +and in single lengths over that size. Screw pipe fittings, it will +be noted, are called by a different name than cast-iron ones. The +fittings in common use today are the 90 degree ell, 45, 22, and +16-2/3. The Y and TY, tucker fittings, and inverted Ys are used in +practically the same way as the cast-iron fittings. The 90 degree +ell, 45, 22, and 16-2/3 are used to change the run of pipe that +many degrees. All 90 degree fittings, ells, and Ts are tapped to +give the pipe a pitch of 1/4 inch to the foot. It is better to use +two 45 ells to make a 90 bend when it is possible. + +[Illustration: CAST-IRON SCREW FITTINGS +FIG. 54.] + +INVERTED Y.--The inverted Y is used in venting to good advantage. +The use of these fittings is illustrated in the sketches. + +WASTE PIPES.--Waste pipes are the pipes that run to or convey the +discharge of waste matter to the house drain, from wash trays, +baths, lavatories, sinks, and showers. + +The usual size of waste pipes is 2 inches. Waste pipes are made of +the same material as soil pipe. Lead and brass pipe are also in +common use. All exposed waste pipes in bath and toilet rooms are +brass, nickel-plated. The waste pipes under kitchen sinks and wash +trays are either lead or plain heavy brass. All waste pipes are run +with a pitch towards the house trap and should be properly vented +as explained under venting. The pipes should be easy of access, +with clean-outs in convenient places. The waste pipes under a tile +or cement floor should be covered with waterproof paper and a metal +V-shaped shield over the entire length. If the waste pipes are over +a decorated ceiling they should be in a copper-lined or lead-lined +box. This box should have a tell-tale pipe running to the open +cellar with the end of the tell-tale pipe left open. If waste pipes +are to take the discharge from sinks in which chemicals are thrown, +either chemical lead or terra-cotta pipe should be used. If +terra-cotta is used, it should have at least 6 inches reinforced +concrete around it and the joints of pipe made of keisilgar. + +SIZE OF WASTE PIPES + + Urinals 2 inches + Kitchen sink 2 inches + Slop sink 3 inches + Receptacles 1-1/2 inches + Bath tubs 1-1/2 inches + Lavatories 1-1/2 or 1-1/4 inches + Wash trays 2 inches + +TELL-TALE PIPE.--The tell-tale pipe is a small pipe that extends +from the trough, pan, or box that is under a line of pipe or +fixtures to the open cellar. When water is seen running out of this +pipe, it shows that a leak exists somewhere in the line of pipe +that is in the box or trough. The use of this pipe saves the +destruction of walls and ceilings. + + +VENTS + +[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Circuit vent.] + +Vents are the most important pipes in the plumbing system. Modern +plumbing successfully attempts to make living in crowded and +thickly populated districts, as well as in isolated buildings, free +from all unpleasant odors and annoyances. This could not be +accomplished without the use of vents. Vents relieve all pressure +in the system by furnishing an outlet for the air that is displaced +by the waste discharged from the fixtures. Another of its functions +is to supply air when syphonic action starts, thereby stopping the +action that would break the seal of the trap under fixtures. The +pipe extending from top fixture connection, up to and through the +roof, is called the ventilation pipe. All vents that do not pass +directly through the roof terminate in this ventilation pipe. + +To explain the use of vents, we might well start in the basement of +a dwelling house. Suppose there is a set of wash trays in the +laundry; the 2-inch trap of these trays should have a 1-1/4-inch +vent pipe leading from the crown of the trap up along side of the +stack. On the first floor a 1-1/4-inch pipe from the crown of the +kitchen sink trap will lead into it. Here the pipe should be +increased to 2 inches. On the second floor the 1-1/4-inch pipes +leading from the lavatory and bath traps come into it. The vent +stack now extends up into the attic and connects with the +ventilation pipe. In a general way, the above is an example of +venting. The old method of venting was very complicated and is +almost beyond describing with the pen. + +[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Loop vent.] + +In common use today, there are several kinds of venting, namely: +circuit and loop venting, crown venting, and continuous venting. +The _circuit venting_, Fig. 55, is used in connection with the +installation of closets. Take a row of toilets in which the waste +connection of each closet discharges into a Y-branch, and there +will be a series of Y-branches. One end of this series of branches +discharges into the main stack while the other end continues and +turns up at least to the height of the top of the closet and then +enters the main vent stack. When this main vent runs up along side +of the main stack and forces the vent pipe connected to the series +of Y-branches to travel back, it is called a loop vent. This type +of vent supplies air to the complete line of toilets and is very +efficient. + +[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Continuous vent.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 58.] + +CONTINUOUS VENTING, Figs. 57 and 58, applies more to fixtures other +than toilets. A P-trap is used and enters a T in the stack. The +lower part of the T acts as and connects with the waste pipe while +the upper half is and connects with the vent pipe. A study of the +figures will aid the reader to understand thoroughly the above +explanations. In continuous venting the waste of the lowest fixture +is discharged into the vent pipe and extended to the main waste +stack where it is connected. This is done to allow any rust scales +that occasionally drop down the vent pipe, and render it unfit to +perform its duty, to be washed away into the sewer. + +CROWN VENTING, Fig. 59, is as its name implies, a vent that is +taken from the crown of the trap, thence into the main vent. + +Each one of these methods of venting is used and considered good +practice, provided it is properly installed and correctly connected +with the use of proper fittings. + +[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Crown venting.] + +THINGS TO REMEMBER.-- + + _First_, venting is to prevent traps from syphoning. + + _Second_, also to allow free passage of air. + + _Third_, circuit vent--loop vent. + + _Fourth_, continuous venting. + + _Fifth_, crown venting. + + _Sixth_, ventilation pipe extends from the top of fixture through + roof. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +HOUSE TRAPS, FRESH-AIR CONNECTIONS, DRUM TRAPS, AND NON-SYPHONING +TRAPS + + +The _house trap_ is a deep seal trap placed inside the foundation +wall, and intersects the house drain and house sewer. The trap is +placed at this point for a number of reasons: first, to keep sewer +gases from entering the pipes in the house; second, this location +is where the house drain ends. This trap should have two +clean-outs, one on each side of the seal. The clean-outs should be +of extra heavy cast-iron body with a heavy brass screw cap. The cap +should have a square nut for a wrench to tighten or unscrew the +cap. This cap should be brought up flush with the floor. When a +house trap is being set, it is necessary to set it perfectly level, +otherwise the seal of the trap is weakened and sewer gases can +enter. + +Sometimes the trap is located on the house sewer just outside of +the foundation wall. In this case, a pit should be built large +enough for a workman to get down to it to clean it out when +necessary. + +_A mason's trap_ was formerly used to a considerable extent, but is +very poor practice to use today on modern work. This trap was built +square of brick with a center partition. The brick soon became foul +and the trap would be better termed a small cesspool than a trap. + +POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT HOUSE TRAPS.-- + + _First_, should be a running trap. + + _Second_, two clean-outs. + + _Third_, deep seal, at least 2 inches. + + _Fourth_, set level. + + _Fifth_, set inside foundation wall. + + _Sixth_, accessible at all times. + + _Seventh_, same size as house drain. + + _Eighth_, fresh air should connect with it. + + +FRESH-AIR CONNECTIONS + +The term "fresh-air inlet" is, as its name implies, an inlet for +fresh air. It is placed directly on the house side of the main +trap. The connections made vary considerably. A few good +connections in common use are explained below. + +When the trap is in place, one of the clean-outs can be used for +the fresh air. If this is done, a Y-branch should be placed in the +hub of the clean-out. The Y-branch should be used for the fresh air +and the run should be used for a clean-out. + +A Y-fitting can be inserted directly back of the trap and the +branch used for the fresh air. An inverted Y makes a good fitting +to use directly back of the trap. These branches should be taken +off the top of the pipe. The branch taken off for the fresh-air +inlet should not have any waste discharge into it and should not be +used for a drain pipe of any description. + +The fresh-air inlet should run as directly as possible into the +outer air, at least 15 feet from any window. The pipes terminate in +a number of different ways, some with a return bend, above the +ground, some with a cowl cap, some with a strainer. When necessary +to run pipe through the sidewalk, a box of brick is made with a +heavy brass strainer fitted level with the sidewalk into which the +pipe runs. If the pipe is run into the box on the side a little up +from the bottom, the possibility of becoming stopped up or filled +up is not great. The fresh-air inlet sometimes terminates above the +roof of the building. + +Special care should be given this fresh-air inlet as it supplies +fresh air to the entire system and thus keeps the pipes in a much +better sanitary condition. + +Sometimes when the house drain is full of sewage, air is pushed out +of the fresh-air inlet and disagreeable odors are evident. This is +why it should be located as far as possible from any window. +Special care should be taken on the part of the plumber not to +locate the fresh-air inlet nearer than 15 feet to the fresh-air +intake of the heating system. + +[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Fresh-air inlet.] + +When the pipe passes through the foundation wall, the same care +should be exercised as with other pipes. That is, if the pipe is 4 +inches, a sleeve 6 inches should be cut in the wall for the 4-inch +pipe to pass through. + +POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT FRESH AIR.-- + + _First_, never should be smaller than 4 inches. + + _Second_, one size smaller than trap. + + _Third_, location, directly back of trap. + + _Fourth_, leads to outer air. + + _Fifth_, keep away from windows and intake of heating system. + + _Sixth_, always have end of pipe covered with strainer, cowl, or + return bend. + + _Seventh_, make as few bends as possible. + + _Eighth_, supplies fresh air to system. + + +DRUM TRAP + +The use of the drum trap is very handy to the plumber as well as +efficient and practicable when installed. The trap can be purchased +without any outlets or inlets, so the plumber can put them in +according to the necessary measurements. The making of these traps +with lead is explained in the chapter on Wiping Joints. The open +end has a brass clean-out screw on it. When this clean-out screw +comes below the floor, another brass screw cap and flange is +screwed on the floor above the trap so that the clean-out screw in +the trap is easily accessible. + +[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Drum trap.] + +These drum traps are called bath traps as they are used mostly on +bath wastes. They should never be installed with the clean-out +exposed to the sewer side of the trap. In the best practice, heavy +brass drum traps are used. + + +NON-SYPHONING TRAP + +[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Flask trap.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Clean-sweep trap.] + +After years of experimenting to produce a trap that would not +syphon without venting, we find in use today a large variety of +non-syphoning traps. Traps that will hold their seal against all +practical forms of syphonic action, or other threatening features, +have been made and used and serve the purpose for which they are +intended. Various means to prevent the breaking of the seal of +these traps are employed. While some depend on a ball or other kind +of valve, others rely on partitions and deflections of various +kinds. All of these perform the functions for which they are +designed, yet the devices employed offer an excellent obstruction +for the free passage of waste; therefore, in time, these traps +become inoperative. It should be borne in mind that any traps with +a mechanical seal or an inside partition are not considered +sanitary. The inside partition might wear out or be destroyed and +thus break the seal without the knowledge of anyone and allow sewer +gas to enter the room. The mechanical device may also be displaced +or destroyed, leaving the trap without a seal. If the trap were +cleaned out often or examined occasionally, these traps could be +used with a greater degree of safety. Some of the forms of +non-syphon traps in common use are: + + The _Flask Trap_, Fig. 62. This trap gets its name from its + shape. There is an inside wall upon which the seal depends. + This trap is like the bag trap, only the two inside walls of + the pipe are combined into one. This wall should be of heavy + cast brass, free from sand holes. + + _Clean Sweep Trap_, Fig. 63. Some clean sweep traps are + dependent upon an inside wall for their seals. They are made + of 1/2-S, 3/4-S, and full S. + +[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Mechanical-seal trap.