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diff --git a/25244.txt b/25244.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3cbe93d --- /dev/null +++ b/25244.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3954 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Aviation in Peace and War, by Sir Frederick Hugh Sykes + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Aviation in Peace and War + +Author: Sir Frederick Hugh Sykes + +Release Date: April 30, 2008 [EBook #25244] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AVIATION IN PEACE AND WAR *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + + AVIATION IN + PEACE AND WAR + + + BY + + Major-General Sir F. H. SYKES + G.B.E., K.C.B., C.M.G. + LATE CHIEF OF THE AIR STAFF + AND + CONTROLLER-GENERAL OF CIVIL AVIATION + + + LONDON + EDWARD ARNOLD & CO. + 1922 + [_All rights reserved_] + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + + Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note, whilst + more significant amendments have been listed at the end of the text. + The oe ligature is represented by [oe]. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE + INTRODUCTION 7 + + CHAPTER I. PRE-WAR 9 + + Early Thoughts on Flight. The Invention of the Balloon. + First Experiments in Gliders and Aeroplanes. The Wright + Brothers and their Successors in Europe. The First + Airships. The Beginnings of Aviation in England. The + Inception and Development of Aircraft as Part of the + Forces of the Crown: the Balloon Factory; the Air + Battalion; the Royal Flying Corps, the Military Wing, + the Naval Wing. Tactics and the Machine. Conclusions. + + CHAPTER II. WAR 44 + + General Remarks on War Development. Co-operation with + the Army: Reconnaissance; Photography; Wireless; + Bombing; Contact Patrol; Fighting. Co-operation with + the Navy: Coast Defence, Patrol and Convoy Work; Fleet + Assistance, Reconnaissance, Spotting for Ships' Guns; + Bombing; Torpedo Attack. Home Defence: Night Flying + and Night Fighting. The Machine and Engine. Tactics + and the Strategic Air Offensive. Organization. + + CHAPTER III. PEACE 96 + + The Future of Aerial Defence. Civil Aviation: as a + Factor in National Security; as an Instrument of + Imperial Progress; Financial and Economic Problems; + Weather Conditions and Night Flying; Organization; the + Machine and Engine. Air Services: British, Continental + and Imperial. + + CONCLUSION 131 + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +Since the earliest communities of human beings first struggled for +supremacy and protection, the principles of warfare have remained +unchanged. New methods have been evolved and adopted with the progress +of science, but no discovery, save perhaps that of gunpowder, has done +so much in so short a time to revolutionize the conduct of war as +aviation, the youngest, yet destined perhaps to be the most effective +fighting-arm. Yet to-day we are only on the threshold of our knowledge, +and, striking as was the impetus given to every branch of aeronautics +during the four years of war, its future power can only dimly be seen. + +We may indeed feel anxious about this great addition of aviation to the +destructive power of modern scientific warfare. Bearing its terrors in +mind, we may even impotently seek to check its advance, but the appeal +of flying is too deep, its elimination is now impossible, and granted +that war is inevitable, it must be accepted for good or ill. +Fortunately, although with the other great scientific additions, +chemical warfare and the submarine, its potentialities for destruction +are very great, yet aircraft, unlike the submarine, can be utilized not +only in the conduct of war but in the interests of peace, and it is +here that we can guide and strengthen it for good. Just as the naval +supremacy of Britain was won because commercially we were the greatest +seafaring people in the world, so will air supremacy be achieved by that +country which, making aviation a part of its everyday life, becomes an +airfaring community. + +Our nation as a whole has been educated, owing to its geographical +situation and by tradition, to interest itself in the broader aspects of +marine policy and development. It requires to take the same interest in +aviation, a comparatively new subject, unhampered to a great extent by +preconceived notions and therefore offering greater scope for individual +thought. + +The following sketch[1] has been written in the hope that some of those +who read it may be inspired to study aviation in one or other of its +branches, whether from the historical, technical, strategical, or +commercial point of view. Any opinions expressed are, of course, my own +and not official. + +[1] First written and delivered as the Lees-Knowles Lectures at +Cambridge University in February and March, 1921. + +I propose first briefly to trace the history of aviation from its +beginnings to the outbreak of war; next to describe the evolution of +aircraft and of air strategy during the war; and last to estimate the +present position and to look into the future. + + + + +CHAPTER I + +PRE-WAR + + +EARLY THOUGHTS ON FLIGHT. + +The story of the growth of aviation may be likened to that of the +discovery and opening up of a new continent. A myth arises, whence no +one can tell, of the existence of a new land across the seas. Eventually +this land is found without any realization of the importance of the +discovery. Then comes the period of colonization and increasing +knowledge. But the interior remains unexplored. So, in the case of +aviation, man was long convinced, for no scientific reason, that flight +was possible. With the first ascent by balloon came the imagined mastery +of the air; later, the invention of flight that can be controlled at +will. To-day we are still in the stage of colonization. The future +resources of the air remain hidden from our view. + +The Daedalean myth and the ancient conception of the winged angelic host +show how the human mind has long been fascinated by the idea of flight, +but the first design of an apparatus to lift man into the air, a +parachute-like contrivance, was only reached at the end of the fifteenth +century in one of Leonardo da Vinci's manuscripts. About the same time +lived the first of the long line of daring practical aviators, without +whom success would never have been achieved, one John Damian, a +physician of the Court of James IV of Scotland, who "took in hand to fly +with wings, and to that effect caused make a pair of wings of feathers, +which being fastened upon him, he flew off the castle wall of Stirling, +but shortly he fell to the ground and brake his thigh-bone." + +Nearly 250 years later the aeronaut had not made much progress, for we +read of the Marquis de Bacqueville in 1742 attaching to his arms and +legs planes of his own design and launching himself from his house in +the attempt to fly across the Seine, into which, regrettably, he fell. + +Meanwhile the seventeenth-century philosophers had been theorizing. In +1638 John Wilkins, the founder of the Royal Society, published a book +entitled _Daedalus, or Mechanical Motions_. A few years later John +Glanville wrote in _Scepsis Scientifica_ "to them that come after us it +may be as ordinary to buy a pair of wings to fly into remotest regions, +as now a pair of boots to ride a journey," the sceptic proving a truer +prophet than the enthusiast. By 1680 Giovanni Borelli had reached the +conclusion, in his book _De Volatu_, that it was impossible that man +should ever achieve flight by his own strength. Nor was he more likely +to do so in the first aerial ship, designed in 1670 by Francesco Lana, +which was to be buoyed up in the air by being suspended from four +globes, made of thin copper sheeting, each of them about 25 feet in +diameter. From these globes the air was to be exhausted, so that each, +being lighter than the atmosphere, would support the weight of two or +three men. A hundred years elapsed before Dr. Joseph Black of the +University of Edinburgh made the first practical suggestion, that a +balloon inflated with hydrogen would rise. + + +THE INVENTION OF THE BALLOON. + +It was in 1783 that Montgolfier conceived the idea of utilizing the +lifting power of hot air and invited the Assembly of Vivarais to watch +an exhibition of his invention, when a balloon, 10 feet in +circumference, rose to a height of 6,000 feet in under ten minutes. This +was followed by a demonstration before Louis XVI at Versailles, when a +balloon carrying a sheep, a cock, and a duck, rose 1,500 feet and +descended safely. And on November 21st of the same year Pilatre de +Rozier, accompanied by the Marquis d'Arlande, made the first human +ascent, in the "Reveillon," travelling 5 miles over Paris in twenty +minutes. + +England, it is not surprising to learn, was behind with the invention, +but on November 25th, 1783, Count Francesco Zambeccari sent up from +Moorfields a small oilskin hydrogen balloon which fell at Petworth; and +in August of 1784 James Tytler ascended at Edinburgh in a fire balloon, +thus achieving the first ascent in Great Britain. In the same year +Lunardi came to London and ballooning became the rage. It was an +Englishman, Dr. Jefferies, who accompanied Blanchard in the first +cross-Channel flight on January 7th, 1785. Fashionable society soon +turned to pursuits other than watching balloon ascents, however, and +the joys of the air were confined to a few adventurous spirits, such as +Green and Holland, who first substituted coal gas for hydrogen and in +1836 made a voyage of 500 miles from Vauxhall Gardens to Weilburg in +Nassau, and James Glaisher, who in the middle of the century began to +make meteorological observations from balloons, claiming on one +occasion, in 1862, to have reached the great height of 7 miles. + + +FIRST EXPERIMENTS IN GLIDERS AND AEROPLANES. + +The world seemed content to have achieved the balloon, but there were a +few men who realized that the air had not been conquered, and who +believed that success could only be attained by the scientific study and +practice of gliding. Prominent among these, Sir George Cayley, in 1809, +published a paper on the Navigation of the Air, and forecasted the +modern aeroplane, and the action of the air on wings. In 1848 Henson and +Stringfellow, the latter being the inventive genius, designed and +produced a small model aeroplane--the first power-driven machine which +actually flew. It is now in the Smithsonian Institute at Washington. Of +greater practical value were the gliding experiments by Otto Lilienthal, +of Berlin, and Percy Pilcher, an Englishman, at the end of the last +century. Both these men met their death in the cause of aviation. +Another step forward was made by Laurence Hargrave, an Australian, who +invented the box and soaring kite and eighteen machines which flew. + +From the theoretical point of view, Professor Langley, an American, +reached in his _Experiments in Aerodynamics_ the important conclusion +that weight could best be countered by speed. From theory Langley turned +to practice and in 1896 designed a steam-driven machine which flew +three-quarters of a mile without an operator. Seven years later, at the +end of 1903, he produced a new machine fitted with a 52 horse-power +engine weighing less than 5 lb. per horse-power; but this machine was +severely damaged ten days before Wilbur Wright made his first flight in +a controlled power-driven aeroplane. + + +THE WRIGHT BROTHERS AND THEIR SUCCESSORS IN EUROPE. + +The Wright brothers directed their whole attention to aviation in 1899. +By 1902, as the result of many experiments, they had invented a glider +with a horizontal vane in front, a vertical vane behind, and a device +for "warping" the wings. Their longest glide was 622-1/4 feet. This was +followed by the construction of a machine weighing 600 lb., including +the operator and an 8 horse-power engine, which on December 17th, 1903, +realized the dreams of centuries. + +After an increasing number of experiments, a machine built in 1905 flew +24-1/4 miles at a speed of 38 miles an hour. It is interesting to recall +that the new invention was refused once by the United States and three +times by the British Government. + +It was not until September 13th, 1906, that Ellehammer, a Danish +engineer, made the first free flight in Europe, his machine flying 42 +metres at a height of a metre and a half. About the same time reports +of the Wrights' successes began to reach Europe and were quickly +appreciated by the French. + +Space forbids that I should enter into the achievements of the early +French aviators, among whom the names of Ferber, Bleriot and Farman will +always rank high in the story of human faith, courage and determination. +It is a record of rapid advance. Farman made a circuit flight of 1 +kilometre in 1908, and flew from Chalons to Rheims, a distance of 27 +kilometres, in twenty minutes. Bleriot crossed the Channel in a +monoplane of his own design in forty minutes. French designers improved +the control system, and French machines became famous. The records of +the Rheims meeting of 1909 serve to illustrate the progress made during +the first phase of aviation. Latham won the altitude prize by flying to +a height of over 500 feet. Farman the prize for the flight of longest +duration by remaining more than three hours in the air, and the +passenger carrying prize by carrying two passengers round a 10-kilometre +course in 10-1/2 minutes. The Gnome rotary engine was first used with +success at this meeting. + +Before turning to the pioneer efforts in England and the pre-war +organization of our air forces, some account of the development of the +lighter-than-air dirigible is desirable. + + +THE FIRST AIRSHIPS. + +The earliest conception of an airship is to be found in General +Meusnier's design in 1784 for an egg-shaped balloon driven by three +screw propellers, worked, of course, by hand. The chief interest in his +design, though it never materialized, lies in the fact that it provided +for a double envelope and was the precursor of the ballonet. The first +man-carrying airship was built by Henri Giffard in 1852. It had a +capacity of 87,000 cu. feet, a length of 144 feet, a 3 horse-power +engine, and a speed of 6 miles an hour. A gas engine was first used +twenty years later in an Austrian dirigible, giving a speed of 3 miles +an hour. About the same time much useful work was accomplished by Dupuy +de Lome, whose dirigible, with a propeller driven by man power, gave a +speed of 5-1/2 miles an hour. Twelve years later, in 1884, two French +Army officers, Captain Kubs and Captain Renard, constructed the first +successful power-driven lighter-than-air craft fitted with an 8-1/2 +horse-power electric motor, which may be regarded as the progenitor of +all subsequent non-rigid airships. In 1901 Santos Dumont flew round the +Eiffel Tower, travelling 6-3/4 miles in 1-1/2 hours, and in 1903 the +flight of the "Lebaudy," covering a distance of 40 miles at a speed of +20 miles an hour, led the French military authorities to take up the +question of airships. + +What the French initiated, the Germans, concentrating with +characteristic thoroughness on the development of the rigid as opposed +to the non-rigid airship, improved. In 1896 Wolfert's rigid airship +attained a speed of 9 miles an hour and in 1900 the first Zeppelin was +launched. Whatever we may think of the German methods of using their +airships during the war, we cannot but admire the courage and +determination of Count Zeppelin, who, in spite of many mishaps, +succeeded in producing the finest airships in the world and inspiring +the German people with a faith in the air which they have never lost. +From 1905 onwards development was rapid. In 1907 Zeppelin voyaged in +stages from Friedrichshaven to Frankfort, a distance of 200 miles in +7-1/2 hours. Popular enthusiasm is illustrated by the fact that within a +few months the same airship made four hundred trips, carrying 8,551 +passengers and covering 29,430 miles. Other airships showed similar +records. Between 1909 and 1913 eighteen of the Parseval type were built, +and 1912 saw the construction of the first Schutte-Lanz, designed +expressly for naval and military purposes. If France at this period led +the world in aeroplane design, Germany was undeniably ahead in airship +development. + +In Great Britain, in 1905, we had one very small airship, designed and +constructed by Willows. + + +THE BEGINNINGS OF AVIATION IN ENGLAND. + +Though the names of Pilcher, Dunne, Howard Wright, and Rolls testify to +the fact that the science of aviation had its followers in England at +the beginning of this century, flying came comparatively late, and the +real interest of the movement centres round the early efforts of +military aviation from 1912 onwards. Nevertheless this country could ill +have dispensed with the experiments of that small and courageous band of +aviators, among whom Dickson and Cody were prominent. By 1908 Cody had +built an aeroplane and was making experimental flights at Aldershot. In +1907, A. V. Roe, working under great difficulties, constructed and flew +his first machine, a triplane fitted with an 8-10 horse-power twin +cylinder Jap bicycle engine, the first tractor type machine produced by +any country, and a very important contribution to the science of flight. +In 1910 and 1911 we find de Havilland, Frank Maclean and the Short +Brothers, Ogilvie, Professor Huntingdon, Sopwith and the Bristol +Company, starting on the design and construction of machines, of which +the names have since become famous. At the same time certain centres of +aviation came into existence, such as Brooklands, where I well remember +beginning to fly in August, 1910, Hendon, Larkhill and Eastchurch, +destined to be the centre of naval aviation. It is significant, however, +of the slow progress made that by November 1st, 1910, only twenty-two +pilot's certificates had been issued, and it was Conneau, a French naval +officer, who in 1911 won the so-called "Circuit of Britain," i.e. a +flight from Brooklands and back via Edinburgh, Glasgow, Exeter and +Brighton. Cody and Valentine were the only British competitors to +complete the full course. + +In May 1911 a demonstration was organized by the owners of the Hendon +Aerodrome to which a large number of Cabinet Ministers, members of +parliament, and army and navy officers were invited. The War Office +co-operated by arranging for a small force of horse, foot and guns to be +secretly disposed in a specified area some miles distant and by +detailing two officers, of whom I was one, to test what could be done to +find and report them by air. I remember that I had a special map +prepared, the first used in this, and I think any country, for the +aeroplane reconnaissance of troops. After a sufficiently exciting trip, +and with the troops successfully marked on the map, Hubert, my French +pilot, and I, returned and made our report to General Murray, the +Director of Military Training. It was a very interesting flight; the +weather good; our height about 1,500 feet; the machine a 50 horse-power +Gnome "box-kite" Henri Farman, which at one period of our 35 mile an +hour return journey elected to point itself skywards for an unpleasant +second or two and fly "cabre"; I can see Hubert now anxiously forcing +his front elevator downwards and shouting to me to lean forward in order +to help to bring the nose to a more comfortable bearing! + +Many pages could be filled with the difficulties and exploits of the +first British aviators, but enough has been said to show that, compared +with that of aeroplanes in France and of airships in Germany, +development in this country started late, progressed slowly and excited +little public interest. The work of the pioneers was, however, not in +vain, since it opened the eyes of our military authorities to the value +of aviation and led to the formation of that small but highly efficient +flying corps which during the war expanded into an organization without +rival. Let us now turn to the inception of the air forces of the Crown +and the position with regard to these and to air tactics at the outbreak +of war. + + +THE INCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF AIRCRAFT AS PART OF THE FORCES OF THE +CROWN. + +Nations have tended to regard flight as a prerogative of war. A balloon +school was formed in the early days of the French revolutionary wars; +the French victory at Fleurus in 1794 was ascribed to balloon +reconnaissance; balloons were used by the Federal Army in the American +Civil War, and during the Siege of Paris Gambetta effected his escape by +balloon in 1871. + + +_The Balloon Factory._ + +In England experiments were begun at Woolwich Arsenal in 1878, and in +1883 a Balloon Factory, a Depot and a School of Instruction were +established at Chatham. The expedition to Bechuanaland in 1884, under +the command of Sir Charles Warren, was accompanied by a detachment of +three balloons, and the following year balloons co-operated with the +Sudan Expeditionary Force, when Major Elsdale carried out some +photographic experiments from the air. + +In 1890 a balloon section was introduced into the Army as a unit of the +Royal Engineers, and not long afterwards, the Balloon Factory was +established at South Farnborough, where in 1912 it was transformed into +the Royal Aircraft Factory. Four balloon sections took part in the South +African War and were used during the Siege of Ladysmith, at +Magersfontein and Paardeburg. Colonel Lynch, who served in the Boer +Army, stated at a lecture delivered in Paris after the war that "the +Boers took a dislike to balloons. All other instruments of war were at +their command; they had artillery superior for the most part to, and +better served than, that of the English; they had telegraphic and +heliographic apparatus; but the balloons were the symbol of a scientific +superiority of the English which seriously disquieted them." + +I went through a course in ballooning during leave from West Africa in +1904 and remember that partly owing to the energy of Colonel Capper, +partly to the impetus given by the South African War, and partly to the +growing interest in all things aeronautical throughout the civilized +world, it was noticeable that the activities of the Balloon Factory were +increasing in many directions. Although the spherical balloon had been +improved, its disabilities were recognized and experiments were made +with elongated balloons, man-flying kites, air photography, signalling +devices, observation of artillery fire, mechanical apparatus for hauling +down balloons, and petrol motors. A grant for a dirigible balloon was +obtained in 1903, though it was not until 1907, the year in which Cody +began the construction of his aeroplane at Farnborough, and Charles +Rolls his experiments, that the airship "Nulli Secundus" made her first +flight. She was about 120 feet long and 30 feet in diameter, and was +driven by a 40 horse-power engine at a speed of 30 miles an hour. On +October 5th this airship flew to London in an hour and a half, circled +round St. Paul's, man[oe]uvred over Buckingham Palace, and descended at +the Crystal Palace. In the same year, be it remembered, a Zeppelin had +made a trip of 200 miles from Friedrichshaven to Frankfort. The "Nulli +Secundus" was followed in 1910 by the "Beta" and the "Gamma." + +Meanwhile an Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been appointed, and +the National Physical Laboratory had organized a department at +Teddington for the investigation of aeronautical problems in +co-operation with the Balloon Factory. + + +_The Air Battalion._ + +In 1911 the authorities could no longer close their eyes, especially at +a time when rumours of war were rife, to the rapid development of +heavier-than-air craft on the Continent. So far, as we have seen, the +aeroplane had been regarded in England as little more than the plaything +of a few adventurous but foolhardy spirits. A certain amount of +experience in piloting and handling aeroplanes had been gained by a +handful of Army officers, but the machines used either belonged to the +officers themselves, to civilians, or to aviation firms. I was at that +time a general staff officer in the Directorate of Military Operations +under General Wilson, now Field Marshal and late Chief of the Imperial +General Staff, and was the only officer in the War Office who had +learned to fly. It appeared very important that a study of the military +possibilities of aviation should be made. The prime role of cavalry, +reconnaissance, seemed to have passed from it. In addition to my normal +duties, I visited France, Germany and Italy, collected information on +foreign activities, wrote reports, and tried to create a knowledge of +the possible effect of future military aeronautics and to urge the +formation of a flying corps. + +In 1911 the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers, consisting of +Headquarters, No. 1 Company (Airships) and No. 2 Company (Aeroplanes), +was formed and superseded the Balloon School. The creation of No. 2 +Company, stationed at Larkhill, marked the first formation of a British +military unit composed entirely of heavier-than-air aircraft. The same +year witnessed the inception of the B.E., F.E. and S.E. type machines in +the Balloon Factory, but the total of our machines, both for naval and +military requirements, amounted to something less than twelve aeroplanes +and two small airships; and the mishaps suffered by the military +machines on their flight from Larkhill to Cambridge, to take part in +Army Man[oe]uvres, were significant of their unreliability. + + +_The Royal Flying Corps._ + +In view, therefore, of the reports received of the progress abroad, the +Air Battalion was clearly insufficient to meet the demands which might +be made upon it in the event of war; and at the end of 1911 the Prime +Minister instructed a standing Sub-Committee of the Committee of +Imperial Defence to consider the future development of air navigation +for naval and military purposes. As a result of their deliberations the +Committee recommended the creation of a British Air Service to be +regarded as one and designated the Royal Flying Corps; the division of +the Corps into a Naval Wing, a Military Wing, and a Central Flying +School; the maintenance of the closest possible collaboration between +the Corps, the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and the Aircraft (late +Balloon) Factory; and the appointment of a permanent Consultative +Committee, named the Air Committee, to deal with all aeronautical +questions affecting both the Admiralty and the War Office. + +Consequent upon these recommendations, a Technical Sub-Committee was +formed, consisting of Brig.