148 files changed, 13177 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/25244-8.txt b/25244-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8087abd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,3954 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Aviation in Peace and War, by Sir Frederick Hugh Sykes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Aviation in Peace and War
+
+Author: Sir Frederick Hugh Sykes
+
+Release Date: April 30, 2008 [EBook #25244]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AVIATION IN PEACE AND WAR ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+             AVIATION IN
+            PEACE AND WAR
+
+
+                  BY
+
+    Major-General Sir F. H. SYKES
+        G.B.E., K.C.B., C.M.G.
+     LATE CHIEF OF THE AIR STAFF
+                 AND
+ CONTROLLER-GENERAL OF CIVIL AVIATION
+
+
+                LONDON
+         EDWARD ARNOLD & CO.
+                 1922
+       [_All rights reserved_]
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+    Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note, whilst
+    more significant amendments have been listed at the end of the text.
+    The oe ligature is represented by [oe].
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                PAGE
+ INTRODUCTION                                                      7
+
+ CHAPTER I. PRE-WAR                                                9
+
+   Early Thoughts on Flight. The Invention of the Balloon.
+   First Experiments in Gliders and Aeroplanes. The Wright
+   Brothers and their Successors in Europe. The First
+   Airships. The Beginnings of Aviation in England. The
+   Inception and Development of Aircraft as Part of the
+   Forces of the Crown: the Balloon Factory; the Air
+   Battalion; the Royal Flying Corps, the Military Wing,
+   the Naval Wing. Tactics and the Machine. Conclusions.
+
+ CHAPTER II. WAR                                                  44
+
+   General Remarks on War Development. Co-operation with
+   the Army: Reconnaissance; Photography; Wireless;
+   Bombing; Contact Patrol; Fighting. Co-operation with
+   the Navy: Coast Defence, Patrol and Convoy Work; Fleet
+   Assistance, Reconnaissance, Spotting for Ships' Guns;
+   Bombing; Torpedo Attack. Home Defence: Night Flying
+   and Night Fighting. The Machine and Engine. Tactics
+   and the Strategic Air Offensive. Organization.
+
+ CHAPTER III. PEACE                                               96
+
+   The Future of Aerial Defence. Civil Aviation: as a
+   Factor in National Security; as an Instrument of
+   Imperial Progress; Financial and Economic Problems;
+   Weather Conditions and Night Flying; Organization; the
+   Machine and Engine. Air Services: British, Continental
+   and Imperial.
+
+ CONCLUSION                                                      131
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Since the earliest communities of human beings first struggled for
+supremacy and protection, the principles of warfare have remained
+unchanged. New methods have been evolved and adopted with the progress
+of science, but no discovery, save perhaps that of gunpowder, has done
+so much in so short a time to revolutionize the conduct of war as
+aviation, the youngest, yet destined perhaps to be the most effective
+fighting-arm. Yet to-day we are only on the threshold of our knowledge,
+and, striking as was the impetus given to every branch of aeronautics
+during the four years of war, its future power can only dimly be seen.
+
+We may indeed feel anxious about this great addition of aviation to the
+destructive power of modern scientific warfare. Bearing its terrors in
+mind, we may even impotently seek to check its advance, but the appeal
+of flying is too deep, its elimination is now impossible, and granted
+that war is inevitable, it must be accepted for good or ill.
+Fortunately, although with the other great scientific additions,
+chemical warfare and the submarine, its potentialities for destruction
+are very great, yet aircraft, unlike the submarine, can be utilized not
+only in the conduct of war but in the interests of peace, and it is
+here that we can guide and strengthen it for good. Just as the naval
+supremacy of Britain was won because commercially we were the greatest
+seafaring people in the world, so will air supremacy be achieved by that
+country which, making aviation a part of its everyday life, becomes an
+airfaring community.
+
+Our nation as a whole has been educated, owing to its geographical
+situation and by tradition, to interest itself in the broader aspects of
+marine policy and development. It requires to take the same interest in
+aviation, a comparatively new subject, unhampered to a great extent by
+preconceived notions and therefore offering greater scope for individual
+thought.
+
+The following sketch[1] has been written in the hope that some of those
+who read it may be inspired to study aviation in one or other of its
+branches, whether from the historical, technical, strategical, or
+commercial point of view. Any opinions expressed are, of course, my own
+and not official.
+
+[1] First written and delivered as the Lees-Knowles Lectures at
+Cambridge University in February and March, 1921.
+
+I propose first briefly to trace the history of aviation from its
+beginnings to the outbreak of war; next to describe the evolution of
+aircraft and of air strategy during the war; and last to estimate the
+present position and to look into the future.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+PRE-WAR
+
+
+EARLY THOUGHTS ON FLIGHT.
+
+The story of the growth of aviation may be likened to that of the
+discovery and opening up of a new continent. A myth arises, whence no
+one can tell, of the existence of a new land across the seas. Eventually
+this land is found without any realization of the importance of the
+discovery. Then comes the period of colonization and increasing
+knowledge. But the interior remains unexplored. So, in the case of
+aviation, man was long convinced, for no scientific reason, that flight
+was possible. With the first ascent by balloon came the imagined mastery
+of the air; later, the invention of flight that can be controlled at
+will. To-day we are still in the stage of colonization. The future
+resources of the air remain hidden from our view.
+
+The Daedalean myth and the ancient conception of the winged angelic host
+show how the human mind has long been fascinated by the idea of flight,
+but the first design of an apparatus to lift man into the air, a
+parachute-like contrivance, was only reached at the end of the fifteenth
+century in one of Leonardo da Vinci's manuscripts. About the same time
+lived the first of the long line of daring practical aviators, without
+whom success would never have been achieved, one John Damian, a
+physician of the Court of James IV of Scotland, who "took in hand to fly
+with wings, and to that effect caused make a pair of wings of feathers,
+which being fastened upon him, he flew off the castle wall of Stirling,
+but shortly he fell to the ground and brake his thigh-bone."
+
+Nearly 250 years later the aeronaut had not made much progress, for we
+read of the Marquis de Bacqueville in 1742 attaching to his arms and
+legs planes of his own design and launching himself from his house in
+the attempt to fly across the Seine, into which, regrettably, he fell.
+
+Meanwhile the seventeenth-century philosophers had been theorizing. In
+1638 John Wilkins, the founder of the Royal Society, published a book
+entitled _Daedalus, or Mechanical Motions_. A few years later John
+Glanville wrote in _Scepsis Scientifica_ "to them that come after us it
+may be as ordinary to buy a pair of wings to fly into remotest regions,
+as now a pair of boots to ride a journey," the sceptic proving a truer
+prophet than the enthusiast. By 1680 Giovanni Borelli had reached the
+conclusion, in his book _De Volatu_, that it was impossible that man
+should ever achieve flight by his own strength. Nor was he more likely
+to do so in the first aerial ship, designed in 1670 by Francesco Lana,
+which was to be buoyed up in the air by being suspended from four
+globes, made of thin copper sheeting, each of them about 25 feet in
+diameter. From these globes the air was to be exhausted, so that each,
+being lighter than the atmosphere, would support the weight of two or
+three men. A hundred years elapsed before Dr. Joseph Black of the
+University of Edinburgh made the first practical suggestion, that a
+balloon inflated with hydrogen would rise.
+
+
+THE INVENTION OF THE BALLOON.
+
+It was in 1783 that Montgolfier conceived the idea of utilizing the
+lifting power of hot air and invited the Assembly of Vivarais to watch
+an exhibition of his invention, when a balloon, 10 feet in
+circumference, rose to a height of 6,000 feet in under ten minutes. This
+was followed by a demonstration before Louis XVI at Versailles, when a
+balloon carrying a sheep, a cock, and a duck, rose 1,500 feet and
+descended safely. And on November 21st of the same year Pilatre de
+Rozier, accompanied by the Marquis d'Arlande, made the first human
+ascent, in the "Reveillon," travelling 5 miles over Paris in twenty
+minutes.
+
+England, it is not surprising to learn, was behind with the invention,
+but on November 25th, 1783, Count Francesco Zambeccari sent up from
+Moorfields a small oilskin hydrogen balloon which fell at Petworth; and
+in August of 1784 James Tytler ascended at Edinburgh in a fire balloon,
+thus achieving the first ascent in Great Britain. In the same year
+Lunardi came to London and ballooning became the rage. It was an
+Englishman, Dr. Jefferies, who accompanied Blanchard in the first
+cross-Channel flight on January 7th, 1785. Fashionable society soon
+turned to pursuits other than watching balloon ascents, however, and
+the joys of the air were confined to a few adventurous spirits, such as
+Green and Holland, who first substituted coal gas for hydrogen and in
+1836 made a voyage of 500 miles from Vauxhall Gardens to Weilburg in
+Nassau, and James Glaisher, who in the middle of the century began to
+make meteorological observations from balloons, claiming on one
+occasion, in 1862, to have reached the great height of 7 miles.
+
+
+FIRST EXPERIMENTS IN GLIDERS AND AEROPLANES.
+
+The world seemed content to have achieved the balloon, but there were a
+few men who realized that the air had not been conquered, and who
+believed that success could only be attained by the scientific study and
+practice of gliding. Prominent among these, Sir George Cayley, in 1809,
+published a paper on the Navigation of the Air, and forecasted the
+modern aeroplane, and the action of the air on wings. In 1848 Henson and
+Stringfellow, the latter being the inventive genius, designed and
+produced a small model aeroplane--the first power-driven machine which
+actually flew. It is now in the Smithsonian Institute at Washington. Of
+greater practical value were the gliding experiments by Otto Lilienthal,
+of Berlin, and Percy Pilcher, an Englishman, at the end of the last
+century. Both these men met their death in the cause of aviation.
+Another step forward was made by Laurence Hargrave, an Australian, who
+invented the box and soaring kite and eighteen machines which flew.
+
+From the theoretical point of view, Professor Langley, an American,
+reached in his _Experiments in Aerodynamics_ the important conclusion
+that weight could best be countered by speed. From theory Langley turned
+to practice and in 1896 designed a steam-driven machine which flew
+three-quarters of a mile without an operator. Seven years later, at the
+end of 1903, he produced a new machine fitted with a 52 horse-power
+engine weighing less than 5 lb. per horse-power; but this machine was
+severely damaged ten days before Wilbur Wright made his first flight in
+a controlled power-driven aeroplane.
+
+
+THE WRIGHT BROTHERS AND THEIR SUCCESSORS IN EUROPE.
+
+The Wright brothers directed their whole attention to aviation in 1899.
+By 1902, as the result of many experiments, they had invented a glider
+with a horizontal vane in front, a vertical vane behind, and a device
+for "warping" the wings. Their longest glide was 622-1/4 feet. This was
+followed by the construction of a machine weighing 600 lb., including
+the operator and an 8 horse-power engine, which on December 17th, 1903,
+realized the dreams of centuries.
+
+After an increasing number of experiments, a machine built in 1905 flew
+24-1/4 miles at a speed of 38 miles an hour. It is interesting to recall
+that the new invention was refused once by the United States and three
+times by the British Government.
+
+It was not until September 13th, 1906, that Ellehammer, a Danish
+engineer, made the first free flight in Europe, his machine flying 42
+metres at a height of a metre and a half. About the same time reports
+of the Wrights' successes began to reach Europe and were quickly
+appreciated by the French.
+
+Space forbids that I should enter into the achievements of the early
+French aviators, among whom the names of Ferber, Bleriot and Farman will
+always rank high in the story of human faith, courage and determination.
+It is a record of rapid advance. Farman made a circuit flight of 1
+kilometre in 1908, and flew from Chalons to Rheims, a distance of 27
+kilometres, in twenty minutes. Bleriot crossed the Channel in a
+monoplane of his own design in forty minutes. French designers improved
+the control system, and French machines became famous. The records of
+the Rheims meeting of 1909 serve to illustrate the progress made during
+the first phase of aviation. Latham won the altitude prize by flying to
+a height of over 500 feet. Farman the prize for the flight of longest
+duration by remaining more than three hours in the air, and the
+passenger carrying prize by carrying two passengers round a 10-kilometre
+course in 10-1/2 minutes. The Gnome rotary engine was first used with
+success at this meeting.
+
+Before turning to the pioneer efforts in England and the pre-war
+organization of our air forces, some account of the development of the
+lighter-than-air dirigible is desirable.
+
+
+THE FIRST AIRSHIPS.
+
+The earliest conception of an airship is to be found in General
+Meusnier's design in 1784 for an egg-shaped balloon driven by three
+screw propellers, worked, of course, by hand. The chief interest in his
+design, though it never materialized, lies in the fact that it provided
+for a double envelope and was the precursor of the ballonet. The first
+man-carrying airship was built by Henri Giffard in 1852. It had a
+capacity of 87,000 cu. feet, a length of 144 feet, a 3 horse-power
+engine, and a speed of 6 miles an hour. A gas engine was first used
+twenty years later in an Austrian dirigible, giving a speed of 3 miles
+an hour. About the same time much useful work was accomplished by Dupuy
+de Lome, whose dirigible, with a propeller driven by man power, gave a
+speed of 5-1/2 miles an hour. Twelve years later, in 1884, two French
+Army officers, Captain Kubs and Captain Renard, constructed the first
+successful power-driven lighter-than-air craft fitted with an 8-1/2
+horse-power electric motor, which may be regarded as the progenitor of
+all subsequent non-rigid airships. In 1901 Santos Dumont flew round the
+Eiffel Tower, travelling 6-3/4 miles in 1-1/2 hours, and in 1903 the
+flight of the "Lebaudy," covering a distance of 40 miles at a speed of
+20 miles an hour, led the French military authorities to take up the
+question of airships.
+
+What the French initiated, the Germans, concentrating with
+characteristic thoroughness on the development of the rigid as opposed
+to the non-rigid airship, improved. In 1896 Wolfert's rigid airship
+attained a speed of 9 miles an hour and in 1900 the first Zeppelin was
+launched. Whatever we may think of the German methods of using their
+airships during the war, we cannot but admire the courage and
+determination of Count Zeppelin, who, in spite of many mishaps,
+succeeded in producing the finest airships in the world and inspiring
+the German people with a faith in the air which they have never lost.
+From 1905 onwards development was rapid. In 1907 Zeppelin voyaged in
+stages from Friedrichshaven to Frankfort, a distance of 200 miles in
+7-1/2 hours. Popular enthusiasm is illustrated by the fact that within a
+few months the same airship made four hundred trips, carrying 8,551
+passengers and covering 29,430 miles. Other airships showed similar
+records. Between 1909 and 1913 eighteen of the Parseval type were built,
+and 1912 saw the construction of the first Schutte-Lanz, designed
+expressly for naval and military purposes. If France at this period led
+the world in aeroplane design, Germany was undeniably ahead in airship
+development.
+
+In Great Britain, in 1905, we had one very small airship, designed and
+constructed by Willows.
+
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF AVIATION IN ENGLAND.
+
+Though the names of Pilcher, Dunne, Howard Wright, and Rolls testify to
+the fact that the science of aviation had its followers in England at
+the beginning of this century, flying came comparatively late, and the
+real interest of the movement centres round the early efforts of
+military aviation from 1912 onwards. Nevertheless this country could ill
+have dispensed with the experiments of that small and courageous band of
+aviators, among whom Dickson and Cody were prominent. By 1908 Cody had
+built an aeroplane and was making experimental flights at Aldershot. In
+1907, A. V. Roe, working under great difficulties, constructed and flew
+his first machine, a triplane fitted with an 8-10 horse-power twin
+cylinder Jap bicycle engine, the first tractor type machine produced by
+any country, and a very important contribution to the science of flight.
+In 1910 and 1911 we find de Havilland, Frank Maclean and the Short
+Brothers, Ogilvie, Professor Huntingdon, Sopwith and the Bristol
+Company, starting on the design and construction of machines, of which
+the names have since become famous. At the same time certain centres of
+aviation came into existence, such as Brooklands, where I well remember
+beginning to fly in August, 1910, Hendon, Larkhill and Eastchurch,
+destined to be the centre of naval aviation. It is significant, however,
+of the slow progress made that by November 1st, 1910, only twenty-two
+pilot's certificates had been issued, and it was Conneau, a French naval
+officer, who in 1911 won the so-called "Circuit of Britain," i.e. a
+flight from Brooklands and back via Edinburgh, Glasgow, Exeter and
+Brighton. Cody and Valentine were the only British competitors to
+complete the full course.
+
+In May 1911 a demonstration was organized by the owners of the Hendon
+Aerodrome to which a large number of Cabinet Ministers, members of
+parliament, and army and navy officers were invited. The War Office
+co-operated by arranging for a small force of horse, foot and guns to be
+secretly disposed in a specified area some miles distant and by
+detailing two officers, of whom I was one, to test what could be done to
+find and report them by air. I remember that I had a special map
+prepared, the first used in this, and I think any country, for the
+aeroplane reconnaissance of troops. After a sufficiently exciting trip,
+and with the troops successfully marked on the map, Hubert, my French
+pilot, and I, returned and made our report to General Murray, the
+Director of Military Training. It was a very interesting flight; the
+weather good; our height about 1,500 feet; the machine a 50 horse-power
+Gnome "box-kite" Henri Farman, which at one period of our 35 mile an
+hour return journey elected to point itself skywards for an unpleasant
+second or two and fly "cabr�"; I can see Hubert now anxiously forcing
+his front elevator downwards and shouting to me to lean forward in order
+to help to bring the nose to a more comfortable bearing!
+
+Many pages could be filled with the difficulties and exploits of the
+first British aviators, but enough has been said to show that, compared
+with that of aeroplanes in France and of airships in Germany,
+development in this country started late, progressed slowly and excited
+little public interest. The work of the pioneers was, however, not in
+vain, since it opened the eyes of our military authorities to the value
+of aviation and led to the formation of that small but highly efficient
+flying corps which during the war expanded into an organization without
+rival. Let us now turn to the inception of the air forces of the Crown
+and the position with regard to these and to air tactics at the outbreak
+of war.
+
+
+THE INCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF AIRCRAFT AS PART OF THE FORCES OF THE
+CROWN.
+
+Nations have tended to regard flight as a prerogative of war. A balloon
+school was formed in the early days of the French revolutionary wars;
+the French victory at Fleurus in 1794 was ascribed to balloon
+reconnaissance; balloons were used by the Federal Army in the American
+Civil War, and during the Siege of Paris Gambetta effected his escape by
+balloon in 1871.
+
+
+_The Balloon Factory._
+
+In England experiments were begun at Woolwich Arsenal in 1878, and in
+1883 a Balloon Factory, a Dep�t and a School of Instruction were
+established at Chatham. The expedition to Bechuanaland in 1884, under
+the command of Sir Charles Warren, was accompanied by a detachment of
+three balloons, and the following year balloons co-operated with the
+Sudan Expeditionary Force, when Major Elsdale carried out some
+photographic experiments from the air.
+
+In 1890 a balloon section was introduced into the Army as a unit of the
+Royal Engineers, and not long afterwards, the Balloon Factory was
+established at South Farnborough, where in 1912 it was transformed into
+the Royal Aircraft Factory. Four balloon sections took part in the South
+African War and were used during the Siege of Ladysmith, at
+Magersfontein and Paardeburg. Colonel Lynch, who served in the Boer
+Army, stated at a lecture delivered in Paris after the war that "the
+Boers took a dislike to balloons. All other instruments of war were at
+their command; they had artillery superior for the most part to, and
+better served than, that of the English; they had telegraphic and
+heliographic apparatus; but the balloons were the symbol of a scientific
+superiority of the English which seriously disquieted them."
+
+I went through a course in ballooning during leave from West Africa in
+1904 and remember that partly owing to the energy of Colonel Capper,
+partly to the impetus given by the South African War, and partly to the
+growing interest in all things aeronautical throughout the civilized
+world, it was noticeable that the activities of the Balloon Factory were
+increasing in many directions. Although the spherical balloon had been
+improved, its disabilities were recognized and experiments were made
+with elongated balloons, man-flying kites, air photography, signalling
+devices, observation of artillery fire, mechanical apparatus for hauling
+down balloons, and petrol motors. A grant for a dirigible balloon was
+obtained in 1903, though it was not until 1907, the year in which Cody
+began the construction of his aeroplane at Farnborough, and Charles
+Rolls his experiments, that the airship "Nulli Secundus" made her first
+flight. She was about 120 feet long and 30 feet in diameter, and was
+driven by a 40 horse-power engine at a speed of 30 miles an hour. On
+October 5th this airship flew to London in an hour and a half, circled
+round St. Paul's, man[oe]uvred over Buckingham Palace, and descended at
+the Crystal Palace. In the same year, be it remembered, a Zeppelin had
+made a trip of 200 miles from Friedrichshaven to Frankfort. The "Nulli
+Secundus" was followed in 1910 by the "Beta" and the "Gamma."
+
+Meanwhile an Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been appointed, and
+the National Physical Laboratory had organized a department at
+Teddington for the investigation of aeronautical problems in
+co-operation with the Balloon Factory.
+
+
+_The Air Battalion._
+
+In 1911 the authorities could no longer close their eyes, especially at
+a time when rumours of war were rife, to the rapid development of
+heavier-than-air craft on the Continent. So far, as we have seen, the
+aeroplane had been regarded in England as little more than the plaything
+of a few adventurous but foolhardy spirits. A certain amount of
+experience in piloting and handling aeroplanes had been gained by a
+handful of Army officers, but the machines used either belonged to the
+officers themselves, to civilians, or to aviation firms. I was at that
+time a general staff officer in the Directorate of Military Operations
+under General Wilson, now Field Marshal and late Chief of the Imperial
+General Staff, and was the only officer in the War Office who had
+learned to fly. It appeared very important that a study of the military
+possibilities of aviation should be made. The prime r�le of cavalry,
+reconnaissance, seemed to have passed from it. In addition to my normal
+duties, I visited France, Germany and Italy, collected information on
+foreign activities, wrote reports, and tried to create a knowledge of
+the possible effect of future military aeronautics and to urge the
+formation of a flying corps.
+
+In 1911 the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers, consisting of
+Headquarters, No. 1 Company (Airships) and No. 2 Company (Aeroplanes),
+was formed and superseded the Balloon School. The creation of No. 2
+Company, stationed at Larkhill, marked the first formation of a British
+military unit composed entirely of heavier-than-air aircraft. The same
+year witnessed the inception of the B.E., F.E. and S.E. type machines in
+the Balloon Factory, but the total of our machines, both for naval and
+military requirements, amounted to something less than twelve aeroplanes
+and two small airships; and the mishaps suffered by the military
+machines on their flight from Larkhill to Cambridge, to take part in
+Army Man[oe]uvres, were significant of their unreliability.
+
+
+_The Royal Flying Corps._
+
+In view, therefore, of the reports received of the progress abroad, the
+Air Battalion was clearly insufficient to meet the demands which might
+be made upon it in the event of war; and at the end of 1911 the Prime
+Minister instructed a standing Sub-Committee of the Committee of
+Imperial Defence to consider the future development of air navigation
+for naval and military purposes. As a result of their deliberations the
+Committee recommended the creation of a British Air Service to be
+regarded as one and designated the Royal Flying Corps; the division of
+the Corps into a Naval Wing, a Military Wing, and a Central Flying
+School; the maintenance of the closest possible collaboration between
+the Corps, the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and the Aircraft (late
+Balloon) Factory; and the appointment of a permanent Consultative
+Committee, named the Air Committee, to deal with all aeronautical
+questions affecting both the Admiralty and the War Office.
+
+Consequent upon these recommendations, a Technical Sub-Committee was
+formed, consisting of Brig.-General Henderson, Major MacInnes of the
+directorate of Military Training at the War Office, a splendid officer,
+who died during the war, and myself, to draft the new scheme. The
+objects kept in view in framing our peace organization were to suit it
+to war conditions, as far as they could be foreseen, to base it on an
+efficient self-contained unit, and, while allowing for the wide
+differences between naval and military requirements, to ensure the
+maximum co-operation between the two branches of the Service. Success
+beyond expectation was achieved in the first two objects, but, as will
+be seen, the naval and military branches tended for unforeseen but good
+reasons to diverge, until they joined hands again in 1918 as the Royal
+Air Force. The bases of the military organization were, a headquarters,
+the squadron, and the flying dep�t. These proved their value during the
+war and have remained the units of our air forces to this day. The
+Military Wing was to form a single and complete organization and contain
+a headquarters, seven aeroplane squadrons, each to consist of twelve
+active machines and six in reserve, one airship and kite squadron, and a
+flying dep�t. All pilots, whether of the Naval or the Military Wing,
+were eventually to graduate at the Central Flying School, whence they
+could join either the Naval Wing at Eastchurch or one of the Military
+Squadrons. In time of war each branch of the Service was to form a
+reserve for the other if required.
+
+
+_The Military Wing._
+
+In accordance with this scheme I received instructions to organize,
+recruit, train and command the Military Wing of the Royal Flying Corps.
+The functions of the Military Wing were quite clear: it was to meet the
+air requirements of the Expeditionary Force primarily for reconnaissance
+purposes, but its organization was framed so that it could easily be
+expanded and the scope of its duties widened. Headquarters were
+established at Farnborough on May 13th, 1912: Barrington-Kennett, an
+officer of the Grenadier Guards who had been attached to the Air
+Battalion, was appointed, and made the best of all possible adjutants;
+and the nucleus of the Corps, consisting at first of the cadres of an
+airship squadron under Edward Maitland, of two aeroplane squadrons under
+Burke and Brooke-Popham, and a flying dep�t (later the aircraft park)
+under Carden, who was a little later greatly assisted in the complex
+matter of technical stores by Beatty, came into existence. At the same
+time the construction of the Central Flying School was started at
+Upavon, under Captain G. Payne, R.N. With regard to the other squadrons
+provided for, the nucleus of No. 4 Squadron was formed the same year,
+and that of No. 5 Squadron the following year, of Nos. 6 and 7
+Squadrons in 1914, while No. 8 Squadron was not started until after the
+outbreak of war.
+
+Records of the progress and growth of the Corps were left at Farnborough
+when the Headquarters and four squadrons went to France in August, 1914,
+and have been lost. This is particularly unfortunate because without
+them it will be difficult for the historian of the Corps adequately to
+describe the beginnings and to assess the value of the work then carried
+out.
+
+The task of forming the new service, which was to do much to assist the
+Army in saving England, was begun. The time was very short. A great
+energy had to be brought to the work. As with all things new, it had to
+contend with apathy and opposition on all sides. There was no precedent
+to help. The organization of the Corps to its smallest detail of
+technical stores, supply and transport had to be thought out. The type
+of machine required; the method of obtaining it from a struggling
+industry; its use and maintenance; the personnel, its training and
+equipment; these, and a thousand other aspects of the question, required
+the employment of a large staff of experts. But the experts did not
+exist and the duties were carried out almost entirely at Farnborough,
+where in addition time had to be found to compile the official training
+and other text books and regulations required for an entirely new arm.
+
+In addition to the innumerable problems inherent in the organization,
+growth and training of the Military Wing, the two years between its
+inception and the outbreak of war were strenuously applied to solving
+the problems of air tactics and strategy. Until the South African War
+the British Army had been drilled under the influence of stereotyped
+Prussian ideas. Perhaps the South African War led too far in an opposite
+direction, but it taught us one thing, which was to prove of such
+importance in 1914--the value of mobility; and we realized in aircraft
+the advent of the most mobile arm the world has yet seen.
+
+All was new. A new Corps. A new element in which to work. New conditions
+in peace akin to those in war. And there had to be developed a new
+spirit, combining the discipline of the old Army, the technical skill of
+the Navy, and the initiative, energy and dash inseparable from flying.
+There were the inevitable accidents, but training had to be done. We
+existed for war and war alone would show whether we had thought and
+worked without respite aright. We had to prove our value to the other
+arms, many of the leaders of which, owing to a long period of peace,
+found difficulty in differentiating between the normal usages of peace
+and war and in understanding the right use of aircraft. Somehow or other
+time was found during 1912, 1913 and 1914 to write to reviews, to
+lecture at army and other centres of training, to attend Staff rides,
+and to endeavour in every way possible to learn how best to work in with
+the army commands and to teach those commands the usefulness and
+limitations of aircraft.
+
+As Ruskin wrote:
+
+    "Man is the engine whose motive power is the soul and the largest
+    quantity of work will not be done by this curious engine for pay,
+    or under pressure, or by the help of any kind of fuel which may be
+    supplied by the cauldron. It will be done only when the will or
+    spirit of the creature is brought to its own greatest strength by
+    its own proper fuel, namely the affection."
+
+I was intensely proud of my command and often thought of the time when,
+as I had been promised, I should, in the event of war, command it in the
+field. We worked at white heat believing that war was coming soon;
+believing that our efforts would have a real effect on the result; and
+determined that the new arm should rank second to none among the forces
+of the Crown. _Esprit de Corps_ was of vital importance, but as officers
+and non-commissioned officers were drawn from every branch and every
+regiment of the army this was no easy matter and was only achieved by
+the splendid example and precept of such men as Herbert, Becke,
+Longcroft, Chinnery and Barrington-Kennett. We selected our motto: "Per
+Ardua ad Astra." It was in this atmosphere that the Military Wing grew
+in peace. It was in this atmosphere that the soul was formed which later
+under the great strain of war impelled our pilots forward cheerfully to
+face every duty and every danger in the true spirit of manliness and
+fearless confidence.
+
+As in framing the original scheme on paper, so in giving it life it was
+our aim to organize the Corps, so that, whatever its future strength, it
+would be sound and efficient, and its continuity of growth effected
+without even temporary dislocation or waste. The tactical unit of the
+Military Wing--the squadron, consisting of three flights, each of four
+machines with two in reserve--had the advantage that it was of
+sufficient size to act independently, while it was not too unwieldy for
+a single command. It was equally suitable for independent or
+co-operative action, and the full complement of seven squadrons would,
+in addition to a reserve, furnish one squadron for each division of an
+Army Expeditionary force of the size then contemplated, though no
+definite allotment of aeroplanes to the lower commands was at first
+intended. The French and Germans, on the other hand, were building up
+their organizations with smaller units, with the result that they found
+even greater difficulties than ourselves in obtaining sufficient
+experienced officers to command them. It is probable that the consequent
+lack of concentration, knowledge and determination to stick to sound
+principles of action was one of the causes underlying the non-success of
+the German air service in the opening phases of the war.
+
+According to the system employed squadrons were formed, organized,
+equipped, and a certain amount of preliminary training carried out, at
+Farnborough, when on completion the squadron moved to one of the
+stations which I had established or was forming at Netheravon, Montrose,
+Gosport, Dover, and Orfordness, Netheravon being the largest. This
+dispersion of squadrons did not affect the entity and cohesion, under
+Wing headquarters at Farnborough, of the Corps as a whole. No. 3
+Squadron, one of the original two referred to, removed to Netheravon
+from Larkhill in June.
+
+Similarly, and in order to avoid congestion at Farnborough, to foster a
+spirit of self-support and to enable air operations to be carried out
+with troops in Scotland, No. 2 Squadron was sent to Montrose. Five of
+its machines flew all the way, and it became one of the principles of
+training that machines should fly whenever a move was ordered. Thus in
+1913 six machines from this squadron were flown from Montrose to
+Limerick--a great feat then--to take part in the Irish Command
+man[oe]uvres, the crossing of the Irish Channel being successfully
+carried out both ways by all machines. Another flight of an experimental
+nature was made by Longcroft, with myself as passenger, from Farnborough
+to Montrose in a single day with only one landing.
+
+The unavoidable and never-relaxing strain inherent in the daily and
+hourly use of an instrument, in the design, maintenance and improvement
+of which we could only grope our way, was very great. In peace before
+the war, as later in the war, the only variation to strain lay in
+periods of increased strain.
+
+At Headquarters, in addition to the normal duties of command and
+co-ordination, and the supply of all technical stores to squadrons,
+there was carried out all recruiting, and I also formed a specialized
+flight for the study of technical problems, such as the use of wireless
+from aircraft. The bulk of experimental work was originally undertaken
+by the Royal Aircraft Factory, under the Superintendent, Mr. O'Gorman,
+who always helped us in every way possible, but by 1913 I felt it
+necessary to enlarge the duties of the special flight and an
+Experimental Section was formed at Wing Headquarters at Farnborough
+with an officer, Musgrave, in charge. In addition, for each squadron an
+officer was appointed Squadron Officer for Experiments, thus ensuring
+the diffusion of information throughout the Corps, and affording the
+opportunity to each unit of carrying out the experiments best suited to
+the material and apparatus at its command. Similarly other individual
+officers were detailed in each squadron on a co-ordinated scheme, for
+such duties as Officer-in-charge of Stores, Workshops, Mechanical
+Transport, Meteorology, etc.
+
+The formation at Farnborough of the Line of Communications R.F.C.
+Workshop or Flying Dep�t--later known as the Aircraft Park--completed
+the organization of the Military Wing.
+
+I was very anxious as early as possible to prove the structure as a
+unified self-supporting, mobile and easily handled flying corps as far
+as it had gone, and in June, 1914, this was done by the concentration in
+camp at Netheravon of the entire Military Wing, comprising Headquarters
+and Headquarters Flight, the four completed squadrons and the nucleus of
+No. 6 Squadron, the Aircraft Park and a detachment of the Kite Section.
+Mobilization, a very difficult process when it came, would have been
+almost impossible had the concentration not taken place. The object of
+the camp was a month's combined training to test personnel, both in the
+air and on the ground, and the handling of aircraft and transport both
+by day and night. Endeavours were made to solve by means of lectures,
+discussions and committees the problems connected with mobilization,
+technical and military training, observation, wireless telegraphy,
+signals, night flying, photography, bomb-dropping, workshops, stores,
+meteorology, transport, shifting of camp and aerodrome, supply and
+maintenance of units in the field, etc.--in fact the whole organization
+essential to the efficiency and cohesion of a Flying Corps, under
+conditions as similar as possible to those expected on active service.
+Very valuable experience was obtained from the work carried out. The
+necessarily wide gaps in our knowledge were brought home in more
+concrete form. It was also evident that the force was very small. But
+within three months it was proved under the strain of war that the
+organization and training had been laid down on sound principles.
+
+
+_The Naval Wing._
+
+As in the case of the Army, it was to airships that the Navy first
+turned its attention, and the birth of naval aviation may be said to
+date from July 21st, 1908, when Admiral Bacon submitted proposals for
+the construction of a rigid airship, the ill-fated "Mayfly" which was
+destroyed on her preliminary trials. The Admiralty thereupon decided to
+discontinue the construction of airships, the development of which was
+left to the Army until May, 1914, when it was decided that all
+airships--that is No. 1 Squadron of the Military Wing--should be taken
+over by the Naval Wing. This was partly the result of a report by two
+Naval Officers, who visited France, Austria and Germany, as was the
+purchase of two vessels of the Parseval and Astra Torres types, and a
+small non-rigid from Willows. The construction of a number of other
+airships was ordered, but for various reasons was delayed or never
+completed up to the outbreak of war.
+
+Although at first sight the functions of the Naval Wing--coast defence
+and work with the Fleet--seemed hardly more difficult to perform than
+those of the Military Wing, in practice, as I was to find later from
+personal experience when in command of the R.N.A.S. at Gallipoli, they
+were more complicated, while the slowness of the Admiralty in evolving a
+clear scheme of employment and a definite objective made itself felt.
+Before the war the achievements of the Naval Wing were due rather to
+individual effort than to a definite policy of organized expansion. It
+was the pilot and the machine rather than the organization which
+developed.
+
+As already stated, Eastchurch was chosen by the Short Brothers for their
+experiments in aeroplanes in 1909, but it was not until 1911 that the
+Admiralty bought two machines and established the first Naval Flying
+School at that place. The same year Commander O. Swann purchased from
+Messrs. A. V. Roe a 35 horse-power biplane and began to carry out
+experiments with different types of floats, as a result of which a
+twin-float seaplane was produced--the first to rise off the water in
+this country.
+
+For some time seaplanes were in a very experimental stage and at best
+could only rise from, and alight on, calm water, though it is
+interesting to note that as far back as 1911 the employment of seaplanes
+for torpedo attack, which I think will be one of the most important
+developments of aircraft in the future, engaged the attention of the
+Navy, and a Sopwith seaplane carrying a 14-inch torpedo made its first
+flight at Calshot in 1913. For this reason, therefore, it appeared that
+principally aeroplanes and airships would have to be employed from shore
+bases for coast defence and that "carrier" ships would be necessary to
+enable seaplanes to work with the Fleet.
+
+The first stations set up were Eastchurch, Isle of Grain, Calshot,
+Felixstowe, Yarmouth, Cromarty and Kingsnorth, from which at the
+outbreak of war an organized coastal patrol was established.
+
+From the outset the Naval Wing, assisted by its large percentage of
+skilled technical personnel, paid great attention to experimental work
+of all sorts. Thus in 1912 the detection of submarines by aircraft was
+taken up, in 1913 valuable results were obtained from bomb-dropping, and
+a large number of experiments in wireless, machine gunnery and fighting
+carried out. In addition, efforts were made to extend the power, range
+and capacity of engine and machine.
+
+The second Naval problem, that of co-operation with the Fleet, involved
+the flight of aircraft from ships and the design of aircraft carriers.
+In 1911 an aeroplane for the first time took off successfully from the
+deck of a cruiser at anchor, and the following year an aeroplane flew
+from H.M.S. "Hibernia," while under weigh, but it was not until after
+the outbreak of war that alighting on decks was successfully
+accomplished. The first ship to be fitted up as a parent ship for
+seaplanes was the "Hermes" in 1913.
+
+These specialized technical requirements and developments explain why
+the Naval Wing and the Royal Naval Air Service tended towards
+individualism rather than cohesion. While the Military Wing, or Royal
+Flying Corps, progressed further as an organized fighting force, the
+Royal Naval Air Service, amongst the 100 odd aeroplanes and seaplanes on
+charge which were mainly of the Short, Sopwith, Avro, Farman and Wright
+types, possessed in 1914 the more powerful engines and a number of
+aeroplanes fitted with wireless and machine guns, while their
+bomb-dropping arrangements were also in a more advanced stage of
+development.
+
+An Air Department was formed at the Admiralty in 1912 to deal with all
+questions relating to naval aircraft. Naval officers were trained from
+the beginning at Eastchurch rather than at the Central Flying School,
+and in 1913 the appointment of an Inspecting Captain for Aircraft, with
+a Central Air Office at Sheerness as his headquarters, accentuated a
+growing tendency for the Naval Wing to work on independent lines.
+
+The Naval Wing grew rapidly and in the middle of 1914 was reorganized as
+the Royal Naval Air Service, comprising the Air Department of the
+Admiralty, the Central Air Office, the Royal Naval Flying School, the
+Royal Naval Air Stations, and all aircraft, seaplane ships and balloons
+employed for naval purposes. This placed the naval air force on a
+self-supporting basis and the entity of the Royal Flying Corps as a
+whole, as originally provided for, was lost.
+
+
+TACTICS AND THE MACHINE.
+
+The value of the application of flying to war requires little
+demonstration. The most important attributes of generalship are quick
+appreciation of a situation and quick decision. To the ordinary
+Commander the absence of information is paralysing. In the nineteenth
+century the mass of cavalry was the special instrument of information
+and to obtain it contact with the enemy's main forces had to be
+effected. It thus acted as a shield and also tried to provide the
+information necessary to enable the infantry to take the offensive.
+
+Aviation, by the wide field of observation it commands, by the speed
+with which it can collect and transmit information, to a great extent
+lifts the fog of war and enables a general to act on knowledge where
+before he acted largely on deduction. Information once obtained, its
+mobile and far-reaching offensive power introduces the element of
+surprise, and permits of lightning strokes against the enemy's vital
+points.
+
+Before the war reconnaissance was regarded as the principal duty of the
+aircraft of the Military Wing. This was due to two reasons, first, the
+obvious one that aircraft possessed advantages shared by no other arm
+for obtaining information quickly and over wide areas and reporting to
+Headquarters, and second, that experiment had proved the difficulty of
+loading aeroplanes with offensive weapons, such as bombs or machine
+guns, without impairing speed and climb.
+
+The following statement, which I drafted and which was issued by the
+General Staff before the Army Man[oe]uvres of 1912, summarizes the
+position:--
+
+    "As regards strategical reconnaissance," it says, "a General is
+    probably now justified in requiring a well-trained flyer, flying a
+    modern aeroplane, to reconnoitre some 70 miles out and return 70
+    miles. This would be done at a speed of, say, 60 miles an hour in
+    ordinary weather over ordinary country. Thus within four hours,
+    allowing a wide margin, a report as to the approximate strength,
+    formation and direction of movement of the enemy, if he is within a
+    70-mile radius, should be in the hands of the Commander."
+
+To those imbued with a knowledge of military history this new method of
+ascertaining the enemy's movements might well seem revolutionary.
+
+Let us take two instances illustrating what aircraft, with a radius of
+little over 100 miles, might have done in previous campaigns. For the
+operations which terminated in the capitulation of Ulm in 1805 Napoleon
+concentrated two army corps at W�rzburg and five along the left bank of
+the Rhine between Mannheim and Strasburg, his main body of cavalry under
+Murat being at the latter place. The Austrian Army under Mack was behind
+the Iller between Ulm and Memmingen, and expected the French to advance
+through the defiles of the Black Forest, where Napoleon did actually
+make a feint with his cavalry. Napoleon, however, crossing the Rhine on
+September 26th, 1805, moved east, and it was not until October 2nd, when
+the French Army had reached the line Ansbach, Langenburg, Hall and
+Ludwigsburg, and his envelopment was far advanced, that Mack realized
+that the main French advance was coming from the north. Aeroplanes of
+the type we possessed in 1914 could have reconnoitred the whole of
+Napoleon's preliminary position, could have detected his line of
+advance, especially as it was concentrated on a very narrow front, and
+could have brought back the information to the Austrian Headquarters
+within a few hours.
+
+Aircraft would have been of even greater value on August 16th, 1870, at
+the Battle of Rezonville, where neither the French nor the Germans were
+aware of the other's movements. On the 14th a battle had been fought
+east of Metz which had resulted in the French retreat. On the morning of
+the 16th Moltke thought the French had retired west by the Metz-Verdun
+road and those to the north of it, and consequently he directed his left
+wing due west towards the Meuse to head off the French, sending his
+right army towards Rezonville to harass their rearguard. The French
+retreat, however, had been slow and two corps were still at Rezonville,
+while three corps and the reserve cavalry were within easy reach, some
+130,000 men in all. At 9 in the morning the German 3rd Corps, unaided
+and far from support, attacked a position within reach of the whole
+French Army, believing it had to deal with a rearguard only. Bazaine, on
+the other hand, thinking that he was faced by the German main army,
+remained on the defensive, and lost the opportunity of defeating in
+detail first the 3rd and then the 10th German Corps. A few aeroplanes
+operating on a radius of 30 miles would have disclosed between daybreak
+and 10 a.m. the true position to either commander. Neither the German
+nor the French cavalry, though both were engaged, obtained any reliable
+information.
+
+The problem as to how far aircraft would reduce the value of cavalry was
+widely discussed before the war. It was seen that by day aircraft could
+obtain quicker and more accurate information, but that cavalry retained
+their power of night reconnaissance, of mobile offensive action and of
+pinning the enemy to his ground by fighting. This was found to be so
+during the retreat, when, in addition to the direct value of aircraft
+for long-distance reconnaissance, an indirect asset of great importance
+lay in the release of the cavalry for battle action in assistance of the
+infantry. The question has become more acute since the offensive action
+of aircraft against ground targets has developed, but although we must
+never forget the splendid work of the mounted arm during the Retreat
+from Mons, and in March, 1918, factors have arisen tending to make the
+use of cavalry a problem of extreme difficulty in European wars, and it
+is possible that, in addition to their reconnaissance functions,
+aircraft will supersede the shock tactics and delaying action of
+cavalry, though this may be modified if, the sabre being a thing of the
+past, cavalry are converted into mounted machine gunners.
+
+Air tactics and training were, therefore, chiefly studied from the point
+of view of reconnaissance. In addition to the possibility of being shot
+at by other aircraft, an important consideration was vulnerability from
+the ground. Before the war reconnaissances were carried out at heights
+varying from 2,000 to 6,000 feet, but it was generally considered that
+the aeroplane was safe from fire from the ground at heights above 3,000
+feet.
+
+Serious difficulties affecting the mobility of aircraft were the means
+of providing a regular supply of fuel and the selection of landing
+grounds when moving camp, which had to be close enough behind the front
+line as not to entail waste of time in flying out and back over friendly
+territory. This was later brought home to us in a very acute form during
+the Retreat from Mons.
+
+As machines improved, increasing attention was paid to bettering their
+power of reconnaissance by air photography, their value in co-operation
+with artillery by wireless equipment, their offensive action by bomb
+dropping and their offence and defence by armament.
+
+The value of a correct initiative and the aeroplane's r�le as an
+offensive weapon were fully appreciated and brought out in the Training
+Manual of the Royal Flying Corps which we compiled at Farnborough, and
+which was published early in 1914 by the War Office. It says:--
+
+    "It is probable that one phase of the struggle for the command of
+    the air will resolve itself into a series of combats between
+    individual aeroplanes, or pairs of aeroplanes. If the pilots of one
+    side can succeed in obtaining victory in a succession of such
+    combats, they will establish a moral ascendancy over the surviving
+    pilots of the enemy, and be left free to carry out their duties of
+    reconnaissance. The actual tactics must depend on the types of the
+    aeroplanes engaged, the object of the pilot being to obtain for his
+    passenger the free use of his own weapon while denying to the enemy
+    the use of his. To disable the pilot of the opposing aeroplane will
+    be the first object. In the case of fast reconnaissance aeroplanes
+    it will often be advisable to avoid fighting, in order to carry out
+    a mission or to deliver information; but it must be borne in mind
+    that this will be sometimes impossible, and that, as in every other
+    class of fighting, a fixed determination to attack and win will be
+    the surest road to victory."
+
+Speaking generally, the evolution of the machine, as apart from the
+engine, which hung behind, followed upon the evolution of air tactics.
+As soon as experience, often hard won at the cost of a valuable life,
+opened up new fields of activity for aircraft, the designer and
+constructor evolved new designs to meet the new requirements. It was no
+small achievement in this period to have solved the problem of inherent
+stability, both in theory and practice, so successfully, that from the
+aerodynamic standpoint our machines in 1914 compare favourably with
+those in use at the end of the war.
+
+In dealing with the evolution of the machine during the three years
+prior to the war there are three landmarks: in the autumn of 1911 the
+few machines belonging to the Air Battalion failed to reach their
+destination for Army Man[oe]uvres; in May, 1912, the Royal Flying Corps
+was formed and experiments with a view to meeting military requirements
+were for the first time energetically and methodically prosecuted; and
+in August, 1914, four squadrons flew to France with machines which had
+attained a high degree of stability and were not inferior to any of
+those possessed by other countries. When it is remembered in what a
+short time these machines were evolved, it is not surprising that
+attention had been chiefly confined to the problem of the 'plane and
+stability, the engine and speed and reliability. Wireless, bombing,
+photography, night flying and machine gunnery had been discussed and
+experimented with, but no progress was made comparable to that effected
+under war conditions.
+
+Machines and engines before the war were chiefly French. It is
+interesting to note those with which No. 3 Squadron, one of the first to
+be formed, commenced its career in May, 1912. They consisted of one 50
+horse-power Gnome Nieuport, one Deperdussin, which by the way was
+privately owned, one Gnome Bristol, two Gnome Bleriot monoplanes, one
+Avro and one Bristol box-kite biplane. By September, 1912, the Squadron
+possessed fourteen monoplanes, but in that month, owing to the number of
+accidents incurred by them, the use of monoplanes was temporarily
+forbidden, and it was not until April, 1913, that the Squadron was fully
+equipped with B.E. and Maurice Farman biplanes organized in flights.
+
+These types formed the backbone of the Military Wing, which also
+included Codys, Breguets, Avros, and, later, Sopwiths. The B.E.2c was
+produced by the Royal Aircraft Factory in the autumn of 1913 and
+demonstrated its high degree of stability by flying from Aldershot to
+Froyle and from Froyle to Fleet, distances of 6-3/4 and 8 miles
+respectively, without the use of ailerons or elevators. The progress
+made is illustrated by the fact that at the Army Man[oe]uvres of 1913
+twelve machines covered 4,545 miles on reconnaissance and 3,210 miles on
+other flights, accurate observations being made from a height of 6,000
+feet, without serious mishap.
+
+In 1913 I recommended the gradual substitution of B.E.'s for Farmans on
+the ground of the all-round efficiency and superior fighting qualities
+of the former, and to secure the advantage of standardization, but it
+was objected by the War Office that the Farmans were the only machines
+that could mount weapons in front--an objection which was not met until
+firing through the airscrew was introduced--and that the slower Farmans
+offered greater advantages for observation, an idea which was long
+prevalent. As a result, a compromise was effected, and two squadrons
+were equipped with B.E.'s and two with homogeneous flights of Farmans,
+Bleriots and Avros.
+
+At the outbreak of war the most successful machines possessed by the
+Military Wing were the B.E.2 tractor with a 70 horse-power Renault
+engine, a speed of 73 miles an hour, and a climb of 3,000 feet in nine
+minutes; and a Henri Farman pusher with a speed of 60 miles an hour, and
+a climb of 3,000 feet in fourteen minutes. A special study was being
+made in 1914 of the best methods of ensuring clear observation of the
+ground, and partly in this connection staggered planes were introduced,
+culminating in the B.E.2c's, which were not, however, available for
+service in any numbers until 1915.
+
+To sum up, the technical development of aircraft has taken place, and
+will continue side by side with the evolution of the uses to which
+aircraft can be put. While due attention was paid to problems connected
+with the anticipated duties of aircraft ancillary to that of
+reconnaissance, owing to the short space of time between the formation
+of the Royal Flying Corps and the outbreak of war, to the difficulties
+connected with the engine, and to causes inseparable from peace
+conditions, development had been more or less confined to evolving a
+stable and reliable machine with a good field of view.
+
+
+CONCLUSIONS.
+
+The foregoing outline of the development of aviation from the earliest
+times up to the war--a story of human endeavour and achievement in the
+air with its attendant dangers and difficulties--is not without value in
+endeavouring to assess that which has since occurred.
+
+At the beginning of the year 1912 the Royal Flying Corps did not exist.
+At the beginning of the Great War, in 1914, England found herself with
+an air service which, though much smaller than those of Germany or
+France, was so excellently manned and organized, trained and equipped,
+that it placed her at a bound in the front rank of aviation.
+
+The machine was stable, but the engine still unequal to the tasks laid
+upon it. Civil Aviation practically did not exist.
+
+I shall now describe the extension of air duties under war conditions;
+the increasing value of aircraft for general action and air tactics and
+their development and far-reaching effect as the right hand of strategy.
+This resulted in the expansion of our flying corps from a total of 1,844
+officers and men, and seven squadrons with some 150 machines fit for war
+use, to a total of nearly 300,000 officers and men, and 201 squadrons
+and 22,000 machines in use at the end of the war, and in the evolution
+of the machine to a point where we can regard it, not only as a weapon
+of war, but as a new method of transport for commercial purposes in
+peace.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+WAR
+
+
+GENERAL REMARKS ON WAR DEVELOPMENT.
+
+In dealing with the story of the beginnings of aviation and the
+evolution of aircraft up to the war, we have seen that though its growth
+was infinitesimal compared with that which came with the impetus of war,
+the air service took definite and practical shape more rapidly than had
+up to that time any other arm of the Army or Navy in peace.
+
+In 1914 we had reached a point where we possessed a small but mobile and
+efficient flying force, equipped and trained essentially for
+reconnaissance. Although experiments had been made, little had been
+achieved in the use of wireless from aircraft, air photography, bomb
+dropping, armament or the development of air fighting. As with the Army
+and Navy, war quickened and expanded all the attributes of air
+operations in a way which could not have been foreseen before the
+struggle occurred; and, as it would have been impossible for the Army
+and Navy to build up their war organization without the foundation of
+the pre-war service, so it was the splendid quality of the original
+Royal Flying Corps that made this expansion possible.
+
+Before the war the Royal Flying Corps was considerably smaller than the
+air services of either France or Germany, and to attain even the
+strength with which the Military Wing left England the bulk of the
+trained officers and men, and almost all the machines fit for service,
+had to be taken. When I started to raise the Corps, in May, 1912, the
+War Office estimated that its organization, (of a headquarters and seven
+aeroplane and one airship squadrons) would take at least four years;
+instead, there had been little more than two. Even at the risk of
+leaving insufficient personnel and material behind to form and train new
+squadrons, I recommended that four complete squadrons (including the
+wireless machines which had to be thrown in to make up the numbers)
+should be sent overseas to help the British Expeditionary Force in
+bearing the brunt of the terrific blow that was to come. It was a very
+serious matter that so little could be left with which to carry on in
+England, but we considered it essential to dispatch at once to France
+every available machine and pilot, because both political and military
+authorities were of opinion that for economic and financial reasons a
+war with a great European power could not last more than a few months.
+Another reason was that those of us who had been at the Staff College
+during the few years before the war, or who had recently served on the
+General Staff at the War Office, believed that the weight of the German
+attack would be made through Belgium, where, owing to the enclosed
+nature of the country, cavalry would be at a disadvantage, and we
+realized therefore, and urged, the great effect which the air would
+have from the commencement of operations--a view which was not widely
+held, especially among senior officers in the Army. We also felt the
+necessity of using our maximum air strength from the outset, so as to
+prove its supreme importance as quickly and practically as possible. It
+required the Retreat from Mons before even G.H.Q. as a whole would
+accept the fact, though Colonel Macdonogh, the head of the intelligence
+section, was our firm ally. The iron of confidence, both to used and
+user, had to be welded with the first great blows on the anvil of war.
+For these reasons it was vital that every available trained pilot and
+suitable machine should be employed with the Army, even at the danger of
+serious initial depletion at Home. The smooth progress of expansion was
+largely attributable alike to the strength of the pre-war spirit,
+organization and training,[2] and to the results actual and moral
+obtained by the first four squadrons during the Retreat and the
+following weeks of the war under centralized control. The French
+distributed their "Escadrilles," which were approximately of the size of
+our "flight," from the beginning, and it is probable that one cause of
+failure in the German air service during the same period lay in the
+initial dispersion of units and lack of unified control by the higher
+command. The British Expeditionary Force having been saved during the
+Retreat, Paris having been saved at the Marne, the great German army
+having made a retirement, a lengthy war of position having become
+obvious, confidence in the air service, both within and without, having
+been established, the centralized system necessarily adopted up to that
+time could be relaxed, and we were able to send home officers and men
+with greatly increased experience to help build up the many new
+squadrons which would be required to co-operate with the new armies.
+
+[2] On October 17, 1914, Sir J. French wrote: "Such efficiency as the
+R.F.C. may have shown in the field is, in my opinion, principally due to
+organization and training."
+
+Gradually, as the numbers in the field permitted, increased duties were
+undertaken. The Army, though it did not do so at first, yet came to
+understand the immense importance to itself of air reconnaissance. So
+much so indeed that our machines and pilots were generally many too few
+to attempt more than the absolute essentials, and calls were often made
+upon them which were beyond their strength to meet. An ironic contrast
+to this was supplied, however, at the evacuation of the Dardanelles,
+where I was commanding the air service (the R.N.A.S.), and was asked to
+be careful not to do too much air work. This at a time when through
+stress and strain and loss we had, I think, a total of five machines
+left able to take the air!
+
+Observation was, and remains, the prime purpose for which the Royal
+Flying Corps was formed. 1914 was a year of reconnaissance, but with the
+advent of trench warfare at the Battle of the Aisne, the first attempts
+were made to extend its scope by the use of wireless for artillery
+co-operation, and by air photography, both of which developed rapidly.
+Headway was also being made with bombing. Then machines carrying out
+their special duties had to be protected, while it became necessary to
+prevent hostile machines from effecting similar functions, with the
+result that 1915 saw the beginnings of systematic air fighting.
+
+In 1915 the easily man[oe]uvrable Fokker, with its machine-gun
+synchronizing gear for firing through the propeller, gave the Germans a
+temporary lead, but by the Battle of the Somme this was outclassed and
+in 1916 our air superiority became marked. The Royal Flying Corps was by
+that time organized into Brigades and Wings, one Wing operating with
+each Army for fighting and distant reconnaissance, and one Wing with
+each Corps for short reconnaissance and such specialized work as
+artillery co-operation and contact patrols. Both types of machine took
+part in bombing operations.
+
+There is generally perhaps a tendency, when reviewing the army and air
+effort in the war, to deal almost entirely with the Western Front and to
+forget the prodigious work done in many other theatres.
+
+In 1915 the Royal Naval Air Service carried out all air work with the
+Army and Navy in the Gallipoli campaign and showed how a single air
+force could effect really important co-operation with both services. In
+addition to the normal duties of co-operation with the Army and the
+Fleet, and in spite of the difficulties of transport, supply and
+workshop arrangements, photographs were taken from the air of the
+greater part of the Peninsula, and the original inaccurate maps
+corrected therefrom; frequent bombing raids were carried out against
+objectives on the Peninsula, the Turkish lines of communications, and
+even Constantinople itself. In this campaign, too, torpedoes were used
+for the first time by aircraft and three ships were destroyed in the
+Dardanelles by this means. The distance from the hub of affairs, a line
+of supply about 6,000 miles in length, sickness and the climatic and
+geographical conditions rendered maintenance very difficult. Sand and
+dust driven in clouds by high winds greatly shortened the working life
+of engines. The heat during the summer caused the rapid deterioration of
+machines, while long oversea flights entailed loss from forced landings.
+There are many aspects of the deepest interest to be brought out when a
+complete history of the Campaign in Gallipoli comes to be written. It is
+true that the Allies would have lost all if they had been defeated in
+the west, and that the call of the Armies for more and more men and
+munitions for that theatre was insistent; it is equally true, however,
+that in France there could be nothing but batter and counter-batter, and
+the only remaining point where strategic principles could be brought to
+bear was at the Dardanelles. But what is more relevant to the subject of
+these pages is that when in future years the story of Helles and Anzac
+and Suvla is weighed, it will, I think, appear that had the necessary
+air service been built up from the beginning and sustained, the Army and
+Navy could have forced the Straits and taken Constantinople. I
+insistently urged the dependence of the naval and military forces upon
+air assistance and the necessity for carrying out a strong aerial
+offensive, especially by bombing, for which the local conditions
+governing the enemy operations on the Peninsula offered exceptional
+advantages.
+
+From the autumn of 1915 onwards Egypt became the centre of training and
+expansion for operations in the Middle East and, as the organization
+developed, a brigade was formed with Wings in Macedonia, Sinai and a
+training Wing, which by 1918 had become a training brigade, in Egypt.
+The work of the Wing sent to Sinai in 1916, and expanded in 1917 into a
+brigade, is well summarized in the following extract from a telegram
+received from Egypt on October 3rd, 1918:--
+
+    "Before operations commenced our mastery of the air was complete and
+    this was maintained throughout, enabling the cavalry turning
+    movement to be completely protected and concealed. Enemy retreating
+    columns were so effectively machine gunned and bombed by offensive
+    machines that in all three cases the surviving personnel abandoned
+    their vehicles and consequently upset all plans of retirement. An
+    enemy column thus abandoned was seven miles in length."
+
+The Wings in Macedonia and Mesopotamia, though they could not beat the
+record of the Palestine Brigade, gained a marked supremacy over the
+enemy. Air operations in East Africa were originally carried out by the
+Royal Naval Air Service with seaplanes, which in 1915 were brought up to
+the strength of two squadrons and replaced by aeroplanes under the
+orders of the military forces, their duties being carried out under the
+difficult conditions of bush warfare. Valuable work was also done by the
+Royal Flying Corps squadrons which were sent out to operate in the
+south.
+
+In addition to these major operations, air forces were used in the
+expeditions on the Indian frontier, against Darfur and in the vicinity
+of Aden. Five squadrons were sent to Italy after the Italian retreat
+from the Isonzo and took a prominent part in the final Austrian defeat;
+a Royal Air Force contingent was sent to Russia to operate from
+Archangel; and material assistance was given to France and the other
+Allies, but especially to the United States in the training and
+equipment of her air forces.
+
+At the beginning of 1918 the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air
+Force were amalgamated and the Royal Air Force came into existence, and
+during the year achieved a supremacy more complete than that at any time
+since the Somme.
+
+The following description gives a vivid idea of air activity at the
+front in 1918:--
+
+    "All day long there were 'dog fights' waged at heights up to three
+    or four miles above the shell-torn battlefields of France, whilst
+    the low-flying aeroplanes were attacking suitable targets from the
+    height of a few dozen feet. Passing backwards and forwards went the
+    reconnaissance machines and the bombers, and along the whole front
+    observers were sending out by wireless to the artillery the point of
+    impact of their shells. Such was the picture of the air on any fine
+    day at the time."
+
+1918, however, saw not only the accumulative effect of the tactical
+co-operation of aircraft with our armies in the field, but also the
+formation of the Independent Air Force and the carrying out of the
+strategic air offensive against centres of war industry in the interior
+of Germany.
+
+A vast organization was also required at Home to meet the rapid
+expansion of units in the Field and to supply reinforcements. Thus at
+the Armistice there were 199 training squadrons, the pupils under
+instruction including cadets numbered 30,000, and during the war some
+22,000 graduated as efficient for active service. At the beginning of
+the war pilots were sent overseas with only 11 hours' flying experience.
+This was much too little and there is no doubt that increased training
+would have ensured fewer casualties. Fortunately, however, the length of
+training was increased in the latter part of the war and a remarkable
+advance in training was made possible by the use of an entirely new and
+extraordinarily efficient system of instruction evolved by Smith-Barry.
+
+The war demonstrated the beginnings of what air power meant, though in
+November, 1918, it was still in its infancy. Before many years the
+ability to make war successfully, or even at all, will depend upon air
+power.
+
+Let us now briefly survey the development of the several duties of
+aircraft, the evolution of machines and progress in tactics, strategy
+and the organization of our Air Forces during the war.
+
+I had recognized the great difficulty of mobilizing with the clockwork
+precision of older units and, in the belief that war was coming, had
+ordered a provisional mobilization of the Corps some days before it was
+actually declared. Thanks to this step and to the work done at our
+Concentration Camp at Netheravon in June, 1914, the greater part of the
+Royal Flying Corps was enabled to concentrate without hitch at our
+aerodrome at Dover, and the machines flew via Calais to Amiens on August
+13th.
+
+
+CO-OPERATION WITH THE ARMY.
+
+
+_Reconnaissance._
+
+In the event of France and England declaring war concurrently against
+Germany, the strategic plan agreed to by the British and French general
+staffs before the war had been that the British Expeditionary Force
+should be moved to the Le Cateau, Maubeuge, Mons, area and take up a
+line on the left flank of the French Army near Mons. But England had
+withheld her declaration until three days after the French, and on
+landing in France the first words I heard said by a Frenchman were:
+"Oui, l'arm�e anglaise arrive mais on a manqu� le premier plan." It was
+not until after the arrival of G.H.Q. at Amiens on August 14th that,
+although late, it was decided that the advanced line should be taken up.
+The Royal Flying Corps moved by air and road to an existing aerodrome
+outside the antique defences of Maubeuge 12 miles from Mons on the 16th.
+On the 19th the first reconnaissance was carried out, and the entire
+country over which the German armies were advancing, as far as Brussels
+and Louvain, was kept under observation. One of the best reconnaissances
+ever made was that of August 21st, which discovered the 2nd German Corps
+moving from Brussels through Ninhove and Grammont.
+
+From Maubeuge we had to retire on the 24th to Le Cateau, on the 25th to
+St. Quentin, on the 26th to La F�re, on the 28th to Compi�gne, on the
+30th to Senlis, on the 31st to Juilly, on September 2nd to Serris, on
+the 3rd to Touquin, on the 4th to Melun, where we were thankful at last
+to get orders again to advance on the 7th to Touquin, and on the 9th to
+Coulommiers, reaching F�re-en-Tardennois on the 12th for the Battle of
+the Aisne.
+
+Of the many recollections of the early days one which will remain
+longest in my mind is the terrible sadness of the flocks of refugees, of
+the poor people we left behind. And the glare of villages burning by the
+hand of the Boche. It was indeed war.
+
+Valuable reconnaissances were made during the whole Retreat from Mons to
+the Marne in spite of the tremendous difficulties involved by constant
+movement, transport, and the selection of new landing grounds, but, in
+the words of Sir John French, "It was the timely warning aircraft gave
+which chiefly enabled me to make speedy dispositions to avert danger and
+disaster. There can be no doubt indeed that even then the presence and
+co-operation of aircraft saved the very frequent use of cavalry patrols
+and detailed supports." The Royal Flying Corps was an important factor
+in helping the British Expeditionary Force to escape von Kluck's nearly
+successful efforts to secure another and a British Sedan.
+
+The reconnaissance resulting in the most valuable information of all,
+and, I think, during the whole of the war, was that of September 3rd,
+during the critical operations on the Marne, which formed one of the
+decisive battles in the world's history, when von Kluck's turning
+movement to the south-east against the French left was accurately
+reported and Marshal Joffre was enabled to make his dispositions
+accordingly. "The precision, exactitude and regularity of the news
+brought in," he said in a message to the British Commander-in-Chief,
+"are evidence of the perfect training of pilots and observers." The
+reports of the German air service, on the other hand, would appear from
+von Kluck's movements to have been of no assistance to him.
+
+The system adopted from the first was for the pilot or observer, or
+both, immediately on their return to bring their report to R.F.C.
+Headquarters, whence the Commander, or his staff officer, accompanied
+them to G.H.Q., where the map was filled in in accordance with the
+report. G.H.Q. could then ask questions and obtain any further
+information which the observer could give, while R.F.C. Headquarters
+could ascertain what further reports were most urgently required. The
+form of the reports, which were ready printed, had been most carefully
+thought out at R.F.C. Headquarters in peace and experimented with at the
+Concentration Camp.
+
+The maps thus compiled at G.H.Q. from air reconnaissance reports between
+August 31st and September 3rd were of vital interest, though it was
+sometimes very difficult to get the information put on the map for
+prompt consideration. For instance, at Dammartin on the evening of
+September 1st, when it was thought that German cavalry were within a few
+miles, G.H.Q. made a very hurried departure, and I was unable to find
+anyone to whom to give very important reports.
+
+It was at the Battle of the Marne that machines were for the first time
+allotted to Army Corps for tactical work, while long-distance
+reconnaissance was carried out by other machines operating from
+Headquarters. Later on, this system was established as a part of our
+permanent organization, squadrons being allotted to, and reporting
+direct to, Corps for tactical reconnaissance, artillery co-operation and
+contact patrols, and to Armies for longer-distance reconnaissance and
+fighting.
