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Sykes + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .noin {text-indent: 0em;} + body > p {text-indent: 1em;} + h4 {text-align: center; clear: both; font-weight: normal; font-size: medium; font-style: italic; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + h3 {text-align: center; clear: both; font-weight: normal; font-size: large; font-variant: small-caps; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + h2 {text-align: center; clear: both; font-weight: normal;} + h1 {text-align: center; clear: both; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 2em; word-spacing: .5em;} + hr {width: 65%; margin: 2em auto; clear: both;} + table {margin: 1em auto;} + .td1 {text-align: left; padding-top: .5em; padding-bottom: .5em; font-size: large; font-variant: small-caps;} + .td2 {text-align: right; font-size: large; padding-top: .5em; padding-bottom: .5em; vertical-align: top;} + .td3 {text-align: justify; width: 28em; padding-left: 2em; padding-right: 4em;} + body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .pagenum {position: absolute; right: 1%; font-size: small; font-style: normal; text-align: right; text-indent: 0em;} + .blockquot {margin: 1em 10%;} + .blockquot p {text-indent: 1em; font-size: .9em;} + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: 0.25em; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + .trn {border: solid 1px; margin: 3em 15%; padding: 1em; text-align: justify;} + a:link {text-decoration:none;} + a:visited {text-decoration:none;} + .dv1 {margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0;} + .pb1 {margin-top: 6em; text-align: center;} + .ft1 {font-size: medium;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Aviation in Peace and War, by Sir Frederick Hugh Sykes + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Aviation in Peace and War + +Author: Sir Frederick Hugh Sykes + +Release Date: April 30, 2008 [EBook #25244] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AVIATION IN PEACE AND WAR *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="dv1"><h1><big>AVIATION IN<br /> +PEACE AND WAR</big></h1> + +<p class="center">BY</p> + +<h2 class="dv1">Major-General Sir F. H. SYKES</h2> +<p class="center">G.B.E., K.C.B., C.M.G.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Late Chief of the Air Staff<br /> +and<br /> +Controller-General of Civil Aviation</span></p> + +<p class="pb1">LONDON<br /> +<big>EDWARD ARNOLD & CO.</big><br /> +<small>1922<br /> +[<i>All rights reserved</i>]</small></p></div> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="td2" colspan="2"><small><small>PAGE</small></small></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td1">Introduction</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td1">Chapter I. Pre-War</td><td class="td2" rowspan="2"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3">Early Thoughts on Flight. The Invention of the Balloon. +First Experiments in Gliders and Aeroplanes. The Wright +Brothers and their Successors in Europe. The First +Airships. The Beginnings of Aviation in England. The +Inception and Development of Aircraft as Part of the +Forces of the Crown: the Balloon Factory; the Air +Battalion; the Royal Flying Corps, the Military Wing, +the Naval Wing. Tactics and the Machine. Conclusions.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td1">Chapter II. War</td><td class="td2" rowspan="2"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3">General Remarks on War Development. Co-operation with +the Army: Reconnaissance; Photography; Wireless; +Bombing; Contact Patrol; Fighting. Co-operation with +the Navy: Coast Defence, Patrol and Convoy Work; Fleet +Assistance, Reconnaissance, Spotting for Ships' Guns; +Bombing; Torpedo Attack. Home Defence: Night Flying +and Night Fighting. The Machine and Engine. Tactics +and the Strategic Air Offensive. Organization.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td1">Chapter III. Peace</td><td class="td2" rowspan="2"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="td3">The Future of Aerial Defence. Civil Aviation: as a +Factor in National Security; as an Instrument of +Imperial Progress; Financial and Economic Problems; +Weather Conditions and Night Flying; Organization; the +Machine and Engine. Air Services: British, Continental +and Imperial.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="td1">Conclusion</td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> +<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2> + +<p>Since the earliest communities of human beings +first struggled for supremacy and protection, the +principles of warfare have remained unchanged. +New methods have been evolved and adopted +with the progress of science, but no discovery, +save perhaps that of gunpowder, has done so +much in so short a time to revolutionize the conduct +of war as aviation, the youngest, yet destined +perhaps to be the most effective fighting-arm. +Yet to-day we are only on the threshold of our +knowledge, and, striking as was the impetus given +to every branch of aeronautics during the four +years of war, its future power can only dimly be +seen.</p> + +<p>We may indeed feel anxious about this great +addition of aviation to the destructive power of +modern scientific warfare. Bearing its terrors in +mind, we may even impotently seek to check its +advance, but the appeal of flying is too deep, its +elimination is now impossible, and granted that +war is inevitable, it must be accepted for good or +ill. Fortunately, although with the other great +scientific additions, chemical warfare and the +submarine, its potentialities for destruction are +very great, yet aircraft, unlike the submarine, can +be utilized not only in the conduct of war but in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +the interests of peace, and it is here that we can +guide and strengthen it for good. Just as the +naval supremacy of Britain was won because +commercially we were the greatest seafaring people +in the world, so will air supremacy be achieved +by that country which, making aviation a part of +its everyday life, becomes an airfaring community.</p> + +<p>Our nation as a whole has been educated, +owing to its geographical situation and by tradition, +to interest itself in the broader aspects of +marine policy and development. It requires to +take the same interest in aviation, a comparatively +new subject, unhampered to a great extent by +preconceived notions and therefore offering greater +scope for individual thought.</p> + +<p>The following sketch<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> has been written in the +hope that some of those who read it may be inspired +to study aviation in one or other of its branches, +whether from the historical, technical, strategical, +or commercial point of view. Any opinions expressed +are, of course, my own and not official.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> First written and delivered as the Lees-Knowles Lectures +at Cambridge University in February and March, 1921.</p></div> + +<p>I propose first briefly to trace the history of +aviation from its beginnings to the outbreak of +war; next to describe the evolution of aircraft +and of air strategy during the war; and last to +estimate the present position and to look into the +future.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p> +<h2 class="ft1">CHAPTER I</h2> +<h2>PRE-WAR</h2> + +<h3>Early Thoughts on Flight.</h3> + +<p>The story of the growth of aviation may be +likened to that of the discovery and opening up +of a new continent. A myth arises, whence no +one can tell, of the existence of a new land across +the seas. Eventually this land is found without +any realization of the importance of the discovery. +Then comes the period of colonization +and increasing knowledge. But the interior remains +unexplored. So, in the case of aviation, +man was long convinced, for no scientific reason, +that flight was possible. With the first ascent +by balloon came the imagined mastery of the +air; later, the invention of flight that can be +controlled at will. To-day we are still in the +stage of colonization. The future resources of +the air remain hidden from our view.</p> + +<p>The Daedalean myth and the ancient conception +of the winged angelic host show how the human +mind has long been fascinated by the idea of +flight, but the first design of an apparatus to lift +man into the air, a parachute-like contrivance, +was only reached at the end of the fifteenth +century in one of Leonardo da Vinci's manuscripts. +About the same time lived the first of the long<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +line of daring practical aviators, without whom +success would never have been achieved, one +John Damian, a physician of the Court of James IV +of Scotland, who "took in hand to fly with wings, +and to that effect caused make a pair of wings of +feathers, which being fastened upon him, he flew +off the castle wall of Stirling, but shortly he fell +to the ground and brake his thigh-bone."</p> + +<p>Nearly 250 years later the aeronaut had not +made much progress, for we read of the Marquis +de Bacqueville in 1742 attaching to his arms and +legs planes of his own design and launching himself +from his house in the attempt to fly across +the Seine, into which, regrettably, he fell.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the seventeenth-century philosophers +had been theorizing. In 1638 John Wilkins, the +founder of the Royal Society, published a book +entitled <i>Daedalus, or Mechanical Motions</i>. A few +years later John Glanville wrote in <i>Scepsis Scientifica</i> +"to them that come after us it may be as +ordinary to buy a pair of wings to fly into remotest +regions, as now a pair of boots to ride a journey," +the sceptic proving a truer prophet than the +enthusiast. By 1680 Giovanni Borelli had reached +the conclusion, in his book <i>De Volatu</i>, that it +was impossible that man should ever achieve +flight by his own strength. Nor was he more +likely to do so in the first aerial ship, designed +in 1670 by Francesco Lana, which was to be +buoyed up in the air by being suspended from +four globes, made of thin copper sheeting, each +of them about 25 feet in diameter. From these +globes the air was to be exhausted, so that each, +being lighter than the atmosphere, would support<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +the weight of two or three men. A hundred +years elapsed before Dr. Joseph Black of the +University of Edinburgh made the first practical +suggestion, that a balloon inflated with hydrogen +would rise.</p> + +<h3>The Invention of the Balloon.</h3> + +<p>It was in 1783 that Montgolfier conceived the +idea of utilizing the lifting power of hot air and +invited the Assembly of Vivarais to watch +an exhibition of his invention, when a balloon, +10 feet in circumference, rose to a height of +6,000 feet in under ten minutes. This was followed +by a demonstration before Louis XVI at +Versailles, when a balloon carrying a sheep, a +cock, and a duck, rose 1,500 feet and descended +safely. And on November 21st of the same year +Pilatre de Rozier, accompanied by the Marquis +d'Arlande, made the first human ascent, in the +"Reveillon," travelling 5 miles over Paris in +twenty minutes.</p> + +<p>England, it is not surprising to learn, was +behind with the invention, but on November +25th, 1783, Count Francesco Zambeccari sent up +from Moorfields a small oilskin hydrogen balloon +which fell at Petworth; and in August of 1784 +James Tytler ascended at Edinburgh in a fire +balloon, thus achieving the first ascent in Great +Britain. In the same year Lunardi came to London +and ballooning became the rage. It was an +Englishman, Dr. Jefferies, who accompanied Blanchard +in the first cross-Channel flight on January +7th, 1785. Fashionable society soon turned to +pursuits other than watching balloon ascents,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +however, and the joys of the air were confined to +a few adventurous spirits, such as Green and +Holland, who first substituted coal gas for hydrogen +and in 1836 made a voyage of 500 miles from +Vauxhall Gardens to Weilburg in Nassau, and +James Glaisher, who in the middle of the century +began to make meteorological observations from +balloons, claiming on one occasion, in 1862, to +have reached the great height of 7 miles.</p> + +<h3>First Experiments in Gliders and Aeroplanes.</h3> + +<p>The world seemed content to have achieved the +balloon, but there were a few men who realized +that the air had not been conquered, and who +believed that success could only be attained by +the scientific study and practice of gliding. Prominent +among these, Sir George Cayley, in 1809, +published a paper on the Navigation of the Air, +and forecasted the modern aeroplane, and the +action of the air on wings. In 1848 Henson and +Stringfellow, the latter being the inventive genius, +designed and produced a small model aeroplane—the +first power-driven machine which actually +flew. It is now in the Smithsonian Institute at +Washington. Of greater practical value were the +gliding experiments by Otto Lilienthal, of Berlin, +and Percy Pilcher, an Englishman, at the end of +the last century. Both these men met their +death in the cause of aviation. Another step forward +was made by Laurence Hargrave, an Australian, +who invented the box and soaring kite and +eighteen machines which flew.</p> + +<p>From the theoretical point of view, Professor +Langley, an American, reached in his <i>Experiments<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +in Aerodynamics</i> the important conclusion that +weight could best be countered by speed. From +theory Langley turned to practice and in 1896 +designed a steam-driven machine which flew +three-quarters of a mile without an operator. +Seven years later, at the end of 1903, he produced +a new machine fitted with a 52 horse-power engine +weighing less than 5 lb. per horse-power; but this +machine was severely damaged ten days before +Wilbur Wright made his first flight in a controlled +power-driven aeroplane.</p> + +<h3>The Wright Brothers and their Successors +in Europe.</h3> + +<p>The Wright brothers directed their whole attention +to aviation in 1899. By 1902, as the result +of many experiments, they had invented a glider +with a horizontal vane in front, a vertical vane +behind, and a device for "warping" the wings. +Their longest glide was 622¼ feet. This was followed +by the construction of a machine weighing +600 lb., including the operator and an 8 horse-power +engine, which on December 17th, 1903, +realized the dreams of centuries.</p> + +<p>After an increasing number of experiments, a +machine built in 1905 flew 24¼ miles at a speed of +38 miles an hour. It is interesting to recall that +the new invention was refused once by the United +States and three times by the British Government.</p> + +<p>It was not until September 13th, 1906, that +Ellehammer, a Danish engineer, made the first +free flight in Europe, his machine flying 42 metres +at a height of a metre and a half. About the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +same time reports of the Wrights' successes began +to reach Europe and were quickly appreciated by +the French.</p> + +<p>Space forbids that I should enter into the +achievements of the early French aviators, among +whom the names of Ferber, Bleriot and Farman will +always rank high in the story of human faith, +courage and determination. It is a record of +rapid advance. Farman made a circuit flight of +1 kilometre in 1908, and flew from Chalons to +Rheims, a distance of 27 kilometres, in twenty +minutes. Bleriot crossed the Channel in a monoplane +of his own design in forty minutes. French +designers improved the control system, and French +machines became famous. The records of the +Rheims meeting of 1909 serve to illustrate the +progress made during the first phase of aviation. +Latham won the altitude prize by flying to a +height of over 500 feet. Farman the prize for the +flight of longest duration by remaining more than +three hours in the air, and the passenger carrying +prize by carrying two passengers round a 10-kilometre +course in 10½ minutes. The Gnome +rotary engine was first used with success at this +meeting.</p> + +<p>Before turning to the pioneer efforts in England +and the pre-war organization of our air forces, +some account of the development of the lighter-than-air +dirigible is desirable.</p> + +<h3>The First Airships.</h3> + +<p>The earliest conception of an airship is to +be found in General Meusnier's design in 1784 for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +an egg-shaped balloon driven by three screw +propellers, worked, of course, by hand. The chief +interest in his design, though it never materialized, +lies in the fact that it provided for a double +envelope and was the precursor of the ballonet. +The first man-carrying airship was built by +Henri Giffard in 1852. It had a capacity of +87,000 cu. feet, a length of 144 feet, a 3 horse-power +engine, and a speed of 6 miles an hour. +A gas engine was first used twenty years later +in an Austrian dirigible, giving a speed of 3 miles +an hour. About the same time much useful +work was accomplished by Dupuy de Lome, whose +dirigible, with a propeller driven by man power, +gave a speed of 5½ miles an hour. Twelve years +later, in 1884, two French Army officers, Captain +Kubs and Captain Renard, constructed the first +successful power-driven lighter-than-air craft fitted +with an 8½ horse-power electric motor, which may +be regarded as the progenitor of all subsequent non-rigid +airships. In 1901 Santos Dumont flew +round the Eiffel Tower, travelling 6¾ miles in 1½ +hours, and in 1903 the flight of the "Lebaudy," +covering a distance of 40 miles at a speed of +20 miles an hour, led the French military authorities +to take up the question of airships.</p> + +<p>What the French initiated, the Germans, concentrating +with characteristic thoroughness on the +development of the rigid as opposed to the non-rigid +airship, improved. In 1896 Wolfert's rigid +airship attained a speed of 9 miles an hour and +in 1900 the first Zeppelin was launched. Whatever +we may think of the German methods of +using their airships during the war, we cannot<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +but admire the courage and determination of +Count Zeppelin, who, in spite of many mishaps, +succeeded in producing the finest airships in the +world and inspiring the German people with a faith +in the air which they have never lost. From 1905 +onwards development was rapid. In 1907 Zeppelin +voyaged in stages from Friedrichshaven to +Frankfort, a distance of 200 miles in 7½ hours. +Popular enthusiasm is illustrated by the fact +that within a few months the same airship made +four hundred trips, carrying 8,551 passengers and +covering 29,430 miles. Other airships showed +similar records. Between 1909 and 1913 eighteen +of the Parseval type were built, and 1912 saw the +construction of the first Schutte-Lanz, designed +expressly for naval and military purposes. If +France at this period led the world in aeroplane +design, Germany was undeniably ahead in airship +development.</p> + +<p>In Great Britain, in 1905, we had one very +small airship, designed and constructed by Willows.</p> + +<h3>The Beginnings of Aviation in England.</h3> + +<p>Though the names of Pilcher, Dunne, Howard +Wright, and Rolls testify to the fact that the science +of aviation had its followers in England at the beginning +of this century, flying came comparatively +late, and the real interest of the movement centres +round the early efforts of military aviation from +1912 onwards. Nevertheless this country could +ill have dispensed with the experiments of that +small and courageous band of aviators, among<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +whom Dickson and Cody were prominent. By +1908 Cody had built an aeroplane and was making +experimental flights at Aldershot. In 1907, A. V. +Roe, working under great difficulties, constructed +and flew his first machine, a triplane fitted with +an 8-10 horse-power twin cylinder Jap bicycle +engine, the first tractor type machine produced +by any country, and a very important contribution +to the science of flight. In 1910 and 1911 we find +de Havilland, Frank Maclean and the Short +Brothers, Ogilvie, Professor Huntingdon, Sopwith +and the Bristol Company, starting on the design +and construction of machines, of which the names +have since become famous. At the same time +certain centres of aviation came into existence, +such as Brooklands, where I well remember beginning +to fly in August, 1910, Hendon, Larkhill and +Eastchurch, destined to be the centre of naval +aviation. It is significant, however, of the slow +progress made that by November 1st, 1910, only +twenty-two pilot's certificates had been issued, and +it was Conneau, a French naval officer, who in +1911 won the so-called "Circuit of Britain," i.e. +a flight from Brooklands and back via Edinburgh, +Glasgow, Exeter and Brighton. Cody and Valentine +were the only British competitors to complete +the full course.</p> + +<p>In May 1911 a demonstration was organized by +the owners of the Hendon Aerodrome to which a +large number of Cabinet Ministers, members of +parliament, and army and navy officers were +invited. The War Office co-operated by arranging +for a small force of horse, foot and guns to be +secretly disposed in a specified area some miles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +distant and by detailing two officers, of whom I was +one, to test what could be done to find and report +them by air. I remember that I had a special +map prepared, the first used in this, and I think +any country, for the aeroplane reconnaissance of +troops. After a sufficiently exciting trip, and with +the troops successfully marked on the map, Hubert, +my French pilot, and I, returned and made our +report to General Murray, the Director of Military +Training. It was a very interesting flight; the +weather good; our height about 1,500 feet; the +machine a 50 horse-power Gnome "box-kite" +Henri Farman, which at one period of our 35 mile +an hour return journey elected to point itself +skywards for an unpleasant second or two and fly +"cabré"; I can see Hubert now anxiously forcing +his front elevator downwards and shouting to me +to lean forward in order to help to bring the nose +to a more comfortable bearing!</p> + +<p>Many pages could be filled with the difficulties +and exploits of the first British aviators, but +enough has been said to show that, compared with +that of aeroplanes in France and of airships in +Germany, development in this country started late, +progressed slowly and excited little public interest. +The work of the pioneers was, however, not in vain, +since it opened the eyes of our military authorities +to the value of aviation and led to the formation of +that small but highly efficient flying corps which +during the war expanded into an organization +without rival. Let us now turn to the inception +of the air forces of the Crown and the position +with regard to these and to air tactics at the +outbreak of war.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> + +<h3>The Inception and Development of Aircraft +as Part of the Forces of the Crown.</h3> + +<p>Nations have tended to regard flight as a +prerogative of war. A balloon school was formed +in the early days of the French revolutionary +wars; the French victory at Fleurus in 1794 +was ascribed to balloon reconnaissance; balloons +were used by the Federal Army in the American +Civil War, and during the Siege of Paris Gambetta +effected his escape by balloon in 1871.</p> + +<h4>The Balloon Factory.</h4> + +<p>In England experiments were begun at Woolwich +Arsenal in 1878, and in 1883 a Balloon Factory, +a Depôt and a School of Instruction were established +at Chatham. The expedition to Bechuanaland +in 1884, under the command of Sir Charles +Warren, was accompanied by a detachment of +three balloons, and the following year balloons +co-operated with the Sudan Expeditionary Force, +when Major Elsdale carried out some photographic +experiments from the air.</p> + +<p>In 1890 a balloon section was introduced into +the Army as a unit of the Royal Engineers, and not +long afterwards, the Balloon Factory was established +at South Farnborough, where in 1912 it +was transformed into the Royal Aircraft Factory. +Four balloon sections took part in the South +African War and were used during the Siege of +Ladysmith, at Magersfontein and Paardeburg. +Colonel Lynch, who served in the Boer Army, +stated at a lecture delivered in Paris after the war +that "the Boers took a dislike to balloons. All<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +other instruments of war were at their command; +they had artillery superior for the most part to, +and better served than, that of the English; they +had telegraphic and heliographic apparatus; but +the balloons were the symbol of a scientific +superiority of the English which seriously disquieted +them."</p> + +<p>I went through a course in ballooning during +leave from West Africa in 1904 and remember that +partly owing to the energy of Colonel Capper, +partly to the impetus given by the South African +War, and partly to the growing interest in all +things aeronautical throughout the civilized world, +it was noticeable that the activities of the Balloon +Factory were increasing in many directions. +Although the spherical balloon had been improved, +its disabilities were recognized and experiments +were made with elongated balloons, man-flying +kites, air photography, signalling devices, observation +of artillery fire, mechanical apparatus for +hauling down balloons, and petrol motors. A +grant for a dirigible balloon was obtained in +1903, though it was not until 1907, the year in +which Cody began the construction of his aeroplane +at Farnborough, and Charles Rolls his experiments, +that the airship "Nulli Secundus" made her +first flight. She was about 120 feet long and 30 +feet in diameter, and was driven by a 40 horse-power +engine at a speed of 30 miles an hour. On +October 5th this airship flew to London in an +hour and a half, circled round St. Paul's, manœuvred +over Buckingham Palace, and descended +at the Crystal Palace. In the same year, be it +remembered, a Zeppelin had made a trip of 200<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +miles from Friedrichshaven to Frankfort. The +"Nulli Secundus" was followed in 1910 by the +"Beta" and the "Gamma."</p> + +<p>Meanwhile an Advisory Committee for Aeronautics +had been appointed, and the National +Physical Laboratory had organized a department +at Teddington for the investigation of aeronautical +problems in co-operation with the Balloon Factory.</p> + +<h4>The Air Battalion.</h4> + +<p>In 1911 the authorities could no longer close +their eyes, especially at a time when rumours of +war were rife, to the rapid development of heavier-than-air +craft on the Continent. So far, as we have +seen, the aeroplane had been regarded in England +as little more than the plaything of a few adventurous +but foolhardy spirits. A certain amount of +experience in piloting and handling aeroplanes +had been gained by a handful of Army officers, +but the machines used either belonged to the officers +themselves, to civilians, or to aviation firms. I was +at that time a general staff officer in the Directorate +of Military Operations under General Wilson, now +Field Marshal and late Chief of the Imperial General +Staff, and was the only officer in the War Office +who had learned to fly. It appeared very important +that a study of the military possibilities +of aviation should be made. The prime rôle of +cavalry, reconnaissance, seemed to have passed +from it. In addition to my normal duties, I +visited France, Germany and Italy, collected information +on foreign activities, wrote reports, and +tried to create a knowledge of the possible effect<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +of future military aeronautics and to urge the +formation of a flying corps.