-General Henderson, Major MacInnes of the +directorate of Military Training at the War Office, a splendid officer, +who died during the war, and myself, to draft the new scheme. The +objects kept in view in framing our peace organization were to suit it +to war conditions, as far as they could be foreseen, to base it on an +efficient self-contained unit, and, while allowing for the wide +differences between naval and military requirements, to ensure the +maximum co-operation between the two branches of the Service. Success +beyond expectation was achieved in the first two objects, but, as will +be seen, the naval and military branches tended for unforeseen but good +reasons to diverge, until they joined hands again in 1918 as the Royal +Air Force. The bases of the military organization were, a headquarters, +the squadron, and the flying depot. These proved their value during the +war and have remained the units of our air forces to this day. The +Military Wing was to form a single and complete organization and contain +a headquarters, seven aeroplane squadrons, each to consist of twelve +active machines and six in reserve, one airship and kite squadron, and a +flying depot. All pilots, whether of the Naval or the Military Wing, +were eventually to graduate at the Central Flying School, whence they +could join either the Naval Wing at Eastchurch or one of the Military +Squadrons. In time of war each branch of the Service was to form a +reserve for the other if required. + + +_The Military Wing._ + +In accordance with this scheme I received instructions to organize, +recruit, train and command the Military Wing of the Royal Flying Corps. +The functions of the Military Wing were quite clear: it was to meet the +air requirements of the Expeditionary Force primarily for reconnaissance +purposes, but its organization was framed so that it could easily be +expanded and the scope of its duties widened. Headquarters were +established at Farnborough on May 13th, 1912: Barrington-Kennett, an +officer of the Grenadier Guards who had been attached to the Air +Battalion, was appointed, and made the best of all possible adjutants; +and the nucleus of the Corps, consisting at first of the cadres of an +airship squadron under Edward Maitland, of two aeroplane squadrons under +Burke and Brooke-Popham, and a flying depot (later the aircraft park) +under Carden, who was a little later greatly assisted in the complex +matter of technical stores by Beatty, came into existence. At the same +time the construction of the Central Flying School was started at +Upavon, under Captain G. Payne, R.N. With regard to the other squadrons +provided for, the nucleus of No. 4 Squadron was formed the same year, +and that of No. 5 Squadron the following year, of Nos. 6 and 7 +Squadrons in 1914, while No. 8 Squadron was not started until after the +outbreak of war. + +Records of the progress and growth of the Corps were left at Farnborough +when the Headquarters and four squadrons went to France in August, 1914, +and have been lost. This is particularly unfortunate because without +them it will be difficult for the historian of the Corps adequately to +describe the beginnings and to assess the value of the work then carried +out. + +The task of forming the new service, which was to do much to assist the +Army in saving England, was begun. The time was very short. A great +energy had to be brought to the work. As with all things new, it had to +contend with apathy and opposition on all sides. There was no precedent +to help. The organization of the Corps to its smallest detail of +technical stores, supply and transport had to be thought out. The type +of machine required; the method of obtaining it from a struggling +industry; its use and maintenance; the personnel, its training and +equipment; these, and a thousand other aspects of the question, required +the employment of a large staff of experts. But the experts did not +exist and the duties were carried out almost entirely at Farnborough, +where in addition time had to be found to compile the official training +and other text books and regulations required for an entirely new arm. + +In addition to the innumerable problems inherent in the organization, +growth and training of the Military Wing, the two years between its +inception and the outbreak of war were strenuously applied to solving +the problems of air tactics and strategy. Until the South African War +the British Army had been drilled under the influence of stereotyped +Prussian ideas. Perhaps the South African War led too far in an opposite +direction, but it taught us one thing, which was to prove of such +importance in 1914--the value of mobility; and we realized in aircraft +the advent of the most mobile arm the world has yet seen. + +All was new. A new Corps. A new element in which to work. New conditions +in peace akin to those in war. And there had to be developed a new +spirit, combining the discipline of the old Army, the technical skill of +the Navy, and the initiative, energy and dash inseparable from flying. +There were the inevitable accidents, but training had to be done. We +existed for war and war alone would show whether we had thought and +worked without respite aright. We had to prove our value to the other +arms, many of the leaders of which, owing to a long period of peace, +found difficulty in differentiating between the normal usages of peace +and war and in understanding the right use of aircraft. Somehow or other +time was found during 1912, 1913 and 1914 to write to reviews, to +lecture at army and other centres of training, to attend Staff rides, +and to endeavour in every way possible to learn how best to work in with +the army commands and to teach those commands the usefulness and +limitations of aircraft. + +As Ruskin wrote: + + "Man is the engine whose motive power is the soul and the largest + quantity of work will not be done by this curious engine for pay, + or under pressure, or by the help of any kind of fuel which may be + supplied by the cauldron. It will be done only when the will or + spirit of the creature is brought to its own greatest strength by + its own proper fuel, namely the affection." + +I was intensely proud of my command and often thought of the time when, +as I had been promised, I should, in the event of war, command it in the +field. We worked at white heat believing that war was coming soon; +believing that our efforts would have a real effect on the result; and +determined that the new arm should rank second to none among the forces +of the Crown. _Esprit de Corps_ was of vital importance, but as officers +and non-commissioned officers were drawn from every branch and every +regiment of the army this was no easy matter and was only achieved by +the splendid example and precept of such men as Herbert, Becke, +Longcroft, Chinnery and Barrington-Kennett. We selected our motto: "Per +Ardua ad Astra." It was in this atmosphere that the Military Wing grew +in peace. It was in this atmosphere that the soul was formed which later +under the great strain of war impelled our pilots forward cheerfully to +face every duty and every danger in the true spirit of manliness and +fearless confidence. + +As in framing the original scheme on paper, so in giving it life it was +our aim to organize the Corps, so that, whatever its future strength, it +would be sound and efficient, and its continuity of growth effected +without even temporary dislocation or waste. The tactical unit of the +Military Wing--the squadron, consisting of three flights, each of four +machines with two in reserve--had the advantage that it was of +sufficient size to act independently, while it was not too unwieldy for +a single command. It was equally suitable for independent or +co-operative action, and the full complement of seven squadrons would, +in addition to a reserve, furnish one squadron for each division of an +Army Expeditionary force of the size then contemplated, though no +definite allotment of aeroplanes to the lower commands was at first +intended. The French and Germans, on the other hand, were building up +their organizations with smaller units, with the result that they found +even greater difficulties than ourselves in obtaining sufficient +experienced officers to command them. It is probable that the consequent +lack of concentration, knowledge and determination to stick to sound +principles of action was one of the causes underlying the non-success of +the German air service in the opening phases of the war. + +According to the system employed squadrons were formed, organized, +equipped, and a certain amount of preliminary training carried out, at +Farnborough, when on completion the squadron moved to one of the +stations which I had established or was forming at Netheravon, Montrose, +Gosport, Dover, and Orfordness, Netheravon being the largest. This +dispersion of squadrons did not affect the entity and cohesion, under +Wing headquarters at Farnborough, of the Corps as a whole. No. 3 +Squadron, one of the original two referred to, removed to Netheravon +from Larkhill in June. + +Similarly, and in order to avoid congestion at Farnborough, to foster a +spirit of self-support and to enable air operations to be carried out +with troops in Scotland, No. 2 Squadron was sent to Montrose. Five of +its machines flew all the way, and it became one of the principles of +training that machines should fly whenever a move was ordered. Thus in +1913 six machines from this squadron were flown from Montrose to +Limerick--a great feat then--to take part in the Irish Command +man[oe]uvres, the crossing of the Irish Channel being successfully +carried out both ways by all machines. Another flight of an experimental +nature was made by Longcroft, with myself as passenger, from Farnborough +to Montrose in a single day with only one landing. + +The unavoidable and never-relaxing strain inherent in the daily and +hourly use of an instrument, in the design, maintenance and improvement +of which we could only grope our way, was very great. In peace before +the war, as later in the war, the only variation to strain lay in +periods of increased strain. + +At Headquarters, in addition to the normal duties of command and +co-ordination, and the supply of all technical stores to squadrons, +there was carried out all recruiting, and I also formed a specialized +flight for the study of technical problems, such as the use of wireless +from aircraft. The bulk of experimental work was originally undertaken +by the Royal Aircraft Factory, under the Superintendent, Mr. O'Gorman, +who always helped us in every way possible, but by 1913 I felt it +necessary to enlarge the duties of the special flight and an +Experimental Section was formed at Wing Headquarters at Farnborough +with an officer, Musgrave, in charge. In addition, for each squadron an +officer was appointed Squadron Officer for Experiments, thus ensuring +the diffusion of information throughout the Corps, and affording the +opportunity to each unit of carrying out the experiments best suited to +the material and apparatus at its command. Similarly other individual +officers were detailed in each squadron on a co-ordinated scheme, for +such duties as Officer-in-charge of Stores, Workshops, Mechanical +Transport, Meteorology, etc. + +The formation at Farnborough of the Line of Communications R.F.C. +Workshop or Flying Depot--later known as the Aircraft Park--completed +the organization of the Military Wing. + +I was very anxious as early as possible to prove the structure as a +unified self-supporting, mobile and easily handled flying corps as far +as it had gone, and in June, 1914, this was done by the concentration in +camp at Netheravon of the entire Military Wing, comprising Headquarters +and Headquarters Flight, the four completed squadrons and the nucleus of +No. 6 Squadron, the Aircraft Park and a detachment of the Kite Section. +Mobilization, a very difficult process when it came, would have been +almost impossible had the concentration not taken place. The object of +the camp was a month's combined training to test personnel, both in the +air and on the ground, and the handling of aircraft and transport both +by day and night. Endeavours were made to solve by means of lectures, +discussions and committees the problems connected with mobilization, +technical and military training, observation, wireless telegraphy, +signals, night flying, photography, bomb-dropping, workshops, stores, +meteorology, transport, shifting of camp and aerodrome, supply and +maintenance of units in the field, etc.--in fact the whole organization +essential to the efficiency and cohesion of a Flying Corps, under +conditions as similar as possible to those expected on active service. +Very valuable experience was obtained from the work carried out. The +necessarily wide gaps in our knowledge were brought home in more +concrete form. It was also evident that the force was very small. But +within three months it was proved under the strain of war that the +organization and training had been laid down on sound principles. + + +_The Naval Wing._ + +As in the case of the Army, it was to airships that the Navy first +turned its attention, and the birth of naval aviation may be said to +date from July 21st, 1908, when Admiral Bacon submitted proposals for +the construction of a rigid airship, the ill-fated "Mayfly" which was +destroyed on her preliminary trials. The Admiralty thereupon decided to +discontinue the construction of airships, the development of which was +left to the Army until May, 1914, when it was decided that all +airships--that is No. 1 Squadron of the Military Wing--should be taken +over by the Naval Wing. This was partly the result of a report by two +Naval Officers, who visited France, Austria and Germany, as was the +purchase of two vessels of the Parseval and Astra Torres types, and a +small non-rigid from Willows. The construction of a number of other +airships was ordered, but for various reasons was delayed or never +completed up to the outbreak of war. + +Although at first sight the functions of the Naval Wing--coast defence +and work with the Fleet--seemed hardly more difficult to perform than +those of the Military Wing, in practice, as I was to find later from +personal experience when in command of the R.N.A.S. at Gallipoli, they +were more complicated, while the slowness of the Admiralty in evolving a +clear scheme of employment and a definite objective made itself felt. +Before the war the achievements of the Naval Wing were due rather to +individual effort than to a definite policy of organized expansion. It +was the pilot and the machine rather than the organization which +developed. + +As already stated, Eastchurch was chosen by the Short Brothers for their +experiments in aeroplanes in 1909, but it was not until 1911 that the +Admiralty bought two machines and established the first Naval Flying +School at that place. The same year Commander O. Swann purchased from +Messrs. A. V. Roe a 35 horse-power biplane and began to carry out +experiments with different types of floats, as a result of which a +twin-float seaplane was produced--the first to rise off the water in +this country. + +For some time seaplanes were in a very experimental stage and at best +could only rise from, and alight on, calm water, though it is +interesting to note that as far back as 1911 the employment of seaplanes +for torpedo attack, which I think will be one of the most important +developments of aircraft in the future, engaged the attention of the +Navy, and a Sopwith seaplane carrying a 14-inch torpedo made its first +flight at Calshot in 1913. For this reason, therefore, it appeared that +principally aeroplanes and airships would have to be employed from shore +bases for coast defence and that "carrier" ships would be necessary to +enable seaplanes to work with the Fleet. + +The first stations set up were Eastchurch, Isle of Grain, Calshot, +Felixstowe, Yarmouth, Cromarty and Kingsnorth, from which at the +outbreak of war an organized coastal patrol was established. + +From the outset the Naval Wing, assisted by its large percentage of +skilled technical personnel, paid great attention to experimental work +of all sorts. Thus in 1912 the detection of submarines by aircraft was +taken up, in 1913 valuable results were obtained from bomb-dropping, and +a large number of experiments in wireless, machine gunnery and fighting +carried out. In addition, efforts were made to extend the power, range +and capacity of engine and machine. + +The second Naval problem, that of co-operation with the Fleet, involved +the flight of aircraft from ships and the design of aircraft carriers. +In 1911 an aeroplane for the first time took off successfully from the +deck of a cruiser at anchor, and the following year an aeroplane flew +from H.M.S. "Hibernia," while under weigh, but it was not until after +the outbreak of war that alighting on decks was successfully +accomplished. The first ship to be fitted up as a parent ship for +seaplanes was the "Hermes" in 1913. + +These specialized technical requirements and developments explain why +the Naval Wing and the Royal Naval Air Service tended towards +individualism rather than cohesion. While the Military Wing, or Royal +Flying Corps, progressed further as an organized fighting force, the +Royal Naval Air Service, amongst the 100 odd aeroplanes and seaplanes on +charge which were mainly of the Short, Sopwith, Avro, Farman and Wright +types, possessed in 1914 the more powerful engines and a number of +aeroplanes fitted with wireless and machine guns, while their +bomb-dropping arrangements were also in a more advanced stage of +development. + +An Air Department was formed at the Admiralty in 1912 to deal with all +questions relating to naval aircraft. Naval officers were trained from +the beginning at Eastchurch rather than at the Central Flying School, +and in 1913 the appointment of an Inspecting Captain for Aircraft, with +a Central Air Office at Sheerness as his headquarters, accentuated a +growing tendency for the Naval Wing to work on independent lines. + +The Naval Wing grew rapidly and in the middle of 1914 was reorganized as +the Royal Naval Air Service, comprising the Air Department of the +Admiralty, the Central Air Office, the Royal Naval Flying School, the +Royal Naval Air Stations, and all aircraft, seaplane ships and balloons +employed for naval purposes. This placed the naval air force on a +self-supporting basis and the entity of the Royal Flying Corps as a +whole, as originally provided for, was lost. + + +TACTICS AND THE MACHINE. + +The value of the application of flying to war requires little +demonstration. The most important attributes of generalship are quick +appreciation of a situation and quick decision. To the ordinary +Commander the absence of information is paralysing. In the nineteenth +century the mass of cavalry was the special instrument of information +and to obtain it contact with the enemy's main forces had to be +effected. It thus acted as a shield and also tried to provide the +information necessary to enable the infantry to take the offensive. + +Aviation, by the wide field of observation it commands, by the speed +with which it can collect and transmit information, to a great extent +lifts the fog of war and enables a general to act on knowledge where +before he acted largely on deduction. Information once obtained, its +mobile and far-reaching offensive power introduces the element of +surprise, and permits of lightning strokes against the enemy's vital +points. + +Before the war reconnaissance was regarded as the principal duty of the +aircraft of the Military Wing. This was due to two reasons, first, the +obvious one that aircraft possessed advantages shared by no other arm +for obtaining information quickly and over wide areas and reporting to +Headquarters, and second, that experiment had proved the difficulty of +loading aeroplanes with offensive weapons, such as bombs or machine +guns, without impairing speed and climb. + +The following statement, which I drafted and which was issued by the +General Staff before the Army Man[oe]uvres of 1912, summarizes the +position:-- + + "As regards strategical reconnaissance," it says, "a General is + probably now justified in requiring a well-trained flyer, flying a + modern aeroplane, to reconnoitre some 70 miles out and return 70 + miles. This would be done at a speed of, say, 60 miles an hour in + ordinary weather over ordinary country. Thus within four hours, + allowing a wide margin, a report as to the approximate strength, + formation and direction of movement of the enemy, if he is within a + 70-mile radius, should be in the hands of the Commander." + +To those imbued with a knowledge of military history this new method of +ascertaining the enemy's movements might well seem revolutionary. + +Let us take two instances illustrating what aircraft, with a radius of +little over 100 miles, might have done in previous campaigns. For the +operations which terminated in the capitulation of Ulm in 1805 Napoleon +concentrated two army corps at Wuerzburg and five along the left bank of +the Rhine between Mannheim and Strasburg, his main body of cavalry under +Murat being at the latter place. The Austrian Army under Mack was behind +the Iller between Ulm and Memmingen, and expected the French to advance +through the defiles of the Black Forest, where Napoleon did actually +make a feint with his cavalry. Napoleon, however, crossing the Rhine on +September 26th, 1805, moved east, and it was not until October 2nd, when +the French Army had reached the line Ansbach, Langenburg, Hall and +Ludwigsburg, and his envelopment was far advanced, that Mack realized +that the main French advance was coming from the north. Aeroplanes of +the type we possessed in 1914 could have reconnoitred the whole of +Napoleon's preliminary position, could have detected his line of +advance, especially as it was concentrated on a very narrow front, and +could have brought back the information to the Austrian Headquarters +within a few hours. + +Aircraft would have been of even greater value on August 16th, 1870, at +the Battle of Rezonville, where neither the French nor the Germans were +aware of the other's movements. On the 14th a battle had been fought +east of Metz which had resulted in the French retreat. On the morning of +the 16th Moltke thought the French had retired west by the Metz-Verdun +road and those to the north of it, and consequently he directed his left +wing due west towards the Meuse to head off the French, sending his +right army towards Rezonville to harass their rearguard. The French +retreat, however, had been slow and two corps were still at Rezonville, +while three corps and the reserve cavalry were within easy reach, some +130,000 men in all. At 9 in the morning the German 3rd Corps, unaided +and far from support, attacked a position within reach of the whole +French Army, believing it had to deal with a rearguard only. Bazaine, on +the other hand, thinking that he was faced by the German main army, +remained on the defensive, and lost the opportunity of defeating in +detail first the 3rd and then the 10th German Corps. A few aeroplanes +operating on a radius of 30 miles would have disclosed between daybreak +and 10 a.m. the true position to either commander. Neither the German +nor the French cavalry, though both were engaged, obtained any reliable +information. + +The problem as to how far aircraft would reduce the value of cavalry was +widely discussed before the war. It was seen that by day aircraft could +obtain quicker and more accurate information, but that cavalry retained +their power of night reconnaissance, of mobile offensive action and of +pinning the enemy to his ground by fighting. This was found to be so +during the retreat, when, in addition to the direct value of aircraft +for long-distance reconnaissance, an indirect asset of great importance +lay in the release of the cavalry for battle action in assistance of the +infantry. The question has become more acute since the offensive action +of aircraft against ground targets has developed, but although we must +never forget the splendid work of the mounted arm during the Retreat +from Mons, and in March, 1918, factors have arisen tending to make the +use of cavalry a problem of extreme difficulty in European wars, and it +is possible that, in addition to their reconnaissance functions, +aircraft will supersede the shock tactics and delaying action of +cavalry, though this may be modified if, the sabre being a thing of the +past, cavalry are converted into mounted machine gunners. + +Air tactics and training were, therefore, chiefly studied from the point +of view of reconnaissance. In addition to the possibility of being shot +at by other aircraft, an important consideration was vulnerability from +the ground. Before the war reconnaissances were carried out at heights +varying from 2,000 to 6,000 feet, but it was generally considered that +the aeroplane was safe from fire from the ground at heights above 3,000 +feet. + +Serious difficulties affecting the mobility of aircraft were the means +of providing a regular supply of fuel and the selection of landing +grounds when moving camp, which had to be close enough behind the front +line as not to entail waste of time in flying out and back over friendly +territory. This was later brought