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Standard "S" trap.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Bag trap.] + + _Sure Seal Trap._ The sure seal trap is designed to be + non-syphoning. This trap also has an interior waterway. If + this waterway leaks, the trap is unfit for use. If these traps + are made as shown in the second sketch with the way inside of + a larger pipe, it can be detected if the interior wall leaks. + + _Centrifugal Trap._ The centrifugal trap is made similar to + the clean sweep, except that the wall of the inlet pipe is + entirely separate from the body of the trap. The inlet enters + the body of the trap on a tangent, thus making the trap + self-scouring which is a good feature. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +PIPE THREADING + + +The proper cutting of threads on pipe is overlooked by some +mechanics. There are many different kinds of dies and different +kinds of pipe to contend with. Steel pipe threads very hard and the +adjustable dies should be used on it. These dies cut more easily +and leave a cleaner thread than other dies when used on steel pipe. +When threads are cut on wrought-iron pipe the adjustable dies +should be used as they cut a better and cleaner thread than other +dies. To preserve the life of the dies and the quality of the +thread, oil is used freely while the dies are cutting. + +THREADS.--The standard thread on pipe and fittings is a +right-handed thread. Left threads can be cut on the pipe and the +fitting can be tapped with a left thread. When a fitting is tapped +with a left thread it is marked so. The following table gives the +standard number of threads that a die will or should be allowed to +cut on the pipe: + + --------+----------------+-------------------+---------------- + Size | Length, inches | Threads per inch | Threads per end + --------+----------------+-------------------+---------------- + 3/8 | 9/16 | 18 | 10.825 + 1/2 | 3/4 | 14 | 10.500 + 3/4 | 3/4 | 14 | 10.500 + 1 | 15/16 | 11-1/2 | 10.800 + 1-1/4 | 1 | 11-1/2 | 11.500 + 1-1/2 | 1 | 11-1/2 | 11.500 + 2 | 1-1/8 | 11-1/2 | 12.930 + --------+----------------+-------------------+---------------- + +To acquaint the beginner with iron pipe work, the following +exercise is given. In it there are a great many of the actual +problems that come up when the pipe is put in on a job. This is the +last exercise that is required in this book. The sketch shows +clearly just what the job is and below I have gone over each +operation that is necessary to complete the job. + +[Illustration: FIG. 67.] + +MATERIALS NECESSARY.--Six feet of 1-inch black pipe; four 1-inch +black ells; two 1-inch tee; one 1-inch right and left coupling; +oil. + +TOOLS NECESSARY.--Two 14-inch pipe wrenches, vise, pipe cutters, +stock and 1-inch follower right and left die and reamer. + +The vise is made secure on a bench or post, care being taken before +it is put in place to provide room enough to swing the stocks. A +length of 1-inch pipe is put into the vise and the vise clamped +around it. The end of the pipe that is to be threaded should stick +out through the vise about 9 inches. If there is a thread on this +end, the dies should be run over it to make sure that it is a +standard thread and to clean the threads. Before proceeding further +with this exercise the dies and stocks will be described and their +use shown. + +DIES.--A full set of dies is taken. The full set of stocks and dies +is composed of right and left dies from 1/8 inch up to 1 inch, with +a guide for each size, also a small wrench with which to turn the +set screws. The dies come in sets, two in a set. These are the +Armstrong patent that I am describing. Take the stock and the +handles, and a set of 1-inch right dies with the guides out of the +box. The dies will have marked on them 1" R (if 1-inch left were +wanted, the mark would be 1" L). The set screws are taken out of +the stock and the dies inserted in their proper place. There is a +deep mark on the edge of each die and under it a letter S. This +letter means "standard." This mark on the die is set even with a +similar mark on the stock and when the set screws are in place and +tightened, a standard thread will be cut. There is an adjusting +screw on the stock to make the proper adjustment on the dies. + +STOCK.--The stock is taken and the handles are put into it. There +are two sets of set screws on the stock, one set for holding the +dies in place and the other set for adjusting the dies. On the +stock there is a deep mark to correspond with the standard thread +mark on the dies. On the opposite side of the stock there is a +place for the follower and a set screw to hold it in place. After +the stocks have been looked over and examined thoroughly, the +1-inch right dies are taken and inserted. Then the 1-inch follower +is put in place. The tool is now ready to cut a 1-inch thread. Now +take a piece of 1-inch pipe at least 15 inches long and put it in +the vise, letting it extend out from the vise about 9 inches. The +stock is now taken and the follower end is put on the pipe first +and the dies brought up in place to cut. The end of the pipe is +allowed to enter in between the two dies so that the teeth of each +die rest on the pipe. Now, holding the handles of the stock about 6 +inches from the body of the stock and standing directly in front of +the pipe, push and turn to the right at the same time and the dies +will be started. Now put some oil on the dies and turn the stock, +taking hold of the ends of the handles and standing at one side. +The dies are run up on the pipe until the pipe extends through the +face of the dies one thread. Oil is put on the pipe and the dies at +least twice during the cutting. When the thread is long enough the +stock is turned back a little and then forward a little and the +loose chips are blown out from between the dies and pipe. If the +dies are set right, a good clean standard thread will have been +cut. This thread can now be cut off with the pipe cutters. + +PIPE CUTTERS.--To cut pipe with a one-wheel pipe cutter is a simple +matter. I will not dwell at length on the cutter itself. There are +one-wheel and three-wheel cutters. We will use a one-wheel cutter +tool. This cutter is forced into the surface of the pipe with a set +screw having a long tee handle. The pressure that is brought to +bear on the pipe while being cut is sufficient to cause a large +burr to form on the inside of the pipe. Sometimes the pipe is +completely crushed and rendered unfit for use. Therefore the user +of these cutters should exercise care when cutting pipe. The pipe +is put in the vise and the cutters are so put on the pipe that the +pipe will be between the two rollers and the cutter wheel, the +cutter resting on the mark that indicates the point at which the +pipe is to be cut. The handle is screwed down and the cutters +turned around the pipe; each time the cutters make a complete turn +the handle is screwed down more. This procedure is continued until +the furrow has been cut clear through the pipe. + +CUTTING AND THREADING NIPPLES.--Nipples are short pieces of pipe +threaded on each end. Pieces of pipe longer than 6 inches are not +called nipples. When a nipple is so short that the threads cut on +each end meet in the center of the piece, the nipple is called a +"close nipple." When there is a space of about 1/4 inch between the +threads, it is called a "space or shoulder" nipple. To cut and +thread these nipples a nipple chuck or nipple holder is necessary. + +[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Nipple chuck and nipples.] + +NIPPLE HOLDERS.--Take a piece of 1-inch pipe about 12 inches long +and on one end cut a thread that is 2 inches long. Take a 1-inch +coupling and screw it on this end until the end of the pipe is +almost through the end of the coupling. At least four threads +should be allowed at this end of the coupling. Now we have a piece +of pipe 12 inches long having a thread 2 inches long on one end +with a coupling on the thread. This is called a nipple holder. Now, +to cut a nipple, cut a thread on a piece of pipe and cut the pipe +off at any desired length, say 2 inches. Put the nipple holder in +the vise with the coupling out from the vise about 8 inches. Take +the 2-inch piece of pipe with a thread on one end, screw this +thread into the coupling until it touches the pipe that has been +screwed through from the other end. Now the stocks having the 1 +dies and the follower in are put on the pipe. The follower will not +go over the coupling, therefore take the follower out of the +stock. Now the stock will slip over the coupling and the thread can +be cut. With this procedure a nipple of any length can be cut. +There are a number of patented nipple chucks on the market, but as +they are not always at hand the above method is resorted to and +serves every purpose. + +LONG SCREWS.--To cut a long screw which comes in use frequently on +vent pipe work, a piece of pipe 12 inches long is taken and a +regular length thread is cut on one end, and a thread 4 inches long +is cut on the other end. Then a coupling is cut while screwed on a +pipe, so that a lock nut about 1/2 inch wide is made. The +description and use of these long screws will come under screw pipe +venting. + +Now that the proper use of the tools has been explained, we will +proceed with the exercise according to the sketch. With a length of +pipe in the vise and the 1-inch dies in the stock, run over the +thread on the pipe. Note that all the measurements are center to +center. Screw an elbow on the pipe and measure off the first +length, which we will take as 12 inches center to center. Place the +rule on the pipe with one end of it at the center of the opening of +the elbow just screwed on. Mark 12 inches off on the pipe. This +mark represents the center of another ell. Now take another ell and +hold the center of one outlet on this mark. It will readily be seen +that to have the measurement come right, the pipe must be cut off +at a point where it will make up tight when screwed into the ell. +Therefore, about 1 inch will have to be cut off, making the pipe 1 +inch shorter than where it was first marked. Cut the pipe, and +before taking it out of the vise make a thread on the pipe still in +the vise. After the thread is cut, take the reamer and ream out the +burr that is on the inside of the pipe caused by the pipe cutter. +An elbow can be screwed on this pipe. The next measurement is +marked off as explained, the pipe cut, then the piece in the vise +threaded and reamed. The measurements must be accurate and the +dies should be adjusted to cut all threads the same depth. When the +measurements are all out, there should be seven pieces of pipe, +each piece having one thread. Now the threads on the other end can +be cut except the 12 inch piece that screws into the right and left +coupling. This thread is a left-handed thread and must be cut with +the left dies. Change the dies now to the 1-inch left dies; turn +the stock in the opposite direction of the right-hand thread, and +the dies will cut the left thread. The pipe and the fittings can +easily be put together as shown in the sketch by following the +center to center measurements. The right and left coupling is the +only fitting that will cause the beginner trouble. A right and left +coupling can be used only when there is sufficient _give_ to the +pipe, that is, the two ends of the pipe to be coupled together are +only 1/2 inch apart. To get the coupling in place to start the +threads, the pipe must spread apart at least 2 inches. If the pipe +cannot be spread that much, a right and left coupling cannot be +used. The proper way to make up a right and left coupling is as +follows: + +[Illustration: FIG. 69.--_F_ reads center of ell to end, _C_ reads +center of ell to center of valve, _D_ reads center of valve to +center of T, _E_ reads center of T to center of ell.] + +Screw home the coupling on the right thread. Mark with a piece of +chalk on the coupling and the pipe showing a point on each where +the coupling makes tight. Take off the coupling and count the turns +and make note of the number. Now do the same on the left thread +and make a note of the number of threads. If the left thread has +six turns and the right has four and one-half, then to insure that +the left thread will be tight when the right thread is, the +coupling must be put on the left thread one and one-half turns +before it is started on the right thread. Now with four and +one-half turns, the right and the left threads will both be tight. +A little thought and practice will make this connection clear. If +all the measurements in this exercise are not cut accurately, the +right and left coupling will not go together. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +COLD-WATER SUPPLY. TEST + + +The supplying of cold water to buildings and then piping it to the +various fixtures makes a very interesting study. We have gone over +the methods of laying and piping for the house service pipe. We +will go over the different systems now employed to supply the +water, quickly. + +UNDERGROUND WATER.--In thinly populated districts the well is still +employed to supply water to the building. The water is brought to +the surface by means of a large bucket or by means of a pump. A +well point can be driven into the ground until water is reached and +then the water can be brought to the surface by means of a pump +operated by hand or by power. The water can be forced to a tank +that is open and elevated, or forced into a tank that is closed and +put under pressure. From either tank the water will flow to any +desired outlets. A windmill can be employed to furnish power to +operate the pump. Water supply that is received directly from +underground is by far the best to use. A cesspool or outhouse must +not be allowed on the premises with a well, otherwise the well will +be contaminated and unfit for domestic use. An open well is not as +sanitary as a driven well, as the surface water and leaves, etc., +get into it and decay and pollute the water, and soon make it unfit +for domestic use. + +STREAMS AND BROOKS.