</p> + +<p>In 1911 the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers, +consisting of Headquarters, No. 1 Company +(Airships) and No. 2 Company (Aeroplanes), was +formed and superseded the Balloon School. The +creation of No. 2 Company, stationed at Larkhill, +marked the first formation of a British military +unit composed entirely of heavier-than-air aircraft. +The same year witnessed the inception of +the B.E., F.E. and S.E. type machines in the +Balloon Factory, but the total of our machines, both +for naval and military requirements, amounted to +something less than twelve aeroplanes and two +small airships; and the mishaps suffered by the +military machines on their flight from Larkhill +to Cambridge, to take part in Army Manœuvres, +were significant of their unreliability.</p> + +<h4>The Royal Flying Corps.</h4> + +<p>In view, therefore, of the reports received of +the progress abroad, the Air Battalion was clearly +insufficient to meet the demands which might be +made upon it in the event of war; and at the +end of 1911 the Prime Minister instructed a +standing Sub-Committee of the Committee of +Imperial Defence to consider the future development +of air navigation for naval and military +purposes. As a result of their deliberations the +Committee recommended the creation of a British +Air Service to be regarded as one and designated +the Royal Flying Corps; the division of the Corps +into a Naval Wing, a Military Wing, and a Central +Flying School; the maintenance of the closest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +possible collaboration between the Corps, the +Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and the +Aircraft (late Balloon) Factory; and the appointment +of a permanent Consultative Committee, +named the Air Committee, to deal with all aeronautical +questions affecting both the Admiralty +and the War Office.</p> + +<p>Consequent upon these recommendations, a +Technical Sub-Committee was formed, consisting +of Brig.-General Henderson, Major MacInnes of +the directorate of Military Training at the War +Office, a splendid officer, who died during the war, +and myself, to draft the new scheme. The +objects kept in view in framing our peace organization +were to suit it to war conditions, as far as +they could be foreseen, to base it on an efficient +self-contained unit, and, while allowing for the +wide differences between naval and military +requirements, to ensure the maximum co-operation +between the two branches of the Service. +Success beyond expectation was achieved in the +first two objects, but, as will be seen, the naval +and military branches tended for unforeseen but +good reasons to diverge, until they joined hands +again in 1918 as the Royal Air Force. The bases +of the military organization were, a headquarters, +the squadron, and the flying depôt. These proved +their value during the war and have remained +the units of our air forces to this day. The Military +Wing was to form a single and complete +organization and contain a headquarters, seven +aeroplane squadrons, each to consist of twelve +active machines and six in reserve, one airship +and kite squadron, and a flying depôt. All<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +pilots, whether of the Naval or the Military Wing, +were eventually to graduate at the Central Flying +School, whence they could join either the Naval +Wing at Eastchurch or one of the Military Squadrons. +In time of war each branch of the Service was +to form a reserve for the other if required.</p> + +<h4>The Military Wing.</h4> + +<p>In accordance with this scheme I received +instructions to organize, recruit, train and command +the Military Wing of the Royal Flying Corps. +The functions of the Military Wing were quite +clear: it was to meet the air requirements of the +Expeditionary Force primarily for reconnaissance +purposes, but its organization was framed so that +it could easily be expanded and the scope of its +duties widened. Headquarters were established +at Farnborough on May 13th, 1912: Barrington-Kennett, +an officer of the Grenadier Guards who +had been attached to the Air Battalion, was +appointed, and made the best of all possible +adjutants; and the nucleus of the Corps, consisting +at first of the cadres of an airship squadron under +Edward Maitland, of two aeroplane squadrons +under Burke and Brooke-Popham, and a flying +depôt (later the aircraft park) under Carden, who +was a little later greatly assisted in the complex +matter of technical stores by Beatty, came into +existence. At the same time the construction of +the Central Flying School was started at Upavon, +under Captain G. Payne, R.N. With regard to +the other squadrons provided for, the nucleus of +No. 4 Squadron was formed the same year, and +that of No. 5 Squadron the following year, of Nos.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +6 and 7 Squadrons in 1914, while No. 8 Squadron +was not started until after the outbreak of war.</p> + +<p>Records of the progress and growth of the Corps +were left at Farnborough when the Headquarters +and four squadrons went to France in August, +1914, and have been lost. This is particularly +unfortunate because without them it will be difficult +for the historian of the Corps adequately to +describe the beginnings and to assess the value of +the work then carried out.</p> + +<p>The task of forming the new service, which +was to do much to assist the Army in saving +England, was begun. The time was very short. +A great energy had to be brought to the work. +As with all things new, it had to contend with +apathy and opposition on all sides. There was +no precedent to help. The organization of the +Corps to its smallest detail of technical stores, +supply and transport had to be thought out. +The type of machine required; the method of +obtaining it from a struggling industry; its use +and maintenance; the personnel, its training and +equipment; these, and a thousand other aspects +of the question, required the employment of a +large staff of experts. But the experts did not +exist and the duties were carried out almost +entirely at Farnborough, where in addition time +had to be found to compile the official training +and other text books and regulations required for +an entirely new arm.</p> + +<p>In addition to the innumerable problems inherent +in the organization, growth and training of the +Military Wing, the two years between its inception +and the outbreak of war were strenuously<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +applied to solving the problems of air tactics +and strategy. Until the South African War the +British Army had been drilled under the influence +of stereotyped Prussian ideas. Perhaps the South +African War led too far in an opposite direction, +but it taught us one thing, which was to prove +of such importance in 1914—the value of mobility; +and we realized in aircraft the advent of the most +mobile arm the world has yet seen.</p> + +<p>All was new. A new Corps. A new element +in which to work. New conditions in peace akin +to those in war. And there had to be developed +a new spirit, combining the discipline of the old +Army, the technical skill of the Navy, and the +initiative, energy and dash inseparable from +flying. There were the inevitable accidents, but +training had to be done. We existed for war and +war alone would show whether we had thought +and worked without respite aright. We had to +prove our value to the other arms, many of the +leaders of which, owing to a long period of peace, +found difficulty in differentiating between the +normal usages of peace and war and in understanding +the right use of aircraft. Somehow or other +time was found during 1912, 1913 and 1914 to +write to reviews, to lecture at army and other +centres of training, to attend Staff rides, and to +endeavour in every way possible to learn how +best to work in with the army commands and +to teach those commands the usefulness and +limitations of aircraft.</p> + +<p>As Ruskin wrote:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Man is the engine whose motive power is the soul and +the largest quantity of work will not be done by this curious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +engine for pay, or under pressure, or by the help of any kind +of fuel which may be supplied by the cauldron. It will be +done only when the will or spirit of the creature is brought +to its own greatest strength by its own proper fuel, namely +the affection."</p></div> + +<p>I was intensely proud of my command and +often thought of the time when, as I had been +promised, I should, in the event of war, command +it in the field. We worked at white heat believing +that war was coming soon; believing that our +efforts would have a real effect on the result; +and determined that the new arm should rank +second to none among the forces of the Crown. +<i>Esprit de Corps</i> was of vital importance, but as +officers and non-commissioned officers were drawn +from every branch and every regiment of the +army this was no easy matter and was only achieved +by the splendid example and precept of such men +as Herbert, Becke, Longcroft, Chinnery and +Barrington-Kennett. We selected our motto: +"Per Ardua ad Astra." It was in this atmosphere +that the Military Wing grew in peace. +It was in this atmosphere that the soul was formed +which later under the great strain of war impelled +our pilots forward cheerfully to face every duty +and every danger in the true spirit of manliness +and fearless confidence.</p> + +<p>As in framing the original scheme on paper, +so in giving it life it was our aim to organize +the Corps, so that, whatever its future strength, +it would be sound and efficient, and its continuity +of growth effected without even temporary dislocation +or waste. The tactical unit of the Military +Wing—the squadron, consisting of three flights, +each of four machines with two in reserve—had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +the advantage that it was of sufficient size to +act independently, while it was not too unwieldy +for a single command. It was equally suitable +for independent or co-operative action, and the +full complement of seven squadrons would, in +addition to a reserve, furnish one squadron for +each division of an Army Expeditionary force +of the size then contemplated, though no definite +allotment of aeroplanes to the lower commands +was at first intended. The French and Germans, +on the other hand, were building up their organizations +with smaller units, with the result that they +found even greater difficulties than ourselves +in obtaining sufficient experienced officers to +command them. It is probable that the consequent +lack of concentration, knowledge and determination +to stick to sound principles of action +was one of the causes underlying the non-success +of the German air service in the opening phases +of the war.</p> + +<p>According to the system employed squadrons +were formed, organized, equipped, and a certain +amount of preliminary training carried out, at +Farnborough, when on completion the squadron +moved to one of the stations which I had established +or was forming at Netheravon, Montrose, +Gosport, Dover, and Orfordness, Netheravon being +the largest. This dispersion of squadrons did +not affect the entity and cohesion, under Wing +headquarters at Farnborough, of the Corps as a +whole. No. 3 Squadron, one of the original two +referred to, removed to Netheravon from Larkhill +in June.</p> + +<p>Similarly, and in order to avoid congestion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +at Farnborough, to foster a spirit of self-support +and to enable air operations to be carried +out with troops in Scotland, No. 2 Squadron +was sent to Montrose. Five of its machines flew +all the way, and it became one of the principles +of training that machines should fly whenever a +move was ordered. Thus in 1913 six machines +from this squadron were flown from Montrose to +Limerick—a great feat then—to take part in the +Irish Command manœuvres, the crossing of the +Irish Channel being successfully carried out both +ways by all machines. Another flight of an +experimental nature was made by Longcroft, +with myself as passenger, from Farnborough to +Montrose in a single day with only one landing.</p> + +<p>The unavoidable and never-relaxing strain +inherent in the daily and hourly use of an instrument, +in the design, maintenance and improvement +of which we could only grope our way, was +very great. In peace before the war, as later +in the war, the only variation to strain lay in +periods of increased strain.</p> + +<p>At Headquarters, in addition to the normal +duties of command and co-ordination, and the +supply of all technical stores to squadrons, there +was carried out all recruiting, and I also formed +a specialized flight for the study of technical +problems, such as the use of wireless from aircraft. +The bulk of experimental work was originally +undertaken by the Royal Aircraft Factory, +under the Superintendent, Mr. O'Gorman, who +always helped us in every way possible, but +by 1913 I felt it necessary to enlarge the duties of +the special flight and an Experimental Section<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +was formed at Wing Headquarters at Farnborough +with an officer, Musgrave, in charge. In addition, +for each squadron an officer was appointed Squadron +Officer for Experiments, thus ensuring the +diffusion of information throughout the Corps, +and affording the opportunity to each unit of +carrying out the experiments best suited to the +material and apparatus at its command. Similarly +other individual officers were detailed in +each squadron on a co-ordinated scheme, for such +duties as Officer-in-charge of Stores, Workshops, +Mechanical Transport, Meteorology, etc.</p> + +<p>The formation at Farnborough of the Line of +Communications R.F.C. Workshop or Flying Depôt—later +known as the Aircraft Park—completed +the organization of the Military Wing.</p> + +<p>I was very anxious as early as possible to prove +the structure as a unified self-supporting, mobile +and easily handled flying corps as far as it had +gone, and in June, 1914, this was done by the +concentration in camp at Netheravon of the entire +Military Wing, comprising Headquarters and Headquarters +Flight, the four completed squadrons +and the nucleus of No. 6 Squadron, the Aircraft +Park and a detachment of the Kite Section. +Mobilization, a very difficult process when it +came, would have been almost impossible had the +concentration not taken place. The object of the +camp was a month's combined training to test +personnel, both in the air and on the ground, +and the handling of aircraft and transport both +by day and night. Endeavours were made to +solve by means of lectures, discussions and committees +the problems connected with mobilization,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +technical and military training, observation, wireless +telegraphy, signals, night flying, photography, +bomb-dropping, workshops, stores, meteorology, +transport, shifting of camp and aerodrome, supply +and maintenance of units in the field, etc.—in fact +the whole organization essential to the efficiency +and cohesion of a Flying Corps, under conditions +as similar as possible to those expected on active +service. Very valuable experience was obtained +from the work carried out. The necessarily wide +gaps in our knowledge were brought home in +more concrete form. It was also evident that the +force was very small. But within three months +it was proved under the strain of war that the +organization and training had been laid down on +sound principles.</p> + +<h4>The Naval Wing.</h4> + +<p>As in the case of the Army, it was to airships +that the Navy first turned its attention, and the +birth of naval aviation may be said to date from +July 21st, 1908, when Admiral Bacon submitted +proposals for the construction of a rigid airship, +the ill-fated "Mayfly" which was destroyed on +her preliminary trials. The Admiralty thereupon +decided to discontinue the construction of airships, +the development of which was left to the Army +until May, 1914, when it was decided that all +airships—that is No. 1 Squadron of the Military +Wing—should be taken over by the Naval Wing. +This was partly the result of a report by two Naval +Officers, who visited France, Austria and Germany, +as was the purchase of two vessels of the Parseval +and Astra Torres types, and a small non-rigid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +from Willows. The construction of a number of +other airships was ordered, but for various reasons +was delayed or never completed up to the outbreak +of war.</p> + +<p>Although at first sight the functions of the +Naval Wing—coast defence and work with the +Fleet—seemed hardly more difficult to perform +than those of the Military Wing, in practice, as +I was to find later from personal experience when +in command of the R.N.A.S. at Gallipoli, they +were more complicated, while the slowness of the +Admiralty in evolving a clear scheme of employment +and a definite objective made itself felt. +Before the war the achievements of the Naval +Wing were due rather to individual effort than +to a definite policy of organized expansion. It +was the pilot and the machine rather than the +organization which developed.</p> + +<p>As already stated, Eastchurch was chosen by +the Short Brothers for their experiments in aeroplanes +in 1909, but it was not until 1911 that the +Admiralty bought two machines and established +the first Naval Flying School at that place. The +same year Commander O. Swann purchased from +Messrs. A. V. Roe a 35 horse-power biplane and +began to carry out experiments with different +types of floats, as a result of which a twin-float +seaplane was produced—the first to rise off the +water in this country.</p> + +<p>For some time seaplanes were in a very experimental +stage and at best could only rise from, and +alight on, calm water, though it is interesting to +note that as far back as 1911 the employment of +seaplanes for torpedo attack, which I think will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +be one of the most important developments of +aircraft in the future, engaged the attention of +the Navy, and a Sopwith seaplane carrying a +14-inch torpedo made its first flight at Calshot +in 1913. For this reason, therefore, it appeared +that principally aeroplanes and airships would +have to be employed from shore bases for coast +defence and that "carrier" ships would be necessary +to enable seaplanes to work with the Fleet.</p> + +<p>The first stations set up were Eastchurch, +Isle of Grain, Calshot, Felixstowe, Yarmouth, +Cromarty and Kingsnorth, from which at the +outbreak of war an organized coastal patrol was +established.</p> + +<p>From the outset the Naval Wing, assisted by +its large percentage of skilled technical personnel, +paid great attention to experimental work of all +sorts. Thus in 1912 the detection of submarines +by aircraft was taken up, in 1913 valuable results +were obtained from bomb-dropping, and a large +number of experiments in wireless, machine gunnery +and fighting carried out. In addition, efforts were +made to extend the power, range and capacity of +engine and machine.</p> + +<p>The second Naval problem, that of co-operation +with the Fleet, involved the flight of aircraft +from ships and the design of aircraft carriers. In +1911 an aeroplane for the first time took off successfully +from the deck of a cruiser at anchor, and +the following year an aeroplane flew from H.M.S. +"Hibernia," while under weigh, but it was not +until after the outbreak of war that alighting +on decks was successfully accomplished. The +first ship to be fitted up as a parent ship<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +for seaplanes was the "Hermes" in 1913.</p> + +<p>These specialized technical requirements and +developments explain why the Naval Wing and +the Royal Naval Air Service tended towards +individualism rather than cohesion. While the +Military Wing, or Royal Flying Corps, progressed +further as an organized fighting force, the Royal +Naval Air Service, amongst the 100 odd aeroplanes +and seaplanes on charge which were mainly of the +Short, Sopwith, Avro, Farman and Wright types, +possessed in 1914 the more powerful engines and +a number of aeroplanes fitted with wireless and +machine guns, while their bomb-dropping arrangements +were also in a more advanced stage of +development.</p> + +<p>An Air Department was formed at the Admiralty +in 1912 to deal with all questions relating to +naval aircraft. Naval officers were trained from +the beginning at Eastchurch rather than at the +Central Flying School, and in 1913 the appointment +of an Inspecting Captain for Aircraft, with a +Central Air Office at Sheerness as his headquarters, +accentuated a growing tendency for the Naval +Wing to work on independent lines.</p> + +<p>The Naval Wing grew rapidly and in the middle +of 1914 was reorganized as the Royal Naval Air +Service, comprising the Air Department of the +Admiralty, the Central Air Office, the Royal Naval +Flying School, the Royal Naval Air Stations, and +all aircraft, seaplane ships and balloons employed +for naval purposes. This placed the naval air +force on a self-supporting basis and the entity +of the Royal Flying Corps as a whole, as originally +provided for, was lost.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p> + +<h3>Tactics and the Machine.</h3> + +<p>The value of the application of flying to war +requires little demonstration. The most important +attributes of generalship are quick appreciation +of a situation and quick decision. To the +ordinary Commander the absence of information +is paralysing. In the nineteenth century the +mass of cavalry was the special instrument of +information and to obtain it contact with the +enemy's main forces had to be effected. It thus +acted as a shield and also tried to provide the +information necessary to enable the infantry to +take the offensive.</p> + +<p>Aviation, by the wide field of observation it commands, +by the speed with which it can collect and +transmit information, to a great extent lifts the +fog of war and enables a general to act on knowledge +where before he acted largely on deduction. +Information once obtained, its mobile and far-reaching +offensive power introduces the element +of surprise, and permits of lightning strokes against +the enemy's vital points.</p> + +<p>Before the war reconnaissance was regarded as +the principal duty of the aircraft of the Military +Wing. This was due to two reasons, first, the +obvious one that aircraft possessed advantages +shared by no other arm for obtaining information +quickly and over wide areas and reporting to +Headquarters, and second, that experiment had +proved the difficulty of loading aeroplanes with +offensive weapons, such as bombs or machine +guns, without impairing speed and climb.</p> + +<p>The following statement, which I drafted and +which was issued by the General Staff before the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +Army Manœuvres of 1912, summarizes the position:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"As regards strategical reconnaissance," it says, "a General +is probably now justified in requiring a well-trained flyer, +flying a modern aeroplane, to reconnoitre some 70 miles +out and return 70 miles. This would be done at a speed +of, say, 60 miles an hour in ordinary weather over ordinary +country. Thus within four hours, allowing a wide margin, +a report as to the approximate strength, formation and +direction of movement of the enemy, if he is within a 70-mile +radius, should be in the hands of the Commander."</p></div> + +<p>To those imbued with a knowledge of military +history this new method of ascertaining the enemy's +movements might well seem revolutionary.</p> + +<p>Let us take two instances illustrating what +aircraft, with a radius of little over 100 miles, +might have done in previous campaigns. For the +operations which terminated in the capitulation +of Ulm in 1805 Napoleon concentrated two army +corps at Würzburg and five along the left bank of +the Rhine between Mannheim and Strasburg, his +main body of cavalry under Murat being at the +latter place. The Austrian Army under Mack +was behind the Iller between Ulm and Memmingen, +and expected the French to advance through +the defiles of the Black Forest, where Napoleon +did actually make a feint with his cavalry. Napoleon, +however, crossing the Rhine on September +26th, 1805, moved east, and it was not until +October 2nd, when the French Army had reached +the line Ansbach, Langenburg, Hall and Ludwigsburg, +and his envelopment was far advanced, +that Mack realized that the main French advance +was coming from the north. Aeroplanes of the +type we possessed in 1914 could have reconnoitred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +the whole of Napoleon's preliminary position, +could have detected his line of advance, especially +as it was concentrated on a very narrow front, and +could have brought back the information to the +Austrian Headquarters within a few hours.</p> + +<p>Aircraft would have been of even greater value +on August 16th, 1870, at the Battle of Rezonville, +where neither the French nor the Germans were +aware of the other's movements. On the 14th a +battle had been fought east of Metz which had +resulted in the French retreat. On the morning +of the 16th Moltke thought the French had retired +west by the Metz-Verdun road and those to the +north of it, and consequently he directed his left +wing due west towards the Meuse to head off the +French, sending his right army towards Rezonville +to harass their rearguard. The French retreat, +however, had been slow and two corps were still +at Rezonville, while three corps and the reserve +cavalry were within easy reach, some 130,000 +men in all. At 9 in the morning the German +3rd Corps, unaided and far from support, attacked +a position within reach of the whole French Army, +believing it had to deal with a rearguard only. +Bazaine, on the other hand, thinking that he +was faced by the German main army, remained +on the defensive, and lost the opportunity of +defeating in detail first the 3rd and then the 10th +German Corps. A few aeroplanes operating on a +radius of 30 miles would have disclosed between +daybreak and 10 a.m. the true position to either +commander. Neither the German nor the French +cavalry, though both were engaged, obtained any +reliable information.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p> + +<p>The problem as to how far aircraft would +reduce the value of cavalry was widely discussed +before the war. It was seen that by day aircraft +could obtain quicker and more accurate information, +but that cavalry retained their power of +night reconnaissance, of mobile offensive action +and of pinning the enemy to his ground by fighting. +This was found to be so during the retreat, when, +in addition to the direct value of aircraft for long-distance +reconnaissance, an indirect asset of +great importance lay in the release of the cavalry +for battle action in assistance of the infantry. +The question has become more acute since the +offensive action of aircraft against ground targets +has developed, but although we must never forget +the splendid work of the mounted arm during the +Retreat from Mons, and in March, 1918, factors +have arisen tending to make the use of cavalry a +problem of extreme difficulty in European wars, +and it is possible that, in addition to their reconnaissance +functions, aircraft will supersede the +shock tactics and delaying action of cavalry, +though this may be modified if, the sabre being a +thing of the past, cavalry are converted into +mounted machine gunners.