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diff --git a/2484.txt b/2484.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8d7870a --- /dev/null +++ b/2484.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13445 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Boys' and Girls' Plutarch, by Plutarch + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Boys' and Girls' Plutarch + Being Parts of The "Lives" of Plutarch + +Author: Plutarch + +Editor: John S. White + +Posting Date: January 4, 2009 [EBook #2484] +Release Date: January, 2001 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' PLUTARCH *** + + + + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer + + + + + +THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' PLUTARCH + +BEING PARTS OF THE "LIVES" OF PLUTARCH + +By Plutarch + +Edited for Boys and Girls With Introductions By John S. White + +Head-Master Berkeley School + + + + +Table of Contents + + + Life of Theseus + Life of Romulus + Comparison of Theseus and Romulus + Life of Lycurgus + Life of Solon + Life of Themistocles + Life of Camillus + Life of Pericles + Life of Demosthenes + Life of Cicero + Comparison of Demosthenes and Cicero + Life of Alcibiades + Life of Coriolanus + Comparison of Alcibiades and Coriolanus + Life of Aristides + Life of Cimon + Life of Pompey + The Engines of Archimedes; from the Life of Marcellus + Description of Cleopatra; from the Life of Antony + Anecdotes from the Life of Agesilaus + The Brothers; from the Life of Timoleon + The Wound of Philopoemen + A Roman Triumph; from the Life of Paulus Aemilius + The Noble Character of Caius Fabricius; from the Life of Pyrrhus + From the Life of Quintus Fabius Maximus + The Cruelty of Lucius Cornelius Sylla + The Luxury of Lucullus + From the Life of Sertorius the Roman, who endeavored to establish + a separate Government for himself in Spain + The Scroll; from the Life of Lysander + The Character of Marcus Cato + The Sacred Theban Band; from the Life of Pelopidas + From the Life of Titus Flamininus, Conqueror of Philip + Life of Alexander the Great + The Death of Caesar + + + + +THESEUS + +As geographers crowd into the edges of their maps parts of the world +which they do not know about, adding notes in the margin to the effect +that beyond this lies nothing but sandy deserts full of wild beasts, +unapproachable bogs, Seythian ice, or frozen sea, so, in this great work +of mine, in which I have compared the lives of the greatest men with one +another, after passing through those periods which probable reasoning +can reach to and real history find a footing in, I might very well +say of those that are farther off, Beyond this there is nothing but +prodigies and fictions; the only inhabitants are the poets and inventors +of fables; there is no credit, or certainty any farther. Yet, after +publishing an account of Lycurgus the lawgiver and Numa the king, I +thought I might, not without reason, ascend as high as to Romulus, being +brought by my history so near to his time. Considering therefore with +myself + + Whom shall I set so great a man face to face? + Or whom oppose? Who's equal to the place? + +(as Aeschylus expresses it), I found none so fit as he who peopled the +beautiful and far-famed city of Athens, to be set in opposition with +the father of the invincible and renowned city of Rome. Let us hope that +Fable may, in what shall follow, so submit to the purifying processes of +Reason as to take the character of exact history. We shall beg that we +may meet with candid readers, and such as will receive with indulgence +the stories of antiquity. + +Theseus seemed to me to resemble Romulus in many particulars. Both of +them had the repute of being sprung from the gods. + +Both warriors; that by all the world's allowed. + +Both of them united with strength of body an equal vigor of mind; and of +the two most famous cities of the world, the one built in Rome, and the +other made Athens be inhabited. Neither of them could avoid domestic +misfortunes nor jealousy at home; but toward the close of their +lives are both of them said to have incurred great odium with their +countrymen, if, that is, we may take the stories least like poetry as +our guide to truth. + +Theseus was the son of Aegeus and Aethra. His lineage, by his father's +side, ascends as high as to Erechtheus and the first inhabitants of +Attica. By his mother's side, he was descended of Pelops, who was the +most powerful of all the kings of Peloponnesus. + +When Aegeus went from the home of Aethra in Troezen to Athens, he left +a sword and a pair of shoes, hiding them under a great stone that had a +hollow in it exactly fitting them; and went away making her only privy +to it, and commanding her that, if, when their son came to man's estate, +he should be able to lift up the stone and take away what he had left +there, she should send him away to him with those things with all +secrecy, and with injunctions to him as much as possible to conceal his +journey from everyone; for he greatly feared the Pallantidae, who were +continually mutinying against him, and despised him for his want of +children, they themselves being fifty brothers, all sons of Pallas, the +brother of Aegeus. + +When Aethra's son was born, some say that he was immediately named +Theseus, from the tokens which his father had put under the stone; +others that he received his name afterwards