--The brooks and streams furnish a good source +of supply for water to a building or community of buildings. The +writer recently worked on a system of piping that supplied 15 or 20 +buildings. The water supply came from a brook that was higher than +the houses. Each house had a separate pipe leading down from the +brook into a tank from which the house was piped. The owner of the +brook applied business ethics to the privileges of taking water +from it. He had a scale of prices, and the highest-priced location +was an inch or so below the bed of the brook, the next price was +level with the bottom, the next cheaper 2 inches above the bottom. +As the surface was reached, the privilege cost less. In the dry +time of the year those at the bottom of the brook always had water +while those at the top location had to wait for the water to rise, +and had to do without water during the dry time. Where the stream +is on a lower level than the building a hydraulic ram can be used. + +RIVERS AND LAKES.--Rivers and lakes make an abundant supply for +water systems. A sluggish-moving river is bad, also a river that is +used for carrying off the sewage of a town. Special provision is +now made for the using of water that is polluted. A lake that is +supplied by springs is by far the best source of supply. The water +is pumped from the river or lake into a reservoir and then flows by +gravity into mains and from the mains into the buildings. The water +should always be filtered before it is allowed to enter the +distributing mains. + +WATER PRESSURE.--Pressure at a fixture or outlet so that the water +will flow is generally obtained by the force of gravity. When this +method is not sufficient, a pneumatic system is employed. This +method is employed to force the water to the top floors or to +supply the whole building in high structures. The pneumatic system +requires a pump, an air-tight tank, and pipes to the various +outlets. The water pumped into the air-tight tank will occupy part +of the space generally occupied by the air. The air cannot escape +and is, therefore, compressed. Continued pumping will compress the +air until the limit of the apparatus is reached. If a valve or +faucet that is connected with the tank is opened, the air will +expand and force the water out of the opening. This explains in a +general way the operation of a pneumatic water-supply system. Water +can be pumped into this air-tight tank from a well, cistern, river, +lake, or from the city supply mains. + +[Illustration: FIG. 70.--"Banjo."] + +PIPING.--From the service pipe on which there has been placed a +shut-off, a line of piping, full size, is run through the basement, +overhead to a convenient place, perhaps to a partition in the +center of the cellar. The pipe is brought down and connected into +the end of a header. This header or banjo is made of Ts placed 4 +inches center to center. From each T a line of pipe is run to each +isolated fixture or set of fixtures (see Fig. 70). A stop and waste +cock is placed on each line at such a point that all stop cocks +will come in a row near the header. A small pipe is run from the +waste of each stop and discharged into a larger pipe which connects +with a sink. This way of running pipes while it is expensive makes +a very neat and good job. Each stop cock has a tag on it stating +explicitly what it controls. If the building is a large one a +number of these panelled headers are used. A less expensive way to +run this pipe is to branch off from the main at points where the +branch pipe will be as short as possible and use as few fittings +as possible. Stop and waste cocks are then placed on each branch +near the main. + +All pipe must follow the direct line of fitting with which it is +connected. The line of pipe should be perfectly straight. If it +seems necessary to bend the pipe to get around an obstacle, then +good judgment has not been used in placing the fitting into which +the pipe is screwed. The fitting should be re-located so that the +pipe can be run without bending. To have true alignment of pipes +the whole job or section of the job must be drawn out on paper +first and any obstacles noted and avoided before the piping is cut. +This not only saves time but it is also the forerunner of a good +job. When getting measurements for piping the same rule or tape +should be used to get out the pipe as was used to get the +measurements. + +The water main and branches that run through the basement of a +building are generally hung on the ceiling. Rough hangers of wood, +rope, or wire are usually used to hold the pipe in place at first, +then neat and strong adjustable hangers are placed every 8 feet +apart. There are in use too many kinds of hangers to explain or +describe them here. The essential point of all good hangers is to +have them strong, neat, and so made that perfect alignment of the +pipe can be had. The hangers should be so placed that no strain +will come on the fitting or the valves. A hanger should be placed +near each side of unions so that when the union is taken apart +neither side of the pipe will drop and bend. Hooks and straps +should be used to hold vertical pipes rigid and in position. A +vertical pipe should be so held in place that its weight will come +on the hooks and straps that hold it rather than on the horizontal +pipe into which it connects. Where there are six or eight +horizontal lines of pipes close together, a separate hanger for +each pipe makes a rather cumbersome job and it consumes +considerable time to install them properly. A hanger having one +support run under all the pipes will allow space for proper +alignment and adjustment for drainage. Allowance must be made on +all lines of pipe for drainage. When a building is vacant during +cold weather, the water is drawn off; therefore, the pipes should +have a pitch to certain points where the pipes can be opened and +the entire system drained of water. + +KINDS OF PIPE.--The kind of pipe that is used for cold-water supply +depends on and varies according to the kind of water, the kind of +earth through which it runs, and the construction of the building. +Wrought iron, steel, lead, brass, tin-lined brass, are in use. + +The supply pipe to every fixture should have a stop on it directly +under the fixture. This will allow the water to be shut off for +repairs to the faucet without stopping the supply of other +fixtures. + +The making of perfect threads on pipe is an important matter, +especially on water pipes. If the pipe and the dies were perfect, +and the mechanic used sufficient oil in cutting, and the fittings +were perfectly tapped to correspond to the dies used on the pipe, +of course a perfect union between pipe and fitting would result and +the joint would be found to be perfect on screwing the pipe home. +As all the above conditions are not found on the job, threads are +made tight by the use of red or white lead and oil. The lead is put +on the thread and when the thread is made up the lead will have +been forced into any imperfection that may be in the threads and +the joint will then be water-tight. White lead and oil should be +used on nickel-plated pipe as other pipe compounds are too +conspicuous and look badly. A pipe compound should be used with +discretion, for if too much is put on a burr of it will collect in +the bore of the pipe and reduce it considerably. This is not +tolerated, so only a small amount is used. Water pipes should be +run in accessible places, making it possible to get at them in case +of trouble. In climates that have freezing weather water pipes +should not be run in outside partitions. If it is found absolutely +necessary to do so, as in the case of buildings which have no +inside partitions on the first floor, the pipe should be properly +covered and protected. The different methods of covering pipes are +described in Chapter XV. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +HOT-WATER HEATERS. INSTANTANEOUS COIL AND STORAGE TANKS. RETURN +CIRCULATION, HOT-WATER LINES AND EXPANSION + + +The problem of supplying hot water to plumbing fixtures is one that +has required years of study. Each job today demands considerable +thought to make it a perfect and satisfactory hot-water system. We +will find installations today where the water is red from rust, +where there is water pounding and cracking. There are also jobs +where the fixtures get practically no hot water. As each job or +individual building has its own peculiar conditions, they must be +solved by the designer or the mechanic, using the fundamental +principles of hot-water circulation. We must first know how much +hot water is to be used, also the location of the outlets and the +construction of the building; then the size of the pipes and the +size of the tanks and their locations can be settled. If the job is +a large one, a pump may be employed to insure the proper +circulation. After this the pipe sizes and connections can be +worked out. The one great enemy of hot-water circulation is air. +Therefore, no traps or air pockets should ever appear in the piping +system. The boiler, as it is often referred to, is the hot-water +storage tank. A copper or iron tank holding sufficient water to +supply all fixtures, even when every fixture demands a supply at +the same time, is installed in a convenient place and the heating +arrangement connected with it. A thermostat can be placed on the +system and the temperature of the water controlled. According to +the size of the building the problem of furnishing the plumbing +fixtures with hot water increases. + +METHODS OF HEATING HOT WATER.--There are a number of ways of +furnishing hot water. Some of the installations are listed below. + +A cast-iron or brass water back is placed on the fire pot of a +stove or furnace. A separate stove with the fire pot and water +jacket is used. A coil of steam pipe is placed inside a hot-water +boiler or tank. Gas coil heaters are connected with hot water +storage tank, also gas coil instantaneous heaters are connected +with the piping direct. + +Combinations of the above systems are in use and serve the purpose +for which they are intended. For instance, the tank can be +connected with a coal range and a gas coil heater, heat being +furnished by the range alone or the coil heater alone, or both can +be used at the same time. This combination can be connected with +the furnace in the cellar, and during the winter months, when the +furnace is in use, the water can be heated by the furnace coil. In +warm weather, when the furnace is out, the range can supply the +necessary heat. In hot weather the coil gas heater can supply the +heat. + +CONNECTIONS OF TANK AND HEATING APPARATUS.--The ordinary house +boiler or hot-water storage tank has four connections, two on top, +one on the side, and one on the bottom. The top connections are +used for the entrance of cold water into the tank and for the +supply of hot water to the fixtures (see Fig. 71). The cold-water +inlet has a tube extending into the tank below the side connection. +This tube has a small hole filed in it about 6 inches from the top. +This hole is to break any syphonic action that may occur at any +time. The side connection is for the connection of the pipe coming +from the top of the water back. The bottom opening in the tank is +for the connection of the pipe coming from the lower water back +connection, also for draining the boiler. The circulation of the +water can be followed thus: cold water enters the boiler in the +tube and discharges into the boiler below the side connection. From +here it flows out of the bottom connection into the water back, +through the upper connection into the boiler, through the side +opening, then to the top of the boiler and out to the fixtures +through the fixture supply opening. + +[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Storage tank, and coil heater with +thermostatic control valve.] + +Fig. 69 shows a thermostatic control valve attached to the bottom +of a heater coil, and at the side of storage tank. The best +arrangement is at the bottom, for it does not shut off the gas +supply until the boiler is full of hot water. + +CONNECTING TANK AND COIL GAS HEATER.--The boiler and the coil gas +heater have a different connection. The bottom of the tank and the +bottom of the heater are connected. The top of the heater and the +top of the boiler are connected. The accompanying sketch shows how +this connection is made. If the tee on the top of the boiler into +which the gas-heater connection is made is not the first fitting +and placed as close to the outlet as possible, the water will not +circulate freely into the boiler. This connection according to the +drawing should be studied and memorized. + +[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Instantaneous gas heater. Showing +circulation heater or booster.] + +INSTANTANEOUS GAS-HEATER CONNECTIONS.--An instantaneous gas heater +is placed in the basement. The copper coil in it is connected at +the bottom with the cold-water supply and the top outlet of the +coil is connected with the hot-water system of piping. There is no +need of a storage tank with this heater. When a faucet is opened in +any part of the hot-water piping system, the water passing through +the water valve at the heater causes the gas valve to open so that +the whole set of burners in the heater is supplied with gas, and +the burners are lighted from a pilot light. When the faucet is +closed, the gas supply is shut off and the burners are put out. The +pilot is lighted all the time. Space will not permit going over +these connections in detail. It is a large field and requires +considerable thought. + +SAFETY AND CHECK VALVES.