+
+The last phase of the war of movement was the race for the Channel Ports
+and it devolved upon aircraft to observe the enemy's movements from his
+centre and left flank to meet the Allied movement to the coast, to
+observe the movements of the four newly-formed corps which came into
+action at Ypres and to maintain liaison with the Belgian and British
+forces at Antwerp and Ostend. Information was very difficult to obtain
+and on one occasion I flew from the Aisne to Antwerp, under Sir John
+French's instructions, in order as far as possible to clear up the
+general situation when our G.H.Q. was in doubt as to whether Antwerp was
+completely surrounded or not. It was an interesting piece of work. There
+was a light drizzle, and the forest of Compi�gne had to be flown over at
+about 200 feet. The B.E. could not make the distance without refilling,
+and although only a short halt was made at Amiens for the purpose, it
+was too late to fly direct to Antwerp. Instead, a landing was made in a
+very sticky field under light plough, which was selected from the air
+about 4 miles north of Bruges, to which town I rode on a borrowed
+bicycle. At Bruges there was great consternation and uncertainty as to
+the position at Antwerp, but the Commander kindly placed a large open
+car and its very energetic driver at my disposal to try and get through.
+After many difficulties we managed to find our way into Antwerp by
+about midnight, and I was received by the Belgian Commander. He
+explained that though the Germans had broken through the South-Eastern
+sector and his troops were very hard pressed (and pointing repeatedly to
+a piece of an 18-inch German shell in the corner of the room, he said,
+"Mais qu'est-ce qu'on peut faire avec ces choses-l�!"), he hoped to be
+able to hold out for a time. After giving him General French's message
+and obtaining as much information as possible, I managed to get clear of
+Antwerp, reaching Bruges again at 3.15 a.m. At 4 a.m. we set out and
+found a very wet machine in a wetter field and after considerable
+difficulty and flying through the top of the surrounding hedge,
+struggled into the upper air on the way back to Headquarters at
+F�re-en-Tardennois.
+
+During the Battles of the Aisne and of Ypres strategical reconnaissance
+was carried out by the few machines available at Headquarters. Shephard,
+the best reconnaissance officer I have ever known, who was killed later,
+used to fly his B.E.2 without observer over the greater part of Belgium
+two or three times a week and always brought in a long, closely packed,
+and extraordinarily valuable report. Tactical reconnaissance to a depth
+of 15 to 20 miles was done by units attached to Corps.
+
+After the Battle of the Aisne, which was the turning point in the
+evolution from the war of movement to trench warfare, pure
+reconnaissance, though still the basis of air work, tended to become a
+matter of routine, while many new and specialized forms of it--such as
+air photography and artillery spotting by wireless--were developed.
+
+
+_Photography._
+
+Though experiments had been made in the problem of photography from the
+air before the war, principally by Fletcher, Hubbard and Laws, and its
+value to survey was recognized, it had not become of practical utility.
+We only took one official camera with us to France on August 13th, 1914,
+and it was not until September 15th that the first attempt at air
+photography was made, when five plates were exposed over positions
+behind the enemy's lines with very imperfect results. Its great value as
+an aid to observation in trench warfare was, however, very apparent,
+fresh brains were brought to the task, Moore-Brabazon, Campbell and Dr.
+Swan, and by the end of the year better success was obtained, though
+positions even then had to be filled in by the observer with red ink.
+Experiments at home during 1915 led to a great improvement in lenses,
+and at the beginning of 1916 air photography was universal. At the
+Battle of the Somme new enemy positions were photographed as soon as
+they were seen, and the camera did invaluable work in the reconnaissance
+of the Hindenburg Line during the German retreat of 1917, and the taking
+of over a thousand photographs was a daily occurrence. On September 4th,
+1917, a record of 1,805 photographs was made.
+
+The development of air photography, very remarkable in itself, is even
+more so when it is remembered that the improvement in enemy
+anti-aircraft guns drove our machines to carry out their work at
+altitudes increasing up to 20,000 and even 22,000 feet, at which heights
+the negatives had to be as distinct as those taken at 4,000 in the
+earlier days of the war.
+
+At the beginning of the Dardanelles operations our apparatus consisted
+of one camera, a printing frame and a dark room lamp. The first
+photographs were taken by Butler in April, 1915, from a H. Farman
+machine at necessarily low altitudes. Butler was wounded in June and was
+succeeded by Thomson, who alone made 900 exposures and sent in 3,600
+prints.
+
+In addition to the assistance of air photography to reconnaissance, the
+war gave it great impetus as the handmaid of survey and mapping. It was,
+in fact, the only means of mapping or correcting the maps of country
+held by the enemy, which in certain cases, as at Gallipoli and in
+Palestine, were very inaccurate.
+
+By the end of the war photographic processes and equipment had reached a
+high standard of excellence. There are still, however, certain
+difficulties in regard to the production of accurate maps, which have
+not been overcome, the most obvious being the necessity of an initial
+framework of fixed points and of contouring. The subject is considered
+so important that an "Air Survey Committee," consisting of
+representatives of the Air Ministry, the Geographical section of the War
+Office, the Ordnance Survey, the School of Military Engineering and the
+Artillery Survey School, has recently been formed. In addition, the
+School of Aeronautics of Cambridge University is studying the question.
+The Survey of India and the Survey of Egypt are also conducting
+experiments.
+
+
+_Wireless._
+
+From the outset, part of the German scheme of tactics was to batter down
+resistance by means of superior weight of heavy armament, and with the
+beginning of warfare of fixed position the observation and direction of
+our artillery fire became as important as distant reconnaissance.
+Besides its immense value in increasing the effect of the batteries, it
+had the indirect advantage of more closely binding the ties of mutual
+understanding between the air and ground troops, a point which
+fortunately seems to have been misunderstood by the Germans. In
+September, 1914, the first attempts were made to signal enemy movements
+from the aeroplanes of a Headquarters Wireless Flight which had been
+formed for the purpose, and this practice was continued with success
+throughout the Battle of the Aisne.
+
+In the earliest stages artillery co-operation was also carried out by
+dropping coloured lights, but from the Battle of Ypres onwards, though
+for some time very few wireless machines were available, this was
+effected by wireless or signal lamps. In his dispatch on the Battle of
+Loos, Sir John French wrote: "The work of observation for the guns from
+aeroplanes has now become an important factor in artillery fire, and the
+personnel of the two arms work in closest co-operation."
+
+By the Battle of the Somme artillery co-operation had assumed very large
+dimensions. For instance, on September 15th, 1916, on the front of the
+4th Army alone, seventy hostile batteries were located, twenty-nine
+being silenced. Counter-battery work was so effective before the
+offensive which opened on the Ypres front at the end of July, 1917, that
+the Germans withdrew their guns and the attack was delayed for three
+days in order that their new positions might be located.
+
+Recognition marks on aeroplanes were at this time, and indeed throughout
+the war, a matter of great difficulty. It had been suggested before the
+war that they would not be necessary, but the reverse was found to be
+the case, as even with the distinctive marks which were adopted our
+machines were often fired at by British troops, and we should
+undoubtedly have lost very heavily if we had flown over our own lines
+with false marks, as was suggested, or none.
+
+
+_Bombing._
+
+The bombing operations, which reached their climax in the raids on
+German industrial centres in 1918, arose from very primitive methods
+used at the beginning of the war. During the retreat from Mons a few
+hand grenades were carried experimentally in the pockets of pilots and
+observers, or, in the case of the larger varieties, tied to their
+bodies, and these were dropped over the side of the machine as
+opportunity occurred. At the Marne, for instance, small petrol bombs set
+fire to a transport park and scattered a mixed column of infantry and
+transport. I think I am right in saying that the first German bombs
+were dropped on us--unsuccessfully--at Compi�gne on August 29th, 1914.
+It was not, however, until the beginning of 1915 that special bombing
+raids were started by the Royal Flying Corps, one of the first places to
+be attacked being the Ghistelles aerodrome in West Flanders.
+
+The most important bombing operations and raids into Germany in the
+early days of the war were carried out by the Naval Air Service, units
+of which landed at Ostend on August 27th and operated with the Royal
+Naval Division from Antwerp. They were subsequently withdrawn to Dunkirk
+to form the nucleus of an aircraft centre from which excellent work was
+done in attacking the bases established on or near the Belgian coast
+from which German submarines and airships conducted their operations.
+
+Just before the Germans entered Antwerp, the first raid was made against
+a German town, one machine reaching Dusseldorf, when it descended from
+6,000 to 400 feet and dropped three bombs on an airship shed.
+
+From the end of 1914 onwards the activities of the Royal Naval Air
+Service in this theatre of operations continually increased, the chief
+objectives being the gun emplacements at Middelkerke and Blankenburghe,
+the submarine bases at Zeebrugge and Bruges, the minefield and dock of
+Ostend, the airship sheds near Brussels, and the dockyards at Antwerp.
+The first airship destroyed in the air was attacked over Ghent.
+
+An interesting experiment was the attempt by the R.N.A.S. at the
+Dardanelles to sink the heavy wire anti-submarine net, which had been
+stretched on buoys across the Straits at Nagara by the Turks, by means
+of parachute bombs.
+
+To return to the Royal Flying Corps. During 1915 railway junctions were
+the principal bombing objectives, and raids were carried out on an
+ever-increasing scale, formations of fourteen to twenty machines taking
+part. At the Battle of Neuve Chapelle for instance, the railway
+junctions at Menin, Courtrai and Douai were attacked. One officer of No.
+5 Squadron, carrying one 100 lb. bomb, arrived over Menin at 3,500 feet,
+descended to 120 feet, and dropped his bomb on the railway line. The
+first V.C. of the Royal Flying Corps was obtained at the Second Battle
+of Ypres by Lieutenant W. B. Rhodes-Moorhouse, who in bombing Courtrai
+came down to three or four hundred feet, under heavy fire, but piloted
+his machine 35 miles back to Merville at the height of a few hundred
+feet, and died a few days later from his wounds.
+
+One of the most instructive features of the Battle of Loos in September,
+1915, was the definite co-ordination of bombing attacks with army
+operations. Many types of machines, belonging both to Army and Corps
+Squadrons, carried bombs in order to destroy dumps, communications, cut
+off reinforcements, and the like, while at the Somme bombing was carried
+out by formations of Wings. In October, 1917, 113 tons, and for a period
+of six days in March, 1918, 95 tons, of explosives were dropped. This
+illustrates the enormous progress of bombing which was so largely
+resorted to in the later stages of the war. The hand grenades of 1914
+had become bombs weighing three-quarters of a ton: the pilot's pocket a
+mechanically released rack: and aim, assisted by instruments, was
+becoming fairly accurate.
+
+Night bombing, necessitated by the fact that by day a large machine
+heavily laden with bombs was an easy prey to the fighting scout, came
+into prominence in 1916, increasing in intensity up to the end of the
+war; and raids into Germany recommenced. Early in 1918 these raids
+included the bombing of Maintz, Stuttgart, Coblentz, Cologne, and Metz.
+Machines sometimes dropped their bombs from heights of about 12,000 feet
+and at other times descended to within 200 feet of their objectives.
+
+
+_Contact Patrol._
+
+Contact patrol, the name given to the direct co-operation of aircraft
+with troops on the ground, was first extensively practised at the Battle
+of the Somme, though experiments in this direction had been made in
+1915, messages being dropped at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle at
+pre-arranged points.
+
+The main objects of contact patrols were to assist the telephone (which
+was frequently cut by shellfire), to keep the various headquarters
+informed of the progress of their troops during the attack, so also
+saving them from the possibility of coming under the fire of their own
+artillery, to report on enemy positions, to transmit messages from the
+troops engaged to the headquarters of their units, to attack ground
+formations, and to co-operate with tanks. A system of red flares on the
+floor of the trenches was used to mark the disposition of the troops,
+and aircraft communicated their information by means of signalling
+lamps, wireless and message-bags.
+
+During the German retreat of 1917 contact patrols attacked enemy
+foundations from 100 feet and in some cases landed behind the enemy
+lines to obtain information. The skill of low-flying pilots in taking
+cover by flying behind woods, houses, etc., became increasingly
+important. The fact that 62,673 rounds of ammunition were fired from the
+air against enemy ground targets between November 20th and 26th, 1917,
+and 163,567 between March 13th and 18th, 1918, indicates the rapid
+development of this form of aircraft action, the effect of which was
+frequently more deadly than bombing.
+
+Two of many protagonists of contact patrol were Pretyman and Bishop. On
+one occasion the latter, in attacking an aerodrome at about 50 feet,
+riddled the officers' and men's quarters with bullets, put two or three
+machines on the ground out of action, and three in succession as they
+got into the air. Another interesting example of contact patrol work
+occurred in 1917 when a pilot flew his machine at a low altitude over
+the enemy trenches, and he and his observer attracted the attention of
+the Germans by firing their machine guns and Verey lights. The Germans
+were so busy with the aeroplane that they had their backs turned to the
+front line and our infantry were able to cross no-man's land without any
+artillery preparation, take prisoners and bomb dug-outs.
+
+An article in the _Cologne Gazette_ showed what the Germans thought of
+low "strafing."
+
+    "The operations" (i.e. of June 7th, 1917), it says, "were prefaced
+    by innumerable enemy airmen, who, at the beginning of the
+    preparation for the attack, appeared like a swarm of locusts and
+    swamped the front. They also work on cunningly calculated methods.
+    Their habit is to work in three layers--one quite high, one in the
+    middle, and the third quite low. The English who fly lowest show an
+    immense insolence; they came down to 200 metres and shot at our
+    troops with their machine guns, which are specially adapted to this
+    purpose."
+
+Armour was first employed as a result of Shephard finding at Maubeuge a
+bullet lodged in the seat of his leather suit. Thin sheets of steel were
+at once cut out and placed in the wickerwork seats of aeroplanes. This
+primitive protection developed into the armoured machine mentioned
+later, which was about to make its appearance at the Armistice.
+
+I may mention here the "special duty" flights, which consisted in
+establishing secret communication between our Intelligence Branch and
+agents in the territory occupied by the Germans. Agents, mostly French
+and Belgian, were carried by aeroplane over the enemy lines and landed
+there. This work was started in 1914.
+
+
+_Fighting._
+
+At the beginning of the war it became obvious that it was not only the
+duty of aircraft to obtain information but also to prevent enemy
+aircraft crossing our lines. In addition to the reconnaissance machine,
+and in order to make its work possible, a machine designed purely for
+fighting was required. In August, 1914, the aeroplane's armament
+consisted simply of rifle, or carbine, and revolver, but our pilots
+nevertheless attacked hostile machines whenever the opportunity
+occurred. The first German machine to fly over us was at Maubeuge on
+August 22nd, 1914, and, though fighting on an extensive scale did not
+take place until 1916, as early as August 25th, 1914, there were three
+encounters in the air in which two enemy machines were driven down. One
+interesting report of an early fight is that between a B.E. and a German
+machine on December 20th, 1914.
+
+    "A German aeroplane with one passenger and pilot being encountered
+    over Poperinghe, we followed to Morbecque and then to Armenti�res.
+    The passenger of the B.E. fired 40 rounds from his rifle and the
+    German passenger replied with some rounds from his revolver. The
+    B.E. crossed the bows of the German machine to permit the pilot to
+    use his revolver. The German switched off and dived below the B.E.,
+    and is believed to have landed somewhere north-west of Lille."
+
+Another instance of the early air combats was when Holt, single-handed,
+and armed only with a rifle, lashed to a strut of his machine, attacked
+ten Germans near Dunkirk, causing them to drop their bombs in the field
+and make off to their own lines.
+
+We managed to bring down a number of German machines, mainly by rifle
+fire (five had already been brought down by September 7th, 1914), but
+our great difficulty early in the war was to get the enemy into action,
+and, although during October and November, 1914, there was a certain
+amount of fighting, as a rule the German when attacked made for his own
+lines and the protection of his anti-aircraft guns. This, though
+offensive carried to the extent of wastefulness of life is equally bad,
+was a serious mistake in all ways from his point of view, entailing as
+it did a tendency for the confidence of the troops and the morale of the
+air service to be undermined from the outset. The error was rectified,
+but only temporarily, at the Somme.
+
+As the specialized duties of aircraft increased, the Corps machines
+engaged in them needed protection and it was realized that the best
+method of protection was the development of the air offensive. This was
+rendered possible by the adaptation of the machine gun to the aeroplane.
+Early in 1915 the invention of the "synchronizing gear" enabled a
+machine gun to fire through the propeller, and by the end of 1915
+fighting in the air became the general rule. The first squadron, No. 24,
+composed purely of fighting machines, took its place on the Western
+Front in February, 1916, and gradually Wings were attached to Armies
+solely for fighting and the protection of Corps machines. During the
+long months of the Battle of the Somme, for instance, when, though the
+Royal Flying Corps dominated the air, the Germans put up a strenuous
+opposition, bombing machines were protected by fighting patrols in
+formation on the far side of the points attacked. The rapidity with
+which fighting in the air developed is shown by the fact that at the end
+of 1916 twenty new fighting squadrons were asked for on the Western
+Front; the establishment was increased to twenty-four machines per
+squadron, and by the end of the war even night-fighting squadrons were
+operating with considerable success and, had the war continued, would
+have proved a very important factor in air warfare.
+
+The development of aerobatics, air fighting, and formation tactics
+brought many airmen into prominence. For example Albert Ball, who
+ascribed his successes to keen application to aerial gunnery; J. B.
+McCudden, the first man to bring four hostile machines down in a day;
+and Trollope, who later on brought down six. Hawker met his death
+fighting von Richthofen, who describes the fight in his book _The Red
+Air Fighter_ as follows:--
+
+    "Soon I discovered that I was not fighting a beginner. He had not
+    the slightest intention to break off the fight.... The gallant
+    fellow was full of pluck, and when we had got down to 3,000 feet he
+    merrily waved to me as if to say, 'Well, how do you do?'... The
+    circles which we made round one another were so narrow that their
+    diameter was probably not more than 250 or 300 feet.... At that time
+    his first bullets were flying round me, as up to then neither of us
+    had been able to do any shooting."
+
+At 300 feet Hawker was compelled to fly in a zig-zag course to avoid
+bullets from the ground and this enabled Richthofen to dive on his tail
+from a distance of 150 feet.
+
+This indicates a heavy disadvantage under which our aircraft laboured in
+all their work on the Western Front. The prevailing westerly wind which,
+while it assisted the enemy in his homeward flight, made it very
+difficult for a British machine, perhaps damaged by anti-aircraft fire,
+to make its way--still under fire--to its base.
+
+I cannot leave the subject of air fighting without giving one or two
+more examples. One which comes to mind is that of five British machines
+attacking twenty-five of the enemy. One of ours gliding down with its
+engine stopped and being attacked by two Germans was saved by another
+British one attacking and driving off the two enemy. The result of the
+combat was five German machines destroyed and four driven down out of
+control, whilst all of ours returned safely. Another example, that of
+Barker who, whilst destroying an enemy two-seater, was wounded from
+below by another German machine and fell some distance in a spin.
+Recovering, he found himself surrounded by fifteen Fokkers, two of which
+he attacked indecisively but shot down a third in flames. Whilst doing
+this he was again wounded, again fainted, again fell, again recovered
+control and again, being attacked by a large formation, shot down an
+enemy in flames. A bullet now shattered his left elbow and, fainting a
+third time, he fell several thousand feet, where he was again attacked,
+and thinking his machine had been set on fire he tried, as he thought in
+a final effort, to ram a Fokker, but instead drove it down on fire!
+Barker was by this time without the use of both legs and an arm. Diving
+to a few thousand feet of the ground he again found his retreat barred
+by eight of the enemy, but these he was able to shake off after short
+bursts of fire and he returned a few feet above the ground to our lines.
+
+Though at the beginning our machines were rather better than either the
+French or German, it was the marked superiority of our pilots which gave
+us the greatest advantage. We should have been superior even had the
+machines been exchanged.
+
+
+CO-OPERATION WITH THE NAVY.
+
+We have seen that the functions of co-operation with the Navy--Coast
+defence and Fleet assistance--were very complicated, and that at the
+outbreak of war the splendid pilots and excellent equipment of the
+R.N.A.S. were not so highly organized and were wanting in cohesion, but
+that the R.N.A.S. had advanced further than the Royal Flying Corps in
+specialized technical development. In the earlier part of the war, in
+addition to its main duties, the R.N.A.S. ventured in many directions,
+many of them of considerable value to the Army, as, for instance, at
+Antwerp.
+
+
+_Coast Defence, Patrol and Convoy Work._
+
+Immediately war broke out a system of coastal patrols was established
+between the Humber and the Thames Estuary and over the Channel--the
+latter serving as an escort to the Expeditionary Force crossing to
+France. Patrols were at first, through limitations of equipment, mainly
+confined to the Home coast, but, as the war went on and machines
+improved, they were rapidly extended, especially in connection with the
+detection and destruction of submarines; reconnaissances were carried
+out over the enemy's shores, and in 1918 there were forty-three flights
+of seaplanes, thirty flights of aeroplanes, together with flying boats
+and airships, operating from, and communicating with, an ever-increasing
+number of shore stations. Not only was anti-submarine work carried out
+in the vicinity of the coast, but organized hunts were made for
+submarines, ships were convoyed on the high seas, shipping routes were
+protected, and action was taken to bar the passage of submarines through
+narrow channels. This was effected by an intensive system of combining
+and interlocking patrols, and by maintaining, in close co-operation with
+surface craft, a protective barrage across suitable stretches of water,
+such as the Straits of Dover.
+
+Airships from the beginning, when patrols operated from Kingsnorth
+during the crossing of the Expeditionary Force to France, proved
+particularly useful for escort, in addition to patrol work, and
+twenty-seven small airships, known as the S.S. type, were completed in
+1915. In 1916 the Coastal type with a longer range was designed and
+constructed and new airship bases were established.
+
+
+_Fleet Assistance, Reconnaissance, Spotting for Ships' Guns._
+
+The successful use of Drachen kite-balloons borne in ships at the
+Dardanelles led to their extensive development. Up to about May, 1915,
+when the vessels to which they were attached could stand in close to
+shore and overlook the enemy's positions from a distance of three or
+four thousand yards, a large amount of spotting of great value was
+carried out by these balloons for ships at Gallipoli, but when the Turks
+brought long-range guns into position, kite-balloon vessels were obliged
+to lie out beyond 11,000 yards and their services were rendered
+comparatively slight for this purpose. From 1916, however, they were
+towed by merchant auxiliaries and light cruisers to spot submarines,
+observers communicating with the patrol ship by means of telephone. One
+of the most wonderful sights I have ever seen was from the observer's
+basket of the kite-balloon let up from S.S. "Manica" in June, 1915. We
+were spotting for the guns of H.M.S. "Lord Nelson" bombarding Chanak.
+The sky and sea were a marvellous blue and visibility excellent, the
+peninsula, where steady firing was going on all the time, lay below us,
+the Straits, with their ships and boats, the Asiatic shore gradually
+disappearing in a golden haze, the Gulf of Xeros, the Marmora, and
+behind one the islands of the �gean affording a perfect background. No
+one who was at the Dardanelles, however vivid the horrors and the heat
+and dust and flies, will forget the beauty of the scene, especially at
+sunset, and it was seen at its best from the basket of a kite-balloon.
+
+The ever-increasing assistance rendered by aircraft to surface vessels
+in crippling Germany's submarine campaign is shown by the fact that in
+1915 ten submarines were attacked from the air and in 1918 126 were
+sighted and 93 attacked. Nor was the principle forgotten in countering
+the submarine menace that offence is the best defence, and among the
+many duties of R.N.A.S. aircraft, based on Dunkirk from the early days
+of the war, were anti-submarine patrols along the Belgian coast and the
+bombing of hostile submarine bases, such as Bruges.
+
+As in the case of the Army Corps observation machines, fighting scouts
+became necessary for the protection of patrols and to counter the
+enemy's efforts at raids and sea reconnaissance, and the considerable
+amount of experiment in air fighting which the R.N.A.S. had made before
+the war bore useful fruit.
+
+For the immediate protection of the Grand Fleet seaplane and aeroplane
+bases were established at Scapa Flow and Thurso at the beginning of the
+war, but, owing to damage from a gale in November, 1914, aircraft
+operations with the Fleet were carried out from the seaplane carrier
+"Campania." The problem of using carriers with the Fleet had not been
+seriously tackled before the war, and though experiments were
+strenuously carried out, and there were fourteen carrier ships in
+commission in 1918, and a seaplane carrier operated with the Battle
+Cruiser Squadron at Jutland, the use of aircraft in this way did not
+become very efficient. One of the chief difficulties was limitation in
+size, and consequently in radius of action, of aircraft employed from
+carriers or the decks of battleships. The total number of aeroplanes and
+seaplanes allotted to the Grand Fleet in 1918 was 350.
+
+Seaplane carriers occasionally co-operated with fighting ships. For
+instance in October, 1915, a fast carrier at the Dardanelles accompanied
+ships detailed for the bombardment of Dedeagatch, and her seaplanes not
+only co-operated in spotting but also made a valuable reconnaissance of
+the Bulgarian coast and railway. But as a rule fighting and
+reconnaissance aircraft had mainly to work from shore bases. To assist
+in this direction, units were sent overseas to be nearer their sphere
+of action, as, for instance, the R.N.A.S. squadrons stationed at Dunkirk
+which, besides general reconnaissance, helped the Navy to keep open the
+Straits of Dover, carried out bombing raids against German bases and
+dockyards, such as Ostend, Zeebrugge, and Bruges, and co-operated with
+monitors in the bombardment of the Belgian coast. The development of a
+long-range seaplane or flying boat was also taken in hand, though an
+efficient type was not produced until the last year of the war.
+
+As with the Army, an important part of naval aircraft duties was
+spotting for gunfire; and likewise single-seater fighters were required
+for the protection of our own aircraft, for preventing enemy aircraft
+reconnaissance, for attacking the enemy's fleet and protecting our own.
+The use of offensive patrols steadily increased during the war.
+
+
+_Bombing._
+
+I have already referred to bombing and mentioned the attack on
+Dusseldorf as an instance of the work done. Bombing raids had always
+been looked on with favour by the R.N.A.S. and were used throughout the
+war as a means of countering hostile aircraft operations from bases in
+Belgium. One of the first successful raids was that against the
+Friedrichshaven Zeppelin works by three Avro machines, which flew 250
+miles over enemy country on November 21st, 1914. Another noteworthy
+example was the attempted raid against Cuxhaven on Christmas Day, 1914,
+carried out by seaplanes, which were still in an experimental stage,
+and three carriers escorted by naval units. Powerful machines for
+bombing purposes were ordered and bombs of greatly increased size and
+gear for dropping them were designed.
+
+
+_Torpedo Attack._
+
+The impetus given to bombing helped forward another use of naval
+aircraft: torpedo attack. This is likely to develop in the future into
+one of the most important uses of aircraft in naval operations, but
+during the war it was never given an objective by the German fleet. In
+May, 1915, two Sunbeam Short machines were embarked in the
+"Ben-my-Chree" for operations at Gallipoli, and it was in this theatre
+that for the first time in history ships were sunk by torpedoes released
+from aircraft. I shall never forget the night when we steamed silently
+up the narrow Gulf of Xeros and lay waiting to release our seaplanes in
+the still darkness of the early morning. The machines were lowered
+noiselessly into the water, and, their engines started, flew across the
+narrow neck of Bulair under fire from the old Turkish line; then,
+reaching the northern end of the Dardanelles at dawn, they descended low
+(one machine actually landed on the water and discharged its torpedo),
+sank their targets, and returned. In addition to the possibility of
+submarine attack, the Gulf of Xeros is so narrow that our ship could
+have been hit by the cross fire of field guns. It was a very fine
+performance and, although during many years I have spent anxious hours
+hoping for the distant purr of a safe returning machine, I have never
+been happier than when after a long wait our seaplanes were again
+quickly raised on board. The only torpedo machine employed at the Battle
+of Jutland was a Sunbeam fitted with a 14-inch torpedo, and it was not
+until just before the Armistice that a squadron of torpedo aircraft was
+ready for operations with the Grand Fleet.
+
+The Germans also tried to develop the use of torpedo-carrying seaplanes
+and, as with their submarines, had the advantage over us of a vast
+number of targets close to hand in our North Sea and Channel shipping,
+but fortunately the British fighting scouts were able to destroy several
+of their machines before they had done much damage.
+
+
+HOME DEFENCE.
+
+At the beginning of the war the R.N.A.S. assumed responsibility for the
+defence of Great Britain against attacks by hostile aircraft, and a
+scheme for the defence of London and other large towns was entrusted to
+an anti-aircraft section of the Admiralty Air Department. Its resources,
+however, consisting of a few unsuitable and widely scattered aeroplanes,
+some 1 pdr. pom-poms with searchlights manned by a special corps, were
+inadequate and it was fortunate that only three small daylight aeroplane
+raids, mainly for reconnaissance, were made during 1914--the first
+German machine to visit England dropping a bomb near Dover on December
+21st.
+
+
+_Night Flying and Night Fighting._
+
+In spite of continuous action by the R.N.A.S. against German airship
+bases in Belgium, there were in 1915 nineteen airship and eight
+aeroplane raids--one by night--over England, and, although the new and
+powerful Zeppelin L.Z.38, which attacked London on May 31st, was
+destroyed by an aeroplane counter-attack in its shed near Brussels, no
+real counter measures were evolved until 1916, when Home Defence was
+taken over by the War Office. During that year a Home Defence Squadron
+of B.E.2c's, rapidly expanded to a Wing, was formed; and the systematic
+training of night pilots, the standardization of night-flying equipment
+and armament, and the lighting of aerodromes, was taken in hand. A
+continuous aeroplane and searchlight barrage with night landing grounds
+was gradually formed between Dover and the Forth; the wireless signals
+employed to assist Zeppelins in finding their way were intercepted, thus
+enabling our rapidly improving fighting machines to pick up and attack
+raiding airships; and the constant attacks to which airship sheds were
+exposed in Belgium, caused their withdrawal to positions further inland
+and increased their distance from England. During 1916 there were
+twenty-two raids by airships, six of which were destroyed, the first
+being brought down in September at Cuffley by Leefe Robinson.
+Thenceforward airship raids declined, the destruction of the majority of
+the largest and latest which raided England on October 19th, 1917,
+sealing their fate.
+
+On the other hand, aeroplane daylight and night raids on London, the
+first of which occurred in November, 1916, increased in number and
+strength with the object, in addition to the destruction of material and
+civilian _morale_, of forcing upon us the unsound retention at home of a
+considerable air defence force. The largest of these attacks was made by
+seventeen aeroplanes at midday on June 13th, 1917, but, the Zeppelin
+danger nullified, counter measures to meet the new menace were gradually
+evolved. New squadrons were raised and the number of home defence
+squadrons was raised to fourteen service and eight night training
+squadrons; a Northern Home Defence Wing was formed at York; and the Home
+Defence Group became the 6th Brigade. The first night aeroplane raid
+occurred in September, and the systematic training of night-fighting
+pilots on scout machines was hurried on. Separate zones for aeroplanes,
+guns and searchlights--the latter provided with sound locators--forming
+an outer barrage, were instituted, and aprons, supported by
+kite-balloons, formed a protective barrage up to 8,000 feet. A system of
+wireless and ground telephonic communication was improvised for plotting
+the course of attacking aircraft and thus enabling squadron commanders
+to concentrate machines at the point of attack. By 1918 the
+night-fighting aeroplane, assisted by these means, had countered the
+night-bombing aeroplane. At first, this had been the result of the
+retention of a large number of fighting aircraft and a complete
+organization at home.
+
+Meanwhile, night fighting, especially the protection of night bombers by
+fighting machines, had become of paramount importance on the Western
+Front. The chief feature of activity in September, 1918, was the
+successful co-operation between searchlights in the forward areas and
+No. 151 night-fighting squadron. This was the first night-fighting
+squadron, trained by the 6th Brigade, to be sent to France. It was
+proposed to send four more such squadrons and thus form a first line of
+offensive defence which would react on hostile raids over England. Thus
+once again the old doctrine was gradually observed that offence is the
+only true defence, and that purely defensive measures, however
+efficient, by keeping men and material from the vital point, are
+necessarily expensive out of all proportion to their effectiveness. Both
+the Germans and ourselves made the initial mistake of organizing large
+local defence systems partly to placate public opinion. During the
+German offensive of 1918 a further development of night fighting took
+place in the bombing and low strafing of enemy troops and unlighted
+transport with the aid of flares.
+
+
+THE MACHINE AND ENGINE.
+
+Turning now to the machine and engine, the Military Trials held in 1912,
+when the Royal Flying Corps was started, represented the first organized
+effort to assist the evolution of service aeroplanes in this country and
+a brief comparison will be useful to show the performance of the average
+machines and engines of that date, at the beginning, and at the end of
+the war, and of civil machines of to-day.
+
+At the Military Competitions of 1912, of the eight types--Avro, B.E.,
+Bristol, Cody, Bleriot, Deperdussin, Hanriot, and M. Farman--the first
+four were British, though only the Avro had a British engine, and the
+last four French, fitted with French engines. The average horse-power
+was about 83, the average maximum speed 67, and the minimum 50 miles per
+hour; the climb to 1,000 feet was effected in 4-1/2 minutes with an
+average load of 640 lb., which included pilot, fuel for four hours and
+useful load. The loading per square foot was, for biplanes, about 4-1/2,
+and, for monoplanes, 6 lb.
+
+On the outbreak of war, and until the end of 1914, of the ten types in
+use--Avro, B.E., Bristol, Sopwith, Vickers, M. Farman, H. Farman,
+Caudron, Morane, and Voisin--five were British and five were French and
+all were fitted with French engines. The average horse-power was still
+about 83, but the average maximum speed had risen to 74, and the minimum
+had fallen to 41 miles per hour. The load averaged 609 lb.
+
+A remarkable advance in machine and engine construction is shown by
+referring to the tables for 1918. At the Armistice of the twelve
+types--Avro, Bristol Fighter, Sopwith Snipe, S.E. 5a, de Havilland 4 and
+9a, Vickers Vimy, Handley Page O/400 and V/1,500, Fairey Seaplane 3c, F.
+2 A. and F. 5--all were British and, except the de Havilland 9a, which
+had an American engine, were fitted with engines of British manufacture.
+The F. 2 A., and F. 5, were twin-engined, while one, the Handley Page
+V/1,500, was equipped with four engines. The average horse-power was per
+engine, 344, and per machine, 516; the average maximum speed 111, and
+the minimum 53-1/2 miles per hour, the climb to 6,500 feet was carried
+out in 13 minutes and to 10,000 feet in 24 minutes with an average load,
+including fuel for 5-1/2 hours, of 2,742 lb. The average ceiling was
+15,500 feet; the loading per square foot about 8 lb.
+
+The years following the Armistice have witnessed the conversion of
+military machines and the development of new designs for commercial
+purposes. In 1921 there were thirteen types fitted with British engines:
+Avro, Bristol, de Havilland 4, 16 and 18, Vickers Vimy, Handley Page
+O/400 and W. 8, B.A.T., Westland, Fairey, Supermarine and Vickers
+Amphibians. No British machine had a foreign engine. The Vickers Vimy,
+Handley Page O/400 and W. 8, which had a passenger-carrying capacity of
+15, were twin-engined. The average horse-power was per engine, 387, and
+per machine, 474; the average maximum speed 114, and the minimum 49,
+miles per hour. With an average load of 2,467 lb., including fuel for
+4-1/2 hours, 19 minutes was required for a climb to 10,000 feet. The
+average loading per square foot was about 13 lb., and the average
+ceiling 15,793 feet.
+
+Before the war, in addition to the Royal Aircraft Factory, there were
+only eight firms engaged, on a very small scale, in the manufacture of
+aircraft in England, and an aero engine industry hardly existed. Until
+1916, the greater proportion of our machines, and almost all our
+engines, were French, and we were very dependent upon France for the
+replacement of our heavy losses in material. By the end of the war the
+bulk of our material was of British design and construction, though
+there was still a certain number of British built engines of French
+design. One American engine--the Liberty--was also employed. The fact
+that in October, 1918, the Royal Air Force had 22,171 machines and
+37,702 engines on charge, and that during the ten months January to
+October the output of machines had been 26,685 and of engines 29,561,
+gives some idea of the enormous growth in production.
+
+In the first few months of the war it was not possible to progress far
+with new inventions or improvements. Fortunately, our Aircraft Factory
+had evolved in the B.E. a machine of considerable stability which in
+this respect compared favourably with German machines, and was well
+adapted to its work of reconnaissance.
+
+Technical progress during the war often unfortunately involved the loss
+of valuable lives, as for instance those of Professor Hopkinson and
+Busk, to both of whom heavy debts of gratitude are owed, but gradually
+obstacle after obstacle, problem after problem, was successfully tackled
+by our designers and constructors. With a view to enlarging the field of
+observation, staggered planes were introduced in the B.E.2c. This
+machine also proved that it was possible to calculate the degree of
+stability and thus paved the way for the design of aeroplanes with
+indifference to stability and increased man[oe]uvrability for fighting
+purposes, or with great inherent stability for bombing. During 1915 the
+B.E.2c was used for all purposes, but the extra loading involved by the
+increasing use of aeroplanes for bombing and fighting caused a decrease
+in the rate of speed and climb, and our aeroplanes were temporarily
+inferior in fighting power to the Fokker.
+
+The necessity of preventing the enemy obtaining information soon led to
+the development of air fighting. At the beginning of the war the sole
+armament of aeroplanes was the rifle or revolver. The machine gun soon
+followed, but its use in tractor machines was impracticable on account
+of the danger of hitting the airscrew. The first "fighters" were
+therefore two-seater pushers, such as the "Short-horn" Maurice Farmans
+which, though not designed for fighting, and too slow to chase enemy
+aircraft, were the first to be fitted with Lewis guns, and F.E.'s, the
+first machine designed specifically for fighting, with the machine-gun
+operator in front of the pilot. These "pusher" fighters had an excellent
+field of view and fire forwards, but suffered from lack of speed and a
+large "blind" area to the rear. On the other hand, the single-seater
+tractors were potentially the superior fighters, and in order to protect
+the blades of the airscrew the French were the first to use deflector
+blades on them in tractor machines.
+
+Our early single-seater tractors were fitted with a Lewis gun fixed so
+as to fire over or at the side of the airscrew and actuated by a bowden
+wire, the most efficient, though not the most numerous, fighting
+machines at the end of 1915 being the Bristol Scouts.
+
+By the Summer of 1916, however, we had adapted the "synchronizing gear"
+to our machine guns, enabling them to be fired through the propeller;
+while aircraft engines developed much greater power and full allowance
+was made for all equipment carried. From that time the development of
+our single-seater fighters was steadily progressive. One of the first of
+these was the Sopwith "Pup," which had a speed of 106-1/2 miles an hour
+at 6,500 feet, climbed 10,000 feet in just over 14 minutes, and could
+attain a ceiling of 17,500 feet. In 1917 appeared the Sopwith "Camel," a
+typical example of this type, which was simple, stable, easily
+controllable and possessed two guns. It had a speed of 121 miles an hour
+at 10,000 feet, to which height it could climb in under 10-1/2 minutes,
+and a ceiling of 23,000 feet. The Martinsyde F.4, embodying further
+improvements, was not ready in time for active service.
+
+While the single-seater tractor was developing for purely offensive
+action, the two-seater fighter, of which the field of view,
+man[oe]uvrability and general performance were being improved, retained
+its utility as a reconnaissance machine. In 1916 the "pusher" type was
+superseded by the Sopwith "1-1/2 Strutter" armed with a synchronized
+Vickers gun, which for its 130 horse-power was never surpassed. The
+pilot was close to the engine and had a good view of the ground, while
+the gunner was placed behind him with a rotary Lewis gun turret. Early
+in 1917 these qualities were further developed in the Bristol Fighter.
+
+With the advent of these improved types the B.E.2c was relegated to the
+work of artillery co-operation, until superseded by the B.E.2e. Towards
+the end of 1916 appeared the R.E.8 with a Vickers synchronized gun and
+a Lewis gun, which after many vicissitudes became the standard machine
+for artillery work.
+
+Systematic bombing was practised by nearly all types of machines, but
+real accuracy was never obtained. Thus, the B.E.2c was first used in
+formations, but with a full load of bombs it could not carry an
+observer, and its moderate speed left it an easy prey to hostile
+fighters. Early in 1916 appeared the Martinsyde single-seater bomber
+with an endurance of 4-1/2 hours, and in 1917 the D.H.4 which was much
+used for day-bombing. The F.E.2b pusher, discarded as a fighting
+machine, became the principal night-bomber.
+
+It was comparatively late in the war before special bombing machines
+were evolved. They were then divided into day-bombers and night-bombers,
+the D.H.9 and 9a machines being typical of the former and the Handley
+Page of 1917--a large twin-engine aeroplane, the first really effective
+night-bomber, of considerable carrying power but low performance--of the
+latter. By November 8th, 1918, two super-Handley Pages were ready to
+start to Berlin. They possessed a maximum range of 1,100 miles, a crew
+of seven, four 350 horse-power Rolls-Royce engines, arranged in pairs, a
+tractor and a pusher in tandem on either side of the machine, and, as
+they would be compelled to fly both by night and day, a gun defence
+system. The D.H.10a and the Vickers Vimy, for day and night bombing
+respectively, were also being produced at the date of the Armistice.
+
+In the early days of the war an aeroplane had little to fear above
+4,000 feet. With the improvement of the anti-aircraft gun there was, by
+the end of the war, no immunity at 20,000 feet. Very low flying for
+attack was, however, being rapidly developed, and would have proved of
+great effect in 1919. The aeroplane used for this purpose was the
+single-seater fighter, and the Sopwith "Salamander," with two guns, a
+speed of 125 miles an hour, and 650 lb. of armoured plates, was about to
+make its appearance at the Armistice.
+
+I have previously mentioned how dependent the improvement of design and
+performance of aircraft has been upon the less simple and tardier
+development of the engine. The invention of the light motor made
+aviation possible, and development has synchronized with the evolution
+of lighter, more powerful and more reliable engines. One of the most
+difficult problems still confronting us is the production of a cheap,
+high-powered and reliable engine, but the existence at the end of the
+war of machines weighing 15 tons indicates the progress achieved, while
+British engines of 600 horse-power are now in use, and one of 1,000
+horse-power will shortly be available.
+
+
+TACTICS AND THE STRATEGIC AIR OFFENSIVE.
+
+During the war there were three concurrent movements in process: the
+ratios of the various forms of air tactics were constantly changing, and
+the components of our air forces varied in accordance with the
+development of reconnaissance, artillery co-operation, bombing and
+fighting. Secondly, their total strength was increasing rapidly; and,
+thirdly, it was increasing relatively faster than the Army or Navy.
+
+It was an evident and logical development and in accord with the
+shortage of national man power and the consequent tendency to a
+reduction in the strength of the Army, that, the necessary uses of
+aircraft with the Army and Navy being ensured, any available margin of
+air power should be employed on an independent basis for definite
+strategic purposes. The difficulty was to arrive at an agreement as to
+the minimum tactical and grand tactical requirements of the Army and
+Navy. The British Army was not alone in asserting that there was no
+minimum and that it wanted every available airman, and agreed with the
+French that anything which it could temporarily spare should be lent to
+the French Army. It was argued that the Armies could as easily and
+better arrange for strategic bombing. Fortunately in 1918, when I was
+Chief of the Air Staff, we managed to secure a margin and formed the
+Independent Air Force in June of that year. It was, of course,
+understood that, in the event of either the British or French Armies
+being hard put to it, the Independent Air Force could temporarily come
+to their direct assistance and act in close co-operation with them.
+
+In 1915 in accordance with the old doctrine that offence is the best
+defence, the surest method of protecting specialized machines on the
+battle front was found to be in the attack of enemy aircraft by fighting
+machines. In 1918 it was decided that raids on the centres of German war
+industry would not only cripple the enemy's output of material
+essential to victory, but also relieve the pressure on the Western
+Front, the vital point of the war. The Germans had had the same
+intention in the many raids which started over Dover on December 21st,
+1914.
+
+Long-range bombing had, however, been carried out spasmodically before
+1918. In addition to its taste for bombing in general, the Royal Naval
+Air Service were keenly bent from the outset on long-range bombing in
+particular. The question of forming an Allied squadron to bomb German
+munition factories was first raised in 1915 at one of the monthly
+meetings between the French and British Aviation departments; and in
+February, 1916, a small squadron of Sopwith "1-1/2 Strutters" was formed
+at Detling for the purpose of bombing Essen and Dusseldorf from England,
+but the Army in France, being short of machines, asked that they should
+be sent to the front, and therefore the scheme did not mature; neither,
+for similar reasons, did one for the co-operation in 1916 of British and
+French bombing squadrons, operating from Luxeuil.
+
+It was not until October, 1917, that the first striking force,
+consisting of three squadrons, was formed under the Army with Ochey as
+its base. It was mainly used in raids against the ironworks in the
+Alsace-Lorraine Basin and the chemical industry in the neighbourhood of
+Mannheim. As I have said, a definite offensive policy by means of an
+independent strategic force was later decided upon, and the
+"Independent" Air Force was brought into existence. It originally
+comprised two day-bomber and two night-bomber squadrons. During the
+summer additional squadrons were allotted to it, including D.H.9's and
+Handley Pages. Day-bombing squadrons had to fight their way to
+objectives in close formation, and the problems connected with
+navigation, calculation of petrol supply, action of wind and ceiling,
+were all accentuated. Casualties were heavy, with the result that a
+squadron of Fighters, composed of Sopwith "Camels," was incorporated for
+the purpose of protection. Thus we see the beginnings of an air fleet
+analogous to the naval fleet with its capital ships and protective
+craft.
+
+The main objectives were the centre of the chemical industry at Mannheim
+and Frankfort; the iron and steel works at Briey and Longwy and the Saar
+Basin; the machine shops in the Westphalian district and the magneto
+works at Stuttgart; the submarine bases at Wilhelmshaven, Bremerhaven,
+Cuxhaven, and Hamburg, and the accumulator factories at Hagen and
+Berlin.
+
+It will be seen from a map that three of the main industrial centres
+were situated near the west frontier of Germany; and, therefore, one
+portion of the striking force was based at Ochey, which lies within a
+few miles of the Saar Basin, within 180 miles of Essen, and within 150
+miles of Frankfurt. Another portion was based on Norfolk, where a group
+of super-Handley Page machines were established for the specific purpose
+of attacking Berlin, a distance of 540 miles, and the naval bases within
+400 miles. It was obvious that though aircraft from England would have
+to cover greater distances, they would not expose themselves to the
+strong hostile defences in rear of the battle front.
+
+Three instances of the Independent Air Force's action may be cited. On
+the night of August 21st/22nd, two Handley Page machines dropped over
+one ton of bombs on Cologne Station, the raid occupying seven hours. On
+the night of August 25th/26th two Handley Pages attacked the Badische
+Aniline und Soda Fabrik of Mannheim; bombs were dropped from a height of
+200 feet, direct hits being obtained in every case; and the machines
+then remained over the town, which they swept with machine-gun fire. On
+August 12th the first attack was made on Frankfurt by twelve D.H.4
+day-bombers, every machine reaching the objective and returning safely
+in spite of being attacked, over Mannheim and throughout the return
+journey, by some forty hostile fighters.
+
+During the five months of its existence the Independent Air Force
+dropped 550 tons of bombs, 160 by day and 390 by night. Of these 200
+tons were dropped on aerodromes, largely by the short-distance F.E.2b's,
+as a result of which, hostile attacks on Allied aerodromes became
+practically negligible. Theoretically, machines of the Independent Air
+Force should not have been utilized for attacking purely military
+objectives in the Army zone, such as aerodromes, and their co-operation
+with the Army for this purpose shows that their true r�le was either not
+appreciated or not favoured by the French and other Commands.
+
+There is ample testimony to the spirit of demoralization which pervaded
+the civil population of the towns attacked.
+
+    "My eyes won't keep open whilst I am writing," reads one captured
+    letter. "In the night twice into the cellar and then again this
+    morning. One feels as if one were no longer a human being. One air
+    raid after another. In my opinion this is no longer war but murder.
+    Finally, in time, one becomes horribly cold, and one is daily, nay,
+    hourly, prepared for the worst." "Yesterday afternoon," says
+    another, "it rained so much and was so cloudy that no one thought it
+    was possible for them to come. It is horrible; one has no rest day
+    or night."
+
+Although, for reasons into which it is not necessary to enter here, only
+a comparatively small percentage of the efforts of the Independent Force
+were directed against the industrial targets for which the force had
+been created, yet by the end of the war the strategic conception of air
+power was bearing fruit, and the Air Ministry had in hand measures for
+bombing which would have gone far to shatter German munitionment. The
+defence measures forced upon the Germans within their own country were
+reacting on their offensive action at the front, which was at the same
+time denuded of fighting aircraft at various points to meet the menace
+of our strategic force at Ochey.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION.
+
+As in peace on a small, so in war on a large scale, the history of the
+organization of aircraft, while we were fighting for our national
+existence and competing with similar enemy expansion, is one of
+continuous development, of decentralization of command and co-ordination
+of duties. Headquarters, the Squadron and the Aircraft Park, as
+originally conceived in peace, though subject to variations in size,
+remained the basis of our organization. For instance, the original
+eighteen machines of our squadron were increased to twenty-four for
+single-seater fighters and reduced to six in the case of the
+super-Handley Page bombers. The four squadrons originally operated
+directly under Headquarters, were soon allocated to Corps for tactical
+reconnaissance and artillery co-operation, while a unit remained at
+Headquarters for strategical and long-distance reconnaissance and a few
+special duties. The next step was in November, 1914, when two Wings,
+composed originally of two, and later, of five squadrons each, were
+formed, R.F.C. Headquarters retaining one squadron and the wireless
+flight for G.H.Q. requirements. The Wing Headquarters co-ordinated the
+work of the squadrons which were allocated to Army Corps.
+
+A further development, in 1916, was the formation for each of the three
+Armies of a Brigade, consisting of two Wings and an Aircraft Park.
+One--the Corps Wing--carried out artillery co-operation and close
+reconnaissance (including photography) with Army Corps, the other--the
+Army Wing--carried out more distant reconnaissance and fighting patrols
+under Army Headquarters. Our air superiority at the Battle of the Somme
+in 1916 led us to expect German counter-measures in 1917, and our
+programme for the following winter contemplated a proportion of two
+fighting squadrons to each Corps Squadron. By 1917 there were five
+British Armies in France and Belgium and our air forces were increased
+to provide a Brigade for each of the two new Armies. The Headquarters
+of the flying force in the field (except in the case of the Independent
+Air Force, which was responsible to the Supreme War Council and the Air
+Ministry in London) remained attached to G.H.Q. throughout the war.
+
+The main difficulty in the higher organization was the lack of
+co-operation between the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air
+Service and their competition for the supply of men and machines--the
+demands of both being urgent and insatiable. As a first step to overcome
+this, an Air Board was formed in May, 1916, to discuss general air
+policy, especially the combined operation of the Naval and Military Air
+Services, to make recommendations on the types of machines required by
+each, and to co-ordinate the supply of material. The Air Board was an
+improvement, but not a remedy, and, therefore, in 1917 it was decided to
+form an Air Ministry responsible for war aviation in all its branches
+and to amalgamate the Naval and Military Air Services as the Royal Air
+Force. This was carried into effect early in 1918, with Lord Rothermere
+as Secretary of State for Air with a seat in the Cabinet, and the air
+became the third service of the Crown, with an independent Government
+department permeated with a knowledge of air navigation, machinery, and
+weather, and closely allied to the industrial world for the initiation,
+guidance, and active supervision of research and experimental work.
+
+I will mention later some of the many arguments for and against the
+retention of an independent Air Ministry and autonomous Air Force in
+peace. The amalgamation was certainly advantageous in war. It effected
+the correlation of a number of hitherto independent services according
+to a uniform policy and prevented overlapping by centralizing
+administration. Under single control it was possible to carry out, on a
+carefully co-ordinated plan, recruiting and training, to supply men and
+material, to organize air power according to the strategic situation in
+each of the various theatres of war, and to form the correct ratio
+between the air forces in the field and the reserves in training at
+home. The difficulty was that the amalgamation had to be carried out
+during the most intensive period of air effort, but by the end of the
+war most of these objects had been attained without jeopardizing the
+close co-operation with the Army and Navy. Co-operation with the Naval
+and General Staffs and with naval and military formations was, in fact,
+improved, independent action was beginning to bear fruit, and we
+possessed an Air Force without rival.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PEACE
+
+
+THE FUTURE OF AERIAL DEFENCE.
+
+In the evolution of aviation during the war the conclusion has been
+reached that the most remarkable lines of development at the Armistice
+were in the direction of ground and night fighting, torpedo attack and
+long-range bombing, exemplifying respectively the three spheres of air
+operations--military co-operation, naval co-operation, and the strategic
+use of aircraft. It must be remembered that this progress in tactics and
+strategy, in the machine, and the airman's skill, was made in the short
+period of four years, and that every war has started with a great
+advance in scientific knowledge, accumulated during peace, over that
+obtaining at the close of the previous war. We may therefore assume,
+provided the danger is averted of a retrograde movement from recent
+scientific methods to pre-war conditions--sabres, bayonets, and
+guns--that by the outbreak of another war on a large scale, which we
+hope may never occur, the knowledge of Service aeronautics will have
+increased immeasurably since 1918, and may be, not a contributory, but a
+decisive factor in securing victory.
+
+The period since the Armistice has been employed in the reduction and
+consolidation of the Royal Air Force. In England the cadre system has
+been adopted, while abroad the greatest concentration of effort is aimed
+at, with Egypt, at present the most important strategic point in the
+Imperial air system, as the centre of activity. Iraq is being handed
+over to the control of the Royal Air Force, whose share in the policing
+of overseas possessions is likely usefully to grow provided any tendency
+to the concurrent building up of a large ground organization is
+withstood. The advantages of aircraft for "garrison" duties lie, under
+suitable geographical conditions, in their swift action and wide range,
+their economy, and, during disturbances their capacity for constant
+pressure against the enemy without fear of retaliation. One of the main
+problems is at present that of personnel. Service flying is restricted
+to comparatively young men, and therefore the majority of officers can
+only be commissioned for short periods. For this reason the experiment
+is being made of taking officers direct from civil life on short
+engagements, and at the same time endeavouring to ensure, by technical
+and general education, that the Royal Air Force shall not become a
+blind-alley occupation.
+
+Though it is difficult to foretell on what lines aircraft will develop
+for any one purpose, as in the past, the problem of military
+co-operation will perhaps be less complex than that of co-operation with
+the Navy. It will probably consist of improvements along the lines
+already indicated, such as increased range, speed, climb,
+man[oe]uvrability, offensive armament, armour, the assistance of tank
+and anti-tank action, and the utilization of gas. Fighting will
+undoubtedly take place at very high altitudes to keep the enemy's
+fighting machines away from the zone of operations--necessitating the
+development of the single-seater so as to increase climb and
+man[oe]uvrability, and obtain, if possible, a speed of 200 miles an hour
+at 30,000 feet. Cavalry, unless retained, as I think they should be, in
+the form of mounted machine-gunners, will, I think, disappear in
+European warfare, but infantry will remain, and it will be the object of
+aircraft to assist their advance by reconnaissance, ground attack,
+artillery and tank co-operation, and the destruction of the enemy's
+supplies and communications. In this connection ground tactics and air
+tactics must develop _pari passu_ and commanders of Corps and Armies
+must work out during peace training the fullest schemes for the most
+intimate co-operation between air and land forces.
+
+The future of naval co-operation is a difficult problem, more especially
+as there was no major naval engagement after Jutland in which aircraft
+could be used, and consequently we have little to go on in estimating
+their practical value in direct co-operation with the fleet. It is
+impossible at present to judge between the conflicting opinions as to
+the future of the capital ship, but it is certain that aviation will
+materially modify naval tactics and construction. Coast defence,
+reconnaissance, anti-submarine work, escort, and the bombing of enemy
+bases, will doubtless continue and develop with ever-increasing
+machinery and equipment; but torpedo attack by aircraft may reach a
+point where the very existence of opposing fleets may be endangered. It
+is already questionable whether a battleship could survive an attack
+launched by even a small force of this mobile arm.
+
+As was the case during the war, the action of aircraft at sea is
+restricted by range, the difficulty being to find the mean between the
+opposing conditions of radius of flight and limitation in the size of
+aircraft imposed by the deck-space of "carriers," but there is reason to
+suppose that on the one hand engines will be so improved as to afford a
+sufficient radius of action to comparatively small aircraft, while, on
+the other, devices will be found to economize deck-space.
+
+Fleets operating near the enemy's coast will be vulnerable from land
+aircraft bases, and thus close blockade will be rendered increasingly
+difficult. The possibility of gas attack on enemy bases from the air in
+co-operation with submarines and of effecting a blockade by this means
+must be envisaged.
+
+Since the Armistice the operational work of the Royal Air Force on
+behalf of the Navy has been conducted under the auspices of the
+Admiralty. Improvements have been made in large flying boats and
+amphibians, especially with a view to facilitating their landing on
+"carriers" and the decks of battleships. There has also been
+considerable progress in the construction and use of torpedo aircraft.
+
+The war lasted long enough to prove the effect of the strategic
+offensive by air. In spite of the dictates of humanity, it cannot be
+eliminated. It is true that modern war is inimical to the progress of
+mankind and brings only less suffering to the victors than to the
+vanquished. To ensure peace should therefore be our ideal. But a great
+war once joined is to-day a war of peoples. Not only armies in the
+field, but men, women, and even children at home, are concentrated on
+the single purpose of defeating the enemy, and armies, navies, and air
+forces are dependent upon the application to work, the output of war
+supplies, and, above all, the morale of the civil population. Just as
+gas was used notwithstanding the Hague Convention, so air war, in spite
+of any and every international agreement to the contrary, will be
+carried into the enemy's country, his industries will be destroyed, his
+nerve centres shattered, his food supply disorganized, and the will
+power of the nation as a whole shaken. Formidable as is the prospect of
+this type of air warfare, it will become still more terrible with the
+advent of new scientific methods of life-destruction, such as chemical
+and bacterial attack on great industrial and political centres. Various
+proposals, such as the control of the air effort, service and civil, of
+all countries by the League of Nations, and even the complete
+elimination of aviation, have been put forward as a means of avoiding
+the horrors of aerial warfare and its appurtenances, but they are
+untenable, and any power wishing and able to sweep them aside will
+undoubtedly do so.
+
+A future war, as I see it, will begin something after this manner,
+provided either side possesses large air forces. Huge day and night
+bombers will assemble at the declaration of war to penetrate into the
+enemy's country for the attack of his centres of population, his
+mobilization zones, his arsenals, harbours, strategic railways, shipping
+and rolling stock. Corps and Army squadrons will concentrate in
+formation to accompany the armies to the front; reconnaissance and
+fighting patrols will scatter in all directions from coastal air bases
+to discover the enemy's concentrations and cover our own; the fleet,
+whatever its nature, will emerge with its complement of reconnaissance
+and protective machines and torpedo aircraft for direct action against
+the enemy's fleet. A few fighting defence units will remain behind.
+
+But it must not be imagined that these functions will be carried out
+unopposed. Local battles in the air will occur between fighting machines
+for the protection of specialized machines, while the main air forces in
+large formations will concentrate independently to produce, if possible,
+a shattering blow on the enemy and obtain from the outset a supremacy in
+the air comparable to our supremacy on the sea in the last war.
+
+In mobilization the time factor is all-important. Our national history
+has been one of extraordinary good fortune in this respect, but the
+margin allowable for luck is becoming very narrow and, whereas in 1914
+it was some twenty days between the declaration of war and the exchange
+of the first shots, in the next war the air battle may be joined within
+as many hours, and an air attack launched almost simultaneously with the
+declaration of war. In modern war the mobilization period tends to
+shorten, and every effort will be made towards its further reduction,
+since mobilizing armies are particularly vulnerable from air attack.
+
+
+CIVIL AVIATION AS A FACTOR IN NATIONAL SECURITY.
+
+The picture I have drawn may appear highly coloured for the reason that
+no country is likely for some time to possess sufficiently large air
+forces to obtain a decisive victory, or at any rate an uncontested
+superiority, at the outbreak of war. Though in air, as in every other
+form of warfare, attack is more effective than defence, we cannot afford
+to keep our air forces up to war strength in peace any more than our
+Army or Navy.
+
+The problem, from a military point of view, is therefore to ensure an
+adequate reserve and to maintain our capacity for expansion to meet
+emergencies. The number of units maintained at war establishment should
+be the absolute minimum for safety and of the type immediately required
+on mobilization, i.e. long-range bombing and naval reconnaissance
+squadrons. The remainder should be in cadre form. We can, of course,
+maintain a fixed number of machines and pilots in reserve for every one
+on the active list, but, although some such system is necessary, on a
+large scale it is open to many and serious objections. First of all,
+even on a cadre basis, it means keeping inactive at considerable cost a
+number of machines which may never be used and which, however carefully
+stored, quickly deteriorate. Knowledge of aeronautics is still slender
+and improvements are made so continuously that machines may become
+obsolete within a few months. Moreover, the growth of service aviation
+in peace must tend to become artificial and conventional rather than
+natural, and this will react on design and construction, which will be
+cramped, both technically and financially, within the limits imposed by
+service requirements.
+
+It is obvious therefore that the capacity of the construction industry
+to expand cannot be fostered by service aviation alone; furthermore, in
+the event of another war of attrition, expansion will be more essential
+than any amount of machine reserve power immediately available, and in
+the event of a war of short duration that power will win which has the
+greatest preponderance of machines, service or civil, fit to take the
+air. The asphyxiation of a large enemy city, if within range, can be
+done by night-flying commercial machines, and it would require a
+defending force of great numerical superiority for its successful
+defence.
+
+Whether, therefore, from this point of view, or others, which I will
+mention later, another solution must be found, and this lies in the
+development of civil aviation. An analogy in the Navy and the Mercantile
+Marine has long been apparent. "Sea power," says Mahan, "is based upon a
+flourishing industry." Substitute "air" for "sea" and the analogy is
+still true. The Navy owed its origin to our mercantile enterprise and
+to-day it depends upon the Mercantile Marine for its reserve power of
+men and material. In the same way must air power be built up on
+commercial air supremacy. If we accept Mahan, or the dictum of any other
+great naval or military historian or strategist, a service air force by
+itself is not air power, and after a brief if brilliant flash must
+wither if reserves are not immediately at hand. A large commercial air
+fleet will provide, not only a reserve of men and machines, but it will
+keep in existence an aircraft industry, with its designing and
+constructional staffs, capable of quick and wide expansion in emergency;
+and such an industry will not be employed on the design of contrivances
+for use in a possible war, but on meeting the practical requirements of
+everyday air transport and navigation.
+
+Thus a natural, practical and healthy, as opposed to a stereotyped and
+artificial, growth will be ensured. Our naval supremacy is largely
+attributable to the interest which the people as a whole have
+traditionally taken in naval policy; in other words, to the fact that we
+are a seafaring nation. Similarly air supremacy can only be secured if
+the air-sense of the man in the street is fostered, and aviation is not
+confined to military operations, but becomes a part of everyday life. At
+the present time commercial aviation is far too small to play the part
+of reservoir to the Royal Air Force--an object which must constitute one
+of the principal claims for support of the nucleus already in existence.
+
+
+CIVIL AVIATION AS AN INSTRUMENT OF IMPERIAL PROGRESS.
+
+Civil aviation, however, has not only an indirect military, but, with
+its superiority in speed over other means of transport, a direct
+commercial utility. The nation which first substitutes aircraft for
+other means of transport will be more than half-way towards the
+supremacy of the air. Moreover, as the Roman Empire was built upon its
+roads and as the foundations of the British Empire have hitherto rested
+upon its shipping, as steam, the cable and wireless have each in turn
+been harnessed to the work of speeding up communications, so to-day,
+with the opening of a new era of Imperial co-operation and consultation,
+this new means of transport by air, with a speed hitherto undreamed of,
+must be utilized for communication and commerce between the various
+portions of the Empire.
+
+A comparison of the French and British attitudes towards civil aviation
+clearly demonstrates the two policies I have mentioned. Both France and
+England grant subsidies--France the very much larger sum--but the great
+difference lies in the objects aimed at. French policy is fostering
+civil aviation as a part of its military policy and, a portion of the
+subsidy being given to machines fulfilling service requirements, there
+is a strong tendency for French civil aviation to be military air power
+camouflaged. British policy, on the other hand, should aim at fostering
+civil aviation primarily as a commercial concern and believes that air
+commerce is the basis of air power as a whole. We are prepared to face
+the tendency of military and civil machines to diverge if that
+divergence is essential to the commercial machine.
+
+An alternative to the British policy of maintaining a small air force
+and fostering commercial aviation as a reserve is the Canadian plan of
+a small air force training school and a civil Government flying service
+with such objects as forest patrol, survey and coastguard duties, the
+work being carried out on repayment for Government departments,
+provincial governments and private corporations. The former method,
+allowing of independent commercial expansion, is better suited to
+British mentality and requirements, but its success will depend on a
+genuine endeavour to make commercial aviation the real and vital basis
+of our air power. Experience in commercial operation cannot be gained by
+the exploitation of air routes or the carriage of mails or passengers
+under Service auspices. It is only by running transport services, as far
+as possible under private management, that operational data can be
+obtained, economies effected, and the design of strictly commercial
+machines improved.
+
+To sum up. Military air supremacy can best be assured by the intensive
+development of industrial air organization for commercial purposes. The
+conception of civil aviation as the mainstay of air power as a whole is
+right. Service aviation is bound by technical and financial limits; its
+scope confined to the requirements of war. Civil aviation, on the other
+hand, opens out a prospect of productive expansion. The steady growth of
+the Continental services is already beginning to demonstrate the
+importance of air transport.
+
+
+FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS.
+
+The commercial exploitation of air transport is passing through a period
+of experiment, and suffering in the general war reaction from the
+incapacity of the public to think of aviation except as a fighting
+service. The machines hitherto used on the lines to and on the Continent
+are principally converted war machines, and to transform military into
+commercial craft and to use them as such is of small assistance to civil
+aviation, which requires reliable, economic machines as one of the basic
+conditions of its financial success. The cost of running an air
+transport service is considerable. Depreciation is one heavy item of
+expenditure. New machines must be evolved suitable to the requirements
+of mail, passenger and freight transport, but, in the present state of
+financial stringency, capital is not forthcoming for experiment unless
+there is every promise of a safe return. Then there are the expenses
+involved in general ground organization, maintenance, fuel, insurance,
+etc. The question is how can we carry on until the really economic type
+of commercial machine is evolved. It will never be evolved unless there
+is continuous flying and a continuous demand for new and improved
+machines for commercial work. To meet this in France, the Government
+came forward with a liberal grant of subsidies which have now been
+increased and placed on a more favourable basis, permitting of a very
+considerable reduction in the fares for transport by air. The British
+Government has also granted a subsidy for British firms operating on the
+cross-Channel routes, which it is hoped will place them before long on a
+sound, self-supporting, commercial basis. Part of this subsidy is
+allocated to assist transport companies in obtaining the latest type of
+commercial machines on a hire purchase system. With a few services
+properly supported by the State we shall pull through the experimental
+period of civil aviation.