home to us in a very acute form during +the Retreat from Mons. + +As machines improved, increasing attention was paid to bettering their +power of reconnaissance by air photography, their value in co-operation +with artillery by wireless equipment, their offensive action by bomb +dropping and their offence and defence by armament. + +The value of a correct initiative and the aeroplane's role as an +offensive weapon were fully appreciated and brought out in the Training +Manual of the Royal Flying Corps which we compiled at Farnborough, and +which was published early in 1914 by the War Office. It says:-- + + "It is probable that one phase of the struggle for the command of + the air will resolve itself into a series of combats between + individual aeroplanes, or pairs of aeroplanes. If the pilots of one + side can succeed in obtaining victory in a succession of such + combats, they will establish a moral ascendancy over the surviving + pilots of the enemy, and be left free to carry out their duties of + reconnaissance. The actual tactics must depend on the types of the + aeroplanes engaged, the object of the pilot being to obtain for his + passenger the free use of his own weapon while denying to the enemy + the use of his. To disable the pilot of the opposing aeroplane will + be the first object. In the case of fast reconnaissance aeroplanes + it will often be advisable to avoid fighting, in order to carry out + a mission or to deliver information; but it must be borne in mind + that this will be sometimes impossible, and that, as in every other + class of fighting, a fixed determination to attack and win will be + the surest road to victory." + +Speaking generally, the evolution of the machine, as apart from the +engine, which hung behind, followed upon the evolution of air tactics. +As soon as experience, often hard won at the cost of a valuable life, +opened up new fields of activity for aircraft, the designer and +constructor evolved new designs to meet the new requirements. It was no +small achievement in this period to have solved the problem of inherent +stability, both in theory and practice, so successfully, that from the +aerodynamic standpoint our machines in 1914 compare favourably with +those in use at the end of the war. + +In dealing with the evolution of the machine during the three years +prior to the war there are three landmarks: in the autumn of 1911 the +few machines belonging to the Air Battalion failed to reach their +destination for Army Man[oe]uvres; in May, 1912, the Royal Flying Corps +was formed and experiments with a view to meeting military requirements +were for the first time energetically and methodically prosecuted; and +in August, 1914, four squadrons flew to France with machines which had +attained a high degree of stability and were not inferior to any of +those possessed by other countries. When it is remembered in what a +short time these machines were evolved, it is not surprising that +attention had been chiefly confined to the problem of the 'plane and +stability, the engine and speed and reliability. Wireless, bombing, +photography, night flying and machine gunnery had been discussed and +experimented with, but no progress was made comparable to that effected +under war conditions. + +Machines and engines before the war were chiefly French. It is +interesting to note those with which No. 3 Squadron, one of the first to +be formed, commenced its career in May, 1912. They consisted of one 50 +horse-power Gnome Nieuport, one Deperdussin, which by the way was +privately owned, one Gnome Bristol, two Gnome Bleriot monoplanes, one +Avro and one Bristol box-kite biplane. By September, 1912, the Squadron +possessed fourteen monoplanes, but in that month, owing to the number of +accidents incurred by them, the use of monoplanes was temporarily +forbidden, and it was not until April, 1913, that the Squadron was fully +equipped with B.E. and Maurice Farman biplanes organized in flights. + +These types formed the backbone of the Military Wing, which also +included Codys, Breguets, Avros, and, later, Sopwiths. The B.E.2c was +produced by the Royal Aircraft Factory in the autumn of 1913 and +demonstrated its high degree of stability by flying from Aldershot to +Froyle and from Froyle to Fleet, distances of 6-3/4 and 8 miles +respectively, without the use of ailerons or elevators. The progress +made is illustrated by the fact that at the Army Man[oe]uvres of 1913 +twelve machines covered 4,545 miles on reconnaissance and 3,210 miles on +other flights, accurate observations being made from a height of 6,000 +feet, without serious mishap. + +In 1913 I recommended the gradual substitution of B.E.'s for Farmans on +the ground of the all-round efficiency and superior fighting qualities +of the former, and to secure the advantage of standardization, but it +was objected by the War Office that the Farmans were the only machines +that could mount weapons in front--an objection which was not met until +firing through the airscrew was introduced--and that the slower Farmans +offered greater advantages for observation, an idea which was long +prevalent. As a result, a compromise was effected, and two squadrons +were equipped with B.E.'s and two with homogeneous flights of Farmans, +Bleriots and Avros. + +At the outbreak of war the most successful machines possessed by the +Military Wing were the B.E.2 tractor with a 70 horse-power Renault +engine, a speed of 73 miles an hour, and a climb of 3,000 feet in nine +minutes; and a Henri Farman pusher with a speed of 60 miles an hour, and +a climb of 3,000 feet in fourteen minutes. A special study was being +made in 1914 of the best methods of ensuring clear observation of the +ground, and partly in this connection staggered planes were introduced, +culminating in the B.E.2c's, which were not, however, available for +service in any numbers until 1915. + +To sum up, the technical development of aircraft has taken place, and +will continue side by side with the evolution of the uses to which +aircraft can be put. While due attention was paid to problems connected +with the anticipated duties of aircraft ancillary to that of +reconnaissance, owing to the short space of time between the formation +of the Royal Flying Corps and the outbreak of war, to the difficulties +connected with the engine, and to causes inseparable from peace +conditions, development had been more or less confined to evolving a +stable and reliable machine with a good field of view. + + +CONCLUSIONS. + +The foregoing outline of the development of aviation from the earliest +times up to the war--a story of human endeavour and achievement in the +air with its attendant dangers and difficulties--is not without value in +endeavouring to assess that which has since occurred. + +At the beginning of the year 1912 the Royal Flying Corps did not exist. +At the beginning of the Great War, in 1914, England found herself with +an air service which, though much smaller than those of Germany or +France, was so excellently manned and organized, trained and equipped, +that it placed her at a bound in the front rank of aviation. + +The machine was stable, but the engine still unequal to the tasks laid +upon it. Civil Aviation practically did not exist. + +I shall now describe the extension of air duties under war conditions; +the increasing value of aircraft for general action and air tactics and +their development and far-reaching effect as the right hand of strategy. +This resulted in the expansion of our flying corps from a total of 1,844 +officers and men, and seven squadrons with some 150 machines fit for war +use, to a total of nearly 300,000 officers and men, and 201 squadrons +and 22,000 machines in use at the end of the war, and in the evolution +of the machine to a point where we can regard it, not only as a weapon +of war, but as a new method of transport for commercial purposes in +peace. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +WAR + + +GENERAL REMARKS ON WAR DEVELOPMENT. + +In dealing with the story of the beginnings of aviation and the +evolution of aircraft up to the war, we have seen that though its growth +was infinitesimal compared with that which came with the impetus of war, +the air service took definite and practical shape more rapidly than had +up to that time any other arm of the Army or Navy in peace. + +In 1914 we had reached a point where we possessed a small but mobile and +efficient flying force, equipped and trained essentially for +reconnaissance. Although experiments had been made, little had been +achieved in the use of wireless from aircraft, air photography, bomb +dropping, armament or the development of air fighting. As with the Army +and Navy, war quickened and expanded all the attributes of air +operations in a way which could not have been foreseen before the +struggle occurred; and, as it would have been impossible for the Army +and Navy to build up their war organization without the foundation of +the pre-war service, so it was the splendid quality of the original +Royal Flying Corps that made this expansion possible. + +Before the war the Royal Flying Corps was considerably smaller than the +air services of either France or Germany, and to attain even the +strength with which the Military Wing left England the bulk of the +trained officers and men, and almost all the machines fit for service, +had to be taken. When I started to raise the Corps, in May, 1912, the +War Office estimated that its organization, (of a headquarters and seven +aeroplane and one airship squadrons) would take at least four years; +instead, there had been little more than two. Even at the risk of +leaving insufficient personnel and material behind to form and train new +squadrons, I recommended that four complete squadrons (including the +wireless machines which had to be thrown in to make up the numbers) +should be sent overseas to help the British Expeditionary Force in +bearing the brunt of the terrific blow that was to come. It was a very +serious matter that so little could be left with which to carry on in +England, but we considered it essential to dispatch at once to France +every available machine and pilot, because both political and military +authorities were of opinion that for economic and financial reasons a +war with a great European power could not last more than a few months. +Another reason was that those of us who had been at the Staff College +during the few years before the war, or who had recently served on the +General Staff at the War Office, believed that the weight of the German +attack would be made through Belgium, where, owing to the enclosed +nature of the country, cavalry would be at a disadvantage, and we +realized therefore, and urged, the great effect which the air would +have from the commencement of operations--a view which was not widely +held, especially among senior officers in the Army. We also felt the +necessity of using our maximum air strength from the outset, so as to +prove its supreme importance as quickly and practically as possible. It +required the Retreat from Mons before even G.H.Q. as a whole would +accept the fact, though Colonel Macdonogh, the head of the intelligence +section, was our firm ally. The iron of confidence, both to used and +user, had to be welded with the first great blows on the anvil of war. +For these reasons it was vital that every available trained pilot and +suitable machine should be employed with the Army, even at the danger of +serious initial depletion at Home. The smooth progress of expansion was +largely attributable alike to the strength of the pre-war spirit, +organization and training,[2] and to the results actual and moral +obtained by the first four squadrons during the Retreat and the +following weeks of the war under centralized control. The French +distributed their "Escadrilles," which were approximately of the size of +our "flight," from the beginning, and it is probable that one cause of +failure in the German air service during the same period lay in the +initial dispersion of units and lack of unified control by the higher +command. The British Expeditionary Force having been saved during the +Retreat, Paris having been saved at the Marne, the great German army +having made a retirement, a lengthy war of position having become +obvious, confidence in the air service, both within and without, having +been established, the centralized system necessarily adopted up to that +time could be relaxed, and we were able to send home officers and men +with greatly increased experience to help build up the many new +squadrons which would be required to co-operate with the new armies. + +[2] On October 17, 1914, Sir J. French wrote: "Such efficiency as the +R.F.C. may have shown in the field is, in my opinion, principally due to +organization and training." + +Gradually, as the numbers in the field permitted, increased duties were +undertaken. The Army, though it did not do so at first, yet came to +understand the immense importance to itself of air reconnaissance. So +much so indeed that our machines and pilots were generally many too few +to attempt more than the absolute essentials, and calls were often made +upon them which were beyond their strength to meet. An ironic contrast +to this was supplied, however, at the evacuation of the Dardanelles, +where I was commanding the air service (the R.N.A.S.), and was asked to +be careful not to do too much air work. This at a time when through +stress and strain and loss we had, I think, a total of five machines +left able to take the air! + +Observation was, and remains, the prime purpose for which the Royal +Flying Corps was formed. 1914 was a year of reconnaissance, but with the +advent of trench warfare at the Battle of the Aisne, the first attempts +were made to extend its scope by the use of wireless for artillery +co-operation, and by air photography, both of which developed rapidly. +Headway was also being made with bombing. Then machines carrying out +their special duties had to be protected, while it became necessary to +prevent hostile machines from effecting similar functions, with the +result that 1915 saw the beginnings of systematic air fighting. + +In 1915 the easily man[oe]uvrable Fokker, with its machine-gun +synchronizing gear for firing through the propeller, gave the Germans a +temporary lead, but by the Battle of the Somme this was outclassed and +in 1916 our air superiority became marked. The Royal Flying Corps was by +that time organized into Brigades and Wings, one Wing operating with +each Army for fighting and distant reconnaissance, and one Wing with +each Corps for short reconnaissance and such specialized work as +artillery co-operation and contact patrols. Both types of machine took +part in bombing operations. + +There is generally perhaps a tendency, when reviewing the army and air +effort in the war, to deal almost entirely with the Western Front and to +forget the prodigious work done in many other theatres. + +In 1915 the Royal Naval Air Service carried out all air work with the +Army and Navy in the Gallipoli campaign and showed how a single air +force could effect really important co-operation with both services. In +addition to the normal duties of co-operation with the Army and the +Fleet, and in spite of the difficulties of transport, supply and +workshop arrangements, photographs were taken from the air of the +greater part of the Peninsula, and the original inaccurate maps +corrected therefrom; frequent bombing raids were carried out against +objectives on the Peninsula, the Turkish lines of communications, and +even Constantinople itself. In this campaign, too, torpedoes were used +for the first time by aircraft and three ships were destroyed in the +Dardanelles by this means. The distance from the hub of affairs, a line +of supply about 6,000 miles in length, sickness and the climatic and +geographical conditions rendered maintenance very difficult. Sand and +dust driven in clouds by high winds greatly shortened the working life +of engines. The heat during the summer caused the rapid deterioration of +machines, while long oversea flights entailed loss from forced landings. +There are many aspects of the deepest interest to be brought out when a +complete history of the Campaign in Gallipoli comes to be written. It is +true that the Allies would have lost all if they had been defeated in +the west, and that the call of the Armies for more and more men and +munitions for that theatre was insistent; it is equally true, however, +that in France there could be nothing but batter and counter-batter, and +the only remaining point where strategic principles could be brought to +bear was at the Dardanelles. But what is more relevant to the subject of +these pages is that when in future years the story of Helles and Anzac +and Suvla is weighed, it will, I think, appear that had the necessary +air service been built up from the beginning and sustained, the Army and +Navy could have forced the Straits and taken Constantinople. I +insistently urged the dependence of the naval and military forces upon +air assistance and the necessity for carrying out a strong aerial +offensive, especially by bombing, for which the local conditions +governing the enemy operations on the Peninsula offered exceptional +advantages. + +From the autumn of 1915 onwards Egypt became the centre of training and +expansion for operations in the Middle East and, as the organization +developed, a brigade was formed with Wings in Macedonia, Sinai and a +training Wing, which by 1918 had become a training brigade, in Egypt. +The work of the Wing sent to Sinai in 1916, and expanded in 1917 into a +brigade, is well summarized in the following extract from a telegram +received from Egypt on October 3rd, 1918:-- + + "Before operations commenced our mastery of the air was complete and + this was maintained throughout, enabling the cavalry turning + movement to be completely protected and concealed. Enemy retreating + columns were so effectively machine gunned and bombed by offensive + machines that in all three cases the surviving personnel abandoned + their vehicles and consequently upset all plans of retirement. An + enemy column thus abandoned was seven miles in length." + +The Wings in Macedonia and Mesopotamia, though they could not beat the +record of the Palestine Brigade, gained a marked supremacy over the +enemy. Air operations in East Africa were originally carried out by the +Royal Naval Air Service with seaplanes, which in 1915 were brought up to +the strength of two squadrons and replaced by aeroplanes under the +orders of the military forces, their duties being carried out under the +difficult conditions of bush warfare. Valuable work was also done by the +Royal Flying Corps squadrons which were sent out to operate in the +south. + +In addition to these major operations, air forces were used in the +expeditions on the Indian frontier, against Darfur and in the vicinity +of Aden. Five squadrons were sent to Italy after the Italian retreat +from the Isonzo and took a prominent part in the final Austrian defeat; +a Royal Air Force contingent was sent to Russia to operate from +Archangel; and material assistance was given to France and the other +Allies, but especially to the United States in the training and +equipment of her air forces. + +At the beginning of 1918 the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air +Force were amalgamated and the Royal Air Force came into existence, and +during the year achieved a supremacy more complete than that at any time +since the Somme. + +The following description gives a vivid idea of air activity at the +front in 1918:-- + + "All day long there were 'dog fights' waged at heights up to three + or four miles above the shell-torn battlefields of France, whilst + the low-flying aeroplanes were attacking suitable targets from the + height of a few dozen feet. Passing backwards and forwards went the + reconnaissance machines and the bombers, and along the whole front + observers were sending out by wireless to the artillery the point of + impact of their shells. Such was the picture of the air on any fine + day at the time." + +1918, however, saw not only the accumulative effect of the tactical +co-operation of aircraft with our armies in the field, but also the +formation of the Independent Air Force and the carrying out of the +strategic air offensive against centres of war industry in the interior +of Germany. + +A vast organization was also required at Home to meet the rapid +expansion of units in the Field and to supply reinforcements. Thus at +the Armistice there were 199 training squadrons, the pupils under +instruction including cadets numbered 30,000, and during the war some +22,000 graduated as efficient for active service. At the beginning of +the war pilots were sent overseas with only 11 hours' flying experience. +This was much too little and there is no doubt that increased training +would have ensured fewer casualties. Fortunately, however, the length of +training was increased in the latter part of the war and a remarkable +advance in training was made possible by the use of an entirely new and +extraordinarily efficient system of instruction evolved by Smith-Barry. + +The war demonstrated the beginnings of what air power meant, though in +November, 1918, it was still in its infancy. Before many years the +ability to make war successfully, or even at all, will depend upon air +power. + +Let us now briefly survey the development of the several duties of +aircraft, the evolution of machines and progress in tactics, strategy +and the organization of our Air Forces during the war. + +I had recognized the great difficulty of mobilizing with the clockwork +precision of older units and, in the belief that war was coming, had +ordered a provisional mobilization of the Corps some days before it was +actually declared. Thanks to this step and to the work done at our +Concentration Camp at Netheravon in June, 1914, the greater part of the +Royal Flying Corps was enabled to concentrate without hitch at our +aerodrome at Dover, and the machines flew via Calais to Amiens on August +13th. + + +CO-OPERATION WITH THE ARMY. + + +_Reconnaissance._ + +In the event of France and England declaring war concurrently against +Germany, the strategic plan agreed to by the British and French general +staffs before the war had been that the British Expeditionary Force +should be moved to the Le Cateau, Maubeuge, Mons, area and take up a +line on the left flank of the French Army near Mons. But England had +withheld her declaration until three days after the French, and on +landing in France the first words I heard said by a Frenchman were: +"Oui, l'armee anglaise arrive mais on a manque le premier plan." It was +not until after the arrival of G.H.Q. at Amiens on August 14th that, +although late, it was decided that the advanced line should be taken up. +The Royal Flying Corps moved by air and road to an existing aerodrome +outside the antique defences of Maubeuge 12 miles from Mons on the 16th. +On the 19th the first reconnaissance was carried out, and the entire +country over which the German armies were advancing, as far as Brussels +and Louvain, was kept under observation. One of the best reconnaissances +ever made was that of August 21st, which discovered the 2nd German Corps +moving from Brussels through Ninhove and Grammont. + +From Maubeuge we had to retire on the 24th to Le Cateau, on the 25th to +St. Quentin, on the 26th to La Fere, on the 28th to Compiegne, on the +30th to Senlis, on the 31st to Juilly, on September 2nd to Serris, on +the 3rd to Touquin, on the 4th to Melun, where we were thankful at last +to get orders again to advance on the 7th to Touquin, and on the 9th to +Coulommiers, reaching Fere-en-Tardennois on the 12th for the Battle of +the Aisne. + +Of the many recollections of the early days one which will remain +longest in my mind is the terrible sadness of the flocks of refugees, of +the poor people we left behind. And the glare of villages burning by the +hand of the Boche. It was indeed war. + +Valuable reconnaissances were made during the whole Retreat from Mons to +the Marne in spite of the tremendous difficulties involved by constant +movement, transport, and the selection of new landing grounds, but, in +the words of Sir John French, "It was the timely warning aircraft gave +which chiefly enabled me to make speedy dispositions to avert danger and +disaster. There can be no doubt indeed that even then the presence and +co-operation of aircraft saved the very frequent use of cavalry patrols +and detailed supports." The Royal Flying Corps was an important factor +in helping the British Expeditionary Force to escape von Kluck's nearly +successful efforts to secure another and a British Sedan. + +The reconnaissance resulting in the most valuable information of all, +and, I think, during the whole of the war, was that of September 3rd, +during the critical operations on the Marne, which formed one of the +decisive battles in the world's history, when von Kluck's turning +movement to the south-east against the French left was accurately +reported and Marshal Joffre was enabled to make his dispositions +accordingly. "The precision, exactitude and regularity of the news +brought in," he said in a message to the British Commander-in-Chief, +"are evidence of the perfect training of pilots and observers." The +reports of the German air service, on the other hand, would appear from +von Kluck's movements to have been of no assistance to him. + +The system adopted from the first was for the pilot or observer, or +both, immediately on their return to bring their report to R.F.C. +Headquarters, whence the Commander, or his staff officer, accompanied +them to G.H.Q., where the map was filled in in accordance with the +report. G.H.Q. could then ask questions and obtain any further +information which the observer could give, while R.F.C. Headquarters +could ascertain what further reports were most urgently required. The +form of the reports, which were ready printed, had been most