--When a meter is used on a water system, +the water company demands that a check valve be placed on the +hot-water system to prevent the hot water from being forced back +into the meter in case the pressure got strong enough in the +boiler. If a check valve is used for this purpose, or for any other +purpose, a safety valve must be placed on the boiler piping system +to relieve any excessive pressure that may be caused by having the +check valve in use. There is today, with meters of modern type, no +reason to use a check valve or a safety valve. If an excessive +pressure is obtained in the boiler, it is relieved in the water +main. + +When water is heated, it expands. If the heat becomes more intense +and steam is formed, the expansion is much greater, and some means +must be provided to allow for it. This expansion can be allowed to +relieve itself in the water main as explained above. When a check +valve is placed on the piping, this means of escape is shut off and +a safety valve must be employed. Without these reliefs, the +pressure would be so great that an explosion would result. When +steel pipe and steel boilers are used for storage tanks and +connections, the pipe and tank will shortly start to rust and parts +of the piping are stopped up with rust scales. The water also +becomes red with rust when the water becomes hot enough to +circulate. When the pipes are stopped up, steam is formed and a +snapping and cracking sound is heard. To avoid these conditions, +the piping should be of brass or lead and the storage tank should +be of copper. The installation cost of brass and copper is greater +than steel, but they will not have to be replaced in two or three +years, as is the case with other material. A valve should be placed +on the cold-water supply to control the entire hot-water piping +system. A pipe with a stop cock should be placed underneath the +boiler and should extend into a sink in the basement so that the +boiler can be drained at any time for cleaning or repairs. + +CONNECTING WITH FIXTURES.--To have all fixtures properly supplied +with hot water it is necessary to run what is termed a circulating +pipe. This circulating pipe is a circuit of pipe extending from the +top of the boiler to the vicinity of the fixtures and then +returning to the boiler and connecting into the pipe leading out of +the bottom of the boiler. From this circuit all branches are taken +to supply all fixtures requiring hot water. This circulating pipe +has hot water circulating through it all the time. Therefore the +fixtures are supplied with hot water very quickly. The circulating +pipe and its branches are run without any traps or air pockets. + +[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Expansion loop. Four 90 deg. ells.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Expansion loop. Five 90 deg. ells.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 75.--Expansion loop. Six 90 deg. ells.] + +When running the piping, it should be borne in mind that not only +does the water expand when heated, but the pipe expands also. +Therefore due allowance must be made for this expansion. The long +risers should have an expansion loop as shown in Figs. 73, 74 and +75. There are installed on some jobs what is known as an expansion +joint. This will allow for the expansion and contraction of the +pipe. The writer's experience with these joints has not been very +satisfactory. After a while these joints begin to leak and they +must have attention which in some cases is rather expensive. An +expansion loop as shown in the sketch, made with elbows, will prove +satisfactory. If the threads on the fittings and pipe are good, no +leak will appear on this joint. + +All gas heaters must be connected with a flue to carry off the +products of combustion. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +INSULATION OF PIPING TO ELIMINATE CONDUCTION, RADIATION, FREEZING, +AND NOISE + + +PIPE COVERING.--Pipe covering is another important branch of +plumbing. A few years ago heating pipes were the only pipes that it +was thought necessary to cover. The ever-increasing demands made by +the public keep the wideawake plumber continually solving problems. +The water running down a waste pipe, for instance, will annoy some +people, and provision must be made to avoid this noise or to +silence it. This is one of the many problems that the plumber must +solve by the use of pipe covering. + +PIPES THAT NEED COVERING.--First of all, the covering must be put +on properly to be of high service. _Hot-water circulating pipes_ +need covering to reduce the amount of heat loss. If the pipes and +the tank are not covered, considerable more fuel will be needed to +supply the necessary amount of hot water than if the pipes and tank +were covered with a good covering. _Cold-water pipes_ need covering +in places to keep them from freezing. They also need covering under +some conditions to keep them from sweating. They are covered also +to prevent the material which surrounds them from coming into +direct contact with the pipe. _Waste pipes_ need covering to +prevent them from freezing and to silence the noise caused by the +rush of water through them. _Ice-water pipes_ are covered to +prevent the water from rising in temperature and to prevent any +condensation forming on the pipe. There is need for such a variety +of covering that I have listed below some of them and the methods +employed for putting them on the pipe. + +Magnesia, asbestos air cell, molded asbestos, wool felt, waterproof +paper and wool felt, cork, hair felt. These coverings come in the +form of pipe covering with a cloth jacket. They also come in the +shape of fittings as well as in blocks and rolls of paper, and in +powdered form. Any thickness that is desired may be had. The pipe +covering is readily put on the pipe. The cloth jacket is pulled +back a short distance and the covering will open like a book. It +can then be clamped on the pipe and the jacket pulled back and +pasted into place. Brass bands, 1 inch wide, come with the pipe +covering. These are put on and the pipe covering is then held +securely in place. Practically all the coverings are applied in +this manner and are made up in 3-foot lengths to fit any size pipe. +To cover the fittings and valves, the same kind of sectional +covering can be obtained and applied in the same manner as the pipe +covering. Plastic covering is often applied to the fittings and +molded into the shape of the fitting. The plastic covering comes in +bags and is dry. It is mixed with warm water to the consistency of +thick cement and applied with a trowel. When the covering is put on +the pipes and fittings, it should be done thoroughly to get +satisfactory results. Each section of the covering has on one end +an extra length of the jacket. This is to allow a lap over on the +next section to make a tight joint. If the sections need fitting, a +saw can be used and the covering cut to any desired length. + + _Magnesia_ covering is employed mostly on steam pipes, + especially high-pressure. This material can be had in the + shape of pipe covering, in blocks, or cement. + + _Asbestos air cell_ covering is employed to cover hot-water + circulating pipes. It is constructed of corrugated asbestos + paper. This material is manufactured in the sectional pipe + covering or in corrugated paper form. + + _Molded asbestos_ covering is also used on hot-water pipes, + and is manufactured in pipe covering or in blocks. + + _Wool felt_ covering is used mostly on hot-water pipes and + makes one of the best coverings. It is lined with asbestos + paper and covered with a cloth jacket. + + _Waterproof paper and wool felt_ is used on cold-water pipes + and is made in 3-foot lengths. The covering is lined with + waterproof paper and covered with a cloth jacket. + + _Cork._--A heavy cork covering is one of the best coverings + for ice-water pipes, and a light cork covering is used for + cold-water pipes. This covering comes in sections as other + coverings, also in blocks and sheets. + + _Hair felt_ is used to prevent pipes from freezing. It comes + in bales containing 150 to 300 square feet of various + thicknesses. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +"DURHAM" OR "SCREW PIPE" WORK. PIPE AND FITTINGS + + +"Durham" or "screw pipe" work is the name used to denote that the +job is installed by the use of wrought-iron or steel screw pipe. We +speak of a "cast-iron job" meaning that cast-iron pipe was used for +the piping. A completely different method of work is used when +screw pipe is employed for the wastes and vents. When screw pipe is +to be used or considered for use, it is well to know something +concerning the various makes of screw pipe. Nothing but galvanized +pipe is ever used. The value of steel screw pipe and wrought-iron +screw pipe should be studied, and every person interested should, +if possible, understand how these different pipes are made and how +the material of which they are composed is made. In some places one +pipe is better than another and a study of their make-up would +enlighten the user and allow him to use the best for his peculiar +conditions. The maker's name should always be on the pipe. The +following table shows the sizes, weights, and thicknesses of screw +pipe: + + -------+-----------+------------- + Size | Thickness | No. threads + | | per inch + -------+-----------+------------- + 1-1/4 | 0.140 | 11-1/2 + 1-1/2 | 0.145 | 11-1/2 + 2 | 0.154 | 11-1/2 + 2-1/2 | 0.204 | 8 + 3 | 0.217 | 8 + 3-1/2 | 0.226 | 8 + 4 | 0.237 | 8 + 5 | 0.259 | 8 + 6 | 0.280 | 8 + -------+-----------+------------- + +Screw pipe work came into common use with the advance of modern +steel structures. Some difficulty had been experienced in getting +the cast-iron pipe joints tight and to keep the pipe so anchored +that it would not crack. The screw pipe was found to answer all of +the requirements of modern structures and therefore has been used +extensively. The life of screw pipe is not as long as extra heavy +cast-iron pipe. This is the only serious objection to screw pipe, +which must be renewed after a term of years, while extra heavy cast +iron lasts indefinitely. Screw pipe is never used underground. When +piping is required underground, extra heavy cast-iron pipe is used. + + +PIPING + +The pipe used in Durham work is galvanized extra heavy, or standard +wrought-iron, or steel pipe. It is almost impossible to recognize +wrought-iron from steel pipe without the aid of a chemical or a +magnifying glass. To test the pipe to distinguish its base, take a +sharp file and file through the surface of the pipe that is to be +tested. If the pipe is steel, under a magnifying glass the texture +of the filed surface will appear to be smooth and have small +irregular-shaped grains, and there will also be an appearance of +compactness. If the pipe is iron, the texture will have the +appearance of being ragged and will show streaks of slag or black. +When screw pipe is cut there is always left a large burr on the +inside of the pipe. This burr greatly reduces the bore of the pipe +and is a source of stoppage in waste pipes. After the pipe is cut +this burr should be reamed out thoroughly. One of the strong points +of screw pipe is the strength of each joint. Care should therefore +be taken to see that perfect threads are cut on the pipe and that +the threads of the fittings are perfect. The dies should be set +right and not varied on each joint. There should be plenty of oil +used when threads are cut so that the thread will be clean and +sharp. The follower or guide on stocks should be the same size as +the pipe that is being threaded, otherwise a crooked thread will +result. If a pipe-threading machine is used, the pipe is set +squarely between the jaws of the vise that holds the pipe in place. +When cutting a thread on a long length of pipe, the end sticking +out from the machine must be supported firmly so that no strain +will come on the machine as the pipe turns. It is necessary to cut +crooked threads sometimes on the pipe to allow the pipe pitch for +drainage or to bring the pipe into alignment where fitting would +take up too much room. To cut a crooked thread on a piece of pipe, +simply leave the follower out of the stock or put in the size +larger. The dies not having a guide will cut a crooked thread. +Piping should be run with as few threads as possible. With a +thorough knowledge of and the intelligent use of fittings, a +minimum number of threads will result. + +The pipes in a building are run in compact parallel lines in chases +designed especially for them. The tendency is to confine the pipes +to certain localities as much as possible. This makes a very neat +job and in case repairs are needed, the work and trouble incurred +will be confined to one section. + + +FITTINGS + +The fittings used in screw pipe work are cast-iron recess type (see +Fig. 54). The fittings are so made that the inside bores of the +pipe and the fittings come in direct line with each other, thus +making a smooth inside surface at all bends. The fittings are all +heavily galvanized. All fittings should be examined on the inside +for any lumps of metal of sufficient size to catch solid waste +matter, and these must be removed or the fitting discarded. All 90 deg. +bends, whether Ts or elbows, are tapped to give the pipe that +connects with them a pitch of at least 1/4 inch to the foot. +Except where obligatory, 90 deg. fittings should not be used. To make a +bend of 90 deg. a Y-branch, a nipple and a 45 deg. bend should be used, or +two 45 deg. bends will make a long easy sweep of the drainage pipes and +reduce the possibility of stoppage. + +Y-branches