+
+The services to the Continent, although the distance is on the short
+side for the merits of air transport to be properly demonstrated, effect
+a considerable saving in time, and it is certain that the amount of
+mail, especially parcels, carried on these routes will continue to
+increase and lead to the eventual adoption of normal rates for air
+postage. An extension of the use of aircraft as the regular means of
+carrying mails will be of great assistance in the development of air
+transport. Aircraft revolutionize the speed of intercommunication by
+letter, and banks and financial houses will gradually realize that large
+savings can be made by utilizing air mails for the transaction of
+business. A difficulty lies in the fact that the area of the British
+Isles is not very favourable for an extensive air mail service, which
+can only operate by day, since by the existing means of transport mails
+are carried during the out-of-business hours and can generally reach
+their destination in a night, while the distances to Paris and Brussels
+are too short to afford outstanding advantage.
+
+Lastly, we require public support and a spirit of confidence in the air.
+This can only be secured by increased reliability, reduction of charges
+and keeping the public informed of the progress made. It is the nature
+of man to distrust new departures. He disliked the introduction of
+mechanical devices into the Lancashire weaving mills. He scoffed at the
+steamship and railway. To-day he is inclined to treat as premature the
+serious exploitation of the air. In spite of the great decrease of
+accidents, in spite of the increased comfort of air travel, in spite of
+increased regularity, the average person is slow to realize that the
+communication of the busy man of the future will be by air. The majority
+of the business world is too conservative to make general use of the
+opportunities offered by aircraft for the quick transmission of its
+correspondence, while, though speed must be paid for, the high fares
+hitherto charged have deterred the general public from substituting the
+aeroplane for the train or boat. The running costs represented by these
+fares are being materially reduced as a more economic machine is
+evolved, and the reduction of fares which helps to place competition
+with foreign subsidized services and with the older forms of transport
+on more equal terms must for a time depend upon the assistance of
+Government grants.
+
+
+WEATHER CONDITIONS AND NIGHT FLYING.
+
+The safety of the machine and the reliability of an air service largely
+depend on accurate weather forecasts. In order to co-ordinate the
+meteorological work of the country as a whole, and for the special
+assistance of aviation, the Meteorological Services of Great Britain
+have been amalgamated under the Department of Civil Aviation, and,
+working in close co-operation with the Communications Branch of the
+Department, have made improvements in the rapid collection and
+distribution of meteorological information for all purposes. In
+addition to the forecasts issued four times daily, collective reports
+are issued hourly by wireless from the London terminal aerodrome at
+Croydon and copies are distributed to transport companies and others
+concerned.
+
+A feature of meteorology which is often overlooked is its economic
+value. By making use of a knowledge of the wind at different heights,
+aircraft can complete journeys more quickly than would otherwise be
+possible, and thereby save their own fuel and their passengers' time.
+This will be specially useful in the tropics where the regularity of the
+surface winds has its counterpart in the upper air, but even in Europe
+time-tables can be drawn up with due attention to the favourable and
+unfavourable effect of prevailing winds. The planning of airship routes
+in particular, must be considered in close connection with this aspect
+of weather conditions.
+
+To-day, however, the aeroplane may be considered as an "all-weather"
+craft, save for mist and fog--the enemies of all transport and
+particularly to that of the air--to which unfortunately England is
+particularly liable during the winter. Experiments have been carried out
+on the dispersal of fog, the illumination of aerodromes by fog-piercing
+lights, and instruments to record the exact position of the aeroplane
+and its height above the ground, but success has not yet been achieved.
+
+Similar to the problems of flying and landing in mist and fog is that of
+night flying. Until night flying is practicable, only half the value of
+the aeroplane's speed is obtainable, since other transport services run
+continuously day and night. Further, as machines become rapidly obsolete
+owing to technical progress, it is essential that they should be in use
+for the greatest number of hours during their life. Much has been done
+in the lighting and marking of aerodromes and in the equipment of
+aeroplanes with wireless telephone and direction-finding apparatus.
+
+It may here be mentioned that there are two methods of obtaining the
+position of aircraft by means of wireless telegraphy, known as
+direction-finding and position-finding. Direction-finding is effected by
+means of two coils set at right angles in the aircraft, by means of
+which the bearing of a transmitting ground station with reference to the
+aircraft's compass can be taken. When two or more bearings on different
+ground stations, whose position is known, have been obtained, a "cut" or
+"fix" of the aircraft is obtained. The position-finding system consists
+of two or more ground stations fitted with apparatus capable of taking
+bearings with respect to true north and connected by direct telephone
+line. The aircraft calls up by wireless one of these stations, requests
+her position and then makes a series of signals for about half a minute.
+The stations take the aircraft's bearings, plot its position, and
+transmit the information to the aircraft. Wireless direction and
+position-finding, as well as wireless telephony, have on several
+occasions proved their value to navigation, but in spite of instances of
+successful night flying, developments have not been such as to render
+night services practicable.
+
+Marine experience has been a valuable guide, but aerial illumination
+has entailed many new problems of its own--the distribution of light
+through very wide angles, the installation of light and powerful lamps
+in aircraft, the elimination of shadows and the prevention of dazzle,
+the provision of apparatus to indicate the strength and direction of the
+wind, and the like.
+
+Very shortly the first organized and equipped night-flying route will be
+available; that between London and Lympne on the Continental air
+highway. The Boulogne-Paris section will probably be ready a little
+later. There will be four lighthouses on the English section, of which
+two will be automatic, requiring no attention for twelve months at a
+time. These, and many other, facilities will much assist the progressive
+establishment of services during the hours of darkness, and will provide
+valuable data for the establishment of other night-flying routes. There
+is no real difficulty given a reasonably clear atmosphere.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION.
+
+I have mentioned the broad lines on which the organization of the air
+services was built up before and during the war. We have seen that the
+initial foundations and framework remained and bore the great systematic
+structural development which was gradually required. In August, 1914,
+there were some 240 officers, 1800 men and 200 machines; in November,
+1918, 30,000 officers, 170,000 men, and 22,000 machines, all of them
+better and of a higher performance than those of 1914. Our casualties
+during the war were about 18,000; air formations had been active in
+some fifteen theatres of operations; 8,000 enemy machines and 300
+observation balloons had been destroyed; some three-quarters of a
+million photographs taken over hostile country, and 12,000,000 rounds
+had been fired from the air at ground targets. At Home two organizations
+had expanded independently from the same seed until, impeding one
+another's growth, their trunks had joined and a single and improved tree
+was the result.
+
+This is the only country where a unified air service has been adopted.
+In war the arrangement was successful. Against its continuance in peace
+the Army and Navy urge that, with the best of wills, there is a great
+difference between having an integral branch of a service to work with
+other services and having to deal with an independent organization, and
+argue increased cost, duplication, competition and disjointed action.
+There is no doubt that the liaison of the General, Naval and Air Staffs
+must be closened, and if co-operation with the senior services was
+really becoming less satisfactory, a return to the old system should be
+considered amongst other alternatives, but I do not think that it should
+be so. It must also be remembered that, although air co-operation is
+vital to naval and military operations, it is fortunately unlikely that
+there will be another war for a long time and, meanwhile, the growing
+essential, independent strategic action would be irretrievably impaired
+by the reabsorption of the Air into the Army and Navy.
+
+On the other hand, even apart from supply, such a reversion would also
+cause much duplication, e.g. training. The solution and the correct and
+logical outcome of the unification of the Air service is the close
+grouping of the three arms in a Ministry of Defence, and this, even in
+face of the obvious practical difficulties, should be adopted and
+co-ordination thus increased step by step. Apart from Supply, some of
+the services in which this could be effected are the medical, education,
+chaplains, mobilization stores, transport, works and buildings,
+accounting, communications, ordnance and national factories. A modified
+scheme might also be studied in which, under a Ministry of Defence, the
+Army and Navy each had tactical air units of seconded personnel for
+artillery co-operation, spotting and reconnaissance, and the Air
+Ministry dealt with supply, research, initial training and reserves,
+civil aviation and an independent air force.
+
+One of many good examples of the necessity of co-ordination is afforded
+by the position of the aircraft supply services at the beginning of the
+war and their development. We have already seen that there were some
+eight private firms manufacturing aircraft in a small way and there was
+practically speaking no engine industry at all. For the Royal Flying
+Corps, the War Office had relied largely on the Royal Aircraft Factory,
+and, although the methods of control adopted had many advantages, there
+was in them a tendency to retard private enterprise and development. The
+Admiralty, on the other hand, had assisted by dealing almost entirely
+with firms for Royal Naval Air Service supply. The conditions in France
+fortunately were very much better than those in this country, and for
+the first year or two French factories helped us out with both machines
+and engines. By the end of the war we had the largest and most efficient
+aircraft industry in the world. There were no less than seventy-six
+great factories turning out vast numbers of complete aeroplanes, in
+addition to thirty-three manufacturing complete engines and over 3,000
+turning out spares and equipment. Such expansion is not possible within
+a few weeks, it took a long time to arrive at this position, and it
+causes one very seriously to think what would have happened had France
+not been our ally, and points the moral which has been mentioned of the
+necessity for a thriving aircraft and engine industry in peace. During
+the war Germany also had a very large number of firms engaged on this
+work.
+
+
+THE MACHINE AND ENGINE.
+
+The general differences between service and civil requirements in
+aircraft fall under the headings of ceiling, load and speed. For service
+purposes very much higher ceiling and greater climb and speed are
+required and the design is much affected by the condensed nature of the
+load. For peace purposes, besides the primary advantage of speed which
+the air has over other forms of transport, regularity must be ensured
+and the correct ratio between speed, duration and load-carrying power
+determined. Great ceiling, man[oe]uvrability and climb are not required.
+
+However great the speed and load, there is no value in air transport,
+whether for passengers or mails or goods, unless it is safe and also
+compares favourably from an economic point of view with the older
+methods. Without these the public cannot be expected to utilize air
+transport, nor is there any inducement to surrender mails and freight
+for carriage by air. Every endeavour compatible with economy is made, as
+far as the equipment of aerodromes and the organization of the routes
+are concerned, to render air navigation as safe as possible, yet, though
+both safety and economy of running have been improved, much remains to
+be done. Safety depends largely on engine reliability, fire prevention
+and the capacity of the machine to land in small spaces.
+
+Though neither roads nor rails have to be laid and aircraft possess the
+great advantages of mobility and point to point transit, the initiation
+and maintenance of an air service is a very complex and costly matter.
+The utilization of converted war machines is no longer sufficient and
+those specially designed for commercial work are beginning to make their
+appearance. Such are the Handley Page W.8, the Vickers, the D.H.18 and
+34, and the Bristol 10-seater.
+
+The first two are twin-engine and the last three single-engine machines.
+Opinions differ as to the relative advantages of the twin and
+single-engine type. The first and running costs of the single engine are
+lower, but the twin has greater power and carrying capacity, while most
+pilots prefer to have a surplus of power over and above that required
+for normal flight. For these reasons, and because of the psychological
+effect on insurance companies and on passengers, the twin engine will
+probably remain in use for large commercial machines, until long-lived
+and economic engines of more than 500 horse-power are available. On the
+other hand, where extra power is not required, the twin-engine is not
+safer than the single-engine machine; no existing twin-engine commercial
+aeroplane can maintain its height and land safely with only one engine
+running. Experiments have been made, especially in Germany, on the
+multi-engined machine with all the engines in the fuselage, but its
+advantages have so far been counterbalanced by loss of efficiency due to
+transmission gearing and shaft drives to the propellers and the
+vibration and weight of the gearing.
+
+High-powered engines are very expensive to run and every effort has
+therefore to be made by aerodynamic efficiency to carry more useful load
+with less horse-power. Improvement is being made in this direction; thus
+the D.H.18 carries eight passengers at 56 horse-power per passenger, the
+D.H.32 is designed for the same number at 45 horse-power each, and the
+D.H.34 for ten passengers at 45 horse-power each.
+
+The two best German commercial machines, the Junkers and the Fokker,
+have a comparatively low horse-power and a low fuel load, but greater
+attention has been paid to the design of the machines, which are
+monoplanes with cantilever wings, offering less resistance to the air
+than our biplanes. One of the most difficult problems is to evolve a
+high-lift wing which does not impair the aircraft's speed in the air.
+For commercial machines we must aim at the largest possible commercial
+load, the smallest possible fuel load and, consequently, an engine which
+uses fuel economically and, conversely, a lighter fuel. The development
+of the engine is receiving constant attention, as are also various
+safety devices, among which may be mentioned those guarding against fire
+and those varying the lift of wings so as to lower the landing speed and
+thus decrease the dangers attendant upon forced landings.
+
+In addition to the high initial cost of machines and engines, their
+maintenance also requires the greatest care. Detailed investigation must
+be made into all serious accidents. This is now compulsory under the new
+Air Navigation Act, and the fitness of pilots is ensured by periodical
+medical examination.
+
+Apart from the weather, the safety of an aircraft depends upon its
+engine, and perhaps even more upon the installation and accessibility of
+engines and their adjuncts, such as the petrol, oil, water and ignition
+systems. During the earlier stages of the war the average life of an
+engine before complete overhaul was necessary was, of stationary
+engines, from 50 to 60 hours, and of rotary engines, about 15 hours.
+To-day these figures stand at 200 hours and upwards and from 50 to 60
+hours respectively. For commercial purposes this must be further
+increased to 300-500 hours as a normal working period.
+
+There are two schools of thought with regard to the efficiency,
+reliability and the economy of engines. One school advocates using a
+light power plant per horse-power, run normally at about half its
+maximum; the other favours a plant of greater weight, more solid
+construction and greater efficiency, running at nearly its full
+horse-power. The former is more expensive in primary cost and upkeep,
+but allows a higher performance and provides reserve horse-power for
+emergency; the latter is cheaper, but involves a certain risk owing to
+lack of surplus power. We have hitherto shown a tendency to adopt the
+former method, the Germans the latter. For commercial purposes a
+compromise will probably be found to be best.
+
+Apart from the initial outlay on "air stock," the maintenance, overhead,
+fuel, insurance and depreciation charges are very heavy. These are much
+affected by such items as simplicity of design, strength against wear
+and tear, ease of assembly and interchangeability of parts, easily
+removable engines, increase in durability by the use of metal
+construction for parts of the machine and the propeller, the elimination
+of rubber joints, substitution of air for water cooling, facilities for
+loading and unloading in a commercial machine, simple and efficient
+navigational instruments and self-starter. Every improvement, however
+small, will assist to reduce running costs. Then revenue must be
+increased and the comfort of passengers, as, for instance, ventilation,
+warmth, luggage capacity and, more than all, a reduction of noise has to
+be carefully considered or they will not travel a second time by air. An
+effective engine silencer is at last well on the way. It is obvious what
+a great advantage this attainment will be both for service and civil
+purposes. Roughly speaking, a high-powered engine without a silencer is
+audible at a distance of some seven miles and at a height of 13,000 feet
+at night time, though these distances are reduced by about a third by
+day when normal ground noises exist. The bulk of noise is caused by the
+exhaust, the propeller and mechanical noises in the engine.
+
+I cannot leave this subject without emphasizing the value of research,
+both abstract and concrete. But, though it is the keystone of progress,
+its results must largely depend on the amount of flying done. It is
+clear that for economic reasons new designs can only thoroughly be tried
+out by commercial use, and therefore again that real progress is
+dependent on commercial activity.
+
+The advance of civil aviation is bound to be slower than was that of war
+aviation. But, as war experience improved old and evolved new types, so
+will peace requirements and experience shape the type and design of
+aircraft and engine best suited to its purposes. Although a good deal
+has under the circumstances already been achieved in peace, much remains
+to be done. Gradually, however, with a modicum of research, improvements
+in the factors already mentioned and the reduction of initial cost and
+maintenance expenses, air transport for mails, passengers and goods will
+take its place as a normal commercial public utility service, and the
+increased speed of communication will assist in the general development
+of trade.
+
+
+AIR SERVICES: BRITISH, CONTINENTAL AND IMPERIAL.
+
+International civil flying commenced officially on August 26th, 1919,
+and gradually expanded, both in the United Kingdom and on the Continent,
+especially during the summer of 1920. France, aided by considerable
+subsidies, conducted services from Paris to London, Brussels and
+Strasburg, from Toulouse to Montpelier and across Spain to Casablanca in
+Morocco; Belgium, from Brussels to London and Paris; Holland, from
+Amsterdam to London; Germany, in spite of the restrictions placed upon
+her, entered the field as a competitor and her aircraft flew regularly
+from Berlin to Copenhagen and Bremen, and from Bremen to Amsterdam. On
+the American Continent, the United States Post Office ran mail services
+from New York to Washington, Chicago, and San Francisco, with extensions
+from Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis, and St. Louis.
+
+For reasons which I shall give, there were no internal services in the
+United Kingdom, but there were four companies operating air lines from
+London to Paris, one of which held the contract for the carriage of
+mails. There were also air mail services between London and Brussels and
+Amsterdam. The mileage flown and the number of passengers and the weight
+of goods carried were considerable, while the number of letters steadily
+increased, especially on the Amsterdam service; and an efficiency of 76
+per cent., 94 per cent., and 84 per cent. was obtained on the
+London-Paris, London-Brussels, and London-Amsterdam services
+respectively.
+
+It must be remembered that these results were obtained without any
+direct assistance on the part of the State, such as was given by the
+French Government to air-transport companies in the form of subsidies.
+British economic policy is traditionally opposed to subsidies, believing
+that enterprise can be healthily built up on private initiative.
+Therefore, until 1921 civil aviation had to content itself with the
+indirect assistance of the State, which consisted mainly in the
+adjustment of international flying; the laying-out and equipment of
+aerodromes on the air routes; the provision of wireless communication
+and meteorological information; research and the collection and issue of
+general information concerning aviation.
+
+This indirect assistance, however, proved inadequate to maintain the
+progress achieved during 1920, and therefore the maintenance of air
+services by means of temporary direct financial assistance had to be
+arranged.
+
+I have already pointed out the difficulty against which commercial
+aviation has to contend in regard to the geographical features and
+position of the United Kingdom. Its comparatively small size, the
+propinquity of industrial centres, our efficient day and night express
+railway services, especially those running north and south, lessen the
+value of aircraft's superior speed and militate against the operation of
+successful internal air services. Possible exceptions might include
+amphibian services between London and Dublin, accelerating the delivery
+of mails five or six hours; between Glasgow and Belfast, where the Clyde
+and the harbour of Belfast could be used as terminals; or between London
+and the Channel Islands. I may point out in parenthesis that the
+development of alighting stations on rivers passing through the centres
+of towns is important, as a great deal of time is at present wasted in
+reaching the aerodromes necessarily situated some miles outside large
+centres of population.
+
+Our immediate opportunities of development near home are therefore
+afforded by the air services to Paris, Brussels, and Amsterdam; but even
+here the saving in time is not great, and our position is unfavourable
+compared to that of the United States, where the Post Office saves two
+days in the delivery of mails by air between New York and San Francisco;
+or compared to that of Germany, where Berlin is within a 350-mile radius
+of Copenhagen, Cologne, Munich, Warsaw, and Vienna, which is itself in
+an advantageous situation as the junction for a South European system
+extending to the Balkan States and the Near East.
+
+The ultimate use of the air, however, is not exemplified by a few
+passengers flying daily between London and the Continent any more than
+by a few squadrons of fighting craft. In a decade or two overhead
+transit will become the main factor in the express delivery of
+passengers, mails, and goods. It is the one means left to the Empire of
+speeding up world-communication to an extent as yet unrealized. For the
+price of a battleship a route to Australia could be organized, the value
+of which would be beyond computation.
+
+The British Empire as a whole offers vast fields for expansion. In
+Africa, Canada, and Australia are found the great distances suitable to
+the operation of aircraft, the wide undeveloped areas through which air
+transport may prove more economic than the construction of railways, and
+the trans-oceanic routes over which travel by steamship has reached,
+and in many cases passed, its economic maximum speed. Air transport,
+careless whether the route be over land or sea, unhampered by foreign
+frontiers, gives the Empire precisely those essential powers of direct,
+supple, and speedy intercommunication which ship and rail have already
+shown us to be vital.
+
+Here again the geographical position of England presents a difficult
+problem. England is divided from the rest of the Empire by a wide
+expanse, either of ocean or foreign territory. Egypt, the starting-point
+for air routes to India, Australia, and South Africa, may be described
+as the centre of a circle of which England is on the circumference; and
+it may be some years before an aeroplane can complete the journey
+between England and Egypt with only Malta as a stopping-place.
+
+The future of long-distance oceanic air routes may depend upon the
+airship. Lighter-than-air craft, mainly for reasons of cost and
+vulnerability, did not receive such an impetus from the war as did the
+aeroplane, but the modern airship has claims for use over distances
+exceeding 1,000 miles. It can fly by night with even greater ease than
+by day; fog is no deterrent; engine trouble does not bring it down; and
+it can take advantage of prevailing winds. It would reduce the sea
+journey from England to Karachi from 22 to 5 days; from England to
+Johannesburg from 21 to 7 days; and from England to Perth from 32 to
+10-1/2 days. Its achievements have already been considerable. In
+November, 1917, the German L.57 flew from Constantinople to East Africa
+and back--a distance of 4,000 miles--in 96 hours; in June, 1919, the
+R.34 flew from East Fortune to Danzig and back in 57 hours; and in July
+it crossed the Atlantic, was moored out in America for four days, and
+returned, a total distance of 8,000 miles, in the flying time of 108
+hours for the outward and 75 hours for the homeward journey.
+
+Before and during the war Germany gained wide experience in the design,
+construction, and handling of airships. It is probable that as soon as
+the peace terms and financial position permit she will begin to
+establish this form of transport on a commercial basis. In accordance
+with the Peace Treaty, and the Ultimatum of the London Conference of
+1921, the construction of aircraft of all kinds is at present forbidden,
+but Germany is fostering airship development by the means left at her
+disposal. Her scientists are probing the constructional problems
+connected with large airships, while efforts are being made, by
+financial and other assistance, to maintain her technical staffs and
+airship bases in existence. At the same time German commercial interests
+are negotiating with foreign countries with a view to the development of
+airships abroad, and plans are being discussed for an airship service
+between Spain and Argentina.
+
+The United States, France, and Italy are all interesting themselves,
+either financially or constructionally, in the future of airship
+development.
+
+In Great Britain we have made great strides, particularly in the
+construction of small types, and our practical air experience in
+lighter-than-air craft, during the war, is the greatest in the world.
+With a view to carrying out the experiments necessary further to
+demonstrate the capacity of airships for commercial long-distance
+flights, a few months ago the Department of Civil Aviation took over all
+airship material surplus to service requirements. The main object was to
+test the practicability and value of mooring airships to a mast. Up to
+the present, a principal factor militating against the economic
+operation of airships has been the large and expensive personnel
+required for handling them on the ground, especially in stormy weather.
+The mooring-mast experiments have had considerable success and airships
+have been moored in high winds and over long periods with the assistance
+of a very small personnel.
+
+The Government has decided, however, though recognizing their
+potentialities for speeding up communications between the various
+Dominions and the Mother Country, that the operation of airships cannot
+be carried out by the State on account of the present financial
+position.
+
+Recognizing the limitations of Home services and those to the Continent,
+it was for the purpose of directing attention to the Imperial aspect of
+civil aviation that the great demonstration flights were organized in
+which Alcock flew the Atlantic in a Vickers "Vimy," Scott crossed to the
+United States and back in the R.34, Ross-Smith flew from England to
+Australia, and van Ryneveld from London to the Cape.
+
+These flights necessitated, too, considerable ground organization in
+laying out aerodromes, as the following report on one in Africa vividly
+illustrates: "If aerodromes are left unattended for one year," it says,
+"practically all the work would have to be undertaken afresh,
+particularly in Rhodesia. The growth of vegetation is enormous,
+especially during the rains, and grass will grow to a height of eleven
+feet in six months; and trees stumped two feet below the surface will
+throw out suckers and replant themselves within a month after the rains
+have started.... It is most important that rough drains should be
+traced.... I have just started planting Doub grass. This grass gives an
+ideal surface for landing, kills other grasses, and possesses deep
+interlacing roots which will bind the entire surface of the aerodromes,
+making it permanent and free from washaways and the formation of
+sluits."
+
+The demonstration flights, however, showed what could, rather than what
+should, be done, and what we look for to-day is the inception of
+practical undertakings, however small, in the various portions of the
+Empire. The most important of these is the service contemplated between
+Egypt and India; another instance is afforded by the West Indies, which
+suffer from the lack of inter-island communications, both for mails and
+passengers, and this could be partially rectified by an air service
+employing seaplanes or amphibians for the Leeward and Windward Islands
+and the Bahamas, and between the Bahamas and the American Continent,
+where an American company is actually conducting a service. Another
+project, given up owing to recent disturbances, was one for a
+flying-boat service on the Nile. Services are also being considered from
+Malta to Italy, Geraldton to Derby in Western Australia, Sydney to
+Adelaide and Brisbane, and Melbourne to Hobart in Tasmania. Canadian
+activity takes the form of work carried out by Government-owned civil
+machines in connection with forest patrol, photographic survey,
+exploration, anti-smuggling patrols, etc. It would be a great advantage
+if railway and steamship companies seriously considered the value of
+supplementing their services by air.
+
+With regard to Government undertakings on the Imperial air routes, Malta
+is being equipped with an aerodrome, and a line of wireless stations has
+been established between Egypt and India, but the organization of this
+route has been delayed owing to the recent disturbances in the Middle
+East, and the financial outlay involved in ground organization. As I
+have said, the air route on which we should first concentrate, over and
+above the Continental services, is that between Egypt and India. Both
+strategically and commercially it is the most important in the Imperial
+system; it is a step towards Australia; it offers possibilities of the
+greatest volume of traffic; it should be much simpler to control than
+many international routes, which inevitably have many complications;
+weather conditions are not unfavourable; and the time taken for the
+journey by sea would be reduced by about one-half. If the shortcomings
+in point of distance of the continental routes in reaping the full
+advantages of travel by air, and the importance of the best possible
+communications for the Empire, are recognized, it is essential that a
+practical form of assistance should be given in the near future to the
+conduct of weekly or even bi-weekly services each way between Cairo and
+Karachi. Although it will not be a commercial proposition for some time,
+the Egypt-Karachi route, shortening as it will the delivery of mails
+between England and India by two-thirds, and England and Australia by
+one-third, offers greater results than the various other schemes at
+present contemplated. There are, however, certain considerations which
+will have to be weighed before the immense amount of work necessary to
+its initiation as a commercial air route is begun. The French, for
+instance, hope to push a trunk air route to India via Constantinople,
+and this line has the advantage of avoiding a long sea and desert
+crossing. On the other hand, it will be a very difficult matter to
+negotiate the mountains of Anatolia.
+
+If enterprises of this kind are successfully started, if each of our
+self-governing Dominions and Colonies encourages civil aviation within
+its own territory, and develops the air-sense of its people, each
+portion of the Empire, by a process of natural expansion, and by the
+gradual extension of local air lines to merge with those from other
+portions of the Empire, will assist in eventually forming a continuous
+chain of inter-Imperial air communication. Such a process of internal
+development, supported by close co-operation between the States of the
+Imperial Commonwealth, is the best method of obtaining rapidity of air
+intercommunication and a system of Imperial air bases necessary to the
+strategic security of the Empire.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+Within the necessarily narrow limits of this survey there has been
+traced the history of aviation from the earliest days; the tremendous
+impetus given to it by the war has been described, during the course of
+which not only did air co-operation become essential to the Navy and
+Army, but the importance of the Air Force as a separate arm, with its
+own strategic action, steadily grew; the increasing preponderance which
+aerial warfare will have in the future, and the horrors which it may
+bring, have been touched upon; and the possibilities of civil aviation
+in peace and war have been outlined.
+
+The conclusion has been reached that we cannot dispense with aviation,
+even if we would. We must consider it as a whole and lay down the broad
+principles on which it should be developed. The air (I write as one who
+during the last months of the war held the post of Chief of the Air
+Staff) materially helped, if it did not actually win, the fight. It has
+greatly complicated and increased the problems of defence. In future its
+influence on these problems will be still greater. The air has no
+boundaries. Great Britain and the Empire are no longer protected by the
+seas. A correct assessment of their needs will entail a growing ratio
+of air force to Army and Navy, and air power will in itself depend on
+the development of civil aviation.
+
+But though air action may be expected with justice to grow in proportion
+to that of the Army and Navy, and will certainly absorb certain
+functions of both, it would be unwise, at this early stage of
+development, for air forces to attempt too much at a time--such as, for
+instance, to garrison geographically unsuitable countries.
+
+A certain amount of reliance could also be placed on civil machines
+temporarily borrowed for purely policing measures in uncivilized
+countries, or for the assistance of Government during civil
+disturbances; and for such purposes it should not be difficult to devise
+a scheme, especially when the State exercises a measure of control
+through the grant of subsidies, for the obligatory enrolment of civil
+commercial pilots in the reserve, and for periodical refresher courses
+for pilots, who are not actually in the service of companies, at civil
+aerodromes. Such systems are in force in France and Canada. In the event
+of war the independent striking air force could thus count upon a large
+proportion of civil reserve pilots and machines.
+
+Air, allied to chemistry and the submarine, will be a difficult
+combination to withstand. The more its potential terrors are grasped,
+the less likely is war to be loosed upon the world, and it cannot be
+realized too clearly how much more easily than any other instrument of
+warfare aircraft and gas can be cheaply and secretly prepared by a
+would-be belligerent. Meanwhile, if civil aviation can be built up as a
+productive organization to a position relative to that held by our
+mercantile marine, we must understand that it will ensure air supremacy
+better than a large unproductive outlay on armaments. And I am convinced
+that, with public support, this can, and will, be done. Others will do
+it if we do not. But air power, although drawing its vitality from the
+expansion of air commerce and the growth of the civil aircraft industry,
+must at the same time rely upon the nucleus of a highly trained and
+technical air force. Service aviation must be the spearhead, civil
+aviation the shaft, of our air effort.
+
+The present isolation of England in terms of air from the rest of the
+Empire, and the geographical conditions already described, certainly
+render the national expansion of aviation, both external and internal, a
+difficult problem. It is clear that for this reason it must rather
+develop on an Imperial basis. The Dominions have already started
+valuable civil air work and have appointed Air Boards. Whatever the
+political settlement of Egypt may be, it is important that our air
+interests at this "hub" of Imperial aviation should be safeguarded. Air
+communication between the various portions of the Empire may prove of
+inestimable value in a future world war, and Dominion air forces may be
+able quickly to concentrate against enemy territory which is out of the
+range of aircraft operating from home. We have seen the value of
+aircraft operating from land bases for naval patrol, anti-submarine
+action, and direct attack on enemy shipping. With the increasing radius
+of action of seaplanes and other naval aircraft, the Army and Navy may
+be relieved of certain of their duties in coast defence and in
+protecting Imperial trade routes. For these reasons, aircraft bases are
+required throughout the Empire, and it is the commercial development of
+aviation which is the best means of ensuring their establishment. It
+will be for the Imperial authorities, while attending to local
+conditions and requirements, to co-ordinate as far as possible the air
+effort of the Empire, so that in peace communications may be developed
+and in the event of war its full power may rapidly be utilized on a
+co-operative basis.
+
+Civil aviation is not, however, merely a method of amplifying service
+air power. It has a vast potential value of its own. Communications
+shape human destinies. The evolution of our civilization bears strongly
+the marks of the systems which at various stages have made the
+intercourse of men and ideas possible. Its history is one of endeavour
+to extend the limits imposed upon human living and mobility in each of
+the great phases through which it has passed.
+
+There was the phase of the coracle and the roller-wheeled vehicle,
+stretching back into the roadless mists of unrecorded time; of roads
+which gradually linked the important areas of the Roman Empire; of
+inland and coastal waterways; of ocean traffic, and its huge advance
+with the discovery of steam-power, which brought England to the fore.
+
+With each phase the world shrinks smaller and the mists of the unknown
+recede. The development of human mobility is the greatest marvel of the
+present age. We can hardly realize that it was only the other day, as
+these things go--in 1819, just a hundred years before the same feat was
+accomplished by air-that the first sailing ship fitted with auxiliary
+steam (and not until 1828 that a real steamship) crossed the Atlantic.
+
+Strain and competition are increasing. Trains vie with ships; motor
+transport with trains. Telephones, wireless, cables, and flying are
+speeding up communications to a degree undreamed of a few years ago. If
+the air is to be a prime factor in the world-phase to come, how will the
+British Empire be affected? Stretching from Great Britain to Australia
+and the Pacific Ocean, the Empire depends more than any other political
+and commercial organization on the most modern and speedy
+communications, and as each of its portions assumes greater
+responsibility there is greater need for co-operation, the distribution
+of information, and the personal contact of statesmen and business men.
+"The old order changeth, yielding place to new"; and in communications
+the new order is air transport.
+
+Equally important is the international aspect. To-day we are deeply
+concerned with the maintenance of peace, and this can be achieved, not
+so much by the action of Governments, or the efforts of the League of
+Nations, as by the personal association of individuals of one nation
+with those of another, and an increasing recognition of common
+interests. I conceive that civil aviation, by reducing the time factor
+of intercommunication, will tend to bring peoples into closer touch
+with each other and will make for mutual understanding. The Peace Treaty
+provided for an Air Convention for the international control of civil
+aviation. The Convention has been signed by all the Allied nations which
+took part in the war, and I hope other countries will shortly be
+included. As soon as the Convention has been ratified, the International
+Commission of Air Navigation will be established, and for the first time
+the world will see the international control of a great transport
+service. I believe this will prove an important practical step towards
+international co-operation and goodwill.
+
+We have no excuse for ignorance of the effects of Imperial and
+international co-operation. The war gave us an example of what the
+British Empire can do, provided its combined knowledge and effort is
+brought to bear for one great purpose; and in no respect was this better
+exemplified than in the utilization and scientific development of
+aviation. The world-position of the Empire as a whole is still the best.
+Commerce and communications are its bonds, and, if we are so determined,
+it is in our power to shape the destinies of the future.
+
+A definite advance has been made since the Armistice and, if all goes
+well, a very much greater one will be made during the next two or three
+years, and in ten years mercantile air services will be operating on a
+self-supporting basis. The science and concentration employed in the war
+must be made to serve the requirements of peace. Readiness for, and
+success in, war are vital when war is unavoidable, but in peace it is
+civil and commercial activity which is vital.
+
+As in its infancy it seemed incredible to those responsible for the
+direction of the older services that the air would be their most
+valuable partner; as, during the war, they grudged its logical
+development to strike widely where they could not reach, and tried to
+tether it closely to them, so now in peace the air is struggling to
+attain the apotheosis of communication.
+
+In the phase of world commerce of which we are on the threshold,
+science, brain-power, energy, and faith must, and increasingly will, be
+harnessed to the work of perfecting air communication so that human
+mobility can be increased, knowledge interchanged, and the fruits of
+production distributed throughout the world.
+
+As a soldier I have of course dwelt on the possibility of war in the
+future and of the part which aviation would play in it, but it would be
+a great mistake--though I think that mistake is constantly made--to
+suppose that soldiers look forward with equanimity to the prospect of
+war. On the contrary, soldiers, more even than civilians, if this be
+possible, realize the horrors of war and recognize that the great task
+rests upon the statesmen of all nations, and upon humanity itself, of
+taking whatever steps can be taken to prevent its recurrence.
+
+We may at least assume that another great war will not be allowed in our
+generation. But war, in spite of its horrors, in spite of its
+bereavements, is only too quickly forgotten. A comparatively few years,
+and those who have passed through its fire are no more. New wealth is
+created; new antagonisms arise; and a new generation remembers only the
+romantic stories and the martial deeds of its fathers, or, more fatally,
+organizes itself to avenge defeat. Then, once again, forgetful of the
+terrible lesson we have learned, the great nations of the world may
+unsheathe the sword as the only solution to their problems. Our only
+hope lies in using the ensuing years to educate mankind to the principle
+that war brings misery and impoverishment to all engaged in it, that in
+the final victory it is not a question of which is left the strongest,
+but which is the least exhausted, and that national are as susceptible
+as personal differences to discussion and arbitration. Above all, let us
+guard against the old mistake of competitive armaments. There is no
+reason, for instance, why, because France, our friend and ally, is
+adopting a policy of air armaments, we should blindly pile up aeroplane
+against aeroplane, pilot against pilot, and thus provoke mutual
+suspicion.
+
+The possibility of war remains, however, and I wish in conclusion to
+emphasize the fact that in my belief the security of this country in the
+event of war will depend upon our strength in the air. The development
+of the offensive powers of aviation have already destroyed "the silver
+streak" on which we relied in the past. When we remember that it is less
+than twenty years since the first successful aeroplane was flown, when
+we recall the almost miraculous development of the fighting powers of
+aircraft during the four and a half years of war, and also the further
+developments which were on the point of being utilized when the war
+ended, it seems certain that from the point of view of war Britain has
+ceased to be an island. The "silver streak" would have been little
+protection but for our naval supremacy, and in the future our security
+will depend as much upon superiority in the air as it has depended in
+the past upon our superiority at sea. And this superiority in the air
+can only be attained in the same way in which we secured our supremacy
+at sea. That supremacy was not really gained by developing great navies.
+It was gained by our mercantile marine, which made the great navies
+possible. Our future security can only be gained by the development of
+commercial aviation.
+
+
+_Printed in Great Britain by_ Butler & Tanner, _Frome and London_.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Endnotes:
+
+    Variant spellings, e.g. _Frankfort_ and _Frankfurt_, remain as
+    printed. Significant amendments have been listed below:
+
+      Page 67, 'Poperighe' amended to _Poperinghe_.
+
+      Page 117, 'Junker' amended to _Junkers_.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Aviation in Peace and War, by 
+Sir Frederick Hugh Sykes
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AVIATION IN PEACE AND WAR ***
+
+***** This file should be named 25244-8.txt or 25244-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/2/4/25244/
+
+Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/25244-8.zip b/25244-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..509c425
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-8.zip
diff --git a/25244-h.zip b/25244-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1777014
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-h.zip
diff --git a/25244-h/25244-h.htm b/25244-h/25244-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3037331
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-h/25244-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,5253 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Aviation in Peace and War, by Sir F. H. Sykes
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+/*<![CDATA[  XML blockout */
+<!--
+    p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;}
+    .noin {text-indent: 0em;}
+    body > p {text-indent: 1em;}
+    h4 {text-align: center; clear: both; font-weight: normal; font-size: medium; font-style: italic; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;}
+    h3 {text-align: center; clear: both; font-weight: normal; font-size: large; font-variant: small-caps; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;}
+    h2 {text-align: center; clear: both; font-weight: normal;}
+    h1 {text-align: center; clear: both; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 2em; word-spacing: .5em;}
+    hr {width: 65%; margin: 2em auto; clear: both;}
+    table {margin: 1em auto;}
+    .td1 {text-align: left; padding-top: .5em; padding-bottom: .5em; font-size: large; font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .td2 {text-align: right; font-size: large; padding-top: .5em; padding-bottom: .5em; vertical-align: top;}
+    .td3 {text-align: justify; width: 28em; padding-left: 2em; padding-right: 4em;}
+    body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;}
+    .pagenum {position: absolute; right: 1%; font-size: small; font-style: normal; text-align: right; text-indent: 0em;}
+    .blockquot {margin: 1em 10%;}
+    .blockquot p {text-indent: 1em; font-size: .9em;}
+    .center {text-align: center;}
+    .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;}
+    .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;}
+    .fnanchor {vertical-align: 0.25em; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;}
+    .trn {border: solid 1px; margin: 3em 15%; padding: 1em; text-align: justify;}
+    a:link {text-decoration:none;}
+    a:visited {text-decoration:none;}
+    .dv1 {margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0;}
+    .pb1 {margin-top: 6em; text-align: center;}
+    .ft1 {font-size: medium;}
+    // -->
+    /* XML end  ]]>*/
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's Aviation in Peace and War, by Sir Frederick Hugh Sykes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Aviation in Peace and War
+
+Author: Sir Frederick Hugh Sykes
+
+Release Date: April 30, 2008 [EBook #25244]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AVIATION IN PEACE AND WAR ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="dv1"><h1><big>AVIATION IN<br />
+PEACE AND WAR</big></h1>
+
+<p class="center">BY</p>
+
+<h2 class="dv1">Major-General Sir F. H. SYKES</h2>
+<p class="center">G.B.E., K.C.B., C.M.G.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Late Chief of the Air Staff<br />
+and<br />
+Controller-General of Civil Aviation</span></p>
+
+<p class="pb1">LONDON<br />
+<big>EDWARD ARNOLD &amp; CO.</big><br />
+<small>1922<br />
+[<i>All rights reserved</i>]</small></p></div>
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="td2" colspan="2"><small><small>PAGE</small></small></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1">Introduction</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1">Chapter I. Pre-War</td><td class="td2" rowspan="2"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">Early Thoughts on Flight. The Invention of the Balloon.
+First Experiments in Gliders and Aeroplanes. The Wright
+Brothers and their Successors in Europe. The First
+Airships. The Beginnings of Aviation in England. The
+Inception and Development of Aircraft as Part of the
+Forces of the Crown: the Balloon Factory; the Air
+Battalion; the Royal Flying Corps, the Military Wing,
+the Naval Wing. Tactics and the Machine. Conclusions.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1">Chapter II. War</td><td class="td2" rowspan="2"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">General Remarks on War Development. Co-operation with
+the Army: Reconnaissance; Photography; Wireless;
+Bombing; Contact Patrol; Fighting. Co-operation with
+the Navy: Coast Defence, Patrol and Convoy Work; Fleet
+Assistance, Reconnaissance, Spotting for Ships' Guns;
+Bombing; Torpedo Attack. Home Defence: Night Flying
+and Night Fighting. The Machine and Engine. Tactics
+and the Strategic Air Offensive. Organization.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1">Chapter III. Peace</td><td class="td2" rowspan="2"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">The Future of Aerial Defence. Civil Aviation: as a
+Factor in National Security; as an Instrument of
+Imperial Progress; Financial and Economic Problems;
+Weather Conditions and Night Flying; Organization; the
+Machine and Engine. Air Services: British, Continental
+and Imperial.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1">Conclusion</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+<p>Since the earliest communities of human beings
+first struggled for supremacy and protection, the
+principles of warfare have remained unchanged.
+New methods have been evolved and adopted
+with the progress of science, but no discovery,
+save perhaps that of gunpowder, has done so
+much in so short a time to revolutionize the conduct
+of war as aviation, the youngest, yet destined
+perhaps to be the most effective fighting-arm.
+Yet to-day we are only on the threshold of our
+knowledge, and, striking as was the impetus given
+to every branch of aeronautics during the four
+years of war, its future power can only dimly be
+seen.</p>
+
+<p>We may indeed feel anxious about this great
+addition of aviation to the destructive power of
+modern scientific warfare. Bearing its terrors in
+mind, we may even impotently seek to check its
+advance, but the appeal of flying is too deep, its
+elimination is now impossible, and granted that
+war is inevitable, it must be accepted for good or
+ill. Fortunately, although with the other great
+scientific additions, chemical warfare and the
+submarine, its potentialities for destruction are
+very great, yet aircraft, unlike the submarine, can
+be utilized not only in the conduct of war but in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+the interests of peace, and it is here that we can
+guide and strengthen it for good. Just as the
+naval supremacy of Britain was won because
+commercially we were the greatest seafaring people
+in the world, so will air supremacy be achieved
+by that country which, making aviation a part of
+its everyday life, becomes an airfaring community.</p>
+
+<p>Our nation as a whole has been educated,
+owing to its geographical situation and by tradition,
+to interest itself in the broader aspects of
+marine policy and development. It requires to
+take the same interest in aviation, a comparatively
+new subject, unhampered to a great extent by
+preconceived notions and therefore offering greater
+scope for individual thought.</p>
+
+<p>The following sketch<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> has been written in the
+hope that some of those who read it may be inspired
+to study aviation in one or other of its branches,
+whether from the historical, technical, strategical,
+or commercial point of view. Any opinions expressed
+are, of course, my own and not official.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> First written and delivered as the Lees-Knowles Lectures
+at Cambridge University in February and March, 1921.</p></div>
+
+<p>I propose first briefly to trace the history of
+aviation from its beginnings to the outbreak of
+war; next to describe the evolution of aircraft
+and of air strategy during the war; and last to
+estimate the present position and to look into the
+future.</p>
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="ft1">CHAPTER I</h2>
+<h2>PRE-WAR</h2>
+
+<h3>Early Thoughts on Flight.</h3>
+
+<p>The story of the growth of aviation may be
+likened to that of the discovery and opening up
+of a new continent. A myth arises, whence no
+one can tell, of the existence of a new land across
+the seas. Eventually this land is found without
+any realization of the importance of the discovery.
+Then comes the period of colonization
+and increasing knowledge. But the interior remains
+unexplored. So, in the case of aviation,
+man was long convinced, for no scientific reason,
+that flight was possible. With the first ascent
+by balloon came the imagined mastery of the
+air; later, the invention of flight that can be
+controlled at will. To-day we are still in the
+stage of colonization. The future resources of
+the air remain hidden from our view.</p>
+
+<p>The Daedalean myth and the ancient conception
+of the winged angelic host show how the human
+mind has long been fascinated by the idea of
+flight, but the first design of an apparatus to lift
+man into the air, a parachute-like contrivance,
+was only reached at the end of the fifteenth
+century in one of Leonardo da Vinci's manuscripts.
+About the same time lived the first of the long<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+line of daring practical aviators, without whom
+success would never have been achieved, one
+John Damian, a physician of the Court of James IV
+of Scotland, who "took in hand to fly with wings,
+and to that effect caused make a pair of wings of
+feathers, which being fastened upon him, he flew
+off the castle wall of Stirling, but shortly he fell
+to the ground and brake his thigh-bone."</p>
+
+<p>Nearly 250 years later the aeronaut had not
+made much progress, for we read of the Marquis
+de Bacqueville in 1742 attaching to his arms and
+legs planes of his own design and launching himself
+from his house in the attempt to fly across
+the Seine, into which, regrettably, he fell.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the seventeenth-century philosophers
+had been theorizing. In 1638 John Wilkins, the
+founder of the Royal Society, published a book
+entitled <i>Daedalus, or Mechanical Motions</i>. A few
+years later John Glanville wrote in <i>Scepsis Scientifica</i>
+"to them that come after us it may be as
+ordinary to buy a pair of wings to fly into remotest
+regions, as now a pair of boots to ride a journey,"
+the sceptic proving a truer prophet than the
+enthusiast. By 1680 Giovanni Borelli had reached
+the conclusion, in his book <i>De Volatu</i>, that it
+was impossible that man should ever achieve
+flight by his own strength. Nor was he more
+likely to do so in the first aerial ship, designed
+in 1670 by Francesco Lana, which was to be
+buoyed up in the air by being suspended from
+four globes, made of thin copper sheeting, each
+of them about 25 feet in diameter. From these
+globes the air was to be exhausted, so that each,
+being lighter than the atmosphere, would support<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+the weight of two or three men. A hundred
+years elapsed before Dr. Joseph Black of the
+University of Edinburgh made the first practical
+suggestion, that a balloon inflated with hydrogen
+would rise.</p>
+
+<h3>The Invention of the Balloon.</h3>
+
+<p>It was in 1783 that Montgolfier conceived the
+idea of utilizing the lifting power of hot air and
+invited the Assembly of Vivarais to watch
+an exhibition of his invention, when a balloon,
+10 feet in circumference, rose to a height of
+6,000 feet in under ten minutes. This was followed
+by a demonstration before Louis XVI at
+Versailles, when a balloon carrying a sheep, a
+cock, and a duck, rose 1,500 feet and descended
+safely. And on November 21st of the same year
+Pilatre de Rozier, accompanied by the Marquis
+d'Arlande, made the first human ascent, in the
+"Reveillon," travelling 5 miles over Paris in
+twenty minutes.</p>
+
+<p>England, it is not surprising to learn, was
+behind with the invention, but on November
+25th, 1783, Count Francesco Zambeccari sent up
+from Moorfields a small oilskin hydrogen balloon
+which fell at Petworth; and in August of 1784
+James Tytler ascended at Edinburgh in a fire
+balloon, thus achieving the first ascent in Great
+Britain. In the same year Lunardi came to London
+and ballooning became the rage. It was an
+Englishman, Dr. Jefferies, who accompanied Blanchard
+in the first cross-Channel flight on January
+7th, 1785. Fashionable society soon turned to
+pursuits other than watching balloon ascents,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+however, and the joys of the air were confined to
+a few adventurous spirits, such as Green and
+Holland, who first substituted coal gas for hydrogen
+and in 1836 made a voyage of 500 miles from
+Vauxhall Gardens to Weilburg in Nassau, and
+James Glaisher, who in the middle of the century
+began to make meteorological observations from
+balloons, claiming on one occasion, in 1862, to
+have reached the great height of 7 miles.</p>
+
+<h3>First Experiments in Gliders and Aeroplanes.</h3>
+
+<p>The world seemed content to have achieved the
+balloon, but there were a few men who realized
+that the air had not been conquered, and who
+believed that success could only be attained by
+the scientific study and practice of gliding. Prominent
+among these, Sir George Cayley, in 1809,
+published a paper on the Navigation of the Air,
+and forecasted the modern aeroplane, and the
+action of the air on wings. In 1848 Henson and
+Stringfellow, the latter being the inventive genius,
+designed and produced a small model aeroplane&mdash;the
+first power-driven machine which actually
+flew. It is now in the Smithsonian Institute at
+Washington. Of greater practical value were the
+gliding experiments by Otto Lilienthal, of Berlin,
+and Percy Pilcher, an Englishman, at the end of
+the last century. Both these men met their
+death in the cause of aviation. Another step forward
+was made by Laurence Hargrave, an Australian,
+who invented the box and soaring kite and
+eighteen machines which flew.</p>
+
+<p>From the theoretical point of view, Professor
+Langley, an American, reached in his <i>Experiments<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+in Aerodynamics</i> the important conclusion that
+weight could best be countered by speed. From
+theory Langley turned to practice and in 1896
+designed a steam-driven machine which flew
+three-quarters of a mile without an operator.
+Seven years later, at the end of 1903, he produced
+a new machine fitted with a 52 horse-power engine
+weighing less than 5 lb. per horse-power; but this
+machine was severely damaged ten days before
+Wilbur Wright made his first flight in a controlled
+power-driven aeroplane.</p>
+
+<h3>The Wright Brothers and their Successors
+in Europe.</h3>
+
+<p>The Wright brothers directed their whole attention
+to aviation in 1899. By 1902, as the result
+of many experiments, they had invented a glider
+with a horizontal vane in front, a vertical vane
+behind, and a device for "warping" the wings.
+Their longest glide was 622&frac14; feet. This was followed
+by the construction of a machine weighing
+600 lb., including the operator and an 8 horse-power
+engine, which on December 17th, 1903,
+realized the dreams of centuries.</p>
+
+<p>After an increasing number of experiments, a
+machine built in 1905 flew 24&frac14; miles at a speed of
+38 miles an hour. It is interesting to recall that
+the new invention was refused once by the United
+States and three times by the British Government.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until September 13th, 1906, that
+Ellehammer, a Danish engineer, made the first
+free flight in Europe, his machine flying 42 metres
+at a height of a metre and a half. About the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+same time reports of the Wrights' successes began
+to reach Europe and were quickly appreciated by
+the French.</p>
+
+<p>Space forbids that I should enter into the
+achievements of the early French aviators, among
+whom the names of Ferber, Bleriot and Farman will
+always rank high in the story of human faith,
+courage and determination. It is a record of
+rapid advance. Farman made a circuit flight of
+1 kilometre in 1908, and flew from Chalons to
+Rheims, a distance of 27 kilometres, in twenty
+minutes. Bleriot crossed the Channel in a monoplane
+of his own design in forty minutes. French
+designers improved the control system, and French
+machines became famous. The records of the
+Rheims meeting of 1909 serve to illustrate the
+progress made during the first phase of aviation.
+Latham won the altitude prize by flying to a
+height of over 500 feet. Farman the prize for the
+flight of longest duration by remaining more than
+three hours in the air, and the passenger carrying
+prize by carrying two passengers round a 10-kilometre
+course in 10&frac12; minutes. The Gnome
+rotary engine was first used with success at this
+meeting.</p>
+
+<p>Before turning to the pioneer efforts in England
+and the pre-war organization of our air forces,
+some account of the development of the lighter-than-air
+dirigible is desirable.</p>
+
+<h3>The First Airships.</h3>
+
+<p>The earliest conception of an airship is to
+be found in General Meusnier's design in 1784 for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+an egg-shaped balloon driven by three screw
+propellers, worked, of course, by hand. The chief
+interest in his design, though it never materialized,
+lies in the fact that it provided for a double
+envelope and was the precursor of the ballonet.
+The first man-carrying airship was built by
+Henri Giffard in 1852. It had a capacity of
+87,000 cu. feet, a length of 144 feet, a 3 horse-power
+engine, and a speed of 6 miles an hour.
+A gas engine was first used twenty years later
+in an Austrian dirigible, giving a speed of 3 miles
+an hour. About the same time much useful
+work was accomplished by Dupuy de Lome, whose
+dirigible, with a propeller driven by man power,
+gave a speed of 5&frac12; miles an hour. Twelve years
+later, in 1884, two French Army officers, Captain
+Kubs and Captain Renard, constructed the first
+successful power-driven lighter-than-air craft fitted
+with an 8&frac12; horse-power electric motor, which may
+be regarded as the progenitor of all subsequent non-rigid
+airships. In 1901 Santos Dumont flew
+round the Eiffel Tower, travelling 6&frac34; miles in 1&frac12;
+hours, and in 1903 the flight of the "Lebaudy,"
+covering a distance of 40 miles at a speed of
+20 miles an hour, led the French military authorities
+to take up the question of airships.</p>
+
+<p>What the French initiated, the Germans, concentrating
+with characteristic thoroughness on the
+development of the rigid as opposed to the non-rigid
+airship, improved. In 1896 Wolfert's rigid
+airship attained a speed of 9 miles an hour and
+in 1900 the first Zeppelin was launched. Whatever
+we may think of the German methods of
+using their airships during the war, we cannot<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+but admire the courage and determination of
+Count Zeppelin, who, in spite of many mishaps,
+succeeded in producing the finest airships in the
+world and inspiring the German people with a faith
+in the air which they have never lost. From 1905
+onwards development was rapid. In 1907 Zeppelin
+voyaged in stages from Friedrichshaven to
+Frankfort, a distance of 200 miles in 7&frac12; hours.
+Popular enthusiasm is illustrated by the fact
+that within a few months the same airship made
+four hundred trips, carrying 8,551 passengers and
+covering 29,430 miles. Other airships showed
+similar records. Between 1909 and 1913 eighteen
+of the Parseval type were built, and 1912 saw the
+construction of the first Schutte-Lanz, designed
+expressly for naval and military purposes. If
+France at this period led the world in aeroplane
+design, Germany was undeniably ahead in airship
+development.</p>
+
+<p>In Great Britain, in 1905, we had one very
+small airship, designed and constructed by Willows.</p>
+
+<h3>The Beginnings of Aviation in England.</h3>
+
+<p>Though the names of Pilcher, Dunne, Howard
+Wright, and Rolls testify to the fact that the science
+of aviation had its followers in England at the beginning
+of this century, flying came comparatively
+late, and the real interest of the movement centres
+round the early efforts of military aviation from
+1912 onwards. Nevertheless this country could
+ill have dispensed with the experiments of that
+small and courageous band of aviators, among<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+whom Dickson and Cody were prominent. By
+1908 Cody had built an aeroplane and was making
+experimental flights at Aldershot. In 1907, A. V.
+Roe, working under great difficulties, constructed
+and flew his first machine, a triplane fitted with
+an 8-10 horse-power twin cylinder Jap bicycle
+engine, the first tractor type machine produced
+by any country, and a very important contribution
+to the science of flight. In 1910 and 1911 we find
+de Havilland, Frank Maclean and the Short
+Brothers, Ogilvie, Professor Huntingdon, Sopwith
+and the Bristol Company, starting on the design
+and construction of machines, of which the names
+have since become famous. At the same time
+certain centres of aviation came into existence,
+such as Brooklands, where I well remember beginning
+to fly in August, 1910, Hendon, Larkhill and
+Eastchurch, destined to be the centre of naval
+aviation. It is significant, however, of the slow
+progress made that by November 1st, 1910, only
+twenty-two pilot's certificates had been issued, and
+it was Conneau, a French naval officer, who in
+1911 won the so-called "Circuit of Britain," i.e.
+a flight from Brooklands and back via Edinburgh,
+Glasgow, Exeter and Brighton. Cody and Valentine
+were the only British competitors to complete
+the full course.</p>
+
+<p>In May 1911 a demonstration was organized by
+the owners of the Hendon Aerodrome to which a
+large number of Cabinet Ministers, members of
+parliament, and army and navy officers were
+invited. The War Office co-operated by arranging
+for a small force of horse, foot and guns to be
+secretly disposed in a specified area some miles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+distant and by detailing two officers, of whom I was
+one, to test what could be done to find and report
+them by air. I remember that I had a special
+map prepared, the first used in this, and I think
+any country, for the aeroplane reconnaissance of
+troops. After a sufficiently exciting trip, and with
+the troops successfully marked on the map, Hubert,
+my French pilot, and I, returned and made our
+report to General Murray, the Director of Military
+Training. It was a very interesting flight; the
+weather good; our height about 1,500 feet; the
+machine a 50 horse-power Gnome "box-kite"
+Henri Farman, which at one period of our 35 mile
+an hour return journey elected to point itself
+skywards for an unpleasant second or two and fly
+"cabr&eacute;"; I can see Hubert now anxiously forcing
+his front elevator downwards and shouting to me
+to lean forward in order to help to bring the nose
+to a more comfortable bearing!</p>
+
+<p>Many pages could be filled with the difficulties
+and exploits of the first British aviators, but
+enough has been said to show that, compared with
+that of aeroplanes in France and of airships in
+Germany, development in this country started late,
+progressed slowly and excited little public interest.
+The work of the pioneers was, however, not in vain,
+since it opened the eyes of our military authorities
+to the value of aviation and led to the formation of
+that small but highly efficient flying corps which
+during the war expanded into an organization
+without rival. Let us now turn to the inception
+of the air forces of the Crown and the position
+with regard to these and to air tactics at the
+outbreak of war.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>The Inception and Development of Aircraft
+as Part of the Forces of the Crown.</h3>
+
+<p>Nations have tended to regard flight as a
+prerogative of war. A balloon school was formed
+in the early days of the French revolutionary
+wars; the French victory at Fleurus in 1794
+was ascribed to balloon reconnaissance; balloons
+were used by the Federal Army in the American
+Civil War, and during the Siege of Paris Gambetta
+effected his escape by balloon in 1871.</p>
+
+<h4>The Balloon Factory.</h4>
+
+<p>In England experiments were begun at Woolwich
+Arsenal in 1878, and in 1883 a Balloon Factory,
+a Dep&ocirc;t and a School of Instruction were established
+at Chatham. The expedition to Bechuanaland
+in 1884, under the command of Sir Charles
+Warren, was accompanied by a detachment of
+three balloons, and the following year balloons
+co-operated with the Sudan Expeditionary Force,
+when Major Elsdale carried out some photographic
+experiments from the air.</p>
+
+<p>In 1890 a balloon section was introduced into
+the Army as a unit of the Royal Engineers, and not
+long afterwards, the Balloon Factory was established
+at South Farnborough, where in 1912 it
+was transformed into the Royal Aircraft Factory.
+Four balloon sections took part in the South
+African War and were used during the Siege of
+Ladysmith, at Magersfontein and Paardeburg.
+Colonel Lynch, who served in the Boer Army,
+stated at a lecture delivered in Paris after the war
+that "the Boers took a dislike to balloons. All<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+other instruments of war were at their command;
+they had artillery superior for the most part to,
+and better served than, that of the English; they
+had telegraphic and heliographic apparatus; but
+the balloons were the symbol of a scientific
+superiority of the English which seriously disquieted
+them."</p>
+
+<p>I went through a course in ballooning during
+leave from West Africa in 1904 and remember that
+partly owing to the energy of Colonel Capper,
+partly to the impetus given by the South African
+War, and partly to the growing interest in all
+things aeronautical throughout the civilized world,
+it was noticeable that the activities of the Balloon
+Factory were increasing in many directions.
+Although the spherical balloon had been improved,
+its disabilities were recognized and experiments
+were made with elongated balloons, man-flying
+kites, air photography, signalling devices, observation
+of artillery fire, mechanical apparatus for
+hauling down balloons, and petrol motors. A
+grant for a dirigible balloon was obtained in
+1903, though it was not until 1907, the year in
+which Cody began the construction of his aeroplane
+at Farnborough, and Charles Rolls his experiments,
+that the airship "Nulli Secundus" made her
+first flight. She was about 120 feet long and 30
+feet in diameter, and was driven by a 40 horse-power
+engine at a speed of 30 miles an hour. On
+October 5th this airship flew to London in an
+hour and a half, circled round St. Paul's, man&#339;uvred
+over Buckingham Palace, and descended
+at the Crystal Palace. In the same year, be it
+remembered, a Zeppelin had made a trip of 200<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+miles from Friedrichshaven to Frankfort. The
+"Nulli Secundus" was followed in 1910 by the
+"Beta" and the "Gamma."</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile an Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
+had been appointed, and the National
+Physical Laboratory had organized a department
+at Teddington for the investigation of aeronautical
+problems in co-operation with the Balloon Factory.</p>
+
+<h4>The Air Battalion.</h4>
+
+<p>In 1911 the authorities could no longer close
+their eyes, especially at a time when rumours of
+war were rife, to the rapid development of heavier-than-air
+craft on the Continent. So far, as we have
+seen, the aeroplane had been regarded in England
+as little more than the plaything of a few adventurous
+but foolhardy spirits. A certain amount of
+experience in piloting and handling aeroplanes
+had been gained by a handful of Army officers,
+but the machines used either belonged to the officers
+themselves, to civilians, or to aviation firms. I was
+at that time a general staff officer in the Directorate
+of Military Operations under General Wilson, now
+Field Marshal and late Chief of the Imperial General
+Staff, and was the only officer in the War Office
+who had learned to fly. It appeared very important
+that a study of the military possibilities
+of aviation should be made. The prime r&ocirc;le of
+cavalry, reconnaissance, seemed to have passed
+from it. In addition to my normal duties, I
+visited France, Germany and Italy, collected information
+on foreign activities, wrote reports, and
+tried to create a knowledge of the possible effect<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+of future military aeronautics and to urge the
+formation of a flying corps.</p>
+
+<p>In 1911 the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers,
+consisting of Headquarters, No. 1 Company
+(Airships) and No. 2 Company (Aeroplanes), was
+formed and superseded the Balloon School. The
+creation of No. 2 Company, stationed at Larkhill,
+marked the first formation of a British military
+unit composed entirely of heavier-than-air aircraft.
+The same year witnessed the inception of
+the B.E., F.E. and S.E. type machines in the
+Balloon Factory, but the total of our machines, both
+for naval and military requirements, amounted to
+something less than twelve aeroplanes and two
+small airships; and the mishaps suffered by the
+military machines on their flight from Larkhill
+to Cambridge, to take part in Army Man&#339;uvres,
+were significant of their unreliability.</p>
+
+<h4>The Royal Flying Corps.</h4>
+
+<p>In view, therefore, of the reports received of
+the progress abroad, the Air Battalion was clearly
+insufficient to meet the demands which might be
+made upon it in the event of war; and at the
+end of 1911 the Prime Minister instructed a
+standing Sub-Committee of the Committee of
+Imperial Defence to consider the future development
+of air navigation for naval and military
+purposes. As a result of their deliberations the
+Committee recommended the creation of a British
+Air Service to be regarded as one and designated
+the Royal Flying Corps; the division of the Corps
+into a Naval Wing, a Military Wing, and a Central
+Flying School; the maintenance of the closest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+possible collaboration between the Corps, the
+Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and the
+Aircraft (late Balloon) Factory; and the appointment
+of a permanent Consultative Committee,
+named the Air Committee, to deal with all aeronautical
+questions affecting both the Admiralty
+and the War Office.</p>
+
+<p>Consequent upon these recommendations, a
+Technical Sub-Committee was formed, consisting
+of Brig.-General Henderson, Major MacInnes of
+the directorate of Military Training at the War
+Office, a splendid officer, who died during the war,
+and myself, to draft the new scheme. The
+objects kept in view in framing our peace organization
+were to suit it to war conditions, as far as
+they could be foreseen, to base it on an efficient
+self-contained unit, and, while allowing for the
+wide differences between naval and military
+requirements, to ensure the maximum co-operation
+between the two branches of the Service.
+Success beyond expectation was achieved in the
+first two objects, but, as will be seen, the naval
+and military branches tended for unforeseen but
+good reasons to diverge, until they joined hands
+again in 1918 as the Royal Air Force. The bases
+of the military organization were, a headquarters,
+the squadron, and the flying dep&ocirc;t. These proved
+their value during the war and have remained
+the units of our air forces to this day. The Military
+Wing was to form a single and complete
+organization and contain a headquarters, seven
+aeroplane squadrons, each to consist of twelve
+active machines and six in reserve, one airship
+and kite squadron, and a flying dep&ocirc;t. All<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+pilots, whether of the Naval or the Military Wing,
+were eventually to graduate at the Central Flying
+School, whence they could join either the Naval
+Wing at Eastchurch or one of the Military Squadrons.
+In time of war each branch of the Service was
+to form a reserve for the other if required.</p>
+
+<h4>The Military Wing.</h4>
+
+<p>In accordance with this scheme I received
+instructions to organize, recruit, train and command
+the Military Wing of the Royal Flying Corps.
+The functions of the Military Wing were quite
+clear: it was to meet the air requirements of the
+Expeditionary Force primarily for reconnaissance
+purposes, but its organization was framed so that
+it could easily be expanded and the scope of its
+duties widened. Headquarters were established
+at Farnborough on May 13th, 1912: Barrington-Kennett,
+an officer of the Grenadier Guards who
+had been attached to the Air Battalion, was
+appointed, and made the best of all possible
+adjutants; and the nucleus of the Corps, consisting
+at first of the cadres of an airship squadron under
+Edward Maitland, of two aeroplane squadrons
+under Burke and Brooke-Popham, and a flying
+dep&ocirc;t (later the aircraft park) under Carden, who
+was a little later greatly assisted in the complex
+matter of technical stores by Beatty, came into
+existence. At the same time the construction of
+the Central Flying School was started at Upavon,
+under Captain G. Payne, R.N. With regard to
+the other squadrons provided for, the nucleus of
+No. 4 Squadron was formed the same year, and
+that of No. 5 Squadron the following year, of Nos.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+6 and 7 Squadrons in 1914, while No. 8 Squadron
+was not started until after the outbreak of war.</p>
+
+<p>Records of the progress and growth of the Corps
+were left at Farnborough when the Headquarters
+and four squadrons went to France in August,
+1914, and have been lost. This is particularly
+unfortunate because without them it will be difficult
+for the historian of the Corps adequately to
+describe the beginnings and to assess the value of
+the work then carried out.</p>
+
+<p>The task of forming the new service, which
+was to do much to assist the Army in saving
+England, was begun. The time was very short.