</p> + +<p>Air tactics and training were, therefore, chiefly +studied from the point of view of reconnaissance. +In addition to the possibility of being shot at by +other aircraft, an important consideration was +vulnerability from the ground. Before the war +reconnaissances were carried out at heights varying +from 2,000 to 6,000 feet, but it was generally +considered that the aeroplane was safe from fire +from the ground at heights above 3,000 feet.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span></p> + +<p>Serious difficulties affecting the mobility of +aircraft were the means of providing a regular +supply of fuel and the selection of landing grounds +when moving camp, which had to be close enough +behind the front line as not to entail waste of time +in flying out and back over friendly territory. +This was later brought home to us in a very acute +form during the Retreat from Mons.</p> + +<p>As machines improved, increasing attention +was paid to bettering their power of reconnaissance +by air photography, their value in co-operation +with artillery by wireless equipment, their offensive +action by bomb dropping and their offence and +defence by armament.</p> + +<p>The value of a correct initiative and the aeroplane's +rôle as an offensive weapon were fully +appreciated and brought out in the Training +Manual of the Royal Flying Corps which we compiled +at Farnborough, and which was published +early in 1914 by the War Office. It says:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is probable that one phase of the struggle for the command +of the air will resolve itself into a series of combats +between individual aeroplanes, or pairs of aeroplanes. If the +pilots of one side can succeed in obtaining victory in a succession +of such combats, they will establish a moral ascendancy +over the surviving pilots of the enemy, and be left free to +carry out their duties of reconnaissance. The actual tactics +must depend on the types of the aeroplanes engaged, the +object of the pilot being to obtain for his passenger the free +use of his own weapon while denying to the enemy the use +of his. To disable the pilot of the opposing aeroplane will +be the first object. In the case of fast reconnaissance aeroplanes +it will often be advisable to avoid fighting, in order +to carry out a mission or to deliver information; but it must +be borne in mind that this will be sometimes impossible, +and that, as in every other class of fighting, a fixed determination +to attack and win will be the surest road to victory."</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p> + +<p>Speaking generally, the evolution of the machine, +as apart from the engine, which hung behind, +followed upon the evolution of air tactics. As soon +as experience, often hard won at the cost of a +valuable life, opened up new fields of activity +for aircraft, the designer and constructor evolved +new designs to meet the new requirements. It +was no small achievement in this period to have +solved the problem of inherent stability, both in +theory and practice, so successfully, that from +the aerodynamic standpoint our machines in 1914 +compare favourably with those in use at the end +of the war.</p> + +<p>In dealing with the evolution of the machine +during the three years prior to the war there are +three landmarks: in the autumn of 1911 the few +machines belonging to the Air Battalion failed +to reach their destination for Army Manœuvres; +in May, 1912, the Royal Flying Corps was formed +and experiments with a view to meeting military +requirements were for the first time energetically +and methodically prosecuted; and in August, +1914, four squadrons flew to France with machines +which had attained a high degree of stability and +were not inferior to any of those possessed by +other countries. When it is remembered in what +a short time these machines were evolved, it is +not surprising that attention had been chiefly +confined to the problem of the 'plane and stability, +the engine and speed and reliability. Wireless, +bombing, photography, night flying and machine +gunnery had been discussed and experimented +with, but no progress was made comparable to +that effected under war conditions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> + +<p>Machines and engines before the war were +chiefly French. It is interesting to note those +with which No. 3 Squadron, one of the first to +be formed, commenced its career in May, 1912. +They consisted of one 50 horse-power Gnome +Nieuport, one Deperdussin, which by the way was +privately owned, one Gnome Bristol, two Gnome +Bleriot monoplanes, one Avro and one Bristol +box-kite biplane. By September, 1912, the Squadron +possessed fourteen monoplanes, but in that +month, owing to the number of accidents incurred +by them, the use of monoplanes was temporarily +forbidden, and it was not until April, 1913, that +the Squadron was fully equipped with B.E. and +Maurice Farman biplanes organized in flights.</p> + +<p>These types formed the backbone of the Military +Wing, which also included Codys, Breguets, Avros, +and, later, Sopwiths. The B.E.2c was produced +by the Royal Aircraft Factory in the autumn of +1913 and demonstrated its high degree of stability +by flying from Aldershot to Froyle and from Froyle +to Fleet, distances of 6¾ and 8 miles respectively, +without the use of ailerons or elevators. The +progress made is illustrated by the fact that at the +Army Manœuvres of 1913 twelve machines covered +4,545 miles on reconnaissance and 3,210 miles +on other flights, accurate observations being made +from a height of 6,000 feet, without serious mishap.</p> + +<p>In 1913 I recommended the gradual substitution +of B.E.'s for Farmans on the ground of the +all-round efficiency and superior fighting qualities +of the former, and to secure the advantage of +standardization, but it was objected by the War +Office that the Farmans were the only machines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +that could mount weapons in front—an objection +which was not met until firing through the airscrew +was introduced—and that the slower Farmans +offered greater advantages for observation, +an idea which was long prevalent. As a result, +a compromise was effected, and two squadrons +were equipped with B.E.'s and two with homogeneous +flights of Farmans, Bleriots and Avros.</p> + +<p>At the outbreak of war the most successful +machines possessed by the Military Wing were +the B.E.2 tractor with a 70 horse-power Renault +engine, a speed of 73 miles an hour, and a climb +of 3,000 feet in nine minutes; and a Henri +Farman pusher with a speed of 60 miles an hour, +and a climb of 3,000 feet in fourteen minutes. A +special study was being made in 1914 of the +best methods of ensuring clear observation of +the ground, and partly in this connection staggered +planes were introduced, culminating in the B.E.2c's, +which were not, however, available for service in +any numbers until 1915.</p> + +<p>To sum up, the technical development of aircraft +has taken place, and will continue side by +side with the evolution of the uses to which aircraft +can be put. While due attention was paid +to problems connected with the anticipated duties +of aircraft ancillary to that of reconnaissance, +owing to the short space of time between the +formation of the Royal Flying Corps and the +outbreak of war, to the difficulties connected +with the engine, and to causes inseparable from +peace conditions, development had been more +or less confined to evolving a stable and reliable +machine with a good field of view.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p> + +<h3>Conclusions.</h3> + +<p>The foregoing outline of the development of +aviation from the earliest times up to the war—a +story of human endeavour and achievement in +the air with its attendant dangers and difficulties—is +not without value in endeavouring to assess +that which has since occurred.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the year 1912 the Royal +Flying Corps did not exist. At the beginning of +the Great War, in 1914, England found herself +with an air service which, though much smaller +than those of Germany or France, was so excellently +manned and organized, trained and equipped, that +it placed her at a bound in the front rank of +aviation.</p> + +<p>The machine was stable, but the engine still +unequal to the tasks laid upon it. Civil Aviation +practically did not exist.</p> + +<p>I shall now describe the extension of air duties +under war conditions; the increasing value of +aircraft for general action and air tactics and their +development and far-reaching effect as the right +hand of strategy. This resulted in the expansion +of our flying corps from a total of 1,844 officers +and men, and seven squadrons with some 150 +machines fit for war use, to a total of nearly +300,000 officers and men, and 201 squadrons and +22,000 machines in use at the end of the war, and +in the evolution of the machine to a point where +we can regard it, not only as a weapon of war, but +as a new method of transport for commercial +purposes in peace.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p> +<h2 class="ft1">CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h2>WAR</h2> + +<h3>General Remarks on War Development.</h3> + +<p>In dealing with the story of the beginnings of +aviation and the evolution of aircraft up to the +war, we have seen that though its growth was +infinitesimal compared with that which came with +the impetus of war, the air service took definite +and practical shape more rapidly than had up +to that time any other arm of the Army or Navy +in peace.</p> + +<p>In 1914 we had reached a point where we +possessed a small but mobile and efficient flying +force, equipped and trained essentially for reconnaissance. +Although experiments had been made, +little had been achieved in the use of wireless from +aircraft, air photography, bomb dropping, armament +or the development of air fighting. As +with the Army and Navy, war quickened and +expanded all the attributes of air operations in a +way which could not have been foreseen before +the struggle occurred; and, as it would have +been impossible for the Army and Navy to build +up their war organization without the foundation +of the pre-war service, so it was the splendid +quality of the original Royal Flying Corps that +made this expansion possible.</p> + +<p>Before the war the Royal Flying Corps was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +considerably smaller than the air services of either +France or Germany, and to attain even the strength +with which the Military Wing left England the +bulk of the trained officers and men, and almost +all the machines fit for service, had to be taken. +When I started to raise the Corps, in May, 1912, +the War Office estimated that its organization, +(of a headquarters and seven aeroplane and one +airship squadrons) would take at least four years; +instead, there had been little more than two. +Even at the risk of leaving insufficient personnel +and material behind to form and train new +squadrons, I recommended that four complete +squadrons (including the wireless machines which +had to be thrown in to make up the numbers) +should be sent overseas to help the British Expeditionary +Force in bearing the brunt of the +terrific blow that was to come. It was a very +serious matter that so little could be left with +which to carry on in England, but we considered +it essential to dispatch at once to France every +available machine and pilot, because both political +and military authorities were of opinion that +for economic and financial reasons a war with a +great European power could not last more than a +few months. Another reason was that those of +us who had been at the Staff College during the +few years before the war, or who had recently +served on the General Staff at the War Office, +believed that the weight of the German attack +would be made through Belgium, where, owing to +the enclosed nature of the country, cavalry would +be at a disadvantage, and we realized therefore, +and urged, the great effect which the air would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +have from the commencement of operations—a +view which was not widely held, especially among +senior officers in the Army. We also felt the +necessity of using our maximum air strength from +the outset, so as to prove its supreme importance +as quickly and practically as possible. It required +the Retreat from Mons before even G.H.Q. as a +whole would accept the fact, though Colonel +Macdonogh, the head of the intelligence section, +was our firm ally. The iron of confidence, both to +used and user, had to be welded with the first +great blows on the anvil of war. For these +reasons it was vital that every available trained +pilot and suitable machine should be employed +with the Army, even at the danger of serious +initial depletion at Home. The smooth progress +of expansion was largely attributable alike to the +strength of the pre-war spirit, organization and +training,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and to the results actual and moral +obtained by the first four squadrons during the +Retreat and the following weeks of the war under +centralized control. The French distributed their +"Escadrilles," which were approximately of the +size of our "flight," from the beginning, and it is +probable that one cause of failure in the German +air service during the same period lay in the +initial dispersion of units and lack of unified +control by the higher command. The British +Expeditionary Force having been saved during +the Retreat, Paris having been saved at the +Marne, the great German army having made a +retirement, a lengthy war of position having become<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +obvious, confidence in the air service, both +within and without, having been established, the +centralized system necessarily adopted up to that +time could be relaxed, and we were able to send +home officers and men with greatly increased +experience to help build up the many new squadrons +which would be required to co-operate with +the new armies.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> On October 17, 1914, Sir J. French wrote: "Such +efficiency as the R.F.C. may have shown in the field is, in +my opinion, principally due to organization and training."</p></div> + +<p>Gradually, as the numbers in the field permitted, +increased duties were undertaken. The +Army, though it did not do so at first, yet came +to understand the immense importance to itself +of air reconnaissance. So much so indeed that our +machines and pilots were generally many too few +to attempt more than the absolute essentials, and +calls were often made upon them which were +beyond their strength to meet. An ironic contrast +to this was supplied, however, at the evacuation +of the Dardanelles, where I was commanding +the air service (the R.N.A.S.), and was asked to +be careful not to do too much air work. This +at a time when through stress and strain and loss +we had, I think, a total of five machines left able +to take the air!</p> + +<p>Observation was, and remains, the prime purpose +for which the Royal Flying Corps was +formed. 1914 was a year of reconnaissance, but +with the advent of trench warfare at the Battle +of the Aisne, the first attempts were made to extend +its scope by the use of wireless for artillery co-operation, +and by air photography, both of which +developed rapidly. Headway was also being made +with bombing. Then machines carrying out their +special duties had to be protected, while it became +necessary to prevent hostile machines from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +effecting similar functions, with the result that +1915 saw the beginnings of systematic air fighting.</p> + +<p>In 1915 the easily manœuvrable Fokker, with +its machine-gun synchronizing gear for firing +through the propeller, gave the Germans a temporary +lead, but by the Battle of the Somme this +was outclassed and in 1916 our air superiority +became marked. The Royal Flying Corps was +by that time organized into Brigades and Wings, +one Wing operating with each Army for fighting +and distant reconnaissance, and one Wing with +each Corps for short reconnaissance and such +specialized work as artillery co-operation and +contact patrols. Both types of machine took +part in bombing operations.</p> + +<p>There is generally perhaps a tendency, when +reviewing the army and air effort in the war, to +deal almost entirely with the Western Front and +to forget the prodigious work done in many other +theatres.</p> + +<p>In 1915 the Royal Naval Air Service carried +out all air work with the Army and Navy in the +Gallipoli campaign and showed how a single air +force could effect really important co-operation +with both services. In addition to the normal +duties of co-operation with the Army and the +Fleet, and in spite of the difficulties of transport, +supply and workshop arrangements, photographs +were taken from the air of the greater part of the +Peninsula, and the original inaccurate maps +corrected therefrom; frequent bombing raids were +carried out against objectives on the Peninsula, +the Turkish lines of communications, and even +Constantinople itself. In this campaign, too, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>torpedoes +were used for the first time by aircraft and +three ships were destroyed in the Dardanelles by +this means. The distance from the hub of affairs, +a line of supply about 6,000 miles in length, +sickness and the climatic and geographical conditions +rendered maintenance very difficult. Sand +and dust driven in clouds by high winds greatly +shortened the working life of engines. The heat +during the summer caused the rapid deterioration +of machines, while long oversea flights entailed +loss from forced landings. There are many aspects +of the deepest interest to be brought out when a +complete history of the Campaign in Gallipoli +comes to be written. It is true that the Allies +would have lost all if they had been defeated +in the west, and that the call of the Armies for +more and more men and munitions for that theatre +was insistent; it is equally true, however, that in +France there could be nothing but batter and +counter-batter, and the only remaining point where +strategic principles could be brought to bear was +at the Dardanelles. But what is more relevant +to the subject of these pages is that when in +future years the story of Helles and Anzac and +Suvla is weighed, it will, I think, appear that had +the necessary air service been built up from the +beginning and sustained, the Army and Navy +could have forced the Straits and taken Constantinople. +I insistently urged the dependence +of the naval and military forces upon air assistance +and the necessity for carrying out a strong +aerial offensive, especially by bombing, for which the +local conditions governing the enemy operations +on the Peninsula offered exceptional advantages.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span></p> + +<p>From the autumn of 1915 onwards Egypt +became the centre of training and expansion for +operations in the Middle East and, as the organization +developed, a brigade was formed with +Wings in Macedonia, Sinai and a training Wing, +which by 1918 had become a training brigade, +in Egypt. The work of the Wing sent to Sinai +in 1916, and expanded in 1917 into a brigade, +is well summarized in the following extract from +a telegram received from Egypt on October 3rd, +1918:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Before operations commenced our mastery of the air was +complete and this was maintained throughout, enabling the +cavalry turning movement to be completely protected and +concealed. Enemy retreating columns were so effectively +machine gunned and bombed by offensive machines that in +all three cases the surviving personnel abandoned their vehicles +and consequently upset all plans of retirement. An enemy +column thus abandoned was seven miles in length."</p></div> + +<p class="noin">The Wings in Macedonia and Mesopotamia, though +they could not beat the record of the Palestine +Brigade, gained a marked supremacy over the +enemy. Air operations in East Africa were +originally carried out by the Royal Naval Air +Service with seaplanes, which in 1915 were +brought up to the strength of two squadrons and +replaced by aeroplanes under the orders of the +military forces, their duties being carried out under +the difficult conditions of bush warfare. Valuable +work was also done by the Royal Flying Corps +squadrons which were sent out to operate in the +south.</p> + +<p>In addition to these major operations, air +forces were used in the expeditions on the Indian +frontier, against Darfur and in the vicinity of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +Aden. Five squadrons were sent to Italy after +the Italian retreat from the Isonzo and took a +prominent part in the final Austrian defeat; a +Royal Air Force contingent was sent to Russia +to operate from Archangel; and material assistance +was given to France and the other Allies, +but especially to the United States in the training +and equipment of her air forces.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of 1918 the Royal Flying +Corps and the Royal Naval Air Force were +amalgamated and the Royal Air Force came +into existence, and during the year achieved a +supremacy more complete than that at any time +since the Somme.</p> + +<p>The following description gives a vivid idea +of air activity at the front in 1918:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"All day long there were 'dog fights' waged at heights +up to three or four miles above the shell-torn battlefields of +France, whilst the low-flying aeroplanes were attacking suitable +targets from the height of a few dozen feet. Passing backwards +and forwards went the reconnaissance machines and +the bombers, and along the whole front observers were sending +out by wireless to the artillery the point of impact of their +shells. Such was the picture of the air on any fine day at the +time."</p></div> + +<p>1918, however, saw not only the accumulative +effect of the tactical co-operation of aircraft with +our armies in the field, but also the formation of +the Independent Air Force and the carrying out +of the strategic air offensive against centres of war +industry in the interior of Germany.</p> + +<p>A vast organization was also required at Home +to meet the rapid expansion of units in the Field +and to supply reinforcements. Thus at the Armistice +there were 199 training squadrons, the pupils<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +under instruction including cadets numbered +30,000, and during the war some 22,000 graduated +as efficient for active service. At the beginning +of the war pilots were sent overseas with only +11 hours' flying experience. This was much too +little and there is no doubt that increased training +would have ensured fewer casualties. Fortunately, +however, the length of training was increased in +the latter part of the war and a remarkable +advance in training was made possible by the +use of an entirely new and extraordinarily efficient +system of instruction evolved by Smith-Barry.</p> + +<p>The war demonstrated the beginnings of what +air power meant, though in November, 1918, it +was still in its infancy. Before many years the +ability to make war successfully, or even at all, +will depend upon air power.</p> + +<p>Let us now briefly survey the development of +the several duties of aircraft, the evolution of +machines and progress in tactics, strategy and +the organization of our Air Forces during the +war.</p> + +<p>I had recognized the great difficulty of mobilizing +with the clockwork precision of older units and, +in the belief that war was coming, had ordered a +provisional mobilization of the Corps some days +before it was actually declared. Thanks to this +step and to the work done at our Concentration +Camp at Netheravon in June, 1914, the greater +part of the Royal Flying Corps was enabled to +concentrate without hitch at our aerodrome at +Dover, and the machines flew via Calais to Amiens +on August 13th.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p> + +<h3>Co-operation with the Army.</h3> + +<h4>Reconnaissance.</h4> + +<p>In the event of France and England declaring +war concurrently against Germany, the strategic +plan agreed to by the British and French general +staffs before the war had been that the British +Expeditionary Force should be moved to the +Le Cateau, Maubeuge, Mons, area and take +up a line on the left flank of the French Army +near Mons. But England had withheld her +declaration until three days after the French, and +on landing in France the first words I heard +said by a Frenchman were: "Oui, l'armée +anglaise arrive mais on a manqué le premier +plan." It was not until after the arrival +of G.H.Q. at Amiens on August 14th that, +although late, it was decided that the advanced +line should be taken up. The Royal Flying +Corps moved by air and road to an existing +aerodrome outside the antique defences of Maubeuge +12 miles from Mons on the 16th. On the 19th +the first reconnaissance was carried out, and the +entire country over which the German armies were +advancing, as far as Brussels and Louvain, was +kept under observation. One of the best reconnaissances +ever made was that of August 21st, +which discovered the 2nd German Corps moving +from Brussels through Ninhove and Grammont.</p> + +<p>From Maubeuge we had to retire on the 24th to +Le Cateau, on the 25th to St. Quentin, on the +26th to La Fère, on the 28th to Compiègne, on the +30th to Senlis, on the 31st to Juilly, on September +2nd to Serris, on the 3rd to Touquin, on the +4th to Melun, where we were thankful at last to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +get orders again to advance on the 7th to Touquin, +and on the 9th to Coulommiers, reaching Fère-en-Tardennois +on the 12th for the Battle of the Aisne.</p> + +<p>Of the many recollections of the early days one +which will remain longest in my mind is the terrible +sadness of the flocks of refugees, of the poor people +we left behind. And the glare of villages burning +by the hand of the Boche. It was indeed war.</p> + +<p>Valuable reconnaissances were made during +the whole Retreat from Mons to the Marne in +spite of the tremendous difficulties involved by +constant movement, transport, and the selection +of new landing grounds, but, in the words of Sir +John French, "It was the timely warning aircraft +gave which chiefly enabled me to make speedy +dispositions to avert danger and disaster. There +can be no doubt indeed that even then the presence +and co-operation of aircraft saved the very +frequent use of cavalry patrols and detailed supports." +The Royal Flying Corps was an important +factor in helping the British Expeditionary +Force to escape von Kluck's nearly successful +efforts to secure another and a British Sedan.