are inserted every 30 feet at least to allow for a +clean-out which can be placed in the branch of the fitting. When a +clean-out is placed an iron plug should not be used. These plugs +are not removed very often and an iron plug will rust in and be +almost impossible to get out. Brass clean-out plugs are used and +are easily taken out. + +At times it is necessary to connect cast iron and wrought iron, or +in a line where a union could be used if the pipe were not a waste +pipe, a tucker fitting is used. This fitting is threaded on one end +and has a socket on the other to allow for caulking. To get a good +idea of all the fittings in general use, the reader should get a +catalogue from one of the fitting manufacturers and a survey of it +will give the names and sizes of the fittings. However, I show a +few common ones. In the writer's opinion, the studying of the +catalogue would be of more benefit than a description of fittings +at this point. The sizes used and the methods employed to vent the +waste-pipe systems are the same as in cast-iron work. + + +HANGERS AND SUPPORTS + +The hanging of screw pipe is a very essential point. The taking of +the strain off from a fitting or line of pipe by the use of a +hanger is the means of avoiding serious trouble after a job is +completed. On horizontal runs hangers are placed not more than 8 +feet apart. In a building constructed of wood, the hangers are +secured to the joists. In a building constructed of steel beams and +concrete the hangers are secured to the steel beams by means of +I-beam hangers that clamp on the beams; also in the case of +concrete the hangers are extended through the floor and a T is put +on the hanger on top of the cement floor; an iron bar or a short +piece of smaller pipe run through the T holds the hanger in place +and secures it rigidly. The finished floor is laid over the hanger +so that it does not show from the top. Hangers on the vertical +lines should be placed at every joint and under each fitting. To +have the pipe in true alignment, the hangers must be hung and +placed in line. Every riser line must have an extra support at the +base to avoid any settling of the stack which will crack the +fittings and break fixture connections. + + +MEASUREMENTS + +The proper installation of screw pipe work requires getting correct +and accurate measurements. Every plumber is or should be able to +get correct center to center, center to end, end to end, center to +back, and end to back measurements. In Durham work 45 deg. angles are +continually occurring. To get these measurements correctly, the +following table has been compiled as used by the author and found +to be correct. The reader should memorize it so that it may be used +without referring to the book. + + MEASUREMENTS + + ------------+------------+------------- + Soil pipe | Screw pipe | Multiplier + ------------+------------+------------- + 1/6 bend | 60 | 1.15 + 1/8 " | 45 | 1.41 + 1/12 " | 30 | 2. + 1/16 " | 22-1/2 | 2.61 + 1/32 " | 11-1/4 | 5.12 + 1/64 " | 5-5/8 | 10.22 + ------------+------------+------------- + +Before any measurements are taken, the lines of pipe are laid out +and the position of each fitting known. As I have stated before, +the plumber must look ahead with his work. He must have the ability +of practically seeing the pipe in place before the work is started. +This requires experience and judgment. Before the measurements are +taken and the pipe cut consideration must be given to the fact that +the fittings and pipes must be screwed into position. Therefore, +"can the fitting on the pipe be placed where it is laid out when +this is considered?" must be one of the many questions a plumber +should ask himself. Allowance must be made for the chain tongs to +swing. Whenever possible, a fitting is made up on the pipe while +the pipe is in the vise. + +[Illustration: FIG. 76.--The offset is B or 12 inches center to +center. The offset is made using 45 degree fittings. Therefore the +length of A from the center of one fitting to the center of the +other is B x 1.41 = 12 x 1.41 = 16.92 inches.] + + +FIXTURE CONNECTIONS + +The fixture connections when screw pipe is used are necessarily +different than when cast-iron pipe is used. A brass nipple is wiped +on a piece of lead pipe and then screwed into the fitting left for +the closet connection. The lead is flanged over above the floor and +the closet set on it. The lead is soldered to a brass flange. The +brass flange is secured to the floor and then the closet bowl +secured to the brass flange. Another method employed is to screw a +brass flange into the fitting so that when it is made up the flange +will come level with the floor; the closet bowl is then secured to +this flange. There are a number of patented floor flanges for +closet bowl connections that can be used to advantage. Slop sinks +have practically the same connections as the closets. Other +fixtures such as the urinal, lavatory, and bath, can be connected +with a short piece of lead wiped on a solder nipple, or the +trimmings for the fixture can be had with brass having iron pipe +size threads, and the connection can then be made directly with the +outlet on the waste line. This is a very general way to describe +the connections, but space will not allow a detailed description of +these connections. It is always well to allow for short lead +connections for fixtures so that the lead will give if the stack +settles. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +GAS FITTING, PIPE AND FITTINGS, THREADING, MEASURING, AND TESTING + + +GAS AND ITS USE IN BUILDINGS + +Gas is in common use in all classes of buildings today. Dwellings +use it for cooking and illuminating, factories, office buildings, +and public buildings for power. In some parts of the country +natural gas is found. In these places it is used freely for heating +fuel. The actual making of gas is something that every plumber +should understand. If space permitted I would describe a gas plant +with all of its by-products. However, we shall deal only with the +actual installation of gas piping in buildings. Gas mains are run +through the streets the same as water mains are run. Branches are +taken off these mains and extended into the buildings requiring +gas. The gas company generally installs the gas service pipe inside +of the basement wall and places a stop cock on it free of charge. +This stop that is placed on the pipe is a plug core type, the +handle for turning it off is square, and a wrench is required to +turn it. The square top has a lug on it. There is also a lug +corresponding to it on the body of the valve. When the valve is +shut off, these two lugs are together. Each lug has a hole in it +large enough for a padlock ring to pass through. This gives the gas +company absolute control of the gas in the building. + +SETTING OF THE METER.--Every building that is supplied with gas has +a meter that registers the amount of gas consumed. This meter is +placed on the service pipe on the house side of the above-mentioned +stop cock. This meter is furnished free of charge with a trivial +charge made for setting up. The actual setting of this meter is not +made until the piping throughout the building has had a thorough +and satisfactory test and is found free from all leaks. The meter +must be set level on a substantial bracket and in a place, if +possible, where it will not require an artificial light to read its +dial. The dry meter is usually used in dwellings. The interesting +construction and mechanism of this meter cannot be discussed here. + +[Illustration: FIG. 77.--Gas-meter dials.] + +The reading of the dials on a gas meter comes in the province of +the plumber and he should be able to read them. The sketch shows +the dial plate of a meter. The ordinary house meter has only three +recording dials. Large meters have five or more. To read the amount +of gas consumed according to the meter we will read the dials as +they are indicated on Fig. 77. We will call the four dials No. 1, +No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4. In each of these dials a complete +revolution of the index hand denotes 1,000, 10,000, 100,000 and +1,000,000, cubic feet respectively. The index hands on No. 1 and +No. 3 revolve in the same direction, while No. 2 and No. 4 revolve +in the opposite direction. Two ciphers are added to the figures +that are indicated on the dials and the statement of the meter will +be had. To tell just how much gas has been consumed in a given +time, the statement of the meter is taken at the beginning of this +given time and at the end of the time. The difference in the +figures indicates the number of cubic feet of gas that have been +consumed. A gas cock should be placed on the house side of the +meter. The dials of meter read 658,800 cubic feet. The dial having +the highest number is read first No. 4 dial points to 6, this +indicates that No. 3 dial has revolved 6 times. Dial No. 3 reads 5, +therefore the reading of dial No. 3 and No. 4 is 65. Dial No. 2 +reads 8 making the readings of the three dials 658. Dial No. 1 +reads 8 making the readings of the four dials 6588 add two ciphers +to this figure and 658,800 is the correct reading. + +[Illustration: FIG. 78.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 79.] + +PIPE AND FITTINGS.--The pipe used in gas fitting is wrought iron or +steel. In special places, rubber hose is used. Brass pipe is +occasionally used to advantage. The fittings used in iron pipe gas +work should be galvanized. No plain fittings should be allowed. The +plain fittings very often have sand holes in them and a leak will +result. Sometimes this leak does not appear until after the piping +has been in use some time and the expense of replacing the fitting +can only be guessed at. By using galvanized fittings, this trouble +will be eliminated. All fittings used should be of the beaded type. +The fitting and measurement of this work is practically the same as +described under iron pipe work. To have the beginner get a clearer +idea of gas-piping a building, the piping of the small building +sketched will be gone over in detail and studied. One of the first +important steps that a gas fitter is confronted with is the +locating of the various lights and openings. With these located as +shown on the plan, Figs. 78, 79 and 80, we will proceed to work +out the piping. The first floor rise will be 1-inch, the second +floor will be 1-inch. The horizontal pipe supplying the first floor +outlets will be 3/4-inch pipe. The horizontal pipe on the second +floor will be 3/4-inch. The balance of the pipe will be 3/8- or +1/2-inch. At this point your attention is called to the sketch of +piping, sizes, and measurements. This sketch should be studied and +understood in detail. The good mechanic will employ a sketch of +this kind when installing any piping. The poor mechanic will take +two or three measurements and get them out, put them in, and then +get some more. This method is extremely costly and unworkmanlike. +There is no reason, except the ability of the workman, why he +cannot take a building like the sketch and get all the piping +measurements for the job, then get them out, go to the job and put +them in. The amount of time saved in this way is so great that a +workman should not consider himself a full-fledged mechanic until +he can get the measurements this way, and get them accurately. With +a tape line, gimlet, and plumb-bob, a mechanic is fully equipped +with tools to get his measurements. If the measurements are taken +with a tape line, the same tape line should be used when measuring +the pipe and cutting it. When laying out the piping, never allow a +joist to be cut except within 6 inches of its bearing. It is good +policy never to cut timber unless absolutely necessary and then +only after consulting with the carpenter. When joists have to be +notched they should be cut only on the top side. The pipe as it is +put in place should be braced rigidly. Wherever there is an outlet +pipe extending through the wall, the pipe should be braced from +all sides so that when the fixture is screwed in it will be +perfectly rigid. + +[Illustration: FIG. 80.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Pipe sketch.] + +The measurements on the piping sketch, Fig. 81, are taken from the +accompanying sketch of a dwelling, and if they were to be actually +put in, they would fit. The reader would do well to copy this +sketch and follow the piping and check the measurements according +to the plan, and note how the different risers, drops, etc., are +drawn. It is not necessary in a sketch of this kind to draw to a +scale. After the different measurements are the letters _C.C._, +_E.C._, _E.E._, _C.B._ and _E.B._, meaning center to center, end to +center, end to end, center to back, and end to back, respectively. +Offsetting pipe is a very convenient way of getting the pipe or +fittings back to the wall for support. To offset pipe properly and +with little trouble, take a piece of scantling 2 by 4 and brace it +between the floor and ceiling. Bore a few different-sized holes +through it and you will have a very handy device for offsetting +pipe. There is a little trick in offsetting pipe that one will have +to practice to obtain. The pipe must be held firmly in the place +where the pipe is to be bent. Large offsets and bends should not be +made; 2 to 4 inches is as large as should be used. Larger offsets +that are required should be made with fittings. Always make the +offsets true and have the ends perfectly straight. Before putting a +piece of pipe permanently in place, always look or blow through it, +to ascertain if its bore is obstructed or not. Sometimes dirt or +slag will collect and cause stoppage. + +READING THE PIPE SKETCH.