+A great energy had to be brought to the work.
+As with all things new, it had to contend with
+apathy and opposition on all sides. There was
+no precedent to help. The organization of the
+Corps to its smallest detail of technical stores,
+supply and transport had to be thought out.
+The type of machine required; the method of
+obtaining it from a struggling industry; its use
+and maintenance; the personnel, its training and
+equipment; these, and a thousand other aspects
+of the question, required the employment of a
+large staff of experts. But the experts did not
+exist and the duties were carried out almost
+entirely at Farnborough, where in addition time
+had to be found to compile the official training
+and other text books and regulations required for
+an entirely new arm.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the innumerable problems inherent
+in the organization, growth and training of the
+Military Wing, the two years between its inception
+and the outbreak of war were strenuously<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+applied to solving the problems of air tactics
+and strategy. Until the South African War the
+British Army had been drilled under the influence
+of stereotyped Prussian ideas. Perhaps the South
+African War led too far in an opposite direction,
+but it taught us one thing, which was to prove
+of such importance in 1914&mdash;the value of mobility;
+and we realized in aircraft the advent of the most
+mobile arm the world has yet seen.</p>
+
+<p>All was new. A new Corps. A new element
+in which to work. New conditions in peace akin
+to those in war. And there had to be developed
+a new spirit, combining the discipline of the old
+Army, the technical skill of the Navy, and the
+initiative, energy and dash inseparable from
+flying. There were the inevitable accidents, but
+training had to be done. We existed for war and
+war alone would show whether we had thought
+and worked without respite aright. We had to
+prove our value to the other arms, many of the
+leaders of which, owing to a long period of peace,
+found difficulty in differentiating between the
+normal usages of peace and war and in understanding
+the right use of aircraft. Somehow or other
+time was found during 1912, 1913 and 1914 to
+write to reviews, to lecture at army and other
+centres of training, to attend Staff rides, and to
+endeavour in every way possible to learn how
+best to work in with the army commands and
+to teach those commands the usefulness and
+limitations of aircraft.</p>
+
+<p>As Ruskin wrote:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Man is the engine whose motive power is the soul and
+the largest quantity of work will not be done by this curious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+engine for pay, or under pressure, or by the help of any kind
+of fuel which may be supplied by the cauldron. It will be
+done only when the will or spirit of the creature is brought
+to its own greatest strength by its own proper fuel, namely
+the affection."</p></div>
+
+<p>I was intensely proud of my command and
+often thought of the time when, as I had been
+promised, I should, in the event of war, command
+it in the field. We worked at white heat believing
+that war was coming soon; believing that our
+efforts would have a real effect on the result;
+and determined that the new arm should rank
+second to none among the forces of the Crown.
+<i>Esprit de Corps</i> was of vital importance, but as
+officers and non-commissioned officers were drawn
+from every branch and every regiment of the
+army this was no easy matter and was only achieved
+by the splendid example and precept of such men
+as Herbert, Becke, Longcroft, Chinnery and
+Barrington-Kennett. We selected our motto:
+"Per Ardua ad Astra." It was in this atmosphere
+that the Military Wing grew in peace.
+It was in this atmosphere that the soul was formed
+which later under the great strain of war impelled
+our pilots forward cheerfully to face every duty
+and every danger in the true spirit of manliness
+and fearless confidence.</p>
+
+<p>As in framing the original scheme on paper,
+so in giving it life it was our aim to organize
+the Corps, so that, whatever its future strength,
+it would be sound and efficient, and its continuity
+of growth effected without even temporary dislocation
+or waste. The tactical unit of the Military
+Wing&mdash;the squadron, consisting of three flights,
+each of four machines with two in reserve&mdash;had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+the advantage that it was of sufficient size to
+act independently, while it was not too unwieldy
+for a single command. It was equally suitable
+for independent or co-operative action, and the
+full complement of seven squadrons would, in
+addition to a reserve, furnish one squadron for
+each division of an Army Expeditionary force
+of the size then contemplated, though no definite
+allotment of aeroplanes to the lower commands
+was at first intended. The French and Germans,
+on the other hand, were building up their organizations
+with smaller units, with the result that they
+found even greater difficulties than ourselves
+in obtaining sufficient experienced officers to
+command them. It is probable that the consequent
+lack of concentration, knowledge and determination
+to stick to sound principles of action
+was one of the causes underlying the non-success
+of the German air service in the opening phases
+of the war.</p>
+
+<p>According to the system employed squadrons
+were formed, organized, equipped, and a certain
+amount of preliminary training carried out, at
+Farnborough, when on completion the squadron
+moved to one of the stations which I had established
+or was forming at Netheravon, Montrose,
+Gosport, Dover, and Orfordness, Netheravon being
+the largest. This dispersion of squadrons did
+not affect the entity and cohesion, under Wing
+headquarters at Farnborough, of the Corps as a
+whole. No. 3 Squadron, one of the original two
+referred to, removed to Netheravon from Larkhill
+in June.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly, and in order to avoid congestion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+at Farnborough, to foster a spirit of self-support
+and to enable air operations to be carried
+out with troops in Scotland, No. 2 Squadron
+was sent to Montrose. Five of its machines flew
+all the way, and it became one of the principles
+of training that machines should fly whenever a
+move was ordered. Thus in 1913 six machines
+from this squadron were flown from Montrose to
+Limerick&mdash;a great feat then&mdash;to take part in the
+Irish Command man&#339;uvres, the crossing of the
+Irish Channel being successfully carried out both
+ways by all machines. Another flight of an
+experimental nature was made by Longcroft,
+with myself as passenger, from Farnborough to
+Montrose in a single day with only one landing.</p>
+
+<p>The unavoidable and never-relaxing strain
+inherent in the daily and hourly use of an instrument,
+in the design, maintenance and improvement
+of which we could only grope our way, was
+very great. In peace before the war, as later
+in the war, the only variation to strain lay in
+periods of increased strain.</p>
+
+<p>At Headquarters, in addition to the normal
+duties of command and co-ordination, and the
+supply of all technical stores to squadrons, there
+was carried out all recruiting, and I also formed
+a specialized flight for the study of technical
+problems, such as the use of wireless from aircraft.
+The bulk of experimental work was originally
+undertaken by the Royal Aircraft Factory,
+under the Superintendent, Mr. O'Gorman, who
+always helped us in every way possible, but
+by 1913 I felt it necessary to enlarge the duties of
+the special flight and an Experimental Section<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+was formed at Wing Headquarters at Farnborough
+with an officer, Musgrave, in charge. In addition,
+for each squadron an officer was appointed Squadron
+Officer for Experiments, thus ensuring the
+diffusion of information throughout the Corps,
+and affording the opportunity to each unit of
+carrying out the experiments best suited to the
+material and apparatus at its command. Similarly
+other individual officers were detailed in
+each squadron on a co-ordinated scheme, for such
+duties as Officer-in-charge of Stores, Workshops,
+Mechanical Transport, Meteorology, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The formation at Farnborough of the Line of
+Communications R.F.C. Workshop or Flying Dep&ocirc;t&mdash;later
+known as the Aircraft Park&mdash;completed
+the organization of the Military Wing.</p>
+
+<p>I was very anxious as early as possible to prove
+the structure as a unified self-supporting, mobile
+and easily handled flying corps as far as it had
+gone, and in June, 1914, this was done by the
+concentration in camp at Netheravon of the entire
+Military Wing, comprising Headquarters and Headquarters
+Flight, the four completed squadrons
+and the nucleus of No. 6 Squadron, the Aircraft
+Park and a detachment of the Kite Section.
+Mobilization, a very difficult process when it
+came, would have been almost impossible had the
+concentration not taken place. The object of the
+camp was a month's combined training to test
+personnel, both in the air and on the ground,
+and the handling of aircraft and transport both
+by day and night. Endeavours were made to
+solve by means of lectures, discussions and committees
+the problems connected with mobilization,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+technical and military training, observation, wireless
+telegraphy, signals, night flying, photography,
+bomb-dropping, workshops, stores, meteorology,
+transport, shifting of camp and aerodrome, supply
+and maintenance of units in the field, etc.&mdash;in fact
+the whole organization essential to the efficiency
+and cohesion of a Flying Corps, under conditions
+as similar as possible to those expected on active
+service. Very valuable experience was obtained
+from the work carried out. The necessarily wide
+gaps in our knowledge were brought home in
+more concrete form. It was also evident that the
+force was very small. But within three months
+it was proved under the strain of war that the
+organization and training had been laid down on
+sound principles.</p>
+
+<h4>The Naval Wing.</h4>
+
+<p>As in the case of the Army, it was to airships
+that the Navy first turned its attention, and the
+birth of naval aviation may be said to date from
+July 21st, 1908, when Admiral Bacon submitted
+proposals for the construction of a rigid airship,
+the ill-fated "Mayfly" which was destroyed on
+her preliminary trials. The Admiralty thereupon
+decided to discontinue the construction of airships,
+the development of which was left to the Army
+until May, 1914, when it was decided that all
+airships&mdash;that is No. 1 Squadron of the Military
+Wing&mdash;should be taken over by the Naval Wing.
+This was partly the result of a report by two Naval
+Officers, who visited France, Austria and Germany,
+as was the purchase of two vessels of the Parseval
+and Astra Torres types, and a small non-rigid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+from Willows. The construction of a number of
+other airships was ordered, but for various reasons
+was delayed or never completed up to the outbreak
+of war.</p>
+
+<p>Although at first sight the functions of the
+Naval Wing&mdash;coast defence and work with the
+Fleet&mdash;seemed hardly more difficult to perform
+than those of the Military Wing, in practice, as
+I was to find later from personal experience when
+in command of the R.N.A.S. at Gallipoli, they
+were more complicated, while the slowness of the
+Admiralty in evolving a clear scheme of employment
+and a definite objective made itself felt.
+Before the war the achievements of the Naval
+Wing were due rather to individual effort than
+to a definite policy of organized expansion. It
+was the pilot and the machine rather than the
+organization which developed.</p>
+
+<p>As already stated, Eastchurch was chosen by
+the Short Brothers for their experiments in aeroplanes
+in 1909, but it was not until 1911 that the
+Admiralty bought two machines and established
+the first Naval Flying School at that place. The
+same year Commander O. Swann purchased from
+Messrs. A. V. Roe a 35 horse-power biplane and
+began to carry out experiments with different
+types of floats, as a result of which a twin-float
+seaplane was produced&mdash;the first to rise off the
+water in this country.</p>
+
+<p>For some time seaplanes were in a very experimental
+stage and at best could only rise from, and
+alight on, calm water, though it is interesting to
+note that as far back as 1911 the employment of
+seaplanes for torpedo attack, which I think will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+be one of the most important developments of
+aircraft in the future, engaged the attention of
+the Navy, and a Sopwith seaplane carrying a
+14-inch torpedo made its first flight at Calshot
+in 1913. For this reason, therefore, it appeared
+that principally aeroplanes and airships would
+have to be employed from shore bases for coast
+defence and that "carrier" ships would be necessary
+to enable seaplanes to work with the Fleet.</p>
+
+<p>The first stations set up were Eastchurch,
+Isle of Grain, Calshot, Felixstowe, Yarmouth,
+Cromarty and Kingsnorth, from which at the
+outbreak of war an organized coastal patrol was
+established.</p>
+
+<p>From the outset the Naval Wing, assisted by
+its large percentage of skilled technical personnel,
+paid great attention to experimental work of all
+sorts. Thus in 1912 the detection of submarines
+by aircraft was taken up, in 1913 valuable results
+were obtained from bomb-dropping, and a large
+number of experiments in wireless, machine gunnery
+and fighting carried out. In addition, efforts were
+made to extend the power, range and capacity of
+engine and machine.</p>
+
+<p>The second Naval problem, that of co-operation
+with the Fleet, involved the flight of aircraft
+from ships and the design of aircraft carriers. In
+1911 an aeroplane for the first time took off successfully
+from the deck of a cruiser at anchor, and
+the following year an aeroplane flew from H.M.S.
+"Hibernia," while under weigh, but it was not
+until after the outbreak of war that alighting
+on decks was successfully accomplished. The
+first ship to be fitted up as a parent ship<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+for seaplanes was the "Hermes" in 1913.</p>
+
+<p>These specialized technical requirements and
+developments explain why the Naval Wing and
+the Royal Naval Air Service tended towards
+individualism rather than cohesion. While the
+Military Wing, or Royal Flying Corps, progressed
+further as an organized fighting force, the Royal
+Naval Air Service, amongst the 100 odd aeroplanes
+and seaplanes on charge which were mainly of the
+Short, Sopwith, Avro, Farman and Wright types,
+possessed in 1914 the more powerful engines and
+a number of aeroplanes fitted with wireless and
+machine guns, while their bomb-dropping arrangements
+were also in a more advanced stage of
+development.</p>
+
+<p>An Air Department was formed at the Admiralty
+in 1912 to deal with all questions relating to
+naval aircraft. Naval officers were trained from
+the beginning at Eastchurch rather than at the
+Central Flying School, and in 1913 the appointment
+of an Inspecting Captain for Aircraft, with a
+Central Air Office at Sheerness as his headquarters,
+accentuated a growing tendency for the Naval
+Wing to work on independent lines.</p>
+
+<p>The Naval Wing grew rapidly and in the middle
+of 1914 was reorganized as the Royal Naval Air
+Service, comprising the Air Department of the
+Admiralty, the Central Air Office, the Royal Naval
+Flying School, the Royal Naval Air Stations, and
+all aircraft, seaplane ships and balloons employed
+for naval purposes. This placed the naval air
+force on a self-supporting basis and the entity
+of the Royal Flying Corps as a whole, as originally
+provided for, was lost.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>Tactics and the Machine.</h3>
+
+<p>The value of the application of flying to war
+requires little demonstration. The most important
+attributes of generalship are quick appreciation
+of a situation and quick decision. To the
+ordinary Commander the absence of information
+is paralysing. In the nineteenth century the
+mass of cavalry was the special instrument of
+information and to obtain it contact with the
+enemy's main forces had to be effected. It thus
+acted as a shield and also tried to provide the
+information necessary to enable the infantry to
+take the offensive.</p>
+
+<p>Aviation, by the wide field of observation it commands,
+by the speed with which it can collect and
+transmit information, to a great extent lifts the
+fog of war and enables a general to act on knowledge
+where before he acted largely on deduction.
+Information once obtained, its mobile and far-reaching
+offensive power introduces the element
+of surprise, and permits of lightning strokes against
+the enemy's vital points.</p>
+
+<p>Before the war reconnaissance was regarded as
+the principal duty of the aircraft of the Military
+Wing. This was due to two reasons, first, the
+obvious one that aircraft possessed advantages
+shared by no other arm for obtaining information
+quickly and over wide areas and reporting to
+Headquarters, and second, that experiment had
+proved the difficulty of loading aeroplanes with
+offensive weapons, such as bombs or machine
+guns, without impairing speed and climb.</p>
+
+<p>The following statement, which I drafted and
+which was issued by the General Staff before the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+Army Man&#339;uvres of 1912, summarizes the position:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"As regards strategical reconnaissance," it says, "a General
+is probably now justified in requiring a well-trained flyer,
+flying a modern aeroplane, to reconnoitre some 70 miles
+out and return 70 miles. This would be done at a speed
+of, say, 60 miles an hour in ordinary weather over ordinary
+country. Thus within four hours, allowing a wide margin,
+a report as to the approximate strength, formation and
+direction of movement of the enemy, if he is within a 70-mile
+radius, should be in the hands of the Commander."</p></div>
+
+<p>To those imbued with a knowledge of military
+history this new method of ascertaining the enemy's
+movements might well seem revolutionary.</p>
+
+<p>Let us take two instances illustrating what
+aircraft, with a radius of little over 100 miles,
+might have done in previous campaigns. For the
+operations which terminated in the capitulation
+of Ulm in 1805 Napoleon concentrated two army
+corps at W&uuml;rzburg and five along the left bank of
+the Rhine between Mannheim and Strasburg, his
+main body of cavalry under Murat being at the
+latter place. The Austrian Army under Mack
+was behind the Iller between Ulm and Memmingen,
+and expected the French to advance through
+the defiles of the Black Forest, where Napoleon
+did actually make a feint with his cavalry. Napoleon,
+however, crossing the Rhine on September
+26th, 1805, moved east, and it was not until
+October 2nd, when the French Army had reached
+the line Ansbach, Langenburg, Hall and Ludwigsburg,
+and his envelopment was far advanced,
+that Mack realized that the main French advance
+was coming from the north. Aeroplanes of the
+type we possessed in 1914 could have reconnoitred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+the whole of Napoleon's preliminary position,
+could have detected his line of advance, especially
+as it was concentrated on a very narrow front, and
+could have brought back the information to the
+Austrian Headquarters within a few hours.</p>
+
+<p>Aircraft would have been of even greater value
+on August 16th, 1870, at the Battle of Rezonville,
+where neither the French nor the Germans were
+aware of the other's movements. On the 14th a
+battle had been fought east of Metz which had
+resulted in the French retreat. On the morning
+of the 16th Moltke thought the French had retired
+west by the Metz-Verdun road and those to the
+north of it, and consequently he directed his left
+wing due west towards the Meuse to head off the
+French, sending his right army towards Rezonville
+to harass their rearguard. The French retreat,
+however, had been slow and two corps were still
+at Rezonville, while three corps and the reserve
+cavalry were within easy reach, some 130,000
+men in all. At 9 in the morning the German
+3rd Corps, unaided and far from support, attacked
+a position within reach of the whole French Army,
+believing it had to deal with a rearguard only.
+Bazaine, on the other hand, thinking that he
+was faced by the German main army, remained
+on the defensive, and lost the opportunity of
+defeating in detail first the 3rd and then the 10th
+German Corps. A few aeroplanes operating on a
+radius of 30 miles would have disclosed between
+daybreak and 10 a.m. the true position to either
+commander. Neither the German nor the French
+cavalry, though both were engaged, obtained any
+reliable information.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The problem as to how far aircraft would
+reduce the value of cavalry was widely discussed
+before the war. It was seen that by day aircraft
+could obtain quicker and more accurate information,
+but that cavalry retained their power of
+night reconnaissance, of mobile offensive action
+and of pinning the enemy to his ground by fighting.
+This was found to be so during the retreat, when,
+in addition to the direct value of aircraft for long-distance
+reconnaissance, an indirect asset of
+great importance lay in the release of the cavalry
+for battle action in assistance of the infantry.
+The question has become more acute since the
+offensive action of aircraft against ground targets
+has developed, but although we must never forget
+the splendid work of the mounted arm during the
+Retreat from Mons, and in March, 1918, factors
+have arisen tending to make the use of cavalry a
+problem of extreme difficulty in European wars,
+and it is possible that, in addition to their reconnaissance
+functions, aircraft will supersede the
+shock tactics and delaying action of cavalry,
+though this may be modified if, the sabre being a
+thing of the past, cavalry are converted into
+mounted machine gunners.</p>
+
+<p>Air tactics and training were, therefore, chiefly
+studied from the point of view of reconnaissance.
+In addition to the possibility of being shot at by
+other aircraft, an important consideration was
+vulnerability from the ground. Before the war
+reconnaissances were carried out at heights varying
+from 2,000 to 6,000 feet, but it was generally
+considered that the aeroplane was safe from fire
+from the ground at heights above 3,000 feet.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Serious difficulties affecting the mobility of
+aircraft were the means of providing a regular
+supply of fuel and the selection of landing grounds
+when moving camp, which had to be close enough
+behind the front line as not to entail waste of time
+in flying out and back over friendly territory.
+This was later brought home to us in a very acute
+form during the Retreat from Mons.</p>
+
+<p>As machines improved, increasing attention
+was paid to bettering their power of reconnaissance
+by air photography, their value in co-operation
+with artillery by wireless equipment, their offensive
+action by bomb dropping and their offence and
+defence by armament.</p>
+
+<p>The value of a correct initiative and the aeroplane's
+r&ocirc;le as an offensive weapon were fully
+appreciated and brought out in the Training
+Manual of the Royal Flying Corps which we compiled
+at Farnborough, and which was published
+early in 1914 by the War Office. It says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is probable that one phase of the struggle for the command
+of the air will resolve itself into a series of combats
+between individual aeroplanes, or pairs of aeroplanes. If the
+pilots of one side can succeed in obtaining victory in a succession
+of such combats, they will establish a moral ascendancy
+over the surviving pilots of the enemy, and be left free to
+carry out their duties of reconnaissance. The actual tactics
+must depend on the types of the aeroplanes engaged, the
+object of the pilot being to obtain for his passenger the free
+use of his own weapon while denying to the enemy the use
+of his. To disable the pilot of the opposing aeroplane will
+be the first object. In the case of fast reconnaissance aeroplanes
+it will often be advisable to avoid fighting, in order
+to carry out a mission or to deliver information; but it must
+be borne in mind that this will be sometimes impossible,
+and that, as in every other class of fighting, a fixed determination
+to attack and win will be the surest road to victory."</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Speaking generally, the evolution of the machine,
+as apart from the engine, which hung behind,
+followed upon the evolution of air tactics. As soon
+as experience, often hard won at the cost of a
+valuable life, opened up new fields of activity
+for aircraft, the designer and constructor evolved
+new designs to meet the new requirements. It
+was no small achievement in this period to have
+solved the problem of inherent stability, both in
+theory and practice, so successfully, that from
+the aerodynamic standpoint our machines in 1914
+compare favourably with those in use at the end
+of the war.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with the evolution of the machine
+during the three years prior to the war there are
+three landmarks: in the autumn of 1911 the few
+machines belonging to the Air Battalion failed
+to reach their destination for Army Man&#339;uvres;
+in May, 1912, the Royal Flying Corps was formed
+and experiments with a view to meeting military
+requirements were for the first time energetically
+and methodically prosecuted; and in August,
+1914, four squadrons flew to France with machines
+which had attained a high degree of stability and
+were not inferior to any of those possessed by
+other countries. When it is remembered in what
+a short time these machines were evolved, it is
+not surprising that attention had been chiefly
+confined to the problem of the 'plane and stability,
+the engine and speed and reliability. Wireless,
+bombing, photography, night flying and machine
+gunnery had been discussed and experimented
+with, but no progress was made comparable to
+that effected under war conditions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Machines and engines before the war were
+chiefly French. It is interesting to note those
+with which No. 3 Squadron, one of the first to
+be formed, commenced its career in May, 1912.
+They consisted of one 50 horse-power Gnome
+Nieuport, one Deperdussin, which by the way was
+privately owned, one Gnome Bristol, two Gnome
+Bleriot monoplanes, one Avro and one Bristol
+box-kite biplane. By September, 1912, the Squadron
+possessed fourteen monoplanes, but in that
+month, owing to the number of accidents incurred
+by them, the use of monoplanes was temporarily
+forbidden, and it was not until April, 1913, that
+the Squadron was fully equipped with B.E. and
+Maurice Farman biplanes organized in flights.</p>
+
+<p>These types formed the backbone of the Military
+Wing, which also included Codys, Breguets, Avros,
+and, later, Sopwiths. The B.E.2c was produced
+by the Royal Aircraft Factory in the autumn of
+1913 and demonstrated its high degree of stability
+by flying from Aldershot to Froyle and from Froyle
+to Fleet, distances of 6&frac34; and 8 miles respectively,
+without the use of ailerons or elevators. The
+progress made is illustrated by the fact that at the
+Army Man&#339;uvres of 1913 twelve machines covered
+4,545 miles on reconnaissance and 3,210 miles
+on other flights, accurate observations being made
+from a height of 6,000 feet, without serious mishap.</p>
+
+<p>In 1913 I recommended the gradual substitution
+of B.E.'s for Farmans on the ground of the
+all-round efficiency and superior fighting qualities
+of the former, and to secure the advantage of
+standardization, but it was objected by the War
+Office that the Farmans were the only machines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+that could mount weapons in front&mdash;an objection
+which was not met until firing through the airscrew
+was introduced&mdash;and that the slower Farmans
+offered greater advantages for observation,
+an idea which was long prevalent. As a result,
+a compromise was effected, and two squadrons
+were equipped with B.E.'s and two with homogeneous
+flights of Farmans, Bleriots and Avros.</p>
+
+<p>At the outbreak of war the most successful
+machines possessed by the Military Wing were
+the B.E.2 tractor with a 70 horse-power Renault
+engine, a speed of 73 miles an hour, and a climb
+of 3,000 feet in nine minutes; and a Henri
+Farman pusher with a speed of 60 miles an hour,
+and a climb of 3,000 feet in fourteen minutes. A
+special study was being made in 1914 of the
+best methods of ensuring clear observation of
+the ground, and partly in this connection staggered
+planes were introduced, culminating in the B.E.2c's,
+which were not, however, available for service in
+any numbers until 1915.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up, the technical development of aircraft
+has taken place, and will continue side by
+side with the evolution of the uses to which aircraft
+can be put. While due attention was paid
+to problems connected with the anticipated duties
+of aircraft ancillary to that of reconnaissance,
+owing to the short space of time between the
+formation of the Royal Flying Corps and the
+outbreak of war, to the difficulties connected
+with the engine, and to causes inseparable from
+peace conditions, development had been more
+or less confined to evolving a stable and reliable
+machine with a good field of view.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>Conclusions.</h3>
+
+<p>The foregoing outline of the development of
+aviation from the earliest times up to the war&mdash;a
+story of human endeavour and achievement in
+the air with its attendant dangers and difficulties&mdash;is
+not without value in endeavouring to assess
+that which has since occurred.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the year 1912 the Royal
+Flying Corps did not exist. At the beginning of
+the Great War, in 1914, England found herself
+with an air service which, though much smaller
+than those of Germany or France, was so excellently
+manned and organized, trained and equipped, that
+it placed her at a bound in the front rank of
+aviation.</p>
+
+<p>The machine was stable, but the engine still
+unequal to the tasks laid upon it. Civil Aviation
+practically did not exist.</p>
+
+<p>I shall now describe the extension of air duties
+under war conditions; the increasing value of
+aircraft for general action and air tactics and their
+development and far-reaching effect as the right
+hand of strategy. This resulted in the expansion
+of our flying corps from a total of 1,844 officers
+and men, and seven squadrons with some 150
+machines fit for war use, to a total of nearly
+300,000 officers and men, and 201 squadrons and
+22,000 machines in use at the end of the war, and
+in the evolution of the machine to a point where
+we can regard it, not only as a weapon of war, but
+as a new method of transport for commercial
+purposes in peace.</p>
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="ft1">CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h2>WAR</h2>
+
+<h3>General Remarks on War Development.</h3>
+
+<p>In dealing with the story of the beginnings of
+aviation and the evolution of aircraft up to the
+war, we have seen that though its growth was
+infinitesimal compared with that which came with
+the impetus of war, the air service took definite
+and practical shape more rapidly than had up
+to that time any other arm of the Army or Navy
+in peace.</p>
+
+<p>In 1914 we had reached a point where we
+possessed a small but mobile and efficient flying
+force, equipped and trained essentially for reconnaissance.
+Although experiments had been made,
+little had been achieved in the use of wireless from
+aircraft, air photography, bomb dropping, armament
+or the development of air fighting. As
+with the Army and Navy, war quickened and
+expanded all the attributes of air operations in a
+way which could not have been foreseen before
+the struggle occurred; and, as it would have
+been impossible for the Army and Navy to build
+up their war organization without the foundation
+of the pre-war service, so it was the splendid
+quality of the original Royal Flying Corps that
+made this expansion possible.</p>
+
+<p>Before the war the Royal Flying Corps was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+considerably smaller than the air services of either
+France or Germany, and to attain even the strength
+with which the Military Wing left England the
+bulk of the trained officers and men, and almost
+all the machines fit for service, had to be taken.
+When I started to raise the Corps, in May, 1912,
+the War Office estimated that its organization,
+(of a headquarters and seven aeroplane and one
+airship squadrons) would take at least four years;
+instead, there had been little more than two.
+Even at the risk of leaving insufficient personnel
+and material behind to form and train new
+squadrons, I recommended that four complete
+squadrons (including the wireless machines which
+had to be thrown in to make up the numbers)
+should be sent overseas to help the British Expeditionary
+Force in bearing the brunt of the
+terrific blow that was to come. It was a very
+serious matter that so little could be left with
+which to carry on in England, but we considered
+it essential to dispatch at once to France every
+available machine and pilot, because both political
+and military authorities were of opinion that
+for economic and financial reasons a war with a
+great European power could not last more than a
+few months. Another reason was that those of
+us who had been at the Staff College during the
+few years before the war, or who had recently
+served on the General Staff at the War Office,
+believed that the weight of the German attack
+would be made through Belgium, where, owing to
+the enclosed nature of the country, cavalry would
+be at a disadvantage, and we realized therefore,
+and urged, the great effect which the air would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+have from the commencement of operations&mdash;a
+view which was not widely held, especially among
+senior officers in the Army. We also felt the
+necessity of using our maximum air strength from
+the outset, so as to prove its supreme importance
+as quickly and practically as possible. It required
+the Retreat from Mons before even G.H.Q. as a
+whole would accept the fact, though Colonel
+Macdonogh, the head of the intelligence section,
+was our firm ally. The iron of confidence, both to
+used and user, had to be welded with the first
+great blows on the anvil of war. For these
+reasons it was vital that every available trained
+pilot and suitable machine should be employed
+with the Army, even at the danger of serious
+initial depletion at Home. The smooth progress
+of expansion was largely attributable alike to the
+strength of the pre-war spirit, organization and
+training,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and to the results actual and moral
+obtained by the first four squadrons during the
+Retreat and the following weeks of the war under
+centralized control. The French distributed their
+"Escadrilles," which were approximately of the
+size of our "flight," from the beginning, and it is
+probable that one cause of failure in the German
+air service during the same period lay in the
+initial dispersion of units and lack of unified
+control by the higher command. The British
+Expeditionary Force having been saved during
+the Retreat, Paris having been saved at the
+Marne, the great German army having made a
+retirement, a lengthy war of position having become<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+obvious, confidence in the air service, both
+within and without, having been established, the
+centralized system necessarily adopted up to that
+time could be relaxed, and we were able to send
+home officers and men with greatly increased
+experience to help build up the many new squadrons
+which would be required to co-operate with
+the new armies.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> On October 17, 1914, Sir J. French wrote: "Such
+efficiency as the R.F.C. may have shown in the field is, in
+my opinion, principally due to organization and training."</p></div>
+
+<p>Gradually, as the numbers in the field permitted,
+increased duties were undertaken. The
+Army, though it did not do so at first, yet came
+to understand the immense importance to itself
+of air reconnaissance. So much so indeed that our
+machines and pilots were generally many too few
+to attempt more than the absolute essentials, and
+calls were often made upon them which were
+beyond their strength to meet. An ironic contrast
+to this was supplied, however, at the evacuation
+of the Dardanelles, where I was commanding
+the air service (the R.N.A.S.), and was asked to
+be careful not to do too much air work. This
+at a time when through stress and strain and loss
+we had, I think, a total of five machines left able
+to take the air!</p>
+
+<p>Observation was, and remains, the prime purpose
+for which the Royal Flying Corps was
+formed. 1914 was a year of reconnaissance, but
+with the advent of trench warfare at the Battle
+of the Aisne, the first attempts were made to extend
+its scope by the use of wireless for artillery co-operation,
+and by air photography, both of which
+developed rapidly. Headway was also being made
+with bombing. Then machines carrying out their
+special duties had to be protected, while it became
+necessary to prevent hostile machines from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+effecting similar functions, with the result that
+1915 saw the beginnings of systematic air fighting.</p>
+
+<p>In 1915 the easily man&#339;uvrable Fokker, with
+its machine-gun synchronizing gear for firing
+through the propeller, gave the Germans a temporary
+lead, but by the Battle of the Somme this
+was outclassed and in 1916 our air superiority
+became marked. The Royal Flying Corps was
+by that time organized into Brigades and Wings,
+one Wing operating with each Army for fighting
+and distant reconnaissance, and one Wing with
+each Corps for short reconnaissance and such
+specialized work as artillery co-operation and
+contact patrols. Both types of machine took
+part in bombing operations.</p>
+
+<p>There is generally perhaps a tendency, when
+reviewing the army and air effort in the war, to
+deal almost entirely with the Western Front and
+to forget the prodigious work done in many other
+theatres.</p>
+
+<p>In 1915 the Royal Naval Air Service carried
+out all air work with the Army and Navy in the
+Gallipoli campaign and showed how a single air
+force could effect really important co-operation
+with both services. In addition to the normal
+duties of co-operation with the Army and the
+Fleet, and in spite of the difficulties of transport,
+supply and workshop arrangements, photographs
+were taken from the air of the greater part of the
+Peninsula, and the original inaccurate maps
+corrected therefrom; frequent bombing raids were
+carried out against objectives on the Peninsula,
+the Turkish lines of communications, and even
+Constantinople itself. In this campaign, too, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>torpedoes
+were used for the first time by aircraft and
+three ships were destroyed in the Dardanelles by
+this means. The distance from the hub of affairs,
+a line of supply about 6,000 miles in length,
+sickness and the climatic and geographical conditions
+rendered maintenance very difficult. Sand
+and dust driven in clouds by high winds greatly
+shortened the working life of engines. The heat
+during the summer caused the rapid deterioration
+of machines, while long oversea flights entailed
+loss from forced landings. There are many aspects
+of the deepest interest to be brought out when a
+complete history of the Campaign in Gallipoli
+comes to be written. It is true that the Allies
+would have lost all if they had been defeated
+in the west, and that the call of the Armies for
+more and more men and munitions for that theatre
+was insistent; it is equally true, however, that in
+France there could be nothing but batter and
+counter-batter, and the only remaining point where
+strategic principles could be brought to bear was
+at the Dardanelles. But what is more relevant
+to the subject of these pages is that when in
+future years the story of Helles and Anzac and
+Suvla is weighed, it will, I think, appear that had
+the necessary air service been built up from the
+beginning and sustained, the Army and Navy
+could have forced the Straits and taken Constantinople.
+I insistently urged the dependence
+of the naval and military forces upon air assistance
+and the necessity for carrying out a strong
+aerial offensive, especially by bombing, for which the
+local conditions governing the enemy operations
+on the Peninsula offered exceptional advantages.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>From the autumn of 1915 onwards Egypt
+became the centre of training and expansion for
+operations in the Middle East and, as the organization
+developed, a brigade was formed with
+Wings in Macedonia, Sinai and a training Wing,
+which by 1918 had become a training brigade,
+in Egypt. The work of the Wing sent to Sinai
+in 1916, and expanded in 1917 into a brigade,
+is well summarized in the following extract from
+a telegram received from Egypt on October 3rd,
+1918:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Before operations commenced our mastery of the air was
+complete and this was maintained throughout, enabling the
+cavalry turning movement to be completely protected and
+concealed. Enemy retreating columns were so effectively
+machine gunned and bombed by offensive machines that in
+all three cases the surviving personnel abandoned their vehicles
+and consequently upset all plans of retirement. An enemy
+column thus abandoned was seven miles in length."</p></div>
+
+<p class="noin">The Wings in Macedonia and Mesopotamia, though
+they could not beat the record of the Palestine
+Brigade, gained a marked supremacy over the
+enemy. Air operations in East Africa were
+originally carried out by the Royal Naval Air
+Service with seaplanes, which in 1915 were
+brought up to the strength of two squadrons and
+replaced by aeroplanes under the orders of the
+military forces, their duties being carried out under
+the difficult conditions of bush warfare. Valuable
+work was also done by the Royal Flying Corps
+squadrons which were sent out to operate in the
+south.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these major operations, air
+forces were used in the expeditions on the Indian
+frontier, against Darfur and in the vicinity of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+Aden. Five squadrons were sent to Italy after
+the Italian retreat from the Isonzo and took a
+prominent part in the final Austrian defeat; a
+Royal Air Force contingent was sent to Russia
+to operate from Archangel; and material assistance
+was given to France and the other Allies,
+but especially to the United States in the training
+and equipment of her air forces.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of 1918 the Royal Flying
+Corps and the Royal Naval Air Force were
+amalgamated and the Royal Air Force came
+into existence, and during the year achieved a
+supremacy more complete than that at any time
+since the Somme.</p>
+
+<p>The following description gives a vivid idea
+of air activity at the front in 1918:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"All day long there were 'dog fights' waged at heights
+up to three or four miles above the shell-torn battlefields of
+France, whilst the low-flying aeroplanes were attacking suitable
+targets from the height of a few dozen feet. Passing backwards
+and forwards went the reconnaissance machines and
+the bombers, and along the whole front observers were sending
+out by wireless to the artillery the point of impact of their
+shells. Such was the picture of the air on any fine day at the
+time."</p></div>
+
+<p>1918, however, saw not only the accumulative
+effect of the tactical co-operation of aircraft with
+our armies in the field, but also the formation of
+the Independent Air Force and the carrying out
+of the strategic air offensive against centres of war
+industry in the interior of Germany.</p>
+
+<p>A vast organization was also required at Home
+to meet the rapid expansion of units in the Field
+and to supply reinforcements. Thus at the Armistice
+there were 199 training squadrons, the pupils<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+under instruction including cadets numbered
+30,000, and during the war some 22,000 graduated
+as efficient for active service. At the beginning
+of the war pilots were sent overseas with only
+11 hours' flying experience. This was much too
+little and there is no doubt that increased training
+would have ensured fewer casualties. Fortunately,
+however, the length of training was increased in
+the latter part of the war and a remarkable
+advance in training was made possible by the
+use of an entirely new and extraordinarily efficient
+system of instruction evolved by Smith-Barry.</p>
+
+<p>The war demonstrated the beginnings of what
+air power meant, though in November, 1918, it
+was still in its infancy. Before many years the
+ability to make war successfully, or even at all,
+will depend upon air power.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now briefly survey the development of
+the several duties of aircraft, the evolution of
+machines and progress in tactics, strategy and
+the organization of our Air Forces during the
+war.</p>
+
+<p>I had recognized the great difficulty of mobilizing
+with the clockwork precision of older units and,
+in the belief that war was coming, had ordered a
+provisional mobilization of the Corps some days
+before it was actually declared. Thanks to this
+step and to the work done at our Concentration
+Camp at Netheravon in June, 1914, the greater
+part of the Royal Flying Corps was enabled to
+concentrate without hitch at our aerodrome at
+Dover, and the machines flew via Calais to Amiens
+on August 13th.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>Co-operation with the Army.</h3>
+
+<h4>Reconnaissance.</h4>
+
+<p>In the event of France and England declaring
+war concurrently against Germany, the strategic
+plan agreed to by the British and French general
+staffs before the war had been that the British
+Expeditionary Force should be moved to the
+Le Cateau, Maubeuge, Mons, area and take
+up a line on the left flank of the French Army
+near Mons. But England had withheld her
+declaration until three days after the French, and
+on landing in France the first words I heard
+said by a Frenchman were: "Oui, l'arm&eacute;e
+anglaise arrive mais on a manqu&eacute; le premier
+plan." It was not until after the arrival
+of G.H.Q. at Amiens on August 14th that,
+although late, it was decided that the advanced
+line should be taken up. The Royal Flying
+Corps moved by air and road to an existing
+aerodrome outside the antique defences of Maubeuge
+12 miles from Mons on the 16th. On the 19th
+the first reconnaissance was carried out, and the
+entire country over which the German armies were
+advancing, as far as Brussels and Louvain, was
+kept under observation. One of the best reconnaissances
+ever made was that of August 21st,
+which discovered the 2nd German Corps moving
+from Brussels through Ninhove and Grammont.</p>
+
+<p>From Maubeuge we had to retire on the 24th to
+Le Cateau, on the 25th to St. Quentin, on the
+26th to La F&egrave;re, on the 28th to Compi&egrave;gne, on the
+30th to Senlis, on the 31st to Juilly, on September
+2nd to Serris, on the 3rd to Touquin, on the
+4th to Melun, where we were thankful at last to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+get orders again to advance on the 7th to Touquin,
+and on the 9th to Coulommiers, reaching F&egrave;re-en-Tardennois
+on the 12th for the Battle of the Aisne.</p>
+
+<p>Of the many recollections of the early days one
+which will remain longest in my mind is the terrible
+sadness of the flocks of refugees, of the poor people
+we left behind. And the glare of villages burning
+by the hand of the Boche. It was indeed war.</p>
+
+<p>Valuable reconnaissances were made during
+the whole Retreat from Mons to the Marne in
+spite of the tremendous difficulties involved by
+constant movement, transport, and the selection
+of new landing grounds, but, in the words of Sir
+John French, "It was the timely warning aircraft
+gave which chiefly enabled me to make speedy
+dispositions to avert danger and disaster. There
+can be no doubt indeed that even then the presence
+and co-operation of aircraft saved the very
+frequent use of cavalry patrols and detailed supports."
+The Royal Flying Corps was an important
+factor in helping the British Expeditionary
+Force to escape von Kluck's nearly successful
+efforts to secure another and a British Sedan.</p>
+
+<p>The reconnaissance resulting in the most valuable
+information of all, and, I think, during the
+whole of the war, was that of September 3rd,
+during the critical operations on the Marne, which
+formed one of the decisive battles in the world's
+history, when von Kluck's turning movement to the
+south-east against the French left was accurately
+reported and Marshal Joffre was enabled to make
+his dispositions accordingly. "The precision, exactitude
+and regularity of the news brought in,"
+he said in a message to the British Commander-in-Chief,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+"are evidence of the perfect training of
+pilots and observers." The reports of the German
+air service, on the other hand, would appear from
+von Kluck's movements to have been of no assistance
+to him.</p>
+
+<p>The system adopted from the first was for the
+pilot or observer, or both, immediately on their
+return to bring their report to R.F.C. Headquarters,
+whence the Commander, or his staff officer,
+accompanied them to G.H.Q., where the map was
+filled in in accordance with the report. G.H.Q.
+could then ask questions and obtain any further
+information which the observer could give, while
+R.F.C. Headquarters could ascertain what further
+reports were most urgently required. The form
+of the reports, which were ready printed, had been
+most carefully thought out at R.F.C. Headquarters
+in peace and experimented with at the
+Concentration Camp.</p>
+
+<p>The maps thus compiled at G.H.Q. from air
+reconnaissance reports between August 31st and
+September 3rd were of vital interest, though it was
+sometimes very difficult to get the information
+put on the map for prompt consideration. For
+instance, at Dammartin on the evening of September
+1st, when it was thought that German
+cavalry were within a few miles, G.H.Q. made a
+very hurried departure, and I was unable to find
+anyone to whom to give very important reports.</p>
+
+<p>It was at the Battle of the Marne that machines
+were for the first time allotted to Army Corps for
+tactical work, while long-distance reconnaissance
+was carried out by other machines operating from
+Headquarters. Later on, this system was established<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+as a part of our permanent organization,
+squadrons being allotted to, and reporting direct
+to, Corps for tactical reconnaissance, artillery co-operation
+and contact patrols, and to Armies for
+longer-distance reconnaissance and fighting.</p>
+
+<p>The last phase of the war of movement was
+the race for the Channel Ports and it devolved
+upon aircraft to observe the enemy's movements
+from his centre and left flank to meet the Allied
+movement to the coast, to observe the movements
+of the four newly-formed corps which came
+into action at Ypres and to maintain liaison with
+the Belgian and British forces at Antwerp and
+Ostend. Information was very difficult to obtain
+and on one occasion I flew from the Aisne to
+Antwerp, under Sir John French's instructions, in
+order as far as possible to clear up the general
+situation when our G.H.Q. was in doubt as to
+whether Antwerp was completely surrounded or
+not. It was an interesting piece of work. There
+was a light drizzle, and the forest of Compi&egrave;gne
+had to be flown over at about 200 feet. The B.E.
+could not make the distance without refilling, and
+although only a short halt was made at Amiens
+for the purpose, it was too late to fly direct to
+Antwerp. Instead, a landing was made in a very
+sticky field under light plough, which was selected
+from the air about 4 miles north of Bruges, to
+which town I rode on a borrowed bicycle. At
+Bruges there was great consternation and uncertainty
+as to the position at Antwerp, but the
+Commander kindly placed a large open car and its
+very energetic driver at my disposal to try and
+get through. After many difficulties we managed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+to find our way into Antwerp by about midnight,
+and I was received by the Belgian Commander.
+He explained that though the Germans had
+broken through the South-Eastern sector and his
+troops were very hard pressed (and pointing
+repeatedly to a piece of an 18-inch German shell
+in the corner of the room, he said, "Mais qu'est-ce
+qu'on peut faire avec ces choses-l&agrave;!"), he hoped
+to be able to hold out for a time. After giving
+him General French's message and obtaining as
+much information as possible, I managed to
+get clear of Antwerp, reaching Bruges again at
+3.15 a.m. At 4 a.m. we set out and found a
+very wet machine in a wetter field and after
+considerable difficulty and flying through the
+top of the surrounding hedge, struggled into the
+upper air on the way back to Headquarters at
+F&egrave;re-en-Tardennois.</p>
+
+<p>During the Battles of the Aisne and of Ypres
+strategical reconnaissance was carried out by the
+few machines available at Headquarters. Shephard,
+the best reconnaissance officer I have ever
+known, who was killed later, used to fly his
+B.E.2 without observer over the greater part
+of Belgium two or three times a week and always
+brought in a long, closely packed, and extraordinarily
+valuable report. Tactical reconnaissance to
+a depth of 15 to 20 miles was done by units
+attached to Corps.</p>
+
+<p>After the Battle of the Aisne, which was the
+turning point in the evolution from the war of
+movement to trench warfare, pure reconnaissance,
+though still the basis of air work, tended to become
+a matter of routine, while many new and specialized<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+forms of it&mdash;such as air photography and artillery
+spotting by wireless&mdash;were developed.</p>
+
+<h4>Photography.</h4>
+
+<p>Though experiments had been made in the
+problem of photography from the air before the
+war, principally by Fletcher, Hubbard and Laws,
+and its value to survey was recognized, it had not
+become of practical utility. We only took one
+official camera with us to France on August 13th,
+1914, and it was not until September 15th that the
+first attempt at air photography was made, when
+five plates were exposed over positions behind the
+enemy's lines with very imperfect results. Its
+great value as an aid to observation in trench
+warfare was, however, very apparent, fresh brains
+were brought to the task, Moore-Brabazon, Campbell
+and Dr. Swan, and by the end of the year
+better success was obtained, though positions
+even then had to be filled in by the observer with
+red ink. Experiments at home during 1915 led
+to a great improvement in lenses, and at the
+beginning of 1916 air photography was universal.
+At the Battle of the Somme new enemy positions
+were photographed as soon as they were seen, and
+the camera did invaluable work in the reconnaissance
+of the Hindenburg Line during the
+German retreat of 1917, and the taking of over a
+thousand photographs was a daily occurrence.
+On September 4th, 1917, a record of 1,805 photographs
+was made.</p>
+
+<p>The development of air photography, very
+remarkable in itself, is even more so when it is
+remembered that the improvement in enemy anti-aircraft<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+guns drove our machines to carry out their
+work at altitudes increasing up to 20,000 and
+even 22,000 feet, at which heights the negatives
+had to be as distinct as those taken at 4,000 in
+the earlier days of the war.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the Dardanelles operations
+our apparatus consisted of one camera, a printing
+frame and a dark room lamp. The first photographs
+were taken by Butler in April, 1915, from
+a H. Farman machine at necessarily low altitudes.
+Butler was wounded in June and was succeeded
+by Thomson, who alone made 900 exposures and
+sent in 3,600 prints.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the assistance of air photography
+to reconnaissance, the war gave it great impetus
+as the handmaid of survey and mapping. It was,
+in fact, the only means of mapping or correcting
+the maps of country held by the enemy, which
+in certain cases, as at Gallipoli and in Palestine,
+were very inaccurate.</p>
+
+<p>By the end of the war photographic processes
+and equipment had reached a high standard of
+excellence. There are still, however, certain
+difficulties in regard to the production of accurate
+maps, which have not been overcome, the most
+obvious being the necessity of an initial framework
+of fixed points and of contouring. The subject
+is considered so important that an "Air Survey
+Committee," consisting of representatives of the
+Air Ministry, the Geographical section of the War
+Office, the Ordnance Survey, the School of Military
+Engineering and the Artillery Survey School, has
+recently been formed. In addition, the School of
+Aeronautics of Cambridge University is studying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+the question. The Survey of India and the Survey
+of Egypt are also conducting experiments.</p>
+
+<h4>Wireless.</h4>
+
+<p>From the outset, part of the German scheme of
+tactics was to batter down resistance by means of
+superior weight of heavy armament, and with the
+beginning of warfare of fixed position the observation
+and direction of our artillery fire became as
+important as distant reconnaissance. Besides its
+immense value in increasing the effect of the
+batteries, it had the indirect advantage of more
+closely binding the ties of mutual understanding
+between the air and ground troops, a point which
+fortunately seems to have been misunderstood by
+the Germans. In September, 1914, the first
+attempts were made to signal enemy movements
+from the aeroplanes of a Headquarters Wireless
+Flight which had been formed for the purpose,
+and this practice was continued with success
+throughout the Battle of the Aisne.</p>
+
+<p>In the earliest stages artillery co-operation
+was also carried out by dropping coloured lights,
+but from the Battle of Ypres onwards, though
+for some time very few wireless machines were
+available, this was effected by wireless or signal
+lamps. In his dispatch on the Battle of Loos,
+Sir John French wrote: "The work of observation
+for the guns from aeroplanes has now become an
+important factor in artillery fire, and the personnel
+of the two arms work in closest co-operation."</p>
+
+<p>By the Battle of the Somme artillery co-operation
+had assumed very large dimensions. For<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+instance, on September 15th, 1916, on the front
+of the 4th Army alone, seventy hostile batteries
+were located, twenty-nine being silenced. Counter-battery
+work was so effective before the offensive
+which opened on the Ypres front at the
+end of July, 1917, that the Germans withdrew
+their guns and the attack was delayed for three
+days in order that their new positions might be
+located.</p>
+
+<p>Recognition marks on aeroplanes were at this
+time, and indeed throughout the war, a matter of
+great difficulty. It had been suggested before the
+war that they would not be necessary, but the
+reverse was found to be the case, as even with the
+distinctive marks which were adopted our machines
+were often fired at by British troops, and we should
+undoubtedly have lost very heavily if we had
+flown over our own lines with false marks, as was
+suggested, or none.</p>
+
+<h4>Bombing.</h4>
+
+<p>The bombing operations, which reached their
+climax in the raids on German industrial centres in
+1918, arose from very primitive methods used at
+the beginning of the war. During the retreat
+from Mons a few hand grenades were carried
+experimentally in the pockets of pilots and observers,
+or, in the case of the larger varieties, tied
+to their bodies, and these were dropped over the
+side of the machine as opportunity occurred.
+At the Marne, for instance, small petrol bombs set
+fire to a transport park and scattered a mixed
+column of infantry and transport. I think I am
+right in saying that the first German bombs were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+dropped on us&mdash;unsuccessfully&mdash;at Compi&egrave;gne on
+August 29th, 1914. It was not, however, until
+the beginning of 1915 that special bombing raids
+were started by the Royal Flying Corps, one of the
+first places to be attacked being the Ghistelles
+aerodrome in West Flanders.</p>
+
+<p>The most important bombing operations and
+raids into Germany in the early days of the war
+were carried out by the Naval Air Service, units
+of which landed at Ostend on August 27th and
+operated with the Royal Naval Division from
+Antwerp. They were subsequently withdrawn
+to Dunkirk to form the nucleus of an aircraft
+centre from which excellent work was done in
+attacking the bases established on or near the
+Belgian coast from which German submarines
+and airships conducted their operations.</p>
+
+<p>Just before the Germans entered Antwerp, the
+first raid was made against a German town, one
+machine reaching Dusseldorf, when it descended
+from 6,000 to 400 feet and dropped three bombs
+on an airship shed.</p>
+
+<p>From the end of 1914 onwards the activities
+of the Royal Naval Air Service in this theatre of
+operations continually increased, the chief objectives
+being the gun emplacements at Middelkerke
+and Blankenburghe, the submarine bases at Zeebrugge
+and Bruges, the minefield and dock of
+Ostend, the airship sheds near Brussels, and
+the dockyards at Antwerp. The first airship
+destroyed in the air was attacked over Ghent.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting experiment was the attempt by
+the R.N.A.S. at the Dardanelles to sink the heavy
+wire anti-submarine net, which had been stretched<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+on buoys across the Straits at Nagara by the
+Turks, by means of parachute bombs.</p>
+
+<p>To return to the Royal Flying Corps. During
+1915 railway junctions were the principal bombing
+objectives, and raids were carried out on an ever-increasing
+scale, formations of fourteen to twenty
+machines taking part. At the Battle of Neuve
+Chapelle for instance, the railway junctions at
+Menin, Courtrai and Douai were attacked. One
+officer of No. 5 Squadron, carrying one 100 lb.
+bomb, arrived over Menin at 3,500 feet, descended
+to 120 feet, and dropped his bomb on the railway
+line. The first V.C. of the Royal Flying Corps
+was obtained at the Second Battle of Ypres by
+Lieutenant W. B. Rhodes-Moorhouse, who in
+bombing Courtrai came down to three or four
+hundred feet, under heavy fire, but piloted his
+machine 35 miles back to Merville at the height
+of a few hundred feet, and died a few days later
+from his wounds.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most instructive features of the
+Battle of Loos in September, 1915, was the definite
+co-ordination of bombing attacks with army
+operations. Many types of machines, belonging
+both to Army and Corps Squadrons, carried bombs
+in order to destroy dumps, communications, cut
+off reinforcements, and the like, while at the
+Somme bombing was carried out by formations of
+Wings. In October, 1917, 113 tons, and for a
+period of six days in March, 1918, 95 tons, of
+explosives were dropped. This illustrates the
+enormous progress of bombing which was so largely
+resorted to in the later stages of the war. The
+hand grenades of 1914 had become bombs weighing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+three-quarters of a ton: the pilot's pocket a
+mechanically released rack: and aim, assisted
+by instruments, was becoming fairly accurate.</p>
+
+<p>Night bombing, necessitated by the fact that
+by day a large machine heavily laden with bombs
+was an easy prey to the fighting scout, came into
+prominence in 1916, increasing in intensity up to
+the end of the war; and raids into Germany
+recommenced. Early in 1918 these raids included
+the bombing of Maintz, Stuttgart, Coblentz,
+Cologne, and Metz. Machines sometimes dropped
+their bombs from heights of about 12,000 feet and
+at other times descended to within 200 feet of
+their objectives.</p>
+
+<h4>Contact Patrol.</h4>
+
+<p>Contact patrol, the name given to the direct
+co-operation of aircraft with troops on the ground,
+was first extensively practised at the Battle of the
+Somme, though experiments in this direction had
+been made in 1915, messages being dropped
+at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle at pre-arranged
+points.</p>
+
+<p>The main objects of contact patrols were to
+assist the telephone (which was frequently cut by
+shellfire), to keep the various headquarters informed
+of the progress of their troops during the attack, so
+also saving them from the possibility of coming
+under the fire of their own artillery, to report on
+enemy positions, to transmit messages from the
+troops engaged to the headquarters of their
+units, to attack ground formations, and to co-operate
+with tanks. A system of red flares on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+the floor of the trenches was used to mark the
+disposition of the troops, and aircraft communicated
+their information by means of signalling
+lamps, wireless and message-bags.</p>
+
+<p>During the German retreat of 1917 contact
+patrols attacked enemy foundations from 100 feet
+and in some cases landed behind the enemy lines
+to obtain information. The skill of low-flying
+pilots in taking cover by flying behind woods,
+houses, etc., became increasingly important. The
+fact that 62,673 rounds of ammunition were fired
+from the air against enemy ground targets between
+November 20th and 26th, 1917, and 163,567
+between March 13th and 18th, 1918, indicates
+the rapid development of this form of aircraft
+action, the effect of which was frequently more
+deadly than bombing.</p>
+
+<p>Two of many protagonists of contact patrol were
+Pretyman and Bishop. On one occasion the
+latter, in attacking an aerodrome at about 50 feet,
+riddled the officers' and men's quarters with
+bullets, put two or three machines on the ground
+out of action, and three in succession as they got
+into the air. Another interesting example of
+contact patrol work occurred in 1917 when a
+pilot flew his machine at a low altitude over the
+enemy trenches, and he and his observer attracted
+the attention of the Germans by firing their
+machine guns and Verey lights. The Germans
+were so busy with the aeroplane that they had
+their backs turned to the front line and our
+infantry were able to cross no-man's land without
+any artillery preparation, take prisoners and bomb
+dug-outs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>An article in the <i>Cologne Gazette</i> showed what
+the Germans thought of low "strafing."</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The operations" (i.e. of June 7th, 1917), it says, "were
+prefaced by innumerable enemy airmen, who, at the beginning
+of the preparation for the attack, appeared like a swarm of
+locusts and swamped the front. They also work on cunningly
+calculated methods. Their habit is to work in three layers&mdash;one
+quite high, one in the middle, and the third quite low.
+The English who fly lowest show an immense insolence; they
+came down to 200 metres and shot at our troops with their
+machine guns, which are specially adapted to this purpose."</p></div>
+
+<p>Armour was first employed as a result of Shephard
+finding at Maubeuge a bullet lodged in the
+seat of his leather suit. Thin sheets of steel
+were at once cut out and placed in the wickerwork
+seats of aeroplanes. This primitive protection
+developed into the armoured machine mentioned
+later, which was about to make its appearance at
+the Armistice.</p>
+
+<p>I may mention here the "special duty" flights,
+which consisted in establishing secret communication
+between our Intelligence Branch and agents
+in the territory occupied by the Germans. Agents,
+mostly French and Belgian, were carried by
+aeroplane over the enemy lines and landed there.
+This work was started in 1914.</p>
+
+<h4>Fighting.</h4>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the war it became obvious
+that it was not only the duty of aircraft to obtain
+information but also to prevent enemy aircraft
+crossing our lines. In addition to the reconnaissance
+machine, and in order to make its work
+possible, a machine designed purely for fighting
+was required. In August, 1914, the aeroplane's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+armament consisted simply of rifle, or carbine,
+and revolver, but our pilots nevertheless attacked
+hostile machines whenever the opportunity occurred.
+The first German machine to fly over us
+was at Maubeuge on August 22nd, 1914, and,
+though fighting on an extensive scale did not
+take place until 1916, as early as August 25th,
+1914, there were three encounters in the air in
+which two enemy machines were driven down.
+One interesting report of an early fight is that
+between a B.E. and a German machine on
+December 20th, 1914.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A German aeroplane with one passenger and pilot being
+encountered over Poperinghe, we followed to Morbecque and
+then to Armenti&egrave;res. The passenger of the B.E. fired 40
+rounds from his rifle and the German passenger replied with
+some rounds from his revolver. The B.E. crossed the bows
+of the German machine to permit the pilot to use his revolver.
+The German switched off and dived below the B.E., and is
+believed to have landed somewhere north-west of Lille."</p></div>
+
+<p>Another instance of the early air combats
+was when Holt, single-handed, and armed only
+with a rifle, lashed to a strut of his machine,
+attacked ten Germans near Dunkirk, causing them
+to drop their bombs in the field and make off to
+their own lines.</p>
+
+<p>We managed to bring down a number of German
+machines, mainly by rifle fire (five had already been
+brought down by September 7th, 1914), but our
+great difficulty early in the war was to get the
+enemy into action, and, although during October
+and November, 1914, there was a certain amount
+of fighting, as a rule the German when attacked
+made for his own lines and the protection of his
+anti-aircraft guns. This, though offensive carried<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+to the extent of wastefulness of life is equally
+bad, was a serious mistake in all ways from his
+point of view, entailing as it did a tendency for
+the confidence of the troops and the morale of the
+air service to be undermined from the outset.
+The error was rectified, but only temporarily, at
+the Somme.</p>
+
+<p>As the specialized duties of aircraft increased,
+the Corps machines engaged in them needed protection
+and it was realized that the best method of
+protection was the development of the air offensive.
+This was rendered possible by the adaptation
+of the machine gun to the aeroplane. Early
+in 1915 the invention of the "synchronizing
+gear" enabled a machine gun to fire through the
+propeller, and by the end of 1915 fighting in the
+air became the general rule. The first squadron,
+No. 24, composed purely of fighting machines,
+took its place on the Western Front in February,
+1916, and gradually Wings were attached to
+Armies solely for fighting and the protection of
+Corps machines. During the long months of the
+Battle of the Somme, for instance, when, though
+the Royal Flying Corps dominated the air, the
+Germans put up a strenuous opposition, bombing
+machines were protected by fighting patrols in formation
+on the far side of the points attacked. The
+rapidity with which fighting in the air developed
+is shown by the fact that at the end of 1916
+twenty new fighting squadrons were asked for
+on the Western Front; the establishment was
+increased to twenty-four machines per squadron,
+and by the end of the war even night-fighting
+squadrons were operating with considerable success<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+and, had the war continued, would have
+proved a very important factor in air warfare.</p>
+
+<p>The development of aerobatics, air fighting, and
+formation tactics brought many airmen into
+prominence. For example Albert Ball, who
+ascribed his successes to keen application to aerial
+gunnery; J. B. McCudden, the first man to bring
+four hostile machines down in a day; and Trollope,
+who later on brought down six. Hawker met his
+death fighting von Richthofen, who describes the
+fight in his book <i>The Red Air Fighter</i> as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Soon I discovered that I was not fighting a beginner.
+He had not the slightest intention to break off the fight....
+The gallant fellow was full of pluck, and when we had got down
+to 3,000 feet he merrily waved to me as if to say, 'Well,
+how do you do?'... The circles which we made round
+one another were so narrow that their diameter was probably
+not more than 250 or 300 feet.... At that time his first
+bullets were flying round me, as up to then neither of us
+had been able to do any shooting."</p></div>
+
+<p>At 300 feet Hawker was compelled to fly in a
+zig-zag course to avoid bullets from the ground
+and this enabled Richthofen to dive on his tail
+from a distance of 150 feet.</p>
+
+<p>This indicates a heavy disadvantage under which
+our aircraft laboured in all their work on the
+Western Front. The prevailing westerly wind
+which, while it assisted the enemy in his homeward
+flight, made it very difficult for a British
+machine, perhaps damaged by anti-aircraft fire,
+to make its way&mdash;still under fire&mdash;to its base.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot leave the subject of air fighting without
+giving one or two more examples. One which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+comes to mind is that of five British machines
+attacking twenty-five of the enemy. One of ours
+gliding down with its engine stopped and being
+attacked by two Germans was saved by another
+British one attacking and driving off the two
+enemy. The result of the combat was five German
+machines destroyed and four driven down out
+of control, whilst all of ours returned safely.
+Another example, that of Barker who, whilst
+destroying an enemy two-seater, was wounded from
+below by another German machine and fell some
+distance in a spin. Recovering, he found himself
+surrounded by fifteen Fokkers, two of which he
+attacked indecisively but shot down a third in
+flames. Whilst doing this he was again wounded,
+again fainted, again fell, again recovered control
+and again, being attacked by a large formation,
+shot down an enemy in flames. A bullet now
+shattered his left elbow and, fainting a third time,
+he fell several thousand feet, where he was again
+attacked, and thinking his machine had been set
+on fire he tried, as he thought in a final effort,
+to ram a Fokker, but instead drove it down on
+fire! Barker was by this time without the use
+of both legs and an arm. Diving to a few thousand
+feet of the ground he again found his retreat
+barred by eight of the enemy, but these he was
+able to shake off after short bursts of fire and
+he returned a few feet above the ground to our
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>Though at the beginning our machines were
+rather better than either the French or German, it
+was the marked superiority of our pilots which
+gave us the greatest advantage. We should have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+been superior even had the machines been exchanged.</p>
+
+<h3>Co-operation with the Navy.</h3>
+
+<p>We have seen that the functions of co-operation
+with the Navy&mdash;Coast defence and Fleet assistance&mdash;were
+very complicated, and that at the
+outbreak of war the splendid pilots and excellent
+equipment of the R.N.A.S. were not so highly
+organized and were wanting in cohesion, but that
+the R.N.A.S. had advanced further than the Royal
+Flying Corps in specialized technical development.
+In the earlier part of the war, in addition to its main
+duties, the R.N.A.S. ventured in many directions,
+many of them of considerable value to the Army,
+as, for instance, at Antwerp.</p>
+
+<h4>Coast Defence, Patrol and Convoy Work.</h4>
+
+<p>Immediately war broke out a system of coastal
+patrols was established between the Humber and
+the Thames Estuary and over the Channel&mdash;the
+latter serving as an escort to the Expeditionary
+Force crossing to France. Patrols were at first,
+through limitations of equipment, mainly confined
+to the Home coast, but, as the war went on and
+machines improved, they were rapidly extended,
+especially in connection with the detection and
+destruction of submarines; reconnaissances were
+carried out over the enemy's shores, and in 1918
+there were forty-three flights of seaplanes, thirty
+flights of aeroplanes, together with flying boats
+and airships, operating from, and communicating
+with, an ever-increasing number of shore stations.
+Not only was anti-submarine work carried out<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+in the vicinity of the coast, but organized hunts
+were made for submarines, ships were convoyed
+on the high seas, shipping routes were protected,
+and action was taken to bar the passage of submarines
+through narrow channels. This was
+effected by an intensive system of combining and
+interlocking patrols, and by maintaining, in close
+co-operation with surface craft, a protective
+barrage across suitable stretches of water, such
+as the Straits of Dover.</p>
+
+<p>Airships from the beginning, when patrols
+operated from Kingsnorth during the crossing
+of the Expeditionary Force to France, proved
+particularly useful for escort, in addition to
+patrol work, and twenty-seven small airships,
+known as the S.S. type, were completed in 1915.
+In 1916 the Coastal type with a longer range was
+designed and constructed and new airship bases
+were established.</p>
+
+<h4>Fleet Assistance, Reconnaissance, Spotting for
+Ships' Guns.</h4>
+
+<p>The successful use of Drachen kite-balloons
+borne in ships at the Dardanelles led to their
+extensive development. Up to about May, 1915,
+when the vessels to which they were attached
+could stand in close to shore and overlook the
+enemy's positions from a distance of three or four
+thousand yards, a large amount of spotting of
+great value was carried out by these balloons
+for ships at Gallipoli, but when the Turks brought
+long-range guns into position, kite-balloon vessels
+were obliged to lie out beyond 11,000 yards
+and their services were rendered comparatively<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+slight for this purpose. From 1916, however,
+they were towed by merchant auxiliaries and
+light cruisers to spot submarines, observers communicating
+with the patrol ship by means of
+telephone. One of the most wonderful sights I
+have ever seen was from the observer's basket of
+the kite-balloon let up from S.S. "Manica" in June,
+1915. We were spotting for the guns of H.M.S.
+"Lord Nelson" bombarding Chanak. The sky
+and sea were a marvellous blue and visibility
+excellent, the peninsula, where steady firing was
+going on all the time, lay below us, the Straits,
+with their ships and boats, the Asiatic shore
+gradually disappearing in a golden haze, the Gulf
+of Xeros, the Marmora, and behind one the
+islands of the &AElig;gean affording a perfect background.