at Athens, when Aegeus +acknowledged him for his son. He was brought up under his grandfather +Pittheus, and had a tutor and attendant set over him named Connidas, to +whom the Athenians, even to this time, the day before the feast that is +dedicated to Theseus, sacrifice a ram, giving this honor to his memory +upon much juster grounds than to Silanio and Parrhasius, for making +pictures and statues of Theseus. There being then a custom for the +Grecian youth, upon their first coming to a man's estate, to go to +Delphi and offer firstfruits of their hair to the god, Theseus also went +thither, and a place there to this day is yet named Thesea, as it is +said, from him. He clipped only the fore part of his head, as Homer says +the Abantes did. And this sort of tonsure was from him named Theseis. +The Abantes first used it, not in imitation of the Arabians, as some +imagine, nor of the Mysians, but because they were a warlike people, +and used to close fighting, and above all other nations, accustomed to +engage hand to hand; as Archilochus testifies in these verses: + + Slings shall not whirl, nor many arrows fly, + When on the plain the battle joins; but swords, + Man against man, the deadly conflict try, + As is the practice of Euboea's lords + Skilled with the spear.-- + +Therefore, that they might not give their enemies a hold by their hair, +they cut it in this manner. They write also that this was the reason +why Alexander gave command to his captains that all the beards of the +Macedonians should be shaved, as being the readiest hold for an enemy. + +Aethra for some time concealed the true parentage of Theseus, and a +report was given out by Pittheus that he was the son of Neptune; for the +Troezenians pay Neptune the highest veneration. He is their tutelar god, +to him they offer all their firstfruits, and in his honor stamp their +money with a trident. + +Theseus displaying not only great strength of body, but equal bravery, +and a quickness alike and force of understanding, his mother Aethra, +conducting him to the stone, and informing him who was his true father, +commanded him to take from thence the tokens that Aegeus had left, and +to sail to Athens. He without any difficulty set himself to the stone +and lifted it up; but refused to take his journey by sea, though it was +much the safer way, and though his mother and grandfather begged him to +do so. For it was at that time very dangerous to go by land on the road +to Athens, no part of it being free from robbers and murderers. That +age produced a sort of men, in force of hand, and swiftness of foot, and +strength of body, excelling the ordinary rate, and wholly incapable of +fatigue; making use, however, of these gifts of nature to no good or +profitable purpose for mankind, but rejoicing and priding themselves +in insolence, and taking the benefit of their superior strength in +the exercise of inhumanity and cruelty, and in seizing, forcing, and +committing all manner of outrages upon everything that fell into their +hands; all respect for others, all justice, they thought, all equity and +humanity, though naturally lauded by common people, either out of +want of courage to commit injuries or fear to receive them, yet no way +concerned those who were strong enough to win for themselves. Some +of these Hercules destroyed and cut off in his passage through these +countries, but some, escaping his notice, while he was passing by, fled +and hid themselves, or else were spared by him in contempt of their +abject submission; and after that Hercules fell into misfortune, and, +having slain Iphitus, retired to Lydia, and for a long time was there +slave to Omphale, a punishment which he had imposed upon himself for +the murder. Then, indeed, Lydia enjoyed high peace and security, but in +Greece and the countries about it the like villainies again revived +and broke out, there being none to repress or chastise them. It was +therefore a very hazardous journey to travel by land from Athens to +Peloponnesus; and Pittheus, giving him an exact account of each of these +robbers and villains, their strength, and the cruelty they used to all +strangers, tried to persuade Theseus to go by sea. But he, it seems, had +long since been secretly fired by the glory of Hercules, held him in the +highest estimation, and was never more satisfied than in listening to +any that gave an account of him; especially those that had seen him, +or had been present at any action or saying of his. So that he was +altogether in the same state of feeling as, in after ages, Themistocles +was, when he said that he could not sleep for the trophy of Miltiades; +entertaining such admiration for the virtues of Hercules that in his +dreams were all of that hero's actions, and in the day a continual +emulation stirred him up to perform the like. Besides, they were +related, being born of own cousins. For Aethra was daughter of Pittheus, +and Alcmena of Lysidice; and Lysidice and Pittheus were brother and +sister, children of Hippodamia and Pelpos. He thought it therefore a +dishonorable thing, and not to be endured, that Hercules should go out +everywhere, and purge both land and sea from the wicked men, and he +should fly from the like adventures that actually came his way; not +showing his true father as good evidence of the greatness of his birth +by noble and worthy actions, as by the tokens that he brought