</p> + +<p>The reconnaissance resulting in the most valuable +information of all, and, I think, during the +whole of the war, was that of September 3rd, +during the critical operations on the Marne, which +formed one of the decisive battles in the world's +history, when von Kluck's turning movement to the +south-east against the French left was accurately +reported and Marshal Joffre was enabled to make +his dispositions accordingly. "The precision, exactitude +and regularity of the news brought in," +he said in a message to the British Commander-in-Chief,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +"are evidence of the perfect training of +pilots and observers." The reports of the German +air service, on the other hand, would appear from +von Kluck's movements to have been of no assistance +to him.</p> + +<p>The system adopted from the first was for the +pilot or observer, or both, immediately on their +return to bring their report to R.F.C. Headquarters, +whence the Commander, or his staff officer, +accompanied them to G.H.Q., where the map was +filled in in accordance with the report. G.H.Q. +could then ask questions and obtain any further +information which the observer could give, while +R.F.C. Headquarters could ascertain what further +reports were most urgently required. The form +of the reports, which were ready printed, had been +most carefully thought out at R.F.C. Headquarters +in peace and experimented with at the +Concentration Camp.</p> + +<p>The maps thus compiled at G.H.Q. from air +reconnaissance reports between August 31st and +September 3rd were of vital interest, though it was +sometimes very difficult to get the information +put on the map for prompt consideration. For +instance, at Dammartin on the evening of September +1st, when it was thought that German +cavalry were within a few miles, G.H.Q. made a +very hurried departure, and I was unable to find +anyone to whom to give very important reports.</p> + +<p>It was at the Battle of the Marne that machines +were for the first time allotted to Army Corps for +tactical work, while long-distance reconnaissance +was carried out by other machines operating from +Headquarters. Later on, this system was established<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +as a part of our permanent organization, +squadrons being allotted to, and reporting direct +to, Corps for tactical reconnaissance, artillery co-operation +and contact patrols, and to Armies for +longer-distance reconnaissance and fighting.</p> + +<p>The last phase of the war of movement was +the race for the Channel Ports and it devolved +upon aircraft to observe the enemy's movements +from his centre and left flank to meet the Allied +movement to the coast, to observe the movements +of the four newly-formed corps which came +into action at Ypres and to maintain liaison with +the Belgian and British forces at Antwerp and +Ostend. Information was very difficult to obtain +and on one occasion I flew from the Aisne to +Antwerp, under Sir John French's instructions, in +order as far as possible to clear up the general +situation when our G.H.Q. was in doubt as to +whether Antwerp was completely surrounded or +not. It was an interesting piece of work. There +was a light drizzle, and the forest of Compiègne +had to be flown over at about 200 feet. The B.E. +could not make the distance without refilling, and +although only a short halt was made at Amiens +for the purpose, it was too late to fly direct to +Antwerp. Instead, a landing was made in a very +sticky field under light plough, which was selected +from the air about 4 miles north of Bruges, to +which town I rode on a borrowed bicycle. At +Bruges there was great consternation and uncertainty +as to the position at Antwerp, but the +Commander kindly placed a large open car and its +very energetic driver at my disposal to try and +get through. After many difficulties we managed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +to find our way into Antwerp by about midnight, +and I was received by the Belgian Commander. +He explained that though the Germans had +broken through the South-Eastern sector and his +troops were very hard pressed (and pointing +repeatedly to a piece of an 18-inch German shell +in the corner of the room, he said, "Mais qu'est-ce +qu'on peut faire avec ces choses-là!"), he hoped +to be able to hold out for a time. After giving +him General French's message and obtaining as +much information as possible, I managed to +get clear of Antwerp, reaching Bruges again at +3.15 a.m. At 4 a.m. we set out and found a +very wet machine in a wetter field and after +considerable difficulty and flying through the +top of the surrounding hedge, struggled into the +upper air on the way back to Headquarters at +Fère-en-Tardennois.</p> + +<p>During the Battles of the Aisne and of Ypres +strategical reconnaissance was carried out by the +few machines available at Headquarters. Shephard, +the best reconnaissance officer I have ever +known, who was killed later, used to fly his +B.E.2 without observer over the greater part +of Belgium two or three times a week and always +brought in a long, closely packed, and extraordinarily +valuable report. Tactical reconnaissance to +a depth of 15 to 20 miles was done by units +attached to Corps.</p> + +<p>After the Battle of the Aisne, which was the +turning point in the evolution from the war of +movement to trench warfare, pure reconnaissance, +though still the basis of air work, tended to become +a matter of routine, while many new and specialized<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +forms of it—such as air photography and artillery +spotting by wireless—were developed.</p> + +<h4>Photography.</h4> + +<p>Though experiments had been made in the +problem of photography from the air before the +war, principally by Fletcher, Hubbard and Laws, +and its value to survey was recognized, it had not +become of practical utility. We only took one +official camera with us to France on August 13th, +1914, and it was not until September 15th that the +first attempt at air photography was made, when +five plates were exposed over positions behind the +enemy's lines with very imperfect results. Its +great value as an aid to observation in trench +warfare was, however, very apparent, fresh brains +were brought to the task, Moore-Brabazon, Campbell +and Dr. Swan, and by the end of the year +better success was obtained, though positions +even then had to be filled in by the observer with +red ink. Experiments at home during 1915 led +to a great improvement in lenses, and at the +beginning of 1916 air photography was universal. +At the Battle of the Somme new enemy positions +were photographed as soon as they were seen, and +the camera did invaluable work in the reconnaissance +of the Hindenburg Line during the +German retreat of 1917, and the taking of over a +thousand photographs was a daily occurrence. +On September 4th, 1917, a record of 1,805 photographs +was made.</p> + +<p>The development of air photography, very +remarkable in itself, is even more so when it is +remembered that the improvement in enemy anti-aircraft<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +guns drove our machines to carry out their +work at altitudes increasing up to 20,000 and +even 22,000 feet, at which heights the negatives +had to be as distinct as those taken at 4,000 in +the earlier days of the war.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the Dardanelles operations +our apparatus consisted of one camera, a printing +frame and a dark room lamp. The first photographs +were taken by Butler in April, 1915, from +a H. Farman machine at necessarily low altitudes. +Butler was wounded in June and was succeeded +by Thomson, who alone made 900 exposures and +sent in 3,600 prints.</p> + +<p>In addition to the assistance of air photography +to reconnaissance, the war gave it great impetus +as the handmaid of survey and mapping. It was, +in fact, the only means of mapping or correcting +the maps of country held by the enemy, which +in certain cases, as at Gallipoli and in Palestine, +were very inaccurate.</p> + +<p>By the end of the war photographic processes +and equipment had reached a high standard of +excellence. There are still, however, certain +difficulties in regard to the production of accurate +maps, which have not been overcome, the most +obvious being the necessity of an initial framework +of fixed points and of contouring. The subject +is considered so important that an "Air Survey +Committee," consisting of representatives of the +Air Ministry, the Geographical section of the War +Office, the Ordnance Survey, the School of Military +Engineering and the Artillery Survey School, has +recently been formed. In addition, the School of +Aeronautics of Cambridge University is studying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +the question. The Survey of India and the Survey +of Egypt are also conducting experiments.</p> + +<h4>Wireless.</h4> + +<p>From the outset, part of the German scheme of +tactics was to batter down resistance by means of +superior weight of heavy armament, and with the +beginning of warfare of fixed position the observation +and direction of our artillery fire became as +important as distant reconnaissance. Besides its +immense value in increasing the effect of the +batteries, it had the indirect advantage of more +closely binding the ties of mutual understanding +between the air and ground troops, a point which +fortunately seems to have been misunderstood by +the Germans. In September, 1914, the first +attempts were made to signal enemy movements +from the aeroplanes of a Headquarters Wireless +Flight which had been formed for the purpose, +and this practice was continued with success +throughout the Battle of the Aisne.</p> + +<p>In the earliest stages artillery co-operation +was also carried out by dropping coloured lights, +but from the Battle of Ypres onwards, though +for some time very few wireless machines were +available, this was effected by wireless or signal +lamps. In his dispatch on the Battle of Loos, +Sir John French wrote: "The work of observation +for the guns from aeroplanes has now become an +important factor in artillery fire, and the personnel +of the two arms work in closest co-operation."</p> + +<p>By the Battle of the Somme artillery co-operation +had assumed very large dimensions. For<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +instance, on September 15th, 1916, on the front +of the 4th Army alone, seventy hostile batteries +were located, twenty-nine being silenced. Counter-battery +work was so effective before the offensive +which opened on the Ypres front at the +end of July, 1917, that the Germans withdrew +their guns and the attack was delayed for three +days in order that their new positions might be +located.</p> + +<p>Recognition marks on aeroplanes were at this +time, and indeed throughout the war, a matter of +great difficulty. It had been suggested before the +war that they would not be necessary, but the +reverse was found to be the case, as even with the +distinctive marks which were adopted our machines +were often fired at by British troops, and we should +undoubtedly have lost very heavily if we had +flown over our own lines with false marks, as was +suggested, or none.</p> + +<h4>Bombing.</h4> + +<p>The bombing operations, which reached their +climax in the raids on German industrial centres in +1918, arose from very primitive methods used at +the beginning of the war. During the retreat +from Mons a few hand grenades were carried +experimentally in the pockets of pilots and observers, +or, in the case of the larger varieties, tied +to their bodies, and these were dropped over the +side of the machine as opportunity occurred. +At the Marne, for instance, small petrol bombs set +fire to a transport park and scattered a mixed +column of infantry and transport. I think I am +right in saying that the first German bombs were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +dropped on us—unsuccessfully—at Compiègne on +August 29th, 1914. It was not, however, until +the beginning of 1915 that special bombing raids +were started by the Royal Flying Corps, one of the +first places to be attacked being the Ghistelles +aerodrome in West Flanders.</p> + +<p>The most important bombing operations and +raids into Germany in the early days of the war +were carried out by the Naval Air Service, units +of which landed at Ostend on August 27th and +operated with the Royal Naval Division from +Antwerp. They were subsequently withdrawn +to Dunkirk to form the nucleus of an aircraft +centre from which excellent work was done in +attacking the bases established on or near the +Belgian coast from which German submarines +and airships conducted their operations.</p> + +<p>Just before the Germans entered Antwerp, the +first raid was made against a German town, one +machine reaching Dusseldorf, when it descended +from 6,000 to 400 feet and dropped three bombs +on an airship shed.</p> + +<p>From the end of 1914 onwards the activities +of the Royal Naval Air Service in this theatre of +operations continually increased, the chief objectives +being the gun emplacements at Middelkerke +and Blankenburghe, the submarine bases at Zeebrugge +and Bruges, the minefield and dock of +Ostend, the airship sheds near Brussels, and +the dockyards at Antwerp. The first airship +destroyed in the air was attacked over Ghent.</p> + +<p>An interesting experiment was the attempt by +the R.N.A.S. at the Dardanelles to sink the heavy +wire anti-submarine net, which had been stretched<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +on buoys across the Straits at Nagara by the +Turks, by means of parachute bombs.</p> + +<p>To return to the Royal Flying Corps. During +1915 railway junctions were the principal bombing +objectives, and raids were carried out on an ever-increasing +scale, formations of fourteen to twenty +machines taking part. At the Battle of Neuve +Chapelle for instance, the railway junctions at +Menin, Courtrai and Douai were attacked. One +officer of No. 5 Squadron, carrying one 100 lb. +bomb, arrived over Menin at 3,500 feet, descended +to 120 feet, and dropped his bomb on the railway +line. The first V.C. of the Royal Flying Corps +was obtained at the Second Battle of Ypres by +Lieutenant W. B. Rhodes-Moorhouse, who in +bombing Courtrai came down to three or four +hundred feet, under heavy fire, but piloted his +machine 35 miles back to Merville at the height +of a few hundred feet, and died a few days later +from his wounds.</p> + +<p>One of the most instructive features of the +Battle of Loos in September, 1915, was the definite +co-ordination of bombing attacks with army +operations. Many types of machines, belonging +both to Army and Corps Squadrons, carried bombs +in order to destroy dumps, communications, cut +off reinforcements, and the like, while at the +Somme bombing was carried out by formations of +Wings. In October, 1917, 113 tons, and for a +period of six days in March, 1918, 95 tons, of +explosives were dropped. This illustrates the +enormous progress of bombing which was so largely +resorted to in the later stages of the war. The +hand grenades of 1914 had become bombs weighing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +three-quarters of a ton: the pilot's pocket a +mechanically released rack: and aim, assisted +by instruments, was becoming fairly accurate.</p> + +<p>Night bombing, necessitated by the fact that +by day a large machine heavily laden with bombs +was an easy prey to the fighting scout, came into +prominence in 1916, increasing in intensity up to +the end of the war; and raids into Germany +recommenced. Early in 1918 these raids included +the bombing of Maintz, Stuttgart, Coblentz, +Cologne, and Metz. Machines sometimes dropped +their bombs from heights of about 12,000 feet and +at other times descended to within 200 feet of +their objectives.</p> + +<h4>Contact Patrol.</h4> + +<p>Contact patrol, the name given to the direct +co-operation of aircraft with troops on the ground, +was first extensively practised at the Battle of the +Somme, though experiments in this direction had +been made in 1915, messages being dropped +at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle at pre-arranged +points.</p> + +<p>The main objects of contact patrols were to +assist the telephone (which was frequently cut by +shellfire), to keep the various headquarters informed +of the progress of their troops during the attack, so +also saving them from the possibility of coming +under the fire of their own artillery, to report on +enemy positions, to transmit messages from the +troops engaged to the headquarters of their +units, to attack ground formations, and to co-operate +with tanks. A system of red flares on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +the floor of the trenches was used to mark the +disposition of the troops, and aircraft communicated +their information by means of signalling +lamps, wireless and message-bags.</p> + +<p>During the German retreat of 1917 contact +patrols attacked enemy foundations from 100 feet +and in some cases landed behind the enemy lines +to obtain information. The skill of low-flying +pilots in taking cover by flying behind woods, +houses, etc., became increasingly important. The +fact that 62,673 rounds of ammunition were fired +from the air against enemy ground targets between +November 20th and 26th, 1917, and 163,567 +between March 13th and 18th, 1918, indicates +the rapid development of this form of aircraft +action, the effect of which was frequently more +deadly than bombing.</p> + +<p>Two of many protagonists of contact patrol were +Pretyman and Bishop. On one occasion the +latter, in attacking an aerodrome at about 50 feet, +riddled the officers' and men's quarters with +bullets, put two or three machines on the ground +out of action, and three in succession as they got +into the air. Another interesting example of +contact patrol work occurred in 1917 when a +pilot flew his machine at a low altitude over the +enemy trenches, and he and his observer attracted +the attention of the Germans by firing their +machine guns and Verey lights. The Germans +were so busy with the aeroplane that they had +their backs turned to the front line and our +infantry were able to cross no-man's land without +any artillery preparation, take prisoners and bomb +dug-outs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p> + +<p>An article in the <i>Cologne Gazette</i> showed what +the Germans thought of low "strafing."</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The operations" (i.e. of June 7th, 1917), it says, "were +prefaced by innumerable enemy airmen, who, at the beginning +of the preparation for the attack, appeared like a swarm of +locusts and swamped the front. They also work on cunningly +calculated methods. Their habit is to work in three layers—one +quite high, one in the middle, and the third quite low. +The English who fly lowest show an immense insolence; they +came down to 200 metres and shot at our troops with their +machine guns, which are specially adapted to this purpose."</p></div> + +<p>Armour was first employed as a result of Shephard +finding at Maubeuge a bullet lodged in the +seat of his leather suit. Thin sheets of steel +were at once cut out and placed in the wickerwork +seats of aeroplanes. This primitive protection +developed into the armoured machine mentioned +later, which was about to make its appearance at +the Armistice.</p> + +<p>I may mention here the "special duty" flights, +which consisted in establishing secret communication +between our Intelligence Branch and agents +in the territory occupied by the Germans. Agents, +mostly French and Belgian, were carried by +aeroplane over the enemy lines and landed there. +This work was started in 1914.</p> + +<h4>Fighting.</h4> + +<p>At the beginning of the war it became obvious +that it was not only the duty of aircraft to obtain +information but also to prevent enemy aircraft +crossing our lines. In addition to the reconnaissance +machine, and in order to make its work +possible, a machine designed purely for fighting +was required. In August, 1914, the aeroplane's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +armament consisted simply of rifle, or carbine, +and revolver, but our pilots nevertheless attacked +hostile machines whenever the opportunity occurred. +The first German machine to fly over us +was at Maubeuge on August 22nd, 1914, and, +though fighting on an extensive scale did not +take place until 1916, as early as August 25th, +1914, there were three encounters in the air in +which two enemy machines were driven down. +One interesting report of an early fight is that +between a B.E. and a German machine on +December 20th, 1914.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"A German aeroplane with one passenger and pilot being +encountered over Poperinghe, we followed to Morbecque and +then to Armentières. The passenger of the B.E. fired 40 +rounds from his rifle and the German passenger replied with +some rounds from his revolver. The B.E. crossed the bows +of the German machine to permit the pilot to use his revolver. +The German switched off and dived below the B.E., and is +believed to have landed somewhere north-west of Lille."</p></div> + +<p>Another instance of the early air combats +was when Holt, single-handed, and armed only +with a rifle, lashed to a strut of his machine, +attacked ten Germans near Dunkirk, causing them +to drop their bombs in the field and make off to +their own lines.</p> + +<p>We managed to bring down a number of German +machines, mainly by rifle fire (five had already been +brought down by September 7th, 1914), but our +great difficulty early in the war was to get the +enemy into action, and, although during October +and November, 1914, there was a certain amount +of fighting, as a rule the German when attacked +made for his own lines and the protection of his +anti-aircraft guns. This, though offensive carried<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +to the extent of wastefulness of life is equally +bad, was a serious mistake in all ways from his +point of view, entailing as it did a tendency for +the confidence of the troops and the morale of the +air service to be undermined from the outset. +The error was rectified, but only temporarily, at +the Somme.</p> + +<p>As the specialized duties of aircraft increased, +the Corps machines engaged in them needed protection +and it was realized that the best method of +protection was the development of the air offensive. +This was rendered possible by the adaptation +of the machine gun to the aeroplane. Early +in 1915 the invention of the "synchronizing +gear" enabled a machine gun to fire through the +propeller, and by the end of 1915 fighting in the +air became the general rule. The first squadron, +No. 24, composed purely of fighting machines, +took its place on the Western Front in February, +1916, and gradually Wings were attached to +Armies solely for fighting and the protection of +Corps machines. During the long months of the +Battle of the Somme, for instance, when, though +the Royal Flying Corps dominated the air, the +Germans put up a strenuous opposition, bombing +machines were protected by fighting patrols in formation +on the far side of the points attacked. The +rapidity with which fighting in the air developed +is shown by the fact that at the end of 1916 +twenty new fighting squadrons were asked for +on the Western Front; the establishment was +increased to twenty-four machines per squadron, +and by the end of the war even night-fighting +squadrons were operating with considerable success<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +and, had the war continued, would have +proved a very important factor in air warfare.</p> + +<p>The development of aerobatics, air fighting, and +formation tactics brought many airmen into +prominence. For example Albert Ball, who +ascribed his successes to keen application to aerial +gunnery; J. B. McCudden, the first man to bring +four hostile machines down in a day; and Trollope, +who later on brought down six. Hawker met his +death fighting von Richthofen, who describes the +fight in his book <i>The Red Air Fighter</i> as follows:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Soon I discovered that I was not fighting a beginner. +He had not the slightest intention to break off the fight.... +The gallant fellow was full of pluck, and when we had got down +to 3,000 feet he merrily waved to me as if to say, 'Well, +how do you do?'... The circles which we made round +one another were so narrow that their diameter was probably +not more than 250 or 300 feet.... At that time his first +bullets were flying round me, as up to then neither of us +had been able to do any shooting."</p></div> + +<p>At 300 feet Hawker was compelled to fly in a +zig-zag course to avoid bullets from the ground +and this enabled Richthofen to dive on his tail +from a distance of 150 feet.</p> + +<p>This indicates a heavy disadvantage under which +our aircraft laboured in all their work on the +Western Front. The prevailing westerly wind +which, while it assisted the enemy in his homeward +flight, made it very difficult for a British +machine, perhaps damaged by anti-aircraft fire, +to make its way—still under fire—to its base.</p> + +<p>I cannot leave the subject of air fighting without +giving one or two more examples. One which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +comes to mind is that of five British machines +attacking twenty-five of the enemy. One of ours +gliding down with its engine stopped and being +attacked by two Germans was saved by another +British one attacking and driving off the two +enemy. The result of the combat was five German +machines destroyed and four driven down out +of control, whilst all of ours returned safely. +Another example, that of Barker who, whilst +destroying an enemy two-seater, was wounded from +below by another German machine and fell some +distance in a spin. Recovering, he found himself +surrounded by fifteen Fokkers, two of which he +attacked indecisively but shot down a third in +flames. Whilst doing this he was again wounded, +again fainted, again fell, again recovered control +and again, being attacked by a large formation, +shot down an enemy in flames. A bullet now +shattered his left elbow and, fainting a third time, +he fell several thousand feet, where he was again +attacked, and thinking his machine had been set +on fire he tried, as he thought in a final effort, +to ram a Fokker, but instead drove it down on +fire! Barker was by this time without the use +of both legs and an arm. Diving to a few thousand +feet of the ground he again found his retreat +barred by eight of the enemy, but these he was +able to shake off after short bursts of fire and +he returned a few feet above the ground to our +lines.</p> + +<p>Though at the beginning our machines were +rather better than either the French or German, it +was the marked superiority of our pilots which +gave us the greatest advantage. We should have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +been superior even had the machines been exchanged.</p> + +<h3>Co-operation with the Navy.</h3> + +<p>We have seen that the functions of co-operation +with the Navy—Coast defence and Fleet assistance—were +very complicated, and that at the +outbreak of war the splendid pilots and excellent +equipment of the R.N.A.S. were not so highly +organized and were wanting in cohesion, but that +the R.N.A.S. had advanced further than the Royal +Flying Corps in specialized technical development. +In the earlier part of the war, in addition to its main +duties, the R.N.A.S. ventured in many directions, +many of them of considerable value to the Army, +as, for instance, at Antwerp.