+No one who was at the Dardanelles, however
+vivid the horrors and the heat and dust and flies,
+will forget the beauty of the scene, especially at
+sunset, and it was seen at its best from the basket
+of a kite-balloon.</p>
+
+<p>The ever-increasing assistance rendered by aircraft
+to surface vessels in crippling Germany's
+submarine campaign is shown by the fact that
+in 1915 ten submarines were attacked from the
+air and in 1918 126 were sighted and 93 attacked.
+Nor was the principle forgotten in countering the
+submarine menace that offence is the best defence,
+and among the many duties of R.N.A.S.
+aircraft, based on Dunkirk from the early days of
+the war, were anti-submarine patrols along the
+Belgian coast and the bombing of hostile submarine
+bases, such as Bruges.</p>
+
+<p>As in the case of the Army Corps observation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+machines, fighting scouts became necessary for the
+protection of patrols and to counter the enemy's
+efforts at raids and sea reconnaissance, and the
+considerable amount of experiment in air fighting
+which the R.N.A.S. had made before the war bore
+useful fruit.</p>
+
+<p>For the immediate protection of the Grand
+Fleet seaplane and aeroplane bases were established
+at Scapa Flow and Thurso at the beginning of the
+war, but, owing to damage from a gale in November,
+1914, aircraft operations with the Fleet were
+carried out from the seaplane carrier "Campania."
+The problem of using carriers with the Fleet had
+not been seriously tackled before the war, and
+though experiments were strenuously carried out,
+and there were fourteen carrier ships in commission
+in 1918, and a seaplane carrier operated
+with the Battle Cruiser Squadron at Jutland, the
+use of aircraft in this way did not become very
+efficient. One of the chief difficulties was limitation
+in size, and consequently in radius of action,
+of aircraft employed from carriers or the decks
+of battleships. The total number of aeroplanes
+and seaplanes allotted to the Grand Fleet in 1918
+was 350.</p>
+
+<p>Seaplane carriers occasionally co-operated with
+fighting ships. For instance in October, 1915,
+a fast carrier at the Dardanelles accompanied ships
+detailed for the bombardment of Dedeagatch,
+and her seaplanes not only co-operated in spotting
+but also made a valuable reconnaissance of the
+Bulgarian coast and railway. But as a rule
+fighting and reconnaissance aircraft had mainly to
+work from shore bases. To assist in this direction,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+units were sent overseas to be nearer their sphere
+of action, as, for instance, the R.N.A.S. squadrons
+stationed at Dunkirk which, besides general reconnaissance,
+helped the Navy to keep open the Straits
+of Dover, carried out bombing raids against German
+bases and dockyards, such as Ostend, Zeebrugge,
+and Bruges, and co-operated with monitors
+in the bombardment of the Belgian coast. The
+development of a long-range seaplane or flying
+boat was also taken in hand, though an efficient
+type was not produced until the last year of the
+war.</p>
+
+<p>As with the Army, an important part of naval
+aircraft duties was spotting for gunfire; and
+likewise single-seater fighters were required for
+the protection of our own aircraft, for preventing
+enemy aircraft reconnaissance, for attacking the
+enemy's fleet and protecting our own. The use
+of offensive patrols steadily increased during the
+war.</p>
+
+<h4>Bombing.</h4>
+
+<p>I have already referred to bombing and mentioned
+the attack on Dusseldorf as an instance of
+the work done. Bombing raids had always been
+looked on with favour by the R.N.A.S. and were
+used throughout the war as a means of countering
+hostile aircraft operations from bases in Belgium.
+One of the first successful raids was that against
+the Friedrichshaven Zeppelin works by three Avro
+machines, which flew 250 miles over enemy country
+on November 21st, 1914. Another noteworthy
+example was the attempted raid against Cuxhaven
+on Christmas Day, 1914, carried out by seaplanes,
+which were still in an experimental stage, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+three carriers escorted by naval units. Powerful
+machines for bombing purposes were ordered and
+bombs of greatly increased size and gear for
+dropping them were designed.</p>
+
+<h4>Torpedo Attack.</h4>
+
+<p>The impetus given to bombing helped forward
+another use of naval aircraft: torpedo attack.
+This is likely to develop in the future into one of
+the most important uses of aircraft in naval
+operations, but during the war it was never given
+an objective by the German fleet. In May, 1915,
+two Sunbeam Short machines were embarked in
+the "Ben-my-Chree" for operations at Gallipoli,
+and it was in this theatre that for the first time
+in history ships were sunk by torpedoes released
+from aircraft. I shall never forget the night when
+we steamed silently up the narrow Gulf of Xeros
+and lay waiting to release our seaplanes in
+the still darkness of the early morning. The
+machines were lowered noiselessly into the water,
+and, their engines started, flew across the narrow
+neck of Bulair under fire from the old Turkish
+line; then, reaching the northern end of the
+Dardanelles at dawn, they descended low (one
+machine actually landed on the water and discharged
+its torpedo), sank their targets, and returned.
+In addition to the possibility of submarine
+attack, the Gulf of Xeros is so narrow that
+our ship could have been hit by the cross fire of
+field guns. It was a very fine performance and,
+although during many years I have spent anxious
+hours hoping for the distant purr of a safe returning
+machine, I have never been happier than when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+after a long wait our seaplanes were again quickly
+raised on board. The only torpedo machine
+employed at the Battle of Jutland was a Sunbeam
+fitted with a 14-inch torpedo, and it was not
+until just before the Armistice that a squadron
+of torpedo aircraft was ready for operations with
+the Grand Fleet.</p>
+
+<p>The Germans also tried to develop the use of
+torpedo-carrying seaplanes and, as with their
+submarines, had the advantage over us of a vast
+number of targets close to hand in our North
+Sea and Channel shipping, but fortunately the
+British fighting scouts were able to destroy
+several of their machines before they had done
+much damage.</p>
+
+<h3>Home Defence.</h3>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the war the R.N.A.S.
+assumed responsibility for the defence of Great
+Britain against attacks by hostile aircraft, and a
+scheme for the defence of London and other large
+towns was entrusted to an anti-aircraft section
+of the Admiralty Air Department. Its resources,
+however, consisting of a few unsuitable and
+widely scattered aeroplanes, some 1 pdr. pom-poms
+with searchlights manned by a special
+corps, were inadequate and it was fortunate
+that only three small daylight aeroplane raids,
+mainly for reconnaissance, were made during
+1914&mdash;the first German machine to visit England
+dropping a bomb near Dover on December 21st.</p>
+
+<h4>Night Flying and Night Fighting.</h4>
+
+<p>In spite of continuous action by the R.N.A.S.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+against German airship bases in Belgium, there
+were in 1915 nineteen airship and eight aeroplane
+raids&mdash;one by night&mdash;over England, and, although
+the new and powerful Zeppelin L.Z.38, which
+attacked London on May 31st, was destroyed
+by an aeroplane counter-attack in its shed near
+Brussels, no real counter measures were evolved
+until 1916, when Home Defence was taken over
+by the War Office. During that year a Home
+Defence Squadron of B.E.2c's, rapidly expanded
+to a Wing, was formed; and the systematic
+training of night pilots, the standardization of
+night-flying equipment and armament, and the
+lighting of aerodromes, was taken in hand. A
+continuous aeroplane and searchlight barrage with
+night landing grounds was gradually formed
+between Dover and the Forth; the wireless
+signals employed to assist Zeppelins in finding
+their way were intercepted, thus enabling our
+rapidly improving fighting machines to pick up
+and attack raiding airships; and the constant
+attacks to which airship sheds were exposed in
+Belgium, caused their withdrawal to positions
+further inland and increased their distance from
+England. During 1916 there were twenty-two
+raids by airships, six of which were destroyed,
+the first being brought down in September at
+Cuffley by Leefe Robinson. Thenceforward airship
+raids declined, the destruction of the majority
+of the largest and latest which raided England
+on October 19th, 1917, sealing their fate.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, aeroplane daylight and
+night raids on London, the first of which occurred
+in November, 1916, increased in number and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+strength with the object, in addition to the destruction
+of material and civilian <i>morale</i>, of forcing
+upon us the unsound retention at home of a considerable
+air defence force. The largest of these
+attacks was made by seventeen aeroplanes at
+midday on June 13th, 1917, but, the Zeppelin
+danger nullified, counter measures to meet the
+new menace were gradually evolved. New
+squadrons were raised and the number of home
+defence squadrons was raised to fourteen service
+and eight night training squadrons; a Northern
+Home Defence Wing was formed at York; and
+the Home Defence Group became the 6th Brigade.
+The first night aeroplane raid occurred in September,
+and the systematic training of night-fighting
+pilots on scout machines was hurried on. Separate
+zones for aeroplanes, guns and searchlights&mdash;the
+latter provided with sound locators&mdash;forming
+an outer barrage, were instituted, and aprons,
+supported by kite-balloons, formed a protective
+barrage up to 8,000 feet. A system of wireless
+and ground telephonic communication was improvised
+for plotting the course of attacking aircraft
+and thus enabling squadron commanders to
+concentrate machines at the point of attack.
+By 1918 the night-fighting aeroplane, assisted by
+these means, had countered the night-bombing
+aeroplane. At first, this had been the result of
+the retention of a large number of fighting
+aircraft and a complete organization at home.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, night fighting, especially the protection
+of night bombers by fighting machines, had
+become of paramount importance on the Western
+Front. The chief feature of activity in September,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+1918, was the successful co-operation between
+searchlights in the forward areas and No. 151
+night-fighting squadron. This was the first night-fighting
+squadron, trained by the 6th Brigade, to
+be sent to France. It was proposed to send four
+more such squadrons and thus form a first line of
+offensive defence which would react on hostile
+raids over England. Thus once again the old
+doctrine was gradually observed that offence is
+the only true defence, and that purely defensive
+measures, however efficient, by keeping men and
+material from the vital point, are necessarily
+expensive out of all proportion to their effectiveness.
+Both the Germans and ourselves made the
+initial mistake of organizing large local defence
+systems partly to placate public opinion. During
+the German offensive of 1918 a further development
+of night fighting took place in the bombing and
+low strafing of enemy troops and unlighted transport
+with the aid of flares.</p>
+
+<h3>The Machine and Engine.</h3>
+
+<p>Turning now to the machine and engine, the
+Military Trials held in 1912, when the Royal
+Flying Corps was started, represented the first
+organized effort to assist the evolution of service
+aeroplanes in this country and a brief comparison
+will be useful to show the performance of the
+average machines and engines of that date, at the
+beginning, and at the end of the war, and of civil
+machines of to-day.</p>
+
+<p>At the Military Competitions of 1912, of the
+eight types&mdash;Avro, B.E., Bristol, Cody, Bleriot,
+Deperdussin, Hanriot, and M. Farman&mdash;the first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+four were British, though only the Avro had a
+British engine, and the last four French, fitted
+with French engines. The average horse-power
+was about 83, the average maximum speed 67,
+and the minimum 50 miles per hour; the climb to
+1,000 feet was effected in 4&frac12; minutes with an
+average load of 640 lb., which included pilot,
+fuel for four hours and useful load. The loading
+per square foot was, for biplanes, about 4&frac12;, and,
+for monoplanes, 6 lb.</p>
+
+<p>On the outbreak of war, and until the end of
+1914, of the ten types in use&mdash;Avro, B.E., Bristol,
+Sopwith, Vickers, M. Farman, H. Farman, Caudron,
+Morane, and Voisin&mdash;five were British and five
+were French and all were fitted with French
+engines. The average horse-power was still about
+83, but the average maximum speed had risen to
+74, and the minimum had fallen to 41 miles per
+hour. The load averaged 609 lb.</p>
+
+<p>A remarkable advance in machine and engine
+construction is shown by referring to the tables
+for 1918. At the Armistice of the twelve types&mdash;Avro,
+Bristol Fighter, Sopwith Snipe, S.E. 5a,
+de Havilland 4 and 9a, Vickers Vimy, Handley
+Page O/400 and V/1,500, Fairey Seaplane 3c,
+F. 2 A. and F. 5&mdash;all were British and, except the
+de Havilland 9a, which had an American engine,
+were fitted with engines of British manufacture.
+The F. 2 A., and F. 5, were twin-engined, while
+one, the Handley Page V/1,500, was equipped with
+four engines. The average horse-power was per
+engine, 344, and per machine, 516; the average
+maximum speed 111, and the minimum 53&frac12;
+miles per hour, the climb to 6,500 feet was carried<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+out in 13 minutes and to 10,000 feet in 24 minutes
+with an average load, including fuel for 5&frac12;
+hours, of 2,742 lb. The average ceiling was
+15,500 feet; the loading per square foot about
+8 lb.</p>
+
+<p>The years following the Armistice have witnessed
+the conversion of military machines and
+the development of new designs for commercial
+purposes. In 1921 there were thirteen types
+fitted with British engines: Avro, Bristol, de
+Havilland 4, 16 and 18, Vickers Vimy, Handley
+Page O/400 and W. 8, B.A.T., Westland, Fairey,
+Supermarine and Vickers Amphibians. No British
+machine had a foreign engine. The Vickers
+Vimy, Handley Page O/400 and W. 8, which had a
+passenger-carrying capacity of 15, were twin-engined.
+The average horse-power was per engine,
+387, and per machine, 474; the average maximum
+speed 114, and the minimum 49, miles per hour.
+With an average load of 2,467 lb., including fuel for
+4&frac12; hours, 19 minutes was required for a climb to
+10,000 feet. The average loading per square
+foot was about 13 lb., and the average ceiling
+15,793 feet.</p>
+
+<p>Before the war, in addition to the Royal Aircraft
+Factory, there were only eight firms engaged,
+on a very small scale, in the manufacture of aircraft
+in England, and an aero engine industry
+hardly existed. Until 1916, the greater proportion
+of our machines, and almost all our engines,
+were French, and we were very dependent upon
+France for the replacement of our heavy losses
+in material. By the end of the war the bulk
+of our material was of British design and construction,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+though there was still a certain number
+of British built engines of French design. One
+American engine&mdash;the Liberty&mdash;was also employed.
+The fact that in October, 1918, the Royal Air
+Force had 22,171 machines and 37,702 engines on
+charge, and that during the ten months January
+to October the output of machines had been 26,685
+and of engines 29,561, gives some idea of the
+enormous growth in production.</p>
+
+<p>In the first few months of the war it was not
+possible to progress far with new inventions or
+improvements. Fortunately, our Aircraft Factory
+had evolved in the B.E. a machine of considerable
+stability which in this respect compared
+favourably with German machines, and was well
+adapted to its work of reconnaissance.</p>
+
+<p>Technical progress during the war often unfortunately
+involved the loss of valuable lives,
+as for instance those of Professor Hopkinson
+and Busk, to both of whom heavy debts of gratitude
+are owed, but gradually obstacle after
+obstacle, problem after problem, was successfully
+tackled by our designers and constructors. With
+a view to enlarging the field of observation, staggered
+planes were introduced in the B.E.2c.
+This machine also proved that it was possible to
+calculate the degree of stability and thus paved
+the way for the design of aeroplanes with indifference
+to stability and increased man&#339;uvrability
+for fighting purposes, or with great inherent
+stability for bombing. During 1915 the B.E.2c
+was used for all purposes, but the extra loading
+involved by the increasing use of aeroplanes for
+bombing and fighting caused a decrease in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+rate of speed and climb, and our aeroplanes were
+temporarily inferior in fighting power to the
+Fokker.</p>
+
+<p>The necessity of preventing the enemy obtaining
+information soon led to the development of
+air fighting. At the beginning of the war the
+sole armament of aeroplanes was the rifle or
+revolver. The machine gun soon followed, but
+its use in tractor machines was impracticable on
+account of the danger of hitting the airscrew.
+The first "fighters" were therefore two-seater
+pushers, such as the "Short-horn" Maurice Farmans
+which, though not designed for fighting,
+and too slow to chase enemy aircraft, were the
+first to be fitted with Lewis guns, and F.E.'s, the
+first machine designed specifically for fighting,
+with the machine-gun operator in front of the
+pilot. These "pusher" fighters had an excellent
+field of view and fire forwards, but suffered from
+lack of speed and a large "blind" area to the
+rear. On the other hand, the single-seater tractors
+were potentially the superior fighters, and in
+order to protect the blades of the airscrew the
+French were the first to use deflector blades on
+them in tractor machines.</p>
+
+<p>Our early single-seater tractors were fitted with
+a Lewis gun fixed so as to fire over or at the side
+of the airscrew and actuated by a bowden wire,
+the most efficient, though not the most numerous,
+fighting machines at the end of 1915 being the
+Bristol Scouts.</p>
+
+<p>By the Summer of 1916, however, we had
+adapted the "synchronizing gear" to our machine
+guns, enabling them to be fired through the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+propeller; while aircraft engines developed much
+greater power and full allowance was made for all
+equipment carried. From that time the development
+of our single-seater fighters was steadily
+progressive. One of the first of these was the
+Sopwith "Pup," which had a speed of 106&frac12; miles
+an hour at 6,500 feet, climbed 10,000 feet in just
+over 14 minutes, and could attain a ceiling of 17,500
+feet. In 1917 appeared the Sopwith "Camel," a
+typical example of this type, which was simple,
+stable, easily controllable and possessed two guns.
+It had a speed of 121 miles an hour at 10,000
+feet, to which height it could climb in under
+10&frac12; minutes, and a ceiling of 23,000 feet. The
+Martinsyde F.4, embodying further improvements,
+was not ready in time for active service.</p>
+
+<p>While the single-seater tractor was developing
+for purely offensive action, the two-seater fighter,
+of which the field of view, man&#339;uvrability and
+general performance were being improved, retained
+its utility as a reconnaissance machine.
+In 1916 the "pusher" type was superseded by
+the Sopwith "1&frac12; Strutter" armed with a synchronized
+Vickers gun, which for its 130 horse-power
+was never surpassed. The pilot was close
+to the engine and had a good view of the ground,
+while the gunner was placed behind him with a
+rotary Lewis gun turret. Early in 1917 these
+qualities were further developed in the Bristol
+Fighter.</p>
+
+<p>With the advent of these improved types the
+B.E.2c was relegated to the work of artillery
+co-operation, until superseded by the B.E.2e.
+Towards the end of 1916 appeared the R.E.8<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+with a Vickers synchronized gun and a Lewis
+gun, which after many vicissitudes became the
+standard machine for artillery work.</p>
+
+<p>Systematic bombing was practised by nearly
+all types of machines, but real accuracy was never
+obtained. Thus, the B.E.2c was first used in
+formations, but with a full load of bombs it could
+not carry an observer, and its moderate speed
+left it an easy prey to hostile fighters. Early in
+1916 appeared the Martinsyde single-seater bomber
+with an endurance of 4&frac12; hours, and in 1917 the
+D.H.4 which was much used for day-bombing.
+The F.E.2b pusher, discarded as a fighting
+machine, became the principal night-bomber.</p>
+
+<p>It was comparatively late in the war before
+special bombing machines were evolved. They
+were then divided into day-bombers and night-bombers,
+the D.H.9 and 9a machines being
+typical of the former and the Handley Page
+of 1917&mdash;a large twin-engine aeroplane, the first
+really effective night-bomber, of considerable
+carrying power but low performance&mdash;of the
+latter. By November 8th, 1918, two super-Handley
+Pages were ready to start to Berlin. They
+possessed a maximum range of 1,100 miles, a
+crew of seven, four 350 horse-power Rolls-Royce
+engines, arranged in pairs, a tractor and a pusher
+in tandem on either side of the machine, and, as
+they would be compelled to fly both by night and
+day, a gun defence system. The D.H.10a and
+the Vickers Vimy, for day and night bombing
+respectively, were also being produced at the date
+of the Armistice.</p>
+
+<p>In the early days of the war an aeroplane had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+little to fear above 4,000 feet. With the improvement
+of the anti-aircraft gun there was, by the
+end of the war, no immunity at 20,000 feet. Very
+low flying for attack was, however, being rapidly
+developed, and would have proved of great effect
+in 1919. The aeroplane used for this purpose
+was the single-seater fighter, and the Sopwith
+"Salamander," with two guns, a speed of 125
+miles an hour, and 650 lb. of armoured plates,
+was about to make its appearance at the
+Armistice.</p>
+
+<p>I have previously mentioned how dependent the
+improvement of design and performance of aircraft
+has been upon the less simple and tardier
+development of the engine. The invention of the
+light motor made aviation possible, and development
+has synchronized with the evolution of
+lighter, more powerful and more reliable engines.
+One of the most difficult problems still confronting
+us is the production of a cheap, high-powered
+and reliable engine, but the existence at
+the end of the war of machines weighing 15 tons
+indicates the progress achieved, while British
+engines of 600 horse-power are now in use, and one
+of 1,000 horse-power will shortly be available.</p>
+
+<h3>Tactics and the Strategic Air Offensive.</h3>
+
+<p>During the war there were three concurrent
+movements in process: the ratios of the various
+forms of air tactics were constantly changing, and
+the components of our air forces varied in accordance
+with the development of reconnaissance,
+artillery co-operation, bombing and fighting.
+Secondly, their total strength was increasing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+rapidly; and, thirdly, it was increasing relatively
+faster than the Army or Navy.</p>
+
+<p>It was an evident and logical development and
+in accord with the shortage of national man
+power and the consequent tendency to a reduction
+in the strength of the Army, that, the necessary
+uses of aircraft with the Army and Navy being
+ensured, any available margin of air power should
+be employed on an independent basis for definite
+strategic purposes. The difficulty was to arrive
+at an agreement as to the minimum tactical and
+grand tactical requirements of the Army and Navy.
+The British Army was not alone in asserting that
+there was no minimum and that it wanted every
+available airman, and agreed with the French
+that anything which it could temporarily spare
+should be lent to the French Army. It was argued
+that the Armies could as easily and better arrange
+for strategic bombing. Fortunately in 1918, when
+I was Chief of the Air Staff, we managed to secure
+a margin and formed the Independent Air Force
+in June of that year. It was, of course, understood
+that, in the event of either the British
+or French Armies being hard put to it, the Independent
+Air Force could temporarily come to
+their direct assistance and act in close co-operation
+with them.</p>
+
+<p>In 1915 in accordance with the old doctrine
+that offence is the best defence, the surest method
+of protecting specialized machines on the battle
+front was found to be in the attack of enemy aircraft
+by fighting machines. In 1918 it was
+decided that raids on the centres of German war
+industry would not only cripple the enemy's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+output of material essential to victory, but also
+relieve the pressure on the Western Front, the
+vital point of the war. The Germans had had the
+same intention in the many raids which started
+over Dover on December 21st, 1914.</p>
+
+<p>Long-range bombing had, however, been carried
+out spasmodically before 1918. In addition
+to its taste for bombing in general, the Royal
+Naval Air Service were keenly bent from the outset
+on long-range bombing in particular. The
+question of forming an Allied squadron to bomb
+German munition factories was first raised in
+1915 at one of the monthly meetings between the
+French and British Aviation departments; and
+in February, 1916, a small squadron of Sopwith
+"1&frac12; Strutters" was formed at Detling for the
+purpose of bombing Essen and Dusseldorf from
+England, but the Army in France, being short of
+machines, asked that they should be sent to the
+front, and therefore the scheme did not mature;
+neither, for similar reasons, did one for the co-operation
+in 1916 of British and French bombing
+squadrons, operating from Luxeuil.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until October, 1917, that the first
+striking force, consisting of three squadrons, was
+formed under the Army with Ochey as its base.
+It was mainly used in raids against the ironworks
+in the Alsace-Lorraine Basin and the
+chemical industry in the neighbourhood of Mannheim.
+As I have said, a definite offensive policy
+by means of an independent strategic force was
+later decided upon, and the "Independent" Air
+Force was brought into existence. It originally
+comprised two day-bomber and two night-bomber<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+squadrons. During the summer additional
+squadrons were allotted to it, including D.H.9's
+and Handley Pages. Day-bombing squadrons
+had to fight their way to objectives in close
+formation, and the problems connected with
+navigation, calculation of petrol supply, action of
+wind and ceiling, were all accentuated. Casualties
+were heavy, with the result that a squadron of
+Fighters, composed of Sopwith "Camels," was
+incorporated for the purpose of protection. Thus
+we see the beginnings of an air fleet analogous
+to the naval fleet with its capital ships and protective
+craft.</p>
+
+<p>The main objectives were the centre of the
+chemical industry at Mannheim and Frankfort;
+the iron and steel works at Briey and Longwy
+and the Saar Basin; the machine shops in the
+Westphalian district and the magneto works at
+Stuttgart; the submarine bases at Wilhelmshaven,
+Bremerhaven, Cuxhaven, and Hamburg,
+and the accumulator factories at Hagen and
+Berlin.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen from a map that three of the
+main industrial centres were situated near the
+west frontier of Germany; and, therefore, one
+portion of the striking force was based at Ochey,
+which lies within a few miles of the Saar Basin,
+within 180 miles of Essen, and within 150 miles
+of Frankfurt. Another portion was based on
+Norfolk, where a group of super-Handley Page
+machines were established for the specific purpose
+of attacking Berlin, a distance of 540 miles, and
+the naval bases within 400 miles. It was obvious
+that though aircraft from England would have to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+cover greater distances, they would not expose
+themselves to the strong hostile defences in rear
+of the battle front.</p>
+
+<p>Three instances of the Independent Air Force's
+action may be cited. On the night of August
+21st/22nd, two Handley Page machines dropped
+over one ton of bombs on Cologne Station, the raid
+occupying seven hours. On the night of August
+25th/26th two Handley Pages attacked the Badische
+Aniline und Soda Fabrik of Mannheim;
+bombs were dropped from a height of 200 feet,
+direct hits being obtained in every case; and the
+machines then remained over the town, which
+they swept with machine-gun fire. On August
+12th the first attack was made on Frankfurt by
+twelve D.H.4 day-bombers, every machine reaching
+the objective and returning safely in spite of
+being attacked, over Mannheim and throughout
+the return journey, by some forty hostile
+fighters.</p>
+
+<p>During the five months of its existence the
+Independent Air Force dropped 550 tons of bombs,
+160 by day and 390 by night. Of these 200 tons
+were dropped on aerodromes, largely by the short-distance
+F.E.2b's, as a result of which, hostile
+attacks on Allied aerodromes became practically
+negligible. Theoretically, machines of the Independent
+Air Force should not have been utilized
+for attacking purely military objectives in the
+Army zone, such as aerodromes, and their co-operation
+with the Army for this purpose shows
+that their true r&ocirc;le was either not appreciated or
+not favoured by the French and other Commands.</p>
+
+<p>There is ample testimony to the spirit of demoralization<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+which pervaded the civil population
+of the towns attacked.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"My eyes won't keep open whilst I am writing," reads one
+captured letter. "In the night twice into the cellar and then
+again this morning. One feels as if one were no longer a
+human being. One air raid after another. In my opinion
+this is no longer war but murder. Finally, in time, one
+becomes horribly cold, and one is daily, nay, hourly, prepared
+for the worst." "Yesterday afternoon," says another, "it
+rained so much and was so cloudy that no one thought it was
+possible for them to come. It is horrible; one has no rest
+day or night."</p></div>
+
+<p>Although, for reasons into which it is not
+necessary to enter here, only a comparatively small
+percentage of the efforts of the Independent
+Force were directed against the industrial targets
+for which the force had been created, yet by the
+end of the war the strategic conception of air
+power was bearing fruit, and the Air Ministry had
+in hand measures for bombing which would have
+gone far to shatter German munitionment. The
+defence measures forced upon the Germans within
+their own country were reacting on their offensive
+action at the front, which was at the same time
+denuded of fighting aircraft at various points to
+meet the menace of our strategic force at Ochey.</p>
+
+<h3>Organization.</h3>
+
+<p>As in peace on a small, so in war on a large
+scale, the history of the organization of aircraft,
+while we were fighting for our national existence
+and competing with similar enemy expansion, is
+one of continuous development, of decentralization
+of command and co-ordination of duties. Headquarters,
+the Squadron and the Aircraft Park,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+as originally conceived in peace, though subject
+to variations in size, remained the basis of our
+organization. For instance, the original eighteen
+machines of our squadron were increased to twenty-four
+for single-seater fighters and reduced to six
+in the case of the super-Handley Page bombers.
+The four squadrons originally operated directly
+under Headquarters, were soon allocated to Corps
+for tactical reconnaissance and artillery co-operation,
+while a unit remained at Headquarters
+for strategical and long-distance reconnaissance
+and a few special duties. The next step was in
+November, 1914, when two Wings, composed
+originally of two, and later, of five squadrons
+each, were formed, R.F.C. Headquarters retaining
+one squadron and the wireless flight for G.H.Q.
+requirements. The Wing Headquarters co-ordinated
+the work of the squadrons which were
+allocated to Army Corps.</p>
+
+<p>A further development, in 1916, was the formation
+for each of the three Armies of a Brigade,
+consisting of two Wings and an Aircraft Park.
+One&mdash;the Corps Wing&mdash;carried out artillery co-operation
+and close reconnaissance (including
+photography) with Army Corps, the other&mdash;the
+Army Wing&mdash;carried out more distant reconnaissance
+and fighting patrols under Army Headquarters.
+Our air superiority at the Battle of the
+Somme in 1916 led us to expect German counter-measures
+in 1917, and our programme for the
+following winter contemplated a proportion of
+two fighting squadrons to each Corps Squadron.
+By 1917 there were five British Armies in France
+and Belgium and our air forces were increased to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+provide a Brigade for each of the two new Armies.
+The Headquarters of the flying force in the field
+(except in the case of the Independent Air Force,
+which was responsible to the Supreme War Council
+and the Air Ministry in London) remained attached
+to G.H.Q. throughout the war.</p>
+
+<p>The main difficulty in the higher organization was
+the lack of co-operation between the Royal Flying
+Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service and their
+competition for the supply of men and machines&mdash;the
+demands of both being urgent and insatiable.
+As a first step to overcome this, an Air Board
+was formed in May, 1916, to discuss general
+air policy, especially the combined operation of the
+Naval and Military Air Services, to make recommendations
+on the types of machines required
+by each, and to co-ordinate the supply of material.
+The Air Board was an improvement, but not a
+remedy, and, therefore, in 1917 it was decided
+to form an Air Ministry responsible for war
+aviation in all its branches and to amalgamate
+the Naval and Military Air Services as the Royal
+Air Force. This was carried into effect early in
+1918, with Lord Rothermere as Secretary of State
+for Air with a seat in the Cabinet, and the air
+became the third service of the Crown, with an
+independent Government department permeated
+with a knowledge of air navigation, machinery,
+and weather, and closely allied to the industrial
+world for the initiation, guidance, and active
+supervision of research and experimental work.</p>
+
+<p>I will mention later some of the many arguments
+for and against the retention of an independent
+Air Ministry and autonomous Air Force in peace.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+The amalgamation was certainly advantageous in
+war. It effected the correlation of a number of
+hitherto independent services according to a uniform
+policy and prevented overlapping by centralizing
+administration. Under single control it
+was possible to carry out, on a carefully co-ordinated
+plan, recruiting and training, to supply
+men and material, to organize air power according
+to the strategic situation in each of the various
+theatres of war, and to form the correct ratio
+between the air forces in the field and the reserves
+in training at home. The difficulty was that the
+amalgamation had to be carried out during the
+most intensive period of air effort, but by the
+end of the war most of these objects had been
+attained without jeopardizing the close co-operation
+with the Army and Navy. Co-operation with
+the Naval and General Staffs and with naval and
+military formations was, in fact, improved, independent
+action was beginning to bear fruit, and
+we possessed an Air Force without rival.</p>
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="ft1">CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h2>PEACE</h2>
+
+<h3>The Future of Aerial Defence.</h3>
+
+<p>In the evolution of aviation during the war the
+conclusion has been reached that the most remarkable
+lines of development at the Armistice were in
+the direction of ground and night fighting, torpedo
+attack and long-range bombing, exemplifying
+respectively the three spheres of air operations&mdash;military
+co-operation, naval co-operation, and the
+strategic use of aircraft. It must be remembered
+that this progress in tactics and strategy, in the
+machine, and the airman's skill, was made in the
+short period of four years, and that every war has
+started with a great advance in scientific knowledge,
+accumulated during peace, over that obtaining
+at the close of the previous war. We may
+therefore assume, provided the danger is averted
+of a retrograde movement from recent scientific
+methods to pre-war conditions&mdash;sabres, bayonets,
+and guns&mdash;that by the outbreak of another war
+on a large scale, which we hope may never occur,
+the knowledge of Service aeronautics will have
+increased immeasurably since 1918, and may be,
+not a contributory, but a decisive factor in securing
+victory.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The period since the Armistice has been employed
+in the reduction and consolidation of the Royal
+Air Force. In England the cadre system has been
+adopted, while abroad the greatest concentration
+of effort is aimed at, with Egypt, at present the
+most important strategic point in the Imperial air
+system, as the centre of activity. Iraq is being
+handed over to the control of the Royal Air Force,
+whose share in the policing of overseas possessions
+is likely usefully to grow provided any tendency
+to the concurrent building up of a large ground
+organization is withstood. The advantages of
+aircraft for "garrison" duties lie, under suitable
+geographical conditions, in their swift action and
+wide range, their economy, and, during disturbances
+their capacity for constant pressure against
+the enemy without fear of retaliation. One of the
+main problems is at present that of personnel.
+Service flying is restricted to comparatively young
+men, and therefore the majority of officers can
+only be commissioned for short periods. For this
+reason the experiment is being made of taking
+officers direct from civil life on short engagements,
+and at the same time endeavouring to
+ensure, by technical and general education, that
+the Royal Air Force shall not become a blind-alley
+occupation.</p>
+
+<p>Though it is difficult to foretell on what lines
+aircraft will develop for any one purpose, as in the
+past, the problem of military co-operation will
+perhaps be less complex than that of co-operation
+with the Navy. It will probably consist of
+improvements along the lines already indicated,
+such as increased range, speed, climb, man&#339;uvrability,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+offensive armament, armour, the
+assistance of tank and anti-tank action, and the
+utilization of gas. Fighting will undoubtedly
+take place at very high altitudes to keep the
+enemy's fighting machines away from the zone
+of operations&mdash;necessitating the development of
+the single-seater so as to increase climb and
+man&#339;uvrability, and obtain, if possible, a speed
+of 200 miles an hour at 30,000 feet. Cavalry,
+unless retained, as I think they should be, in the
+form of mounted machine-gunners, will, I think,
+disappear in European warfare, but infantry will
+remain, and it will be the object of aircraft to
+assist their advance by reconnaissance, ground
+attack, artillery and tank co-operation, and the
+destruction of the enemy's supplies and communications.
+In this connection ground tactics
+and air tactics must develop <i>pari passu</i> and
+commanders of Corps and Armies must work out
+during peace training the fullest schemes for the
+most intimate co-operation between air and land
+forces.</p>
+
+<p>The future of naval co-operation is a difficult
+problem, more especially as there was no major
+naval engagement after Jutland in which aircraft
+could be used, and consequently we have
+little to go on in estimating their practical value
+in direct co-operation with the fleet. It is impossible
+at present to judge between the conflicting
+opinions as to the future of the capital ship,
+but it is certain that aviation will materially
+modify naval tactics and construction. Coast
+defence, reconnaissance, anti-submarine work,
+escort, and the bombing of enemy bases, will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+doubtless continue and develop with ever-increasing
+machinery and equipment; but torpedo attack
+by aircraft may reach a point where the very
+existence of opposing fleets may be endangered.
+It is already questionable whether a battleship
+could survive an attack launched by even a small
+force of this mobile arm.</p>
+
+<p>As was the case during the war, the action of
+aircraft at sea is restricted by range, the difficulty
+being to find the mean between the opposing
+conditions of radius of flight and limitation in the
+size of aircraft imposed by the deck-space of
+"carriers," but there is reason to suppose that on
+the one hand engines will be so improved as to
+afford a sufficient radius of action to comparatively
+small aircraft, while, on the other, devices will
+be found to economize deck-space.</p>
+
+<p>Fleets operating near the enemy's coast will be
+vulnerable from land aircraft bases, and thus close
+blockade will be rendered increasingly difficult.
+The possibility of gas attack on enemy bases
+from the air in co-operation with submarines and
+of effecting a blockade by this means must be
+envisaged.</p>
+
+<p>Since the Armistice the operational work of the
+Royal Air Force on behalf of the Navy has been
+conducted under the auspices of the Admiralty.
+Improvements have been made in large flying
+boats and amphibians, especially with a view
+to facilitating their landing on "carriers" and
+the decks of battleships. There has also been
+considerable progress in the construction and
+use of torpedo aircraft.</p>
+
+<p>The war lasted long enough to prove the effect<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+of the strategic offensive by air. In spite of the
+dictates of humanity, it cannot be eliminated.
+It is true that modern war is inimical to the
+progress of mankind and brings only less suffering
+to the victors than to the vanquished. To ensure
+peace should therefore be our ideal. But a great
+war once joined is to-day a war of peoples. Not
+only armies in the field, but men, women, and even
+children at home, are concentrated on the single
+purpose of defeating the enemy, and armies,
+navies, and air forces are dependent upon the
+application to work, the output of war supplies,
+and, above all, the morale of the civil population.
+Just as gas was used notwithstanding the Hague
+Convention, so air war, in spite of any and every
+international agreement to the contrary, will be
+carried into the enemy's country, his industries
+will be destroyed, his nerve centres shattered, his
+food supply disorganized, and the will power of
+the nation as a whole shaken. Formidable as is
+the prospect of this type of air warfare, it will
+become still more terrible with the advent of new
+scientific methods of life-destruction, such as
+chemical and bacterial attack on great industrial
+and political centres. Various proposals, such as
+the control of the air effort, service and civil, of
+all countries by the League of Nations, and even
+the complete elimination of aviation, have been
+put forward as a means of avoiding the horrors of
+aerial warfare and its appurtenances, but they
+are untenable, and any power wishing and able
+to sweep them aside will undoubtedly do so.</p>
+
+<p>A future war, as I see it, will begin something
+after this manner, provided either side possesses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+large air forces. Huge day and night bombers
+will assemble at the declaration of war to penetrate
+into the enemy's country for the attack of
+his centres of population, his mobilization zones,
+his arsenals, harbours, strategic railways, shipping
+and rolling stock. Corps and Army squadrons
+will concentrate in formation to accompany the
+armies to the front; reconnaissance and fighting
+patrols will scatter in all directions from coastal
+air bases to discover the enemy's concentrations
+and cover our own; the fleet, whatever
+its nature, will emerge with its complement of
+reconnaissance and protective machines and torpedo
+aircraft for direct action against the enemy's
+fleet. A few fighting defence units will remain
+behind.</p>
+
+<p>But it must not be imagined that these functions
+will be carried out unopposed. Local battles in
+the air will occur between fighting machines for
+the protection of specialized machines, while the
+main air forces in large formations will concentrate
+independently to produce, if possible, a
+shattering blow on the enemy and obtain from the
+outset a supremacy in the air comparable to our
+supremacy on the sea in the last war.</p>
+
+<p>In mobilization the time factor is all-important.
+Our national history has been one of extraordinary
+good fortune in this respect, but the margin allowable
+for luck is becoming very narrow and, whereas
+in 1914 it was some twenty days between the
+declaration of war and the exchange of the first
+shots, in the next war the air battle may be
+joined within as many hours, and an air attack
+launched almost simultaneously with the declaration<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+of war. In modern war the mobilization
+period tends to shorten, and every effort will be
+made towards its further reduction, since mobilizing
+armies are particularly vulnerable from air
+attack.</p>
+
+<h3>Civil Aviation as a Factor in National
+Security.</h3>
+
+<p>The picture I have drawn may appear highly
+coloured for the reason that no country is likely
+for some time to possess sufficiently large air
+forces to obtain a decisive victory, or at any rate
+an uncontested superiority, at the outbreak of
+war. Though in air, as in every other form of
+warfare, attack is more effective than defence,
+we cannot afford to keep our air forces up to war
+strength in peace any more than our Army or Navy.</p>
+
+<p>The problem, from a military point of view, is
+therefore to ensure an adequate reserve and to
+maintain our capacity for expansion to meet
+emergencies. The number of units maintained
+at war establishment should be the absolute
+minimum for safety and of the type immediately
+required on mobilization, i.e. long-range bombing
+and naval reconnaissance squadrons. The remainder
+should be in cadre form. We can, of
+course, maintain a fixed number of machines and
+pilots in reserve for every one on the active list,
+but, although some such system is necessary, on
+a large scale it is open to many and serious objections.
+First of all, even on a cadre basis, it
+means keeping inactive at considerable cost a
+number of machines which may never be used
+and which, however carefully stored, quickly
+deteriorate. Knowledge of aeronautics is still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+slender and improvements are made so continuously
+that machines may become obsolete within
+a few months. Moreover, the growth of service
+aviation in peace must tend to become artificial
+and conventional rather than natural, and this
+will react on design and construction, which will
+be cramped, both technically and financially,
+within the limits imposed by service requirements.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious therefore that the capacity of the
+construction industry to expand cannot be fostered
+by service aviation alone; furthermore, in
+the event of another war of attrition, expansion
+will be more essential than any amount of machine
+reserve power immediately available, and in the
+event of a war of short duration that power will
+win which has the greatest preponderance of
+machines, service or civil, fit to take the air.
+The asphyxiation of a large enemy city, if within
+range, can be done by night-flying commercial
+machines, and it would require a defending force
+of great numerical superiority for its successful
+defence.</p>
+
+<p>Whether, therefore, from this point of view, or
+others, which I will mention later, another solution
+must be found, and this lies in the development
+of civil aviation. An analogy in the Navy and
+the Mercantile Marine has long been apparent.
+"Sea power," says Mahan, "is based upon a
+flourishing industry." Substitute "air" for
+"sea" and the analogy is still true. The Navy
+owed its origin to our mercantile enterprise and
+to-day it depends upon the Mercantile Marine
+for its reserve power of men and material. In
+the same way must air power be built up on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+commercial air supremacy. If we accept Mahan,
+or the dictum of any other great naval or military
+historian or strategist, a service air force by itself
+is not air power, and after a brief if brilliant flash
+must wither if reserves are not immediately at
+hand. A large commercial air fleet will provide,
+not only a reserve of men and machines, but it
+will keep in existence an aircraft industry, with
+its designing and constructional staffs, capable of
+quick and wide expansion in emergency; and
+such an industry will not be employed on the
+design of contrivances for use in a possible war,
+but on meeting the practical requirements of
+everyday air transport and navigation.</p>
+
+<p>Thus a natural, practical and healthy, as
+opposed to a stereotyped and artificial, growth
+will be ensured. Our naval supremacy is largely
+attributable to the interest which the people as
+a whole have traditionally taken in naval policy;
+in other words, to the fact that we are a seafaring
+nation. Similarly air supremacy can only be
+secured if the air-sense of the man in the street
+is fostered, and aviation is not confined to military
+operations, but becomes a part of everyday life.
+At the present time commercial aviation is far
+too small to play the part of reservoir to the
+Royal Air Force&mdash;an object which must constitute
+one of the principal claims for support of the
+nucleus already in existence.</p>
+
+<h3>Civil Aviation as an Instrument of Imperial
+Progress.</h3>
+
+<p>Civil aviation, however, has not only an indirect
+military, but, with its superiority in speed over<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+other means of transport, a direct commercial
+utility. The nation which first substitutes aircraft
+for other means of transport will be more
+than half-way towards the supremacy of the air.
+Moreover, as the Roman Empire was built upon
+its roads and as the foundations of the British
+Empire have hitherto rested upon its shipping,
+as steam, the cable and wireless have each in turn
+been harnessed to the work of speeding up communications,
+so to-day, with the opening of a
+new era of Imperial co-operation and consultation,
+this new means of transport by air, with a
+speed hitherto undreamed of, must be utilized for
+communication and commerce between the various
+portions of the Empire.</p>
+
+<p>A comparison of the French and British attitudes
+towards civil aviation clearly demonstrates the
+two policies I have mentioned. Both France
+and England grant subsidies&mdash;France the very
+much larger sum&mdash;but the great difference lies in
+the objects aimed at. French policy is fostering
+civil aviation as a part of its military policy and,
+a portion of the subsidy being given to machines
+fulfilling service requirements, there is a strong
+tendency for French civil aviation to be military
+air power camouflaged. British policy, on the
+other hand, should aim at fostering civil aviation
+primarily as a commercial concern and believes that
+air commerce is the basis of air power as a whole.
+We are prepared to face the tendency of military
+and civil machines to diverge if that divergence is
+essential to the commercial machine.</p>
+
+<p>An alternative to the British policy of maintaining
+a small air force and fostering commercial<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+aviation as a reserve is the Canadian plan of a
+small air force training school and a civil Government
+flying service with such objects as forest
+patrol, survey and coastguard duties, the work
+being carried out on repayment for Government
+departments, provincial governments and private
+corporations. The former method, allowing of
+independent commercial expansion, is better
+suited to British mentality and requirements,
+but its success will depend on a genuine endeavour
+to make commercial aviation the real and vital
+basis of our air power. Experience in commercial
+operation cannot be gained by the exploitation of
+air routes or the carriage of mails or passengers
+under Service auspices. It is only by running
+transport services, as far as possible under private
+management, that operational data can be obtained,
+economies effected, and the design of
+strictly commercial machines improved.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up. Military air supremacy can best
+be assured by the intensive development of industrial
+air organization for commercial purposes.
+The conception of civil aviation as the mainstay
+of air power as a whole is right. Service aviation
+is bound by technical and financial limits; its
+scope confined to the requirements of war. Civil
+aviation, on the other hand, opens out a prospect
+of productive expansion. The steady growth of
+the Continental services is already beginning to
+demonstrate the importance of air transport.</p>
+
+<h3>Financial and Economic Problems.</h3>
+
+<p>The commercial exploitation of air transport is
+passing through a period of experiment, and suffering<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+in the general war reaction from the incapacity
+of the public to think of aviation except as a
+fighting service. The machines hitherto used on
+the lines to and on the Continent are principally
+converted war machines, and to transform military
+into commercial craft and to use them as such is
+of small assistance to civil aviation, which requires
+reliable, economic machines as one of the basic
+conditions of its financial success. The cost of
+running an air transport service is considerable.
+Depreciation is one heavy item of expenditure.
+New machines must be evolved suitable to the
+requirements of mail, passenger and freight transport,
+but, in the present state of financial stringency,
+capital is not forthcoming for experiment
+unless there is every promise of a safe return.
+Then there are the expenses involved in general
+ground organization, maintenance, fuel, insurance,
+etc. The question is how can we carry on until
+the really economic type of commercial machine
+is evolved. It will never be evolved unless there
+is continuous flying and a continuous demand for
+new and improved machines for commercial work.
+To meet this in France, the Government came
+forward with a liberal grant of subsidies which
+have now been increased and placed on a more
+favourable basis, permitting of a very considerable
+reduction in the fares for transport by air.
+The British Government has also granted a subsidy
+for British firms operating on the cross-Channel
+routes, which it is hoped will place them before
+long on a sound, self-supporting, commercial basis.
+Part of this subsidy is allocated to assist transport
+companies in obtaining the latest type of commercial<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+machines on a hire purchase system.
+With a few services properly supported by the
+State we shall pull through the experimental
+period of civil aviation.</p>
+
+<p>The services to the Continent, although the
+distance is on the short side for the merits of air
+transport to be properly demonstrated, effect a
+considerable saving in time, and it is certain
+that the amount of mail, especially parcels, carried
+on these routes will continue to increase and
+lead to the eventual adoption of normal rates
+for air postage. An extension of the use of
+aircraft as the regular means of carrying mails
+will be of great assistance in the development of
+air transport. Aircraft revolutionize the speed of
+intercommunication by letter, and banks and
+financial houses will gradually realize that large
+savings can be made by utilizing air mails for
+the transaction of business. A difficulty lies in
+the fact that the area of the British Isles is not
+very favourable for an extensive air mail service,
+which can only operate by day, since by the
+existing means of transport mails are carried
+during the out-of-business hours and can generally
+reach their destination in a night, while the distances
+to Paris and Brussels are too short to afford
+outstanding advantage.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, we require public support and a spirit
+of confidence in the air. This can only be secured
+by increased reliability, reduction of charges and
+keeping the public informed of the progress made.
+It is the nature of man to distrust new departures.
+He disliked the introduction of mechanical devices
+into the Lancashire weaving mills. He scoffed at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+the steamship and railway. To-day he is inclined
+to treat as premature the serious exploitation of
+the air. In spite of the great decrease of accidents,
+in spite of the increased comfort of air travel, in
+spite of increased regularity, the average person
+is slow to realize that the communication of the
+busy man of the future will be by air. The
+majority of the business world is too conservative
+to make general use of the opportunities offered
+by aircraft for the quick transmission of its correspondence,
+while, though speed must be paid for,
+the high fares hitherto charged have deterred the
+general public from substituting the aeroplane
+for the train or boat. The running costs represented
+by these fares are being materially reduced
+as a more economic machine is evolved, and the
+reduction of fares which helps to place competition
+with foreign subsidized services and with the older
+forms of transport on more equal terms must for a
+time depend upon the assistance of Government
+grants.</p>
+
+<h3>Weather Conditions and Night Flying.</h3>
+
+<p>The safety of the machine and the reliability
+of an air service largely depend on accurate weather
+forecasts. In order to co-ordinate the meteorological
+work of the country as a whole, and for
+the special assistance of aviation, the Meteorological
+Services of Great Britain have been amalgamated
+under the Department of Civil Aviation,
+and, working in close co-operation with the Communications
+Branch of the Department, have
+made improvements in the rapid collection and
+distribution of meteorological information for all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+purposes. In addition to the forecasts issued four
+times daily, collective reports are issued hourly
+by wireless from the London terminal aerodrome
+at Croydon and copies are distributed to transport
+companies and others concerned.</p>
+
+<p>A feature of meteorology which is often overlooked
+is its economic value. By making use of
+a knowledge of the wind at different heights,
+aircraft can complete journeys more quickly than
+would otherwise be possible, and thereby save
+their own fuel and their passengers' time. This
+will be specially useful in the tropics where the
+regularity of the surface winds has its counterpart
+in the upper air, but even in Europe time-tables
+can be drawn up with due attention to the favourable
+and unfavourable effect of prevailing winds.
+The planning of airship routes in particular, must
+be considered in close connection with this aspect
+of weather conditions.</p>
+
+<p>To-day, however, the aeroplane may be considered
+as an "all-weather" craft, save for mist
+and fog&mdash;the enemies of all transport and particularly
+to that of the air&mdash;to which unfortunately
+England is particularly liable during the winter.
+Experiments have been carried out on the dispersal
+of fog, the illumination of aerodromes by fog-piercing
+lights, and instruments to record the
+exact position of the aeroplane and its height
+above the ground, but success has not yet been
+achieved.</p>
+
+<p>Similar to the problems of flying and landing
+in mist and fog is that of night flying. Until
+night flying is practicable, only half the value of
+the aeroplane's speed is obtainable, since other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+transport services run continuously day and night.
+Further, as machines become rapidly obsolete
+owing to technical progress, it is essential that
+they should be in use for the greatest number
+of hours during their life. Much has been done
+in the lighting and marking of aerodromes and
+in the equipment of aeroplanes with wireless
+telephone and direction-finding apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>It may here be mentioned that there are two
+methods of obtaining the position of aircraft by
+means of wireless telegraphy, known as direction-finding
+and position-finding. Direction-finding is
+effected by means of two coils set at right angles
+in the aircraft, by means of which the bearing of
+a transmitting ground station with reference to
+the aircraft's compass can be taken. When two
+or more bearings on different ground stations,
+whose position is known, have been obtained, a
+"cut" or "fix" of the aircraft is obtained. The
+position-finding system consists of two or more
+ground stations fitted with apparatus capable of
+taking bearings with respect to true north and
+connected by direct telephone line. The aircraft
+calls up by wireless one of these stations, requests
+her position and then makes a series of signals
+for about half a minute. The stations take the
+aircraft's bearings, plot its position, and transmit
+the information to the aircraft. Wireless direction
+and position-finding, as well as wireless telephony,
+have on several occasions proved their
+value to navigation, but in spite of instances of
+successful night flying, developments have not
+been such as to render night services practicable.</p>
+
+<p>Marine experience has been a valuable guide,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+but aerial illumination has entailed many new
+problems of its own&mdash;the distribution of light
+through very wide angles, the installation of light
+and powerful lamps in aircraft, the elimination of
+shadows and the prevention of dazzle, the provision
+of apparatus to indicate the strength and
+direction of the wind, and the like.</p>
+
+<p>Very shortly the first organized and equipped
+night-flying route will be available; that between
+London and Lympne on the Continental air highway.
+The Boulogne-Paris section will probably
+be ready a little later. There will be four lighthouses
+on the English section, of which two will
+be automatic, requiring no attention for twelve
+months at a time. These, and many other, facilities
+will much assist the progressive establishment
+of services during the hours of darkness,
+and will provide valuable data for the establishment
+of other night-flying routes. There is no
+real difficulty given a reasonably clear atmosphere.</p>
+
+<h3>Organization.</h3>
+
+<p>I have mentioned the broad lines on which the
+organization of the air services was built up before
+and during the war. We have seen that the
+initial foundations and framework remained and
+bore the great systematic structural development
+which was gradually required. In August, 1914,
+there were some 240 officers, 1800 men and 200
+machines; in November, 1918, 30,000 officers,
+170,000 men, and 22,000 machines, all of them
+better and of a higher performance than those of
+1914. Our casualties during the war were about
+18,000; air formations had been active in some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+fifteen theatres of operations; 8,000 enemy
+machines and 300 observation balloons had been
+destroyed; some three-quarters of a million
+photographs taken over hostile country, and
+12,000,000 rounds had been fired from the air at
+ground targets. At Home two organizations had
+expanded independently from the same seed until,
+impeding one another's growth, their trunks had
+joined and a single and improved tree was the result.</p>
+
+<p>This is the only country where a unified air
+service has been adopted. In war the arrangement
+was successful. Against its continuance in
+peace the Army and Navy urge that, with the best
+of wills, there is a great difference between having
+an integral branch of a service to work with other
+services and having to deal with an independent
+organization, and argue increased cost, duplication,
+competition and disjointed action. There is no
+doubt that the liaison of the General, Naval and
+Air Staffs must be closened, and if co-operation
+with the senior services was really becoming less
+satisfactory, a return to the old system should
+be considered amongst other alternatives, but I
+do not think that it should be so. It must also
+be remembered that, although air co-operation is
+vital to naval and military operations, it is fortunately
+unlikely that there will be another war
+for a long time and, meanwhile, the growing
+essential, independent strategic action would be
+irretrievably impaired by the reabsorption of the
+Air into the Army and Navy.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, even apart from supply, such
+a reversion would also cause much duplication,
+e.g. training. The solution and the correct and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+logical outcome of the unification of the Air service
+is the close grouping of the three arms in a
+Ministry of Defence, and this, even in face of the
+obvious practical difficulties, should be adopted
+and co-ordination thus increased step by step.
+Apart from Supply, some of the services in which
+this could be effected are the medical, education,
+chaplains, mobilization stores, transport, works and
+buildings, accounting, communications, ordnance
+and national factories. A modified scheme might
+also be studied in which, under a Ministry of Defence,
+the Army and Navy each had tactical air units of
+seconded personnel for artillery co-operation, spotting
+and reconnaissance, and the Air Ministry dealt
+with supply, research, initial training and reserves,
+civil aviation and an independent air force.</p>
+
+<p>One of many good examples of the necessity of
+co-ordination is afforded by the position of the
+aircraft supply services at the beginning of the
+war and their development. We have already
+seen that there were some eight private firms
+manufacturing aircraft in a small way and there
+was practically speaking no engine industry at
+all. For the Royal Flying Corps, the War Office
+had relied largely on the Royal Aircraft Factory,
+and, although the methods of control adopted
+had many advantages, there was in them a
+tendency to retard private enterprise and development.
+The Admiralty, on the other hand, had
+assisted by dealing almost entirely with firms for
+Royal Naval Air Service supply. The conditions
+in France fortunately were very much better than
+those in this country, and for the first year or two
+French factories helped us out with both machines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+and engines. By the end of the war we had the
+largest and most efficient aircraft industry in the
+world. There were no less than seventy-six great
+factories turning out vast numbers of complete
+aeroplanes, in addition to thirty-three manufacturing
+complete engines and over 3,000 turning out
+spares and equipment. Such expansion is not
+possible within a few weeks, it took a long time
+to arrive at this position, and it causes one very
+seriously to think what would have happened had
+France not been our ally, and points the moral
+which has been mentioned of the necessity for
+a thriving aircraft and engine industry in peace.
+During the war Germany also had a very large
+number of firms engaged on this work.</p>
+
+<h3>The Machine and Engine.</h3>
+
+<p>The general differences between service and
+civil requirements in aircraft fall under the headings
+of ceiling, load and speed. For service purposes
+very much higher ceiling and greater climb
+and speed are required and the design is much
+affected by the condensed nature of the load.
+For peace purposes, besides the primary advantage
+of speed which the air has over other forms
+of transport, regularity must be ensured and
+the correct ratio between speed, duration and
+load-carrying power determined. Great ceiling,
+man&#339;uvrability and climb are not required.</p>
+
+<p>However great the speed and load, there is no
+value in air transport, whether for passengers or
+mails or goods, unless it is safe and also compares
+favourably from an economic point of view with
+the older methods. Without these the public<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+cannot be expected to utilize air transport, nor
+is there any inducement to surrender mails and
+freight for carriage by air. Every endeavour
+compatible with economy is made, as far as the
+equipment of aerodromes and the organization of
+the routes are concerned, to render air navigation
+as safe as possible, yet, though both safety and
+economy of running have been improved, much
+remains to be done. Safety depends largely on
+engine reliability, fire prevention and the capacity
+of the machine to land in small spaces.</p>
+
+<p>Though neither roads nor rails have to be laid
+and aircraft possess the great advantages of
+mobility and point to point transit, the initiation
+and maintenance of an air service is a very complex
+and costly matter. The utilization of converted
+war machines is no longer sufficient and
+those specially designed for commercial work are
+beginning to make their appearance. Such are
+the Handley Page W.8, the Vickers, the D.H.18
+and 34, and the Bristol 10-seater.</p>
+
+<p>The first two are twin-engine and the last three
+single-engine machines. Opinions differ as to the
+relative advantages of the twin and single-engine
+type. The first and running costs of the single
+engine are lower, but the twin has greater power
+and carrying capacity, while most pilots prefer
+to have a surplus of power over and above that
+required for normal flight. For these reasons,
+and because of the psychological effect on insurance
+companies and on passengers, the twin engine
+will probably remain in use for large commercial
+machines, until long-lived and economic engines
+of more than 500 horse-power are available. On<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+the other hand, where extra power is not required,
+the twin-engine is not safer than the single-engine
+machine; no existing twin-engine commercial
+aeroplane can maintain its height and land safely
+with only one engine running. Experiments have
+been made, especially in Germany, on the multi-engined
+machine with all the engines in the
+fuselage, but its advantages have so far been
+counterbalanced by loss of efficiency due to transmission
+gearing and shaft drives to the propellers
+and the vibration and weight of the gearing.</p>
+
+<p>High-powered engines are very expensive to
+run and every effort has therefore to be made by
+aerodynamic efficiency to carry more useful load
+with less horse-power. Improvement is being
+made in this direction; thus the D.H.18 carries
+eight passengers at 56 horse-power per passenger,
+the D.H.32 is designed for the same number at
+45 horse-power each, and the D.H.34 for ten
+passengers at 45 horse-power each.</p>
+
+<p>The two best German commercial machines,
+the Junkers and the Fokker, have a comparatively
+low horse-power and a low fuel load, but greater
+attention has been paid to the design of the
+machines, which are monoplanes with cantilever
+wings, offering less resistance to the air than our
+biplanes. One of the most difficult problems is to
+evolve a high-lift wing which does not impair
+the aircraft's speed in the air. For commercial
+machines we must aim at the largest possible
+commercial load, the smallest possible fuel load
+and, consequently, an engine which uses fuel
+economically and, conversely, a lighter fuel. The
+development of the engine is receiving constant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+attention, as are also various safety devices,
+among which may be mentioned those guarding
+against fire and those varying the lift of wings
+so as to lower the landing speed and thus decrease
+the dangers attendant upon forced landings.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the high initial cost of machines
+and engines, their maintenance also requires the
+greatest care. Detailed investigation must be
+made into all serious accidents. This is now
+compulsory under the new Air Navigation Act,
+and the fitness of pilots is ensured by periodical
+medical examination.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the weather, the safety of an aircraft
+depends upon its engine, and perhaps even
+more upon the installation and accessibility of
+engines and their adjuncts, such as the petrol,
+oil, water and ignition systems. During the
+earlier stages of the war the average life of an
+engine before complete overhaul was necessary
+was, of stationary engines, from 50 to 60 hours,
+and of rotary engines, about 15 hours. To-day
+these figures stand at 200 hours and upwards
+and from 50 to 60 hours respectively. For commercial
+purposes this must be further increased
+to 300-500 hours as a normal working period.</p>
+
+<p>There are two schools of thought with regard
+to the efficiency, reliability and the economy of
+engines. One school advocates using a light
+power plant per horse-power, run normally at
+about half its maximum; the other favours a
+plant of greater weight, more solid construction
+and greater efficiency, running at nearly its full
+horse-power. The former is more expensive in
+primary cost and upkeep, but allows a higher<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+performance and provides reserve horse-power
+for emergency; the latter is cheaper, but involves
+a certain risk owing to lack of surplus power. We
+have hitherto shown a tendency to adopt the
+former method, the Germans the latter. For
+commercial purposes a compromise will probably
+be found to be best.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the initial outlay on "air stock,"
+the maintenance, overhead, fuel, insurance and
+depreciation charges are very heavy. These are
+much affected by such items as simplicity of
+design, strength against wear and tear, ease of
+assembly and interchangeability of parts, easily
+removable engines, increase in durability by the
+use of metal construction for parts of the machine
+and the propeller, the elimination of rubber joints,
+substitution of air for water cooling, facilities for
+loading and unloading in a commercial machine,
+simple and efficient navigational instruments and
+self-starter. Every improvement, however small,
+will assist to reduce running costs. Then revenue
+must be increased and the comfort of passengers,
+as, for instance, ventilation, warmth, luggage
+capacity and, more than all, a reduction of noise
+has to be carefully considered or they will not
+travel a second time by air. An effective engine
+silencer is at last well on the way. It is obvious
+what a great advantage this attainment will be
+both for service and civil purposes. Roughly
+speaking, a high-powered engine without a silencer
+is audible at a distance of some seven miles and
+at a height of 13,000 feet at night time, though
+these distances are reduced by about a third by
+day when normal ground noises exist. The bulk<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+of noise is caused by the exhaust, the propeller
+and mechanical noises in the engine.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot leave this subject without emphasizing
+the value of research, both abstract and concrete.