--Vertical lines represent vertical pipes +(see Fig. 81). Horizontal lines represent horizontal pipes running +parallel to the front. Diagonal lines represent horizontal pipes +running from back to front. Any line that is drawn perpendicular to +any other line stands for a horizontal pipe. A diagonal line +separating a vertical line or horizontal line or set of lines +represents a different horizontal plane. With this explanation the +sketch will be made clear to one after drawing it. The reader +should now take each measurement and check it on the plan. This is +easily done by using a scale rule. The height of the ceiling is +8-1/2 feet on the first floor, the second floor is 8 feet. The +first floor joists are 10 inches, the second floor joists are 9 +inches. An outlet is indicated by a small circle. In the piping +sketch, this circle is connected with the riser or drop by a +horizontal line. At the junction of these two lines a short +perpendicular line is drawn, and indicates the direction of the +outlet. + +Let me again emphasize the need to understand thoroughly this +piping sketch, and to become so familiar with it that it can +readily be put to use. The value of a mechanic is determined by the +quality and the quantity of work that he can turn out; and a +mechanic who can lay out his work and see it completed before he +starts, and then proceeds to install his work, is by far of more +value to his employer than the man who can see only far enough +ahead to cut out two or three measurements and spends most of his +time walking between the vise and place of installing the pipe. + +TESTING.--The system of gas piping must be tested before the pipes +have been covered by the advance of building operations. If the job +is of considerable size, the job can be tested in sections, and if +found tight the sections can be covered. The necessity of having +the piping rigidily secured can be appropriately explained here. If +the test has been made and the system found tight and some pipe +that is not securely anchored is accidentally or otherwise pushed +out of place and bent by some of the mechanics working about the +building, a leak may be caused and yet not discovered until the +final test is made after the plastering is finished. The expense +and trouble thus caused is considerable and could have been avoided +by simply putting in the proper supports for the pipe. + +To test the piping, an air pump and a gage connected with the pipes +are placed in a convenient position. The job should now be +thoroughly gone over, making sure that all plugs and caps are on +and that no outlet is open, also that all pipe that is to be put in +has been installed. After this has been attended to, the pump is +operated until 10 pounds is registered on the gage. The connection +leading to the pump and the piping is now shut off. If the gage +drops rapidly, there is a bad leak in the system. This leak should +be found without difficulty and repaired. If the gage drops slowly, +it denotes a very small leak, such as a sand hole or a bad thread. +This kind of leak is more troublesome to find. When it has been +found, the pipe or fitting causing the leak should be taken out and +replaced. If black caps have been used to cap the outlets, the +chances are that a sand hole will be found in one of them. Nothing +but galvanized fittings should be used. In case the small leak +mentioned above cannot be found by going over the pipe once, there +are other means of locating the leak. Two of the methods used, I +will explain. If the job is small, each fitting is painted with +soap suds until the fitting is found that causes the leak. If the +leak is not in the fittings, then the pipe can be gone over in the +same way. As soon as the soap suds strikes the leak, a large bubble +is made and the leak discovered. It is possible that there are more +leaks, so the gage is noted and if it still drops, the search +should be continued. The pump should be operated to keep the +pressure up to 10 pounds while the search is being made for the +leak. When the gage stands at 10 pounds without dropping, the job +is then tight. The pump and gage fitting should be gone over first +to ascertain if they leak. The other method employed to discover +leaks is to force a little ether or oil of peppermint (not essence) +into the system by means of the pump. A leak can readily be noted +by the odor. To make this method successful, the ether or +peppermint should not be handled by the men who are to hunt for the +leak. The bottle containing the fluid should not be opened in the +building except to pour some into the piping, otherwise the odor +will get into the building and as the odor comes out of the leak it +will not be noted. For the benefit of the gas fitter, the piping +should be tested again after the plastering is completed. The next +test is made when the fixtures are put on, and as the piping is +tight any leak that develops in this test indicates that the +fixtures leak. There are in common use various methods to stop +leaks in gas pipe when they are found. If a piece of piping or a +fitting is defective, it should be taken out and replaced. This +should be remembered so that while the piping is being installed +any defects should be noted and the defective fitting or pipe +thrown out. Before the gas job is accepted, the gas company will +inspect it and look for traps and sags in the pipe. Therefore, the +piping should be installed without any traps and it should be +arranged to pitch toward the meter, or toward a convenient place +from which any condensation can be taken out. If provision is not +made for this condensation, it will accumulate and stop the flow of +gas. + + +SHOWER-BATH CONNECTIONS + +[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Shower stall with lead pan extending +outside of stall.] + +The sketches show clearly the methods employed to make a +shower-bath waste and stall water-tight. The shower bath, as a +separate fixture, is in use and the demand for it as a separate +fixture is increasing rapidly. This demand comes from the owners of +private houses. The plumber must therefore devise some way to make +these connections tight and prevent any leak from showing in the +room below. This fixture is so constructed that all waste pipes +and trap come under the floor level with no way of getting to them +from below. Therefore the piping for this fixture must be of a +permanent nature. No pipe or trap made of material that is liable +to give out in a short time should be allowed under a shower-bath +fixture or stall. The two sketches, Figs. 82 and 83 illustrate two +methods of connecting and making tight a shower stall. A plumber +should always consider it his special duty to make his work +complete and free from all objections. He should always prepare for +any emergency that may occur in the future. This is rather a big +task, yet the plumber when accepting all of his responsibilities +has a big task. I state this to the beginner and emphasize the +all-important fact that he must learn to perform and think deeply +of the elements of plumbing to be able later on to handle +successfully the problems that present themselves in the plumbing +trade. + +[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Shower stall with lead pan extending six +inches beyond strainer.] + +The heavy brass trap shown in the sketch has proved itself very +satisfactory and can be made to fit almost any condition of piping +or building construction. A flashing of sheet lead is soldered on +the trap and carried out to the outside edge of the stall where it +is turned up 1 inch, or to the floor level. When the flashing is +carried out for only a foot on each side of the trap, the +possibilities of a leak are greater. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +PLUMBING CODES + + +The work of plumbing has a direct result on the health of the +occupants of buildings; therefore in order that the plumbing may +not be installed improperly and impair the health of the occupants, +it is necessary to provide a code governing the installation of +plumbing. Naturally these laws at first were under the control of +the health department of cities, but of late years the building +departments have assumed control of the codes with the result that +cooperation with the building codes is now the practice rather than +the exception. + +To make certain the carrying out of the plumbing codes, it is +required that a plan indicating the run, size, and length of pipes, +location and number of fixtures of the prospective job be filed in +the building department of the city, before the work is started. If +the plan is approved by the plumbing inspector and acceptance is +sent, then the work can be started. After a job is completed a test +is made and the job is inspected by the plumbing inspector, and if +found to meet requirements a written acceptance of the work is +given by the building department. An effort is being made +throughout the country to have the plumbing codes under State +control rather than have a number of different codes in as many +different cities and towns. The State code can be so arranged that +it will apply to either city or town. + +The installation of plumbing varies in different States. In the +northern part of the United States all pipes which pass through the +roof, if less than 4-inch must be increased to 4-inch. A pipe +smaller than 4-inch will be filled with hoar frost during the +winter and render the pipe useless to perform its function as a +vent pipe. Pipes laid under ground in the Northern States must be +at least 4 feet below the surface to protect them from freezing. In +the Southern States the frost does not penetrate the ground to such +a distance and the pipes can be laid on the surface. + +Following is a State or City plumbing code insofar as it relates to +the actual installation of plumbing. + + SEC. 1. PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS.--There shall be a separate + plan for each building, public or private, or any addition + thereto, or alterations thereof, accompanied by specifications + showing the location, size and kind of pipe, traps, closets + and fixtures to be used, which plans and specifications shall + be filed with the board or bureau of buildings. The said plans + and specifications shall be furnished by the architect, + plumber or owner, and filed by the plumber. All applications + for change in plans must be made in writing. + + SEC. 2. FILING PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS.--Plumbers before + commencing the construction of plumbing work in any building + (except in case of repairs, which are here defined to relate + to the mending of leaks in soil, vent, or waste pipes, + faucets, valves and water-supply pipes, and shall not be + construed to admit of the replacing of any fixture, such as + water closets, bath tubs, lavatories, sinks, etc., or the + respective traps for such fixtures) shall submit to the bureau + plans and specifications, legibly drawn in ink, on blanks to + be furnished by said board or bureau. Where two or more + buildings are located together and on the same street, and the + plumbing work is identical in each, one plan will be + sufficient. Plans will be approved or rejected within 24 hours + after their receipt. + + SEC. 3. MATERIAL OF HOUSE DRAIN AND SEWER.--House drains or + soil pipes laid beneath floor must be extra heavy cast-iron + pipe, with leaded and caulked joints, and carried 5 feet + outside cellar wall. All drains and soil pipes connected with + main drain where it is above the cellar floor shall be extra + heavy cast-iron pipe with leaded joints properly secured or of + heavy wrought-iron pipe with screw joints properly secured + and carried 5 feet outside cellar wall and all arrangements + for soil and waste pipes shall be run as direct as possible. + Changes of direction on pipes shall be made with "Y"-branches, + both above and below the ground, and where such pipes pass + through a new foundation-wall a relieving arch shall be built + over it, with a 2-inch space on either side of the pipe. + + SEC. 4.--The size of main house drain shall be determined by + the total area of the buildings and paved surfaces to be + drained, according to the following table, if iron pipe is + used. If the pipe is terra-cotta the pipe shall be one size + larger than for the same amount of area drainage. + + ----------+-----------------------------+--------------------------------- + Diameter | Fall 1/4 inch per foot | Fall 1/2 inch per foot + ----------+-----------------------------+--------------------------------- + 4 inches | 1,800 square feet drainage | 2,500 square feet drainage area + 5 inches | 3,000 square feet drainage | 4,500 square feet drainage area + 6 inches | 5,000 square feet drainage | 7,500 square feet drainage area + 8 inches | 9,100 square feet drainage | 13,600 square feet drainage area + 10 inches | 14,000 square feet drainage | 20,000 square feet drainage area + ----------+-----------------------------+--------------------------------- + + The main house drains may be decreased in diameter beyond the + rain-water conductor or surface inlet by permission of the + bureau, when the plans show that the conditions are such as to + warrant such decrease, but in no case shall the main house + drain be less than 4 inches in diameter. + + SEC. 5. MAIN TRAP.--An iron running trap with two clean-outs + must be placed in the house drain near the front wall of the + house, and on the sewer side of all connections. If placed + outside the house or below the cellar floor the clean-outs + must extend to surface with brass screw cap ferrules caulked + in. If outside the house, it must never be placed less than 4 + feet below the surface of the ground. + + SEC. 6. FRESH-AIR INLET.