</p> + +<h4>Coast Defence, Patrol and Convoy Work.</h4> + +<p>Immediately war broke out a system of coastal +patrols was established between the Humber and +the Thames Estuary and over the Channel—the +latter serving as an escort to the Expeditionary +Force crossing to France. Patrols were at first, +through limitations of equipment, mainly confined +to the Home coast, but, as the war went on and +machines improved, they were rapidly extended, +especially in connection with the detection and +destruction of submarines; reconnaissances were +carried out over the enemy's shores, and in 1918 +there were forty-three flights of seaplanes, thirty +flights of aeroplanes, together with flying boats +and airships, operating from, and communicating +with, an ever-increasing number of shore stations. +Not only was anti-submarine work carried out<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +in the vicinity of the coast, but organized hunts +were made for submarines, ships were convoyed +on the high seas, shipping routes were protected, +and action was taken to bar the passage of submarines +through narrow channels. This was +effected by an intensive system of combining and +interlocking patrols, and by maintaining, in close +co-operation with surface craft, a protective +barrage across suitable stretches of water, such +as the Straits of Dover.</p> + +<p>Airships from the beginning, when patrols +operated from Kingsnorth during the crossing +of the Expeditionary Force to France, proved +particularly useful for escort, in addition to +patrol work, and twenty-seven small airships, +known as the S.S. type, were completed in 1915. +In 1916 the Coastal type with a longer range was +designed and constructed and new airship bases +were established.</p> + +<h4>Fleet Assistance, Reconnaissance, Spotting for +Ships' Guns.</h4> + +<p>The successful use of Drachen kite-balloons +borne in ships at the Dardanelles led to their +extensive development. Up to about May, 1915, +when the vessels to which they were attached +could stand in close to shore and overlook the +enemy's positions from a distance of three or four +thousand yards, a large amount of spotting of +great value was carried out by these balloons +for ships at Gallipoli, but when the Turks brought +long-range guns into position, kite-balloon vessels +were obliged to lie out beyond 11,000 yards +and their services were rendered comparatively<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +slight for this purpose. From 1916, however, +they were towed by merchant auxiliaries and +light cruisers to spot submarines, observers communicating +with the patrol ship by means of +telephone. One of the most wonderful sights I +have ever seen was from the observer's basket of +the kite-balloon let up from S.S. "Manica" in June, +1915. We were spotting for the guns of H.M.S. +"Lord Nelson" bombarding Chanak. The sky +and sea were a marvellous blue and visibility +excellent, the peninsula, where steady firing was +going on all the time, lay below us, the Straits, +with their ships and boats, the Asiatic shore +gradually disappearing in a golden haze, the Gulf +of Xeros, the Marmora, and behind one the +islands of the Ægean affording a perfect background. +No one who was at the Dardanelles, however +vivid the horrors and the heat and dust and flies, +will forget the beauty of the scene, especially at +sunset, and it was seen at its best from the basket +of a kite-balloon.</p> + +<p>The ever-increasing assistance rendered by aircraft +to surface vessels in crippling Germany's +submarine campaign is shown by the fact that +in 1915 ten submarines were attacked from the +air and in 1918 126 were sighted and 93 attacked. +Nor was the principle forgotten in countering the +submarine menace that offence is the best defence, +and among the many duties of R.N.A.S. +aircraft, based on Dunkirk from the early days of +the war, were anti-submarine patrols along the +Belgian coast and the bombing of hostile submarine +bases, such as Bruges.</p> + +<p>As in the case of the Army Corps observation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +machines, fighting scouts became necessary for the +protection of patrols and to counter the enemy's +efforts at raids and sea reconnaissance, and the +considerable amount of experiment in air fighting +which the R.N.A.S. had made before the war bore +useful fruit.</p> + +<p>For the immediate protection of the Grand +Fleet seaplane and aeroplane bases were established +at Scapa Flow and Thurso at the beginning of the +war, but, owing to damage from a gale in November, +1914, aircraft operations with the Fleet were +carried out from the seaplane carrier "Campania." +The problem of using carriers with the Fleet had +not been seriously tackled before the war, and +though experiments were strenuously carried out, +and there were fourteen carrier ships in commission +in 1918, and a seaplane carrier operated +with the Battle Cruiser Squadron at Jutland, the +use of aircraft in this way did not become very +efficient. One of the chief difficulties was limitation +in size, and consequently in radius of action, +of aircraft employed from carriers or the decks +of battleships. The total number of aeroplanes +and seaplanes allotted to the Grand Fleet in 1918 +was 350.</p> + +<p>Seaplane carriers occasionally co-operated with +fighting ships. For instance in October, 1915, +a fast carrier at the Dardanelles accompanied ships +detailed for the bombardment of Dedeagatch, +and her seaplanes not only co-operated in spotting +but also made a valuable reconnaissance of the +Bulgarian coast and railway. But as a rule +fighting and reconnaissance aircraft had mainly to +work from shore bases. To assist in this direction,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +units were sent overseas to be nearer their sphere +of action, as, for instance, the R.N.A.S. squadrons +stationed at Dunkirk which, besides general reconnaissance, +helped the Navy to keep open the Straits +of Dover, carried out bombing raids against German +bases and dockyards, such as Ostend, Zeebrugge, +and Bruges, and co-operated with monitors +in the bombardment of the Belgian coast. The +development of a long-range seaplane or flying +boat was also taken in hand, though an efficient +type was not produced until the last year of the +war.</p> + +<p>As with the Army, an important part of naval +aircraft duties was spotting for gunfire; and +likewise single-seater fighters were required for +the protection of our own aircraft, for preventing +enemy aircraft reconnaissance, for attacking the +enemy's fleet and protecting our own. The use +of offensive patrols steadily increased during the +war.</p> + +<h4>Bombing.</h4> + +<p>I have already referred to bombing and mentioned +the attack on Dusseldorf as an instance of +the work done. Bombing raids had always been +looked on with favour by the R.N.A.S. and were +used throughout the war as a means of countering +hostile aircraft operations from bases in Belgium. +One of the first successful raids was that against +the Friedrichshaven Zeppelin works by three Avro +machines, which flew 250 miles over enemy country +on November 21st, 1914. Another noteworthy +example was the attempted raid against Cuxhaven +on Christmas Day, 1914, carried out by seaplanes, +which were still in an experimental stage, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +three carriers escorted by naval units. Powerful +machines for bombing purposes were ordered and +bombs of greatly increased size and gear for +dropping them were designed.</p> + +<h4>Torpedo Attack.</h4> + +<p>The impetus given to bombing helped forward +another use of naval aircraft: torpedo attack. +This is likely to develop in the future into one of +the most important uses of aircraft in naval +operations, but during the war it was never given +an objective by the German fleet. In May, 1915, +two Sunbeam Short machines were embarked in +the "Ben-my-Chree" for operations at Gallipoli, +and it was in this theatre that for the first time +in history ships were sunk by torpedoes released +from aircraft. I shall never forget the night when +we steamed silently up the narrow Gulf of Xeros +and lay waiting to release our seaplanes in +the still darkness of the early morning. The +machines were lowered noiselessly into the water, +and, their engines started, flew across the narrow +neck of Bulair under fire from the old Turkish +line; then, reaching the northern end of the +Dardanelles at dawn, they descended low (one +machine actually landed on the water and discharged +its torpedo), sank their targets, and returned. +In addition to the possibility of submarine +attack, the Gulf of Xeros is so narrow that +our ship could have been hit by the cross fire of +field guns. It was a very fine performance and, +although during many years I have spent anxious +hours hoping for the distant purr of a safe returning +machine, I have never been happier than when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +after a long wait our seaplanes were again quickly +raised on board. The only torpedo machine +employed at the Battle of Jutland was a Sunbeam +fitted with a 14-inch torpedo, and it was not +until just before the Armistice that a squadron +of torpedo aircraft was ready for operations with +the Grand Fleet.</p> + +<p>The Germans also tried to develop the use of +torpedo-carrying seaplanes and, as with their +submarines, had the advantage over us of a vast +number of targets close to hand in our North +Sea and Channel shipping, but fortunately the +British fighting scouts were able to destroy +several of their machines before they had done +much damage.</p> + +<h3>Home Defence.</h3> + +<p>At the beginning of the war the R.N.A.S. +assumed responsibility for the defence of Great +Britain against attacks by hostile aircraft, and a +scheme for the defence of London and other large +towns was entrusted to an anti-aircraft section +of the Admiralty Air Department. Its resources, +however, consisting of a few unsuitable and +widely scattered aeroplanes, some 1 pdr. pom-poms +with searchlights manned by a special +corps, were inadequate and it was fortunate +that only three small daylight aeroplane raids, +mainly for reconnaissance, were made during +1914—the first German machine to visit England +dropping a bomb near Dover on December 21st.</p> + +<h4>Night Flying and Night Fighting.</h4> + +<p>In spite of continuous action by the R.N.A.S.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +against German airship bases in Belgium, there +were in 1915 nineteen airship and eight aeroplane +raids—one by night—over England, and, although +the new and powerful Zeppelin L.Z.38, which +attacked London on May 31st, was destroyed +by an aeroplane counter-attack in its shed near +Brussels, no real counter measures were evolved +until 1916, when Home Defence was taken over +by the War Office. During that year a Home +Defence Squadron of B.E.2c's, rapidly expanded +to a Wing, was formed; and the systematic +training of night pilots, the standardization of +night-flying equipment and armament, and the +lighting of aerodromes, was taken in hand. A +continuous aeroplane and searchlight barrage with +night landing grounds was gradually formed +between Dover and the Forth; the wireless +signals employed to assist Zeppelins in finding +their way were intercepted, thus enabling our +rapidly improving fighting machines to pick up +and attack raiding airships; and the constant +attacks to which airship sheds were exposed in +Belgium, caused their withdrawal to positions +further inland and increased their distance from +England. During 1916 there were twenty-two +raids by airships, six of which were destroyed, +the first being brought down in September at +Cuffley by Leefe Robinson. Thenceforward airship +raids declined, the destruction of the majority +of the largest and latest which raided England +on October 19th, 1917, sealing their fate.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, aeroplane daylight and +night raids on London, the first of which occurred +in November, 1916, increased in number and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +strength with the object, in addition to the destruction +of material and civilian <i>morale</i>, of forcing +upon us the unsound retention at home of a considerable +air defence force. The largest of these +attacks was made by seventeen aeroplanes at +midday on June 13th, 1917, but, the Zeppelin +danger nullified, counter measures to meet the +new menace were gradually evolved. New +squadrons were raised and the number of home +defence squadrons was raised to fourteen service +and eight night training squadrons; a Northern +Home Defence Wing was formed at York; and +the Home Defence Group became the 6th Brigade. +The first night aeroplane raid occurred in September, +and the systematic training of night-fighting +pilots on scout machines was hurried on. Separate +zones for aeroplanes, guns and searchlights—the +latter provided with sound locators—forming +an outer barrage, were instituted, and aprons, +supported by kite-balloons, formed a protective +barrage up to 8,000 feet. A system of wireless +and ground telephonic communication was improvised +for plotting the course of attacking aircraft +and thus enabling squadron commanders to +concentrate machines at the point of attack. +By 1918 the night-fighting aeroplane, assisted by +these means, had countered the night-bombing +aeroplane. At first, this had been the result of +the retention of a large number of fighting +aircraft and a complete organization at home.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, night fighting, especially the protection +of night bombers by fighting machines, had +become of paramount importance on the Western +Front. The chief feature of activity in September,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +1918, was the successful co-operation between +searchlights in the forward areas and No. 151 +night-fighting squadron. This was the first night-fighting +squadron, trained by the 6th Brigade, to +be sent to France. It was proposed to send four +more such squadrons and thus form a first line of +offensive defence which would react on hostile +raids over England. Thus once again the old +doctrine was gradually observed that offence is +the only true defence, and that purely defensive +measures, however efficient, by keeping men and +material from the vital point, are necessarily +expensive out of all proportion to their effectiveness. +Both the Germans and ourselves made the +initial mistake of organizing large local defence +systems partly to placate public opinion. During +the German offensive of 1918 a further development +of night fighting took place in the bombing and +low strafing of enemy troops and unlighted transport +with the aid of flares.</p> + +<h3>The Machine and Engine.</h3> + +<p>Turning now to the machine and engine, the +Military Trials held in 1912, when the Royal +Flying Corps was started, represented the first +organized effort to assist the evolution of service +aeroplanes in this country and a brief comparison +will be useful to show the performance of the +average machines and engines of that date, at the +beginning, and at the end of the war, and of civil +machines of to-day.</p> + +<p>At the Military Competitions of 1912, of the +eight types—Avro, B.E., Bristol, Cody, Bleriot, +Deperdussin, Hanriot, and M. Farman—the first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +four were British, though only the Avro had a +British engine, and the last four French, fitted +with French engines. The average horse-power +was about 83, the average maximum speed 67, +and the minimum 50 miles per hour; the climb to +1,000 feet was effected in 4½ minutes with an +average load of 640 lb., which included pilot, +fuel for four hours and useful load. The loading +per square foot was, for biplanes, about 4½, and, +for monoplanes, 6 lb.</p> + +<p>On the outbreak of war, and until the end of +1914, of the ten types in use—Avro, B.E., Bristol, +Sopwith, Vickers, M. Farman, H. Farman, Caudron, +Morane, and Voisin—five were British and five +were French and all were fitted with French +engines. The average horse-power was still about +83, but the average maximum speed had risen to +74, and the minimum had fallen to 41 miles per +hour. The load averaged 609 lb.</p> + +<p>A remarkable advance in machine and engine +construction is shown by referring to the tables +for 1918. At the Armistice of the twelve types—Avro, +Bristol Fighter, Sopwith Snipe, S.E. 5a, +de Havilland 4 and 9a, Vickers Vimy, Handley +Page O/400 and V/1,500, Fairey Seaplane 3c, +F. 2 A. and F. 5—all were British and, except the +de Havilland 9a, which had an American engine, +were fitted with engines of British manufacture. +The F. 2 A., and F. 5, were twin-engined, while +one, the Handley Page V/1,500, was equipped with +four engines. The average horse-power was per +engine, 344, and per machine, 516; the average +maximum speed 111, and the minimum 53½ +miles per hour, the climb to 6,500 feet was carried<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +out in 13 minutes and to 10,000 feet in 24 minutes +with an average load, including fuel for 5½ +hours, of 2,742 lb. The average ceiling was +15,500 feet; the loading per square foot about +8 lb.</p> + +<p>The years following the Armistice have witnessed +the conversion of military machines and +the development of new designs for commercial +purposes. In 1921 there were thirteen types +fitted with British engines: Avro, Bristol, de +Havilland 4, 16 and 18, Vickers Vimy, Handley +Page O/400 and W. 8, B.A.T., Westland, Fairey, +Supermarine and Vickers Amphibians. No British +machine had a foreign engine. The Vickers +Vimy, Handley Page O/400 and W. 8, which had a +passenger-carrying capacity of 15, were twin-engined. +The average horse-power was per engine, +387, and per machine, 474; the average maximum +speed 114, and the minimum 49, miles per hour. +With an average load of 2,467 lb., including fuel for +4½ hours, 19 minutes was required for a climb to +10,000 feet. The average loading per square +foot was about 13 lb., and the average ceiling +15,793 feet.</p> + +<p>Before the war, in addition to the Royal Aircraft +Factory, there were only eight firms engaged, +on a very small scale, in the manufacture of aircraft +in England, and an aero engine industry +hardly existed. Until 1916, the greater proportion +of our machines, and almost all our engines, +were French, and we were very dependent upon +France for the replacement of our heavy losses +in material. By the end of the war the bulk +of our material was of British design and construction,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +though there was still a certain number +of British built engines of French design. One +American engine—the Liberty—was also employed. +The fact that in October, 1918, the Royal Air +Force had 22,171 machines and 37,702 engines on +charge, and that during the ten months January +to October the output of machines had been 26,685 +and of engines 29,561, gives some idea of the +enormous growth in production.</p> + +<p>In the first few months of the war it was not +possible to progress far with new inventions or +improvements. Fortunately, our Aircraft Factory +had evolved in the B.E. a machine of considerable +stability which in this respect compared +favourably with German machines, and was well +adapted to its work of reconnaissance.</p> + +<p>Technical progress during the war often unfortunately +involved the loss of valuable lives, +as for instance those of Professor Hopkinson +and Busk, to both of whom heavy debts of gratitude +are owed, but gradually obstacle after +obstacle, problem after problem, was successfully +tackled by our designers and constructors. With +a view to enlarging the field of observation, staggered +planes were introduced in the B.E.2c. +This machine also proved that it was possible to +calculate the degree of stability and thus paved +the way for the design of aeroplanes with indifference +to stability and increased manœuvrability +for fighting purposes, or with great inherent +stability for bombing. During 1915 the B.E.2c +was used for all purposes, but the extra loading +involved by the increasing use of aeroplanes for +bombing and fighting caused a decrease in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +rate of speed and climb, and our aeroplanes were +temporarily inferior in fighting power to the +Fokker.</p> + +<p>The necessity of preventing the enemy obtaining +information soon led to the development of +air fighting. At the beginning of the war the +sole armament of aeroplanes was the rifle or +revolver. The machine gun soon followed, but +its use in tractor machines was impracticable on +account of the danger of hitting the airscrew. +The first "fighters" were therefore two-seater +pushers, such as the "Short-horn" Maurice Farmans +which, though not designed for fighting, +and too slow to chase enemy aircraft, were the +first to be fitted with Lewis guns, and F.E.'s, the +first machine designed specifically for fighting, +with the machine-gun operator in front of the +pilot. These "pusher" fighters had an excellent +field of view and fire forwards, but suffered from +lack of speed and a large "blind" area to the +rear. On the other hand, the single-seater tractors +were potentially the superior fighters, and in +order to protect the blades of the airscrew the +French were the first to use deflector blades on +them in tractor machines.</p> + +<p>Our early single-seater tractors were fitted with +a Lewis gun fixed so as to fire over or at the side +of the airscrew and actuated by a bowden wire, +the most efficient, though not the most numerous, +fighting machines at the end of 1915 being the +Bristol Scouts.</p> + +<p>By the Summer of 1916, however, we had +adapted the "synchronizing gear" to our machine +guns, enabling them to be fired through the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +propeller; while aircraft engines developed much +greater power and full allowance was made for all +equipment carried. From that time the development +of our single-seater fighters was steadily +progressive. One of the first of these was the +Sopwith "Pup," which had a speed of 106½ miles +an hour at 6,500 feet, climbed 10,000 feet in just +over 14 minutes, and could attain a ceiling of 17,500 +feet. In 1917 appeared the Sopwith "Camel," a +typical example of this type, which was simple, +stable, easily controllable and possessed two guns. +It had a speed of 121 miles an hour at 10,000 +feet, to which height it could climb in under +10½ minutes, and a ceiling of 23,000 feet. The +Martinsyde F.4, embodying further improvements, +was not ready in time for active service.</p> + +<p>While the single-seater tractor was developing +for purely offensive action, the two-seater fighter, +of which the field of view, manœuvrability and +general performance were being improved, retained +its utility as a reconnaissance machine. +In 1916 the "pusher" type was superseded by +the Sopwith "1½ Strutter" armed with a synchronized +Vickers gun, which for its 130 horse-power +was never surpassed. The pilot was close +to the engine and had a good view of the ground, +while the gunner was placed behind him with a +rotary Lewis gun turret. Early in 1917 these +qualities were further developed in the Bristol +Fighter.</p> + +<p>With the advent of these improved types the +B.E.2c was relegated to the work of artillery +co-operation, until superseded by the B.E.2e. +Towards the end of 1916 appeared the R.E.8<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +with a Vickers synchronized gun and a Lewis +gun, which after many vicissitudes became the +standard machine for artillery work.</p> + +<p>Systematic bombing was practised by nearly +all types of machines, but real accuracy was never +obtained. Thus, the B.E.2c was first used in +formations, but with a full load of bombs it could +not carry an observer, and its moderate speed +left it an easy prey to hostile fighters. Early in +1916 appeared the Martinsyde single-seater bomber +with an endurance of 4½ hours, and in 1917 the +D.H.4 which was much used for day-bombing. +The F.E.2b pusher, discarded as a fighting +machine, became the principal night-bomber.</p> + +<p>It was comparatively late in the war before +special bombing machines were evolved. They +were then divided into day-bombers and night-bombers, +the D.H.9 and 9a machines being +typical of the former and the Handley Page +of 1917—a large twin-engine aeroplane, the first +really effective night-bomber, of considerable +carrying power but low performance—of the +latter. By November 8th, 1918, two super-Handley +Pages were ready to start to Berlin. They +possessed a maximum range of 1,100 miles, a +crew of seven, four 350 horse-power Rolls-Royce +engines, arranged in pairs, a tractor and a pusher +in tandem on either side of the machine, and, as +they would be compelled to fly both by night and +day, a gun defence system. The D.H.10a and +the Vickers Vimy, for day and night bombing +respectively, were also being produced at the date +of the Armistice.</p> + +<p>In the early days of the war an aeroplane had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +little to fear above 4,000 feet. With the improvement +of the anti-aircraft gun there was, by the +end of the war, no immunity at 20,000 feet. Very +low flying for attack was, however, being rapidly +developed, and would have proved of great effect +in 1919. The aeroplane used for this purpose +was the single-seater fighter, and the Sopwith +"Salamander," with two guns, a speed of 125 +miles an hour, and 650 lb. of armoured plates, +was about to make its appearance at the +Armistice.</p> + +<p>I have previously mentioned how dependent the +improvement of design and performance of aircraft +has been upon the less simple and tardier +development of the engine. The invention of the +light motor made aviation possible, and development +has synchronized with the evolution of +lighter, more powerful and more reliable engines. +One of the most difficult problems still confronting +us is the production of a cheap, high-powered +and reliable engine, but the existence at +the end of the war of machines weighing 15 tons +indicates the progress achieved, while British +engines of 600 horse-power are now in use, and one +of 1,000 horse-power will shortly be available.</p> + +<h3>Tactics and the Strategic Air Offensive.</h3> + +<p>During the war there were three concurrent +movements in process: the ratios of the various +forms of air tactics were constantly changing, and +the components of our air forces varied in accordance +with the development of reconnaissance, +artillery co-operation, bombing and fighting. +Secondly, their total strength was increasing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +rapidly; and, thirdly, it was increasing relatively +faster than the Army or Navy.</p> + +<p>It was an evident and logical development and +in accord with the shortage of national man +power and the consequent tendency to a reduction +in the strength of the Army, that, the necessary +uses of aircraft with the Army and Navy being +ensured, any available margin of air power should +be employed on an independent basis for definite +strategic purposes. The difficulty was to arrive +at an agreement as to the minimum tactical and +grand tactical requirements of the Army and Navy. +The British Army was not alone in asserting that +there was no minimum and that it wanted every +available airman, and agreed with the French +that anything which it could temporarily spare +should be lent to the French Army. It was argued +that the Armies could as easily and better arrange +for strategic bombing. Fortunately in 1918, when +I was Chief of the Air Staff, we managed to secure +a margin and formed the Independent Air Force +in June of that year. It was, of course, understood +that, in the event of either the British +or French Armies being hard put to it, the Independent +Air Force could temporarily come to +their direct assistance and act in close co-operation +with them.