carefully +thought out at R.F.C. Headquarters in peace and experimented with at the +Concentration Camp. + +The maps thus compiled at G.H.Q. from air reconnaissance reports between +August 31st and September 3rd were of vital interest, though it was +sometimes very difficult to get the information put on the map for +prompt consideration. For instance, at Dammartin on the evening of +September 1st, when it was thought that German cavalry were within a few +miles, G.H.Q. made a very hurried departure, and I was unable to find +anyone to whom to give very important reports. + +It was at the Battle of the Marne that machines were for the first time +allotted to Army Corps for tactical work, while long-distance +reconnaissance was carried out by other machines operating from +Headquarters. Later on, this system was established as a part of our +permanent organization, squadrons being allotted to, and reporting +direct to, Corps for tactical reconnaissance, artillery co-operation and +contact patrols, and to Armies for longer-distance reconnaissance and +fighting. + +The last phase of the war of movement was the race for the Channel Ports +and it devolved upon aircraft to observe the enemy's movements from his +centre and left flank to meet the Allied movement to the coast, to +observe the movements of the four newly-formed corps which came into +action at Ypres and to maintain liaison with the Belgian and British +forces at Antwerp and Ostend. Information was very difficult to obtain +and on one occasion I flew from the Aisne to Antwerp, under Sir John +French's instructions, in order as far as possible to clear up the +general situation when our G.H.Q. was in doubt as to whether Antwerp was +completely surrounded or not. It was an interesting piece of work. There +was a light drizzle, and the forest of Compiegne had to be flown over at +about 200 feet. The B.E. could not make the distance without refilling, +and although only a short halt was made at Amiens for the purpose, it +was too late to fly direct to Antwerp. Instead, a landing was made in a +very sticky field under light plough, which was selected from the air +about 4 miles north of Bruges, to which town I rode on a borrowed +bicycle. At Bruges there was great consternation and uncertainty as to +the position at Antwerp, but the Commander kindly placed a large open +car and its very energetic driver at my disposal to try and get through. +After many difficulties we managed to find our way into Antwerp by +about midnight, and I was received by the Belgian Commander. He +explained that though the Germans had broken through the South-Eastern +sector and his troops were very hard pressed (and pointing repeatedly to +a piece of an 18-inch German shell in the corner of the room, he said, +"Mais qu'est-ce qu'on peut faire avec ces choses-la!"), he hoped to be +able to hold out for a time. After giving him General French's message +and obtaining as much information as possible, I managed to get clear of +Antwerp, reaching Bruges again at 3.15 a.m. At 4 a.m. we set out and +found a very wet machine in a wetter field and after considerable +difficulty and flying through the top of the surrounding hedge, +struggled into the upper air on the way back to Headquarters at +Fere-en-Tardennois. + +During the Battles of the Aisne and of Ypres strategical reconnaissance +was carried out by the few machines available at Headquarters. Shephard, +the best reconnaissance officer I have ever known, who was killed later, +used to fly his B.E.2 without observer over the greater part of Belgium +two or three times a week and always brought in a long, closely packed, +and extraordinarily valuable report. Tactical reconnaissance to a depth +of 15 to 20 miles was done by units attached to Corps. + +After the Battle of the Aisne, which was the turning point in the +evolution from the war of movement to trench warfare, pure +reconnaissance, though still the basis of air work, tended to become a +matter of routine, while many new and specialized forms of it--such as +air photography and artillery spotting by wireless--were developed. + + +_Photography._ + +Though experiments had been made in the problem of photography from the +air before the war, principally by Fletcher, Hubbard and Laws, and its +value to survey was recognized, it had not become of practical utility. +We only took one official camera with us to France on August 13th, 1914, +and it was not until September 15th that the first attempt at air +photography was made, when five plates were exposed over positions +behind the enemy's lines with very imperfect results. Its great value as +an aid to observation in trench warfare was, however, very apparent, +fresh brains were brought to the task, Moore-Brabazon, Campbell and Dr. +Swan, and by the end of the year better success was obtained, though +positions even then had to be filled in by the observer with red ink. +Experiments at home during 1915 led to a great improvement in lenses, +and at the beginning of 1916 air photography was universal. At the +Battle of the Somme new enemy positions were photographed as soon as +they were seen, and the camera did invaluable work in the reconnaissance +of the Hindenburg Line during the German retreat of 1917, and the taking +of over a thousand photographs was a daily occurrence. On September 4th, +1917, a record of 1,805 photographs was made. + +The development of air photography, very remarkable in itself, is even +more so when it is remembered that the improvement in enemy +anti-aircraft guns drove our machines to carry out their work at +altitudes increasing up to 20,000 and even 22,000 feet, at which heights +the negatives had to be as distinct as those taken at 4,000 in the +earlier days of the war. + +At the beginning of the Dardanelles operations our apparatus consisted +of one camera, a printing frame and a dark room lamp. The first +photographs were taken by Butler in April, 1915, from a H. Farman +machine at necessarily low altitudes. Butler was wounded in June and was +succeeded by Thomson, who alone made 900 exposures and sent in 3,600 +prints. + +In addition to the assistance of air photography to reconnaissance, the +war gave it great impetus as the handmaid of survey and mapping. It was, +in fact, the only means of mapping or correcting the maps of country +held by the enemy, which in certain cases, as at Gallipoli and in +Palestine, were very inaccurate. + +By the end of the war photographic processes and equipment had reached a +high standard of excellence. There are still, however, certain +difficulties in regard to the production of accurate maps, which have +not been overcome, the most obvious being the necessity of an initial +framework of fixed points and of contouring. The subject is considered +so important that an "Air Survey Committee," consisting of +representatives of the Air Ministry, the Geographical section of the War +Office, the Ordnance Survey, the School of Military Engineering and the +Artillery Survey School, has recently been formed. In addition, the +School of Aeronautics of Cambridge University is studying the question. +The Survey of India and the Survey of Egypt are also conducting +experiments. + + +_Wireless._ + +From the outset, part of the German scheme of tactics was to batter down +resistance by means of superior weight of heavy armament, and with the +beginning of warfare of fixed position the observation and direction of +our artillery fire became as important as distant reconnaissance. +Besides its immense value in increasing the effect of the batteries, it +had the indirect advantage of more closely binding the ties of mutual +understanding between the air and ground troops, a point which +fortunately seems to have been misunderstood by the Germans. In +September, 1914, the first attempts were made to signal enemy movements +from the aeroplanes of a Headquarters Wireless Flight which had been +formed for the purpose, and this practice was continued with success +throughout the Battle of the Aisne. + +In the earliest stages artillery co-operation was also carried out by +dropping coloured lights, but from the Battle of Ypres onwards, though +for some time very few wireless machines were available, this was +effected by wireless or signal lamps. In his dispatch on the Battle of +Loos, Sir John French wrote: "The work of observation for the guns from +aeroplanes has now become an important factor in artillery fire, and the +personnel of the two arms work in closest co-operation." + +By the Battle of the Somme artillery co-operation had assumed very large +dimensions. For instance, on September 15th, 1916, on the front of the +4th Army alone, seventy hostile batteries were located, twenty-nine +being silenced. Counter-battery work was so effective before the +offensive which opened on the Ypres front at the end of July, 1917, that +the Germans withdrew their guns and the attack was delayed for three +days in order that their new positions might be located. + +Recognition marks on aeroplanes were at this time, and indeed throughout +the war, a matter of great difficulty. It had been suggested before the +war that they would not be necessary, but the reverse was found to be +the case, as even with the distinctive marks which were adopted our +machines were often fired at by British troops, and we should +undoubtedly have lost very heavily if we had flown over our own lines +with false marks, as was suggested, or none. + + +_Bombing._ + +The bombing operations, which reached their climax in the raids on +German industrial centres in 1918, arose from very primitive methods +used at the beginning of the war. During the retreat from Mons a few +hand grenades were carried experimentally in the pockets of pilots and +observers, or, in the case of the larger varieties, tied to their +bodies, and these were dropped over the side of the machine as +opportunity occurred. At the Marne, for instance, small petrol bombs set +fire to a transport park and scattered a mixed column of infantry and +transport. I think I am right in saying that the first German bombs +were dropped on us--unsuccessfully--at Compiegne on August 29th, 1914. +It was not, however, until the beginning of 1915 that special bombing +raids were started by the Royal Flying Corps, one of the first places to +be attacked being the Ghistelles aerodrome in West Flanders. + +The most important bombing operations and raids into Germany in the +early days of the war were carried out by the Naval Air Service, units +of which landed at Ostend on August 27th and operated with the Royal +Naval Division from Antwerp. They were subsequently withdrawn to Dunkirk +to form the nucleus of an aircraft centre from which excellent work was +done in attacking the bases established on or near the Belgian coast +from which German submarines and airships conducted their operations. + +Just before the Germans entered Antwerp, the first raid was made against +a German town, one machine reaching Dusseldorf, when it descended from +6,000 to 400 feet and dropped three bombs on an airship shed. + +From the end of 1914 onwards the activities of the Royal Naval Air +Service in this theatre of operations continually increased, the chief +objectives being the gun emplacements at Middelkerke and Blankenburghe, +the submarine bases at Zeebrugge and Bruges, the minefield and dock of +Ostend, the airship sheds near Brussels, and the dockyards at Antwerp. +The first airship destroyed in the air was attacked over Ghent. + +An interesting experiment was the attempt by the R.N.A.S. at the +Dardanelles to sink the heavy wire anti-submarine net, which had been +stretched on buoys across the Straits at Nagara by the Turks, by means +of parachute bombs. + +To return to the Royal Flying Corps. During 1915 railway junctions were +the principal bombing objectives, and raids were carried out on an +ever-increasing scale, formations of fourteen to twenty machines taking +part. At the Battle of Neuve Chapelle for instance, the railway +junctions at Menin, Courtrai and Douai were attacked. One officer of No. +5 Squadron, carrying one 100 lb. bomb, arrived over Menin at 3,500 feet, +descended to 120 feet, and dropped his bomb on the railway line. The +first V.C. of the Royal Flying Corps was obtained at the Second Battle +of Ypres by Lieutenant W. B. Rhodes-Moorhouse, who in bombing Courtrai +came down to three or four hundred feet, under heavy fire, but piloted +his machine 35 miles back to Merville at the height of a few hundred +feet, and died a few days later from his wounds. + +One of the most instructive features of the Battle of Loos in September, +1915, was the definite co-ordination of bombing attacks with army +operations. Many types of machines, belonging both to Army and Corps +Squadrons, carried bombs in order to destroy dumps, communications, cut +off reinforcements, and the like, while at the Somme bombing was carried +out by formations of Wings. In October, 1917, 113 tons, and for a period +of six days in March, 1918, 95 tons, of explosives were dropped. This +illustrates the enormous progress of bombing which was so largely +resorted to in the later stages of the war. The hand grenades of 1914 +had become bombs weighing three-quarters of a ton: the pilot's pocket a +mechanically released rack: and aim, assisted by instruments, was +becoming fairly accurate. + +Night bombing, necessitated by the fact that by day a large machine +heavily laden with bombs was an easy prey to the fighting scout, came +into prominence in 1916, increasing in intensity up to the end of the +war; and raids into Germany recommenced. Early in 1918 these raids +included the bombing of Maintz, Stuttgart, Coblentz, Cologne, and Metz. +Machines sometimes dropped their bombs from heights of about 12,000 feet +and at other times descended to within 200 feet of their objectives. + + +_Contact Patrol._ + +Contact patrol, the name given to the direct co-operation of aircraft +with troops on the ground, was first extensively practised at the Battle +of the Somme, though experiments in this direction had been made in +1915, messages being dropped at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle at +pre-arranged points. + +The main objects of contact patrols were to assist the telephone (which +was frequently cut by shellfire), to keep the various headquarters +informed of the progress of their troops during the attack, so also +saving them from the possibility of coming under the fire of their own +artillery, to report on enemy positions, to transmit messages from the +troops engaged to the headquarters of their units, to attack ground +formations, and to co-operate with tanks. A system of red flares on the +floor of the trenches was used to mark the disposition of the troops, +and aircraft communicated their information by means of signalling +lamps, wireless and message-bags. + +During the German retreat of 1917 contact patrols attacked enemy +foundations from 100 feet and in some cases landed behind the enemy +lines to obtain information. The skill of low-flying pilots in taking +cover by flying behind woods, houses, etc., became increasingly +important. The fact that 62,673 rounds of ammunition were fired from the +air against enemy ground targets between November 20th and 26th, 1917, +and 163,567 between March 13th and 18th, 1918, indicates the rapid +development of this form of aircraft action, the effect of which was +frequently more deadly than bombing. + +Two of many protagonists of contact patrol were Pretyman and Bishop. On +one occasion the latter, in attacking an aerodrome at about 50 feet, +riddled the officers' and men's quarters with bullets, put two or three +machines on the ground out of action, and three in succession as they +got into the air. Another interesting example of contact patrol work +occurred in 1917 when a pilot flew his machine at a low altitude over +the enemy trenches, and he and his observer attracted the attention of +the Germans by firing their machine guns and Verey lights. The Germans +were so busy with the aeroplane that they had their backs turned to the +front line and our infantry were able to cross no-man's land without any +artillery preparation, take prisoners and bomb dug-outs. + +An article in the _Cologne Gazette_ showed what the Germans thought of +low "strafing." + + "The operations" (i.e. of June 7th, 1917), it says, "were prefaced + by innumerable enemy airmen, who, at the beginning of the + preparation for the attack, appeared like a swarm of locusts and + swamped the front. They also work on cunningly calculated methods. + Their habit is to work in three layers--one quite high, one in the + middle, and the third quite low. The English who fly lowest show an + immense insolence; they came down to 200 metres and shot at our + troops with their machine guns, which are specially adapted to this + purpose." + +Armour was first employed as a result of Shephard finding at Maubeuge a +bullet lodged in the seat of his leather suit. Thin sheets of steel were +at once cut out and placed in the wickerwork seats of aeroplanes. This +primitive protection developed into the armoured machine mentioned +later, which was about to make its appearance at the Armistice. + +I may mention here the "special duty" flights, which consisted in +establishing secret communication between our Intelligence Branch and +agents in the territory occupied by the Germans. Agents, mostly French +and Belgian, were carried by aeroplane over the enemy lines and landed +there. This work was started in 1914. + + +_Fighting._ + +At the beginning of the war it became obvious that it was not only the +duty of aircraft to obtain information but also to prevent enemy +aircraft crossing our lines. In addition to the reconnaissance machine, +and in order to make its work possible, a machine designed purely for +fighting was required. In August, 1914, the aeroplane's armament +consisted simply of rifle, or carbine, and revolver, but our pilots +nevertheless attacked hostile machines whenever the opportunity +occurred. The first German machine to fly over us was at Maubeuge on +August 22nd, 1914, and, though fighting on an extensive scale did not +take place until 1916, as early as August 25th, 1914, there were three +encounters in the air in which two enemy machines were driven down. One +interesting report of an early fight is that between a B.E. and a German +machine on December 20th, 1914. + + "A German aeroplane with one passenger and pilot being encountered + over Poperinghe, we followed to Morbecque and then to Armentieres. + The passenger of the B.E. fired 40 rounds from his rifle and the + German passenger replied with some rounds from his revolver. The + B.E. crossed the bows of the German machine to permit the pilot to + use his revolver. The German switched off and dived below the B.E., + and is believed to have landed somewhere north-west of Lille." + +Another instance of the early air combats was when Holt, single-handed, +and armed only with a rifle, lashed to a strut of his machine, attacked +ten Germans near Dunkirk, causing them to drop their bombs in the field +and make off to their own lines. + +We managed to bring down a number of German machines, mainly by rifle +fire (five had already been brought down by September 7th, 1914), but +our great difficulty early in the war was to get the enemy into action, +and, although during October and November, 1914, there was a certain +amount of fighting, as a rule the German when attacked made for his own +lines and the protection of his anti-aircraft guns. This, though +offensive carried to the extent of wastefulness of life is equally bad, +was a serious mistake in all ways from his point of view, entailing as +it did a tendency for the confidence of the troops and the morale of the +air service to be undermined from the outset. The error was rectified, +but only temporarily, at the Somme. + +As the specialized duties of aircraft increased, the Corps machines +engaged in them needed protection and it was realized that the best +method of protection was the development of the air offensive. This was +rendered possible by the adaptation of the machine gun to the aeroplane. +Early in 1915 the invention of the "synchronizing gear" enabled a +machine gun to fire through the propeller, and by the end of 1915 +fighting in the air became the general rule. The first squadron, No. 24, +composed purely of fighting machines, took its place on the Western +Front in February, 1916, and gradually Wings were attached to Armies +solely for fighting and the protection of Corps machines. During the +long months of the Battle of the Somme, for instance, when, though the +Royal Flying Corps dominated the air, the Germans put up a strenuous +opposition, bombing machines were protected by fighting patrols in +formation on the far side of the points attacked. The rapidity with +which fighting in the air developed is shown by the fact that at the end +of 1916 twenty new fighting squadrons were asked for on the Western +Front; the establishment was increased to twenty-four machines per +squadron, and by the end of the war even night-fighting squadrons were +operating with considerable success and, had the war continued, would +have proved a very important factor in air warfare. + +The development of aerobatics, air fighting, and formation tactics +brought many airmen into prominence. For example Albert Ball, who +ascribed his successes to keen application to aerial gunnery; J. B. +McCudden, the first man to bring four hostile machines down in a day; +and Trollope, who later on brought down six. Hawker met his death +fighting von Richthofen, who describes the fight in his book _The Red +Air Fighter_ as follows:-- + + "Soon I discovered that I was not fighting a beginner. He had not + the slightest intention to break off the fight.... The gallant + fellow was full of pluck, and when we had got down to 3,000 feet he + merrily waved to me as if to say, 'Well, how do you do?'... The + circles which we made round one another were so narrow that their + diameter was probably not more than 250 or 300 feet.... At that time + his first bullets were flying round me, as up to then neither of us + had been able to do any shooting." + +At 300 feet Hawker was compelled to fly in a zig-zag course to avoid +bullets from the ground and this enabled Richthofen to dive on his tail +from a distance of 150 feet. + +This indicates a heavy disadvantage under which our aircraft laboured in +all their work on the Western Front. The prevailing westerly wind which, +while it assisted the enemy in his homeward flight, made it very +difficult for a British machine, perhaps damaged by anti-aircraft fire, +to make its way--still under fire--to its base. + +I cannot leave the subject of air fighting without giving one or two +more examples. One which comes to mind is that of five British machines +attacking twenty-five of the enemy. One of ours gliding down with its +engine stopped and being attacked by two Germans was saved by another +British one attacking and driving off the two enemy. The result of the +combat was five German machines destroyed and four driven down out of +control, whilst all of ours returned safely. Another example, that of +Barker who, whilst destroying an enemy two-seater, was wounded from +below by another German machine and fell some distance in a spin. +Recovering, he found himself surrounded by fifteen Fokkers, two of which +he attacked indecisively but shot down a third in flames. Whilst doing +this he was again wounded, again fainted, again fell, again recovered +control and again, being attacked by a large formation, shot down an +enemy in flames. A bullet now shattered his left elbow and, fainting a +third time, he fell several thousand feet, where he was again attacked, +and thinking his machine had been set on fire he tried, as he thought in +a final effort, to ram a Fokker, but instead drove it down on fire! +Barker was by this time without the use of both legs and an arm. Diving +to a few thousand feet of the ground he again found his retreat barred +by eight of the enemy, but these he was able to shake off after short +bursts of fire and he returned a few feet above the ground to our lines. + +Though at the beginning our machines were rather better than either the +French or German, it was the marked superiority of our pilots which gave +us the greatest advantage. We should have been superior even had the +machines been exchanged. + + +CO-OPERATION WITH THE NAVY. + +We have seen that the functions of co-operation with the Navy--Coast +defence and Fleet assistance--were very complicated, and that at the +outbreak of war the splendid pilots and excellent equipment of the +R.N.A.S. were not so highly organized and were wanting in cohesion, but +that the R.N.A.S. had advanced further than the Royal Flying Corps in +specialized technical development. In the earlier part of the war, in +addition to its main duties, the R.N.A.S. ventured in many directions, +many of them of considerable value to the Army, as, for instance, at +Antwerp. + + +_Coast Defence, Patrol and Convoy Work._ + +Immediately war broke out a system of coastal patrols was established +between the Humber and the Thames Estuary and over the Channel--the +latter serving as an escort to the Expeditionary Force crossing to +France. Patrols were at first, through limitations of equipment, mainly +confined to the Home coast, but, as the war went on and machines +improved, they were rapidly extended, especially in connection with the +detection and destruction of submarines; reconnaissances were carried +out over the enemy's shores, and in 1918 there were forty-three flights +of seaplanes, thirty flights of aeroplanes, together with flying boats +and airships, operating from, and communicating with, an ever-increasing +number of shore stations. Not only was anti-submarine work carried out +in the vicinity of the coast, but organized hunts were made for +submarines, ships were convoyed on the high seas, shipping routes were +protected, and action was taken to bar the passage of submarines