--A fresh-air inlet pipe must be + connected with the house drain just inside of the house trap + and extended to the outer air, terminating with a return bend, + or a vent cap or a grating with an open end 1 foot above grade + at the most available point to be determined by the building + department. + + The fresh-air inlet pipe must be 4 inches in diameter for + house drains of 6 inches or less and as much larger as the + building department may direct for house drains more than 6 + inches in diameter. + + SEC. 7. LAYING OF HOUSE SEWERS AND DRAINS.--House sewers and + house drains must, where possible, be given an even grade to + the main sewer of not less than 1/4 inch to the foot. + Full-sized "Y"- and "T"-branch fittings for handhole + clean-outs must be provided where required on house drain and + its branches. No clean-out need be larger than 6 inches. + + SEC. 8. FLOOR DRAINS.--Floor or other drains will only be + permitted when it can be shown to the satisfaction of the + department of building that their use is absolutely necessary, + and arrangements made to maintain a permanent water seal, and + be provided with check or back-water valves. + + SEC. 9. WEIGHT AND THICKNESS OF CAST-IRON PIPE.--All cast-iron + pipes must be uncoated excepting all laid under ground, which + shall be thoroughly tarred, sound, cylindrical and smooth, + free from cracks, sand holes and other defects, and of uniform + thickness and of grade known to commerce as extra heavy. + Cast-iron pipe including the hub shall weigh not less than the + following weights per linear foot: + + 2-inch pipe 5-1/2 pounds per foot. + 3-inch pipe 9-1/2 pounds per foot. + 4-inch pipe 13 pounds per foot. + 5-inch pipe 17 pounds per foot. + 6-inch pipe 20 pounds per foot. + 7-inch pipe 27 pounds per foot. + 8-inch pipe 33-1/2 pounds per foot. + 10-inch pipe 45 pounds per foot. + 12-inch pipe 54 pounds per foot. + + All cast-iron pipe must be tested to 50 pounds and marked with + the maker's name. + + All joints in cast-iron pipe must be made with picked oakum + and molten lead and caulked gas-tight. Twelve ounces of soft + pig lead must be used at each joint for each inch in the + diameter of the pipe. + + SEC. 10. WROUGHT-IRON AND STEEL PIPE.--All wrought-iron and + steel pipe shall be galvanized. Fittings used for drainage + must be galvanized and of recess type known as drainage + fittings. All fittings used for venting shall be galvanized + and of the style known as steam pattern. No plain black pipe + or fittings will be permitted. + + SEC. 11. SUB-SOIL DRAINS.--Sub-soil drains must be discharged + into a sump or receiving tank, the contents of which must be + lifted and discharged into the drainage system above the + cellar floor by some approved method. Where directly + sewer-connected, they must be cut off from the rest of the + building and plumbing system by a brass flap valve on the + inlet to the catch basin and the trap on the drain from the + catch basin must be water-supplied. + + SEC. 12. YARD AND AREA DRAINS.--All yard, area and court + drains when sewer-connected must have connection not less than + 4 inches in diameter. They should be controlled by one + trap--the leader trap if possible. All yards, areas and courts + must be drained. Tenement houses and lodging houses must have + yards, areas and courts drained into sewer. + + SEC. 13. USE OF OLD DRAINS AND SEWERS.--Old house drains and + sewers may be used in connection with new buildings or new + plumbing, only when they are found, on examination by the + department of building, to conform in all respects to the + requirements governing new sewers and drains. All extensions + to old house drains must be of extra heavy cast-iron pipe. + + SEC. 14. LEADER PIPES.--All building shall be provided with + proper metallic leaders for conducting water from the roofs in + such manner as shall protect the walls and foundations of such + buildings from injury. In no case shall the water from such + leaders be allowed to flow upon the sidewalk but the same + shall be conducted by a pipe or pipes to the sewer. If there + is no sewer in the street upon which such building fronts, + then the water from said leader shall be conducted, by proper + pipes below the surface of the sidewalk, to the street gutter. + + Inside leaders shall be constructed of cast iron, wrought iron + or steel, with roof connections made gas-and water-tight by + means of heavy copper drawn tubing slipped into the pipe. The + tubing must slip at least 7 inches into the pipe. Outside + leaders may be of sheet metal, but they must connect with the + house drain by means of cast-iron pipe extending vertically 5 + feet above grade level, where the building is located along + public driveways or sidewalks. Where the building is located + off building line, and not liable to be damaged the connection + shall be made with iron pipe extending 1 foot above the grade + level. + + All leaders must be trapped with running traps of cast iron, + so placed as to prevent freezing. + + Rain leaders must not be used as soil, waste or vent pipes, + nor shall such pipes be used as rain leaders. + + SEC. 15.--EXHAUST FROM STEAM PIPES, ETC.--No steam discharge + or exhaust, blow-off or drip pipe shall connect with the sewer + or the house drain, leader, soil pipe, waste or vent pipe. + Such pipes shall discharge into a tank or condenser, from + which suitable outlet to the sewer shall be made. Such + condenser shall be supplied with water, to help condensation + and help protect the sewer, and shall also be supplied with + relief vent to carry off dry steam. + + SEC. 16. DIAMETER OF SOIL PIPE.--The smallest diameter of soil + pipe permitted to be used shall be 4 inches. The size of soil + pipes must not be less than those set forth in the following + tables. + + Maximum number of fixtures connected to: + + -------------+-------------------------+------------------------------ + Size of pipe | Waste and soil combined | Soil pipe alone + +------------+------------+---------------+-------------- + | Branch | Main | Branch | Main + | fixtures | fixtures | water closets | water closets + -------------+------------+------------+---------------+-------------- + 4-inch | 48 | 96 | 8 | 16 + 4.5-inch | 96 | 192 | 16 | 32 + 6-inch | 268 | 336 | 34 | 68 + -------------+------------+------------+---------------+-------------- + + If the building is six (6) and less than twelve (12) stories + in height, the diameter shall not be less than 5 inches. If + more than twelve (12) it shall be 6 inches, in diameter. A + building six (6) or more stories in height, with fixtures + located below the sixth floor, soil pipe 4 inches in diameter + will be allowed to extend through the roof provided the + number of fixtures does not exceed the number given in the + table. All soil pipes must extend at least 2 feet above the + highest window, and must not be reduced in size. Traps will + not be permitted on main, vertical, soil or waste-pipe lines. + Each house must have a separate line of soil and vent pipes. + No soil or waste line shall be constructed on the outside of a + building. + + Fixtures with: + 1 to 1-1/4-inch traps count as one fixture. + 1 to 1-1/2 " traps count as one fixture. + 1 to 2 " traps count as two fixtures. + 1 to 2-1/2 " traps count as three fixtures. + 1 to 3 " traps (water closets) count as four fixtures. + 1 to 4 " traps count as five fixtures. + + SEC. 17. CHANGE IN DIRECTION.--All sewer, soil, and waste + pipes must be as direct as possible. Changes in direction must + be made with "Y"- or half "Y"-branches or one-eighth bends. + Offsets in soil or waste pipes will not be permitted when they + can be avoided, nor, in any case unless suitable provision is + made to prevent the accumulation of rust or other obstruction. + Offsets must be made with fourth degree bends or similar + fittings. The use of T "Y"s (sanitary Ts) will be permitted on + upright lines only. + + SEC. 18. JOINTS ON SOIL AND WASTE PIPES.--Connection on lead + and cast-iron pipe shall be made with brass sleeve or ferrule, + of the same size as the lead pipe inserted in the hub of the + iron pipe, and caulked with lead. The lead must be attached to + the ferrule by means of a wiped joint. Joints between lead and + wrought-iron pipes must be made with brass nipple, of same + size as lead pipe. The lead pipe must be attached to the brass + nipple by means of a wiped joint. All connections of lead + waste pipes must be made by means of wiped joints. + + Short nipples on wrought-iron and steel pipes must be of + thickness and weight known as "extra heavy" or "extra strong." + + Brass ferrules must be best quality, extra heavy cast brass, + not less than 4 inches long and 2-1/4, 3-1/2 and 4-1/2 inches + in diameter and not less than the following weights: + + Diameters Weights + 2-1/4 inches 1 pound 0 ounce. + 3-1/2 inches 1 pound 12 ounces. + 4-1/2 inches 2 pounds 8 ounces. + + SEC. 19. SOLDER NIPPLES.--Solder nipples must be heavy cast + brass or of brass pipe, iron pipe size. When cast they must be + not less than the following weights: + + Diameters Weights + 1-1/2 inches 0 pound 8 ounces. + 2 inches 0 pound 14 ounces. + 2-1/2 inches 1 pound 6 ounces. + 3 inches 2 pounds 0 ounce. + 4 inches 3 pounds 8 ounces. + + SEC. 20. BRASS CLEAN-OUTS.--Brass screw caps for clean-outs + must be extra heavy, not less than 1/8 inch thick. The screw + cap must have a solid square or hexagonal nut not less than 1 + inch high and a least diameter of 1-1/2 inches. The body of + the clean-out ferrule must be at least equal in weight and + thickness to the caulking ferrule for the same size pipe. + + SEC. 21. LEAD WASTE PIPE.--All lead waste, soil vent and flush + pipes must be of the best quality, known in commerce as "_D_," + and of not less than the following weights per linear foot: + + Diameters Weights + 1-1/4 inches 2-1/2 pounds. + 1-1/2 inches 3 pounds. + 2 inches 4 pounds. + 3 inches 6 pounds. + 4 inches 8 pounds. + + All lead traps and bends must be of the same weight and + thicknesses as their corresponding pipe branches. + + SEC. 22. ROOF FLASHERS.--Sheet lead for roof flashings must be + 6-pound lead and must extend not less than 6 inches from the + pipe and the joint made water-tight. + + SEC. 23. TRAPS FOR BATH TUBS, WATER CLOSETS, ETC.--Every sink, + bath tub, basin, water closet, slop hopper, or fixtures having + a waste pipe, must be furnished with a trap, which shall be + placed as close as practicable to the fixture that it serves + and in no case shall it be more than 1 foot. The waste pipe + from the bath tub or other fixtures must not be connected + with a water-closet trap. + + SEC. 24. SIZE OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL WASTE PIPES, TRAPS + AND BRANCHES.-- + + Horizontal and vertical Number of small fixtures + 1-1/4-inch 1 + 1-1/2-inch 2 + 2 -inch 3 to 8 + 2-1/2-inch 9 to 20 + 3 -inch 21 to 44 + + If building is ten (10) or more stories in height, the + vertical waste pipe shall not be less than 3 inches in + diameter. The use of wrought-iron pipe for waste pipe 2 inches + or less in diameter is prohibited. + + The size of traps and waste branches, for a given fixture, + shall be as follows: + + ---------------------------------------------+------------------ + | Size in inches + Kind of fixtures +-------+---------- + | Trap | Branch + ---------------------------------------------+-------+---------- + Water closet | 3 | 4 + Slop sink with trap combined | 3 | 3 + Slop sink ordinary | 2 | 2 + Pedestal urinal | 3 | 3 + Floor drain or wash | 4 | 4 + Yard drain or catch basin | 4 | 4 + Urinal trough | 2 | 2 + Laundry trays, two or five | 2 | 2 + Combination sink and tray (for each fixture) | 1-1/2 | 2 + Kitchen sinks, small | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2 + Kitchen sinks, large hotel, etc. | | + Kitchen sinks, grease trap | | 2 + Pantry sinks | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2 + Wash basin, one only | 1-1/4 | 1-1/4 + Bath tub | 2 | 2 + Shower baths | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2 + Shower baths, floor | 2 | 2 + Sitz bath | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2 + Drinking fountains | 1-1/4 | 1-1/4 + ---------------------------------------------+-------+---------- + + SEC. 25. OVERFLOW PIPES.--Overflow pipes from fixtures must in + all cases be connected on the inlet side of the traps. + + SEC. 26. SETTING OF TRAPS WITHOUT RE-VENT.--All traps must be + substantially supported and set true with respect to their + water levels. No pot, bottle or "D" trap will be permitted nor + any form of trap that is not self-cleaning, nor that has + interior chambers or mechanism nor any trap except earthenware + ones that depend upon interior partitions for a seal. In case + there is an additional fixture required in building and it is + impossible to re-vent pipe for the trap, the building + department may designate the kind of trap to be used. This + shall not be construed to allow traps without re-vents in new + buildings. + + SEC. 27. SAFE AND REFRIGERATOR PIPES.--Safe-waste pipes must + not connect directly with any part of the plumbing system. + Safe-waste pipes must discharge over an open, water-supplied, + publicly-placed, ordinary-used sink, placed not more than + 3-1/2 feet above the cellar floor. The safe waste from a + refrigerator must be trapped at the bottom of the line only + and must not discharge upon the ground floor, but over an + ordinary open pan, or some properly-trapped, water-supplied + sink, as above. In no case shall the refrigerator waste pipe + discharge into a sink located in a living room. + + The branches on vertical lines must be made by means of "Y" + fittings and be carried to the safe with as much pitch as + possible. Where there is an offset on the refrigerator waste + pipe in the cellar, there must be clean-outs placed. These + clean-outs must be of brass. + + In tenement and lodging houses the refrigerator waste pipe + must extend above the roof, and not be larger than 1-1/2 + inches and the branches not smaller than 1-1/4 inches. + Refrigerator waste pipes, except in tenement houses, and all + safe-waste pipes, must have brass flap valve on the lower + ends. Lead safes must be graded and neatly turned over beveled + strips at their edges. + + SEC. 28. VENT-PIPE MATERIAL.