</p> + +<p>In 1915 in accordance with the old doctrine +that offence is the best defence, the surest method +of protecting specialized machines on the battle +front was found to be in the attack of enemy aircraft +by fighting machines. In 1918 it was +decided that raids on the centres of German war +industry would not only cripple the enemy's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +output of material essential to victory, but also +relieve the pressure on the Western Front, the +vital point of the war. The Germans had had the +same intention in the many raids which started +over Dover on December 21st, 1914.</p> + +<p>Long-range bombing had, however, been carried +out spasmodically before 1918. In addition +to its taste for bombing in general, the Royal +Naval Air Service were keenly bent from the outset +on long-range bombing in particular. The +question of forming an Allied squadron to bomb +German munition factories was first raised in +1915 at one of the monthly meetings between the +French and British Aviation departments; and +in February, 1916, a small squadron of Sopwith +"1½ Strutters" was formed at Detling for the +purpose of bombing Essen and Dusseldorf from +England, but the Army in France, being short of +machines, asked that they should be sent to the +front, and therefore the scheme did not mature; +neither, for similar reasons, did one for the co-operation +in 1916 of British and French bombing +squadrons, operating from Luxeuil.</p> + +<p>It was not until October, 1917, that the first +striking force, consisting of three squadrons, was +formed under the Army with Ochey as its base. +It was mainly used in raids against the ironworks +in the Alsace-Lorraine Basin and the +chemical industry in the neighbourhood of Mannheim. +As I have said, a definite offensive policy +by means of an independent strategic force was +later decided upon, and the "Independent" Air +Force was brought into existence. It originally +comprised two day-bomber and two night-bomber<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +squadrons. During the summer additional +squadrons were allotted to it, including D.H.9's +and Handley Pages. Day-bombing squadrons +had to fight their way to objectives in close +formation, and the problems connected with +navigation, calculation of petrol supply, action of +wind and ceiling, were all accentuated. Casualties +were heavy, with the result that a squadron of +Fighters, composed of Sopwith "Camels," was +incorporated for the purpose of protection. Thus +we see the beginnings of an air fleet analogous +to the naval fleet with its capital ships and protective +craft.</p> + +<p>The main objectives were the centre of the +chemical industry at Mannheim and Frankfort; +the iron and steel works at Briey and Longwy +and the Saar Basin; the machine shops in the +Westphalian district and the magneto works at +Stuttgart; the submarine bases at Wilhelmshaven, +Bremerhaven, Cuxhaven, and Hamburg, +and the accumulator factories at Hagen and +Berlin.</p> + +<p>It will be seen from a map that three of the +main industrial centres were situated near the +west frontier of Germany; and, therefore, one +portion of the striking force was based at Ochey, +which lies within a few miles of the Saar Basin, +within 180 miles of Essen, and within 150 miles +of Frankfurt. Another portion was based on +Norfolk, where a group of super-Handley Page +machines were established for the specific purpose +of attacking Berlin, a distance of 540 miles, and +the naval bases within 400 miles. It was obvious +that though aircraft from England would have to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +cover greater distances, they would not expose +themselves to the strong hostile defences in rear +of the battle front.</p> + +<p>Three instances of the Independent Air Force's +action may be cited. On the night of August +21st/22nd, two Handley Page machines dropped +over one ton of bombs on Cologne Station, the raid +occupying seven hours. On the night of August +25th/26th two Handley Pages attacked the Badische +Aniline und Soda Fabrik of Mannheim; +bombs were dropped from a height of 200 feet, +direct hits being obtained in every case; and the +machines then remained over the town, which +they swept with machine-gun fire. On August +12th the first attack was made on Frankfurt by +twelve D.H.4 day-bombers, every machine reaching +the objective and returning safely in spite of +being attacked, over Mannheim and throughout +the return journey, by some forty hostile +fighters.</p> + +<p>During the five months of its existence the +Independent Air Force dropped 550 tons of bombs, +160 by day and 390 by night. Of these 200 tons +were dropped on aerodromes, largely by the short-distance +F.E.2b's, as a result of which, hostile +attacks on Allied aerodromes became practically +negligible. Theoretically, machines of the Independent +Air Force should not have been utilized +for attacking purely military objectives in the +Army zone, such as aerodromes, and their co-operation +with the Army for this purpose shows +that their true rôle was either not appreciated or +not favoured by the French and other Commands.</p> + +<p>There is ample testimony to the spirit of demoralization<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +which pervaded the civil population +of the towns attacked.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"My eyes won't keep open whilst I am writing," reads one +captured letter. "In the night twice into the cellar and then +again this morning. One feels as if one were no longer a +human being. One air raid after another. In my opinion +this is no longer war but murder. Finally, in time, one +becomes horribly cold, and one is daily, nay, hourly, prepared +for the worst." "Yesterday afternoon," says another, "it +rained so much and was so cloudy that no one thought it was +possible for them to come. It is horrible; one has no rest +day or night."</p></div> + +<p>Although, for reasons into which it is not +necessary to enter here, only a comparatively small +percentage of the efforts of the Independent +Force were directed against the industrial targets +for which the force had been created, yet by the +end of the war the strategic conception of air +power was bearing fruit, and the Air Ministry had +in hand measures for bombing which would have +gone far to shatter German munitionment. The +defence measures forced upon the Germans within +their own country were reacting on their offensive +action at the front, which was at the same time +denuded of fighting aircraft at various points to +meet the menace of our strategic force at Ochey.</p> + +<h3>Organization.</h3> + +<p>As in peace on a small, so in war on a large +scale, the history of the organization of aircraft, +while we were fighting for our national existence +and competing with similar enemy expansion, is +one of continuous development, of decentralization +of command and co-ordination of duties. Headquarters, +the Squadron and the Aircraft Park,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +as originally conceived in peace, though subject +to variations in size, remained the basis of our +organization. For instance, the original eighteen +machines of our squadron were increased to twenty-four +for single-seater fighters and reduced to six +in the case of the super-Handley Page bombers. +The four squadrons originally operated directly +under Headquarters, were soon allocated to Corps +for tactical reconnaissance and artillery co-operation, +while a unit remained at Headquarters +for strategical and long-distance reconnaissance +and a few special duties. The next step was in +November, 1914, when two Wings, composed +originally of two, and later, of five squadrons +each, were formed, R.F.C. Headquarters retaining +one squadron and the wireless flight for G.H.Q. +requirements. The Wing Headquarters co-ordinated +the work of the squadrons which were +allocated to Army Corps.</p> + +<p>A further development, in 1916, was the formation +for each of the three Armies of a Brigade, +consisting of two Wings and an Aircraft Park. +One—the Corps Wing—carried out artillery co-operation +and close reconnaissance (including +photography) with Army Corps, the other—the +Army Wing—carried out more distant reconnaissance +and fighting patrols under Army Headquarters. +Our air superiority at the Battle of the +Somme in 1916 led us to expect German counter-measures +in 1917, and our programme for the +following winter contemplated a proportion of +two fighting squadrons to each Corps Squadron. +By 1917 there were five British Armies in France +and Belgium and our air forces were increased to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +provide a Brigade for each of the two new Armies. +The Headquarters of the flying force in the field +(except in the case of the Independent Air Force, +which was responsible to the Supreme War Council +and the Air Ministry in London) remained attached +to G.H.Q. throughout the war.</p> + +<p>The main difficulty in the higher organization was +the lack of co-operation between the Royal Flying +Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service and their +competition for the supply of men and machines—the +demands of both being urgent and insatiable. +As a first step to overcome this, an Air Board +was formed in May, 1916, to discuss general +air policy, especially the combined operation of the +Naval and Military Air Services, to make recommendations +on the types of machines required +by each, and to co-ordinate the supply of material. +The Air Board was an improvement, but not a +remedy, and, therefore, in 1917 it was decided +to form an Air Ministry responsible for war +aviation in all its branches and to amalgamate +the Naval and Military Air Services as the Royal +Air Force. This was carried into effect early in +1918, with Lord Rothermere as Secretary of State +for Air with a seat in the Cabinet, and the air +became the third service of the Crown, with an +independent Government department permeated +with a knowledge of air navigation, machinery, +and weather, and closely allied to the industrial +world for the initiation, guidance, and active +supervision of research and experimental work.</p> + +<p>I will mention later some of the many arguments +for and against the retention of an independent +Air Ministry and autonomous Air Force in peace.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +The amalgamation was certainly advantageous in +war. It effected the correlation of a number of +hitherto independent services according to a uniform +policy and prevented overlapping by centralizing +administration. Under single control it +was possible to carry out, on a carefully co-ordinated +plan, recruiting and training, to supply +men and material, to organize air power according +to the strategic situation in each of the various +theatres of war, and to form the correct ratio +between the air forces in the field and the reserves +in training at home. The difficulty was that the +amalgamation had to be carried out during the +most intensive period of air effort, but by the +end of the war most of these objects had been +attained without jeopardizing the close co-operation +with the Army and Navy. Co-operation with +the Naval and General Staffs and with naval and +military formations was, in fact, improved, independent +action was beginning to bear fruit, and +we possessed an Air Force without rival.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p> +<h2 class="ft1">CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h2>PEACE</h2> + +<h3>The Future of Aerial Defence.</h3> + +<p>In the evolution of aviation during the war the +conclusion has been reached that the most remarkable +lines of development at the Armistice were in +the direction of ground and night fighting, torpedo +attack and long-range bombing, exemplifying +respectively the three spheres of air operations—military +co-operation, naval co-operation, and the +strategic use of aircraft. It must be remembered +that this progress in tactics and strategy, in the +machine, and the airman's skill, was made in the +short period of four years, and that every war has +started with a great advance in scientific knowledge, +accumulated during peace, over that obtaining +at the close of the previous war. We may +therefore assume, provided the danger is averted +of a retrograde movement from recent scientific +methods to pre-war conditions—sabres, bayonets, +and guns—that by the outbreak of another war +on a large scale, which we hope may never occur, +the knowledge of Service aeronautics will have +increased immeasurably since 1918, and may be, +not a contributory, but a decisive factor in securing +victory.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span></p> + +<p>The period since the Armistice has been employed +in the reduction and consolidation of the Royal +Air Force. In England the cadre system has been +adopted, while abroad the greatest concentration +of effort is aimed at, with Egypt, at present the +most important strategic point in the Imperial air +system, as the centre of activity. Iraq is being +handed over to the control of the Royal Air Force, +whose share in the policing of overseas possessions +is likely usefully to grow provided any tendency +to the concurrent building up of a large ground +organization is withstood. The advantages of +aircraft for "garrison" duties lie, under suitable +geographical conditions, in their swift action and +wide range, their economy, and, during disturbances +their capacity for constant pressure against +the enemy without fear of retaliation. One of the +main problems is at present that of personnel. +Service flying is restricted to comparatively young +men, and therefore the majority of officers can +only be commissioned for short periods. For this +reason the experiment is being made of taking +officers direct from civil life on short engagements, +and at the same time endeavouring to +ensure, by technical and general education, that +the Royal Air Force shall not become a blind-alley +occupation.</p> + +<p>Though it is difficult to foretell on what lines +aircraft will develop for any one purpose, as in the +past, the problem of military co-operation will +perhaps be less complex than that of co-operation +with the Navy. It will probably consist of +improvements along the lines already indicated, +such as increased range, speed, climb, manœuvrability,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +offensive armament, armour, the +assistance of tank and anti-tank action, and the +utilization of gas. Fighting will undoubtedly +take place at very high altitudes to keep the +enemy's fighting machines away from the zone +of operations—necessitating the development of +the single-seater so as to increase climb and +manœuvrability, and obtain, if possible, a speed +of 200 miles an hour at 30,000 feet. Cavalry, +unless retained, as I think they should be, in the +form of mounted machine-gunners, will, I think, +disappear in European warfare, but infantry will +remain, and it will be the object of aircraft to +assist their advance by reconnaissance, ground +attack, artillery and tank co-operation, and the +destruction of the enemy's supplies and communications. +In this connection ground tactics +and air tactics must develop <i>pari passu</i> and +commanders of Corps and Armies must work out +during peace training the fullest schemes for the +most intimate co-operation between air and land +forces.</p> + +<p>The future of naval co-operation is a difficult +problem, more especially as there was no major +naval engagement after Jutland in which aircraft +could be used, and consequently we have +little to go on in estimating their practical value +in direct co-operation with the fleet. It is impossible +at present to judge between the conflicting +opinions as to the future of the capital ship, +but it is certain that aviation will materially +modify naval tactics and construction. Coast +defence, reconnaissance, anti-submarine work, +escort, and the bombing of enemy bases, will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +doubtless continue and develop with ever-increasing +machinery and equipment; but torpedo attack +by aircraft may reach a point where the very +existence of opposing fleets may be endangered. +It is already questionable whether a battleship +could survive an attack launched by even a small +force of this mobile arm.</p> + +<p>As was the case during the war, the action of +aircraft at sea is restricted by range, the difficulty +being to find the mean between the opposing +conditions of radius of flight and limitation in the +size of aircraft imposed by the deck-space of +"carriers," but there is reason to suppose that on +the one hand engines will be so improved as to +afford a sufficient radius of action to comparatively +small aircraft, while, on the other, devices will +be found to economize deck-space.</p> + +<p>Fleets operating near the enemy's coast will be +vulnerable from land aircraft bases, and thus close +blockade will be rendered increasingly difficult. +The possibility of gas attack on enemy bases +from the air in co-operation with submarines and +of effecting a blockade by this means must be +envisaged.</p> + +<p>Since the Armistice the operational work of the +Royal Air Force on behalf of the Navy has been +conducted under the auspices of the Admiralty. +Improvements have been made in large flying +boats and amphibians, especially with a view +to facilitating their landing on "carriers" and +the decks of battleships. There has also been +considerable progress in the construction and +use of torpedo aircraft.</p> + +<p>The war lasted long enough to prove the effect<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +of the strategic offensive by air. In spite of the +dictates of humanity, it cannot be eliminated. +It is true that modern war is inimical to the +progress of mankind and brings only less suffering +to the victors than to the vanquished. To ensure +peace should therefore be our ideal. But a great +war once joined is to-day a war of peoples. Not +only armies in the field, but men, women, and even +children at home, are concentrated on the single +purpose of defeating the enemy, and armies, +navies, and air forces are dependent upon the +application to work, the output of war supplies, +and, above all, the morale of the civil population. +Just as gas was used notwithstanding the Hague +Convention, so air war, in spite of any and every +international agreement to the contrary, will be +carried into the enemy's country, his industries +will be destroyed, his nerve centres shattered, his +food supply disorganized, and the will power of +the nation as a whole shaken. Formidable as is +the prospect of this type of air warfare, it will +become still more terrible with the advent of new +scientific methods of life-destruction, such as +chemical and bacterial attack on great industrial +and political centres. Various proposals, such as +the control of the air effort, service and civil, of +all countries by the League of Nations, and even +the complete elimination of aviation, have been +put forward as a means of avoiding the horrors of +aerial warfare and its appurtenances, but they +are untenable, and any power wishing and able +to sweep them aside will undoubtedly do so.</p> + +<p>A future war, as I see it, will begin something +after this manner, provided either side possesses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +large air forces. Huge day and night bombers +will assemble at the declaration of war to penetrate +into the enemy's country for the attack of +his centres of population, his mobilization zones, +his arsenals, harbours, strategic railways, shipping +and rolling stock. Corps and Army squadrons +will concentrate in formation to accompany the +armies to the front; reconnaissance and fighting +patrols will scatter in all directions from coastal +air bases to discover the enemy's concentrations +and cover our own; the fleet, whatever +its nature, will emerge with its complement of +reconnaissance and protective machines and torpedo +aircraft for direct action against the enemy's +fleet. A few fighting defence units will remain +behind.</p> + +<p>But it must not be imagined that these functions +will be carried out unopposed. Local battles in +the air will occur between fighting machines for +the protection of specialized machines, while the +main air forces in large formations will concentrate +independently to produce, if possible, a +shattering blow on the enemy and obtain from the +outset a supremacy in the air comparable to our +supremacy on the sea in the last war.</p> + +<p>In mobilization the time factor is all-important. +Our national history has been one of extraordinary +good fortune in this respect, but the margin allowable +for luck is becoming very narrow and, whereas +in 1914 it was some twenty days between the +declaration of war and the exchange of the first +shots, in the next war the air battle may be +joined within as many hours, and an air attack +launched almost simultaneously with the declaration<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +of war. In modern war the mobilization +period tends to shorten, and every effort will be +made towards its further reduction, since mobilizing +armies are particularly vulnerable from air +attack.</p> + +<h3>Civil Aviation as a Factor in National +Security.</h3> + +<p>The picture I have drawn may appear highly +coloured for the reason that no country is likely +for some time to possess sufficiently large air +forces to obtain a decisive victory, or at any rate +an uncontested superiority, at the outbreak of +war. Though in air, as in every other form of +warfare, attack is more effective than defence, +we cannot afford to keep our air forces up to war +strength in peace any more than our Army or Navy.</p> + +<p>The problem, from a military point of view, is +therefore to ensure an adequate reserve and to +maintain our capacity for expansion to meet +emergencies. The number of units maintained +at war establishment should be the absolute +minimum for safety and of the type immediately +required on mobilization, i.e. long-range bombing +and naval reconnaissance squadrons. The remainder +should be in cadre form. We can, of +course, maintain a fixed number of machines and +pilots in reserve for every one on the active list, +but, although some such system is necessary, on +a large scale it is open to many and serious objections. +First of all, even on a cadre basis, it +means keeping inactive at considerable cost a +number of machines which may never be used +and which, however carefully stored, quickly +deteriorate. Knowledge of aeronautics is still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +slender and improvements are made so continuously +that machines may become obsolete within +a few months. Moreover, the growth of service +aviation in peace must tend to become artificial +and conventional rather than natural, and this +will react on design and construction, which will +be cramped, both technically and financially, +within the limits imposed by service requirements.</p> + +<p>It is obvious therefore that the capacity of the +construction industry to expand cannot be fostered +by service aviation alone; furthermore, in +the event of another war of attrition, expansion +will be more essential than any amount of machine +reserve power immediately available, and in the +event of a war of short duration that power will +win which has the greatest preponderance of +machines, service or civil, fit to take the air. +The asphyxiation of a large enemy city, if within +range, can be done by night-flying commercial +machines, and it would require a defending force +of great numerical superiority for its successful +defence.</p> + +<p>Whether, therefore, from this point of view, or +others, which I will mention later, another solution +must be found, and this lies in the development +of civil aviation. An analogy in the Navy and +the Mercantile Marine has long been apparent. +"Sea power," says Mahan, "is based upon a +flourishing industry." Substitute "air" for +"sea" and the analogy is still true. The Navy +owed its origin to our mercantile enterprise and +to-day it depends upon the Mercantile Marine +for its reserve power of men and material. In +the same way must air power be built up on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +commercial air supremacy. If we accept Mahan, +or the dictum of any other great naval or military +historian or strategist, a service air force by itself +is not air power, and after a brief if brilliant flash +must wither if reserves are not immediately at +hand. A large commercial air fleet will provide, +not only a reserve of men and machines, but it +will keep in existence an aircraft industry, with +its designing and constructional staffs, capable of +quick and wide expansion in emergency; and +such an industry will not be employed on the +design of contrivances for use in a possible war, +but on meeting the practical requirements of +everyday air transport and navigation.</p> + +<p>Thus a natural, practical and healthy, as +opposed to a stereotyped and artificial, growth +will be ensured. Our naval supremacy is largely +attributable to the interest which the people as +a whole have traditionally taken in naval policy; +in other words, to the fact that we are a seafaring +nation. Similarly air supremacy can only be +secured if the air-sense of the man in the street +is fostered, and aviation is not confined to military +operations, but becomes a part of everyday life. +At the present time commercial aviation is far +too small to play the part of reservoir to the +Royal Air Force—an object which must constitute +one of the principal claims for support of the +nucleus already in existence.</p> + +<h3>Civil Aviation as an Instrument of Imperial +Progress.</h3> + +<p>Civil aviation, however, has not only an indirect +military, but, with its superiority in speed over<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +other means of transport, a direct commercial +utility. The nation which first substitutes aircraft +for other means of transport will be more +than half-way towards the supremacy of the air. +Moreover, as the Roman Empire was built upon +its roads and as the foundations of the British +Empire have hitherto rested upon its shipping, +as steam, the cable and wireless have each in turn +been harnessed to the work of speeding up communications, +so to-day, with the opening of a +new era of Imperial co-operation and consultation, +this new means of transport by air, with a +speed hitherto undreamed of, must be utilized for +communication and commerce between the various +portions of the Empire.</p> + +<p>A comparison of the French and British attitudes +towards civil aviation clearly demonstrates the +two policies I have mentioned. Both France +and England grant subsidies—France the very +much larger sum—but the great difference lies in +the objects aimed at. French policy is fostering +civil aviation as a part of its military policy and, +a portion of the subsidy being given to machines +fulfilling service requirements, there is a strong +tendency for French civil aviation to be military +air power camouflaged. British policy, on the +other hand, should aim at fostering civil aviation +primarily as a commercial concern and believes that +air commerce is the basis of air power as a whole. +We are prepared to face the tendency of military +and civil machines to diverge if that divergence is +essential to the commercial machine.