through +narrow channels. This was effected by an intensive system of combining +and interlocking patrols, and by maintaining, in close co-operation with +surface craft, a protective barrage across suitable stretches of water, +such as the Straits of Dover. + +Airships from the beginning, when patrols operated from Kingsnorth +during the crossing of the Expeditionary Force to France, proved +particularly useful for escort, in addition to patrol work, and +twenty-seven small airships, known as the S.S. type, were completed in +1915. In 1916 the Coastal type with a longer range was designed and +constructed and new airship bases were established. + + +_Fleet Assistance, Reconnaissance, Spotting for Ships' Guns._ + +The successful use of Drachen kite-balloons borne in ships at the +Dardanelles led to their extensive development. Up to about May, 1915, +when the vessels to which they were attached could stand in close to +shore and overlook the enemy's positions from a distance of three or +four thousand yards, a large amount of spotting of great value was +carried out by these balloons for ships at Gallipoli, but when the Turks +brought long-range guns into position, kite-balloon vessels were obliged +to lie out beyond 11,000 yards and their services were rendered +comparatively slight for this purpose. From 1916, however, they were +towed by merchant auxiliaries and light cruisers to spot submarines, +observers communicating with the patrol ship by means of telephone. One +of the most wonderful sights I have ever seen was from the observer's +basket of the kite-balloon let up from S.S. "Manica" in June, 1915. We +were spotting for the guns of H.M.S. "Lord Nelson" bombarding Chanak. +The sky and sea were a marvellous blue and visibility excellent, the +peninsula, where steady firing was going on all the time, lay below us, +the Straits, with their ships and boats, the Asiatic shore gradually +disappearing in a golden haze, the Gulf of Xeros, the Marmora, and +behind one the islands of the AEgean affording a perfect background. No +one who was at the Dardanelles, however vivid the horrors and the heat +and dust and flies, will forget the beauty of the scene, especially at +sunset, and it was seen at its best from the basket of a kite-balloon. + +The ever-increasing assistance rendered by aircraft to surface vessels +in crippling Germany's submarine campaign is shown by the fact that in +1915 ten submarines were attacked from the air and in 1918 126 were +sighted and 93 attacked. Nor was the principle forgotten in countering +the submarine menace that offence is the best defence, and among the +many duties of R.N.A.S. aircraft, based on Dunkirk from the early days +of the war, were anti-submarine patrols along the Belgian coast and the +bombing of hostile submarine bases, such as Bruges. + +As in the case of the Army Corps observation machines, fighting scouts +became necessary for the protection of patrols and to counter the +enemy's efforts at raids and sea reconnaissance, and the considerable +amount of experiment in air fighting which the R.N.A.S. had made before +the war bore useful fruit. + +For the immediate protection of the Grand Fleet seaplane and aeroplane +bases were established at Scapa Flow and Thurso at the beginning of the +war, but, owing to damage from a gale in November, 1914, aircraft +operations with the Fleet were carried out from the seaplane carrier +"Campania." The problem of using carriers with the Fleet had not been +seriously tackled before the war, and though experiments were +strenuously carried out, and there were fourteen carrier ships in +commission in 1918, and a seaplane carrier operated with the Battle +Cruiser Squadron at Jutland, the use of aircraft in this way did not +become very efficient. One of the chief difficulties was limitation in +size, and consequently in radius of action, of aircraft employed from +carriers or the decks of battleships. The total number of aeroplanes and +seaplanes allotted to the Grand Fleet in 1918 was 350. + +Seaplane carriers occasionally co-operated with fighting ships. For +instance in October, 1915, a fast carrier at the Dardanelles accompanied +ships detailed for the bombardment of Dedeagatch, and her seaplanes not +only co-operated in spotting but also made a valuable reconnaissance of +the Bulgarian coast and railway. But as a rule fighting and +reconnaissance aircraft had mainly to work from shore bases. To assist +in this direction, units were sent overseas to be nearer their sphere +of action, as, for instance, the R.N.A.S. squadrons stationed at Dunkirk +which, besides general reconnaissance, helped the Navy to keep open the +Straits of Dover, carried out bombing raids against German bases and +dockyards, such as Ostend, Zeebrugge, and Bruges, and co-operated with +monitors in the bombardment of the Belgian coast. The development of a +long-range seaplane or flying boat was also taken in hand, though an +efficient type was not produced until the last year of the war. + +As with the Army, an important part of naval aircraft duties was +spotting for gunfire; and likewise single-seater fighters were required +for the protection of our own aircraft, for preventing enemy aircraft +reconnaissance, for attacking the enemy's fleet and protecting our own. +The use of offensive patrols steadily increased during the war. + + +_Bombing._ + +I have already referred to bombing and mentioned the attack on +Dusseldorf as an instance of the work done. Bombing raids had always +been looked on with favour by the R.N.A.S. and were used throughout the +war as a means of countering hostile aircraft operations from bases in +Belgium. One of the first successful raids was that against the +Friedrichshaven Zeppelin works by three Avro machines, which flew 250 +miles over enemy country on November 21st, 1914. Another noteworthy +example was the attempted raid against Cuxhaven on Christmas Day, 1914, +carried out by seaplanes, which were still in an experimental stage, +and three carriers escorted by naval units. Powerful machines for +bombing purposes were ordered and bombs of greatly increased size and +gear for dropping them were designed. + + +_Torpedo Attack._ + +The impetus given to bombing helped forward another use of naval +aircraft: torpedo attack. This is likely to develop in the future into +one of the most important uses of aircraft in naval operations, but +during the war it was never given an objective by the German fleet. In +May, 1915, two Sunbeam Short machines were embarked in the +"Ben-my-Chree" for operations at Gallipoli, and it was in this theatre +that for the first time in history ships were sunk by torpedoes released +from aircraft. I shall never forget the night when we steamed silently +up the narrow Gulf of Xeros and lay waiting to release our seaplanes in +the still darkness of the early morning. The machines were lowered +noiselessly into the water, and, their engines started, flew across the +narrow neck of Bulair under fire from the old Turkish line; then, +reaching the northern end of the Dardanelles at dawn, they descended low +(one machine actually landed on the water and discharged its torpedo), +sank their targets, and returned. In addition to the possibility of +submarine attack, the Gulf of Xeros is so narrow that our ship could +have been hit by the cross fire of field guns. It was a very fine +performance and, although during many years I have spent anxious hours +hoping for the distant purr of a safe returning machine, I have never +been happier than when after a long wait our seaplanes were again +quickly raised on board. The only torpedo machine employed at the Battle +of Jutland was a Sunbeam fitted with a 14-inch torpedo, and it was not +until just before the Armistice that a squadron of torpedo aircraft was +ready for operations with the Grand Fleet. + +The Germans also tried to develop the use of torpedo-carrying seaplanes +and, as with their submarines, had the advantage over us of a vast +number of targets close to hand in our North Sea and Channel shipping, +but fortunately the British fighting scouts were able to destroy several +of their machines before they had done much damage. + + +HOME DEFENCE. + +At the beginning of the war the R.N.A.S. assumed responsibility for the +defence of Great Britain against attacks by hostile aircraft, and a +scheme for the defence of London and other large towns was entrusted to +an anti-aircraft section of the Admiralty Air Department. Its resources, +however, consisting of a few unsuitable and widely scattered aeroplanes, +some 1 pdr. pom-poms with searchlights manned by a special corps, were +inadequate and it was fortunate that only three small daylight aeroplane +raids, mainly for reconnaissance, were made during 1914--the first +German machine to visit England dropping a bomb near Dover on December +21st. + + +_Night Flying and Night Fighting._ + +In spite of continuous action by the R.N.A.S. against German airship +bases in Belgium, there were in 1915 nineteen airship and eight +aeroplane raids--one by night--over England, and, although the new and +powerful Zeppelin L.Z.38, which attacked London on May 31st, was +destroyed by an aeroplane counter-attack in its shed near Brussels, no +real counter measures were evolved until 1916, when Home Defence was +taken over by the War Office. During that year a Home Defence Squadron +of B.E.2c's, rapidly expanded to a Wing, was formed; and the systematic +training of night pilots, the standardization of night-flying equipment +and armament, and the lighting of aerodromes, was taken in hand. A +continuous aeroplane and searchlight barrage with night landing grounds +was gradually formed between Dover and the Forth; the wireless signals +employed to assist Zeppelins in finding their way were intercepted, thus +enabling our rapidly improving fighting machines to pick up and attack +raiding airships; and the constant attacks to which airship sheds were +exposed in Belgium, caused their withdrawal to positions further inland +and increased their distance from England. During 1916 there were +twenty-two raids by airships, six of which were destroyed, the first +being brought down in September at Cuffley by Leefe Robinson. +Thenceforward airship raids declined, the destruction of the majority of +the largest and latest which raided England on October 19th, 1917, +sealing their fate. + +On the other hand, aeroplane daylight and night raids on London, the +first of which occurred in November, 1916, increased in number and +strength with the object, in addition to the destruction of material and +civilian _morale_, of forcing upon us the unsound retention at home of a +considerable air defence force. The largest of these attacks was made by +seventeen aeroplanes at midday on June 13th, 1917, but, the Zeppelin +danger nullified, counter measures to meet the new menace were gradually +evolved. New squadrons were raised and the number of home defence +squadrons was raised to fourteen service and eight night training +squadrons; a Northern Home Defence Wing was formed at York; and the Home +Defence Group became the 6th Brigade. The first night aeroplane raid +occurred in September, and the systematic training of night-fighting +pilots on scout machines was hurried on. Separate zones for aeroplanes, +guns and searchlights--the latter provided with sound locators--forming +an outer barrage, were instituted, and aprons, supported by +kite-balloons, formed a protective barrage up to 8,000 feet. A system of +wireless and ground telephonic communication was improvised for plotting +the course of attacking aircraft and thus enabling squadron commanders +to concentrate machines at the point of attack. By 1918 the +night-fighting aeroplane, assisted by these means, had countered the +night-bombing aeroplane. At first, this had been the result of the +retention of a large number of fighting aircraft and a complete +organization at home. + +Meanwhile, night fighting, especially the protection of night bombers by +fighting machines, had become of paramount importance on the Western +Front. The chief feature of activity in September, 1918, was the +successful co-operation between searchlights in the forward areas and +No. 151 night-fighting squadron. This was the first night-fighting +squadron, trained by the 6th Brigade, to be sent to France. It was +proposed to send four more such squadrons and thus form a first line of +offensive defence which would react on hostile raids over England. Thus +once again the old doctrine was gradually observed that offence is the +only true defence, and that purely defensive measures, however +efficient, by keeping men and material from the vital point, are +necessarily expensive out of all proportion to their effectiveness. Both +the Germans and ourselves made the initial mistake of organizing large +local defence systems partly to placate public opinion. During the +German offensive of 1918 a further development of night fighting took +place in the bombing and low strafing of enemy troops and unlighted +transport with the aid of flares. + + +THE MACHINE AND ENGINE. + +Turning now to the machine and engine, the Military Trials held in 1912, +when the Royal Flying Corps was started, represented the first organized +effort to assist the evolution of service aeroplanes in this country and +a brief comparison will be useful to show the performance of the average +machines and engines of that date, at the beginning, and at the end of +the war, and of civil machines of to-day. + +At the Military Competitions of 1912, of the eight types--Avro, B.E., +Bristol, Cody, Bleriot, Deperdussin, Hanriot, and M. Farman--the first +four were British, though only the Avro had a British engine, and the +last four French, fitted with French engines. The average horse-power +was about 83, the average maximum speed 67, and the minimum 50 miles per +hour; the climb to 1,000 feet was effected in 4-1/2 minutes with an +average load of 640 lb., which included pilot, fuel for four hours and +useful load. The loading per square foot was, for biplanes, about 4-1/2, +and, for monoplanes, 6 lb. + +On the outbreak of war, and until the end of 1914, of the ten types in +use--Avro, B.E., Bristol, Sopwith, Vickers, M. Farman, H. Farman, +Caudron, Morane, and Voisin--five were British and five were French and +all were fitted with French engines. The average horse-power was still +about 83, but the average maximum speed had risen to 74, and the minimum +had fallen to 41 miles per hour. The load averaged 609 lb. + +A remarkable advance in machine and engine construction is shown by +referring to the tables for 1918. At the Armistice of the twelve +types--Avro, Bristol Fighter, Sopwith Snipe, S.E. 5a, de Havilland 4 and +9a, Vickers Vimy, Handley Page O/400 and V/1,500, Fairey Seaplane 3c, F. +2 A. and F. 5--all were British and, except the de Havilland 9a, which +had an American engine, were fitted with engines of British manufacture. +The F. 2 A., and F. 5, were twin-engined, while one, the Handley Page +V/1,500, was equipped with four engines. The average horse-power was per +engine, 344, and per machine, 516; the average maximum speed 111, and +the minimum 53-1/2 miles per hour, the climb to 6,500 feet was carried +out in 13 minutes and to 10,000 feet in 24 minutes with an average load, +including fuel for 5-1/2 hours, of 2,742 lb. The average ceiling was +15,500 feet; the loading per square foot about 8 lb. + +The years following the Armistice have witnessed the conversion of +military machines and the development of new designs for commercial +purposes. In 1921 there were thirteen types fitted with British engines: +Avro, Bristol, de Havilland 4, 16 and 18, Vickers Vimy, Handley Page +O/400 and W. 8, B.A.T., Westland, Fairey, Supermarine and Vickers +Amphibians. No British machine had a foreign engine. The Vickers Vimy, +Handley Page O/400 and W. 8, which had a passenger-carrying capacity of +15, were twin-engined. The average horse-power was per engine, 387, and +per machine, 474; the average maximum speed 114, and the minimum 49, +miles per hour. With an average load of 2,467 lb., including fuel for +4-1/2 hours, 19 minutes was required for a climb to 10,000 feet. The +average loading per square foot was about 13 lb., and the average +ceiling 15,793 feet. + +Before the war, in addition to the Royal Aircraft Factory, there were +only eight firms engaged, on a very small scale, in the manufacture of +aircraft in England, and an aero engine industry hardly existed. Until +1916, the greater proportion of our machines, and almost all our +engines, were French, and we were very dependent upon France for the +replacement of our heavy losses in material. By the end of the war the +bulk of our material was of British design and construction, though +there was still a certain number of British built engines of French +design. One American engine--the Liberty--was also employed. The fact +that in October, 1918, the Royal Air Force had 22,171 machines and +37,702 engines on charge, and that during the ten months January to +October the output of machines had been 26,685 and of engines 29,561, +gives some idea of the enormous growth in production. + +In the first few months of the war it was not possible to progress far +with new inventions or improvements. Fortunately, our Aircraft Factory +had evolved in the B.E. a machine of considerable stability which in +this respect compared favourably with German machines, and was well +adapted to its work of reconnaissance. + +Technical progress during the war often unfortunately involved the loss +of valuable lives, as for instance those of Professor Hopkinson and +Busk, to both of whom heavy debts of gratitude are owed, but gradually +obstacle after obstacle, problem after problem, was successfully tackled +by our designers and constructors. With a view to enlarging the field of +observation, staggered planes were introduced in the B.E.2c. This +machine also proved that it was possible to calculate the degree of +stability and thus paved the way for the design of aeroplanes with +indifference to stability and increased man[oe]uvrability for fighting +purposes, or with great inherent stability for bombing. During 1915 the +B.E.2c was used for all purposes, but the extra loading involved by the +increasing use of aeroplanes for bombing and fighting caused a decrease +in the rate of speed and climb, and our aeroplanes were temporarily +inferior in fighting power to the Fokker. + +The necessity of preventing the enemy obtaining information soon led to +the development of air fighting. At the beginning of the war the sole +armament of aeroplanes was the rifle or revolver. The machine gun soon +followed, but its use in tractor machines was impracticable on account +of the danger of hitting the airscrew. The first "fighters" were +therefore two-seater pushers, such as the "Short-horn" Maurice Farmans +which, though not designed for fighting, and too slow to chase enemy +aircraft, were the first to be fitted with Lewis guns, and F.E.'s, the +first machine designed specifically for fighting, with the machine-gun +operator in front of the pilot. These "pusher" fighters had an excellent +field of view and fire forwards, but suffered from lack of speed and a +large "blind" area to the rear. On the other hand, the single-seater +tractors were potentially the superior fighters, and in order to protect +the blades of the airscrew the French were the first to use deflector +blades on them in tractor machines. + +Our early single-seater tractors were fitted with a Lewis gun fixed so +as to fire over or at the side of the airscrew and actuated by a bowden +wire, the most efficient, though not the most numerous, fighting +machines at the end of 1915 being the Bristol Scouts. + +By the Summer of 1916, however, we had adapted the "synchronizing gear" +to our machine guns, enabling them to be fired through the propeller; +while aircraft engines developed much greater power and full allowance +was made for all equipment carried. From that time the development of +our single-seater fighters was steadily progressive. One of the first of +these was the Sopwith "Pup," which had a speed of 106-1/2 miles an hour +at 6,500 feet, climbed 10,000 feet in just over 14 minutes, and could +attain a ceiling of 17,500 feet. In 1917 appeared the Sopwith "Camel," a +typical example of this type, which was simple, stable, easily +controllable and possessed two guns. It had a speed of 121 miles an hour +at 10,000 feet, to which height it could climb in under 10-1/2 minutes, +and a ceiling of 23,000 feet. The Martinsyde F.4, embodying further +improvements, was not ready in time for active service. + +While the single-seater tractor was developing for purely offensive +action, the two-seater fighter, of which the field of view, +man[oe]uvrability and general performance were being improved, retained +its utility as a reconnaissance machine. In 1916 the "pusher" type was +superseded by the Sopwith "1-1/2 Strutter" armed with a synchronized +Vickers gun, which for its 130 horse-power was never surpassed. The +pilot was close to the engine and had a good view of the ground, while +the gunner was placed behind him with a rotary Lewis gun turret. Early +in 1917 these qualities were further developed in the Bristol Fighter. + +With the advent of these improved types the B.E.2c was relegated to the +work of artillery co-operation, until superseded by the B.E.2e. Towards +the end of 1916 appeared the R.E.8 with a Vickers synchronized gun and +a Lewis gun, which after many vicissitudes became the standard machine +for artillery work. + +Systematic bombing was practised by nearly all types of machines, but +real accuracy was never obtained. Thus, the B.E.2c was first used in +formations, but with a full load of bombs it could not carry an +observer, and its moderate speed left it an easy prey to hostile +fighters. Early in 1916 appeared the Martinsyde single-seater bomber +with an endurance of 4-1/2 hours, and in 1917 the D.H.4 which was much +used for day-bombing. The F.E.2b pusher, discarded as a fighting +machine, became the principal night-bomber. + +It was comparatively late in the war before special bombing machines +were evolved. They were then divided into day-bombers and night-bombers, +the D.H.9 and 9a machines being typical of the former and the Handley +Page of 1917--a large twin-engine aeroplane, the first really effective +night-bomber, of considerable carrying power but low performance--of the +latter. By November 8th, 1918, two super-Handley Pages were ready to +start to Berlin. They possessed a maximum range of 1,100 miles, a crew +of seven, four 350 horse-power Rolls-Royce engines, arranged in pairs, a +tractor and a pusher in tandem on either side of the machine, and, as +they would be compelled to fly both by night and day, a gun defence +system. The D.H.10a and the Vickers Vimy, for day and night bombing +respectively, were also being produced at the date of the Armistice. + +In the early days of the war an aeroplane had little to fear above +4,000 feet. With the improvement of the anti-aircraft gun there was, by +the end of the war, no immunity at 20,000 feet. Very low flying for +attack was, however, being rapidly developed, and would have proved of +great effect in 1919. The aeroplane used for this purpose was the +single-seater fighter, and the Sopwith "Salamander," with two guns, a +speed of 125 miles an hour, and 650 lb. of armoured plates, was about to +make its appearance at the Armistice. + +I have previously mentioned how dependent the improvement of design and +performance of aircraft has been upon the less simple and tardier +development of the engine. The invention of the light motor made +aviation possible, and development has synchronized with the evolution +of lighter, more powerful and more reliable engines. One of the most +difficult problems still confronting us is the production of a cheap, +high-powered and reliable engine, but the existence at the end of the +war of machines weighing 15 tons indicates the progress achieved, while +British engines of 600 horse-power are now in use, and one of 1,000 +horse-power will shortly be available. + + +TACTICS AND THE STRATEGIC AIR OFFENSIVE. + +During the war there were three concurrent movements in process: the +ratios of the various forms of air tactics were constantly changing, and +the components of our air forces varied in accordance with the +development of reconnaissance, artillery co-operation, bombing and +fighting. Secondly, their total strength was increasing rapidly; and, +thirdly, it was increasing relatively faster than the Army or Navy. + +It was an evident and logical development and in accord with the +shortage of national man power and the consequent tendency to a +reduction in the strength of the Army, that, the necessary uses of +aircraft with the Army and Navy being ensured, any available margin of +air power should be employed on an independent basis for definite +strategic purposes. The difficulty was to arrive at an agreement as to +the minimum tactical and grand tactical requirements of the Army and +Navy. The British Army was not alone in asserting that there was no +minimum and that it wanted every available airman, and agreed with the +French that anything which it could temporarily spare should be lent to +the French Army. It was argued that the Armies could as easily and +better arrange for strategic bombing. Fortunately in 1918, when I was +Chief of the Air Staff, we managed to secure a margin and formed the +Independent Air Force in June of that year. It was, of course, +understood that, in the event of either the British or French Armies +being hard put to it, the Independent Air Force could temporarily come +to their direct assistance and act in close co-operation with them. + +In 1915 in accordance with the old doctrine that offence is the best +defence, the surest method of protecting specialized machines on the +battle front was found to be in the attack of enemy aircraft by fighting +machines. In 1918 it was decided that raids on the centres