--Material for vent pipes shall be + of lead, brass, enameled iron or galvanized iron. + + SEC. 29. VENTILATION OF TRAPS AND SOIL LINES.--Traps shall be + protected from siphonage or air pressure by special vent pipes + of a size of not less than the following tables: + + -----------------+----------------+----------------------------- + | Maximum | Number of traps vented + | length in feet | + Size of pipe +----------------+------------+---------------- + | Mains | Branch | Main vertical + -----------------+----------------+------------+---------------- + 1-1/4-inch vent | 20 feet | 1 | + 1-1/2-inch vent | 40 feet | 2 or less | + 2-inch vent | 65 feet | 10 or less | 20 or less + 2-1/2-inch vent | 100 feet | 20 or less | 40 or less + 3-inch vent | 10 or more | 60 or less | 100 or less + | stories | | + -----------------+----------------+------------+---------------- + + The branch vent shall not be less than the following sizes: + + 1-1/4 inches in diameter for 1-1/4 inch trap. + 1-1/2 inches in diameter for 1-1/2 inch to 2-1/2 inch trap. + 2 inches in diameter for 3 inch to 4 inch trap. + One-half their diameter, for traps 3 inches and over. + + Where two or more closets are placed side by side, on a + horizontal branch, the branch line shall have a relief + extended as a loop. A pipe 2 inches in diameter shall be + sufficient as a loop vent for two closets. A pipe 3 inches in + diameter shall be sufficient as a relief for three or four + closets; and where more than four closets are located on the + same branch the relief shall not be less than 4 inches in + diameter. All house drains and soil lines on which a water + closet is located must have a 4-inch main vent line. Where an + additional closet is located in the cellar or basement, and + within 10 feet of main soil or vent line, no relief vent will + be required for said closet; but where it is more than 10 + feet, a 2-inch vent line will be required. Relief vent pipes + for water closets must not be less than 2 inches in diameter, + for a length of 40 feet, and not less than 3 inches in + diameter, for more than 40 feet. + + No re-vent from traps under bell traps will be required. + + In any building having a sewer connection with a private or + public sewer used for bell-trap connections or floor drainage + only, a 2-inch relief line must be extended to the roof of the + building from rear end of main. House drains, constructed for + roof drainage only, will not require a relief vent. + + A floor trap for a shower shall be vented, unless located in + the cellar or ground floor the paving of which renders the + trap inaccessible. + + SEC. 30. HORIZONTAL VENT PIPES.--Where rows of fixtures are + placed in a line, fitting of not less than 45 deg. to the + horizontal must be used on vent lines to prevent filling with + rust or condensation; except on brick or tile walls, where it + is necessary to channel same for pipes, 90 deg. fittings will be + allowed. Trapped vent pipes are strictly prohibited. No vent + pipe from the house side of any trap shall connect with the + ventilation pipe or with sewer, soil or waste pipe. + + SEC. 31. OFFSET ON VENT LINES.--All offsets on vent lines must + be made at an angle of not less than 45 deg. to the horizontal, + and all lines must be connected at the bottom with a soil or + waste pipe, or the drain, in such manner as to prevent the + accumulation of rust, scale or condensation. + + No sheet metal, brick, or other flue shall be used as a vent + pipe. + + SEC. 32. SETTING OF FIXTURES.--All fixtures must be set open + and free from all enclosing woodwork. Water closets and + urinals must not be connected directly or flushed from the + water-supply pipes except when flushometer valves are used. + Each water closet must be flushed from a separate cistern, the + water from which is used for no other purpose, or may be + flushed through flushometer valves. + + Rubber connection and elbows are not permitted. + + Pan, plunger, or hopper closets will not be permitted in any + building. No range closet either wet or dry, nor any + evaporating system of closets shall be constructed or allowed + inside of any building. + + A separate building constructed especially for the purpose, + must be provided in which such range closets shall be set. + + All earthenware traps must have heavy brass floor flange + plates, soldered to the lead bends and bolted to the trap + flange, and the joint made permanently secure and gas-tight. + + In all buildings sewer-connected there must be at least one + water closet in each building. There must be a sufficient + number of water closets so that there will never be more than + 15 people to each water closet. + + Separate water closets and toilet rooms must be provided for + each sex in buildings used as workshops, office buildings, + factories, hotels and all places of public assembly. + + In all buildings the water closet and urinal apartments must + be ventilated into the outer air by windows opening on the + same lot as the building is situated on or by a ventilating + skylight placed over each room or apartment where such + fixtures are located. + + In all buildings the outside partition of any water closet or + urinal apartment must be air-tight and extend to the ceiling + or be independently ceiled over. When necessary to light such + apartments properly the upper part of the partition must be + provided with translucent glass. The interior partitions of + such apartments must be dwarfed partitions. + + In alteration work where it is not practicable to ventilate a + closet or urinal apartment by windows or skylight to the outer + air, there must be provided a sheet-iron duct extending to the + outer air, the area of the duct must be at least 144 square + inches for one water closet or urinal, and an additional 72 + square inches for each addition closet or urinal added + therein. + + SEC. 33. URINALS.--All urinals must be constructed of + materials impervious to moisture and that will not corrode + under the action of urine. The floors and walls of urinal + apartments must be lined with similar non-absorbent and + non-corrosive material. + + The platforms and treads of urinal stalls must be connected + independently of the plumbing system, nor can they be + connected with any safe-waste pipe. + + The copper lining of water closet and urinal cisterns must not + be lighter than 12 ounces copper, and must be stamped on + lining with maker's name. Where lead is used it must not weigh + less than 4 pounds to the square foot. All other materials are + prohibited. + + SEC. 34. FIXTURES PROHIBITED.--Wooden wash trays, sinks, or + bath tubs are prohibited inside buildings. Such fixtures must + be constructed of non-absorbent materials. Cement or + artificial stone tubs will not be permitted, unless approved + by the plumbing inspector and building department. + + Yard water closets will not be permitted except as approved by + the plumbing inspector and then passed by the building + department. + + SEC. 35. PRIVY VAULTS AND CESSPOOLS.--No privy vault or + cesspool for sewage, shall be constructed in any part of the + city where a sewer is at all accessible. In parts of the city + where no sewer exists privy vaults and cesspools shall not be + located within 2 feet of party or street line nor within 20 + feet of any building. Before these are constructed application + for permission therefore shall be made to the building + department. + + SEC. 36. MATERIAL AND WORKMANSHIP.--All material used in the + work of plumbing and drainage must be of good quality and free + from defects. The work must be executed in a thorough and + workmanlike manner. + + + + +INDEX + + + + A + + Acid, muriatic, 12 + + + B + + Banjo, 120 + + Bath-tub, 5-6-7 + size waste, 99 + + Bending irons, 15, 48, 59 + + Bib, wiping, 59, 68 + + Bowls, closet, 4, 5 + + + C + + Caulking joints, 89, 90 + + Cellar drainer, 84 + + Cement, pipe joint, 122 + + Cementing, 72, 73 + + Circulation, hot water, 124, 129 + + Closets, 3, 4, 5 + + Cocks, stop and waste, 120 + + Code-plumbing, 153 + brass clean-outs, 160 + change in direction, 159 + diameter of soil pipes, 158 + exhaust from steam pipes, 158 + filing plans, 154 + floor drains, 156 + fresh-air inlet, 155 + joints, 159 + laying of drains, 156 + lead waste pipe, 160 + leader pipes, 157 + main trap, 155 + materials of drains, 154 + old drains and sewers, 157 + over-flow pipes, 162 + plans and specification, 154 + roof flashers, 160 + safe and refrigerator pipes, 162 + size of drains, 155 + of waste pipes, 161 + solder nipples, 160 + traps, 160 + without vents, 162 + yard and area drains, 157 + + Code, fixtures prohibited, 165 + horizontal vents, 164 + material and workmanship, 166 + offsets, 164 + privy vaults and cesspools, 166 + setting of fixtures, 164 + urinals, 165 + vent, pipe material, 162 + ventilation of traps, 162 + + Connecting, sewers, 74 + + Connections, of fixtures, 139 + + Corporation cock and tap, 76-77 + + Coupling, right and left, 116 + + Covering, pipe, 131 + + Cup joint, 14-66 + + Curb cock, 77-81 + box, 78-81 + + Cutters, pipe, 113 + + Cutting, terra-cotta pipe, 72 + cast-iron pipe, 93 + + + D + + Dies, 112 + + Drainage, 2 + + Drains, 82, 83, 84, 87, 92 + + Drift plugs, 18 + + Drum trap, 61, 65, 68, 107 + + Durham work, 134 + + + E + + Earthenware, 3-5 + + Expansion joints, 129 + + + F + + Ferrule, brass, 37-43 + + File, 15 + + Fittings, drainage, 136 + gas, 143 + screw pipe, 98 + soil pipe, 96 + + Fixtures, 3 + + Flushing, 3 + + Flux, 12 + + Fresh-air inlet, 105 + + + G + + Gas pipe and fittings, 143 + piping, 141, 144 + + Goose neck, 81 + + + H + + Half and half solder, 21 + + Hammer, 15 + + Hangers, 121, 137 + + Heaters, flue connection, 130 + gas coil, 126 + instantaneous, 127 + + Hot water supply, 124 + + House drains, 86 + traps, 87, 104 + + + I + + Inserting, terra-cotta pipe, 74 + + Intercepting trap, 92, 93 + + Iron enamelled ware, 3 + + + J + + Joints, amount of lead and oakum, 97 + caulk, 87, 89 + cup, 14 + expansion, 129 + of sub-soil, 84 + overcast, 17 + runner, 90 + rust, 97 + seams, 19 + solder, 14 + + + K + + Kitchen sinks, 99 + + + L + + Lavatories, 8, 99 + + Lead connection, 78 + used in caulked joints, 89, 97 + + Lead pipe, for water mains, 80 + preparing for wiping, 45 + use of, 27 + + Leaders, pipes and traps, 93 + + Long screws, 115 + + + M + + Main sewer, 81 + + Mason trap, 104 + + Measurements of piping, 146 + + Melting point of metals, 21 + + Metal, wiping, 31 + + Meter, reading gas, 142 + + + N + + Nipples, cutting and threading, 114 + holders, 114 + + + O + + Oakum, use of, 89, 97 + + Overcast joint, 17, 67 + + + P + + Paste, 13 + + Pipe, brass, 80 + covering, 131 + cutting, 93 + kinds of, 122 + service, 81 + soil, location, 95 + steel, 97 + tell-tale, 100 + terra-cotta, 69 + threading, 110 + wrought iron, 97 + + Pipe laying, sewer, 71 + water, 78 + in tunnel, 73 + + Piping, water, 120 + drainage, 135 + + Planking, 70, 71 + + Pressure, water, 119 + + + R + + Rain leaders, 86 + + Reaming, 135 + + Receptors, showers, 99 + + Refill, trench, 75, 79 + tunnels, 79 + + Right and left couplings, 116 + + + S + + Sanitary drains, 91, 92 + + Screw-pipe work, 134 + + Seams, 19, 67 + + Sewerage, system of, 86 + + Sewers, 69, 81 + + Shoe, use of, 75 + + Shower stall, 150 + + Sinks, 2 + + Soil pipe, 95, 96 + + Soils, 13 + + Soldering iron, 11, 15, 66 + + Solders, 21 + + Stopcock, 45, 68, 81, 120 + + Sulphur, 97 + + Swab, 73, 81 + + + T + + Tables, angle measurements, 138, 139 + brass ferrules, 160 + fixtures and traps, 161 + lead waste pipe, 160 + measurements, 116 + roof drainage, 155 + screw-pipe, 134 + size of vent pipes, 163 + of waste pipe, 99 + soil and waste pipe, 158 + standard, threads, 110 + terra-cotta pipe, 75 + waste pipe, 161 + weight of cast-iron pipe, 156 + of solder nipples, 160 + + Tallow, 13 + + Tank, storage connections of, 125 + + Tell-tale pipe, 100 + + Terra-cotta pipe, 69, 75, 83 + cutting, 72 + + Testing, gas pipe, 148 + + Thermostat, 124, 126 + + Tinning, brass, 38, 42, 45 + bib, 59 + + Tools, bending iron, 15 + caulking iron, 89 + cold chisel, 89, 93 + file, 15 + hammer, 15 + joint runner, 90 + ladle, 29 + pipe cutters, 113 + rasp, 15 + saw, 15 + shave hook, 15 + soldering iron, 15 + tap-borer, 15, 47, 59 + turn pin, 15 + vise, 111 + yarning iron, 89 + + Traps, bag, 109 + centrifugal, 109 + cleansweep, 108 + drum, 107 + flask, 108 + house, 104 + intercepting, 92 + mechanical, 109 + non-syphoning, 107 + "S," 109 + sure-seal, 109 + + Trenches, digging, 70, 81, 87 + refilling, 75 + water service, 76 + + Tubs, bath, 6 + + Tunnels, 73 + + + U + + Urinals, 99 + + + V + + Valves, check, 128 + closet, 4 + safety, 128 + + Ventilation pipe, 101 + + Vents, 100-103 + + + W + + Wash trays, 86, 99 + + Water connection, 76 + supply, 118 + rivers and lakes, 119 + streams and brooks, 118 + under pressure, 119 + underground, 118 + + Wiping, 29 + bib, 59 + branch joints, 49 + cloths, 67 + drum trap, 61 + 2-inch brass ferrule, 40 + 4-inch brass ferrule, 43 + round joint, 31 + solder, 21 + stopcock, 45 + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES + + +Inconsistencies in hyphenation and spelling have been retained. + +Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved for easier reading. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Elements of Plumbing, by Samuel Dibble + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTS OF PLUMBING *** + +***** This file should be named 25269.txt or 25269.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/2/6/25269/ + +Produced 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