</p> + +<p>An alternative to the British policy of maintaining +a small air force and fostering commercial<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +aviation as a reserve is the Canadian plan of a +small air force training school and a civil Government +flying service with such objects as forest +patrol, survey and coastguard duties, the work +being carried out on repayment for Government +departments, provincial governments and private +corporations. The former method, allowing of +independent commercial expansion, is better +suited to British mentality and requirements, +but its success will depend on a genuine endeavour +to make commercial aviation the real and vital +basis of our air power. Experience in commercial +operation cannot be gained by the exploitation of +air routes or the carriage of mails or passengers +under Service auspices. It is only by running +transport services, as far as possible under private +management, that operational data can be obtained, +economies effected, and the design of +strictly commercial machines improved.</p> + +<p>To sum up. Military air supremacy can best +be assured by the intensive development of industrial +air organization for commercial purposes. +The conception of civil aviation as the mainstay +of air power as a whole is right. Service aviation +is bound by technical and financial limits; its +scope confined to the requirements of war. Civil +aviation, on the other hand, opens out a prospect +of productive expansion. The steady growth of +the Continental services is already beginning to +demonstrate the importance of air transport.</p> + +<h3>Financial and Economic Problems.</h3> + +<p>The commercial exploitation of air transport is +passing through a period of experiment, and suffering<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +in the general war reaction from the incapacity +of the public to think of aviation except as a +fighting service. The machines hitherto used on +the lines to and on the Continent are principally +converted war machines, and to transform military +into commercial craft and to use them as such is +of small assistance to civil aviation, which requires +reliable, economic machines as one of the basic +conditions of its financial success. The cost of +running an air transport service is considerable. +Depreciation is one heavy item of expenditure. +New machines must be evolved suitable to the +requirements of mail, passenger and freight transport, +but, in the present state of financial stringency, +capital is not forthcoming for experiment +unless there is every promise of a safe return. +Then there are the expenses involved in general +ground organization, maintenance, fuel, insurance, +etc. The question is how can we carry on until +the really economic type of commercial machine +is evolved. It will never be evolved unless there +is continuous flying and a continuous demand for +new and improved machines for commercial work. +To meet this in France, the Government came +forward with a liberal grant of subsidies which +have now been increased and placed on a more +favourable basis, permitting of a very considerable +reduction in the fares for transport by air. +The British Government has also granted a subsidy +for British firms operating on the cross-Channel +routes, which it is hoped will place them before +long on a sound, self-supporting, commercial basis. +Part of this subsidy is allocated to assist transport +companies in obtaining the latest type of commercial<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +machines on a hire purchase system. +With a few services properly supported by the +State we shall pull through the experimental +period of civil aviation.</p> + +<p>The services to the Continent, although the +distance is on the short side for the merits of air +transport to be properly demonstrated, effect a +considerable saving in time, and it is certain +that the amount of mail, especially parcels, carried +on these routes will continue to increase and +lead to the eventual adoption of normal rates +for air postage. An extension of the use of +aircraft as the regular means of carrying mails +will be of great assistance in the development of +air transport. Aircraft revolutionize the speed of +intercommunication by letter, and banks and +financial houses will gradually realize that large +savings can be made by utilizing air mails for +the transaction of business. A difficulty lies in +the fact that the area of the British Isles is not +very favourable for an extensive air mail service, +which can only operate by day, since by the +existing means of transport mails are carried +during the out-of-business hours and can generally +reach their destination in a night, while the distances +to Paris and Brussels are too short to afford +outstanding advantage.</p> + +<p>Lastly, we require public support and a spirit +of confidence in the air. This can only be secured +by increased reliability, reduction of charges and +keeping the public informed of the progress made. +It is the nature of man to distrust new departures. +He disliked the introduction of mechanical devices +into the Lancashire weaving mills. He scoffed at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +the steamship and railway. To-day he is inclined +to treat as premature the serious exploitation of +the air. In spite of the great decrease of accidents, +in spite of the increased comfort of air travel, in +spite of increased regularity, the average person +is slow to realize that the communication of the +busy man of the future will be by air. The +majority of the business world is too conservative +to make general use of the opportunities offered +by aircraft for the quick transmission of its correspondence, +while, though speed must be paid for, +the high fares hitherto charged have deterred the +general public from substituting the aeroplane +for the train or boat. The running costs represented +by these fares are being materially reduced +as a more economic machine is evolved, and the +reduction of fares which helps to place competition +with foreign subsidized services and with the older +forms of transport on more equal terms must for a +time depend upon the assistance of Government +grants.</p> + +<h3>Weather Conditions and Night Flying.</h3> + +<p>The safety of the machine and the reliability +of an air service largely depend on accurate weather +forecasts. In order to co-ordinate the meteorological +work of the country as a whole, and for +the special assistance of aviation, the Meteorological +Services of Great Britain have been amalgamated +under the Department of Civil Aviation, +and, working in close co-operation with the Communications +Branch of the Department, have +made improvements in the rapid collection and +distribution of meteorological information for all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +purposes. In addition to the forecasts issued four +times daily, collective reports are issued hourly +by wireless from the London terminal aerodrome +at Croydon and copies are distributed to transport +companies and others concerned.</p> + +<p>A feature of meteorology which is often overlooked +is its economic value. By making use of +a knowledge of the wind at different heights, +aircraft can complete journeys more quickly than +would otherwise be possible, and thereby save +their own fuel and their passengers' time. This +will be specially useful in the tropics where the +regularity of the surface winds has its counterpart +in the upper air, but even in Europe time-tables +can be drawn up with due attention to the favourable +and unfavourable effect of prevailing winds. +The planning of airship routes in particular, must +be considered in close connection with this aspect +of weather conditions.</p> + +<p>To-day, however, the aeroplane may be considered +as an "all-weather" craft, save for mist +and fog—the enemies of all transport and particularly +to that of the air—to which unfortunately +England is particularly liable during the winter. +Experiments have been carried out on the dispersal +of fog, the illumination of aerodromes by fog-piercing +lights, and instruments to record the +exact position of the aeroplane and its height +above the ground, but success has not yet been +achieved.</p> + +<p>Similar to the problems of flying and landing +in mist and fog is that of night flying. Until +night flying is practicable, only half the value of +the aeroplane's speed is obtainable, since other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +transport services run continuously day and night. +Further, as machines become rapidly obsolete +owing to technical progress, it is essential that +they should be in use for the greatest number +of hours during their life. Much has been done +in the lighting and marking of aerodromes and +in the equipment of aeroplanes with wireless +telephone and direction-finding apparatus.</p> + +<p>It may here be mentioned that there are two +methods of obtaining the position of aircraft by +means of wireless telegraphy, known as direction-finding +and position-finding. Direction-finding is +effected by means of two coils set at right angles +in the aircraft, by means of which the bearing of +a transmitting ground station with reference to +the aircraft's compass can be taken. When two +or more bearings on different ground stations, +whose position is known, have been obtained, a +"cut" or "fix" of the aircraft is obtained. The +position-finding system consists of two or more +ground stations fitted with apparatus capable of +taking bearings with respect to true north and +connected by direct telephone line. The aircraft +calls up by wireless one of these stations, requests +her position and then makes a series of signals +for about half a minute. The stations take the +aircraft's bearings, plot its position, and transmit +the information to the aircraft. Wireless direction +and position-finding, as well as wireless telephony, +have on several occasions proved their +value to navigation, but in spite of instances of +successful night flying, developments have not +been such as to render night services practicable.</p> + +<p>Marine experience has been a valuable guide,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +but aerial illumination has entailed many new +problems of its own—the distribution of light +through very wide angles, the installation of light +and powerful lamps in aircraft, the elimination of +shadows and the prevention of dazzle, the provision +of apparatus to indicate the strength and +direction of the wind, and the like.</p> + +<p>Very shortly the first organized and equipped +night-flying route will be available; that between +London and Lympne on the Continental air highway. +The Boulogne-Paris section will probably +be ready a little later. There will be four lighthouses +on the English section, of which two will +be automatic, requiring no attention for twelve +months at a time. These, and many other, facilities +will much assist the progressive establishment +of services during the hours of darkness, +and will provide valuable data for the establishment +of other night-flying routes. There is no +real difficulty given a reasonably clear atmosphere.</p> + +<h3>Organization.</h3> + +<p>I have mentioned the broad lines on which the +organization of the air services was built up before +and during the war. We have seen that the +initial foundations and framework remained and +bore the great systematic structural development +which was gradually required. In August, 1914, +there were some 240 officers, 1800 men and 200 +machines; in November, 1918, 30,000 officers, +170,000 men, and 22,000 machines, all of them +better and of a higher performance than those of +1914. Our casualties during the war were about +18,000; air formations had been active in some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +fifteen theatres of operations; 8,000 enemy +machines and 300 observation balloons had been +destroyed; some three-quarters of a million +photographs taken over hostile country, and +12,000,000 rounds had been fired from the air at +ground targets. At Home two organizations had +expanded independently from the same seed until, +impeding one another's growth, their trunks had +joined and a single and improved tree was the result.</p> + +<p>This is the only country where a unified air +service has been adopted. In war the arrangement +was successful. Against its continuance in +peace the Army and Navy urge that, with the best +of wills, there is a great difference between having +an integral branch of a service to work with other +services and having to deal with an independent +organization, and argue increased cost, duplication, +competition and disjointed action. There is no +doubt that the liaison of the General, Naval and +Air Staffs must be closened, and if co-operation +with the senior services was really becoming less +satisfactory, a return to the old system should +be considered amongst other alternatives, but I +do not think that it should be so. It must also +be remembered that, although air co-operation is +vital to naval and military operations, it is fortunately +unlikely that there will be another war +for a long time and, meanwhile, the growing +essential, independent strategic action would be +irretrievably impaired by the reabsorption of the +Air into the Army and Navy.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, even apart from supply, such +a reversion would also cause much duplication, +e.g. training. The solution and the correct and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +logical outcome of the unification of the Air service +is the close grouping of the three arms in a +Ministry of Defence, and this, even in face of the +obvious practical difficulties, should be adopted +and co-ordination thus increased step by step. +Apart from Supply, some of the services in which +this could be effected are the medical, education, +chaplains, mobilization stores, transport, works and +buildings, accounting, communications, ordnance +and national factories. A modified scheme might +also be studied in which, under a Ministry of Defence, +the Army and Navy each had tactical air units of +seconded personnel for artillery co-operation, spotting +and reconnaissance, and the Air Ministry dealt +with supply, research, initial training and reserves, +civil aviation and an independent air force.</p> + +<p>One of many good examples of the necessity of +co-ordination is afforded by the position of the +aircraft supply services at the beginning of the +war and their development. We have already +seen that there were some eight private firms +manufacturing aircraft in a small way and there +was practically speaking no engine industry at +all. For the Royal Flying Corps, the War Office +had relied largely on the Royal Aircraft Factory, +and, although the methods of control adopted +had many advantages, there was in them a +tendency to retard private enterprise and development. +The Admiralty, on the other hand, had +assisted by dealing almost entirely with firms for +Royal Naval Air Service supply. The conditions +in France fortunately were very much better than +those in this country, and for the first year or two +French factories helped us out with both machines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +and engines. By the end of the war we had the +largest and most efficient aircraft industry in the +world. There were no less than seventy-six great +factories turning out vast numbers of complete +aeroplanes, in addition to thirty-three manufacturing +complete engines and over 3,000 turning out +spares and equipment. Such expansion is not +possible within a few weeks, it took a long time +to arrive at this position, and it causes one very +seriously to think what would have happened had +France not been our ally, and points the moral +which has been mentioned of the necessity for +a thriving aircraft and engine industry in peace. +During the war Germany also had a very large +number of firms engaged on this work.</p> + +<h3>The Machine and Engine.</h3> + +<p>The general differences between service and +civil requirements in aircraft fall under the headings +of ceiling, load and speed. For service purposes +very much higher ceiling and greater climb +and speed are required and the design is much +affected by the condensed nature of the load. +For peace purposes, besides the primary advantage +of speed which the air has over other forms +of transport, regularity must be ensured and +the correct ratio between speed, duration and +load-carrying power determined. Great ceiling, +manœuvrability and climb are not required.</p> + +<p>However great the speed and load, there is no +value in air transport, whether for passengers or +mails or goods, unless it is safe and also compares +favourably from an economic point of view with +the older methods. Without these the public<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +cannot be expected to utilize air transport, nor +is there any inducement to surrender mails and +freight for carriage by air. Every endeavour +compatible with economy is made, as far as the +equipment of aerodromes and the organization of +the routes are concerned, to render air navigation +as safe as possible, yet, though both safety and +economy of running have been improved, much +remains to be done. Safety depends largely on +engine reliability, fire prevention and the capacity +of the machine to land in small spaces.</p> + +<p>Though neither roads nor rails have to be laid +and aircraft possess the great advantages of +mobility and point to point transit, the initiation +and maintenance of an air service is a very complex +and costly matter. The utilization of converted +war machines is no longer sufficient and +those specially designed for commercial work are +beginning to make their appearance. Such are +the Handley Page W.8, the Vickers, the D.H.18 +and 34, and the Bristol 10-seater.</p> + +<p>The first two are twin-engine and the last three +single-engine machines. Opinions differ as to the +relative advantages of the twin and single-engine +type. The first and running costs of the single +engine are lower, but the twin has greater power +and carrying capacity, while most pilots prefer +to have a surplus of power over and above that +required for normal flight. For these reasons, +and because of the psychological effect on insurance +companies and on passengers, the twin engine +will probably remain in use for large commercial +machines, until long-lived and economic engines +of more than 500 horse-power are available. On<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +the other hand, where extra power is not required, +the twin-engine is not safer than the single-engine +machine; no existing twin-engine commercial +aeroplane can maintain its height and land safely +with only one engine running. Experiments have +been made, especially in Germany, on the multi-engined +machine with all the engines in the +fuselage, but its advantages have so far been +counterbalanced by loss of efficiency due to transmission +gearing and shaft drives to the propellers +and the vibration and weight of the gearing.</p> + +<p>High-powered engines are very expensive to +run and every effort has therefore to be made by +aerodynamic efficiency to carry more useful load +with less horse-power. Improvement is being +made in this direction; thus the D.H.18 carries +eight passengers at 56 horse-power per passenger, +the D.H.32 is designed for the same number at +45 horse-power each, and the D.H.34 for ten +passengers at 45 horse-power each.</p> + +<p>The two best German commercial machines, +the Junkers and the Fokker, have a comparatively +low horse-power and a low fuel load, but greater +attention has been paid to the design of the +machines, which are monoplanes with cantilever +wings, offering less resistance to the air than our +biplanes. One of the most difficult problems is to +evolve a high-lift wing which does not impair +the aircraft's speed in the air. For commercial +machines we must aim at the largest possible +commercial load, the smallest possible fuel load +and, consequently, an engine which uses fuel +economically and, conversely, a lighter fuel. The +development of the engine is receiving constant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +attention, as are also various safety devices, +among which may be mentioned those guarding +against fire and those varying the lift of wings +so as to lower the landing speed and thus decrease +the dangers attendant upon forced landings.</p> + +<p>In addition to the high initial cost of machines +and engines, their maintenance also requires the +greatest care. Detailed investigation must be +made into all serious accidents. This is now +compulsory under the new Air Navigation Act, +and the fitness of pilots is ensured by periodical +medical examination.</p> + +<p>Apart from the weather, the safety of an aircraft +depends upon its engine, and perhaps even +more upon the installation and accessibility of +engines and their adjuncts, such as the petrol, +oil, water and ignition systems. During the +earlier stages of the war the average life of an +engine before complete overhaul was necessary +was, of stationary engines, from 50 to 60 hours, +and of rotary engines, about 15 hours. To-day +these figures stand at 200 hours and upwards +and from 50 to 60 hours respectively. For commercial +purposes this must be further increased +to 300-500 hours as a normal working period.</p> + +<p>There are two schools of thought with regard +to the efficiency, reliability and the economy of +engines. One school advocates using a light +power plant per horse-power, run normally at +about half its maximum; the other favours a +plant of greater weight, more solid construction +and greater efficiency, running at nearly its full +horse-power. The former is more expensive in +primary cost and upkeep, but allows a higher<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +performance and provides reserve horse-power +for emergency; the latter is cheaper, but involves +a certain risk owing to lack of surplus power. We +have hitherto shown a tendency to adopt the +former method, the Germans the latter. For +commercial purposes a compromise will probably +be found to be best.</p> + +<p>Apart from the initial outlay on "air stock," +the maintenance, overhead, fuel, insurance and +depreciation charges are very heavy. These are +much affected by such items as simplicity of +design, strength against wear and tear, ease of +assembly and interchangeability of parts, easily +removable engines, increase in durability by the +use of metal construction for parts of the machine +and the propeller, the elimination of rubber joints, +substitution of air for water cooling, facilities for +loading and unloading in a commercial machine, +simple and efficient navigational instruments and +self-starter. Every improvement, however small, +will assist to reduce running costs. Then revenue +must be increased and the comfort of passengers, +as, for instance, ventilation, warmth, luggage +capacity and, more than all, a reduction of noise +has to be carefully considered or they will not +travel a second time by air. An effective engine +silencer is at last well on the way. It is obvious +what a great advantage this attainment will be +both for service and civil purposes. Roughly +speaking, a high-powered engine without a silencer +is audible at a distance of some seven miles and +at a height of 13,000 feet at night time, though +these distances are reduced by about a third by +day when normal ground noises exist. The bulk<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +of noise is caused by the exhaust, the propeller +and mechanical noises in the engine.</p> + +<p>I cannot leave this subject without emphasizing +the value of research, both abstract and concrete. +But, though it is the keystone of progress, its +results must largely depend on the amount of +flying done. It is clear that for economic reasons +new designs can only thoroughly be tried out by +commercial use, and therefore again that real +progress is dependent on commercial activity.</p> + +<p>The advance of civil aviation is bound to be +slower than was that of war aviation. But, as +war experience improved old and evolved new +types, so will peace requirements and experience +shape the type and design of aircraft and engine +best suited to its purposes. Although a good deal +has under the circumstances already been achieved +in peace, much remains to be done. Gradually, +however, with a modicum of research, improvements +in the factors already mentioned and the +reduction of initial cost and maintenance expenses, +air transport for mails, passengers and goods will +take its place as a normal commercial public +utility service, and the increased speed of communication +will assist in the general development +of trade.</p> + +<h3>Air Services: British, Continental and +Imperial.</h3> + +<p>International civil flying commenced officially +on August 26th, 1919, and gradually expanded, +both in the United Kingdom and on the Continent, +especially during the summer of 1920. France, +aided by considerable subsidies, conducted services<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +from Paris to London, Brussels and Strasburg, +from Toulouse to Montpelier and across +Spain to Casablanca in Morocco; Belgium, from +Brussels to London and Paris; Holland, from +Amsterdam to London; Germany, in spite of +the restrictions placed upon her, entered the field +as a competitor and her aircraft flew regularly +from Berlin to Copenhagen and Bremen, and +from Bremen to Amsterdam. On the American +Continent, the United States Post Office ran mail +services from New York to Washington, Chicago, +and San Francisco, with extensions from Chicago, +St. Paul, Minneapolis, and St. Louis.</p> + +<p>For reasons which I shall give, there were no +internal services in the United Kingdom, but +there were four companies operating air lines from +London to Paris, one of which held the contract +for the carriage of mails. There were also air +mail services between London and Brussels and +Amsterdam. The mileage flown and the number +of passengers and the weight of goods carried +were considerable, while the number of letters +steadily increased, especially on the Amsterdam +service; and an efficiency of 76 per cent., 94 per +cent., and 84 per cent. was obtained on the London-Paris, +London-Brussels, and London-Amsterdam +services respectively.</p> + +<p>It must be remembered that these results were +obtained without any direct assistance on the +part of the State, such as was given by the French +Government to air-transport companies in the +form of subsidies. British economic policy is +traditionally opposed to subsidies, believing that +enterprise can be healthily built up on private<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +initiative. Therefore, until 1921 civil aviation +had to content itself with the indirect assistance +of the State, which consisted mainly in the +adjustment of international flying; the laying-out +and equipment of aerodromes on the air routes; +the provision of wireless communication and +meteorological information; research and the +collection and issue of general information concerning +aviation.