+But, though it is the keystone of progress, its
+results must largely depend on the amount of
+flying done. It is clear that for economic reasons
+new designs can only thoroughly be tried out by
+commercial use, and therefore again that real
+progress is dependent on commercial activity.</p>
+
+<p>The advance of civil aviation is bound to be
+slower than was that of war aviation. But, as
+war experience improved old and evolved new
+types, so will peace requirements and experience
+shape the type and design of aircraft and engine
+best suited to its purposes. Although a good deal
+has under the circumstances already been achieved
+in peace, much remains to be done. Gradually,
+however, with a modicum of research, improvements
+in the factors already mentioned and the
+reduction of initial cost and maintenance expenses,
+air transport for mails, passengers and goods will
+take its place as a normal commercial public
+utility service, and the increased speed of communication
+will assist in the general development
+of trade.</p>
+
+<h3>Air Services: British, Continental and
+Imperial.</h3>
+
+<p>International civil flying commenced officially
+on August 26th, 1919, and gradually expanded,
+both in the United Kingdom and on the Continent,
+especially during the summer of 1920. France,
+aided by considerable subsidies, conducted services<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+from Paris to London, Brussels and Strasburg,
+from Toulouse to Montpelier and across
+Spain to Casablanca in Morocco; Belgium, from
+Brussels to London and Paris; Holland, from
+Amsterdam to London; Germany, in spite of
+the restrictions placed upon her, entered the field
+as a competitor and her aircraft flew regularly
+from Berlin to Copenhagen and Bremen, and
+from Bremen to Amsterdam. On the American
+Continent, the United States Post Office ran mail
+services from New York to Washington, Chicago,
+and San Francisco, with extensions from Chicago,
+St. Paul, Minneapolis, and St. Louis.</p>
+
+<p>For reasons which I shall give, there were no
+internal services in the United Kingdom, but
+there were four companies operating air lines from
+London to Paris, one of which held the contract
+for the carriage of mails. There were also air
+mail services between London and Brussels and
+Amsterdam. The mileage flown and the number
+of passengers and the weight of goods carried
+were considerable, while the number of letters
+steadily increased, especially on the Amsterdam
+service; and an efficiency of 76 per cent., 94 per
+cent., and 84 per cent. was obtained on the London-Paris,
+London-Brussels, and London-Amsterdam
+services respectively.</p>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that these results were
+obtained without any direct assistance on the
+part of the State, such as was given by the French
+Government to air-transport companies in the
+form of subsidies. British economic policy is
+traditionally opposed to subsidies, believing that
+enterprise can be healthily built up on private<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+initiative. Therefore, until 1921 civil aviation
+had to content itself with the indirect assistance
+of the State, which consisted mainly in the
+adjustment of international flying; the laying-out
+and equipment of aerodromes on the air routes;
+the provision of wireless communication and
+meteorological information; research and the
+collection and issue of general information concerning
+aviation.</p>
+
+<p>This indirect assistance, however, proved inadequate
+to maintain the progress achieved during
+1920, and therefore the maintenance of air services
+by means of temporary direct financial assistance
+had to be arranged.</p>
+
+<p>I have already pointed out the difficulty against
+which commercial aviation has to contend in
+regard to the geographical features and position
+of the United Kingdom. Its comparatively small
+size, the propinquity of industrial centres, our
+efficient day and night express railway services,
+especially those running north and south, lessen
+the value of aircraft's superior speed and militate
+against the operation of successful internal
+air services. Possible exceptions might include
+amphibian services between London and Dublin,
+accelerating the delivery of mails five or six hours;
+between Glasgow and Belfast, where the Clyde
+and the harbour of Belfast could be used as terminals;
+or between London and the Channel
+Islands. I may point out in parenthesis that
+the development of alighting stations on rivers
+passing through the centres of towns is important,
+as a great deal of time is at present wasted
+in reaching the aerodromes necessarily situated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+some miles outside large centres of population.</p>
+
+<p>Our immediate opportunities of development
+near home are therefore afforded by the air
+services to Paris, Brussels, and Amsterdam; but
+even here the saving in time is not great, and
+our position is unfavourable compared to that
+of the United States, where the Post Office saves
+two days in the delivery of mails by air between
+New York and San Francisco; or compared to
+that of Germany, where Berlin is within a 350-mile
+radius of Copenhagen, Cologne, Munich,
+Warsaw, and Vienna, which is itself in an advantageous
+situation as the junction for a South
+European system extending to the Balkan States
+and the Near East.</p>
+
+<p>The ultimate use of the air, however, is not
+exemplified by a few passengers flying daily
+between London and the Continent any more
+than by a few squadrons of fighting craft. In a
+decade or two overhead transit will become the
+main factor in the express delivery of passengers,
+mails, and goods. It is the one means left to
+the Empire of speeding up world-communication
+to an extent as yet unrealized. For the price of
+a battleship a route to Australia could be organized,
+the value of which would be beyond computation.</p>
+
+<p>The British Empire as a whole offers vast fields
+for expansion. In Africa, Canada, and Australia
+are found the great distances suitable to the
+operation of aircraft, the wide undeveloped areas
+through which air transport may prove more
+economic than the construction of railways, and
+the trans-oceanic routes over which travel by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+steamship has reached, and in many cases passed,
+its economic maximum speed. Air transport,
+careless whether the route be over land or sea,
+unhampered by foreign frontiers, gives the Empire
+precisely those essential powers of direct, supple,
+and speedy intercommunication which ship and
+rail have already shown us to be vital.</p>
+
+<p>Here again the geographical position of England
+presents a difficult problem. England is divided
+from the rest of the Empire by a wide expanse,
+either of ocean or foreign territory. Egypt, the
+starting-point for air routes to India, Australia,
+and South Africa, may be described as the centre
+of a circle of which England is on the circumference;
+and it may be some years before an
+aeroplane can complete the journey between
+England and Egypt with only Malta as a stopping-place.</p>
+
+<p>The future of long-distance oceanic air routes
+may depend upon the airship. Lighter-than-air
+craft, mainly for reasons of cost and vulnerability,
+did not receive such an impetus from the
+war as did the aeroplane, but the modern airship
+has claims for use over distances exceeding 1,000
+miles. It can fly by night with even greater
+ease than by day; fog is no deterrent; engine
+trouble does not bring it down; and it can take
+advantage of prevailing winds. It would reduce
+the sea journey from England to Karachi from
+22 to 5 days; from England to Johannesburg from
+21 to 7 days; and from England to Perth from
+32 to 10&frac12; days. Its achievements have already
+been considerable. In November, 1917, the German
+L.57 flew from Constantinople to East Africa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+and back&mdash;a distance of 4,000 miles&mdash;in 96 hours;
+in June, 1919, the R.34 flew from East Fortune to
+Danzig and back in 57 hours; and in July it
+crossed the Atlantic, was moored out in America
+for four days, and returned, a total distance of
+8,000 miles, in the flying time of 108 hours for
+the outward and 75 hours for the homeward
+journey.</p>
+
+<p>Before and during the war Germany gained wide
+experience in the design, construction, and handling
+of airships. It is probable that as soon as the
+peace terms and financial position permit she
+will begin to establish this form of transport on a
+commercial basis. In accordance with the Peace
+Treaty, and the Ultimatum of the London Conference
+of 1921, the construction of aircraft of
+all kinds is at present forbidden, but Germany is
+fostering airship development by the means left
+at her disposal. Her scientists are probing the
+constructional problems connected with large
+airships, while efforts are being made, by financial
+and other assistance, to maintain her technical
+staffs and airship bases in existence. At the
+same time German commercial interests are
+negotiating with foreign countries with a view to
+the development of airships abroad, and plans
+are being discussed for an airship service between
+Spain and Argentina.</p>
+
+<p>The United States, France, and Italy are all
+interesting themselves, either financially or constructionally,
+in the future of airship development.</p>
+
+<p>In Great Britain we have made great strides,
+particularly in the construction of small types,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+and our practical air experience in lighter-than-air
+craft, during the war, is the greatest in the
+world. With a view to carrying out the experiments
+necessary further to demonstrate the
+capacity of airships for commercial long-distance
+flights, a few months ago the Department of Civil
+Aviation took over all airship material surplus to
+service requirements. The main object was to
+test the practicability and value of mooring airships
+to a mast. Up to the present, a principal
+factor militating against the economic operation
+of airships has been the large and expensive personnel
+required for handling them on the ground,
+especially in stormy weather. The mooring-mast
+experiments have had considerable success and
+airships have been moored in high winds and over
+long periods with the assistance of a very small
+personnel.</p>
+
+<p>The Government has decided, however, though
+recognizing their potentialities for speeding up
+communications between the various Dominions
+and the Mother Country, that the operation of
+airships cannot be carried out by the State on
+account of the present financial position.</p>
+
+<p>Recognizing the limitations of Home services
+and those to the Continent, it was for the purpose
+of directing attention to the Imperial aspect of
+civil aviation that the great demonstration flights
+were organized in which Alcock flew the Atlantic
+in a Vickers "Vimy," Scott crossed to the United
+States and back in the R.34, Ross-Smith flew
+from England to Australia, and van Ryneveld from
+London to the Cape.</p>
+
+<p>These flights necessitated, too, considerable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+ground organization in laying out aerodromes,
+as the following report on one in Africa vividly
+illustrates: "If aerodromes are left unattended
+for one year," it says, "practically all the work
+would have to be undertaken afresh, particularly
+in Rhodesia. The growth of vegetation is enormous,
+especially during the rains, and grass will
+grow to a height of eleven feet in six months;
+and trees stumped two feet below the surface
+will throw out suckers and replant themselves
+within a month after the rains have started....
+It is most important that rough drains should be
+traced.... I have just started planting Doub
+grass. This grass gives an ideal surface for
+landing, kills other grasses, and possesses deep
+interlacing roots which will bind the entire
+surface of the aerodromes, making it permanent
+and free from washaways and the formation of
+sluits."</p>
+
+<p>The demonstration flights, however, showed
+what could, rather than what should, be done,
+and what we look for to-day is the inception
+of practical undertakings, however small, in the
+various portions of the Empire. The most important
+of these is the service contemplated between
+Egypt and India; another instance is afforded
+by the West Indies, which suffer from the lack of
+inter-island communications, both for mails and
+passengers, and this could be partially rectified by
+an air service employing seaplanes or amphibians
+for the Leeward and Windward Islands and the
+Bahamas, and between the Bahamas and the
+American Continent, where an American company
+is actually conducting a service. Another project,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+given up owing to recent disturbances, was
+one for a flying-boat service on the Nile. Services
+are also being considered from Malta to Italy,
+Geraldton to Derby in Western Australia, Sydney
+to Adelaide and Brisbane, and Melbourne to
+Hobart in Tasmania. Canadian activity takes the
+form of work carried out by Government-owned
+civil machines in connection with forest patrol,
+photographic survey, exploration, anti-smuggling
+patrols, etc. It would be a great advantage if
+railway and steamship companies seriously considered
+the value of supplementing their services
+by air.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to Government undertakings on the
+Imperial air routes, Malta is being equipped with
+an aerodrome, and a line of wireless stations has
+been established between Egypt and India, but
+the organization of this route has been delayed
+owing to the recent disturbances in the Middle
+East, and the financial outlay involved in ground
+organization. As I have said, the air route on
+which we should first concentrate, over and above
+the Continental services, is that between Egypt
+and India. Both strategically and commercially
+it is the most important in the Imperial system;
+it is a step towards Australia; it offers possibilities
+of the greatest volume of traffic; it
+should be much simpler to control than many
+international routes, which inevitably have many
+complications; weather conditions are not unfavourable;
+and the time taken for the journey
+by sea would be reduced by about one-half. If
+the shortcomings in point of distance of the
+continental routes in reaping the full advantages<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+of travel by air, and the importance of the best
+possible communications for the Empire, are
+recognized, it is essential that a practical form of
+assistance should be given in the near future to
+the conduct of weekly or even bi-weekly services
+each way between Cairo and Karachi. Although
+it will not be a commercial proposition for some
+time, the Egypt-Karachi route, shortening as it
+will the delivery of mails between England and
+India by two-thirds, and England and Australia
+by one-third, offers greater results than the various
+other schemes at present contemplated. There
+are, however, certain considerations which will
+have to be weighed before the immense amount of
+work necessary to its initiation as a commercial
+air route is begun. The French, for instance,
+hope to push a trunk air route to India via
+Constantinople, and this line has the advantage
+of avoiding a long sea and desert crossing.
+On the other hand, it will be a very difficult
+matter to negotiate the mountains of
+Anatolia.</p>
+
+<p>If enterprises of this kind are successfully
+started, if each of our self-governing Dominions
+and Colonies encourages civil aviation within its
+own territory, and develops the air-sense of its
+people, each portion of the Empire, by a process
+of natural expansion, and by the gradual extension
+of local air lines to merge with those from
+other portions of the Empire, will assist in eventually
+forming a continuous chain of inter-Imperial
+air communication. Such a process of internal
+development, supported by close co-operation between
+the States of the Imperial Commonwealth,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+is the best method of obtaining rapidity of air
+intercommunication and a system of Imperial air
+bases necessary to the strategic security of the
+Empire.</p>
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONCLUSION</h2>
+
+<p>Within the necessarily narrow limits of this
+survey there has been traced the history of
+aviation from the earliest days; the tremendous
+impetus given to it by the war has been described,
+during the course of which not only did air co-operation
+become essential to the Navy and Army,
+but the importance of the Air Force as a separate
+arm, with its own strategic action, steadily grew;
+the increasing preponderance which aerial warfare
+will have in the future, and the horrors which it
+may bring, have been touched upon; and the possibilities
+of civil aviation in peace and war have
+been outlined.</p>
+
+<p>The conclusion has been reached that we cannot
+dispense with aviation, even if we would. We
+must consider it as a whole and lay down the
+broad principles on which it should be developed.
+The air (I write as one who during the last months
+of the war held the post of Chief of the Air Staff)
+materially helped, if it did not actually win,
+the fight. It has greatly complicated and increased
+the problems of defence. In future its influence
+on these problems will be still greater. The air
+has no boundaries. Great Britain and the Empire
+are no longer protected by the seas. A correct
+assessment of their needs will entail a growing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+ratio of air force to Army and Navy, and air
+power will in itself depend on the development of
+civil aviation.</p>
+
+<p>But though air action may be expected with
+justice to grow in proportion to that of the Army
+and Navy, and will certainly absorb certain functions
+of both, it would be unwise, at this early
+stage of development, for air forces to attempt too
+much at a time&mdash;such as, for instance, to garrison
+geographically unsuitable countries.</p>
+
+<p>A certain amount of reliance could also be placed
+on civil machines temporarily borrowed for purely
+policing measures in uncivilized countries, or for
+the assistance of Government during civil disturbances;
+and for such purposes it should not
+be difficult to devise a scheme, especially when
+the State exercises a measure of control through
+the grant of subsidies, for the obligatory enrolment
+of civil commercial pilots in the reserve,
+and for periodical refresher courses for pilots,
+who are not actually in the service of companies,
+at civil aerodromes. Such systems are in force
+in France and Canada. In the event of war the
+independent striking air force could thus count
+upon a large proportion of civil reserve pilots and
+machines.</p>
+
+<p>Air, allied to chemistry and the submarine, will
+be a difficult combination to withstand. The
+more its potential terrors are grasped, the less
+likely is war to be loosed upon the world, and it
+cannot be realized too clearly how much more
+easily than any other instrument of warfare aircraft
+and gas can be cheaply and secretly prepared
+by a would-be belligerent. Meanwhile, if<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+civil aviation can be built up as a productive
+organization to a position relative to that held
+by our mercantile marine, we must understand
+that it will ensure air supremacy better than a
+large unproductive outlay on armaments. And
+I am convinced that, with public support, this
+can, and will, be done. Others will do it if we do
+not. But air power, although drawing its vitality
+from the expansion of air commerce and the
+growth of the civil aircraft industry, must at
+the same time rely upon the nucleus of a highly
+trained and technical air force. Service aviation
+must be the spearhead, civil aviation the shaft, of
+our air effort.</p>
+
+<p>The present isolation of England in terms of
+air from the rest of the Empire, and the geographical
+conditions already described, certainly
+render the national expansion of aviation, both
+external and internal, a difficult problem. It is
+clear that for this reason it must rather develop
+on an Imperial basis. The Dominions have
+already started valuable civil air work and have
+appointed Air Boards. Whatever the political
+settlement of Egypt may be, it is important that
+our air interests at this "hub" of Imperial
+aviation should be safeguarded. Air communication
+between the various portions of the Empire
+may prove of inestimable value in a future world
+war, and Dominion air forces may be able quickly
+to concentrate against enemy territory which is
+out of the range of aircraft operating from home.
+We have seen the value of aircraft operating from
+land bases for naval patrol, anti-submarine action,
+and direct attack on enemy shipping. With the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+increasing radius of action of seaplanes and other
+naval aircraft, the Army and Navy may be relieved
+of certain of their duties in coast defence and
+in protecting Imperial trade routes. For these
+reasons, aircraft bases are required throughout
+the Empire, and it is the commercial development
+of aviation which is the best means of ensuring
+their establishment. It will be for the Imperial
+authorities, while attending to local conditions and
+requirements, to co-ordinate as far as possible the
+air effort of the Empire, so that in peace communications
+may be developed and in the event
+of war its full power may rapidly be utilized on a
+co-operative basis.</p>
+
+<p>Civil aviation is not, however, merely a method
+of amplifying service air power. It has a vast
+potential value of its own. Communications shape
+human destinies. The evolution of our civilization
+bears strongly the marks of the systems which at
+various stages have made the intercourse of men
+and ideas possible. Its history is one of endeavour
+to extend the limits imposed upon human living
+and mobility in each of the great phases through
+which it has passed.</p>
+
+<p>There was the phase of the coracle and the
+roller-wheeled vehicle, stretching back into the
+roadless mists of unrecorded time; of roads
+which gradually linked the important areas of
+the Roman Empire; of inland and coastal waterways;
+of ocean traffic, and its huge advance
+with the discovery of steam-power, which brought
+England to the fore.</p>
+
+<p>With each phase the world shrinks smaller
+and the mists of the unknown recede. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+development of human mobility is the greatest
+marvel of the present age. We can hardly
+realize that it was only the other day, as these
+things go&mdash;in 1819, just a hundred years before
+the same feat was accomplished by air-that the
+first sailing ship fitted with auxiliary steam
+(and not until 1828 that a real steamship) crossed
+the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p>Strain and competition are increasing. Trains
+vie with ships; motor transport with trains.
+Telephones, wireless, cables, and flying are speeding
+up communications to a degree undreamed of a
+few years ago. If the air is to be a prime factor
+in the world-phase to come, how will the British
+Empire be affected? Stretching from Great
+Britain to Australia and the Pacific Ocean, the
+Empire depends more than any other political
+and commercial organization on the most modern
+and speedy communications, and as each of its
+portions assumes greater responsibility there is
+greater need for co-operation, the distribution of
+information, and the personal contact of statesmen
+and business men. "The old order changeth,
+yielding place to new"; and in communications
+the new order is air transport.</p>
+
+<p>Equally important is the international aspect.
+To-day we are deeply concerned with the maintenance
+of peace, and this can be achieved, not
+so much by the action of Governments, or the
+efforts of the League of Nations, as by the personal
+association of individuals of one nation
+with those of another, and an increasing recognition
+of common interests. I conceive that civil
+aviation, by reducing the time factor of intercommunication,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+will tend to bring peoples into
+closer touch with each other and will make for
+mutual understanding. The Peace Treaty provided
+for an Air Convention for the international
+control of civil aviation. The Convention has
+been signed by all the Allied nations which took
+part in the war, and I hope other countries will
+shortly be included. As soon as the Convention
+has been ratified, the International Commission
+of Air Navigation will be established, and for the
+first time the world will see the international
+control of a great transport service. I believe
+this will prove an important practical step towards
+international co-operation and goodwill.</p>
+
+<p>We have no excuse for ignorance of the effects
+of Imperial and international co-operation. The
+war gave us an example of what the British Empire
+can do, provided its combined knowledge and
+effort is brought to bear for one great purpose;
+and in no respect was this better exemplified
+than in the utilization and scientific development
+of aviation. The world-position of the Empire
+as a whole is still the best. Commerce and
+communications are its bonds, and, if we are so
+determined, it is in our power to shape the destinies
+of the future.</p>
+
+<p>A definite advance has been made since the
+Armistice and, if all goes well, a very much
+greater one will be made during the next two or
+three years, and in ten years mercantile air services
+will be operating on a self-supporting basis.
+The science and concentration employed in the
+war must be made to serve the requirements of
+peace. Readiness for, and success in, war are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+vital when war is unavoidable, but in peace it is
+civil and commercial activity which is vital.</p>
+
+<p>As in its infancy it seemed incredible to those
+responsible for the direction of the older services
+that the air would be their most valuable partner;
+as, during the war, they grudged its logical development
+to strike widely where they could not reach,
+and tried to tether it closely to them, so now in
+peace the air is struggling to attain the apotheosis
+of communication.</p>
+
+<p>In the phase of world commerce of which we are
+on the threshold, science, brain-power, energy,
+and faith must, and increasingly will, be harnessed
+to the work of perfecting air communication
+so that human mobility can be increased, knowledge
+interchanged, and the fruits of production
+distributed throughout the world.</p>
+
+<p>As a soldier I have of course dwelt on the
+possibility of war in the future and of the part
+which aviation would play in it, but it would
+be a great mistake&mdash;though I think that mistake
+is constantly made&mdash;to suppose that soldiers look
+forward with equanimity to the prospect of war.
+On the contrary, soldiers, more even than civilians,
+if this be possible, realize the horrors of war
+and recognize that the great task rests upon the
+statesmen of all nations, and upon humanity itself,
+of taking whatever steps can be taken to prevent
+its recurrence.</p>
+
+<p>We may at least assume that another great war
+will not be allowed in our generation. But war,
+in spite of its horrors, in spite of its bereavements,
+is only too quickly forgotten. A comparatively
+few years, and those who have passed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+through its fire are no more. New wealth is
+created; new antagonisms arise; and a new
+generation remembers only the romantic stories
+and the martial deeds of its fathers, or, more
+fatally, organizes itself to avenge defeat. Then,
+once again, forgetful of the terrible lesson we have
+learned, the great nations of the world may
+unsheathe the sword as the only solution to their
+problems. Our only hope lies in using the ensuing
+years to educate mankind to the principle that
+war brings misery and impoverishment to all
+engaged in it, that in the final victory it is not a
+question of which is left the strongest, but which
+is the least exhausted, and that national are as
+susceptible as personal differences to discussion
+and arbitration. Above all, let us guard against
+the old mistake of competitive armaments. There
+is no reason, for instance, why, because France,
+our friend and ally, is adopting a policy of air
+armaments, we should blindly pile up aeroplane
+against aeroplane, pilot against pilot, and thus
+provoke mutual suspicion.</p>
+
+<p>The possibility of war remains, however, and I
+wish in conclusion to emphasize the fact that in
+my belief the security of this country in the
+event of war will depend upon our strength in the
+air. The development of the offensive powers of
+aviation have already destroyed "the silver
+streak" on which we relied in the past. When
+we remember that it is less than twenty years
+since the first successful aeroplane was flown,
+when we recall the almost miraculous development
+of the fighting powers of aircraft during the
+four and a half years of war, and also the further<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+developments which were on the point of being
+utilized when the war ended, it seems certain
+that from the point of view of war Britain has
+ceased to be an island. The "silver streak"
+would have been little protection but for our
+naval supremacy, and in the future our security
+will depend as much upon superiority in the air
+as it has depended in the past upon our superiority
+at sea. And this superiority in the air can only
+be attained in the same way in which we secured
+our supremacy at sea. That supremacy was
+not really gained by developing great navies. It
+was gained by our mercantile marine, which made
+the great navies possible. Our future security
+can only be gained by the development of commercial
+aviation.</p>
+
+<div class="dv1"><p class="pb1"><i>Printed in Great Britain by</i> Butler &amp; Tanner, <i>Frome and London</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="trn"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b>
+Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note.
+Variant spellings, e.g. <i>Frankfort</i> and <i>Frankfurt</i>, remain as printed.
+Significant amendments have been listed below:
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, 'Poperighe' amended to <i>Poperinghe</i>.</p>
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, 'Junker' amended to <i>Junkers</i>.</p></div></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Aviation in Peace and War, by 
+Sir Frederick Hugh Sykes
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AVIATION IN PEACE AND WAR ***
+
+***** This file should be named 25244-h.htm or 25244-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/2/4/25244/
+
+Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/25244-page-images/f001.png b/25244-page-images/f001.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2800026
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/f001.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/f002.png b/25244-page-images/f002.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a1cdf13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/f002.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/f003.png b/25244-page-images/f003.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0fa6d6a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/f003.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/f004.png b/25244-page-images/f004.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..21c79ab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/f004.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/f005.png b/25244-page-images/f005.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..02aeec2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/f005.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/f006.png b/25244-page-images/f006.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bcd8584
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/f006.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p007.png b/25244-page-images/p007.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fce5079
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p007.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p008.png b/25244-page-images/p008.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6449702
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p008.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p009.png b/25244-page-images/p009.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1485476
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p009.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p010.png b/25244-page-images/p010.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e8b591a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p010.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p011.png b/25244-page-images/p011.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ff020b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p011.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p012.png b/25244-page-images/p012.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3fc54ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p012.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p013.png b/25244-page-images/p013.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fb87b1c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p013.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p014.png b/25244-page-images/p014.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fc62d13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p014.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p015.png b/25244-page-images/p015.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2cbbb52
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p015.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p016.png b/25244-page-images/p016.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7645466
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p016.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p017.png b/25244-page-images/p017.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5db21c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p017.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p018.png b/25244-page-images/p018.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2ca57c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p018.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p019.png b/25244-page-images/p019.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2937f96
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p019.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p020.png b/25244-page-images/p020.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2b5aa49
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p020.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p021.png b/25244-page-images/p021.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1fd2eb0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p021.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p022.png b/25244-page-images/p022.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a2b194
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p022.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p023.png b/25244-page-images/p023.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..381c63b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p023.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p024.png b/25244-page-images/p024.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0beafad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p024.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p025.png b/25244-page-images/p025.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..31af884
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p025.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p026.png b/25244-page-images/p026.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d054c78
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p026.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p027.png b/25244-page-images/p027.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..27b6f47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p027.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p028.png b/25244-page-images/p028.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f30237b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p028.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p029.png b/25244-page-images/p029.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..20ccf7b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p029.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p030.png b/25244-page-images/p030.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ef579ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p030.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p031.png b/25244-page-images/p031.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..89a0c03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p031.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p032.png b/25244-page-images/p032.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..61fccd0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p032.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p033.png b/25244-page-images/p033.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b0a8896
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p033.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p034.png b/25244-page-images/p034.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dc1cc19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p034.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p035.png b/25244-page-images/p035.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a43a8a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p035.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p036.png b/25244-page-images/p036.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..853e1e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p036.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p037.png b/25244-page-images/p037.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2277132
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p037.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p038.png b/25244-page-images/p038.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..45e2a09
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p038.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p039.png b/25244-page-images/p039.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a4c0397
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p039.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p040.png b/25244-page-images/p040.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..664a3ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p040.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p041.png b/25244-page-images/p041.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..046c43d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p041.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p042.png b/25244-page-images/p042.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5ed4670
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p042.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p043.png b/25244-page-images/p043.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4f4bf96
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p043.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p044.png b/25244-page-images/p044.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9917606
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p044.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p045.png b/25244-page-images/p045.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f8c3fbf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p045.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p046.png b/25244-page-images/p046.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7c5d79f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p046.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p047.png b/25244-page-images/p047.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..87eab64
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p047.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p048.png b/25244-page-images/p048.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a5719d1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p048.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p049.png b/25244-page-images/p049.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5219fcf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p049.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p050.png b/25244-page-images/p050.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..87253b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p050.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p051.png b/25244-page-images/p051.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56c1880
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p051.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p052.png b/25244-page-images/p052.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9b21edd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p052.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p053.png b/25244-page-images/p053.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6a82a98
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p053.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p054.png b/25244-page-images/p054.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..354763b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p054.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p055.png b/25244-page-images/p055.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ebbc705
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p055.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p056.png b/25244-page-images/p056.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..06a0830
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p056.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p057.png b/25244-page-images/p057.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..23a8165
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p057.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p058.png b/25244-page-images/p058.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..00ee549
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p058.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p059.png b/25244-page-images/p059.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c692d32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p059.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p060.png b/25244-page-images/p060.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..533d8bd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p060.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p061.png b/25244-page-images/p061.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b1531cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p061.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p062.png b/25244-page-images/p062.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6425492
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p062.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p063.png b/25244-page-images/p063.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b18cdff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p063.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p064.png b/25244-page-images/p064.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2a9c34e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p064.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p065.png b/25244-page-images/p065.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..67e906f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p065.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p066.png b/25244-page-images/p066.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..497dc22
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p066.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p067.png b/25244-page-images/p067.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b0370c9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p067.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p068.png b/25244-page-images/p068.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6b4d512
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p068.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p069.png b/25244-page-images/p069.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1681711
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p069.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p070.png b/25244-page-images/p070.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7542b11
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p070.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p071.png b/25244-page-images/p071.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ced6362
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p071.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p072.png b/25244-page-images/p072.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c95289d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p072.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p073.png b/25244-page-images/p073.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..befc58f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p073.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p074.png b/25244-page-images/p074.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0645e50
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p074.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p075.png b/25244-page-images/p075.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8cd49a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p075.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p076.png b/25244-page-images/p076.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..213948f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p076.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p077.png b/25244-page-images/p077.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..535bca2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p077.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p078.png b/25244-page-images/p078.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..91ef520
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p078.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p079.png b/25244-page-images/p079.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8c156bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p079.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p080.png b/25244-page-images/p080.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..48f383f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p080.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p081.png b/25244-page-images/p081.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e767a75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p081.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p082.png b/25244-page-images/p082.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..962b5a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p082.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p083.png b/25244-page-images/p083.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..203b848
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p083.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p084.png b/25244-page-images/p084.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..08e66f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p084.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p085.png b/25244-page-images/p085.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..16f6768
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p085.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p086.png b/25244-page-images/p086.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e2dd0db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p086.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p087.png b/25244-page-images/p087.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bb51b79
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p087.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p088.png b/25244-page-images/p088.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c192e3a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p088.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p089.png b/25244-page-images/p089.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..693b028
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p089.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p090.png b/25244-page-images/p090.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f912fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p090.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p091.png b/25244-page-images/p091.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7241449
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p091.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p092.png b/25244-page-images/p092.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1e0b447
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p092.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p093.png b/25244-page-images/p093.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..568d35b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p093.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p094.png b/25244-page-images/p094.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..535c058
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p094.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p095.png b/25244-page-images/p095.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6b91a4a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p095.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p096.png b/25244-page-images/p096.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dcf8b07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p096.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p097.png b/25244-page-images/p097.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e77b01b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p097.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p098.png b/25244-page-images/p098.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3b2795e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p098.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p099.png b/25244-page-images/p099.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5db5a25
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p099.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p100.png b/25244-page-images/p100.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..855ef5b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p100.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p101.png b/25244-page-images/p101.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dff3c2d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p101.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p102.png b/25244-page-images/p102.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..22b0b3c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p102.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p103.png b/25244-page-images/p103.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b0ed0fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p103.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p104.png b/25244-page-images/p104.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c2d49b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p104.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p105.png b/25244-page-images/p105.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..86aa09e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p105.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p106.png b/25244-page-images/p106.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..59a1d1e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p106.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p107.png b/25244-page-images/p107.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..36d265e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p107.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p108.png b/25244-page-images/p108.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4a350a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p108.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p109.png b/25244-page-images/p109.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b7a602
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p109.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p110.png b/25244-page-images/p110.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b7dbd58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p110.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p111.png b/25244-page-images/p111.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e01e47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p111.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p112.png b/25244-page-images/p112.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a3defd8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p112.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p113.png b/25244-page-images/p113.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..22207b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p113.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p114.png b/25244-page-images/p114.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..69f2d53
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p114.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p115.png b/25244-page-images/p115.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..24cee7b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p115.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p116.png b/25244-page-images/p116.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..420454e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p116.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p117.png b/25244-page-images/p117.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..90bb30c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p117.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p118.png b/25244-page-images/p118.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..92bcb18
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p118.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p119.png b/25244-page-images/p119.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..389c9d5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p119.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p120.png b/25244-page-images/p120.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6be500f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p120.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p121.png b/25244-page-images/p121.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f2a4fcb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p121.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p122.png b/25244-page-images/p122.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2057b5e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p122.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p123.png b/25244-page-images/p123.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..caf8e7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p123.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p124.png b/25244-page-images/p124.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f065ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p124.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p125.png b/25244-page-images/p125.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1052993
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p125.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p126.png b/25244-page-images/p126.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cb2b501
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p126.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p127.png b/25244-page-images/p127.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..665a94a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p127.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p128.png b/25244-page-images/p128.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9c6106c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p128.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p129.png b/25244-page-images/p129.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e8fb20
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p129.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p130.png b/25244-page-images/p130.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ae1aa15
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p130.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p131.png b/25244-page-images/p131.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bbbdd36
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p131.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p132.png b/25244-page-images/p132.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..34a9950
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p132.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p133.png b/25244-page-images/p133.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8272c1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p133.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p134.png b/25244-page-images/p134.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..167d293
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p134.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p135.png b/25244-page-images/p135.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..191c261
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p135.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p136.png b/25244-page-images/p136.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9a42e99
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p136.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p137.png b/25244-page-images/p137.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e4d8ba4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p137.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p138.png b/25244-page-images/p138.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0db19c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p138.png
diff --git a/25244-page-images/p139.png b/25244-page-images/p139.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c054fe7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244-page-images/p139.png
diff --git a/25244.txt b/25244.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3cbe93d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,3954 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Aviation in Peace and War, by Sir Frederick Hugh Sykes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Aviation in Peace and War
+
+Author: Sir Frederick Hugh Sykes
+
+Release Date: April 30, 2008 [EBook #25244]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AVIATION IN PEACE AND WAR ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+             AVIATION IN
+            PEACE AND WAR
+
+
+                  BY
+
+    Major-General Sir F. H. SYKES
+        G.B.E., K.C.B., C.M.G.
+     LATE CHIEF OF THE AIR STAFF
+                 AND
+ CONTROLLER-GENERAL OF CIVIL AVIATION
+
+
+                LONDON
+         EDWARD ARNOLD & CO.
+                 1922
+       [_All rights reserved_]
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+    Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note, whilst
+    more significant amendments have been listed at the end of the text.
+    The oe ligature is represented by [oe].
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                PAGE
+ INTRODUCTION                                                      7
+
+ CHAPTER I. PRE-WAR                                                9
+
+   Early Thoughts on Flight. The Invention of the Balloon.
+   First Experiments in Gliders and Aeroplanes. The Wright
+   Brothers and their Successors in Europe. The First
+   Airships. The Beginnings of Aviation in England. The
+   Inception and Development of Aircraft as Part of the
+   Forces of the Crown: the Balloon Factory; the Air
+   Battalion; the Royal Flying Corps, the Military Wing,
+   the Naval Wing. Tactics and the Machine. Conclusions.
+
+ CHAPTER II. WAR                                                  44
+
+   General Remarks on War Development. Co-operation with
+   the Army: Reconnaissance; Photography; Wireless;
+   Bombing; Contact Patrol; Fighting. Co-operation with
+   the Navy: Coast Defence, Patrol and Convoy Work; Fleet
+   Assistance, Reconnaissance, Spotting for Ships' Guns;
+   Bombing; Torpedo Attack. Home Defence: Night Flying
+   and Night Fighting. The Machine and Engine. Tactics
+   and the Strategic Air Offensive. Organization.
+
+ CHAPTER III. PEACE                                               96
+
+   The Future of Aerial Defence. Civil Aviation: as a
+   Factor in National Security; as an Instrument of
+   Imperial Progress; Financial and Economic Problems;
+   Weather Conditions and Night Flying; Organization; the
+   Machine and Engine. Air Services: British, Continental
+   and Imperial.
+
+ CONCLUSION                                                      131
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Since the earliest communities of human beings first struggled for
+supremacy and protection, the principles of warfare have remained
+unchanged. New methods have been evolved and adopted with the progress
+of science, but no discovery, save perhaps that of gunpowder, has done
+so much in so short a time to revolutionize the conduct of war as
+aviation, the youngest, yet destined perhaps to be the most effective
+fighting-arm. Yet to-day we are only on the threshold of our knowledge,
+and, striking as was the impetus given to every branch of aeronautics
+during the four years of war, its future power can only dimly be seen.
+
+We may indeed feel anxious about this great addition of aviation to the
+destructive power of modern scientific warfare. Bearing its terrors in
+mind, we may even impotently seek to check its advance, but the appeal
+of flying is too deep, its elimination is now impossible, and granted
+that war is inevitable, it must be accepted for good or ill.
+Fortunately, although with the other great scientific additions,
+chemical warfare and the submarine, its potentialities for destruction
+are very great, yet aircraft, unlike the submarine, can be utilized not
+only in the conduct of war but in the interests of peace, and it is
+here that we can guide and strengthen it for good. Just as the naval
+supremacy of Britain was won because commercially we were the greatest
+seafaring people in the world, so will air supremacy be achieved by that
+country which, making aviation a part of its everyday life, becomes an
+airfaring community.
+
+Our nation as a whole has been educated, owing to its geographical
+situation and by tradition, to interest itself in the broader aspects of
+marine policy and development. It requires to take the same interest in
+aviation, a comparatively new subject, unhampered to a great extent by
+preconceived notions and therefore offering greater scope for individual
+thought.
+
+The following sketch[1] has been written in the hope that some of those
+who read it may be inspired to study aviation in one or other of its
+branches, whether from the historical, technical, strategical, or
+commercial point of view. Any opinions expressed are, of course, my own
+and not official.
+
+[1] First written and delivered as the Lees-Knowles Lectures at
+Cambridge University in February and March, 1921.
+
+I propose first briefly to trace the history of aviation from its
+beginnings to the outbreak of war; next to describe the evolution of
+aircraft and of air strategy during the war; and last to estimate the
+present position and to look into the future.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+PRE-WAR
+
+
+EARLY THOUGHTS ON FLIGHT.
+
+The story of the growth of aviation may be likened to that of the
+discovery and opening up of a new continent. A myth arises, whence no
+one can tell, of the existence of a new land across the seas. Eventually
+this land is found without any realization of the importance of the
+discovery. Then comes the period of colonization and increasing
+knowledge. But the interior remains unexplored. So, in the case of
+aviation, man was long convinced, for no scientific reason, that flight
+was possible. With the first ascent by balloon came the imagined mastery
+of the air; later, the invention of flight that can be controlled at
+will. To-day we are still in the stage of colonization. The future
+resources of the air remain hidden from our view.
+
+The Daedalean myth and the ancient conception of the winged angelic host
+show how the human mind has long been fascinated by the idea of flight,
+but the first design of an apparatus to lift man into the air, a
+parachute-like contrivance, was only reached at the end of the fifteenth
+century in one of Leonardo da Vinci's manuscripts. About the same time
+lived the first of the long line of daring practical aviators, without
+whom success would never have been achieved, one John Damian, a
+physician of the Court of James IV of Scotland, who "took in hand to fly
+with wings, and to that effect caused make a pair of wings of feathers,
+which being fastened upon him, he flew off the castle wall of Stirling,
+but shortly he fell to the ground and brake his thigh-bone."
+
+Nearly 250 years later the aeronaut had not made much progress, for we
+read of the Marquis de Bacqueville in 1742 attaching to his arms and
+legs planes of his own design and launching himself from his house in
+the attempt to fly across the Seine, into which, regrettably, he fell.
+
+Meanwhile the seventeenth-century philosophers had been theorizing. In
+1638 John Wilkins, the founder of the Royal Society, published a book
+entitled _Daedalus, or Mechanical Motions_. A few years later John
+Glanville wrote in _Scepsis Scientifica_ "to them that come after us it
+may be as ordinary to buy a pair of wings to fly into remotest regions,
+as now a pair of boots to ride a journey," the sceptic proving a truer
+prophet than the enthusiast. By 1680 Giovanni Borelli had reached the
+conclusion, in his book _De Volatu_, that it was impossible that man
+should ever achieve flight by his own strength. Nor was he more likely
+to do so in the first aerial ship, designed in 1670 by Francesco Lana,
+which was to be buoyed up in the air by being suspended from four
+globes, made of thin copper sheeting, each of them about 25 feet in
+diameter. From these globes the air was to be exhausted, so that each,
+being lighter than the atmosphere, would support the weight of two or
+three men. A hundred years elapsed before Dr. Joseph Black of the
+University of Edinburgh made the first practical suggestion, that a
+balloon inflated with hydrogen would rise.
+
+
+THE INVENTION OF THE BALLOON.
+
+It was in 1783 that Montgolfier conceived the idea of utilizing the
+lifting power of hot air and invited the Assembly of Vivarais to watch
+an exhibition of his invention, when a balloon, 10 feet in
+circumference, rose to a height of 6,000 feet in under ten minutes. This
+was followed by a demonstration before Louis XVI at Versailles, when a
+balloon carrying a sheep, a cock, and a duck, rose 1,500 feet and
+descended safely. And on November 21st of the same year Pilatre de
+Rozier, accompanied by the Marquis d'Arlande, made the first human
+ascent, in the "Reveillon," travelling 5 miles over Paris in twenty
+minutes.
+
+England, it is not surprising to learn, was behind with the invention,
+but on November 25th, 1783, Count Francesco Zambeccari sent up from
+Moorfields a small oilskin hydrogen balloon which fell at Petworth; and
+in August of 1784 James Tytler ascended at Edinburgh in a fire balloon,
+thus achieving the first ascent in Great Britain. In the same year
+Lunardi came to London and ballooning became the rage. It was an
+Englishman, Dr. Jefferies, who accompanied Blanchard in the first
+cross-Channel flight on January 7th, 1785. Fashionable society soon
+turned to pursuits other than watching balloon ascents, however, and
+the joys of the air were confined to a few adventurous spirits, such as
+Green and Holland, who first substituted coal gas for hydrogen and in
+1836 made a voyage of 500 miles from Vauxhall Gardens to Weilburg in
+Nassau, and James Glaisher, who in the middle of the century began to
+make meteorological observations from balloons, claiming on one
+occasion, in 1862, to have reached the great height of 7 miles.
+
+
+FIRST EXPERIMENTS IN GLIDERS AND AEROPLANES.
+
+The world seemed content to have achieved the balloon, but there were a
+few men who realized that the air had not been conquered, and who
+believed that success could only be attained by the scientific study and
+practice of gliding. Prominent among these, Sir George Cayley, in 1809,
+published a paper on the Navigation of the Air, and forecasted the
+modern aeroplane, and the action of the air on wings. In 1848 Henson and
+Stringfellow, the latter being the inventive genius, designed and
+produced a small model aeroplane--the first power-driven machine which
+actually flew. It is now in the Smithsonian Institute at Washington. Of
+greater practical value were the gliding experiments by Otto Lilienthal,
+of Berlin, and Percy Pilcher, an Englishman, at the end of the last
+century. Both these men met their death in the cause of aviation.
+Another step forward was made by Laurence Hargrave, an Australian, who
+invented the box and soaring kite and eighteen machines which flew.
+
+From the theoretical point of view, Professor Langley, an American,
+reached in his _Experiments in Aerodynamics_ the important conclusion
+that weight could best be countered by speed. From theory Langley turned
+to practice and in 1896 designed a steam-driven machine which flew
+three-quarters of a mile without an operator. Seven years later, at the
+end of 1903, he produced a new machine fitted with a 52 horse-power
+engine weighing less than 5 lb. per horse-power; but this machine was
+severely damaged ten days before Wilbur Wright made his first flight in
+a controlled power-driven aeroplane.
+
+
+THE WRIGHT BROTHERS AND THEIR SUCCESSORS IN EUROPE.
+
+The Wright brothers directed their whole attention to aviation in 1899.
+By 1902, as the result of many experiments, they had invented a glider
+with a horizontal vane in front, a vertical vane behind, and a device
+for "warping" the wings. Their longest glide was 622-1/4 feet. This was
+followed by the construction of a machine weighing 600 lb., including
+the operator and an 8 horse-power engine, which on December 17th, 1903,
+realized the dreams of centuries.
+
+After an increasing number of experiments, a machine built in 1905 flew
+24-1/4 miles at a speed of 38 miles an hour. It is interesting to recall
+that the new invention was refused once by the United States and three
+times by the British Government.
+
+It was not until September 13th, 1906, that Ellehammer, a Danish
+engineer, made the first free flight in Europe, his machine flying 42
+metres at a height of a metre and a half. About the same time reports
+of the Wrights' successes began to reach Europe and were quickly
+appreciated by the French.
+
+Space forbids that I should enter into the achievements of the early
+French aviators, among whom the names of Ferber, Bleriot and Farman will
+always rank high in the story of human faith, courage and determination.
+It is a record of rapid advance. Farman made a circuit flight of 1
+kilometre in 1908, and flew from Chalons to Rheims, a distance of 27
+kilometres, in twenty minutes. Bleriot crossed the Channel in a
+monoplane of his own design in forty minutes. French designers improved
+the control system, and French machines became famous. The records of
+the Rheims meeting of 1909 serve to illustrate the progress made during
+the first phase of aviation. Latham won the altitude prize by flying to
+a height of over 500 feet. Farman the prize for the flight of longest
+duration by remaining more than three hours in the air, and the
+passenger carrying prize by carrying two passengers round a 10-kilometre
+course in 10-1/2 minutes. The Gnome rotary engine was first used with
+success at this meeting.
+
+Before turning to the pioneer efforts in England and the pre-war
+organization of our air forces, some account of the development of the
+lighter-than-air dirigible is desirable.
+
+
+THE FIRST AIRSHIPS.
+
+The earliest conception of an airship is to be found in General
+Meusnier's design in 1784 for an egg-shaped balloon driven by three
+screw propellers, worked, of course, by hand. The chief interest in his
+design, though it never materialized, lies in the fact that it provided
+for a double envelope and was the precursor of the ballonet. The first
+man-carrying airship was built by Henri Giffard in 1852. It had a
+capacity of 87,000 cu. feet, a length of 144 feet, a 3 horse-power
+engine, and a speed of 6 miles an hour. A gas engine was first used
+twenty years later in an Austrian dirigible, giving a speed of 3 miles
+an hour. About the same time much useful work was accomplished by Dupuy
+de Lome, whose dirigible, with a propeller driven by man power, gave a
+speed of 5-1/2 miles an hour. Twelve years later, in 1884, two French
+Army officers, Captain Kubs and Captain Renard, constructed the first
+successful power-driven lighter-than-air craft fitted with an 8-1/2
+horse-power electric motor, which may be regarded as the progenitor of
+all subsequent non-rigid airships. In 1901 Santos Dumont flew round the
+Eiffel Tower, travelling 6-3/4 miles in 1-1/2 hours, and in 1903 the
+flight of the "Lebaudy," covering a distance of 40 miles at a speed of
+20 miles an hour, led the French military authorities to take up the
+question of airships.
+
+What the French initiated, the Germans, concentrating with
+characteristic thoroughness on the development of the rigid as opposed
+to the non-rigid airship, improved. In 1896 Wolfert's rigid airship
+attained a speed of 9 miles an hour and in 1900 the first Zeppelin was
+launched. Whatever we may think of the German methods of using their
+airships during the war, we cannot but admire the courage and
+determination of Count Zeppelin, who, in spite of many mishaps,
+succeeded in producing the finest airships in the world and inspiring
+the German people with a faith in the air which they have never lost.
+From 1905 onwards development was rapid. In 1907 Zeppelin voyaged in
+stages from Friedrichshaven to Frankfort, a distance of 200 miles in
+7-1/2 hours. Popular enthusiasm is illustrated by the fact that within a
+few months the same airship made four hundred trips, carrying 8,551
+passengers and covering 29,430 miles. Other airships showed similar
+records. Between 1909 and 1913 eighteen of the Parseval type were built,
+and 1912 saw the construction of the first Schutte-Lanz, designed
+expressly for naval and military purposes. If France at this period led
+the world in aeroplane design, Germany was undeniably ahead in airship
+development.
+
+In Great Britain, in 1905, we had one very small airship, designed and
+constructed by Willows.
+
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF AVIATION IN ENGLAND.
+
+Though the names of Pilcher, Dunne, Howard Wright, and Rolls testify to
+the fact that the science of aviation had its followers in England at
+the beginning of this century, flying came comparatively late, and the
+real interest of the movement centres round the early efforts of
+military aviation from 1912 onwards. Nevertheless this country could ill
+have dispensed with the experiments of that small and courageous band of
+aviators, among whom Dickson and Cody were prominent. By 1908 Cody had
+built an aeroplane and was making experimental flights at Aldershot. In
+1907, A. V. Roe, working under great difficulties, constructed and flew
+his first machine, a triplane fitted with an 8-10 horse-power twin
+cylinder Jap bicycle engine, the first tractor type machine produced by
+any country, and a very important contribution to the science of flight.
+In 1910 and 1911 we find de Havilland, Frank Maclean and the Short
+Brothers, Ogilvie, Professor Huntingdon, Sopwith and the Bristol
+Company, starting on the design and construction of machines, of which
+the names have since become famous. At the same time certain centres of
+aviation came into existence, such as Brooklands, where I well remember
+beginning to fly in August, 1910, Hendon, Larkhill and Eastchurch,
+destined to be the centre of naval aviation. It is significant, however,
+of the slow progress made that by November 1st, 1910, only twenty-two
+pilot's certificates had been issued, and it was Conneau, a French naval
+officer, who in 1911 won the so-called "Circuit of Britain," i.e. a
+flight from Brooklands and back via Edinburgh, Glasgow, Exeter and
+Brighton. Cody and Valentine were the only British competitors to
+complete the full course.
+
+In May 1911 a demonstration was organized by the owners of the Hendon
+Aerodrome to which a large number of Cabinet Ministers, members of
+parliament, and army and navy officers were invited. The War Office
+co-operated by arranging for a small force of horse, foot and guns to be
+secretly disposed in a specified area some miles distant and by
+detailing two officers, of whom I was one, to test what could be done to
+find and report them by air. I remember that I had a special map
+prepared, the first used in this, and I think any country, for the
+aeroplane reconnaissance of troops. After a sufficiently exciting trip,
+and with the troops successfully marked on the map, Hubert, my French
+pilot, and I, returned and made our report to General Murray, the
+Director of Military Training. It was a very interesting flight; the
+weather good; our height about 1,500 feet; the machine a 50 horse-power
+Gnome "box-kite" Henri Farman, which at one period of our 35 mile an
+hour return journey elected to point itself skywards for an unpleasant
+second or two and fly "cabre"; I can see Hubert now anxiously forcing
+his front elevator downwards and shouting to me to lean forward in order
+to help to bring the nose to a more comfortable bearing!
+
+Many pages could be filled with the difficulties and exploits of the
+first British aviators, but enough has been said to show that, compared
+with that of aeroplanes in France and of airships in Germany,
+development in this country started late, progressed slowly and excited
+little public interest. The work of the pioneers was, however, not in
+vain, since it opened the eyes of our military authorities to the value
+of aviation and led to the formation of that small but highly efficient
+flying corps which during the war expanded into an organization without
+rival. Let us now turn to the inception of the air forces of the Crown
+and the position with regard to these and to air tactics at the outbreak
+of war.
+
+
+THE INCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF AIRCRAFT AS PART OF THE FORCES OF THE
+CROWN.
+
+Nations have tended to regard flight as a prerogative of war. A balloon
+school was formed in the early days of the French revolutionary wars;
+the French victory at Fleurus in 1794 was ascribed to balloon
+reconnaissance; balloons were used by the Federal Army in the American
+Civil War, and during the Siege of Paris Gambetta effected his escape by
+balloon in 1871.
+
+
+_The Balloon Factory._
+
+In England experiments were begun at Woolwich Arsenal in 1878, and in
+1883 a Balloon Factory, a Depot and a School of Instruction were
+established at Chatham. The expedition to Bechuanaland in 1884, under
+the command of Sir Charles Warren, was accompanied by a detachment of
+three balloons, and the following year balloons co-operated with the
+Sudan Expeditionary Force, when Major Elsdale carried out some
+photographic experiments from the air.
+
+In 1890 a balloon section was introduced into the Army as a unit of the
+Royal Engineers, and not long afterwards, the Balloon Factory was
+established at South Farnborough, where in 1912 it was transformed into
+the Royal Aircraft Factory. Four balloon sections took part in the South
+African War and were used during the Siege of Ladysmith, at
+Magersfontein and Paardeburg. Colonel Lynch, who served in the Boer
+Army, stated at a lecture delivered in Paris after the war that "the
+Boers took a dislike to balloons. All other instruments of war were at
+their command; they had artillery superior for the most part to, and
+better served than, that of the English; they had telegraphic and
+heliographic apparatus; but the balloons were the symbol of a scientific
+superiority of the English which seriously disquieted them."
+
+I went through a course in ballooning during leave from West Africa in
+1904 and remember that partly owing to the energy of Colonel Capper,
+partly to the impetus given by the South African War, and partly to the
+growing interest in all things aeronautical throughout the civilized
+world, it was noticeable that the activities of the Balloon Factory were
+increasing in many directions. Although the spherical balloon had been
+improved, its disabilities were recognized and experiments were made
+with elongated balloons, man-flying kites, air photography, signalling
+devices, observation of artillery fire, mechanical apparatus for hauling
+down balloons, and petrol motors. A grant for a dirigible balloon was
+obtained in 1903, though it was not until 1907, the year in which Cody
+began the construction of his aeroplane at Farnborough, and Charles
+Rolls his experiments, that the airship "Nulli Secundus" made her first
+flight. She was about 120 feet long and 30 feet in diameter, and was
+driven by a 40 horse-power engine at a speed of 30 miles an hour. On
+October 5th this airship flew to London in an hour and a half, circled
+round St. Paul's, man[oe]uvred over Buckingham Palace, and descended at
+the Crystal Palace. In the same year, be it remembered, a Zeppelin had
+made a trip of 200 miles from Friedrichshaven to Frankfort. The "Nulli
+Secundus" was followed in 1910 by the "Beta" and the "Gamma."
+
+Meanwhile an Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been appointed, and
+the National Physical Laboratory had organized a department at
+Teddington for the investigation of aeronautical problems in
+co-operation with the Balloon Factory.
+
+
+_The Air Battalion._
+
+In 1911 the authorities could no longer close their eyes, especially at
+a time when rumours of war were rife, to the rapid development of
+heavier-than-air craft on the Continent. So far, as we have seen, the
+aeroplane had been regarded in England as little more than the plaything
+of a few adventurous but foolhardy spirits. A certain amount of
+experience in piloting and handling aeroplanes had been gained by a
+handful of Army officers, but the machines used either belonged to the
+officers themselves, to civilians, or to aviation firms. I was at that
+time a general staff officer in the Directorate of Military Operations
+under General Wilson, now Field Marshal and late Chief of the Imperial
+General Staff, and was the only officer in the War Office who had
+learned to fly. It appeared very important that a study of the military
+possibilities of aviation should be made. The prime role of cavalry,
+reconnaissance, seemed to have passed from it. In addition to my normal
+duties, I visited France, Germany and Italy, collected information on
+foreign activities, wrote reports, and tried to create a knowledge of
+the possible effect of future military aeronautics and to urge the
+formation of a flying corps.
+
+In 1911 the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers, consisting of
+Headquarters, No. 1 Company (Airships) and No. 2 Company (Aeroplanes),
+was formed and superseded the Balloon School. The creation of No. 2
+Company, stationed at Larkhill, marked the first formation of a British
+military unit composed entirely of heavier-than-air aircraft. The same
+year witnessed the inception of the B.E., F.E. and S.E. type machines in
+the Balloon Factory, but the total of our machines, both for naval and
+military requirements, amounted to something less than twelve aeroplanes
+and two small airships; and the mishaps suffered by the military
+machines on their flight from Larkhill to Cambridge, to take part in
+Army Man[oe]uvres, were significant of their unreliability.
+
+
+_The Royal Flying Corps._
+
+In view, therefore, of the reports received of the progress abroad, the
+Air Battalion was clearly insufficient to meet the demands which might
+be made upon it in the event of war; and at the end of 1911 the Prime
+Minister instructed a standing Sub-Committee of the Committee of
+Imperial Defence to consider the future development of air navigation
+for naval and military purposes. As a result of their deliberations the
+Committee recommended the creation of a British Air Service to be
+regarded as one and designated the Royal Flying Corps; the division of
+the Corps into a Naval Wing, a Military Wing, and a Central Flying
+School; the maintenance of the closest possible collaboration between
+the Corps, the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and the Aircraft (late
+Balloon) Factory; and the appointment of a permanent Consultative
+Committee, named the Air Committee, to deal with all aeronautical
+questions affecting both the Admiralty and the War Office.
+
+Consequent upon these recommendations, a Technical Sub-Committee was
+formed, consisting of Brig.-General Henderson, Major MacInnes of the
+directorate of Military Training at the War Office, a splendid officer,
+who died during the war, and myself, to draft the new scheme. The
+objects kept in view in framing our peace organization were to suit it
+to war conditions, as far as they could be foreseen, to base it on an
+efficient self-contained unit, and, while allowing for the wide
+differences between naval and military requirements, to ensure the
+maximum co-operation between the two branches of the Service. Success
+beyond expectation was achieved in the first two objects, but, as will
+be seen, the naval and military branches tended for unforeseen but good
+reasons to diverge, until they joined hands again in 1918 as the Royal
+Air Force. The bases of the military organization were, a headquarters,
+the squadron, and the flying depot. These proved their value during the
+war and have remained the units of our air forces to this day. The
+Military Wing was to form a single and complete organization and contain
+a headquarters, seven aeroplane squadrons, each to consist of twelve
+active machines and six in reserve, one airship and kite squadron, and a
+flying depot. All pilots, whether of the Naval or the Military Wing,
+were eventually to graduate at the Central Flying School, whence they
+could join either the Naval Wing at Eastchurch or one of the Military
+Squadrons. In time of war each branch of the Service was to form a
+reserve for the other if required.
+
+
+_The Military Wing._
+
+In accordance with this scheme I received instructions to organize,
+recruit, train and command the Military Wing of the Royal Flying Corps.
+The functions of the Military Wing were quite clear: it was to meet the
+air requirements of the Expeditionary Force primarily for reconnaissance
+purposes, but its organization was framed so that it could easily be
+expanded and the scope of its duties widened. Headquarters were
+established at Farnborough on May 13th, 1912: Barrington-Kennett, an
+officer of the Grenadier Guards who had been attached to the Air
+Battalion, was appointed, and made the best of all possible adjutants;
+and the nucleus of the Corps, consisting at first of the cadres of an
+airship squadron under Edward Maitland, of two aeroplane squadrons under
+Burke and Brooke-Popham, and a flying depot (later the aircraft park)
+under Carden, who was a little later greatly assisted in the complex
+matter of technical stores by Beatty, came into existence. At the same
+time the construction of the Central Flying School was started at
+Upavon, under Captain G. Payne, R.N. With regard to the other squadrons
+provided for, the nucleus of No. 4 Squadron was formed the same year,
+and that of No. 5 Squadron the following year, of Nos. 6 and 7
+Squadrons in 1914, while No. 8 Squadron was not started until after the
+outbreak of war.
+
+Records of the progress and growth of the Corps were left at Farnborough
+when the Headquarters and four squadrons went to France in August, 1914,
+and have been lost. This is particularly unfortunate because without
+them it will be difficult for the historian of the Corps adequately to
+describe the beginnings and to assess the value of the work then carried
+out.
+
+The task of forming the new service, which was to do much to assist the
+Army in saving England, was begun. The time was very short. A great
+energy had to be brought to the work. As with all things new, it had to
+contend with apathy and opposition on all sides. There was no precedent
+to help. The organization of the Corps to its smallest detail of
+technical stores, supply and transport had to be thought out. The type
+of machine required; the method of obtaining it from a struggling
+industry; its use and maintenance; the personnel, its training and
+equipment; these, and a thousand other aspects of the question, required
+the employment of a large staff of experts. But the experts did not
+exist and the duties were carried out almost entirely at Farnborough,
+where in addition time had to be found to compile the official training
+and other text books and regulations required for an entirely new arm.
+
+In addition to the innumerable problems inherent in the organization,
+growth and training of the Military Wing, the two years between its
+inception and the outbreak of war were strenuously applied to solving
+the problems of air tactics and strategy. Until the South African War
+the British Army had been drilled under the influence of stereotyped
+Prussian ideas. Perhaps the South African War led too far in an opposite
+direction, but it taught us one thing, which was to prove of such
+importance in 1914--the value of mobility; and we realized in aircraft
+the advent of the most mobile arm the world has yet seen.
+
+All was new. A new Corps. A new element in which to work. New conditions
+in peace akin to those in war. And there had to be developed a new
+spirit, combining the discipline of the old Army, the technical skill of
+the Navy, and the initiative, energy and dash inseparable from flying.
+There were the inevitable accidents, but training had to be done. We
+existed for war and war alone would show whether we had thought and
+worked without respite aright. We had to prove our value to the other
+arms, many of the leaders of which, owing to a long period of peace,
+found difficulty in differentiating between the normal usages of peace
+and war and in understanding the right use of aircraft. Somehow or other
+time was found during 1912, 1913 and 1914 to write to reviews, to
+lecture at army and other centres of training, to attend Staff rides,
+and to endeavour in every way possible to learn how best to work in with
+the army commands and to teach those commands the usefulness and
+limitations of aircraft.
+
+As Ruskin wrote:
+
+    "Man is the engine whose motive power is the soul and the largest
+    quantity of work will not be done by this curious engine for pay,
+    or under pressure, or by the help of any kind of fuel which may be
+    supplied by the cauldron. It will be done only when the will or
+    spirit of the creature is brought to its own greatest strength by
+    its own proper fuel, namely the affection."
+
+I was intensely proud of my command and often thought of the time when,
+as I had been promised, I should, in the event of war, command it in the
+field. We worked at white heat believing that war was coming soon;
+believing that our efforts would have a real effect on the result; and
+determined that the new arm should rank second to none among the forces
+of the Crown. _Esprit de Corps_ was of vital importance, but as officers
+and non-commissioned officers were drawn from every branch and every
+regiment of the army this was no easy matter and was only achieved by
+the splendid example and precept of such men as Herbert, Becke,
+Longcroft, Chinnery and Barrington-Kennett. We selected our motto: "Per
+Ardua ad Astra." It was in this atmosphere that the Military Wing grew
+in peace. It was in this atmosphere that the soul was formed which later
+under the great strain of war impelled our pilots forward cheerfully to
+face every duty and every danger in the true spirit of manliness and
+fearless confidence.
+
+As in framing the original scheme on paper, so in giving it life it was
+our aim to organize the Corps, so that, whatever its future strength, it
+would be sound and efficient, and its continuity of growth effected
+without even temporary dislocation or waste. The tactical unit of the
+Military Wing--the squadron, consisting of three flights, each of four
+machines with two in reserve--had the advantage that it was of
+sufficient size to act independently, while it was not too unwieldy for
+a single command. It was equally suitable for independent or
+co-operative action, and the full complement of seven squadrons would,
+in addition to a reserve, furnish one squadron for each division of an
+Army Expeditionary force of the size then contemplated, though no
+definite allotment of aeroplanes to the lower commands was at first
+intended. The French and Germans, on the other hand, were building up
+their organizations with smaller units, with the result that they found
+even greater difficulties than ourselves in obtaining sufficient
+experienced officers to command them. It is probable that the consequent
+lack of concentration, knowledge and determination to stick to sound
+principles of action was one of the causes underlying the non-success of
+the German air service in the opening phases of the war.
+
+According to the system employed squadrons were formed, organized,
+equipped, and a certain amount of preliminary training carried out, at
+Farnborough, when on completion the squadron moved to one of the
+stations which I had established or was forming at Netheravon, Montrose,
+Gosport, Dover, and Orfordness, Netheravon being the largest. This
+dispersion of squadrons did not affect the entity and cohesion, under
+Wing headquarters at Farnborough, of the Corps as a whole. No. 3
+Squadron, one of the original two referred to, removed to Netheravon
+from Larkhill in June.
+
+Similarly, and in order to avoid congestion at Farnborough, to foster a
+spirit of self-support and to enable air operations to be carried out
+with troops in Scotland, No. 2 Squadron was sent to Montrose. Five of
+its machines flew all the way, and it became one of the principles of
+training that machines should fly whenever a move was ordered. Thus in
+1913 six machines from this squadron were flown from Montrose to
+Limerick--a great feat then--to take part in the Irish Command
+man[oe]uvres, the crossing of the Irish Channel being successfully
+carried out both ways by all machines. Another flight of an experimental
+nature was made by Longcroft, with myself as passenger, from Farnborough
+to Montrose in a single day with only one landing.
+
+The unavoidable and never-relaxing strain inherent in the daily and
+hourly use of an instrument, in the design, maintenance and improvement
+of which we could only grope our way, was very great. In peace before
+the war, as later in the war, the only variation to strain lay in
+periods of increased strain.
+
+At Headquarters, in addition to the normal duties of command and
+co-ordination, and the supply of all technical stores to squadrons,
+there was carried out all recruiting, and I also formed a specialized
+flight for the study of technical problems, such as the use of wireless
+from aircraft. The bulk of experimental work was originally undertaken
+by the Royal Aircraft Factory, under the Superintendent, Mr. O'Gorman,
+who always helped us in every way possible, but by 1913 I felt it
+necessary to enlarge the duties of the special flight and an
+Experimental Section was formed at Wing Headquarters at Farnborough
+with an officer, Musgrave, in charge. In addition, for each squadron an
+officer was appointed Squadron Officer for Experiments, thus ensuring
+the diffusion of information throughout the Corps, and affording the
+opportunity to each unit of carrying out the experiments best suited to
+the material and apparatus at its command. Similarly other individual
+officers were detailed in each squadron on a co-ordinated scheme, for
+such duties as Officer-in-charge of Stores, Workshops, Mechanical
+Transport, Meteorology, etc.
+
+The formation at Farnborough of the Line of Communications R.F.C.
+Workshop or Flying Depot--later known as the Aircraft Park--completed
+the organization of the Military Wing.
+
+I was very anxious as early as possible to prove the structure as a
+unified self-supporting, mobile and easily handled flying corps as far
+as it had gone, and in June, 1914, this was done by the concentration in
+camp at Netheravon of the entire Military Wing, comprising Headquarters
+and Headquarters Flight, the four completed squadrons and the nucleus of
+No. 6 Squadron, the Aircraft Park and a detachment of the Kite Section.
+Mobilization, a very difficult process when it came, would have been
+almost impossible had the concentration not taken place. The object of
+the camp was a month's combined training to test personnel, both in the
+air and on the ground, and the handling of aircraft and transport both
+by day and night. Endeavours were made to solve by means of lectures,
+discussions and committees the problems connected with mobilization,
+technical and military training, observation, wireless telegraphy,
+signals, night flying, photography, bomb-dropping, workshops, stores,
+meteorology, transport, shifting of camp and aerodrome, supply and
+maintenance of units in the field, etc.--in fact the whole organization
+essential to the efficiency and cohesion of a Flying Corps, under
+conditions as similar as possible to those expected on active service.
+Very valuable experience was obtained from the work carried out. The
+necessarily wide gaps in our knowledge were brought home in more
+concrete form. It was also evident that the force was very small. But
+within three months it was proved under the strain of war that the
+organization and training had been laid down on sound principles.
+
+
+_The Naval Wing._
+
+As in the case of the Army, it was to airships that the Navy first
+turned its attention, and the birth of naval aviation may be said to
+date from July 21st, 1908, when Admiral Bacon submitted proposals for
+the construction of a rigid airship, the ill-fated "Mayfly" which was
+destroyed on her preliminary trials. The Admiralty thereupon decided to
+discontinue the construction of airships, the development of which was
+left to the Army until May, 1914, when it was decided that all
+airships--that is No. 1 Squadron of the Military Wing--should be taken
+over by the Naval Wing. This was partly the result of a report by two
+Naval Officers, who visited France, Austria and Germany, as was the
+purchase of two vessels of the Parseval and Astra Torres types, and a
+small non-rigid from Willows. The construction of a number of other
+airships was ordered, but for various reasons was delayed or never
+completed up to the outbreak of war.
+
+Although at first sight the functions of the Naval Wing--coast defence
+and work with the Fleet--seemed hardly more difficult to perform than
+those of the Military Wing, in practice, as I was to find later from
+personal experience when in command of the R.N.A.S. at Gallipoli, they
+were more complicated, while the slowness of the Admiralty in evolving a
+clear scheme of employment and a definite objective made itself felt.
+Before the war the achievements of the Naval Wing were due rather to
+individual effort than to a definite policy of organized expansion. It
+was the pilot and the machine rather than the organization which
+developed.
+
+As already stated, Eastchurch was chosen by the Short Brothers for their
+experiments in aeroplanes in 1909, but it was not until 1911 that the
+Admiralty bought two machines and established the first Naval Flying
+School at that place. The same year Commander O. Swann purchased from
+Messrs. A. V. Roe a 35 horse-power biplane and began to carry out
+experiments with different types of floats, as a result of which a
+twin-float seaplane was produced--the first to rise off the water in
+this country.
+
+For some time seaplanes were in a very experimental stage and at best
+could only rise from, and alight on, calm water, though it is
+interesting to note that as far back as 1911 the employment of seaplanes
+for torpedo attack, which I think will be one of the most important
+developments of aircraft in the future, engaged the attention of the
+Navy, and a Sopwith seaplane carrying a 14-inch torpedo made its first
+flight at Calshot in 1913. For this reason, therefore, it appeared that
+principally aeroplanes and airships would have to be employed from shore
+bases for coast defence and that "carrier" ships would be necessary to
+enable seaplanes to work with the Fleet.
+
+The first stations set up were Eastchurch, Isle of Grain, Calshot,
+Felixstowe, Yarmouth, Cromarty and Kingsnorth, from which at the
+outbreak of war an organized coastal patrol was established.
+
+From the outset the Naval Wing, assisted by its large percentage of
+skilled technical personnel, paid great attention to experimental work
+of all sorts. Thus in 1912 the detection of submarines by aircraft was
+taken up, in 1913 valuable results were obtained from bomb-dropping, and
+a large number of experiments in wireless, machine gunnery and fighting
+carried out. In addition, efforts were made to extend the power, range
+and capacity of engine and machine.
+
+The second Naval problem, that of co-operation with the Fleet, involved
+the flight of aircraft from ships and the design of aircraft carriers.
+In 1911 an aeroplane for the first time took off successfully from the
+deck of a cruiser at anchor, and the following year an aeroplane flew
+from H.M.S. "Hibernia," while under weigh, but it was not until after
+the outbreak of war that alighting on decks was successfully
+accomplished. The first ship to be fitted up as a parent ship for
+seaplanes was the "Hermes" in 1913.
+
+These specialized technical requirements and developments explain why
+the Naval Wing and the Royal Naval Air Service tended towards
+individualism rather than cohesion. While the Military Wing, or Royal
+Flying Corps, progressed further as an organized fighting force, the
+Royal Naval Air Service, amongst the 100 odd aeroplanes and seaplanes on
+charge which were mainly of the Short, Sopwith, Avro, Farman and Wright
+types, possessed in 1914 the more powerful engines and a number of
+aeroplanes fitted with wireless and machine guns, while their
+bomb-dropping arrangements were also in a more advanced stage of
+development.