of German war +industry would not only cripple the enemy's output of material +essential to victory, but also relieve the pressure on the Western +Front, the vital point of the war. The Germans had had the same +intention in the many raids which started over Dover on December 21st, +1914. + +Long-range bombing had, however, been carried out spasmodically before +1918. In addition to its taste for bombing in general, the Royal Naval +Air Service were keenly bent from the outset on long-range bombing in +particular. The question of forming an Allied squadron to bomb German +munition factories was first raised in 1915 at one of the monthly +meetings between the French and British Aviation departments; and in +February, 1916, a small squadron of Sopwith "1-1/2 Strutters" was formed +at Detling for the purpose of bombing Essen and Dusseldorf from England, +but the Army in France, being short of machines, asked that they should +be sent to the front, and therefore the scheme did not mature; neither, +for similar reasons, did one for the co-operation in 1916 of British and +French bombing squadrons, operating from Luxeuil. + +It was not until October, 1917, that the first striking force, +consisting of three squadrons, was formed under the Army with Ochey as +its base. It was mainly used in raids against the ironworks in the +Alsace-Lorraine Basin and the chemical industry in the neighbourhood of +Mannheim. As I have said, a definite offensive policy by means of an +independent strategic force was later decided upon, and the +"Independent" Air Force was brought into existence. It originally +comprised two day-bomber and two night-bomber squadrons. During the +summer additional squadrons were allotted to it, including D.H.9's and +Handley Pages. Day-bombing squadrons had to fight their way to +objectives in close formation, and the problems connected with +navigation, calculation of petrol supply, action of wind and ceiling, +were all accentuated. Casualties were heavy, with the result that a +squadron of Fighters, composed of Sopwith "Camels," was incorporated for +the purpose of protection. Thus we see the beginnings of an air fleet +analogous to the naval fleet with its capital ships and protective +craft. + +The main objectives were the centre of the chemical industry at Mannheim +and Frankfort; the iron and steel works at Briey and Longwy and the Saar +Basin; the machine shops in the Westphalian district and the magneto +works at Stuttgart; the submarine bases at Wilhelmshaven, Bremerhaven, +Cuxhaven, and Hamburg, and the accumulator factories at Hagen and +Berlin. + +It will be seen from a map that three of the main industrial centres +were situated near the west frontier of Germany; and, therefore, one +portion of the striking force was based at Ochey, which lies within a +few miles of the Saar Basin, within 180 miles of Essen, and within 150 +miles of Frankfurt. Another portion was based on Norfolk, where a group +of super-Handley Page machines were established for the specific purpose +of attacking Berlin, a distance of 540 miles, and the naval bases within +400 miles. It was obvious that though aircraft from England would have +to cover greater distances, they would not expose themselves to the +strong hostile defences in rear of the battle front. + +Three instances of the Independent Air Force's action may be cited. On +the night of August 21st/22nd, two Handley Page machines dropped over +one ton of bombs on Cologne Station, the raid occupying seven hours. On +the night of August 25th/26th two Handley Pages attacked the Badische +Aniline und Soda Fabrik of Mannheim; bombs were dropped from a height of +200 feet, direct hits being obtained in every case; and the machines +then remained over the town, which they swept with machine-gun fire. On +August 12th the first attack was made on Frankfurt by twelve D.H.4 +day-bombers, every machine reaching the objective and returning safely +in spite of being attacked, over Mannheim and throughout the return +journey, by some forty hostile fighters. + +During the five months of its existence the Independent Air Force +dropped 550 tons of bombs, 160 by day and 390 by night. Of these 200 +tons were dropped on aerodromes, largely by the short-distance F.E.2b's, +as a result of which, hostile attacks on Allied aerodromes became +practically negligible. Theoretically, machines of the Independent Air +Force should not have been utilized for attacking purely military +objectives in the Army zone, such as aerodromes, and their co-operation +with the Army for this purpose shows that their true role was either not +appreciated or not favoured by the French and other Commands. + +There is ample testimony to the spirit of demoralization which pervaded +the civil population of the towns attacked. + + "My eyes won't keep open whilst I am writing," reads one captured + letter. "In the night twice into the cellar and then again this + morning. One feels as if one were no longer a human being. One air + raid after another. In my opinion this is no longer war but murder. + Finally, in time, one becomes horribly cold, and one is daily, nay, + hourly, prepared for the worst." "Yesterday afternoon," says + another, "it rained so much and was so cloudy that no one thought it + was possible for them to come. It is horrible; one has no rest day + or night." + +Although, for reasons into which it is not necessary to enter here, only +a comparatively small percentage of the efforts of the Independent Force +were directed against the industrial targets for which the force had +been created, yet by the end of the war the strategic conception of air +power was bearing fruit, and the Air Ministry had in hand measures for +bombing which would have gone far to shatter German munitionment. The +defence measures forced upon the Germans within their own country were +reacting on their offensive action at the front, which was at the same +time denuded of fighting aircraft at various points to meet the menace +of our strategic force at Ochey. + + +ORGANIZATION. + +As in peace on a small, so in war on a large scale, the history of the +organization of aircraft, while we were fighting for our national +existence and competing with similar enemy expansion, is one of +continuous development, of decentralization of command and co-ordination +of duties. Headquarters, the Squadron and the Aircraft Park, as +originally conceived in peace, though subject to variations in size, +remained the basis of our organization. For instance, the original +eighteen machines of our squadron were increased to twenty-four for +single-seater fighters and reduced to six in the case of the +super-Handley Page bombers. The four squadrons originally operated +directly under Headquarters, were soon allocated to Corps for tactical +reconnaissance and artillery co-operation, while a unit remained at +Headquarters for strategical and long-distance reconnaissance and a few +special duties. The next step was in November, 1914, when two Wings, +composed originally of two, and later, of five squadrons each, were +formed, R.F.C. Headquarters retaining one squadron and the wireless +flight for G.H.Q. requirements. The Wing Headquarters co-ordinated the +work of the squadrons which were allocated to Army Corps. + +A further development, in 1916, was the formation for each of the three +Armies of a Brigade, consisting of two Wings and an Aircraft Park. +One--the Corps Wing--carried out artillery co-operation and close +reconnaissance (including photography) with Army Corps, the other--the +Army Wing--carried out more distant reconnaissance and fighting patrols +under Army Headquarters. Our air superiority at the Battle of the Somme +in 1916 led us to expect German counter-measures in 1917, and our +programme for the following winter contemplated a proportion of two +fighting squadrons to each Corps Squadron. By 1917 there were five +British Armies in France and Belgium and our air forces were increased +to provide a Brigade for each of the two new Armies. The Headquarters +of the flying force in the field (except in the case of the Independent +Air Force, which was responsible to the Supreme War Council and the Air +Ministry in London) remained attached to G.H.Q. throughout the war. + +The main difficulty in the higher organization was the lack of +co-operation between the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air +Service and their competition for the supply of men and machines--the +demands of both being urgent and insatiable. As a first step to overcome +this, an Air Board was formed in May, 1916, to discuss general air +policy, especially the combined operation of the Naval and Military Air +Services, to make recommendations on the types of machines required by +each, and to co-ordinate the supply of material. The Air Board was an +improvement, but not a remedy, and, therefore, in 1917 it was decided to +form an Air Ministry responsible for war aviation in all its branches +and to amalgamate the Naval and Military Air Services as the Royal Air +Force. This was carried into effect early in 1918, with Lord Rothermere +as Secretary of State for Air with a seat in the Cabinet, and the air +became the third service of the Crown, with an independent Government +department permeated with a knowledge of air navigation, machinery, and +weather, and closely allied to the industrial world for the initiation, +guidance, and active supervision of research and experimental work. + +I will mention later some of the many arguments for and against the +retention of an independent Air Ministry and autonomous Air Force in +peace. The amalgamation was certainly advantageous in war. It effected +the correlation of a number of hitherto independent services according +to a uniform policy and prevented overlapping by centralizing +administration. Under single control it was possible to carry out, on a +carefully co-ordinated plan, recruiting and training, to supply men and +material, to organize air power according to the strategic situation in +each of the various theatres of war, and to form the correct ratio +between the air forces in the field and the reserves in training at +home. The difficulty was that the amalgamation had to be carried out +during the most intensive period of air effort, but by the end of the +war most of these objects had been attained without jeopardizing the +close co-operation with the Army and Navy. Co-operation with the Naval +and General Staffs and with naval and military formations was, in fact, +improved, independent action was beginning to bear fruit, and we +possessed an Air Force without rival. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +PEACE + + +THE FUTURE OF AERIAL DEFENCE. + +In the evolution of aviation during the war the conclusion has been +reached that the most remarkable lines of development at the Armistice +were in the direction of ground and night fighting, torpedo attack and +long-range bombing, exemplifying respectively the three spheres of air +operations--military co-operation, naval co-operation, and the strategic +use of aircraft. It must be remembered that this progress in tactics and +strategy, in the machine, and the airman's skill, was made in the short +period of four years, and that every war has started with a great +advance in scientific knowledge, accumulated during peace, over that +obtaining at the close of the previous war. We may therefore assume, +provided the danger is averted of a retrograde movement from recent +scientific methods to pre-war conditions--sabres, bayonets, and +guns--that by the outbreak of another war on a large scale, which we +hope may never occur, the knowledge of Service aeronautics will have +increased immeasurably since 1918, and may be, not a contributory, but a +decisive factor in securing victory. + +The period since the Armistice has been employed in the reduction and +consolidation of the Royal Air Force. In England the cadre system has +been adopted, while abroad the greatest concentration of effort is aimed +at, with Egypt, at present the most important strategic point in the +Imperial air system, as the centre of activity. Iraq is being handed +over to the control of the Royal Air Force, whose share in the policing +of overseas possessions is likely usefully to grow provided any tendency +to the concurrent building up of a large ground organization is +withstood. The advantages of aircraft for "garrison" duties lie, under +suitable geographical conditions, in their swift action and wide range, +their economy, and, during disturbances their capacity for constant +pressure against the enemy without fear of retaliation. One of the main +problems is at present that of personnel. Service flying is restricted +to comparatively young men, and therefore the majority of officers can +only be commissioned for short periods. For this reason the experiment +is being made of taking officers direct from civil life on short +engagements, and at the same time endeavouring to ensure, by technical +and general education, that the Royal Air Force shall not become a +blind-alley occupation. + +Though it is difficult to foretell on what lines aircraft will develop +for any one purpose, as in the past, the problem of military +co-operation will perhaps be less complex than that of co-operation with +the Navy. It will probably consist of improvements along the lines +already indicated, such as increased range, speed, climb, +man[oe]uvrability, offensive armament, armour, the assistance of tank +and anti-tank action, and the utilization of gas. Fighting will +undoubtedly take place at very high altitudes to keep the enemy's +fighting machines away from the zone of operations--necessitating the +development of the single-seater so as to increase climb and +man[oe]uvrability, and obtain, if possible, a speed of 200 miles an hour +at 30,000 feet. Cavalry, unless retained, as I think they should be, in +the form of mounted machine-gunners, will, I think, disappear in +European warfare, but infantry will remain, and it will be the object of +aircraft to assist their advance by reconnaissance, ground attack, +artillery and tank co-operation, and the destruction of the enemy's +supplies and communications. In this connection ground tactics and air +tactics must develop _pari passu_ and commanders of Corps and Armies +must work out during peace training the fullest schemes for the most +intimate co-operation between air and land forces. + +The future of naval co-operation is a difficult problem, more especially +as there was no major naval engagement after Jutland in which aircraft +could be used, and consequently we have little to go on in estimating +their practical value in direct co-operation with the fleet. It is +impossible at present to judge between the conflicting opinions as to +the future of the capital ship, but it is certain that aviation will +materially modify naval tactics and construction. Coast defence, +reconnaissance, anti-submarine work, escort, and the bombing of enemy +bases, will doubtless continue and develop with ever-increasing +machinery and equipment; but torpedo attack by aircraft may reach a +point where the very existence of opposing fleets may be endangered. It +is already questionable whether a battleship could survive an attack +launched by even a small force of this mobile arm. + +As was the case during the war, the action of aircraft at sea is +restricted by range, the difficulty being to find the mean between the +opposing conditions of radius of flight and limitation in the size of +aircraft imposed by the deck-space of "carriers," but there is reason to +suppose that on the one hand engines will be so improved as to afford a +sufficient radius of action to comparatively small aircraft, while, on +the other, devices will be found to economize deck-space. + +Fleets operating near the enemy's coast will be vulnerable from land +aircraft bases, and thus close blockade will be rendered increasingly +difficult. The possibility of gas attack on enemy bases from the air in +co-operation with submarines and of effecting a blockade by this means +must be envisaged. + +Since the Armistice the operational work of the Royal Air Force on +behalf of the Navy has been conducted under the auspices of the +Admiralty. Improvements have been made in large flying boats and +amphibians, especially with a view to facilitating their landing on +"carriers" and the decks of battleships. There has also been +considerable progress in the construction and use of torpedo aircraft. + +The war lasted long enough to prove the effect of the strategic +offensive by air. In spite of the dictates of humanity, it cannot be +eliminated. It is true that modern war is inimical to the progress of +mankind and brings only less suffering to the victors than to the +vanquished. To ensure peace should therefore be our ideal. But a great +war once joined is to-day a war of peoples. Not only armies in the +field, but men, women, and even children at home, are concentrated on +the single purpose of defeating the enemy, and armies, navies, and air +forces are dependent upon the application to work, the output of war +supplies, and, above all, the morale of the civil population. Just as +gas was used notwithstanding the Hague Convention, so air war, in spite +of any and every international agreement to the contrary, will be +carried into the enemy's country, his industries will be destroyed, his +nerve centres shattered, his food supply disorganized, and the will +power of the nation as a whole shaken. Formidable as is the prospect of +this type of air warfare, it will become still more terrible with the +advent of new scientific methods of life-destruction, such as chemical +and bacterial attack on great industrial and political centres. Various +proposals, such as the control of the air effort, service and civil, of +all countries by the League of Nations, and even the complete +elimination of aviation, have been put forward as a means of avoiding +the horrors of aerial warfare and its appurtenances, but they are +untenable, and any power wishing and able to sweep them aside will +undoubtedly do so. + +A future war, as I see it, will begin something after this manner, +provided either side possesses large air forces. Huge day and night +bombers will assemble at the declaration of war to penetrate into the +enemy's country for the attack of his centres of population, his +mobilization zones, his arsenals, harbours, strategic railways, shipping +and rolling stock. Corps and Army squadrons will concentrate in +formation to accompany the armies to the front; reconnaissance and +fighting patrols will scatter in all directions from coastal air bases +to discover the enemy's concentrations and cover our own; the fleet, +whatever its nature, will emerge with its complement of reconnaissance +and protective machines and torpedo aircraft for direct action against +the enemy's fleet. A few fighting defence units will remain behind. + +But it must not be imagined that these functions will be carried out +unopposed. Local battles in the air will occur between fighting machines +for the protection of specialized machines, while the main air forces in +large formations will concentrate independently to produce, if possible, +a shattering blow on the enemy and obtain from the outset a supremacy in +the air comparable to our supremacy on the sea in the last war. + +In mobilization the time factor is all-important. Our national history +has been one of extraordinary good fortune in this respect, but the +margin allowable for luck is becoming very narrow and, whereas in 1914 +it was some twenty days between the declaration of war and the exchange +of the first shots, in the next war the air battle may be joined within +as many hours, and an air attack launched almost simultaneously with the +declaration of war. In modern war the mobilization period tends to +shorten, and every effort will be made towards its further reduction, +since mobilizing armies are particularly vulnerable from air attack. + + +CIVIL AVIATION AS A FACTOR IN NATIONAL SECURITY. + +The picture I have drawn may appear highly coloured for the reason that +no country is likely for some time to possess sufficiently large air +forces to obtain a decisive victory, or at any rate an uncontested +superiority, at the outbreak of war. Though in air, as in every other +form of warfare, attack is more effective than defence, we cannot afford +to keep our air forces up to war strength in peace any more than our +Army or Navy. + +The problem, from a military point of view, is therefore to ensure an +adequate reserve and to maintain our capacity for expansion to meet +emergencies. The number of units maintained at war establishment should +be the absolute minimum for safety and of the type immediately required +on mobilization, i.e. long-range bombing and naval reconnaissance +squadrons. The remainder should be in cadre form. We can, of course, +maintain a fixed number of machines and pilots in reserve for every one +on the active list, but, although some such system is necessary, on a +large scale it is open to many and serious objections. First of all, +even on a cadre basis, it means keeping inactive at considerable cost a +number of machines which may never be used and which, however carefully +stored, quickly deteriorate. Knowledge of aeronautics is still slender +and improvements are made so continuously that machines may become +obsolete within a few months. Moreover, the growth of service aviation +in peace must tend to become artificial and conventional rather than +natural, and this will react on design and construction, which will be +cramped, both technically and financially, within the limits imposed by +service requirements. + +It is obvious therefore that the capacity of the construction industry +to expand cannot be fostered by service aviation alone; furthermore, in +the event of another war of attrition, expansion will be more essential +than any amount of machine reserve power immediately available, and in +the event of a war of short duration that power will win which has the +greatest preponderance of machines, service or civil, fit to take the +air. The asphyxiation of a large enemy city, if within range, can be +done by night-flying commercial machines, and it would require a +defending force of great numerical superiority for its successful +defence. + +Whether, therefore, from this point of view, or others, which I will +mention later, another solution must be found, and this lies in the +development of civil aviation. An analogy in the Navy and the Mercantile +Marine has long been apparent. "Sea power," says Mahan, "is based upon a +flourishing industry." Substitute "air" for "sea" and the analogy is +still true. The Navy owed its origin to our mercantile enterprise and +to-day it depends upon the Mercantile Marine for its reserve power of +men and material. In the same way must air power be built up on +commercial air supremacy. If we accept Mahan, or the dictum of any other +great naval or military historian or strategist, a service air force by +itself is not air power, and after a brief if brilliant flash must +wither if reserves are not immediately at hand. A large commercial air +fleet will provide, not only a reserve of men and machines, but it will +keep in existence an aircraft industry, with its designing and +constructional staffs, capable of quick and wide expansion in emergency; +and such an industry will not be employed on the design of contrivances +for use in a possible war, but on meeting the practical requirements of +everyday air transport and navigation. + +Thus a natural, practical and healthy, as opposed to a stereotyped and +artificial, growth will be ensured. Our naval supremacy is largely +attributable to the interest which the people as a whole have +traditionally taken in naval policy; in other words, to the fact that we +are a seafaring nation. Similarly air supremacy can only be secured if +the air-sense of the man in the street is fostered, and aviation is not +confined to military operations, but becomes a part of everyday life. At +the present time commercial aviation is far too small to play the part +of reservoir to the Royal Air Force--an object which must constitute one +of the principal claims for support of the nucleus already in existence. + + +CIVIL AVIATION AS AN INSTRUMENT OF IMPERIAL PROGRESS. + +Civil aviation, however, has not only an indirect military, but, with +its superiority in speed over other means of transport, a direct +commercial utility. The nation which first substitutes aircraft for +other means of transport will be more than half-way towards the +supremacy of the air. Moreover, as the Roman Empire was built upon its +roads and as the foundations of the British Empire have hitherto rested +upon its shipping, as steam, the cable and wireless have each in turn +been harnessed to the work of speeding up communications, so to-day, +with the opening of a new era of Imperial co-operation and consultation, +this new means of transport by air, with a speed hitherto undreamed of, +must be utilized for communication and commerce between the various +portions of the Empire. + +A comparison of the French and British attitudes towards civil aviation +clearly demonstrates the two policies I have mentioned. Both France and +England grant subsidies--France the very much larger sum--but the great +difference lies in the objects aimed at. French policy is fostering +civil aviation as a part of its military policy and, a portion of the +subsidy being given to machines fulfilling service requirements, there +is a strong tendency for French civil aviation to be military air power +camouflaged. British policy, on the other hand, should aim at fostering +civil aviation primarily as a commercial concern and believes that air +commerce is the basis of air power as a whole. We are prepared to face +the tendency of military and civil machines to diverge if that +divergence is essential to the commercial machine. + +An alternative to the British policy of maintaining a small