</p> + +<p>This indirect assistance, however, proved inadequate +to maintain the progress achieved during +1920, and therefore the maintenance of air services +by means of temporary direct financial assistance +had to be arranged.</p> + +<p>I have already pointed out the difficulty against +which commercial aviation has to contend in +regard to the geographical features and position +of the United Kingdom. Its comparatively small +size, the propinquity of industrial centres, our +efficient day and night express railway services, +especially those running north and south, lessen +the value of aircraft's superior speed and militate +against the operation of successful internal +air services. Possible exceptions might include +amphibian services between London and Dublin, +accelerating the delivery of mails five or six hours; +between Glasgow and Belfast, where the Clyde +and the harbour of Belfast could be used as terminals; +or between London and the Channel +Islands. I may point out in parenthesis that +the development of alighting stations on rivers +passing through the centres of towns is important, +as a great deal of time is at present wasted +in reaching the aerodromes necessarily situated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +some miles outside large centres of population.</p> + +<p>Our immediate opportunities of development +near home are therefore afforded by the air +services to Paris, Brussels, and Amsterdam; but +even here the saving in time is not great, and +our position is unfavourable compared to that +of the United States, where the Post Office saves +two days in the delivery of mails by air between +New York and San Francisco; or compared to +that of Germany, where Berlin is within a 350-mile +radius of Copenhagen, Cologne, Munich, +Warsaw, and Vienna, which is itself in an advantageous +situation as the junction for a South +European system extending to the Balkan States +and the Near East.</p> + +<p>The ultimate use of the air, however, is not +exemplified by a few passengers flying daily +between London and the Continent any more +than by a few squadrons of fighting craft. In a +decade or two overhead transit will become the +main factor in the express delivery of passengers, +mails, and goods. It is the one means left to +the Empire of speeding up world-communication +to an extent as yet unrealized. For the price of +a battleship a route to Australia could be organized, +the value of which would be beyond computation.</p> + +<p>The British Empire as a whole offers vast fields +for expansion. In Africa, Canada, and Australia +are found the great distances suitable to the +operation of aircraft, the wide undeveloped areas +through which air transport may prove more +economic than the construction of railways, and +the trans-oceanic routes over which travel by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +steamship has reached, and in many cases passed, +its economic maximum speed. Air transport, +careless whether the route be over land or sea, +unhampered by foreign frontiers, gives the Empire +precisely those essential powers of direct, supple, +and speedy intercommunication which ship and +rail have already shown us to be vital.</p> + +<p>Here again the geographical position of England +presents a difficult problem. England is divided +from the rest of the Empire by a wide expanse, +either of ocean or foreign territory. Egypt, the +starting-point for air routes to India, Australia, +and South Africa, may be described as the centre +of a circle of which England is on the circumference; +and it may be some years before an +aeroplane can complete the journey between +England and Egypt with only Malta as a stopping-place.</p> + +<p>The future of long-distance oceanic air routes +may depend upon the airship. Lighter-than-air +craft, mainly for reasons of cost and vulnerability, +did not receive such an impetus from the +war as did the aeroplane, but the modern airship +has claims for use over distances exceeding 1,000 +miles. It can fly by night with even greater +ease than by day; fog is no deterrent; engine +trouble does not bring it down; and it can take +advantage of prevailing winds. It would reduce +the sea journey from England to Karachi from +22 to 5 days; from England to Johannesburg from +21 to 7 days; and from England to Perth from +32 to 10½ days. Its achievements have already +been considerable. In November, 1917, the German +L.57 flew from Constantinople to East Africa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +and back—a distance of 4,000 miles—in 96 hours; +in June, 1919, the R.34 flew from East Fortune to +Danzig and back in 57 hours; and in July it +crossed the Atlantic, was moored out in America +for four days, and returned, a total distance of +8,000 miles, in the flying time of 108 hours for +the outward and 75 hours for the homeward +journey.</p> + +<p>Before and during the war Germany gained wide +experience in the design, construction, and handling +of airships. It is probable that as soon as the +peace terms and financial position permit she +will begin to establish this form of transport on a +commercial basis. In accordance with the Peace +Treaty, and the Ultimatum of the London Conference +of 1921, the construction of aircraft of +all kinds is at present forbidden, but Germany is +fostering airship development by the means left +at her disposal. Her scientists are probing the +constructional problems connected with large +airships, while efforts are being made, by financial +and other assistance, to maintain her technical +staffs and airship bases in existence. At the +same time German commercial interests are +negotiating with foreign countries with a view to +the development of airships abroad, and plans +are being discussed for an airship service between +Spain and Argentina.</p> + +<p>The United States, France, and Italy are all +interesting themselves, either financially or constructionally, +in the future of airship development.</p> + +<p>In Great Britain we have made great strides, +particularly in the construction of small types,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +and our practical air experience in lighter-than-air +craft, during the war, is the greatest in the +world. With a view to carrying out the experiments +necessary further to demonstrate the +capacity of airships for commercial long-distance +flights, a few months ago the Department of Civil +Aviation took over all airship material surplus to +service requirements. The main object was to +test the practicability and value of mooring airships +to a mast. Up to the present, a principal +factor militating against the economic operation +of airships has been the large and expensive personnel +required for handling them on the ground, +especially in stormy weather. The mooring-mast +experiments have had considerable success and +airships have been moored in high winds and over +long periods with the assistance of a very small +personnel.</p> + +<p>The Government has decided, however, though +recognizing their potentialities for speeding up +communications between the various Dominions +and the Mother Country, that the operation of +airships cannot be carried out by the State on +account of the present financial position.</p> + +<p>Recognizing the limitations of Home services +and those to the Continent, it was for the purpose +of directing attention to the Imperial aspect of +civil aviation that the great demonstration flights +were organized in which Alcock flew the Atlantic +in a Vickers "Vimy," Scott crossed to the United +States and back in the R.34, Ross-Smith flew +from England to Australia, and van Ryneveld from +London to the Cape.</p> + +<p>These flights necessitated, too, considerable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +ground organization in laying out aerodromes, +as the following report on one in Africa vividly +illustrates: "If aerodromes are left unattended +for one year," it says, "practically all the work +would have to be undertaken afresh, particularly +in Rhodesia. The growth of vegetation is enormous, +especially during the rains, and grass will +grow to a height of eleven feet in six months; +and trees stumped two feet below the surface +will throw out suckers and replant themselves +within a month after the rains have started.... +It is most important that rough drains should be +traced.... I have just started planting Doub +grass. This grass gives an ideal surface for +landing, kills other grasses, and possesses deep +interlacing roots which will bind the entire +surface of the aerodromes, making it permanent +and free from washaways and the formation of +sluits."</p> + +<p>The demonstration flights, however, showed +what could, rather than what should, be done, +and what we look for to-day is the inception +of practical undertakings, however small, in the +various portions of the Empire. The most important +of these is the service contemplated between +Egypt and India; another instance is afforded +by the West Indies, which suffer from the lack of +inter-island communications, both for mails and +passengers, and this could be partially rectified by +an air service employing seaplanes or amphibians +for the Leeward and Windward Islands and the +Bahamas, and between the Bahamas and the +American Continent, where an American company +is actually conducting a service. Another project,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +given up owing to recent disturbances, was +one for a flying-boat service on the Nile. Services +are also being considered from Malta to Italy, +Geraldton to Derby in Western Australia, Sydney +to Adelaide and Brisbane, and Melbourne to +Hobart in Tasmania. Canadian activity takes the +form of work carried out by Government-owned +civil machines in connection with forest patrol, +photographic survey, exploration, anti-smuggling +patrols, etc. It would be a great advantage if +railway and steamship companies seriously considered +the value of supplementing their services +by air.</p> + +<p>With regard to Government undertakings on the +Imperial air routes, Malta is being equipped with +an aerodrome, and a line of wireless stations has +been established between Egypt and India, but +the organization of this route has been delayed +owing to the recent disturbances in the Middle +East, and the financial outlay involved in ground +organization. As I have said, the air route on +which we should first concentrate, over and above +the Continental services, is that between Egypt +and India. Both strategically and commercially +it is the most important in the Imperial system; +it is a step towards Australia; it offers possibilities +of the greatest volume of traffic; it +should be much simpler to control than many +international routes, which inevitably have many +complications; weather conditions are not unfavourable; +and the time taken for the journey +by sea would be reduced by about one-half. If +the shortcomings in point of distance of the +continental routes in reaping the full advantages<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +of travel by air, and the importance of the best +possible communications for the Empire, are +recognized, it is essential that a practical form of +assistance should be given in the near future to +the conduct of weekly or even bi-weekly services +each way between Cairo and Karachi. Although +it will not be a commercial proposition for some +time, the Egypt-Karachi route, shortening as it +will the delivery of mails between England and +India by two-thirds, and England and Australia +by one-third, offers greater results than the various +other schemes at present contemplated. There +are, however, certain considerations which will +have to be weighed before the immense amount of +work necessary to its initiation as a commercial +air route is begun. The French, for instance, +hope to push a trunk air route to India via +Constantinople, and this line has the advantage +of avoiding a long sea and desert crossing. +On the other hand, it will be a very difficult +matter to negotiate the mountains of +Anatolia.</p> + +<p>If enterprises of this kind are successfully +started, if each of our self-governing Dominions +and Colonies encourages civil aviation within its +own territory, and develops the air-sense of its +people, each portion of the Empire, by a process +of natural expansion, and by the gradual extension +of local air lines to merge with those from +other portions of the Empire, will assist in eventually +forming a continuous chain of inter-Imperial +air communication. Such a process of internal +development, supported by close co-operation between +the States of the Imperial Commonwealth,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +is the best method of obtaining rapidity of air +intercommunication and a system of Imperial air +bases necessary to the strategic security of the +Empire.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONCLUSION</h2> + +<p>Within the necessarily narrow limits of this +survey there has been traced the history of +aviation from the earliest days; the tremendous +impetus given to it by the war has been described, +during the course of which not only did air co-operation +become essential to the Navy and Army, +but the importance of the Air Force as a separate +arm, with its own strategic action, steadily grew; +the increasing preponderance which aerial warfare +will have in the future, and the horrors which it +may bring, have been touched upon; and the possibilities +of civil aviation in peace and war have +been outlined.</p> + +<p>The conclusion has been reached that we cannot +dispense with aviation, even if we would. We +must consider it as a whole and lay down the +broad principles on which it should be developed. +The air (I write as one who during the last months +of the war held the post of Chief of the Air Staff) +materially helped, if it did not actually win, +the fight. It has greatly complicated and increased +the problems of defence. In future its influence +on these problems will be still greater. The air +has no boundaries. Great Britain and the Empire +are no longer protected by the seas. A correct +assessment of their needs will entail a growing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +ratio of air force to Army and Navy, and air +power will in itself depend on the development of +civil aviation.</p> + +<p>But though air action may be expected with +justice to grow in proportion to that of the Army +and Navy, and will certainly absorb certain functions +of both, it would be unwise, at this early +stage of development, for air forces to attempt too +much at a time—such as, for instance, to garrison +geographically unsuitable countries.</p> + +<p>A certain amount of reliance could also be placed +on civil machines temporarily borrowed for purely +policing measures in uncivilized countries, or for +the assistance of Government during civil disturbances; +and for such purposes it should not +be difficult to devise a scheme, especially when +the State exercises a measure of control through +the grant of subsidies, for the obligatory enrolment +of civil commercial pilots in the reserve, +and for periodical refresher courses for pilots, +who are not actually in the service of companies, +at civil aerodromes. Such systems are in force +in France and Canada. In the event of war the +independent striking air force could thus count +upon a large proportion of civil reserve pilots and +machines.</p> + +<p>Air, allied to chemistry and the submarine, will +be a difficult combination to withstand. The +more its potential terrors are grasped, the less +likely is war to be loosed upon the world, and it +cannot be realized too clearly how much more +easily than any other instrument of warfare aircraft +and gas can be cheaply and secretly prepared +by a would-be belligerent. Meanwhile, if<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +civil aviation can be built up as a productive +organization to a position relative to that held +by our mercantile marine, we must understand +that it will ensure air supremacy better than a +large unproductive outlay on armaments. And +I am convinced that, with public support, this +can, and will, be done. Others will do it if we do +not. But air power, although drawing its vitality +from the expansion of air commerce and the +growth of the civil aircraft industry, must at +the same time rely upon the nucleus of a highly +trained and technical air force. Service aviation +must be the spearhead, civil aviation the shaft, of +our air effort.</p> + +<p>The present isolation of England in terms of +air from the rest of the Empire, and the geographical +conditions already described, certainly +render the national expansion of aviation, both +external and internal, a difficult problem. It is +clear that for this reason it must rather develop +on an Imperial basis. The Dominions have +already started valuable civil air work and have +appointed Air Boards. Whatever the political +settlement of Egypt may be, it is important that +our air interests at this "hub" of Imperial +aviation should be safeguarded. Air communication +between the various portions of the Empire +may prove of inestimable value in a future world +war, and Dominion air forces may be able quickly +to concentrate against enemy territory which is +out of the range of aircraft operating from home. +We have seen the value of aircraft operating from +land bases for naval patrol, anti-submarine action, +and direct attack on enemy shipping. With the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +increasing radius of action of seaplanes and other +naval aircraft, the Army and Navy may be relieved +of certain of their duties in coast defence and +in protecting Imperial trade routes. For these +reasons, aircraft bases are required throughout +the Empire, and it is the commercial development +of aviation which is the best means of ensuring +their establishment. It will be for the Imperial +authorities, while attending to local conditions and +requirements, to co-ordinate as far as possible the +air effort of the Empire, so that in peace communications +may be developed and in the event +of war its full power may rapidly be utilized on a +co-operative basis.</p> + +<p>Civil aviation is not, however, merely a method +of amplifying service air power. It has a vast +potential value of its own. Communications shape +human destinies. The evolution of our civilization +bears strongly the marks of the systems which at +various stages have made the intercourse of men +and ideas possible. Its history is one of endeavour +to extend the limits imposed upon human living +and mobility in each of the great phases through +which it has passed.</p> + +<p>There was the phase of the coracle and the +roller-wheeled vehicle, stretching back into the +roadless mists of unrecorded time; of roads +which gradually linked the important areas of +the Roman Empire; of inland and coastal waterways; +of ocean traffic, and its huge advance +with the discovery of steam-power, which brought +England to the fore.</p> + +<p>With each phase the world shrinks smaller +and the mists of the unknown recede. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +development of human mobility is the greatest +marvel of the present age. We can hardly +realize that it was only the other day, as these +things go—in 1819, just a hundred years before +the same feat was accomplished by air-that the +first sailing ship fitted with auxiliary steam +(and not until 1828 that a real steamship) crossed +the Atlantic.</p> + +<p>Strain and competition are increasing. Trains +vie with ships; motor transport with trains. +Telephones, wireless, cables, and flying are speeding +up communications to a degree undreamed of a +few years ago. If the air is to be a prime factor +in the world-phase to come, how will the British +Empire be affected? Stretching from Great +Britain to Australia and the Pacific Ocean, the +Empire depends more than any other political +and commercial organization on the most modern +and speedy communications, and as each of its +portions assumes greater responsibility there is +greater need for co-operation, the distribution of +information, and the personal contact of statesmen +and business men. "The old order changeth, +yielding place to new"; and in communications +the new order is air transport.</p> + +<p>Equally important is the international aspect. +To-day we are deeply concerned with the maintenance +of peace, and this can be achieved, not +so much by the action of Governments, or the +efforts of the League of Nations, as by the personal +association of individuals of one nation +with those of another, and an increasing recognition +of common interests. I conceive that civil +aviation, by reducing the time factor of intercommunication,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +will tend to bring peoples into +closer touch with each other and will make for +mutual understanding. The Peace Treaty provided +for an Air Convention for the international +control of civil aviation. The Convention has +been signed by all the Allied nations which took +part in the war, and I hope other countries will +shortly be included. As soon as the Convention +has been ratified, the International Commission +of Air Navigation will be established, and for the +first time the world will see the international +control of a great transport service. I believe +this will prove an important practical step towards +international co-operation and goodwill.</p> + +<p>We have no excuse for ignorance of the effects +of Imperial and international co-operation. The +war gave us an example of what the British Empire +can do, provided its combined knowledge and +effort is brought to bear for one great purpose; +and in no respect was this better exemplified +than in the utilization and scientific development +of aviation. The world-position of the Empire +as a whole is still the best. Commerce and +communications are its bonds, and, if we are so +determined, it is in our power to shape the destinies +of the future.</p> + +<p>A definite advance has been made since the +Armistice and, if all goes well, a very much +greater one will be made during the next two or +three years, and in ten years mercantile air services +will be operating on a self-supporting basis. +The science and concentration employed in the +war must be made to serve the requirements of +peace. Readiness for, and success in, war are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +vital when war is unavoidable, but in peace it is +civil and commercial activity which is vital.</p> + +<p>As in its infancy it seemed incredible to those +responsible for the direction of the older services +that the air would be their most valuable partner; +as, during the war, they grudged its logical development +to strike widely where they could not reach, +and tried to tether it closely to them, so now in +peace the air is struggling to attain the apotheosis +of communication.</p> + +<p>In the phase of world commerce of which we are +on the threshold, science, brain-power, energy, +and faith must, and increasingly will, be harnessed +to the work of perfecting air communication +so that human mobility can be increased, knowledge +interchanged, and the fruits of production +distributed throughout the world.</p> + +<p>As a soldier I have of course dwelt on the +possibility of war in the future and of the part +which aviation would play in it, but it would +be a great mistake—though I think that mistake +is constantly made—to suppose that soldiers look +forward with equanimity to the prospect of war. +On the contrary, soldiers, more even than civilians, +if this be possible, realize the horrors of war +and recognize that the great task rests upon the +statesmen of all nations, and upon humanity itself, +of taking whatever steps can be taken to prevent +its recurrence.</p> + +<p>We may at least assume that another great war +will not be allowed in our generation. But war, +in spite of its horrors, in spite of its bereavements, +is only too quickly forgotten. A comparatively +few years, and those who have passed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +through its fire are no more. New wealth is +created; new antagonisms arise; and a new +generation remembers only the romantic stories +and the martial deeds of its fathers, or, more +fatally, organizes itself to avenge defeat. Then, +once again, forgetful of the terrible lesson we have +learned, the great nations of the world may +unsheathe the sword as the only solution to their +problems. Our only hope lies in using the ensuing +years to educate mankind to the principle that +war brings misery and impoverishment to all +engaged in it, that in the final victory it is not a +question of which is left the strongest, but which +is the least exhausted, and that national are as +susceptible as personal differences to discussion +and arbitration. Above all, let us guard against +the old mistake of competitive armaments. There +is no reason, for instance, why, because France, +our friend and ally, is adopting a policy of air +armaments, we should blindly pile up aeroplane +against aeroplane, pilot against pilot, and thus +provoke mutual suspicion.</p> + +<p>The possibility of war remains, however, and I +wish in conclusion to emphasize the fact that in +my belief the security of this country in the +event of war will depend upon our strength in the +air. The development of the offensive powers of +aviation have already destroyed "the silver +streak" on which we relied in the past. When +we remember that it is less than twenty years +since the first successful aeroplane was flown, +when we recall the almost miraculous development +of the fighting powers of aircraft during the +four and a half years of war, and also the further<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +developments which were on the point of being +utilized when the war ended, it seems certain +that from the point of view of war Britain has +ceased to be an island. The "silver streak" +would have been little protection but for our +naval supremacy, and in the future our security +will depend as much upon superiority in the air +as it has depended in the past upon our superiority +at sea. And this superiority in the air can only +be attained in the same way in which we secured +our supremacy at sea. That supremacy was +not really gained by developing great navies. It +was gained by our mercantile marine, which made +the great navies possible. Our future security +can only be gained by the development of commercial +aviation.</p> + +<div class="dv1"><p class="pb1"><i>Printed in Great Britain by</i> Butler & Tanner, <i>Frome and London</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="trn"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b> +Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. +Variant spellings, e.g. <i>Frankfort</i> and <i>Frankfurt</i>, remain as printed. +Significant amendments have been listed below: + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Page <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, 'Poperighe' amended to <i>Poperinghe</i>.</p> +<p>Page <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, 'Junker' amended to <i>Junkers</i>.</p></div></div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Aviation in Peace and War, by +Sir Frederick Hugh Sykes + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AVIATION IN PEACE AND WAR *** + +***** This file should be named 25244-h.htm or 25244-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/5/2/4/25244/ + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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