+
+An Air Department was formed at the Admiralty in 1912 to deal with all
+questions relating to naval aircraft. Naval officers were trained from
+the beginning at Eastchurch rather than at the Central Flying School,
+and in 1913 the appointment of an Inspecting Captain for Aircraft, with
+a Central Air Office at Sheerness as his headquarters, accentuated a
+growing tendency for the Naval Wing to work on independent lines.
+
+The Naval Wing grew rapidly and in the middle of 1914 was reorganized as
+the Royal Naval Air Service, comprising the Air Department of the
+Admiralty, the Central Air Office, the Royal Naval Flying School, the
+Royal Naval Air Stations, and all aircraft, seaplane ships and balloons
+employed for naval purposes. This placed the naval air force on a
+self-supporting basis and the entity of the Royal Flying Corps as a
+whole, as originally provided for, was lost.
+
+
+TACTICS AND THE MACHINE.
+
+The value of the application of flying to war requires little
+demonstration. The most important attributes of generalship are quick
+appreciation of a situation and quick decision. To the ordinary
+Commander the absence of information is paralysing. In the nineteenth
+century the mass of cavalry was the special instrument of information
+and to obtain it contact with the enemy's main forces had to be
+effected. It thus acted as a shield and also tried to provide the
+information necessary to enable the infantry to take the offensive.
+
+Aviation, by the wide field of observation it commands, by the speed
+with which it can collect and transmit information, to a great extent
+lifts the fog of war and enables a general to act on knowledge where
+before he acted largely on deduction. Information once obtained, its
+mobile and far-reaching offensive power introduces the element of
+surprise, and permits of lightning strokes against the enemy's vital
+points.
+
+Before the war reconnaissance was regarded as the principal duty of the
+aircraft of the Military Wing. This was due to two reasons, first, the
+obvious one that aircraft possessed advantages shared by no other arm
+for obtaining information quickly and over wide areas and reporting to
+Headquarters, and second, that experiment had proved the difficulty of
+loading aeroplanes with offensive weapons, such as bombs or machine
+guns, without impairing speed and climb.
+
+The following statement, which I drafted and which was issued by the
+General Staff before the Army Man[oe]uvres of 1912, summarizes the
+position:--
+
+    "As regards strategical reconnaissance," it says, "a General is
+    probably now justified in requiring a well-trained flyer, flying a
+    modern aeroplane, to reconnoitre some 70 miles out and return 70
+    miles. This would be done at a speed of, say, 60 miles an hour in
+    ordinary weather over ordinary country. Thus within four hours,
+    allowing a wide margin, a report as to the approximate strength,
+    formation and direction of movement of the enemy, if he is within a
+    70-mile radius, should be in the hands of the Commander."
+
+To those imbued with a knowledge of military history this new method of
+ascertaining the enemy's movements might well seem revolutionary.
+
+Let us take two instances illustrating what aircraft, with a radius of
+little over 100 miles, might have done in previous campaigns. For the
+operations which terminated in the capitulation of Ulm in 1805 Napoleon
+concentrated two army corps at Wuerzburg and five along the left bank of
+the Rhine between Mannheim and Strasburg, his main body of cavalry under
+Murat being at the latter place. The Austrian Army under Mack was behind
+the Iller between Ulm and Memmingen, and expected the French to advance
+through the defiles of the Black Forest, where Napoleon did actually
+make a feint with his cavalry. Napoleon, however, crossing the Rhine on
+September 26th, 1805, moved east, and it was not until October 2nd, when
+the French Army had reached the line Ansbach, Langenburg, Hall and
+Ludwigsburg, and his envelopment was far advanced, that Mack realized
+that the main French advance was coming from the north. Aeroplanes of
+the type we possessed in 1914 could have reconnoitred the whole of
+Napoleon's preliminary position, could have detected his line of
+advance, especially as it was concentrated on a very narrow front, and
+could have brought back the information to the Austrian Headquarters
+within a few hours.
+
+Aircraft would have been of even greater value on August 16th, 1870, at
+the Battle of Rezonville, where neither the French nor the Germans were
+aware of the other's movements. On the 14th a battle had been fought
+east of Metz which had resulted in the French retreat. On the morning of
+the 16th Moltke thought the French had retired west by the Metz-Verdun
+road and those to the north of it, and consequently he directed his left
+wing due west towards the Meuse to head off the French, sending his
+right army towards Rezonville to harass their rearguard. The French
+retreat, however, had been slow and two corps were still at Rezonville,
+while three corps and the reserve cavalry were within easy reach, some
+130,000 men in all. At 9 in the morning the German 3rd Corps, unaided
+and far from support, attacked a position within reach of the whole
+French Army, believing it had to deal with a rearguard only. Bazaine, on
+the other hand, thinking that he was faced by the German main army,
+remained on the defensive, and lost the opportunity of defeating in
+detail first the 3rd and then the 10th German Corps. A few aeroplanes
+operating on a radius of 30 miles would have disclosed between daybreak
+and 10 a.m. the true position to either commander. Neither the German
+nor the French cavalry, though both were engaged, obtained any reliable
+information.
+
+The problem as to how far aircraft would reduce the value of cavalry was
+widely discussed before the war. It was seen that by day aircraft could
+obtain quicker and more accurate information, but that cavalry retained
+their power of night reconnaissance, of mobile offensive action and of
+pinning the enemy to his ground by fighting. This was found to be so
+during the retreat, when, in addition to the direct value of aircraft
+for long-distance reconnaissance, an indirect asset of great importance
+lay in the release of the cavalry for battle action in assistance of the
+infantry. The question has become more acute since the offensive action
+of aircraft against ground targets has developed, but although we must
+never forget the splendid work of the mounted arm during the Retreat
+from Mons, and in March, 1918, factors have arisen tending to make the
+use of cavalry a problem of extreme difficulty in European wars, and it
+is possible that, in addition to their reconnaissance functions,
+aircraft will supersede the shock tactics and delaying action of
+cavalry, though this may be modified if, the sabre being a thing of the
+past, cavalry are converted into mounted machine gunners.
+
+Air tactics and training were, therefore, chiefly studied from the point
+of view of reconnaissance. In addition to the possibility of being shot
+at by other aircraft, an important consideration was vulnerability from
+the ground. Before the war reconnaissances were carried out at heights
+varying from 2,000 to 6,000 feet, but it was generally considered that
+the aeroplane was safe from fire from the ground at heights above 3,000
+feet.
+
+Serious difficulties affecting the mobility of aircraft were the means
+of providing a regular supply of fuel and the selection of landing
+grounds when moving camp, which had to be close enough behind the front
+line as not to entail waste of time in flying out and back over friendly
+territory. This was later brought home to us in a very acute form during
+the Retreat from Mons.
+
+As machines improved, increasing attention was paid to bettering their
+power of reconnaissance by air photography, their value in co-operation
+with artillery by wireless equipment, their offensive action by bomb
+dropping and their offence and defence by armament.
+
+The value of a correct initiative and the aeroplane's role as an
+offensive weapon were fully appreciated and brought out in the Training
+Manual of the Royal Flying Corps which we compiled at Farnborough, and
+which was published early in 1914 by the War Office. It says:--
+
+    "It is probable that one phase of the struggle for the command of
+    the air will resolve itself into a series of combats between
+    individual aeroplanes, or pairs of aeroplanes. If the pilots of one
+    side can succeed in obtaining victory in a succession of such
+    combats, they will establish a moral ascendancy over the surviving
+    pilots of the enemy, and be left free to carry out their duties of
+    reconnaissance. The actual tactics must depend on the types of the
+    aeroplanes engaged, the object of the pilot being to obtain for his
+    passenger the free use of his own weapon while denying to the enemy
+    the use of his. To disable the pilot of the opposing aeroplane will
+    be the first object. In the case of fast reconnaissance aeroplanes
+    it will often be advisable to avoid fighting, in order to carry out
+    a mission or to deliver information; but it must be borne in mind
+    that this will be sometimes impossible, and that, as in every other
+    class of fighting, a fixed determination to attack and win will be
+    the surest road to victory."
+
+Speaking generally, the evolution of the machine, as apart from the
+engine, which hung behind, followed upon the evolution of air tactics.
+As soon as experience, often hard won at the cost of a valuable life,
+opened up new fields of activity for aircraft, the designer and
+constructor evolved new designs to meet the new requirements. It was no
+small achievement in this period to have solved the problem of inherent
+stability, both in theory and practice, so successfully, that from the
+aerodynamic standpoint our machines in 1914 compare favourably with
+those in use at the end of the war.
+
+In dealing with the evolution of the machine during the three years
+prior to the war there are three landmarks: in the autumn of 1911 the
+few machines belonging to the Air Battalion failed to reach their
+destination for Army Man[oe]uvres; in May, 1912, the Royal Flying Corps
+was formed and experiments with a view to meeting military requirements
+were for the first time energetically and methodically prosecuted; and
+in August, 1914, four squadrons flew to France with machines which had
+attained a high degree of stability and were not inferior to any of
+those possessed by other countries. When it is remembered in what a
+short time these machines were evolved, it is not surprising that
+attention had been chiefly confined to the problem of the 'plane and
+stability, the engine and speed and reliability. Wireless, bombing,
+photography, night flying and machine gunnery had been discussed and
+experimented with, but no progress was made comparable to that effected
+under war conditions.
+
+Machines and engines before the war were chiefly French. It is
+interesting to note those with which No. 3 Squadron, one of the first to
+be formed, commenced its career in May, 1912. They consisted of one 50
+horse-power Gnome Nieuport, one Deperdussin, which by the way was
+privately owned, one Gnome Bristol, two Gnome Bleriot monoplanes, one
+Avro and one Bristol box-kite biplane. By September, 1912, the Squadron
+possessed fourteen monoplanes, but in that month, owing to the number of
+accidents incurred by them, the use of monoplanes was temporarily
+forbidden, and it was not until April, 1913, that the Squadron was fully
+equipped with B.E. and Maurice Farman biplanes organized in flights.
+
+These types formed the backbone of the Military Wing, which also
+included Codys, Breguets, Avros, and, later, Sopwiths. The B.E.2c was
+produced by the Royal Aircraft Factory in the autumn of 1913 and
+demonstrated its high degree of stability by flying from Aldershot to
+Froyle and from Froyle to Fleet, distances of 6-3/4 and 8 miles
+respectively, without the use of ailerons or elevators. The progress
+made is illustrated by the fact that at the Army Man[oe]uvres of 1913
+twelve machines covered 4,545 miles on reconnaissance and 3,210 miles on
+other flights, accurate observations being made from a height of 6,000
+feet, without serious mishap.
+
+In 1913 I recommended the gradual substitution of B.E.'s for Farmans on
+the ground of the all-round efficiency and superior fighting qualities
+of the former, and to secure the advantage of standardization, but it
+was objected by the War Office that the Farmans were the only machines
+that could mount weapons in front--an objection which was not met until
+firing through the airscrew was introduced--and that the slower Farmans
+offered greater advantages for observation, an idea which was long
+prevalent. As a result, a compromise was effected, and two squadrons
+were equipped with B.E.'s and two with homogeneous flights of Farmans,
+Bleriots and Avros.
+
+At the outbreak of war the most successful machines possessed by the
+Military Wing were the B.E.2 tractor with a 70 horse-power Renault
+engine, a speed of 73 miles an hour, and a climb of 3,000 feet in nine
+minutes; and a Henri Farman pusher with a speed of 60 miles an hour, and
+a climb of 3,000 feet in fourteen minutes. A special study was being
+made in 1914 of the best methods of ensuring clear observation of the
+ground, and partly in this connection staggered planes were introduced,
+culminating in the B.E.2c's, which were not, however, available for
+service in any numbers until 1915.
+
+To sum up, the technical development of aircraft has taken place, and
+will continue side by side with the evolution of the uses to which
+aircraft can be put. While due attention was paid to problems connected
+with the anticipated duties of aircraft ancillary to that of
+reconnaissance, owing to the short space of time between the formation
+of the Royal Flying Corps and the outbreak of war, to the difficulties
+connected with the engine, and to causes inseparable from peace
+conditions, development had been more or less confined to evolving a
+stable and reliable machine with a good field of view.
+
+
+CONCLUSIONS.
+
+The foregoing outline of the development of aviation from the earliest
+times up to the war--a story of human endeavour and achievement in the
+air with its attendant dangers and difficulties--is not without value in
+endeavouring to assess that which has since occurred.
+
+At the beginning of the year 1912 the Royal Flying Corps did not exist.
+At the beginning of the Great War, in 1914, England found herself with
+an air service which, though much smaller than those of Germany or
+France, was so excellently manned and organized, trained and equipped,
+that it placed her at a bound in the front rank of aviation.
+
+The machine was stable, but the engine still unequal to the tasks laid
+upon it. Civil Aviation practically did not exist.
+
+I shall now describe the extension of air duties under war conditions;
+the increasing value of aircraft for general action and air tactics and
+their development and far-reaching effect as the right hand of strategy.
+This resulted in the expansion of our flying corps from a total of 1,844
+officers and men, and seven squadrons with some 150 machines fit for war
+use, to a total of nearly 300,000 officers and men, and 201 squadrons
+and 22,000 machines in use at the end of the war, and in the evolution
+of the machine to a point where we can regard it, not only as a weapon
+of war, but as a new method of transport for commercial purposes in
+peace.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+WAR
+
+
+GENERAL REMARKS ON WAR DEVELOPMENT.
+
+In dealing with the story of the beginnings of aviation and the
+evolution of aircraft up to the war, we have seen that though its growth
+was infinitesimal compared with that which came with the impetus of war,
+the air service took definite and practical shape more rapidly than had
+up to that time any other arm of the Army or Navy in peace.
+
+In 1914 we had reached a point where we possessed a small but mobile and
+efficient flying force, equipped and trained essentially for
+reconnaissance. Although experiments had been made, little had been
+achieved in the use of wireless from aircraft, air photography, bomb
+dropping, armament or the development of air fighting. As with the Army
+and Navy, war quickened and expanded all the attributes of air
+operations in a way which could not have been foreseen before the
+struggle occurred; and, as it would have been impossible for the Army
+and Navy to build up their war organization without the foundation of
+the pre-war service, so it was the splendid quality of the original
+Royal Flying Corps that made this expansion possible.
+
+Before the war the Royal Flying Corps was considerably smaller than the
+air services of either France or Germany, and to attain even the
+strength with which the Military Wing left England the bulk of the
+trained officers and men, and almost all the machines fit for service,
+had to be taken. When I started to raise the Corps, in May, 1912, the
+War Office estimated that its organization, (of a headquarters and seven
+aeroplane and one airship squadrons) would take at least four years;
+instead, there had been little more than two. Even at the risk of
+leaving insufficient personnel and material behind to form and train new
+squadrons, I recommended that four complete squadrons (including the
+wireless machines which had to be thrown in to make up the numbers)
+should be sent overseas to help the British Expeditionary Force in
+bearing the brunt of the terrific blow that was to come. It was a very
+serious matter that so little could be left with which to carry on in
+England, but we considered it essential to dispatch at once to France
+every available machine and pilot, because both political and military
+authorities were of opinion that for economic and financial reasons a
+war with a great European power could not last more than a few months.
+Another reason was that those of us who had been at the Staff College
+during the few years before the war, or who had recently served on the
+General Staff at the War Office, believed that the weight of the German
+attack would be made through Belgium, where, owing to the enclosed
+nature of the country, cavalry would be at a disadvantage, and we
+realized therefore, and urged, the great effect which the air would
+have from the commencement of operations--a view which was not widely
+held, especially among senior officers in the Army. We also felt the
+necessity of using our maximum air strength from the outset, so as to
+prove its supreme importance as quickly and practically as possible. It
+required the Retreat from Mons before even G.H.Q. as a whole would
+accept the fact, though Colonel Macdonogh, the head of the intelligence
+section, was our firm ally. The iron of confidence, both to used and
+user, had to be welded with the first great blows on the anvil of war.
+For these reasons it was vital that every available trained pilot and
+suitable machine should be employed with the Army, even at the danger of
+serious initial depletion at Home. The smooth progress of expansion was
+largely attributable alike to the strength of the pre-war spirit,
+organization and training,[2] and to the results actual and moral
+obtained by the first four squadrons during the Retreat and the
+following weeks of the war under centralized control. The French
+distributed their "Escadrilles," which were approximately of the size of
+our "flight," from the beginning, and it is probable that one cause of
+failure in the German air service during the same period lay in the
+initial dispersion of units and lack of unified control by the higher
+command. The British Expeditionary Force having been saved during the
+Retreat, Paris having been saved at the Marne, the great German army
+having made a retirement, a lengthy war of position having become
+obvious, confidence in the air service, both within and without, having
+been established, the centralized system necessarily adopted up to that
+time could be relaxed, and we were able to send home officers and men
+with greatly increased experience to help build up the many new
+squadrons which would be required to co-operate with the new armies.
+
+[2] On October 17, 1914, Sir J. French wrote: "Such efficiency as the
+R.F.C. may have shown in the field is, in my opinion, principally due to
+organization and training."
+
+Gradually, as the numbers in the field permitted, increased duties were
+undertaken. The Army, though it did not do so at first, yet came to
+understand the immense importance to itself of air reconnaissance. So
+much so indeed that our machines and pilots were generally many too few
+to attempt more than the absolute essentials, and calls were often made
+upon them which were beyond their strength to meet. An ironic contrast
+to this was supplied, however, at the evacuation of the Dardanelles,
+where I was commanding the air service (the R.N.A.S.), and was asked to
+be careful not to do too much air work. This at a time when through
+stress and strain and loss we had, I think, a total of five machines
+left able to take the air!
+
+Observation was, and remains, the prime purpose for which the Royal
+Flying Corps was formed. 1914 was a year of reconnaissance, but with the
+advent of trench warfare at the Battle of the Aisne, the first attempts
+were made to extend its scope by the use of wireless for artillery
+co-operation, and by air photography, both of which developed rapidly.
+Headway was also being made with bombing. Then machines carrying out
+their special duties had to be protected, while it became necessary to
+prevent hostile machines from effecting similar functions, with the
+result that 1915 saw the beginnings of systematic air fighting.
+
+In 1915 the easily man[oe]uvrable Fokker, with its machine-gun
+synchronizing gear for firing through the propeller, gave the Germans a
+temporary lead, but by the Battle of the Somme this was outclassed and
+in 1916 our air superiority became marked. The Royal Flying Corps was by
+that time organized into Brigades and Wings, one Wing operating with
+each Army for fighting and distant reconnaissance, and one Wing with
+each Corps for short reconnaissance and such specialized work as
+artillery co-operation and contact patrols. Both types of machine took
+part in bombing operations.
+
+There is generally perhaps a tendency, when reviewing the army and air
+effort in the war, to deal almost entirely with the Western Front and to
+forget the prodigious work done in many other theatres.
+
+In 1915 the Royal Naval Air Service carried out all air work with the
+Army and Navy in the Gallipoli campaign and showed how a single air
+force could effect really important co-operation with both services. In
+addition to the normal duties of co-operation with the Army and the
+Fleet, and in spite of the difficulties of transport, supply and
+workshop arrangements, photographs were taken from the air of the
+greater part of the Peninsula, and the original inaccurate maps
+corrected therefrom; frequent bombing raids were carried out against
+objectives on the Peninsula, the Turkish lines of communications, and
+even Constantinople itself. In this campaign, too, torpedoes were used
+for the first time by aircraft and three ships were destroyed in the
+Dardanelles by this means. The distance from the hub of affairs, a line
+of supply about 6,000 miles in length, sickness and the climatic and
+geographical conditions rendered maintenance very difficult. Sand and
+dust driven in clouds by high winds greatly shortened the working life
+of engines. The heat during the summer caused the rapid deterioration of
+machines, while long oversea flights entailed loss from forced landings.
+There are many aspects of the deepest interest to be brought out when a
+complete history of the Campaign in Gallipoli comes to be written. It is
+true that the Allies would have lost all if they had been defeated in
+the west, and that the call of the Armies for more and more men and
+munitions for that theatre was insistent; it is equally true, however,
+that in France there could be nothing but batter and counter-batter, and
+the only remaining point where strategic principles could be brought to
+bear was at the Dardanelles. But what is more relevant to the subject of
+these pages is that when in future years the story of Helles and Anzac
+and Suvla is weighed, it will, I think, appear that had the necessary
+air service been built up from the beginning and sustained, the Army and
+Navy could have forced the Straits and taken Constantinople. I
+insistently urged the dependence of the naval and military forces upon
+air assistance and the necessity for carrying out a strong aerial
+offensive, especially by bombing, for which the local conditions
+governing the enemy operations on the Peninsula offered exceptional
+advantages.
+
+From the autumn of 1915 onwards Egypt became the centre of training and
+expansion for operations in the Middle East and, as the organization
+developed, a brigade was formed with Wings in Macedonia, Sinai and a
+training Wing, which by 1918 had become a training brigade, in Egypt.
+The work of the Wing sent to Sinai in 1916, and expanded in 1917 into a
+brigade, is well summarized in the following extract from a telegram
+received from Egypt on October 3rd, 1918:--
+
+    "Before operations commenced our mastery of the air was complete and
+    this was maintained throughout, enabling the cavalry turning
+    movement to be completely protected and concealed. Enemy retreating
+    columns were so effectively machine gunned and bombed by offensive
+    machines that in all three cases the surviving personnel abandoned
+    their vehicles and consequently upset all plans of retirement. An
+    enemy column thus abandoned was seven miles in length."
+
+The Wings in Macedonia and Mesopotamia, though they could not beat the
+record of the Palestine Brigade, gained a marked supremacy over the
+enemy. Air operations in East Africa were originally carried out by the
+Royal Naval Air Service with seaplanes, which in 1915 were brought up to
+the strength of two squadrons and replaced by aeroplanes under the
+orders of the military forces, their duties being carried out under the
+difficult conditions of bush warfare. Valuable work was also done by the
+Royal Flying Corps squadrons which were sent out to operate in the
+south.
+
+In addition to these major operations, air forces were used in the
+expeditions on the Indian frontier, against Darfur and in the vicinity
+of Aden. Five squadrons were sent to Italy after the Italian retreat
+from the Isonzo and took a prominent part in the final Austrian defeat;
+a Royal Air Force contingent was sent to Russia to operate from
+Archangel; and material assistance was given to France and the other
+Allies, but especially to the United States in the training and
+equipment of her air forces.
+
+At the beginning of 1918 the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air
+Force were amalgamated and the Royal Air Force came into existence, and
+during the year achieved a supremacy more complete than that at any time
+since the Somme.
+
+The following description gives a vivid idea of air activity at the
+front in 1918:--
+
+    "All day long there were 'dog fights' waged at heights up to three
+    or four miles above the shell-torn battlefields of France, whilst
+    the low-flying aeroplanes were attacking suitable targets from the
+    height of a few dozen feet. Passing backwards and forwards went the
+    reconnaissance machines and the bombers, and along the whole front
+    observers were sending out by wireless to the artillery the point of
+    impact of their shells. Such was the picture of the air on any fine
+    day at the time."
+
+1918, however, saw not only the accumulative effect of the tactical
+co-operation of aircraft with our armies in the field, but also the
+formation of the Independent Air Force and the carrying out of the
+strategic air offensive against centres of war industry in the interior
+of Germany.
+
+A vast organization was also required at Home to meet the rapid
+expansion of units in the Field and to supply reinforcements. Thus at
+the Armistice there were 199 training squadrons, the pupils under
+instruction including cadets numbered 30,000, and during the war some
+22,000 graduated as efficient for active service. At the beginning of
+the war pilots were sent overseas with only 11 hours' flying experience.
+This was much too little and there is no doubt that increased training
+would have ensured fewer casualties. Fortunately, however, the length of
+training was increased in the latter part of the war and a remarkable
+advance in training was made possible by the use of an entirely new and
+extraordinarily efficient system of instruction evolved by Smith-Barry.
+
+The war demonstrated the beginnings of what air power meant, though in
+November, 1918, it was still in its infancy. Before many years the
+ability to make war successfully, or even at all, will depend upon air
+power.
+
+Let us now briefly survey the development of the several duties of
+aircraft, the evolution of machines and progress in tactics, strategy
+and the organization of our Air Forces during the war.
+
+I had recognized the great difficulty of mobilizing with the clockwork
+precision of older units and, in the belief that war was coming, had
+ordered a provisional mobilization of the Corps some days before it was
+actually declared. Thanks to this step and to the work done at our
+Concentration Camp at Netheravon in June, 1914, the greater part of the
+Royal Flying Corps was enabled to concentrate without hitch at our
+aerodrome at Dover, and the machines flew via Calais to Amiens on August
+13th.
+
+
+CO-OPERATION WITH THE ARMY.
+
+
+_Reconnaissance._
+
+In the event of France and England declaring war concurrently against
+Germany, the strategic plan agreed to by the British and French general
+staffs before the war had been that the British Expeditionary Force
+should be moved to the Le Cateau, Maubeuge, Mons, area and take up a
+line on the left flank of the French Army near Mons. But England had
+withheld her declaration until three days after the French, and on
+landing in France the first words I heard said by a Frenchman were:
+"Oui, l'armee anglaise arrive mais on a manque le premier plan." It was
+not until after the arrival of G.H.Q. at Amiens on August 14th that,
+although late, it was decided that the advanced line should be taken up.
+The Royal Flying Corps moved by air and road to an existing aerodrome
+outside the antique defences of Maubeuge 12 miles from Mons on the 16th.
+On the 19th the first reconnaissance was carried out, and the entire
+country over which the German armies were advancing, as far as Brussels
+and Louvain, was kept under observation. One of the best reconnaissances
+ever made was that of August 21st, which discovered the 2nd German Corps
+moving from Brussels through Ninhove and Grammont.
+
+From Maubeuge we had to retire on the 24th to Le Cateau, on the 25th to
+St. Quentin, on the 26th to La Fere, on the 28th to Compiegne, on the
+30th to Senlis, on the 31st to Juilly, on September 2nd to Serris, on
+the 3rd to Touquin, on the 4th to Melun, where we were thankful at last
+to get orders again to advance on the 7th to Touquin, and on the 9th to
+Coulommiers, reaching Fere-en-Tardennois on the 12th for the Battle of
+the Aisne.
+
+Of the many recollections of the early days one which will remain
+longest in my mind is the terrible sadness of the flocks of refugees, of
+the poor people we left behind. And the glare of villages burning by the
+hand of the Boche. It was indeed war.
+
+Valuable reconnaissances were made during the whole Retreat from Mons to
+the Marne in spite of the tremendous difficulties involved by constant
+movement, transport, and the selection of new landing grounds, but, in
+the words of Sir John French, "It was the timely warning aircraft gave
+which chiefly enabled me to make speedy dispositions to avert danger and
+disaster. There can be no doubt indeed that even then the presence and
+co-operation of aircraft saved the very frequent use of cavalry patrols
+and detailed supports." The Royal Flying Corps was an important factor
+in helping the British Expeditionary Force to escape von Kluck's nearly
+successful efforts to secure another and a British Sedan.
+
+The reconnaissance resulting in the most valuable information of all,
+and, I think, during the whole of the war, was that of September 3rd,
+during the critical operations on the Marne, which formed one of the
+decisive battles in the world's history, when von Kluck's turning
+movement to the south-east against the French left was accurately
+reported and Marshal Joffre was enabled to make his dispositions
+accordingly. "The precision, exactitude and regularity of the news
+brought in," he said in a message to the British Commander-in-Chief,
+"are evidence of the perfect training of pilots and observers." The
+reports of the German air service, on the other hand, would appear from
+von Kluck's movements to have been of no assistance to him.
+
+The system adopted from the first was for the pilot or observer, or
+both, immediately on their return to bring their report to R.F.C.
+Headquarters, whence the Commander, or his staff officer, accompanied
+them to G.H.Q., where the map was filled in in accordance with the
+report. G.H.Q. could then ask questions and obtain any further
+information which the observer could give, while R.F.C. Headquarters
+could ascertain what further reports were most urgently required. The
+form of the reports, which were ready printed, had been most carefully
+thought out at R.F.C. Headquarters in peace and experimented with at the
+Concentration Camp.
+
+The maps thus compiled at G.H.Q. from air reconnaissance reports between
+August 31st and September 3rd were of vital interest, though it was
+sometimes very difficult to get the information put on the map for
+prompt consideration. For instance, at Dammartin on the evening of
+September 1st, when it was thought that German cavalry were within a few
+miles, G.H.Q. made a very hurried departure, and I was unable to find
+anyone to whom to give very important reports.
+
+It was at the Battle of the Marne that machines were for the first time
+allotted to Army Corps for tactical work, while long-distance
+reconnaissance was carried out by other machines operating from
+Headquarters. Later on, this system was established as a part of our
+permanent organization, squadrons being allotted to, and reporting
+direct to, Corps for tactical reconnaissance, artillery co-operation and
+contact patrols, and to Armies for longer-distance reconnaissance and
+fighting.
+
+The last phase of the war of movement was the race for the Channel Ports
+and it devolved upon aircraft to observe the enemy's movements from his
+centre and left flank to meet the Allied movement to the coast, to
+observe the movements of the four newly-formed corps which came into
+action at Ypres and to maintain liaison with the Belgian and British
+forces at Antwerp and Ostend. Information was very difficult to obtain
+and on one occasion I flew from the Aisne to Antwerp, under Sir John
+French's instructions, in order as far as possible to clear up the
+general situation when our G.H.Q. was in doubt as to whether Antwerp was
+completely surrounded or not. It was an interesting piece of work. There
+was a light drizzle, and the forest of Compiegne had to be flown over at
+about 200 feet. The B.E. could not make the distance without refilling,
+and although only a short halt was made at Amiens for the purpose, it
+was too late to fly direct to Antwerp. Instead, a landing was made in a
+very sticky field under light plough, which was selected from the air
+about 4 miles north of Bruges, to which town I rode on a borrowed
+bicycle. At Bruges there was great consternation and uncertainty as to
+the position at Antwerp, but the Commander kindly placed a large open
+car and its very energetic driver at my disposal to try and get through.
+After many difficulties we managed to find our way into Antwerp by
+about midnight, and I was received by the Belgian Commander. He
+explained that though the Germans had broken through the South-Eastern
+sector and his troops were very hard pressed (and pointing repeatedly to
+a piece of an 18-inch German shell in the corner of the room, he said,
+"Mais qu'est-ce qu'on peut faire avec ces choses-la!"), he hoped to be
+able to hold out for a time. After giving him General French's message
+and obtaining as much information as possible, I managed to get clear of
+Antwerp, reaching Bruges again at 3.15 a.m. At 4 a.m. we set out and
+found a very wet machine in a wetter field and after considerable
+difficulty and flying through the top of the surrounding hedge,
+struggled into the upper air on the way back to Headquarters at
+Fere-en-Tardennois.
+
+During the Battles of the Aisne and of Ypres strategical reconnaissance
+was carried out by the few machines available at Headquarters. Shephard,
+the best reconnaissance officer I have ever known, who was killed later,
+used to fly his B.E.2 without observer over the greater part of Belgium
+two or three times a week and always brought in a long, closely packed,
+and extraordinarily valuable report. Tactical reconnaissance to a depth
+of 15 to 20 miles was done by units attached to Corps.
+
+After the Battle of the Aisne, which was the turning point in the
+evolution from the war of movement to trench warfare, pure
+reconnaissance, though still the basis of air work, tended to become a
+matter of routine, while many new and specialized forms of it--such as
+air photography and artillery spotting by wireless--were developed.
+
+
+_Photography._
+
+Though experiments had been made in the problem of photography from the
+air before the war, principally by Fletcher, Hubbard and Laws, and its
+value to survey was recognized, it had not become of practical utility.
+We only took one official camera with us to France on August 13th, 1914,
+and it was not until September 15th that the first attempt at air
+photography was made, when five plates were exposed over positions
+behind the enemy's lines with very imperfect results. Its great value as
+an aid to observation in trench warfare was, however, very apparent,
+fresh brains were brought to the task, Moore-Brabazon, Campbell and Dr.
+Swan, and by the end of the year better success was obtained, though
+positions even then had to be filled in by the observer with red ink.
+Experiments at home during 1915 led to a great improvement in lenses,
+and at the beginning of 1916 air photography was universal. At the
+Battle of the Somme new enemy positions were photographed as soon as
+they were seen, and the camera did invaluable work in the reconnaissance
+of the Hindenburg Line during the German retreat of 1917, and the taking
+of over a thousand photographs was a daily occurrence. On September 4th,
+1917, a record of 1,805 photographs was made.
+
+The development of air photography, very remarkable in itself, is even
+more so when it is remembered that the improvement in enemy
+anti-aircraft guns drove our machines to carry out their work at
+altitudes increasing up to 20,000 and even 22,000 feet, at which heights
+the negatives had to be as distinct as those taken at 4,000 in the
+earlier days of the war.
+
+At the beginning of the Dardanelles operations our apparatus consisted
+of one camera, a printing frame and a dark room lamp. The first
+photographs were taken by Butler in April, 1915, from a H. Farman
+machine at necessarily low altitudes. Butler was wounded in June and was
+succeeded by Thomson, who alone made 900 exposures and sent in 3,600
+prints.
+
+In addition to the assistance of air photography to reconnaissance, the
+war gave it great impetus as the handmaid of survey and mapping. It was,
+in fact, the only means of mapping or correcting the maps of country
+held by the enemy, which in certain cases, as at Gallipoli and in
+Palestine, were very inaccurate.
+
+By the end of the war photographic processes and equipment had reached a
+high standard of excellence. There are still, however, certain
+difficulties in regard to the production of accurate maps, which have
+not been overcome, the most obvious being the necessity of an initial
+framework of fixed points and of contouring. The subject is considered
+so important that an "Air Survey Committee," consisting of
+representatives of the Air Ministry, the Geographical section of the War
+Office, the Ordnance Survey, the School of Military Engineering and the
+Artillery Survey School, has recently been formed. In addition, the
+School of Aeronautics of Cambridge University is studying the question.
+The Survey of India and the Survey of Egypt are also conducting
+experiments.
+
+
+_Wireless._
+
+From the outset, part of the German scheme of tactics was to batter down
+resistance by means of superior weight of heavy armament, and with the
+beginning of warfare of fixed position the observation and direction of
+our artillery fire became as important as distant reconnaissance.
+Besides its immense value in increasing the effect of the batteries, it
+had the indirect advantage of more closely binding the ties of mutual
+understanding between the air and ground troops, a point which
+fortunately seems to have been misunderstood by the Germans. In
+September, 1914, the first attempts were made to signal enemy movements
+from the aeroplanes of a Headquarters Wireless Flight which had been
+formed for the purpose, and this practice was continued with success
+throughout the Battle of the Aisne.
+
+In the earliest stages artillery co-operation was also carried out by
+dropping coloured lights, but from the Battle of Ypres onwards, though
+for some time very few wireless machines were available, this was
+effected by wireless or signal lamps. In his dispatch on the Battle of
+Loos, Sir John French wrote: "The work of observation for the guns from
+aeroplanes has now become an important factor in artillery fire, and the
+personnel of the two arms work in closest co-operation."
+
+By the Battle of the Somme artillery co-operation had assumed very large
+dimensions. For instance, on September 15th, 1916, on the front of the
+4th Army alone, seventy hostile batteries were located, twenty-nine
+being silenced. Counter-battery work was so effective before the
+offensive which opened on the Ypres front at the end of July, 1917, that
+the Germans withdrew their guns and the attack was delayed for three
+days in order that their new positions might be located.
+
+Recognition marks on aeroplanes were at this time, and indeed throughout
+the war, a matter of great difficulty. It had been suggested before the
+war that they would not be necessary, but the reverse was found to be
+the case, as even with the distinctive marks which were adopted our
+machines were often fired at by British troops, and we should
+undoubtedly have lost very heavily if we had flown over our own lines
+with false marks, as was suggested, or none.
+
+
+_Bombing._
+
+The bombing operations, which reached their climax in the raids on
+German industrial centres in 1918, arose from very primitive methods
+used at the beginning of the war. During the retreat from Mons a few
+hand grenades were carried experimentally in the pockets of pilots and
+observers, or, in the case of the larger varieties, tied to their
+bodies, and these were dropped over the side of the machine as
+opportunity occurred. At the Marne, for instance, small petrol bombs set
+fire to a transport park and scattered a mixed column of infantry and
+transport. I think I am right in saying that the first German bombs
+were dropped on us--unsuccessfully--at Compiegne on August 29th, 1914.
+It was not, however, until the beginning of 1915 that special bombing
+raids were started by the Royal Flying Corps, one of the first places to
+be attacked being the Ghistelles aerodrome in West Flanders.
+
+The most important bombing operations and raids into Germany in the
+early days of the war were carried out by the Naval Air Service, units
+of which landed at Ostend on August 27th and operated with the Royal
+Naval Division from Antwerp. They were subsequently withdrawn to Dunkirk
+to form the nucleus of an aircraft centre from which excellent work was
+done in attacking the bases established on or near the Belgian coast
+from which German submarines and airships conducted their operations.
+
+Just before the Germans entered Antwerp, the first raid was made against
+a German town, one machine reaching Dusseldorf, when it descended from
+6,000 to 400 feet and dropped three bombs on an airship shed.
+
+From the end of 1914 onwards the activities of the Royal Naval Air
+Service in this theatre of operations continually increased, the chief
+objectives being the gun emplacements at Middelkerke and Blankenburghe,
+the submarine bases at Zeebrugge and Bruges, the minefield and dock of
+Ostend, the airship sheds near Brussels, and the dockyards at Antwerp.
+The first airship destroyed in the air was attacked over Ghent.
+
+An interesting experiment was the attempt by the R.N.A.S. at the
+Dardanelles to sink the heavy wire anti-submarine net, which had been
+stretched on buoys across the Straits at Nagara by the Turks, by means
+of parachute bombs.
+
+To return to the Royal Flying Corps. During 1915 railway junctions were
+the principal bombing objectives, and raids were carried out on an
+ever-increasing scale, formations of fourteen to twenty machines taking
+part. At the Battle of Neuve Chapelle for instance, the railway
+junctions at Menin, Courtrai and Douai were attacked. One officer of No.
+5 Squadron, carrying one 100 lb. bomb, arrived over Menin at 3,500 feet,
+descended to 120 feet, and dropped his bomb on the railway line. The
+first V.C. of the Royal Flying Corps was obtained at the Second Battle
+of Ypres by Lieutenant W. B. Rhodes-Moorhouse, who in bombing Courtrai
+came down to three or four hundred feet, under heavy fire, but piloted
+his machine 35 miles back to Merville at the height of a few hundred
+feet, and died a few days later from his wounds.
+
+One of the most instructive features of the Battle of Loos in September,
+1915, was the definite co-ordination of bombing attacks with army
+operations. Many types of machines, belonging both to Army and Corps
+Squadrons, carried bombs in order to destroy dumps, communications, cut
+off reinforcements, and the like, while at the Somme bombing was carried
+out by formations of Wings. In October, 1917, 113 tons, and for a period
+of six days in March, 1918, 95 tons, of explosives were dropped. This
+illustrates the enormous progress of bombing which was so largely
+resorted to in the later stages of the war. The hand grenades of 1914
+had become bombs weighing three-quarters of a ton: the pilot's pocket a
+mechanically released rack: and aim, assisted by instruments, was
+becoming fairly accurate.
+
+Night bombing, necessitated by the fact that by day a large machine
+heavily laden with bombs was an easy prey to the fighting scout, came
+into prominence in 1916, increasing in intensity up to the end of the
+war; and raids into Germany recommenced. Early in 1918 these raids
+included the bombing of Maintz, Stuttgart, Coblentz, Cologne, and Metz.
+Machines sometimes dropped their bombs from heights of about 12,000 feet
+and at other times descended to within 200 feet of their objectives.
+
+
+_Contact Patrol._
+
+Contact patrol, the name given to the direct co-operation of aircraft
+with troops on the ground, was first extensively practised at the Battle
+of the Somme, though experiments in this direction had been made in
+1915, messages being dropped at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle at
+pre-arranged points.
+
+The main objects of contact patrols were to assist the telephone (which
+was frequently cut by shellfire), to keep the various headquarters
+informed of the progress of their troops during the attack, so also
+saving them from the possibility of coming under the fire of their own
+artillery, to report on enemy positions, to transmit messages from the
+troops engaged to the headquarters of their units, to attack ground
+formations, and to co-operate with tanks. A system of red flares on the
+floor of the trenches was used to mark the disposition of the troops,
+and aircraft communicated their information by means of signalling
+lamps, wireless and message-bags.
+
+During the German retreat of 1917 contact patrols attacked enemy
+foundations from 100 feet and in some cases landed behind the enemy
+lines to obtain information. The skill of low-flying pilots in taking
+cover by flying behind woods, houses, etc., became increasingly
+important. The fact that 62,673 rounds of ammunition were fired from the
+air against enemy ground targets between November 20th and 26th, 1917,
+and 163,567 between March 13th and 18th, 1918, indicates the rapid
+development of this form of aircraft action, the effect of which was
+frequently more deadly than bombing.
+
+Two of many protagonists of contact patrol were Pretyman and Bishop. On
+one occasion the latter, in attacking an aerodrome at about 50 feet,
+riddled the officers' and men's quarters with bullets, put two or three
+machines on the ground out of action, and three in succession as they
+got into the air. Another interesting example of contact patrol work
+occurred in 1917 when a pilot flew his machine at a low altitude over
+the enemy trenches, and he and his observer attracted the attention of
+the Germans by firing their machine guns and Verey lights. The Germans
+were so busy with the aeroplane that they had their backs turned to the
+front line and our infantry were able to cross no-man's land without any
+artillery preparation, take prisoners and bomb dug-outs.
+
+An article in the _Cologne Gazette_ showed what the Germans thought of
+low "strafing."
+
+    "The operations" (i.e. of June 7th, 1917), it says, "were prefaced
+    by innumerable enemy airmen, who, at the beginning of the
+    preparation for the attack, appeared like a swarm of locusts and
+    swamped the front. They also work on cunningly calculated methods.
+    Their habit is to work in three layers--one quite high, one in the
+    middle, and the third quite low. The English who fly lowest show an
+    immense insolence; they came down to 200 metres and shot at our
+    troops with their machine guns, which are specially adapted to this
+    purpose."
+
+Armour was first employed as a result of Shephard finding at Maubeuge a
+bullet lodged in the seat of his leather suit. Thin sheets of steel were
+at once cut out and placed in the wickerwork seats of aeroplanes. This
+primitive protection developed into the armoured machine mentioned
+later, which was about to make its appearance at the Armistice.
+
+I may mention here the "special duty" flights, which consisted in
+establishing secret communication between our Intelligence Branch and
+agents in the territory occupied by the Germans. Agents, mostly French
+and Belgian, were carried by aeroplane over the enemy lines and landed
+there. This work was started in 1914.
+
+
+_Fighting._
+
+At the beginning of the war it became obvious that it was not only the
+duty of aircraft to obtain information but also to prevent enemy
+aircraft crossing our lines. In addition to the reconnaissance machine,
+and in order to make its work possible, a machine designed purely for
+fighting was required. In August, 1914, the aeroplane's armament
+consisted simply of rifle, or carbine, and revolver, but our pilots
+nevertheless attacked hostile machines whenever the opportunity
+occurred. The first German machine to fly over us was at Maubeuge on
+August 22nd, 1914, and, though fighting on an extensive scale did not
+take place until 1916, as early as August 25th, 1914, there were three
+encounters in the air in which two enemy machines were driven down. One
+interesting report of an early fight is that between a B.E. and a German
+machine on December 20th, 1914.
+
+    "A German aeroplane with one passenger and pilot being encountered
+    over Poperinghe, we followed to Morbecque and then to Armentieres.
+    The passenger of the B.E. fired 40 rounds from his rifle and the
+    German passenger replied with some rounds from his revolver. The
+    B.E. crossed the bows of the German machine to permit the pilot to
+    use his revolver. The German switched off and dived below the B.E.,
+    and is believed to have landed somewhere north-west of Lille."
+
+Another instance of the early air combats was when Holt, single-handed,
+and armed only with a rifle, lashed to a strut of his machine, attacked
+ten Germans near Dunkirk, causing them to drop their bombs in the field
+and make off to their own lines.
+
+We managed to bring down a number of German machines, mainly by rifle
+fire (five had already been brought down by September 7th, 1914), but
+our great difficulty early in the war was to get the enemy into action,
+and, although during October and November, 1914, there was a certain
+amount of fighting, as a rule the German when attacked made for his own
+lines and the protection of his anti-aircraft guns. This, though
+offensive carried to the extent of wastefulness of life is equally bad,
+was a serious mistake in all ways from his point of view, entailing as
+it did a tendency for the confidence of the troops and the morale of the
+air service to be undermined from the outset. The error was rectified,
+but only temporarily, at the Somme.
+
+As the specialized duties of aircraft increased, the Corps machines
+engaged in them needed protection and it was realized that the best
+method of protection was the development of the air offensive. This was
+rendered possible by the adaptation of the machine gun to the aeroplane.
+Early in 1915 the invention of the "synchronizing gear" enabled a
+machine gun to fire through the propeller, and by the end of 1915
+fighting in the air became the general rule. The first squadron, No. 24,
+composed purely of fighting machines, took its place on the Western
+Front in February, 1916, and gradually Wings were attached to Armies
+solely for fighting and the protection of Corps machines. During the
+long months of the Battle of the Somme, for instance, when, though the
+Royal Flying Corps dominated the air, the Germans put up a strenuous
+opposition, bombing machines were protected by fighting patrols in
+formation on the far side of the points attacked. The rapidity with
+which fighting in the air developed is shown by the fact that at the end
+of 1916 twenty new fighting squadrons were asked for on the Western
+Front; the establishment was increased to twenty-four machines per
+squadron, and by the end of the war even night-fighting squadrons were
+operating with considerable success and, had the war continued, would
+have proved a very important factor in air warfare.
+
+The development of aerobatics, air fighting, and formation tactics
+brought many airmen into prominence. For example Albert Ball, who
+ascribed his successes to keen application to aerial gunnery; J. B.
+McCudden, the first man to bring four hostile machines down in a day;
+and Trollope, who later on brought down six. Hawker met his death
+fighting von Richthofen, who describes the fight in his book _The Red
+Air Fighter_ as follows:--
+
+    "Soon I discovered that I was not fighting a beginner. He had not
+    the slightest intention to break off the fight.... The gallant
+    fellow was full of pluck, and when we had got down to 3,000 feet he
+    merrily waved to me as if to say, 'Well, how do you do?'... The
+    circles which we made round one another were so narrow that their
+    diameter was probably not more than 250 or 300 feet.... At that time
+    his first bullets were flying round me, as up to then neither of us
+    had been able to do any shooting."
+
+At 300 feet Hawker was compelled to fly in a zig-zag course to avoid
+bullets from the ground and this enabled Richthofen to dive on his tail
+from a distance of 150 feet.
+
+This indicates a heavy disadvantage under which our aircraft laboured in
+all their work on the Western Front. The prevailing westerly wind which,
+while it assisted the enemy in his homeward flight, made it very
+difficult for a British machine, perhaps damaged by anti-aircraft fire,
+to make its way--still under fire--to its base.
+
+I cannot leave the subject of air fighting without giving one or two
+more examples. One which comes to mind is that of five British machines
+attacking twenty-five of the enemy. One of ours gliding down with its
+engine stopped and being attacked by two Germans was saved by another
+British one attacking and driving off the two enemy. The result of the
+combat was five German machines destroyed and four driven down out of
+control, whilst all of ours returned safely. Another example, that of
+Barker who, whilst destroying an enemy two-seater, was wounded from
+below by another German machine and fell some distance in a spin.
+Recovering, he found himself surrounded by fifteen Fokkers, two of which
+he attacked indecisively but shot down a third in flames. Whilst doing
+this he was again wounded, again fainted, again fell, again recovered
+control and again, being attacked by a large formation, shot down an
+enemy in flames. A bullet now shattered his left elbow and, fainting a
+third time, he fell several thousand feet, where he was again attacked,
+and thinking his machine had been set on fire he tried, as he thought in
+a final effort, to ram a Fokker, but instead drove it down on fire!
+Barker was by this time without the use of both legs and an arm. Diving
+to a few thousand feet of the ground he again found his retreat barred
+by eight of the enemy, but these he was able to shake off after short
+bursts of fire and he returned a few feet above the ground to our lines.
+
+Though at the beginning our machines were rather better than either the
+French or German, it was the marked superiority of our pilots which gave
+us the greatest advantage. We should have been superior even had the
+machines been exchanged.
+
+
+CO-OPERATION WITH THE NAVY.
+
+We have seen that the functions of co-operation with the Navy--Coast
+defence and Fleet assistance--were very complicated, and that at the
+outbreak of war the splendid pilots and excellent equipment of the
+R.N.A.S. were not so highly organized and were wanting in cohesion, but
+that the R.N.A.S. had advanced further than the Royal Flying Corps in
+specialized technical development. In the earlier part of the war, in
+addition to its main duties, the R.N.A.S. ventured in many directions,
+many of them of considerable value to the Army, as, for instance, at
+Antwerp.
+
+
+_Coast Defence, Patrol and Convoy Work._
+
+Immediately war broke out a system of coastal patrols was established
+between the Humber and the Thames Estuary and over the Channel--the
+latter serving as an escort to the Expeditionary Force crossing to
+France. Patrols were at first, through limitations of equipment, mainly
+confined to the Home coast, but, as the war went on and machines
+improved, they were rapidly extended, especially in connection with the
+detection and destruction of submarines; reconnaissances were carried
+out over the enemy's shores, and in 1918 there were forty-three flights
+of seaplanes, thirty flights of aeroplanes, together with flying boats
+and airships, operating from, and communicating with, an ever-increasing
+number of shore stations. Not only was anti-submarine work carried out
+in the vicinity of the coast, but organized hunts were made for
+submarines, ships were convoyed on the high seas, shipping routes were
+protected, and action was taken to bar the passage of submarines through
+narrow channels. This was effected by an intensive system of combining
+and interlocking patrols, and by maintaining, in close co-operation with
+surface craft, a protective barrage across suitable stretches of water,
+such as the Straits of Dover.
+
+Airships from the beginning, when patrols operated from Kingsnorth
+during the crossing of the Expeditionary Force to France, proved
+particularly useful for escort, in addition to patrol work, and
+twenty-seven small airships, known as the S.S. type, were completed in
+1915. In 1916 the Coastal type with a longer range was designed and
+constructed and new airship bases were established.
+
+
+_Fleet Assistance, Reconnaissance, Spotting for Ships' Guns._
+
+The successful use of Drachen kite-balloons borne in ships at the
+Dardanelles led to their extensive development. Up to about May, 1915,
+when the vessels to which they were attached could stand in close to
+shore and overlook the enemy's positions from a distance of three or
+four thousand yards, a large amount of spotting of great value was
+carried out by these balloons for ships at Gallipoli, but when the Turks
+brought long-range guns into position, kite-balloon vessels were obliged
+to lie out beyond 11,000 yards and their services were rendered
+comparatively slight for this purpose. From 1916, however, they were
+towed by merchant auxiliaries and light cruisers to spot submarines,
+observers communicating with the patrol ship by means of telephone. One
+of the most wonderful sights I have ever seen was from the observer's
+basket of the kite-balloon let up from S.S. "Manica" in June, 1915. We
+were spotting for the guns of H.M.S. "Lord Nelson" bombarding Chanak.
+The sky and sea were a marvellous blue and visibility excellent, the
+peninsula, where steady firing was going on all the time, lay below us,
+the Straits, with their ships and boats, the Asiatic shore gradually
+disappearing in a golden haze, the Gulf of Xeros, the Marmora, and
+behind one the islands of the AEgean affording a perfect background. No
+one who was at the Dardanelles, however vivid the horrors and the heat
+and dust and flies, will forget the beauty of the scene, especially at
+sunset, and it was seen at its best from the basket of a kite-balloon.
+
+The ever-increasing assistance rendered by aircraft to surface vessels
+in crippling Germany's submarine campaign is shown by the fact that in
+1915 ten submarines were attacked from the air and in 1918 126 were
+sighted and 93 attacked. Nor was the principle forgotten in countering
+the submarine menace that offence is the best defence, and among the
+many duties of R.N.A.S. aircraft, based on Dunkirk from the early days
+of the war, were anti-submarine patrols along the Belgian coast and the
+bombing of hostile submarine bases, such as Bruges.
+
+As in the case of the Army Corps observation machines, fighting scouts
+became necessary for the protection of patrols and to counter the
+enemy's efforts at raids and sea reconnaissance, and the considerable
+amount of experiment in air fighting which the R.N.A.S. had made before
+the war bore useful fruit.
+
+For the immediate protection of the Grand Fleet seaplane and aeroplane
+bases were established at Scapa Flow and Thurso at the beginning of the
+war, but, owing to damage from a gale in November, 1914, aircraft
+operations with the Fleet were carried out from the seaplane carrier
+"Campania." The problem of using carriers with the Fleet had not been
+seriously tackled before the war, and though experiments were
+strenuously carried out, and there were fourteen carrier ships in
+commission in 1918, and a seaplane carrier operated with the Battle
+Cruiser Squadron at Jutland, the use of aircraft in this way did not
+become very efficient. One of the chief difficulties was limitation in
+size, and consequently in radius of action, of aircraft employed from
+carriers or the decks of battleships. The total number of aeroplanes and
+seaplanes allotted to the Grand Fleet in 1918 was 350.
+
+Seaplane carriers occasionally co-operated with fighting ships. For
+instance in October, 1915, a fast carrier at the Dardanelles accompanied
+ships detailed for the bombardment of Dedeagatch, and her seaplanes not
+only co-operated in spotting but also made a valuable reconnaissance of
+the Bulgarian coast and railway. But as a rule fighting and
+reconnaissance aircraft had mainly to work from shore bases. To assist
+in this direction, units were sent overseas to be nearer their sphere
+of action, as, for instance, the R.N.A.S. squadrons stationed at Dunkirk
+which, besides general reconnaissance, helped the Navy to keep open the
+Straits of Dover, carried out bombing raids against German bases and
+dockyards, such as Ostend, Zeebrugge, and Bruges, and co-operated with
+monitors in the bombardment of the Belgian coast. The development of a
+long-range seaplane or flying boat was also taken in hand, though an
+efficient type was not produced until the last year of the war.
+
+As with the Army, an important part of naval aircraft duties was
+spotting for gunfire; and likewise single-seater fighters were required
+for the protection of our own aircraft, for preventing enemy aircraft
+reconnaissance, for attacking the enemy's fleet and protecting our own.
+The use of offensive patrols steadily increased during the war.
+
+
+_Bombing._
+
+I have already referred to bombing and mentioned the attack on
+Dusseldorf as an instance of the work done. Bombing raids had always
+been looked on with favour by the R.N.A.S. and were used throughout the
+war as a means of countering hostile aircraft operations from bases in
+Belgium. One of the first successful raids was that against the
+Friedrichshaven Zeppelin works by three Avro machines, which flew 250
+miles over enemy country on November 21st, 1914. Another noteworthy
+example was the attempted raid against Cuxhaven on Christmas Day, 1914,
+carried out by seaplanes, which were still in an experimental stage,
+and three carriers escorted by naval units. Powerful machines for
+bombing purposes were ordered and bombs of greatly increased size and
+gear for dropping them were designed.
+
+
+_Torpedo Attack._
+
+The impetus given to bombing helped forward another use of naval
+aircraft: torpedo attack. This is likely to develop in the future into
+one of the most important uses of aircraft in naval operations, but
+during the war it was never given an objective by the German fleet. In
+May, 1915, two Sunbeam Short machines were embarked in the
+"Ben-my-Chree" for operations at Gallipoli, and it was in this theatre
+that for the first time in history ships were sunk by torpedoes released
+from aircraft. I shall never forget the night when we steamed silently
+up the narrow Gulf of Xeros and lay waiting to release our seaplanes in
+the still darkness of the early morning. The machines were lowered
+noiselessly into the water, and, their engines started, flew across the
+narrow neck of Bulair under fire from the old Turkish line; then,
+reaching the northern end of the Dardanelles at dawn, they descended low
+(one machine actually landed on the water and discharged its torpedo),
+sank their targets, and returned. In addition to the possibility of
+submarine attack, the Gulf of Xeros is so narrow that our ship could
+have been hit by the cross fire of field guns. It was a very fine
+performance and, although during many years I have spent anxious hours
+hoping for the distant purr of a safe returning machine, I have never
+been happier than when after a long wait our seaplanes were again
+quickly raised on board. The only torpedo machine employed at the Battle
+of Jutland was a Sunbeam fitted with a 14-inch torpedo, and it was not
+until just before the Armistice that a squadron of torpedo aircraft was
+ready for operations with the Grand Fleet.
+
+The Germans also tried to develop the use of torpedo-carrying seaplanes
+and, as with their submarines, had the advantage over us of a vast
+number of targets close to hand in our North Sea and Channel shipping,
+but fortunately the British fighting scouts were able to destroy several
+of their machines before they had done much damage.
+
+
+HOME DEFENCE.
+
+At the beginning of the war the R.N.A.S. assumed responsibility for the
+defence of Great Britain against attacks by hostile aircraft, and a
+scheme for the defence of London and other large towns was entrusted to
+an anti-aircraft section of the Admiralty Air Department. Its resources,
+however, consisting of a few unsuitable and widely scattered aeroplanes,
+some 1 pdr. pom-poms with searchlights manned by a special corps, were
+inadequate and it was fortunate that only three small daylight aeroplane
+raids, mainly for reconnaissance, were made during 1914--the first
+German machine to visit England dropping a bomb near Dover on December
+21st.
+
+
+_Night Flying and Night Fighting._
+
+In spite of continuous action by the R.N.A.S. against German airship
+bases in Belgium, there were in 1915 nineteen airship and eight
+aeroplane raids--one by night--over England, and, although the new and
+powerful Zeppelin L.Z.38, which attacked London on May 31st, was
+destroyed by an aeroplane counter-attack in its shed near Brussels, no
+real counter measures were evolved until 1916, when Home Defence was
+taken over by the War Office. During that year a Home Defence Squadron
+of B.E.2c's, rapidly expanded to a Wing, was formed; and the systematic
+training of night pilots, the standardization of night-flying equipment
+and armament, and the lighting of aerodromes, was taken in hand. A
+continuous aeroplane and searchlight barrage with night landing grounds
+was gradually formed between Dover and the Forth; the wireless signals
+employed to assist Zeppelins in finding their way were intercepted, thus
+enabling our rapidly improving fighting machines to pick up and attack
+raiding airships; and the constant attacks to which airship sheds were
+exposed in Belgium, caused their withdrawal to positions further inland
+and increased their distance from England. During 1916 there were
+twenty-two raids by airships, six of which were destroyed, the first
+being brought down in September at Cuffley by Leefe Robinson.
+Thenceforward airship raids declined, the destruction of the majority of
+the largest and latest which raided England on October 19th, 1917,
+sealing their fate.
+
+On the other hand, aeroplane daylight and night raids on London, the
+first of which occurred in November, 1916, increased in number and
+strength with the object, in addition to the destruction of material and
+civilian _morale_, of forcing upon us the unsound retention at home of a
+considerable air defence force. The largest of these attacks was made by
+seventeen aeroplanes at midday on June 13th, 1917, but, the Zeppelin
+danger nullified, counter measures to meet the new menace were gradually
+evolved. New squadrons were raised and the number of home defence
+squadrons was raised to fourteen service and eight night training
+squadrons; a Northern Home Defence Wing was formed at York; and the Home
+Defence Group became the 6th Brigade. The first night aeroplane raid
+occurred in September, and the systematic training of night-fighting
+pilots on scout machines was hurried on. Separate zones for aeroplanes,
+guns and searchlights--the latter provided with sound locators--forming
+an outer barrage, were instituted, and aprons, supported by
+kite-balloons, formed a protective barrage up to 8,000 feet. A system of
+wireless and ground telephonic communication was improvised for plotting
+the course of attacking aircraft and thus enabling squadron commanders
+to concentrate machines at the point of attack. By 1918 the
+night-fighting aeroplane, assisted by these means, had countered the
+night-bombing aeroplane. At first, this had been the result of the
+retention of a large number of fighting aircraft and a complete
+organization at home.
+
+Meanwhile, night fighting, especially the protection of night bombers by
+fighting machines, had become of paramount importance on the Western
+Front. The chief feature of activity in September, 1918, was the
+successful co-operation between searchlights in the forward areas and
+No. 151 night-fighting squadron. This was the first night-fighting
+squadron, trained by the 6th Brigade, to be sent to France. It was
+proposed to send four more such squadrons and thus form a first line of
+offensive defence which would react on hostile raids over England. Thus
+once again the old doctrine was gradually observed that offence is the
+only true defence, and that purely defensive measures, however
+efficient, by keeping men and material from the vital point, are
+necessarily expensive out of all proportion to their effectiveness. Both
+the Germans and ourselves made the initial mistake of organizing large
+local defence systems partly to placate public opinion. During the
+German offensive of 1918 a further development of night fighting took
+place in the bombing and low strafing of enemy troops and unlighted
+transport with the aid of flares.
+
+
+THE MACHINE AND ENGINE.
+
+Turning now to the machine and engine, the Military Trials held in 1912,
+when the Royal Flying Corps was started, represented the first organized
+effort to assist the evolution of service aeroplanes in this country and
+a brief comparison will be useful to show the performance of the average
+machines and engines of that date, at the beginning, and at the end of
+the war, and of civil machines of to-day.
+
+At the Military Competitions of 1912, of the eight types--Avro, B.E.,
+Bristol, Cody, Bleriot, Deperdussin, Hanriot, and M. Farman--the first
+four were British, though only the Avro had a British engine, and the
+last four French, fitted with French engines. The average horse-power
+was about 83, the average maximum speed 67, and the minimum 50 miles per
+hour; the climb to 1,000 feet was effected in 4-1/2 minutes with an
+average load of 640 lb., which included pilot, fuel for four hours and
+useful load. The loading per square foot was, for biplanes, about 4-1/2,
+and, for monoplanes, 6 lb.
+
+On the outbreak of war, and until the end of 1914, of the ten types in
+use--Avro, B.E., Bristol, Sopwith, Vickers, M. Farman, H. Farman,
+Caudron, Morane, and Voisin--five were British and five were French and
+all were fitted with French engines. The average horse-power was still
+about 83, but the average maximum speed had risen to 74, and the minimum
+had fallen to 41 miles per hour. The load averaged 609 lb.
+
+A remarkable advance in machine and engine construction is shown by
+referring to the tables for 1918. At the Armistice of the twelve
+types--Avro, Bristol Fighter, Sopwith Snipe, S.E. 5a, de Havilland 4 and
+9a, Vickers Vimy, Handley Page O/400 and V/1,500, Fairey Seaplane 3c, F.
+2 A. and F. 5--all were British and, except the de Havilland 9a, which
+had an American engine, were fitted with engines of British manufacture.
+The F. 2 A., and F. 5, were twin-engined, while one, the Handley Page
+V/1,500, was equipped with four engines. The average horse-power was per
+engine, 344, and per machine, 516; the average maximum speed 111, and
+the minimum 53-1/2 miles per hour, the climb to 6,500 feet was carried
+out in 13 minutes and to 10,000 feet in 24 minutes with an average load,
+including fuel for 5-1/2 hours, of 2,742 lb. The average ceiling was
+15,500 feet; the loading per square foot about 8 lb.
+
+The years following the Armistice have witnessed the conversion of
+military machines and the development of new designs for commercial
+purposes. In 1921 there were thirteen types fitted with British engines:
+Avro, Bristol, de Havilland 4, 16 and 18, Vickers Vimy, Handley Page
+O/400 and W. 8, B.A.T., Westland, Fairey, Supermarine and Vickers
+Amphibians. No British machine had a foreign engine. The Vickers Vimy,
+Handley Page O/400 and W. 8, which had a passenger-carrying capacity of
+15, were twin-engined. The average horse-power was per engine, 387, and
+per machine, 474; the average maximum speed 114, and the minimum 49,
+miles per hour. With an average load of 2,467 lb., including fuel for
+4-1/2 hours, 19 minutes was required for a climb to 10,000 feet. The
+average loading per square foot was about 13 lb., and the average
+ceiling 15,793 feet.
+
+Before the war, in addition to the Royal Aircraft Factory, there were
+only eight firms engaged, on a very small scale, in the manufacture of
+aircraft in England, and an aero engine industry hardly existed. Until
+1916, the greater proportion of our machines, and almost all our
+engines, were French, and we were very dependent upon France for the
+replacement of our heavy losses in material. By the end of the war the
+bulk of our material was of British design and construction, though
+there was still a certain number of British built engines of French
+design. One American engine--the Liberty--was also employed. The fact
+that in October, 1918, the Royal Air Force had 22,171 machines and
+37,702 engines on charge, and that during the ten months January to
+October the output of machines had been 26,685 and of engines 29,561,
+gives some idea of the enormous growth in production.
+
+In the first few months of the war it was not possible to progress far
+with new inventions or improvements. Fortunately, our Aircraft Factory
+had evolved in the B.E. a machine of considerable stability which in
+this respect compared favourably with German machines, and was well
+adapted to its work of reconnaissance.
+
+Technical progress during the war often unfortunately involved the loss
+of valuable lives, as for instance those of Professor Hopkinson and
+Busk, to both of whom heavy debts of gratitude are owed, but gradually
+obstacle after obstacle, problem after problem, was successfully tackled
+by our designers and constructors. With a view to enlarging the field of
+observation, staggered planes were introduced in the B.E.2c. This
+machine also proved that it was possible to calculate the degree of
+stability and thus paved the way for the design of aeroplanes with
+indifference to stability and increased man[oe]uvrability for fighting
+purposes, or with great inherent stability for bombing. During 1915 the
+B.E.2c was used for all purposes, but the extra loading involved by the
+increasing use of aeroplanes for bombing and fighting caused a decrease
+in the rate of speed and climb, and our aeroplanes were temporarily
+inferior in fighting power to the Fokker.
+
+The necessity of preventing the enemy obtaining information soon led to
+the development of air fighting. At the beginning of the war the sole
+armament of aeroplanes was the rifle or revolver. The machine gun soon
+followed, but its use in tractor machines was impracticable on account
+of the danger of hitting the airscrew. The first "fighters" were
+therefore two-seater pushers, such as the "Short-horn" Maurice Farmans
+which, though not designed for fighting, and too slow to chase enemy
+aircraft, were the first to be fitted with Lewis guns, and F.E.'s, the
+first machine designed specifically for fighting, with the machine-gun
+operator in front of the pilot. These "pusher" fighters had an excellent
+field of view and fire forwards, but suffered from lack of speed and a
+large "blind" area to the rear. On the other hand, the single-seater
+tractors were potentially the superior fighters, and in order to protect
+the blades of the airscrew the French were the first to use deflector
+blades on them in tractor machines.