air force +and fostering commercial aviation as a reserve is the Canadian plan of +a small air force training school and a civil Government flying service +with such objects as forest patrol, survey and coastguard duties, the +work being carried out on repayment for Government departments, +provincial governments and private corporations. The former method, +allowing of independent commercial expansion, is better suited to +British mentality and requirements, but its success will depend on a +genuine endeavour to make commercial aviation the real and vital basis +of our air power. Experience in commercial operation cannot be gained by +the exploitation of air routes or the carriage of mails or passengers +under Service auspices. It is only by running transport services, as far +as possible under private management, that operational data can be +obtained, economies effected, and the design of strictly commercial +machines improved. + +To sum up. Military air supremacy can best be assured by the intensive +development of industrial air organization for commercial purposes. The +conception of civil aviation as the mainstay of air power as a whole is +right. Service aviation is bound by technical and financial limits; its +scope confined to the requirements of war. Civil aviation, on the other +hand, opens out a prospect of productive expansion. The steady growth of +the Continental services is already beginning to demonstrate the +importance of air transport. + + +FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS. + +The commercial exploitation of air transport is passing through a period +of experiment, and suffering in the general war reaction from the +incapacity of the public to think of aviation except as a fighting +service. The machines hitherto used on the lines to and on the Continent +are principally converted war machines, and to transform military into +commercial craft and to use them as such is of small assistance to civil +aviation, which requires reliable, economic machines as one of the basic +conditions of its financial success. The cost of running an air +transport service is considerable. Depreciation is one heavy item of +expenditure. New machines must be evolved suitable to the requirements +of mail, passenger and freight transport, but, in the present state of +financial stringency, capital is not forthcoming for experiment unless +there is every promise of a safe return. Then there are the expenses +involved in general ground organization, maintenance, fuel, insurance, +etc. The question is how can we carry on until the really economic type +of commercial machine is evolved. It will never be evolved unless there +is continuous flying and a continuous demand for new and improved +machines for commercial work. To meet this in France, the Government +came forward with a liberal grant of subsidies which have now been +increased and placed on a more favourable basis, permitting of a very +considerable reduction in the fares for transport by air. The British +Government has also granted a subsidy for British firms operating on the +cross-Channel routes, which it is hoped will place them before long on a +sound, self-supporting, commercial basis. Part of this subsidy is +allocated to assist transport companies in obtaining the latest type of +commercial machines on a hire purchase system. With a few services +properly supported by the State we shall pull through the experimental +period of civil aviation. + +The services to the Continent, although the distance is on the short +side for the merits of air transport to be properly demonstrated, effect +a considerable saving in time, and it is certain that the amount of +mail, especially parcels, carried on these routes will continue to +increase and lead to the eventual adoption of normal rates for air +postage. An extension of the use of aircraft as the regular means of +carrying mails will be of great assistance in the development of air +transport. Aircraft revolutionize the speed of intercommunication by +letter, and banks and financial houses will gradually realize that large +savings can be made by utilizing air mails for the transaction of +business. A difficulty lies in the fact that the area of the British +Isles is not very favourable for an extensive air mail service, which +can only operate by day, since by the existing means of transport mails +are carried during the out-of-business hours and can generally reach +their destination in a night, while the distances to Paris and Brussels +are too short to afford outstanding advantage. + +Lastly, we require public support and a spirit of confidence in the air. +This can only be secured by increased reliability, reduction of charges +and keeping the public informed of the progress made. It is the nature +of man to distrust new departures. He disliked the introduction of +mechanical devices into the Lancashire weaving mills. He scoffed at the +steamship and railway. To-day he is inclined to treat as premature the +serious exploitation of the air. In spite of the great decrease of +accidents, in spite of the increased comfort of air travel, in spite of +increased regularity, the average person is slow to realize that the +communication of the busy man of the future will be by air. The majority +of the business world is too conservative to make general use of the +opportunities offered by aircraft for the quick transmission of its +correspondence, while, though speed must be paid for, the high fares +hitherto charged have deterred the general public from substituting the +aeroplane for the train or boat. The running costs represented by these +fares are being materially reduced as a more economic machine is +evolved, and the reduction of fares which helps to place competition +with foreign subsidized services and with the older forms of transport +on more equal terms must for a time depend upon the assistance of +Government grants. + + +WEATHER CONDITIONS AND NIGHT FLYING. + +The safety of the machine and the reliability of an air service largely +depend on accurate weather forecasts. In order to co-ordinate the +meteorological work of the country as a whole, and for the special +assistance of aviation, the Meteorological Services of Great Britain +have been amalgamated under the Department of Civil Aviation, and, +working in close co-operation with the Communications Branch of the +Department, have made improvements in the rapid collection and +distribution of meteorological information for all purposes. In +addition to the forecasts issued four times daily, collective reports +are issued hourly by wireless from the London terminal aerodrome at +Croydon and copies are distributed to transport companies and others +concerned. + +A feature of meteorology which is often overlooked is its economic +value. By making use of a knowledge of the wind at different heights, +aircraft can complete journeys more quickly than would otherwise be +possible, and thereby save their own fuel and their passengers' time. +This will be specially useful in the tropics where the regularity of the +surface winds has its counterpart in the upper air, but even in Europe +time-tables can be drawn up with due attention to the favourable and +unfavourable effect of prevailing winds. The planning of airship routes +in particular, must be considered in close connection with this aspect +of weather conditions. + +To-day, however, the aeroplane may be considered as an "all-weather" +craft, save for mist and fog--the enemies of all transport and +particularly to that of the air--to which unfortunately England is +particularly liable during the winter. Experiments have been carried out +on the dispersal of fog, the illumination of aerodromes by fog-piercing +lights, and instruments to record the exact position of the aeroplane +and its height above the ground, but success has not yet been achieved. + +Similar to the problems of flying and landing in mist and fog is that of +night flying. Until night flying is practicable, only half the value of +the aeroplane's speed is obtainable, since other transport services run +continuously day and night. Further, as machines become rapidly obsolete +owing to technical progress, it is essential that they should be in use +for the greatest number of hours during their life. Much has been done +in the lighting and marking of aerodromes and in the equipment of +aeroplanes with wireless telephone and direction-finding apparatus. + +It may here be mentioned that there are two methods of obtaining the +position of aircraft by means of wireless telegraphy, known as +direction-finding and position-finding. Direction-finding is effected by +means of two coils set at right angles in the aircraft, by means of +which the bearing of a transmitting ground station with reference to the +aircraft's compass can be taken. When two or more bearings on different +ground stations, whose position is known, have been obtained, a "cut" or +"fix" of the aircraft is obtained. The position-finding system consists +of two or more ground stations fitted with apparatus capable of taking +bearings with respect to true north and connected by direct telephone +line. The aircraft calls up by wireless one of these stations, requests +her position and then makes a series of signals for about half a minute. +The stations take the aircraft's bearings, plot its position, and +transmit the information to the aircraft. Wireless direction and +position-finding, as well as wireless telephony, have on several +occasions proved their value to navigation, but in spite of instances of +successful night flying, developments have not been such as to render +night services practicable. + +Marine experience has been a valuable guide, but aerial illumination +has entailed many new problems of its own--the distribution of light +through very wide angles, the installation of light and powerful lamps +in aircraft, the elimination of shadows and the prevention of dazzle, +the provision of apparatus to indicate the strength and direction of the +wind, and the like. + +Very shortly the first organized and equipped night-flying route will be +available; that between London and Lympne on the Continental air +highway. The Boulogne-Paris section will probably be ready a little +later. There will be four lighthouses on the English section, of which +two will be automatic, requiring no attention for twelve months at a +time. These, and many other, facilities will much assist the progressive +establishment of services during the hours of darkness, and will provide +valuable data for the establishment of other night-flying routes. There +is no real difficulty given a reasonably clear atmosphere. + + +ORGANIZATION. + +I have mentioned the broad lines on which the organization of the air +services was built up before and during the war. We have seen that the +initial foundations and framework remained and bore the great systematic +structural development which was gradually required. In August, 1914, +there were some 240 officers, 1800 men and 200 machines; in November, +1918, 30,000 officers, 170,000 men, and 22,000 machines, all of them +better and of a higher performance than those of 1914. Our casualties +during the war were about 18,000; air formations had been active in +some fifteen theatres of operations; 8,000 enemy machines and 300 +observation balloons had been destroyed; some three-quarters of a +million photographs taken over hostile country, and 12,000,000 rounds +had been fired from the air at ground targets. At Home two organizations +had expanded independently from the same seed until, impeding one +another's growth, their trunks had joined and a single and improved tree +was the result. + +This is the only country where a unified air service has been adopted. +In war the arrangement was successful. Against its continuance in peace +the Army and Navy urge that, with the best of wills, there is a great +difference between having an integral branch of a service to work with +other services and having to deal with an independent organization, and +argue increased cost, duplication, competition and disjointed action. +There is no doubt that the liaison of the General, Naval and Air Staffs +must be closened, and if co-operation with the senior services was +really becoming less satisfactory, a return to the old system should be +considered amongst other alternatives, but I do not think that it should +be so. It must also be remembered that, although air co-operation is +vital to naval and military operations, it is fortunately unlikely that +there will be another war for a long time and, meanwhile, the growing +essential, independent strategic action would be irretrievably impaired +by the reabsorption of the Air into the Army and Navy. + +On the other hand, even apart from supply, such a reversion would also +cause much duplication, e.g. training. The solution and the correct and +logical outcome of the unification of the Air service is the close +grouping of the three arms in a Ministry of Defence, and this, even in +face of the obvious practical difficulties, should be adopted and +co-ordination thus increased step by step. Apart from Supply, some of +the services in which this could be effected are the medical, education, +chaplains, mobilization stores, transport, works and buildings, +accounting, communications, ordnance and national factories. A modified +scheme might also be studied in which, under a Ministry of Defence, the +Army and Navy each had tactical air units of seconded personnel for +artillery co-operation, spotting and reconnaissance, and the Air +Ministry dealt with supply, research, initial training and reserves, +civil aviation and an independent air force. + +One of many good examples of the necessity of co-ordination is afforded +by the position of the aircraft supply services at the beginning of the +war and their development. We have already seen that there were some +eight private firms manufacturing aircraft in a small way and there was +practically speaking no engine industry at all. For the Royal Flying +Corps, the War Office had relied largely on the Royal Aircraft Factory, +and, although the methods of control adopted had many advantages, there +was in them a tendency to retard private enterprise and development. The +Admiralty, on the other hand, had assisted by dealing almost entirely +with firms for Royal Naval Air Service supply. The conditions in France +fortunately were very much better than those in this country, and for +the first year or two French factories helped us out with both machines +and engines. By the end of the war we had the largest and most efficient +aircraft industry in the world. There were no less than seventy-six +great factories turning out vast numbers of complete aeroplanes, in +addition to thirty-three manufacturing complete engines and over 3,000 +turning out spares and equipment. Such expansion is not possible within +a few weeks, it took a long time to arrive at this position, and it +causes one very seriously to think what would have happened had France +not been our ally, and points the moral which has been mentioned of the +necessity for a thriving aircraft and engine industry in peace. During +the war Germany also had a very large number of firms engaged on this +work. + + +THE MACHINE AND ENGINE. + +The general differences between service and civil requirements in +aircraft fall under the headings of ceiling, load and speed. For service +purposes very much higher ceiling and greater climb and speed are +required and the design is much affected by the condensed nature of the +load. For peace purposes, besides the primary advantage of speed which +the air has over other forms of transport, regularity must be ensured +and the correct ratio between speed, duration and load-carrying power +determined. Great ceiling, man[oe]uvrability and climb are not required. + +However great the speed and load, there is no value in air transport, +whether for passengers or mails or goods, unless it is safe and also +compares favourably from an economic point of view with the older +methods. Without these the public cannot be expected to utilize air +transport, nor is there any inducement to surrender mails and freight +for carriage by air. Every endeavour compatible with economy is made, as +far as the equipment of aerodromes and the organization of the routes +are concerned, to render air navigation as safe as possible, yet, though +both safety and economy of running have been improved, much remains to +be done. Safety depends largely on engine reliability, fire prevention +and the capacity of the machine to land in small spaces. + +Though neither roads nor rails have to be laid and aircraft possess the +great advantages of mobility and point to point transit, the initiation +and maintenance of an air service is a very complex and costly matter. +The utilization of converted war machines is no longer sufficient and +those specially designed for commercial work are beginning to make their +appearance. Such are the Handley Page W.8, the Vickers, the D.H.18 and +34, and the Bristol 10-seater. + +The first two are twin-engine and the last three single-engine machines. +Opinions differ as to the relative advantages of the twin and +single-engine type. The first and running costs of the single engine are +lower, but the twin has greater power and carrying capacity, while most +pilots prefer to have a surplus of power over and above that required +for normal flight. For these reasons, and because of the psychological +effect on insurance companies and on passengers, the twin engine will +probably remain in use for large commercial machines, until long-lived +and economic engines of more than 500 horse-power are available. On the +other hand, where extra power is not required, the twin-engine is not +safer than the single-engine machine; no existing twin-engine commercial +aeroplane can maintain its height and land safely with only one engine +running. Experiments have been made, especially in Germany, on the +multi-engined machine with all the engines in the fuselage, but its +advantages have so far been counterbalanced by loss of efficiency due to +transmission gearing and shaft drives to the propellers and the +vibration and weight of the gearing. + +High-powered engines are very expensive to run and every effort has +therefore to be made by aerodynamic efficiency to carry more useful load +with less horse-power. Improvement is being made in this direction; thus +the D.H.18 carries eight passengers at 56 horse-power per passenger, the +D.H.32 is designed for the same number at 45 horse-power each, and the +D.H.34 for ten passengers at 45 horse-power each. + +The two best German commercial machines, the Junkers and the Fokker, +have a comparatively low horse-power and a low fuel load, but greater +attention has been paid to the design of the machines, which are +monoplanes with cantilever wings, offering less resistance to the air +than our biplanes. One of the most difficult problems is to evolve a +high-lift wing which does not impair the aircraft's speed in the air. +For commercial machines we must aim at the largest possible commercial +load, the smallest possible fuel load and, consequently, an engine which +uses fuel economically and, conversely, a lighter fuel. The development +of the engine is receiving constant attention, as are also various +safety devices, among which may be mentioned those guarding against fire +and those varying the lift of wings so as to lower the landing speed and +thus decrease the dangers attendant upon forced landings. + +In addition to the high initial cost of machines and engines, their +maintenance also requires the greatest care. Detailed investigation must +be made into all serious accidents. This is now compulsory under the new +Air Navigation Act, and the fitness of pilots is ensured by periodical +medical examination. + +Apart from the weather, the safety of an aircraft depends upon its +engine, and perhaps even more upon the installation and accessibility of +engines and their adjuncts, such as the petrol, oil, water and ignition +systems. During the earlier stages of the war the average life of an +engine before complete overhaul was necessary was, of stationary +engines, from 50 to 60 hours, and of rotary engines, about 15 hours. +To-day these figures stand at 200 hours and upwards and from 50 to 60 +hours respectively. For commercial purposes this must be further +increased to 300-500 hours as a normal working period. + +There are two schools of thought with regard to the efficiency, +reliability and the economy of engines. One school advocates using a +light power plant per horse-power, run normally at about half its +maximum; the other favours a plant of greater weight, more solid +construction and greater efficiency, running at nearly its full +horse-power. The former is more expensive in primary cost and upkeep, +but allows a higher performance and provides reserve horse-power for +emergency; the latter is cheaper, but involves a certain risk owing to +lack of surplus power. We have hitherto shown a tendency to adopt the +former method, the Germans the latter. For commercial purposes a +compromise will probably be found to be best. + +Apart from the initial outlay on "air stock," the maintenance, overhead, +fuel, insurance and depreciation charges are very heavy. These are much +affected by such items as simplicity of design, strength against wear +and tear, ease of assembly and interchangeability of parts, easily +removable engines, increase in durability by the use of metal +construction for parts of the machine and the propeller, the elimination +of rubber joints, substitution of air for water cooling, facilities for +loading and unloading in a commercial machine, simple and efficient +navigational instruments and self-starter. Every improvement, however +small, will assist to reduce running costs. Then revenue must be +increased and the comfort of passengers, as, for instance, ventilation, +warmth, luggage capacity and, more than all, a reduction of noise has to +be carefully considered or they will not travel a second time by air. An +effective engine silencer is at last well on the way. It is obvious what +a great advantage this attainment will be both for service and civil +purposes. Roughly speaking, a high-powered engine without a silencer is +audible at a distance of some seven miles and at a height of 13,000 feet +at night time, though these distances are reduced by about a third by +day when normal ground noises exist. The bulk of noise is caused by the +exhaust, the propeller and mechanical noises in the engine. + +I cannot leave this subject without emphasizing the value of research, +both abstract and concrete. But, though it is the keystone of progress, +its results must largely depend on the amount of flying done. It is +clear that for economic reasons new designs can only thoroughly be tried +out by commercial use, and therefore again that real progress is +dependent on commercial activity. + +The advance of civil aviation is bound to be slower than was that of war +aviation. But, as war experience improved old and evolved new types, so +will peace requirements and experience shape the type and design of +aircraft and engine best suited to its purposes. Although a good deal +has under the circumstances already been achieved in peace, much remains +to be done. Gradually, however, with a modicum of research, improvements +in the factors already mentioned and the reduction of initial cost and +maintenance expenses, air transport for mails, passengers and goods will +take its place as a normal commercial public utility service, and the +increased speed of communication will assist in the general development +of trade. + + +AIR SERVICES: BRITISH, CONTINENTAL AND IMPERIAL. + +International civil flying commenced officially on August 26th, 1919, +and gradually expanded, both in the United Kingdom and on the Continent, +especially during the summer of 1920. France, aided by considerable +subsidies, conducted services from Paris to London, Brussels and +Strasburg, from Toulouse to Montpelier and across Spain to Casablanca in +Morocco; Belgium, from Brussels to London and Paris; Holland, from +Amsterdam to London; Germany, in spite of the restrictions placed upon +her, entered the field as a competitor and her aircraft flew regularly +from Berlin to Copenhagen and Bremen, and from Bremen to Amsterdam. On +the American Continent, the United States Post Office ran mail services +from New York to Washington, Chicago, and San Francisco, with extensions +from Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis, and St. Louis. + +For reasons which I shall give, there were no internal services in the +United Kingdom, but there were four companies operating air lines from +London to Paris, one of which held the contract for the carriage of +mails. There were also air mail services between London and Brussels and +Amsterdam. The mileage flown and the number of passengers and the weight +of goods carried were considerable, while the number of letters steadily +increased, especially on the Amsterdam service; and an efficiency of 76 +per cent., 94 per cent., and 84 per cent. was obtained on the +London-Paris, London-Brussels, and London-Amsterdam services +respectively. + +It must be remembered that these results were obtained without any +direct assistance on the part of the State, such as was given by the +French Government to air-transport companies in the form of subsidies. +British economic policy is traditionally opposed to subsidies, believing +that enterprise can be healthily built up on private initiative. +Therefore, until 1921 civil aviation had to content itself with the +indirect assistance of the State, which consisted mainly in the +adjustment of international flying; the laying-out and equipment of +aerodromes on the air routes; the provision of wireless communication +and meteorological information; research and the collection and issue of +general information concerning aviation. + +This indirect assistance, however, proved inadequate to maintain the +progress achieved during 1920, and therefore the maintenance of air +services by means of temporary direct financial assistance had to be +arranged. + +I have already pointed out the difficulty against which commercial +aviation has to contend in regard to the geographical features and +position of the United Kingdom. Its comparatively small size, the +propinquity of industrial centres, our efficient day and night express +railway services, especially those running north and south, lessen the +value of aircraft's superior speed and militate against the operation of +successful internal air services. Possible exceptions might include +amphibian services between London and Dublin, accelerating the delivery +of mails five or six hours; between Glasgow and Belfast, where the Clyde +and the harbour of Belfast could be used as terminals; or between London +and the Channel Islands. I may point out in parenthesis that the +development of alighting stations on rivers passing through the centres +of towns is important, as a great deal of time is at present wasted in +reaching the aerodromes necessarily situated some miles outside large +centres of population. + +Our immediate opportunities of development near home are therefore +afforded by the air services to Paris, Brussels, and Amsterdam; but even +here the saving in time is not great, and our position is unfavourable +compared to that of the United States, where the Post Office saves two +days in the delivery of mails by air between New York and San Francisco; +or compared to that of Germany, where Berlin is within a 350-mile radius +of Copenhagen, Cologne, Munich, Warsaw, and Vienna, which is itself in +an advantageous situation as the junction for a South European system +extending to the Balkan States and the Near East. + +The ultimate use of the air, however, is not exemplified by a few +passengers flying daily between London and the Continent any more than +by a few squadrons of fighting craft. In a decade or two overhead +transit will become the main factor in the express delivery of +passengers, mails, and goods. It is the one means left to the Empire of +speeding up world-communication to an extent as yet unrealized. For the +price of a battleship a route to Australia could be organized, the value +of which would be beyond computation. + +The British Empire as a whole offers vast fields for expansion. In +Africa, Canada, and Australia are found the great distances suitable to +the operation of aircraft, the wide undeveloped areas through which air +transport may prove more economic than the construction of railways, and +the trans-oceanic routes over which travel by steamship has reached, +and in many cases passed, its economic maximum speed. Air transport, +careless whether the route be over land or sea, unhampered by foreign +frontiers, gives the Empire precisely those essential powers of direct, +supple, and speedy intercommunication which ship and rail have already +shown us to be vital. + +Here again the geographical position of England presents a difficult +problem. England is divided from the rest of the Empire by a wide +expanse, either of ocean or foreign territory. Egypt, the starting-point +for air routes to India, Australia, and South Africa, may be described +as the centre of a circle of which England is on the circumference; and +it may be some years before an aeroplane can complete the journey +between England and Egypt with only Malta as a stopping-place. + +The future of long-distance oceanic air routes may depend upon the +airship. Lighter-than-air craft, mainly for reasons of cost and +vulnerability, did not receive such an impetus from the war as did the +aeroplane, but the modern airship has claims for use over distances +exceeding 1,000 miles. It can fly by night with even greater ease than +by day; fog is no deterrent; engine trouble does not bring it down; and +it can take advantage of prevailing winds. It would reduce the sea +journey from England to Karachi from 22 to 5 days; from England to +Johannesburg from 21 to 7 days; and from England to Perth from 32 to +10-1/2 days. Its achievements have already been considerable. In +November, 1917, the German L.57 flew from Constantinople to East Africa +and back--a distance of 4,000 miles--in 96 hours; in June, 1919, the +R.34 flew from East Fortune to Danzig and back in 57 hours; and in July +it crossed the Atlantic, was moored out in America for four days, and +returned, a total distance of 8,000 miles, in the flying time of 108 +hours for the outward and 75 hours for the homeward journey. + +Before and during the war Germany gained wide experience in the design, +construction, and handling of airships. It is probable that as soon as +the peace terms and financial position permit she will begin to +establish this form of transport on a commercial basis. In accordance +with the Peace Treaty, and the Ultimatum of the London Conference of +1921, the construction of aircraft of all kinds is at present forbidden, +but Germany is fostering airship development by the means left at her +disposal. Her scientists are probing the constructional problems +connected with large airships, while efforts are being made, by +financial and other assistance, to maintain her technical staffs and +airship bases in existence. At the same time German commercial interests +are negotiating with foreign countries with a view to the development of +airships abroad, and plans are being discussed for an airship service +between Spain and Argentina. + +The United States, France, and Italy are all interesting themselves, +either financially or constructionally, in the future of airship +development. + +In Great Britain we have made great strides, particularly in the +construction of small types, and our practical air experience in +lighter-than-air craft, during the war, is the greatest in the world. +With a view to carrying out the experiments necessary further to +demonstrate the capacity of airships for commercial long-distance +flights, a few months ago the Department of Civil Aviation took over all +airship material surplus to service requirements. The main object was to +test the practicability and value of mooring airships to a mast. Up to +the present, a principal factor militating against the economic +operation of airships has been the large and expensive personnel +required for handling them on the ground, especially in stormy weather. +The mooring-mast experiments have had considerable success and airships +have been moored in high winds and over long periods with the assistance +of a very small personnel. + +The Government has decided, however, though recognizing their +potentialities for speeding up communications between the various +Dominions and the Mother Country, that the operation of airships cannot +be carried out by the State on account of the present financial +position. + +Recognizing the limitations of Home services and those to the Continent, +it was for the purpose of directing attention to the Imperial aspect of +civil aviation that the great demonstration flights were organized in +which Alcock flew the Atlantic in a Vickers "Vimy," Scott crossed to the +United States and back in the R.34, Ross-Smith flew from England to +Australia, and van Ryneveld from London to the Cape. + +These flights necessitated, too, considerable ground organization in +laying out aerodromes, as the following report on one in Africa vividly +illustrates: "If aerodromes are left unattended for one year," it says, +"practically all the work would have to be undertaken afresh, +particularly in Rhodesia. The growth of vegetation is enormous, +especially during the rains, and grass will grow to a height of eleven +feet in six months; and trees stumped two feet below the surface will +throw out suckers and replant themselves within a month after the rains +have started.... It is most important that rough drains should be +traced.... I have just started planting Doub grass. This grass gives an +ideal surface for landing, kills other grasses, and possesses deep +interlacing roots which will bind the entire surface of the aerodromes, +making it permanent and free from washaways and the formation of +sluits." + +The demonstration flights, however, showed what could, rather than what +should, be done, and what we look for to-day is the inception of +practical undertakings, however small, in the various portions of the +Empire. The most important of these is the service contemplated between +Egypt and India; another instance is afforded by the West Indies, which +suffer from the lack of inter-island communications, both for mails and +passengers, and this could be partially rectified by an air service +employing seaplanes or amphibians for the Leeward and Windward Islands +and the Bahamas, and between the Bahamas and the American Continent, +where an American company is actually conducting a service. Another +project, given up owing to recent disturbances, was one for a +flying-boat service on the Nile. Services are also being considered from +Malta to Italy, Geraldton to Derby in Western Australia, Sydney to +Adelaide and Brisbane, and Melbourne to Hobart in Tasmania. Canadian +activity takes the form of work carried out by Government-owned civil +machines in connection with forest patrol, photographic survey, +exploration, anti-smuggling patrols, etc. It would be a great advantage +if railway and steamship companies seriously considered the value of +supplementing their services by air. + +With regard to Government undertakings on the Imperial air routes, Malta +is being equipped with an aerodrome, and a line of wireless stations has +been established between Egypt and India, but the organization of this +route has been delayed owing to the recent disturbances in the Middle +East, and the financial outlay involved in ground organization. As I +have said, the air route on which we should first concentrate, over and +above the Continental services, is that between Egypt and India. Both +strategically and commercially it is the most important in the Imperial +system; it is a step towards Australia; it offers possibilities of the +greatest volume of traffic; it should be much simpler to control than +many international routes, which inevitably have many complications; +weather conditions are not unfavourable; and the time taken for the +journey by sea would be reduced by about one-half. If the shortcomings +in point of distance of the continental routes in reaping the full +advantages of travel by air, and the importance of the best possible +communications for the Empire, are recognized, it is essential that a +practical form of assistance should be given in the near future to the +conduct of weekly or even bi-weekly services each way between Cairo and +Karachi. Although it will not be a commercial proposition for some time, +the Egypt-Karachi route, shortening as it will the delivery of mails +between England and India by two-thirds, and England and Australia by +one-third, offers greater results than the various other schemes at +present contemplated. There are, however, certain considerations which +will have to be weighed before the immense amount of work necessary to +its initiation as a commercial air route is begun. The French, for +instance, hope to push a trunk air route to India via Constantinople, +and this line has the advantage of avoiding a long sea and desert +crossing. On the other hand, it will be a very difficult matter to +negotiate the mountains of Anatolia. + +If enterprises of this kind are successfully started, if each of our +self-governing Dominions and Colonies encourages civil aviation within +its own territory, and develops the air-sense of its people, each +portion of the Empire, by a process of natural expansion, and by the +gradual extension of local air lines to merge with those from other +portions of the Empire, will assist in eventually forming a continuous +chain of inter-Imperial air communication. Such a process of internal +development, supported by close co-operation between the States of the +Imperial Commonwealth, is the best method of obtaining rapidity of air +intercommunication and a system of Imperial air bases necessary to the +strategic security of the Empire. + + + + +CONCLUSION + + +Within the necessarily narrow limits of this survey there has been +traced the history of aviation from the earliest days; the tremendous +impetus given to it by the war has been described, during the course of +which not only did air co-operation become essential to the Navy and +Army, but the importance of the Air Force as a separate arm, with its +own strategic action, steadily grew; the increasing preponderance which +aerial warfare will have in the future, and the horrors which it may +bring, have been touched upon; and the possibilities of civil aviation +in peace and war have been outlined. + +The conclusion has been reached that we cannot dispense with aviation, +even if we would. We must consider it as a whole and lay down the broad +principles on which it should be developed. The air (I write as one who +during the last months of the war held the post of Chief of the Air +Staff) materially helped, if it did not actually win, the fight. It has +greatly complicated and increased the problems of defence. In future its +influence on these problems will be still greater. The air has no +boundaries. Great Britain and the Empire are no longer protected by the +seas. A correct assessment of their needs will entail a growing ratio +of air force to Army and Navy, and air power will in itself depend on +the development of civil aviation. + +But though air action may be expected with justice to grow in proportion +to that of the Army and Navy, and will certainly absorb certain +functions of both, it would be unwise, at this early stage of +development, for air forces to attempt too much at a time--such as, for +instance, to garrison geographically unsuitable countries. + +A certain amount of reliance could also be placed on civil machines +temporarily borrowed for purely policing measures in uncivilized +countries, or for the assistance of Government during civil +disturbances; and for such purposes it should not be difficult to devise +a scheme, especially when the State exercises a measure of control +through the grant of subsidies, for the obligatory enrolment of civil +commercial pilots in the reserve, and for periodical refresher courses +for pilots, who are not actually in the service of companies, at civil +aerodromes. Such systems are in force in France and Canada. In the event +of war the independent striking air force could thus count upon a large +proportion of civil reserve pilots and machines. + +Air, allied to chemistry and the submarine, will be a difficult +combination to withstand. The more its potential terrors are grasped, +the less likely is war to be loosed upon the world, and it cannot be +realized too clearly how much more easily than any other instrument of +warfare aircraft and gas can be cheaply and secretly prepared by a +would-be belligerent. Meanwhile, if civil aviation can be built up as a +productive organization to a position relative to that held by our +mercantile marine, we must understand that it will ensure air supremacy +better than a large unproductive outlay on armaments. And I am convinced +that, with public support, this can, and will, be done. Others will do +it if we do not. But air power, although drawing its vitality from the +expansion of air commerce and the growth of the civil aircraft industry, +must at the same time rely upon the nucleus of a highly trained and +technical air force. Service aviation must be the spearhead, civil +aviation the shaft, of our air effort. + +The present isolation of England in terms of air from the rest of the +Empire, and the geographical conditions already described, certainly +render the national expansion of aviation, both external and internal, a +difficult problem. It is clear that for this reason it must rather +develop on an Imperial basis. The Dominions have already started +valuable civil air work and have appointed Air Boards. Whatever the +political settlement of Egypt may be, it is important that our air +interests at this "hub" of Imperial aviation should be safeguarded. Air +communication between the various portions of the Empire may prove of +inestimable value in a future world war, and Dominion air forces may be +able quickly to concentrate against enemy territory which is out of the +range of aircraft operating from home. We have seen the value of +aircraft operating from land bases for naval patrol, anti-submarine +action, and direct attack on enemy shipping. With the increasing radius +of action of seaplanes and other naval aircraft, the Army and Navy may +be relieved of certain of their duties in coast defence and in +protecting Imperial trade routes. For these reasons, aircraft bases are +required throughout the Empire, and it is the commercial development of +aviation which is the best means of ensuring their establishment. It +will be for the Imperial authorities, while attending to local +conditions and requirements, to co-ordinate as far as possible the air +effort of the Empire, so that in peace communications may be developed +and in the event of war its full power may rapidly be utilized on a +co-operative basis. + +Civil aviation is not, however, merely a method of amplifying service +air power. It has a vast potential value of its own. Communications +shape human destinies. The evolution of our civilization bears strongly +the marks of the systems which at various stages have made the +intercourse of men and ideas possible. Its history is one of endeavour +to extend the limits imposed upon human living and mobility in each of +the great phases through which it has passed. + +There was the phase of the coracle and the roller-wheeled vehicle, +stretching back into the roadless mists of unrecorded time; of roads +which gradually linked the important areas of the Roman Empire; of +inland and coastal waterways; of ocean traffic, and its huge advance +with the discovery of steam-power, which brought England to the fore. + +With each phase the world shrinks smaller and the mists of the unknown +recede. The development of human mobility is the greatest marvel of the +present age. We can hardly realize that it was only the other day, as +these things go--in 1819, just a hundred years before the same feat was +accomplished by air-that the first sailing ship fitted with auxiliary +steam (and not until 1828 that a real steamship) crossed the Atlantic. + +Strain and competition are increasing. Trains vie with ships; motor +transport with trains. Telephones, wireless, cables, and flying are +speeding up communications to a degree undreamed of a few years ago. If +the air is to be a prime factor in the world-phase to come, how will the +British Empire be affected? Stretching from Great Britain to Australia +and the Pacific Ocean, the Empire depends more than any other political +and commercial organization on the most modern and speedy +communications, and as each of its portions assumes greater +responsibility there is greater need for co-operation, the distribution +of information, and the personal contact of statesmen and business men. +"The old order changeth, yielding place to new"; and in communications +the new order is air transport. + +Equally important is the international aspect. To-day we are deeply +concerned with the maintenance of peace, and this can be achieved, not +so much by the action of Governments, or the efforts of the League of +Nations, as by the personal association of individuals of one nation +with those of another, and an increasing recognition of common +interests. I conceive that civil aviation, by reducing the time factor +of intercommunication, will tend to bring peoples into closer touch +with each other and will make for mutual understanding. The Peace Treaty +provided for an Air Convention for the international control of civil +aviation. The Convention has been signed by all the Allied nations which +took part in the war, and I hope other countries will shortly be +included. As soon as the Convention has been ratified, the International +Commission of Air Navigation will be established, and for the first time +the world will see the international control of a great transport +service. I believe this will prove an important practical step towards +international co-operation and goodwill. + +We have no excuse for ignorance of the effects of Imperial and +international co-operation. The war gave us an example of what the +British Empire can do, provided its combined knowledge and effort is +brought to bear for one great purpose; and in no respect was this better +exemplified than in the utilization and scientific development of +aviation. The world-position of the Empire as a whole is still the best. +Commerce and communications are its bonds, and, if we are so determined, +it is in our power to shape the destinies of the future. + +A definite advance has been made since the Armistice and, if all goes +well, a very much greater one will be made during the next two or three +years, and in ten years mercantile air services will be operating on a +self-supporting basis. The science and concentration employed in the war +must be made to serve the requirements of peace. Readiness for, and +success in, war are vital when war is unavoidable, but in peace it is +civil and commercial activity which is vital. + +As in its infancy it seemed incredible to those responsible for the +direction of the older services that the air would be their most +valuable partner; as, during the war, they grudged its logical +development to strike widely where they could not reach, and tried to +tether it closely to them, so now in peace the air is struggling to +attain the apotheosis of communication. + +In the phase of world commerce of which we are on the threshold, +science, brain-power, energy, and faith must, and increasingly will, be +harnessed to the work of perfecting air communication so that human +mobility can be increased, knowledge interchanged, and the fruits of +production distributed throughout the world. + +As a soldier I have of course dwelt on the possibility of war in the +future and of the part which aviation would play in it, but it would be +a great mistake--though I think that mistake is constantly made--to +suppose that soldiers look forward with equanimity to the prospect of +war. On the contrary, soldiers, more even than civilians, if this be +possible, realize the horrors of war and recognize that the great task +rests upon the statesmen of all nations, and upon humanity itself, of +taking whatever steps can be taken to prevent its recurrence. + +We may at least assume that another great war will not be allowed in our +generation. But war, in spite of its horrors, in spite of its +bereavements, is only too quickly forgotten. A comparatively few years, +and those who have passed through its fire are no more. New wealth is +created; new antagonisms arise; and a new generation remembers only the +romantic stories and the martial deeds of its fathers, or, more fatally, +organizes itself to avenge defeat. Then, once again, forgetful of the +terrible lesson we have learned, the great nations of the world may +unsheathe the sword as the only solution to their problems. Our only +hope lies in using the ensuing years to educate mankind to the principle +that war brings misery and impoverishment to all engaged in it, that in +the final victory it is not a question of which is left the strongest, +but which is the least exhausted, and that national are as susceptible +as personal differences to discussion and arbitration. Above all, let us +guard against the old mistake of competitive armaments. There is no +reason, for instance, why, because France, our friend and ally, is +adopting a policy of air armaments, we should blindly pile up aeroplane +against aeroplane, pilot against pilot, and thus provoke mutual +suspicion. + +The possibility of war remains, however, and I wish in conclusion to +emphasize the fact that in my belief the security of this country in the +event of war will depend upon our strength in the air. The development +of the offensive powers of aviation have already destroyed "the silver +streak" on which we relied in the past. When we remember that it is less +than twenty years since the first successful aeroplane was flown, when +we recall the almost miraculous development of the fighting powers of +aircraft during the four and a half years of war, and also the further +developments which were on the point of being utilized when the war +ended, it seems certain that from the point of view of war Britain has +ceased to be an island. The "silver streak" would have been little +protection but for our naval supremacy, and in the future our security +will depend as much upon superiority in the air as it has depended in +the past upon our superiority at sea. And this superiority in the air +can only be attained in the same way in which we secured our supremacy +at sea. That supremacy was not really gained by developing great navies. +It was gained by our mercantile marine, which made the great navies +possible. Our future security can only be gained by the development of +commercial aviation. + + +_Printed in Great Britain by_ Butler & Tanner, _Frome and London_. + + + + +Transcriber's Endnotes: + + Variant spellings, e.g. _Frankfort_ and _Frankfurt_, remain as + printed. Significant amendments have been listed below: + + Page 67, 'Poperighe' amended to _Poperinghe_. + + Page 117, 'Junker' amended to _Junkers_. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Aviation in Peace and War, by +Sir Frederick Hugh Sykes + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AVIATION IN PEACE AND WAR *** + +***** This file should be named 25244.txt or 25244.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/2/4/25244/ + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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