+
+Our early single-seater tractors were fitted with a Lewis gun fixed so
+as to fire over or at the side of the airscrew and actuated by a bowden
+wire, the most efficient, though not the most numerous, fighting
+machines at the end of 1915 being the Bristol Scouts.
+
+By the Summer of 1916, however, we had adapted the "synchronizing gear"
+to our machine guns, enabling them to be fired through the propeller;
+while aircraft engines developed much greater power and full allowance
+was made for all equipment carried. From that time the development of
+our single-seater fighters was steadily progressive. One of the first of
+these was the Sopwith "Pup," which had a speed of 106-1/2 miles an hour
+at 6,500 feet, climbed 10,000 feet in just over 14 minutes, and could
+attain a ceiling of 17,500 feet. In 1917 appeared the Sopwith "Camel," a
+typical example of this type, which was simple, stable, easily
+controllable and possessed two guns. It had a speed of 121 miles an hour
+at 10,000 feet, to which height it could climb in under 10-1/2 minutes,
+and a ceiling of 23,000 feet. The Martinsyde F.4, embodying further
+improvements, was not ready in time for active service.
+
+While the single-seater tractor was developing for purely offensive
+action, the two-seater fighter, of which the field of view,
+man[oe]uvrability and general performance were being improved, retained
+its utility as a reconnaissance machine. In 1916 the "pusher" type was
+superseded by the Sopwith "1-1/2 Strutter" armed with a synchronized
+Vickers gun, which for its 130 horse-power was never surpassed. The
+pilot was close to the engine and had a good view of the ground, while
+the gunner was placed behind him with a rotary Lewis gun turret. Early
+in 1917 these qualities were further developed in the Bristol Fighter.
+
+With the advent of these improved types the B.E.2c was relegated to the
+work of artillery co-operation, until superseded by the B.E.2e. Towards
+the end of 1916 appeared the R.E.8 with a Vickers synchronized gun and
+a Lewis gun, which after many vicissitudes became the standard machine
+for artillery work.
+
+Systematic bombing was practised by nearly all types of machines, but
+real accuracy was never obtained. Thus, the B.E.2c was first used in
+formations, but with a full load of bombs it could not carry an
+observer, and its moderate speed left it an easy prey to hostile
+fighters. Early in 1916 appeared the Martinsyde single-seater bomber
+with an endurance of 4-1/2 hours, and in 1917 the D.H.4 which was much
+used for day-bombing. The F.E.2b pusher, discarded as a fighting
+machine, became the principal night-bomber.
+
+It was comparatively late in the war before special bombing machines
+were evolved. They were then divided into day-bombers and night-bombers,
+the D.H.9 and 9a machines being typical of the former and the Handley
+Page of 1917--a large twin-engine aeroplane, the first really effective
+night-bomber, of considerable carrying power but low performance--of the
+latter. By November 8th, 1918, two super-Handley Pages were ready to
+start to Berlin. They possessed a maximum range of 1,100 miles, a crew
+of seven, four 350 horse-power Rolls-Royce engines, arranged in pairs, a
+tractor and a pusher in tandem on either side of the machine, and, as
+they would be compelled to fly both by night and day, a gun defence
+system. The D.H.10a and the Vickers Vimy, for day and night bombing
+respectively, were also being produced at the date of the Armistice.
+
+In the early days of the war an aeroplane had little to fear above
+4,000 feet. With the improvement of the anti-aircraft gun there was, by
+the end of the war, no immunity at 20,000 feet. Very low flying for
+attack was, however, being rapidly developed, and would have proved of
+great effect in 1919. The aeroplane used for this purpose was the
+single-seater fighter, and the Sopwith "Salamander," with two guns, a
+speed of 125 miles an hour, and 650 lb. of armoured plates, was about to
+make its appearance at the Armistice.
+
+I have previously mentioned how dependent the improvement of design and
+performance of aircraft has been upon the less simple and tardier
+development of the engine. The invention of the light motor made
+aviation possible, and development has synchronized with the evolution
+of lighter, more powerful and more reliable engines. One of the most
+difficult problems still confronting us is the production of a cheap,
+high-powered and reliable engine, but the existence at the end of the
+war of machines weighing 15 tons indicates the progress achieved, while
+British engines of 600 horse-power are now in use, and one of 1,000
+horse-power will shortly be available.
+
+
+TACTICS AND THE STRATEGIC AIR OFFENSIVE.
+
+During the war there were three concurrent movements in process: the
+ratios of the various forms of air tactics were constantly changing, and
+the components of our air forces varied in accordance with the
+development of reconnaissance, artillery co-operation, bombing and
+fighting. Secondly, their total strength was increasing rapidly; and,
+thirdly, it was increasing relatively faster than the Army or Navy.
+
+It was an evident and logical development and in accord with the
+shortage of national man power and the consequent tendency to a
+reduction in the strength of the Army, that, the necessary uses of
+aircraft with the Army and Navy being ensured, any available margin of
+air power should be employed on an independent basis for definite
+strategic purposes. The difficulty was to arrive at an agreement as to
+the minimum tactical and grand tactical requirements of the Army and
+Navy. The British Army was not alone in asserting that there was no
+minimum and that it wanted every available airman, and agreed with the
+French that anything which it could temporarily spare should be lent to
+the French Army. It was argued that the Armies could as easily and
+better arrange for strategic bombing. Fortunately in 1918, when I was
+Chief of the Air Staff, we managed to secure a margin and formed the
+Independent Air Force in June of that year. It was, of course,
+understood that, in the event of either the British or French Armies
+being hard put to it, the Independent Air Force could temporarily come
+to their direct assistance and act in close co-operation with them.
+
+In 1915 in accordance with the old doctrine that offence is the best
+defence, the surest method of protecting specialized machines on the
+battle front was found to be in the attack of enemy aircraft by fighting
+machines. In 1918 it was decided that raids on the centres of German war
+industry would not only cripple the enemy's output of material
+essential to victory, but also relieve the pressure on the Western
+Front, the vital point of the war. The Germans had had the same
+intention in the many raids which started over Dover on December 21st,
+1914.
+
+Long-range bombing had, however, been carried out spasmodically before
+1918. In addition to its taste for bombing in general, the Royal Naval
+Air Service were keenly bent from the outset on long-range bombing in
+particular. The question of forming an Allied squadron to bomb German
+munition factories was first raised in 1915 at one of the monthly
+meetings between the French and British Aviation departments; and in
+February, 1916, a small squadron of Sopwith "1-1/2 Strutters" was formed
+at Detling for the purpose of bombing Essen and Dusseldorf from England,
+but the Army in France, being short of machines, asked that they should
+be sent to the front, and therefore the scheme did not mature; neither,
+for similar reasons, did one for the co-operation in 1916 of British and
+French bombing squadrons, operating from Luxeuil.
+
+It was not until October, 1917, that the first striking force,
+consisting of three squadrons, was formed under the Army with Ochey as
+its base. It was mainly used in raids against the ironworks in the
+Alsace-Lorraine Basin and the chemical industry in the neighbourhood of
+Mannheim. As I have said, a definite offensive policy by means of an
+independent strategic force was later decided upon, and the
+"Independent" Air Force was brought into existence. It originally
+comprised two day-bomber and two night-bomber squadrons. During the
+summer additional squadrons were allotted to it, including D.H.9's and
+Handley Pages. Day-bombing squadrons had to fight their way to
+objectives in close formation, and the problems connected with
+navigation, calculation of petrol supply, action of wind and ceiling,
+were all accentuated. Casualties were heavy, with the result that a
+squadron of Fighters, composed of Sopwith "Camels," was incorporated for
+the purpose of protection. Thus we see the beginnings of an air fleet
+analogous to the naval fleet with its capital ships and protective
+craft.
+
+The main objectives were the centre of the chemical industry at Mannheim
+and Frankfort; the iron and steel works at Briey and Longwy and the Saar
+Basin; the machine shops in the Westphalian district and the magneto
+works at Stuttgart; the submarine bases at Wilhelmshaven, Bremerhaven,
+Cuxhaven, and Hamburg, and the accumulator factories at Hagen and
+Berlin.
+
+It will be seen from a map that three of the main industrial centres
+were situated near the west frontier of Germany; and, therefore, one
+portion of the striking force was based at Ochey, which lies within a
+few miles of the Saar Basin, within 180 miles of Essen, and within 150
+miles of Frankfurt. Another portion was based on Norfolk, where a group
+of super-Handley Page machines were established for the specific purpose
+of attacking Berlin, a distance of 540 miles, and the naval bases within
+400 miles. It was obvious that though aircraft from England would have
+to cover greater distances, they would not expose themselves to the
+strong hostile defences in rear of the battle front.
+
+Three instances of the Independent Air Force's action may be cited. On
+the night of August 21st/22nd, two Handley Page machines dropped over
+one ton of bombs on Cologne Station, the raid occupying seven hours. On
+the night of August 25th/26th two Handley Pages attacked the Badische
+Aniline und Soda Fabrik of Mannheim; bombs were dropped from a height of
+200 feet, direct hits being obtained in every case; and the machines
+then remained over the town, which they swept with machine-gun fire. On
+August 12th the first attack was made on Frankfurt by twelve D.H.4
+day-bombers, every machine reaching the objective and returning safely
+in spite of being attacked, over Mannheim and throughout the return
+journey, by some forty hostile fighters.
+
+During the five months of its existence the Independent Air Force
+dropped 550 tons of bombs, 160 by day and 390 by night. Of these 200
+tons were dropped on aerodromes, largely by the short-distance F.E.2b's,
+as a result of which, hostile attacks on Allied aerodromes became
+practically negligible. Theoretically, machines of the Independent Air
+Force should not have been utilized for attacking purely military
+objectives in the Army zone, such as aerodromes, and their co-operation
+with the Army for this purpose shows that their true role was either not
+appreciated or not favoured by the French and other Commands.
+
+There is ample testimony to the spirit of demoralization which pervaded
+the civil population of the towns attacked.
+
+    "My eyes won't keep open whilst I am writing," reads one captured
+    letter. "In the night twice into the cellar and then again this
+    morning. One feels as if one were no longer a human being. One air
+    raid after another. In my opinion this is no longer war but murder.
+    Finally, in time, one becomes horribly cold, and one is daily, nay,
+    hourly, prepared for the worst." "Yesterday afternoon," says
+    another, "it rained so much and was so cloudy that no one thought it
+    was possible for them to come. It is horrible; one has no rest day
+    or night."
+
+Although, for reasons into which it is not necessary to enter here, only
+a comparatively small percentage of the efforts of the Independent Force
+were directed against the industrial targets for which the force had
+been created, yet by the end of the war the strategic conception of air
+power was bearing fruit, and the Air Ministry had in hand measures for
+bombing which would have gone far to shatter German munitionment. The
+defence measures forced upon the Germans within their own country were
+reacting on their offensive action at the front, which was at the same
+time denuded of fighting aircraft at various points to meet the menace
+of our strategic force at Ochey.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION.
+
+As in peace on a small, so in war on a large scale, the history of the
+organization of aircraft, while we were fighting for our national
+existence and competing with similar enemy expansion, is one of
+continuous development, of decentralization of command and co-ordination
+of duties. Headquarters, the Squadron and the Aircraft Park, as
+originally conceived in peace, though subject to variations in size,
+remained the basis of our organization. For instance, the original
+eighteen machines of our squadron were increased to twenty-four for
+single-seater fighters and reduced to six in the case of the
+super-Handley Page bombers. The four squadrons originally operated
+directly under Headquarters, were soon allocated to Corps for tactical
+reconnaissance and artillery co-operation, while a unit remained at
+Headquarters for strategical and long-distance reconnaissance and a few
+special duties. The next step was in November, 1914, when two Wings,
+composed originally of two, and later, of five squadrons each, were
+formed, R.F.C. Headquarters retaining one squadron and the wireless
+flight for G.H.Q. requirements. The Wing Headquarters co-ordinated the
+work of the squadrons which were allocated to Army Corps.
+
+A further development, in 1916, was the formation for each of the three
+Armies of a Brigade, consisting of two Wings and an Aircraft Park.
+One--the Corps Wing--carried out artillery co-operation and close
+reconnaissance (including photography) with Army Corps, the other--the
+Army Wing--carried out more distant reconnaissance and fighting patrols
+under Army Headquarters. Our air superiority at the Battle of the Somme
+in 1916 led us to expect German counter-measures in 1917, and our
+programme for the following winter contemplated a proportion of two
+fighting squadrons to each Corps Squadron. By 1917 there were five
+British Armies in France and Belgium and our air forces were increased
+to provide a Brigade for each of the two new Armies. The Headquarters
+of the flying force in the field (except in the case of the Independent
+Air Force, which was responsible to the Supreme War Council and the Air
+Ministry in London) remained attached to G.H.Q. throughout the war.
+
+The main difficulty in the higher organization was the lack of
+co-operation between the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air
+Service and their competition for the supply of men and machines--the
+demands of both being urgent and insatiable. As a first step to overcome
+this, an Air Board was formed in May, 1916, to discuss general air
+policy, especially the combined operation of the Naval and Military Air
+Services, to make recommendations on the types of machines required by
+each, and to co-ordinate the supply of material. The Air Board was an
+improvement, but not a remedy, and, therefore, in 1917 it was decided to
+form an Air Ministry responsible for war aviation in all its branches
+and to amalgamate the Naval and Military Air Services as the Royal Air
+Force. This was carried into effect early in 1918, with Lord Rothermere
+as Secretary of State for Air with a seat in the Cabinet, and the air
+became the third service of the Crown, with an independent Government
+department permeated with a knowledge of air navigation, machinery, and
+weather, and closely allied to the industrial world for the initiation,
+guidance, and active supervision of research and experimental work.
+
+I will mention later some of the many arguments for and against the
+retention of an independent Air Ministry and autonomous Air Force in
+peace. The amalgamation was certainly advantageous in war. It effected
+the correlation of a number of hitherto independent services according
+to a uniform policy and prevented overlapping by centralizing
+administration. Under single control it was possible to carry out, on a
+carefully co-ordinated plan, recruiting and training, to supply men and
+material, to organize air power according to the strategic situation in
+each of the various theatres of war, and to form the correct ratio
+between the air forces in the field and the reserves in training at
+home. The difficulty was that the amalgamation had to be carried out
+during the most intensive period of air effort, but by the end of the
+war most of these objects had been attained without jeopardizing the
+close co-operation with the Army and Navy. Co-operation with the Naval
+and General Staffs and with naval and military formations was, in fact,
+improved, independent action was beginning to bear fruit, and we
+possessed an Air Force without rival.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PEACE
+
+
+THE FUTURE OF AERIAL DEFENCE.
+
+In the evolution of aviation during the war the conclusion has been
+reached that the most remarkable lines of development at the Armistice
+were in the direction of ground and night fighting, torpedo attack and
+long-range bombing, exemplifying respectively the three spheres of air
+operations--military co-operation, naval co-operation, and the strategic
+use of aircraft. It must be remembered that this progress in tactics and
+strategy, in the machine, and the airman's skill, was made in the short
+period of four years, and that every war has started with a great
+advance in scientific knowledge, accumulated during peace, over that
+obtaining at the close of the previous war. We may therefore assume,
+provided the danger is averted of a retrograde movement from recent
+scientific methods to pre-war conditions--sabres, bayonets, and
+guns--that by the outbreak of another war on a large scale, which we
+hope may never occur, the knowledge of Service aeronautics will have
+increased immeasurably since 1918, and may be, not a contributory, but a
+decisive factor in securing victory.
+
+The period since the Armistice has been employed in the reduction and
+consolidation of the Royal Air Force. In England the cadre system has
+been adopted, while abroad the greatest concentration of effort is aimed
+at, with Egypt, at present the most important strategic point in the
+Imperial air system, as the centre of activity. Iraq is being handed
+over to the control of the Royal Air Force, whose share in the policing
+of overseas possessions is likely usefully to grow provided any tendency
+to the concurrent building up of a large ground organization is
+withstood. The advantages of aircraft for "garrison" duties lie, under
+suitable geographical conditions, in their swift action and wide range,
+their economy, and, during disturbances their capacity for constant
+pressure against the enemy without fear of retaliation. One of the main
+problems is at present that of personnel. Service flying is restricted
+to comparatively young men, and therefore the majority of officers can
+only be commissioned for short periods. For this reason the experiment
+is being made of taking officers direct from civil life on short
+engagements, and at the same time endeavouring to ensure, by technical
+and general education, that the Royal Air Force shall not become a
+blind-alley occupation.
+
+Though it is difficult to foretell on what lines aircraft will develop
+for any one purpose, as in the past, the problem of military
+co-operation will perhaps be less complex than that of co-operation with
+the Navy. It will probably consist of improvements along the lines
+already indicated, such as increased range, speed, climb,
+man[oe]uvrability, offensive armament, armour, the assistance of tank
+and anti-tank action, and the utilization of gas. Fighting will
+undoubtedly take place at very high altitudes to keep the enemy's
+fighting machines away from the zone of operations--necessitating the
+development of the single-seater so as to increase climb and
+man[oe]uvrability, and obtain, if possible, a speed of 200 miles an hour
+at 30,000 feet. Cavalry, unless retained, as I think they should be, in
+the form of mounted machine-gunners, will, I think, disappear in
+European warfare, but infantry will remain, and it will be the object of
+aircraft to assist their advance by reconnaissance, ground attack,
+artillery and tank co-operation, and the destruction of the enemy's
+supplies and communications. In this connection ground tactics and air
+tactics must develop _pari passu_ and commanders of Corps and Armies
+must work out during peace training the fullest schemes for the most
+intimate co-operation between air and land forces.
+
+The future of naval co-operation is a difficult problem, more especially
+as there was no major naval engagement after Jutland in which aircraft
+could be used, and consequently we have little to go on in estimating
+their practical value in direct co-operation with the fleet. It is
+impossible at present to judge between the conflicting opinions as to
+the future of the capital ship, but it is certain that aviation will
+materially modify naval tactics and construction. Coast defence,
+reconnaissance, anti-submarine work, escort, and the bombing of enemy
+bases, will doubtless continue and develop with ever-increasing
+machinery and equipment; but torpedo attack by aircraft may reach a
+point where the very existence of opposing fleets may be endangered. It
+is already questionable whether a battleship could survive an attack
+launched by even a small force of this mobile arm.
+
+As was the case during the war, the action of aircraft at sea is
+restricted by range, the difficulty being to find the mean between the
+opposing conditions of radius of flight and limitation in the size of
+aircraft imposed by the deck-space of "carriers," but there is reason to
+suppose that on the one hand engines will be so improved as to afford a
+sufficient radius of action to comparatively small aircraft, while, on
+the other, devices will be found to economize deck-space.
+
+Fleets operating near the enemy's coast will be vulnerable from land
+aircraft bases, and thus close blockade will be rendered increasingly
+difficult. The possibility of gas attack on enemy bases from the air in
+co-operation with submarines and of effecting a blockade by this means
+must be envisaged.
+
+Since the Armistice the operational work of the Royal Air Force on
+behalf of the Navy has been conducted under the auspices of the
+Admiralty. Improvements have been made in large flying boats and
+amphibians, especially with a view to facilitating their landing on
+"carriers" and the decks of battleships. There has also been
+considerable progress in the construction and use of torpedo aircraft.
+
+The war lasted long enough to prove the effect of the strategic
+offensive by air. In spite of the dictates of humanity, it cannot be
+eliminated. It is true that modern war is inimical to the progress of
+mankind and brings only less suffering to the victors than to the
+vanquished. To ensure peace should therefore be our ideal. But a great
+war once joined is to-day a war of peoples. Not only armies in the
+field, but men, women, and even children at home, are concentrated on
+the single purpose of defeating the enemy, and armies, navies, and air
+forces are dependent upon the application to work, the output of war
+supplies, and, above all, the morale of the civil population. Just as
+gas was used notwithstanding the Hague Convention, so air war, in spite
+of any and every international agreement to the contrary, will be
+carried into the enemy's country, his industries will be destroyed, his
+nerve centres shattered, his food supply disorganized, and the will
+power of the nation as a whole shaken. Formidable as is the prospect of
+this type of air warfare, it will become still more terrible with the
+advent of new scientific methods of life-destruction, such as chemical
+and bacterial attack on great industrial and political centres. Various
+proposals, such as the control of the air effort, service and civil, of
+all countries by the League of Nations, and even the complete
+elimination of aviation, have been put forward as a means of avoiding
+the horrors of aerial warfare and its appurtenances, but they are
+untenable, and any power wishing and able to sweep them aside will
+undoubtedly do so.
+
+A future war, as I see it, will begin something after this manner,
+provided either side possesses large air forces. Huge day and night
+bombers will assemble at the declaration of war to penetrate into the
+enemy's country for the attack of his centres of population, his
+mobilization zones, his arsenals, harbours, strategic railways, shipping
+and rolling stock. Corps and Army squadrons will concentrate in
+formation to accompany the armies to the front; reconnaissance and
+fighting patrols will scatter in all directions from coastal air bases
+to discover the enemy's concentrations and cover our own; the fleet,
+whatever its nature, will emerge with its complement of reconnaissance
+and protective machines and torpedo aircraft for direct action against
+the enemy's fleet. A few fighting defence units will remain behind.
+
+But it must not be imagined that these functions will be carried out
+unopposed. Local battles in the air will occur between fighting machines
+for the protection of specialized machines, while the main air forces in
+large formations will concentrate independently to produce, if possible,
+a shattering blow on the enemy and obtain from the outset a supremacy in
+the air comparable to our supremacy on the sea in the last war.
+
+In mobilization the time factor is all-important. Our national history
+has been one of extraordinary good fortune in this respect, but the
+margin allowable for luck is becoming very narrow and, whereas in 1914
+it was some twenty days between the declaration of war and the exchange
+of the first shots, in the next war the air battle may be joined within
+as many hours, and an air attack launched almost simultaneously with the
+declaration of war. In modern war the mobilization period tends to
+shorten, and every effort will be made towards its further reduction,
+since mobilizing armies are particularly vulnerable from air attack.
+
+
+CIVIL AVIATION AS A FACTOR IN NATIONAL SECURITY.
+
+The picture I have drawn may appear highly coloured for the reason that
+no country is likely for some time to possess sufficiently large air
+forces to obtain a decisive victory, or at any rate an uncontested
+superiority, at the outbreak of war. Though in air, as in every other
+form of warfare, attack is more effective than defence, we cannot afford
+to keep our air forces up to war strength in peace any more than our
+Army or Navy.
+
+The problem, from a military point of view, is therefore to ensure an
+adequate reserve and to maintain our capacity for expansion to meet
+emergencies. The number of units maintained at war establishment should
+be the absolute minimum for safety and of the type immediately required
+on mobilization, i.e. long-range bombing and naval reconnaissance
+squadrons. The remainder should be in cadre form. We can, of course,
+maintain a fixed number of machines and pilots in reserve for every one
+on the active list, but, although some such system is necessary, on a
+large scale it is open to many and serious objections. First of all,
+even on a cadre basis, it means keeping inactive at considerable cost a
+number of machines which may never be used and which, however carefully
+stored, quickly deteriorate. Knowledge of aeronautics is still slender
+and improvements are made so continuously that machines may become
+obsolete within a few months. Moreover, the growth of service aviation
+in peace must tend to become artificial and conventional rather than
+natural, and this will react on design and construction, which will be
+cramped, both technically and financially, within the limits imposed by
+service requirements.
+
+It is obvious therefore that the capacity of the construction industry
+to expand cannot be fostered by service aviation alone; furthermore, in
+the event of another war of attrition, expansion will be more essential
+than any amount of machine reserve power immediately available, and in
+the event of a war of short duration that power will win which has the
+greatest preponderance of machines, service or civil, fit to take the
+air. The asphyxiation of a large enemy city, if within range, can be
+done by night-flying commercial machines, and it would require a
+defending force of great numerical superiority for its successful
+defence.
+
+Whether, therefore, from this point of view, or others, which I will
+mention later, another solution must be found, and this lies in the
+development of civil aviation. An analogy in the Navy and the Mercantile
+Marine has long been apparent. "Sea power," says Mahan, "is based upon a
+flourishing industry." Substitute "air" for "sea" and the analogy is
+still true. The Navy owed its origin to our mercantile enterprise and
+to-day it depends upon the Mercantile Marine for its reserve power of
+men and material. In the same way must air power be built up on
+commercial air supremacy. If we accept Mahan, or the dictum of any other
+great naval or military historian or strategist, a service air force by
+itself is not air power, and after a brief if brilliant flash must
+wither if reserves are not immediately at hand. A large commercial air
+fleet will provide, not only a reserve of men and machines, but it will
+keep in existence an aircraft industry, with its designing and
+constructional staffs, capable of quick and wide expansion in emergency;
+and such an industry will not be employed on the design of contrivances
+for use in a possible war, but on meeting the practical requirements of
+everyday air transport and navigation.
+
+Thus a natural, practical and healthy, as opposed to a stereotyped and
+artificial, growth will be ensured. Our naval supremacy is largely
+attributable to the interest which the people as a whole have
+traditionally taken in naval policy; in other words, to the fact that we
+are a seafaring nation. Similarly air supremacy can only be secured if
+the air-sense of the man in the street is fostered, and aviation is not
+confined to military operations, but becomes a part of everyday life. At
+the present time commercial aviation is far too small to play the part
+of reservoir to the Royal Air Force--an object which must constitute one
+of the principal claims for support of the nucleus already in existence.
+
+
+CIVIL AVIATION AS AN INSTRUMENT OF IMPERIAL PROGRESS.
+
+Civil aviation, however, has not only an indirect military, but, with
+its superiority in speed over other means of transport, a direct
+commercial utility. The nation which first substitutes aircraft for
+other means of transport will be more than half-way towards the
+supremacy of the air. Moreover, as the Roman Empire was built upon its
+roads and as the foundations of the British Empire have hitherto rested
+upon its shipping, as steam, the cable and wireless have each in turn
+been harnessed to the work of speeding up communications, so to-day,
+with the opening of a new era of Imperial co-operation and consultation,
+this new means of transport by air, with a speed hitherto undreamed of,
+must be utilized for communication and commerce between the various
+portions of the Empire.
+
+A comparison of the French and British attitudes towards civil aviation
+clearly demonstrates the two policies I have mentioned. Both France and
+England grant subsidies--France the very much larger sum--but the great
+difference lies in the objects aimed at. French policy is fostering
+civil aviation as a part of its military policy and, a portion of the
+subsidy being given to machines fulfilling service requirements, there
+is a strong tendency for French civil aviation to be military air power
+camouflaged. British policy, on the other hand, should aim at fostering
+civil aviation primarily as a commercial concern and believes that air
+commerce is the basis of air power as a whole. We are prepared to face
+the tendency of military and civil machines to diverge if that
+divergence is essential to the commercial machine.
+
+An alternative to the British policy of maintaining a small air force
+and fostering commercial aviation as a reserve is the Canadian plan of
+a small air force training school and a civil Government flying service
+with such objects as forest patrol, survey and coastguard duties, the
+work being carried out on repayment for Government departments,
+provincial governments and private corporations. The former method,
+allowing of independent commercial expansion, is better suited to
+British mentality and requirements, but its success will depend on a
+genuine endeavour to make commercial aviation the real and vital basis
+of our air power. Experience in commercial operation cannot be gained by
+the exploitation of air routes or the carriage of mails or passengers
+under Service auspices. It is only by running transport services, as far
+as possible under private management, that operational data can be
+obtained, economies effected, and the design of strictly commercial
+machines improved.
+
+To sum up. Military air supremacy can best be assured by the intensive
+development of industrial air organization for commercial purposes. The
+conception of civil aviation as the mainstay of air power as a whole is
+right. Service aviation is bound by technical and financial limits; its
+scope confined to the requirements of war. Civil aviation, on the other
+hand, opens out a prospect of productive expansion. The steady growth of
+the Continental services is already beginning to demonstrate the
+importance of air transport.
+
+
+FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS.
+
+The commercial exploitation of air transport is passing through a period
+of experiment, and suffering in the general war reaction from the
+incapacity of the public to think of aviation except as a fighting
+service. The machines hitherto used on the lines to and on the Continent
+are principally converted war machines, and to transform military into
+commercial craft and to use them as such is of small assistance to civil
+aviation, which requires reliable, economic machines as one of the basic
+conditions of its financial success. The cost of running an air
+transport service is considerable. Depreciation is one heavy item of
+expenditure. New machines must be evolved suitable to the requirements
+of mail, passenger and freight transport, but, in the present state of
+financial stringency, capital is not forthcoming for experiment unless
+there is every promise of a safe return. Then there are the expenses
+involved in general ground organization, maintenance, fuel, insurance,
+etc. The question is how can we carry on until the really economic type
+of commercial machine is evolved. It will never be evolved unless there
+is continuous flying and a continuous demand for new and improved
+machines for commercial work. To meet this in France, the Government
+came forward with a liberal grant of subsidies which have now been
+increased and placed on a more favourable basis, permitting of a very
+considerable reduction in the fares for transport by air. The British
+Government has also granted a subsidy for British firms operating on the
+cross-Channel routes, which it is hoped will place them before long on a
+sound, self-supporting, commercial basis. Part of this subsidy is
+allocated to assist transport companies in obtaining the latest type of
+commercial machines on a hire purchase system. With a few services
+properly supported by the State we shall pull through the experimental
+period of civil aviation.
+
+The services to the Continent, although the distance is on the short
+side for the merits of air transport to be properly demonstrated, effect
+a considerable saving in time, and it is certain that the amount of
+mail, especially parcels, carried on these routes will continue to
+increase and lead to the eventual adoption of normal rates for air
+postage. An extension of the use of aircraft as the regular means of
+carrying mails will be of great assistance in the development of air
+transport. Aircraft revolutionize the speed of intercommunication by
+letter, and banks and financial houses will gradually realize that large
+savings can be made by utilizing air mails for the transaction of
+business. A difficulty lies in the fact that the area of the British
+Isles is not very favourable for an extensive air mail service, which
+can only operate by day, since by the existing means of transport mails
+are carried during the out-of-business hours and can generally reach
+their destination in a night, while the distances to Paris and Brussels
+are too short to afford outstanding advantage.
+
+Lastly, we require public support and a spirit of confidence in the air.
+This can only be secured by increased reliability, reduction of charges
+and keeping the public informed of the progress made. It is the nature
+of man to distrust new departures. He disliked the introduction of
+mechanical devices into the Lancashire weaving mills. He scoffed at the
+steamship and railway. To-day he is inclined to treat as premature the
+serious exploitation of the air. In spite of the great decrease of
+accidents, in spite of the increased comfort of air travel, in spite of
+increased regularity, the average person is slow to realize that the
+communication of the busy man of the future will be by air. The majority
+of the business world is too conservative to make general use of the
+opportunities offered by aircraft for the quick transmission of its
+correspondence, while, though speed must be paid for, the high fares
+hitherto charged have deterred the general public from substituting the
+aeroplane for the train or boat. The running costs represented by these
+fares are being materially reduced as a more economic machine is
+evolved, and the reduction of fares which helps to place competition
+with foreign subsidized services and with the older forms of transport
+on more equal terms must for a time depend upon the assistance of
+Government grants.
+
+
+WEATHER CONDITIONS AND NIGHT FLYING.
+
+The safety of the machine and the reliability of an air service largely
+depend on accurate weather forecasts. In order to co-ordinate the
+meteorological work of the country as a whole, and for the special
+assistance of aviation, the Meteorological Services of Great Britain
+have been amalgamated under the Department of Civil Aviation, and,
+working in close co-operation with the Communications Branch of the
+Department, have made improvements in the rapid collection and
+distribution of meteorological information for all purposes. In
+addition to the forecasts issued four times daily, collective reports
+are issued hourly by wireless from the London terminal aerodrome at
+Croydon and copies are distributed to transport companies and others
+concerned.
+
+A feature of meteorology which is often overlooked is its economic
+value. By making use of a knowledge of the wind at different heights,
+aircraft can complete journeys more quickly than would otherwise be
+possible, and thereby save their own fuel and their passengers' time.
+This will be specially useful in the tropics where the regularity of the
+surface winds has its counterpart in the upper air, but even in Europe
+time-tables can be drawn up with due attention to the favourable and
+unfavourable effect of prevailing winds. The planning of airship routes
+in particular, must be considered in close connection with this aspect
+of weather conditions.
+
+To-day, however, the aeroplane may be considered as an "all-weather"
+craft, save for mist and fog--the enemies of all transport and
+particularly to that of the air--to which unfortunately England is
+particularly liable during the winter. Experiments have been carried out
+on the dispersal of fog, the illumination of aerodromes by fog-piercing
+lights, and instruments to record the exact position of the aeroplane
+and its height above the ground, but success has not yet been achieved.
+
+Similar to the problems of flying and landing in mist and fog is that of
+night flying. Until night flying is practicable, only half the value of
+the aeroplane's speed is obtainable, since other transport services run
+continuously day and night. Further, as machines become rapidly obsolete
+owing to technical progress, it is essential that they should be in use
+for the greatest number of hours during their life. Much has been done
+in the lighting and marking of aerodromes and in the equipment of
+aeroplanes with wireless telephone and direction-finding apparatus.
+
+It may here be mentioned that there are two methods of obtaining the
+position of aircraft by means of wireless telegraphy, known as
+direction-finding and position-finding. Direction-finding is effected by
+means of two coils set at right angles in the aircraft, by means of
+which the bearing of a transmitting ground station with reference to the
+aircraft's compass can be taken. When two or more bearings on different
+ground stations, whose position is known, have been obtained, a "cut" or
+"fix" of the aircraft is obtained. The position-finding system consists
+of two or more ground stations fitted with apparatus capable of taking
+bearings with respect to true north and connected by direct telephone
+line. The aircraft calls up by wireless one of these stations, requests
+her position and then makes a series of signals for about half a minute.
+The stations take the aircraft's bearings, plot its position, and
+transmit the information to the aircraft. Wireless direction and
+position-finding, as well as wireless telephony, have on several
+occasions proved their value to navigation, but in spite of instances of
+successful night flying, developments have not been such as to render
+night services practicable.
+
+Marine experience has been a valuable guide, but aerial illumination
+has entailed many new problems of its own--the distribution of light
+through very wide angles, the installation of light and powerful lamps
+in aircraft, the elimination of shadows and the prevention of dazzle,
+the provision of apparatus to indicate the strength and direction of the
+wind, and the like.
+
+Very shortly the first organized and equipped night-flying route will be
+available; that between London and Lympne on the Continental air
+highway. The Boulogne-Paris section will probably be ready a little
+later. There will be four lighthouses on the English section, of which
+two will be automatic, requiring no attention for twelve months at a
+time. These, and many other, facilities will much assist the progressive
+establishment of services during the hours of darkness, and will provide
+valuable data for the establishment of other night-flying routes. There
+is no real difficulty given a reasonably clear atmosphere.
+
+
+ORGANIZATION.
+
+I have mentioned the broad lines on which the organization of the air
+services was built up before and during the war. We have seen that the
+initial foundations and framework remained and bore the great systematic
+structural development which was gradually required. In August, 1914,
+there were some 240 officers, 1800 men and 200 machines; in November,
+1918, 30,000 officers, 170,000 men, and 22,000 machines, all of them
+better and of a higher performance than those of 1914. Our casualties
+during the war were about 18,000; air formations had been active in
+some fifteen theatres of operations; 8,000 enemy machines and 300
+observation balloons had been destroyed; some three-quarters of a
+million photographs taken over hostile country, and 12,000,000 rounds
+had been fired from the air at ground targets. At Home two organizations
+had expanded independently from the same seed until, impeding one
+another's growth, their trunks had joined and a single and improved tree
+was the result.
+
+This is the only country where a unified air service has been adopted.
+In war the arrangement was successful. Against its continuance in peace
+the Army and Navy urge that, with the best of wills, there is a great
+difference between having an integral branch of a service to work with
+other services and having to deal with an independent organization, and
+argue increased cost, duplication, competition and disjointed action.
+There is no doubt that the liaison of the General, Naval and Air Staffs
+must be closened, and if co-operation with the senior services was
+really becoming less satisfactory, a return to the old system should be
+considered amongst other alternatives, but I do not think that it should
+be so. It must also be remembered that, although air co-operation is
+vital to naval and military operations, it is fortunately unlikely that
+there will be another war for a long time and, meanwhile, the growing
+essential, independent strategic action would be irretrievably impaired
+by the reabsorption of the Air into the Army and Navy.
+
+On the other hand, even apart from supply, such a reversion would also
+cause much duplication, e.g. training. The solution and the correct and
+logical outcome of the unification of the Air service is the close
+grouping of the three arms in a Ministry of Defence, and this, even in
+face of the obvious practical difficulties, should be adopted and
+co-ordination thus increased step by step. Apart from Supply, some of
+the services in which this could be effected are the medical, education,
+chaplains, mobilization stores, transport, works and buildings,
+accounting, communications, ordnance and national factories. A modified
+scheme might also be studied in which, under a Ministry of Defence, the
+Army and Navy each had tactical air units of seconded personnel for
+artillery co-operation, spotting and reconnaissance, and the Air
+Ministry dealt with supply, research, initial training and reserves,
+civil aviation and an independent air force.
+
+One of many good examples of the necessity of co-ordination is afforded
+by the position of the aircraft supply services at the beginning of the
+war and their development. We have already seen that there were some
+eight private firms manufacturing aircraft in a small way and there was
+practically speaking no engine industry at all. For the Royal Flying
+Corps, the War Office had relied largely on the Royal Aircraft Factory,
+and, although the methods of control adopted had many advantages, there
+was in them a tendency to retard private enterprise and development. The
+Admiralty, on the other hand, had assisted by dealing almost entirely
+with firms for Royal Naval Air Service supply. The conditions in France
+fortunately were very much better than those in this country, and for
+the first year or two French factories helped us out with both machines
+and engines. By the end of the war we had the largest and most efficient
+aircraft industry in the world. There were no less than seventy-six
+great factories turning out vast numbers of complete aeroplanes, in
+addition to thirty-three manufacturing complete engines and over 3,000
+turning out spares and equipment. Such expansion is not possible within
+a few weeks, it took a long time to arrive at this position, and it
+causes one very seriously to think what would have happened had France
+not been our ally, and points the moral which has been mentioned of the
+necessity for a thriving aircraft and engine industry in peace. During
+the war Germany also had a very large number of firms engaged on this
+work.
+
+
+THE MACHINE AND ENGINE.
+
+The general differences between service and civil requirements in
+aircraft fall under the headings of ceiling, load and speed. For service
+purposes very much higher ceiling and greater climb and speed are
+required and the design is much affected by the condensed nature of the
+load. For peace purposes, besides the primary advantage of speed which
+the air has over other forms of transport, regularity must be ensured
+and the correct ratio between speed, duration and load-carrying power
+determined. Great ceiling, man[oe]uvrability and climb are not required.
+
+However great the speed and load, there is no value in air transport,
+whether for passengers or mails or goods, unless it is safe and also
+compares favourably from an economic point of view with the older
+methods. Without these the public cannot be expected to utilize air
+transport, nor is there any inducement to surrender mails and freight
+for carriage by air. Every endeavour compatible with economy is made, as
+far as the equipment of aerodromes and the organization of the routes
+are concerned, to render air navigation as safe as possible, yet, though
+both safety and economy of running have been improved, much remains to
+be done. Safety depends largely on engine reliability, fire prevention
+and the capacity of the machine to land in small spaces.
+
+Though neither roads nor rails have to be laid and aircraft possess the
+great advantages of mobility and point to point transit, the initiation
+and maintenance of an air service is a very complex and costly matter.
+The utilization of converted war machines is no longer sufficient and
+those specially designed for commercial work are beginning to make their
+appearance. Such are the Handley Page W.8, the Vickers, the D.H.18 and
+34, and the Bristol 10-seater.
+
+The first two are twin-engine and the last three single-engine machines.
+Opinions differ as to the relative advantages of the twin and
+single-engine type. The first and running costs of the single engine are
+lower, but the twin has greater power and carrying capacity, while most
+pilots prefer to have a surplus of power over and above that required
+for normal flight. For these reasons, and because of the psychological
+effect on insurance companies and on passengers, the twin engine will
+probably remain in use for large commercial machines, until long-lived
+and economic engines of more than 500 horse-power are available. On the
+other hand, where extra power is not required, the twin-engine is not
+safer than the single-engine machine; no existing twin-engine commercial
+aeroplane can maintain its height and land safely with only one engine
+running. Experiments have been made, especially in Germany, on the
+multi-engined machine with all the engines in the fuselage, but its
+advantages have so far been counterbalanced by loss of efficiency due to
+transmission gearing and shaft drives to the propellers and the
+vibration and weight of the gearing.
+
+High-powered engines are very expensive to run and every effort has
+therefore to be made by aerodynamic efficiency to carry more useful load
+with less horse-power. Improvement is being made in this direction; thus
+the D.H.18 carries eight passengers at 56 horse-power per passenger, the
+D.H.32 is designed for the same number at 45 horse-power each, and the
+D.H.34 for ten passengers at 45 horse-power each.
+
+The two best German commercial machines, the Junkers and the Fokker,
+have a comparatively low horse-power and a low fuel load, but greater
+attention has been paid to the design of the machines, which are
+monoplanes with cantilever wings, offering less resistance to the air
+than our biplanes. One of the most difficult problems is to evolve a
+high-lift wing which does not impair the aircraft's speed in the air.
+For commercial machines we must aim at the largest possible commercial
+load, the smallest possible fuel load and, consequently, an engine which
+uses fuel economically and, conversely, a lighter fuel. The development
+of the engine is receiving constant attention, as are also various
+safety devices, among which may be mentioned those guarding against fire
+and those varying the lift of wings so as to lower the landing speed and
+thus decrease the dangers attendant upon forced landings.
+
+In addition to the high initial cost of machines and engines, their
+maintenance also requires the greatest care. Detailed investigation must
+be made into all serious accidents. This is now compulsory under the new
+Air Navigation Act, and the fitness of pilots is ensured by periodical
+medical examination.
+
+Apart from the weather, the safety of an aircraft depends upon its
+engine, and perhaps even more upon the installation and accessibility of
+engines and their adjuncts, such as the petrol, oil, water and ignition
+systems. During the earlier stages of the war the average life of an
+engine before complete overhaul was necessary was, of stationary
+engines, from 50 to 60 hours, and of rotary engines, about 15 hours.
+To-day these figures stand at 200 hours and upwards and from 50 to 60
+hours respectively. For commercial purposes this must be further
+increased to 300-500 hours as a normal working period.
+
+There are two schools of thought with regard to the efficiency,
+reliability and the economy of engines. One school advocates using a
+light power plant per horse-power, run normally at about half its
+maximum; the other favours a plant of greater weight, more solid
+construction and greater efficiency, running at nearly its full
+horse-power. The former is more expensive in primary cost and upkeep,
+but allows a higher performance and provides reserve horse-power for
+emergency; the latter is cheaper, but involves a certain risk owing to
+lack of surplus power. We have hitherto shown a tendency to adopt the
+former method, the Germans the latter. For commercial purposes a
+compromise will probably be found to be best.
+
+Apart from the initial outlay on "air stock," the maintenance, overhead,
+fuel, insurance and depreciation charges are very heavy. These are much
+affected by such items as simplicity of design, strength against wear
+and tear, ease of assembly and interchangeability of parts, easily
+removable engines, increase in durability by the use of metal
+construction for parts of the machine and the propeller, the elimination
+of rubber joints, substitution of air for water cooling, facilities for
+loading and unloading in a commercial machine, simple and efficient
+navigational instruments and self-starter. Every improvement, however
+small, will assist to reduce running costs. Then revenue must be
+increased and the comfort of passengers, as, for instance, ventilation,
+warmth, luggage capacity and, more than all, a reduction of noise has to
+be carefully considered or they will not travel a second time by air. An
+effective engine silencer is at last well on the way. It is obvious what
+a great advantage this attainment will be both for service and civil
+purposes. Roughly speaking, a high-powered engine without a silencer is
+audible at a distance of some seven miles and at a height of 13,000 feet
+at night time, though these distances are reduced by about a third by
+day when normal ground noises exist. The bulk of noise is caused by the
+exhaust, the propeller and mechanical noises in the engine.
+
+I cannot leave this subject without emphasizing the value of research,
+both abstract and concrete. But, though it is the keystone of progress,
+its results must largely depend on the amount of flying done. It is
+clear that for economic reasons new designs can only thoroughly be tried
+out by commercial use, and therefore again that real progress is
+dependent on commercial activity.
+
+The advance of civil aviation is bound to be slower than was that of war
+aviation. But, as war experience improved old and evolved new types, so
+will peace requirements and experience shape the type and design of
+aircraft and engine best suited to its purposes. Although a good deal
+has under the circumstances already been achieved in peace, much remains
+to be done. Gradually, however, with a modicum of research, improvements
+in the factors already mentioned and the reduction of initial cost and
+maintenance expenses, air transport for mails, passengers and goods will
+take its place as a normal commercial public utility service, and the
+increased speed of communication will assist in the general development
+of trade.
+
+
+AIR SERVICES: BRITISH, CONTINENTAL AND IMPERIAL.
+
+International civil flying commenced officially on August 26th, 1919,
+and gradually expanded, both in the United Kingdom and on the Continent,
+especially during the summer of 1920. France, aided by considerable
+subsidies, conducted services from Paris to London, Brussels and
+Strasburg, from Toulouse to Montpelier and across Spain to Casablanca in
+Morocco; Belgium, from Brussels to London and Paris; Holland, from
+Amsterdam to London; Germany, in spite of the restrictions placed upon
+her, entered the field as a competitor and her aircraft flew regularly
+from Berlin to Copenhagen and Bremen, and from Bremen to Amsterdam. On
+the American Continent, the United States Post Office ran mail services
+from New York to Washington, Chicago, and San Francisco, with extensions
+from Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis, and St. Louis.
+
+For reasons which I shall give, there were no internal services in the
+United Kingdom, but there were four companies operating air lines from
+London to Paris, one of which held the contract for the carriage of
+mails. There were also air mail services between London and Brussels and
+Amsterdam. The mileage flown and the number of passengers and the weight
+of goods carried were considerable, while the number of letters steadily
+increased, especially on the Amsterdam service; and an efficiency of 76
+per cent., 94 per cent., and 84 per cent. was obtained on the
+London-Paris, London-Brussels, and London-Amsterdam services
+respectively.
+
+It must be remembered that these results were obtained without any
+direct assistance on the part of the State, such as was given by the
+French Government to air-transport companies in the form of subsidies.
+British economic policy is traditionally opposed to subsidies, believing
+that enterprise can be healthily built up on private initiative.
+Therefore, until 1921 civil aviation had to content itself with the
+indirect assistance of the State, which consisted mainly in the
+adjustment of international flying; the laying-out and equipment of
+aerodromes on the air routes; the provision of wireless communication
+and meteorological information; research and the collection and issue of
+general information concerning aviation.
+
+This indirect assistance, however, proved inadequate to maintain the
+progress achieved during 1920, and therefore the maintenance of air
+services by means of temporary direct financial assistance had to be
+arranged.
+
+I have already pointed out the difficulty against which commercial
+aviation has to contend in regard to the geographical features and
+position of the United Kingdom. Its comparatively small size, the
+propinquity of industrial centres, our efficient day and night express
+railway services, especially those running north and south, lessen the
+value of aircraft's superior speed and militate against the operation of
+successful internal air services. Possible exceptions might include
+amphibian services between London and Dublin, accelerating the delivery
+of mails five or six hours; between Glasgow and Belfast, where the Clyde
+and the harbour of Belfast could be used as terminals; or between London
+and the Channel Islands. I may point out in parenthesis that the
+development of alighting stations on rivers passing through the centres
+of towns is important, as a great deal of time is at present wasted in
+reaching the aerodromes necessarily situated some miles outside large
+centres of population.
+
+Our immediate opportunities of development near home are therefore
+afforded by the air services to Paris, Brussels, and Amsterdam; but even
+here the saving in time is not great, and our position is unfavourable
+compared to that of the United States, where the Post Office saves two
+days in the delivery of mails by air between New York and San Francisco;
+or compared to that of Germany, where Berlin is within a 350-mile radius
+of Copenhagen, Cologne, Munich, Warsaw, and Vienna, which is itself in
+an advantageous situation as the junction for a South European system
+extending to the Balkan States and the Near East.
+
+The ultimate use of the air, however, is not exemplified by a few
+passengers flying daily between London and the Continent any more than
+by a few squadrons of fighting craft. In a decade or two overhead
+transit will become the main factor in the express delivery of
+passengers, mails, and goods. It is the one means left to the Empire of
+speeding up world-communication to an extent as yet unrealized. For the
+price of a battleship a route to Australia could be organized, the value
+of which would be beyond computation.
+
+The British Empire as a whole offers vast fields for expansion. In
+Africa, Canada, and Australia are found the great distances suitable to
+the operation of aircraft, the wide undeveloped areas through which air
+transport may prove more economic than the construction of railways, and
+the trans-oceanic routes over which travel by steamship has reached,
+and in many cases passed, its economic maximum speed. Air transport,
+careless whether the route be over land or sea, unhampered by foreign
+frontiers, gives the Empire precisely those essential powers of direct,
+supple, and speedy intercommunication which ship and rail have already
+shown us to be vital.
+
+Here again the geographical position of England presents a difficult
+problem. England is divided from the rest of the Empire by a wide
+expanse, either of ocean or foreign territory. Egypt, the starting-point
+for air routes to India, Australia, and South Africa, may be described
+as the centre of a circle of which England is on the circumference; and
+it may be some years before an aeroplane can complete the journey
+between England and Egypt with only Malta as a stopping-place.
+
+The future of long-distance oceanic air routes may depend upon the
+airship. Lighter-than-air craft, mainly for reasons of cost and
+vulnerability, did not receive such an impetus from the war as did the
+aeroplane, but the modern airship has claims for use over distances
+exceeding 1,000 miles. It can fly by night with even greater ease than
+by day; fog is no deterrent; engine trouble does not bring it down; and
+it can take advantage of prevailing winds. It would reduce the sea
+journey from England to Karachi from 22 to 5 days; from England to
+Johannesburg from 21 to 7 days; and from England to Perth from 32 to
+10-1/2 days. Its achievements have already been considerable. In
+November, 1917, the German L.57 flew from Constantinople to East Africa
+and back--a distance of 4,000 miles--in 96 hours; in June, 1919, the
+R.34 flew from East Fortune to Danzig and back in 57 hours; and in July
+it crossed the Atlantic, was moored out in America for four days, and
+returned, a total distance of 8,000 miles, in the flying time of 108
+hours for the outward and 75 hours for the homeward journey.
+
+Before and during the war Germany gained wide experience in the design,
+construction, and handling of airships. It is probable that as soon as
+the peace terms and financial position permit she will begin to
+establish this form of transport on a commercial basis. In accordance
+with the Peace Treaty, and the Ultimatum of the London Conference of
+1921, the construction of aircraft of all kinds is at present forbidden,
+but Germany is fostering airship development by the means left at her
+disposal. Her scientists are probing the constructional problems
+connected with large airships, while efforts are being made, by
+financial and other assistance, to maintain her technical staffs and
+airship bases in existence. At the same time German commercial interests
+are negotiating with foreign countries with a view to the development of
+airships abroad, and plans are being discussed for an airship service
+between Spain and Argentina.
+
+The United States, France, and Italy are all interesting themselves,
+either financially or constructionally, in the future of airship
+development.
+
+In Great Britain we have made great strides, particularly in the
+construction of small types, and our practical air experience in
+lighter-than-air craft, during the war, is the greatest in the world.
+With a view to carrying out the experiments necessary further to
+demonstrate the capacity of airships for commercial long-distance
+flights, a few months ago the Department of Civil Aviation took over all
+airship material surplus to service requirements. The main object was to
+test the practicability and value of mooring airships to a mast. Up to
+the present, a principal factor militating against the economic
+operation of airships has been the large and expensive personnel
+required for handling them on the ground, especially in stormy weather.
+The mooring-mast experiments have had considerable success and airships
+have been moored in high winds and over long periods with the assistance
+of a very small personnel.
+
+The Government has decided, however, though recognizing their
+potentialities for speeding up communications between the various
+Dominions and the Mother Country, that the operation of airships cannot
+be carried out by the State on account of the present financial
+position.
+
+Recognizing the limitations of Home services and those to the Continent,
+it was for the purpose of directing attention to the Imperial aspect of
+civil aviation that the great demonstration flights were organized in
+which Alcock flew the Atlantic in a Vickers "Vimy," Scott crossed to the
+United States and back in the R.34, Ross-Smith flew from England to
+Australia, and van Ryneveld from London to the Cape.
+
+These flights necessitated, too, considerable ground organization in
+laying out aerodromes, as the following report on one in Africa vividly
+illustrates: "If aerodromes are left unattended for one year," it says,
+"practically all the work would have to be undertaken afresh,
+particularly in Rhodesia. The growth of vegetation is enormous,
+especially during the rains, and grass will grow to a height of eleven
+feet in six months; and trees stumped two feet below the surface will
+throw out suckers and replant themselves within a month after the rains
+have started.... It is most important that rough drains should be
+traced.... I have just started planting Doub grass. This grass gives an
+ideal surface for landing, kills other grasses, and possesses deep
+interlacing roots which will bind the entire surface of the aerodromes,
+making it permanent and free from washaways and the formation of
+sluits."
+
+The demonstration flights, however, showed what could, rather than what
+should, be done, and what we look for to-day is the inception of
+practical undertakings, however small, in the various portions of the
+Empire. The most important of these is the service contemplated between
+Egypt and India; another instance is afforded by the West Indies, which
+suffer from the lack of inter-island communications, both for mails and
+passengers, and this could be partially rectified by an air service
+employing seaplanes or amphibians for the Leeward and Windward Islands
+and the Bahamas, and between the Bahamas and the American Continent,
+where an American company is actually conducting a service. Another
+project, given up owing to recent disturbances, was one for a
+flying-boat service on the Nile. Services are also being considered from
+Malta to Italy, Geraldton to Derby in Western Australia, Sydney to
+Adelaide and Brisbane, and Melbourne to Hobart in Tasmania. Canadian
+activity takes the form of work carried out by Government-owned civil
+machines in connection with forest patrol, photographic survey,
+exploration, anti-smuggling patrols, etc. It would be a great advantage
+if railway and steamship companies seriously considered the value of
+supplementing their services by air.
+
+With regard to Government undertakings on the Imperial air routes, Malta
+is being equipped with an aerodrome, and a line of wireless stations has
+been established between Egypt and India, but the organization of this
+route has been delayed owing to the recent disturbances in the Middle
+East, and the financial outlay involved in ground organization. As I
+have said, the air route on which we should first concentrate, over and
+above the Continental services, is that between Egypt and India. Both
+strategically and commercially it is the most important in the Imperial
+system; it is a step towards Australia; it offers possibilities of the
+greatest volume of traffic; it should be much simpler to control than
+many international routes, which inevitably have many complications;
+weather conditions are not unfavourable; and the time taken for the
+journey by sea would be reduced by about one-half. If the shortcomings
+in point of distance of the continental routes in reaping the full
+advantages of travel by air, and the importance of the best possible
+communications for the Empire, are recognized, it is essential that a
+practical form of assistance should be given in the near future to the
+conduct of weekly or even bi-weekly services each way between Cairo and
+Karachi. Although it will not be a commercial proposition for some time,
+the Egypt-Karachi route, shortening as it will the delivery of mails
+between England and India by two-thirds, and England and Australia by
+one-third, offers greater results than the various other schemes at
+present contemplated. There are, however, certain considerations which
+will have to be weighed before the immense amount of work necessary to
+its initiation as a commercial air route is begun. The French, for
+instance, hope to push a trunk air route to India via Constantinople,
+and this line has the advantage of avoiding a long sea and desert
+crossing. On the other hand, it will be a very difficult matter to
+negotiate the mountains of Anatolia.
+
+If enterprises of this kind are successfully started, if each of our
+self-governing Dominions and Colonies encourages civil aviation within
+its own territory, and develops the air-sense of its people, each
+portion of the Empire, by a process of natural expansion, and by the
+gradual extension of local air lines to merge with those from other
+portions of the Empire, will assist in eventually forming a continuous
+chain of inter-Imperial air communication. Such a process of internal
+development, supported by close co-operation between the States of the
+Imperial Commonwealth, is the best method of obtaining rapidity of air
+intercommunication and a system of Imperial air bases necessary to the
+strategic security of the Empire.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+Within the necessarily narrow limits of this survey there has been
+traced the history of aviation from the earliest days; the tremendous
+impetus given to it by the war has been described, during the course of
+which not only did air co-operation become essential to the Navy and
+Army, but the importance of the Air Force as a separate arm, with its
+own strategic action, steadily grew; the increasing preponderance which
+aerial warfare will have in the future, and the horrors which it may
+bring, have been touched upon; and the possibilities of civil aviation
+in peace and war have been outlined.
+
+The conclusion has been reached that we cannot dispense with aviation,
+even if we would. We must consider it as a whole and lay down the broad
+principles on which it should be developed. The air (I write as one who
+during the last months of the war held the post of Chief of the Air
+Staff) materially helped, if it did not actually win, the fight. It has
+greatly complicated and increased the problems of defence. In future its
+influence on these problems will be still greater. The air has no
+boundaries. Great Britain and the Empire are no longer protected by the
+seas. A correct assessment of their needs will entail a growing ratio
+of air force to Army and Navy, and air power will in itself depend on
+the development of civil aviation.
+
+But though air action may be expected with justice to grow in proportion
+to that of the Army and Navy, and will certainly absorb certain
+functions of both, it would be unwise, at this early stage of
+development, for air forces to attempt too much at a time--such as, for
+instance, to garrison geographically unsuitable countries.
+
+A certain amount of reliance could also be placed on civil machines
+temporarily borrowed for purely policing measures in uncivilized
+countries, or for the assistance of Government during civil
+disturbances; and for such purposes it should not be difficult to devise
+a scheme, especially when the State exercises a measure of control
+through the grant of subsidies, for the obligatory enrolment of civil
+commercial pilots in the reserve, and for periodical refresher courses
+for pilots, who are not actually in the service of companies, at civil
+aerodromes. Such systems are in force in France and Canada. In the event
+of war the independent striking air force could thus count upon a large
+proportion of civil reserve pilots and machines.
+
+Air, allied to chemistry and the submarine, will be a difficult
+combination to withstand. The more its potential terrors are grasped,
+the less likely is war to be loosed upon the world, and it cannot be
+realized too clearly how much more easily than any other instrument of
+warfare aircraft and gas can be cheaply and secretly prepared by a
+would-be belligerent. Meanwhile, if civil aviation can be built up as a
+productive organization to a position relative to that held by our
+mercantile marine, we must understand that it will ensure air supremacy
+better than a large unproductive outlay on armaments. And I am convinced
+that, with public support, this can, and will, be done. Others will do
+it if we do not. But air power, although drawing its vitality from the
+expansion of air commerce and the growth of the civil aircraft industry,
+must at the same time rely upon the nucleus of a highly trained and
+technical air force. Service aviation must be the spearhead, civil
+aviation the shaft, of our air effort.
+
+The present isolation of England in terms of air from the rest of the
+Empire, and the geographical conditions already described, certainly
+render the national expansion of aviation, both external and internal, a
+difficult problem. It is clear that for this reason it must rather
+develop on an Imperial basis. The Dominions have already started
+valuable civil air work and have appointed Air Boards. Whatever the
+political settlement of Egypt may be, it is important that our air
+interests at this "hub" of Imperial aviation should be safeguarded. Air
+communication between the various portions of the Empire may prove of
+inestimable value in a future world war, and Dominion air forces may be
+able quickly to concentrate against enemy territory which is out of the
+range of aircraft operating from home. We have seen the value of
+aircraft operating from land bases for naval patrol, anti-submarine
+action, and direct attack on enemy shipping. With the increasing radius
+of action of seaplanes and other naval aircraft, the Army and Navy may
+be relieved of certain of their duties in coast defence and in
+protecting Imperial trade routes. For these reasons, aircraft bases are
+required throughout the Empire, and it is the commercial development of
+aviation which is the best means of ensuring their establishment. It
+will be for the Imperial authorities, while attending to local
+conditions and requirements, to co-ordinate as far as possible the air
+effort of the Empire, so that in peace communications may be developed
+and in the event of war its full power may rapidly be utilized on a
+co-operative basis.
+
+Civil aviation is not, however, merely a method of amplifying service
+air power. It has a vast potential value of its own. Communications
+shape human destinies. The evolution of our civilization bears strongly
+the marks of the systems which at various stages have made the
+intercourse of men and ideas possible. Its history is one of endeavour
+to extend the limits imposed upon human living and mobility in each of
+the great phases through which it has passed.
+
+There was the phase of the coracle and the roller-wheeled vehicle,
+stretching back into the roadless mists of unrecorded time; of roads
+which gradually linked the important areas of the Roman Empire; of
+inland and coastal waterways; of ocean traffic, and its huge advance
+with the discovery of steam-power, which brought England to the fore.
+
+With each phase the world shrinks smaller and the mists of the unknown
+recede. The development of human mobility is the greatest marvel of the
+present age. We can hardly realize that it was only the other day, as
+these things go--in 1819, just a hundred years before the same feat was
+accomplished by air-that the first sailing ship fitted with auxiliary
+steam (and not until 1828 that a real steamship) crossed the Atlantic.
+
+Strain and competition are increasing. Trains vie with ships; motor
+transport with trains. Telephones, wireless, cables, and flying are
+speeding up communications to a degree undreamed of a few years ago. If
+the air is to be a prime factor in the world-phase to come, how will the
+British Empire be affected? Stretching from Great Britain to Australia
+and the Pacific Ocean, the Empire depends more than any other political
+and commercial organization on the most modern and speedy
+communications, and as each of its portions assumes greater
+responsibility there is greater need for co-operation, the distribution
+of information, and the personal contact of statesmen and business men.
+"The old order changeth, yielding place to new"; and in communications
+the new order is air transport.
+
+Equally important is the international aspect. To-day we are deeply
+concerned with the maintenance of peace, and this can be achieved, not
+so much by the action of Governments, or the efforts of the League of
+Nations, as by the personal association of individuals of one nation
+with those of another, and an increasing recognition of common
+interests. I conceive that civil aviation, by reducing the time factor
+of intercommunication, will tend to bring peoples into closer touch
+with each other and will make for mutual understanding. The Peace Treaty
+provided for an Air Convention for the international control of civil
+aviation. The Convention has been signed by all the Allied nations which
+took part in the war, and I hope other countries will shortly be
+included. As soon as the Convention has been ratified, the International
+Commission of Air Navigation will be established, and for the first time
+the world will see the international control of a great transport
+service. I believe this will prove an important practical step towards
+international co-operation and goodwill.
+
+We have no excuse for ignorance of the effects of Imperial and
+international co-operation. The war gave us an example of what the
+British Empire can do, provided its combined knowledge and effort is
+brought to bear for one great purpose; and in no respect was this better
+exemplified than in the utilization and scientific development of
+aviation. The world-position of the Empire as a whole is still the best.
+Commerce and communications are its bonds, and, if we are so determined,
+it is in our power to shape the destinies of the future.
+
+A definite advance has been made since the Armistice and, if all goes
+well, a very much greater one will be made during the next two or three
+years, and in ten years mercantile air services will be operating on a
+self-supporting basis. The science and concentration employed in the war
+must be made to serve the requirements of peace. Readiness for, and
+success in, war are vital when war is unavoidable, but in peace it is
+civil and commercial activity which is vital.
+
+As in its infancy it seemed incredible to those responsible for the
+direction of the older services that the air would be their most
+valuable partner; as, during the war, they grudged its logical
+development to strike widely where they could not reach, and tried to
+tether it closely to them, so now in peace the air is struggling to
+attain the apotheosis of communication.
+
+In the phase of world commerce of which we are on the threshold,
+science, brain-power, energy, and faith must, and increasingly will, be
+harnessed to the work of perfecting air communication so that human
+mobility can be increased, knowledge interchanged, and the fruits of
+production distributed throughout the world.
+
+As a soldier I have of course dwelt on the possibility of war in the
+future and of the part which aviation would play in it, but it would be
+a great mistake--though I think that mistake is constantly made--to
+suppose that soldiers look forward with equanimity to the prospect of
+war. On the contrary, soldiers, more even than civilians, if this be
+possible, realize the horrors of war and recognize that the great task
+rests upon the statesmen of all nations, and upon humanity itself, of
+taking whatever steps can be taken to prevent its recurrence.
+
+We may at least assume that another great war will not be allowed in our
+generation. But war, in spite of its horrors, in spite of its
+bereavements, is only too quickly forgotten. A comparatively few years,
+and those who have passed through its fire are no more. New wealth is
+created; new antagonisms arise; and a new generation remembers only the
+romantic stories and the martial deeds of its fathers, or, more fatally,
+organizes itself to avenge defeat. Then, once again, forgetful of the
+terrible lesson we have learned, the great nations of the world may
+unsheathe the sword as the only solution to their problems. Our only
+hope lies in using the ensuing years to educate mankind to the principle
+that war brings misery and impoverishment to all engaged in it, that in
+the final victory it is not a question of which is left the strongest,
+but which is the least exhausted, and that national are as susceptible
+as personal differences to discussion and arbitration. Above all, let us
+guard against the old mistake of competitive armaments. There is no
+reason, for instance, why, because France, our friend and ally, is
+adopting a policy of air armaments, we should blindly pile up aeroplane
+against aeroplane, pilot against pilot, and thus provoke mutual
+suspicion.
+
+The possibility of war remains, however, and I wish in conclusion to
+emphasize the fact that in my belief the security of this country in the
+event of war will depend upon our strength in the air. The development
+of the offensive powers of aviation have already destroyed "the silver
+streak" on which we relied in the past. When we remember that it is less
+than twenty years since the first successful aeroplane was flown, when
+we recall the almost miraculous development of the fighting powers of
+aircraft during the four and a half years of war, and also the further
+developments which were on the point of being utilized when the war
+ended, it seems certain that from the point of view of war Britain has
+ceased to be an island. The "silver streak" would have been little
+protection but for our naval supremacy, and in the future our security
+will depend as much upon superiority in the air as it has depended in
+the past upon our superiority at sea. And this superiority in the air
+can only be attained in the same way in which we secured our supremacy
+at sea. That supremacy was not really gained by developing great navies.
+It was gained by our mercantile marine, which made the great navies
+possible. Our future security can only be gained by the development of
+commercial aviation.
+
+
+_Printed in Great Britain by_ Butler & Tanner, _Frome and London_.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Endnotes:
+
+    Variant spellings, e.g. _Frankfort_ and _Frankfurt_, remain as
+    printed. Significant amendments have been listed below:
+
+      Page 67, 'Poperighe' amended to _Poperinghe_.
+
+      Page 117, 'Junker' amended to _Junkers_.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Aviation in Peace and War, by
+Sir Frederick Hugh Sykes
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AVIATION IN PEACE AND WAR ***
+
+***** This file should be named 25244.txt or 25244.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/2/4/25244/
+
+Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/25244.zip b/25244.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c8f0cb7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/25244.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8795fba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #25244 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25244)