with him, +the shoes and the sword. + +With this mind and these thoughts, he set forward with a design to do +injury to nobody, but to repel and avenge himself of all those that +should offer any. And first of all, in a set combat he slew Periphtes, +in the neighborhood of Epidaurus, who used a club for his arms, and from +thence had the name of Corynetes, or the club-bearer; who seized upon +him, and forbade him to go forward in his journey. Being pleased with +the club, he took it, and made it his weapon, continuing to use it as +Hercules did the lion's skin, on whose shoulders that served to prove +how huge a beast he had killed; and to the same end Theseus carried +about him this club; overcome indeed by him, but now, in his hands, +invincible. + +Passing on further towards the Isthmus of Peloponnesus, he slew Sinnis, +often surnamed the Bender of Pines, after the same manner in which he +himself had destroyed many others before. And this he did without having +either practiced or ever learnt the art of bending these trees, to show +that natural strength is above all art. This Sinnis had a daughter of +remarkable beauty and stature, called Perigune, who, when her father +was killed, fled, and was sought after everywhere by Theseus; and coming +into a place overgrown with brushwood, shrubs, and asparagus-thorn, +there, in a childlike, innocent manner, prayed and begged them, as if +they understood her, to give shelter, with vows that if she escaped she +would never cut them down nor burn them. But Theseus calling upon her, +and giving her his promise that he would use her with respect, and +offer no injury, she came forth. Whence it is a family usage amongst the +people called Ioxids, from the name of her grandson, Ioxus, both male +and female, never to burn either shrubs or asparagus-thorn, but to +respect and honor them. + +The Crommyonian sow, which they called Phaea, was a savage and +formidable wild beast, by no means an enemy to be despised. Theseus +killed her, going out of his way on purpose to meet and engage her, so +that he might not seem to perform all his great exploits out of mere +necessity; being also of opinion that it was the part of a brave man to +chastise villainous and wicked men when attacked by them, but to seek +out and overcome the more noble wild beasts. Others relate that Phaea +was a woman, a robber full of cruelty, that lived in Crommyon, and had +the name of Sow given her from the foulness of her life and manners, and +afterwards was killed by Theseus. He slew also Sciron, upon the borders +of Megara, casting him down from the rocks, being, as most report, a +notorious robber of all passengers, and, as others add, accustomed out +of insolence and wantonness, to stretch forth his feet to strangers, +commanding them to wash them, and then while they did it, with a kick to +send them down the rock into the sea. + +In Eleusis he killed Cercyon, the Arcadian, in a wrestling match. And +going on a little farther, in Erineus, he slew Damastes, otherwise +called Procrustes, forcing his body to the size of his own bed, as he +himself was used to do with all strangers; this he did in imitation +of Hercules, who always returned upon his assailants the same sort of +violence that they offered to him; sacrificed Busiris, killed Antaeus +in wrestling, and Cycnus in single combat, and Termerus by breaking his +skull in pieces (whence, they say, comes the proverb of "a Termerian +mischief"), for it seems Termerus killed passengers that he met by +running with his head against them. And so also Theseus proceeded with +the same violence from which they had inflicted upon others, justly +suffering after the same manner of their own injustice. + +As he went forward on his journey, and was come as far as the River +Cephisus, some of the race of the Phytalidae met him and saluted him, +and upon his desire to use the purifications, then in custom, they +performed them with all the usual ceremonies, and having offered +propitiatory sacrifices to the gods, invited him and entertained him at +their house, a kindness which, in all his journey hitherto, he had not +met. + +On the eighth day of Cronius, now called Hecatombaeon, he arrived at +Athens, where he found the public affairs full of all confusion, and +divided into parties and factions. Aegeus also, and his whole private +family, laboring under the same distemper; for Medea, having fled from +Corinth, was living with him. She was first aware of Theseus, whom as +yet Aegeus did not know, and he being in years, full of jealousies and +suspicions, and fearing everything by reason of the faction that was +then in the city, she easily persuaded him to kill him by poison at a +banquet, to which he was to be invited as a stranger. He, coming to +the entertainment, thought it not fit to discover himself at once, but, +willing to give his father the occasion of first finding him out, the +meat being on the table, he drew his sword as if he designed to cut with +it; Aegeus, at once recognizing the token, threw down the cup of poison, +and, questioning his son, embraced him, and, having gathered together +all his citizens, owned him publicly before them, who, on their part, +received him gladly for the fame of his greatness and bravery. + +The sons of Pallas, who were quiet, upon expectation of recovering the +kingdom after Aegeus's death, who was without issue, as soon as Theseus +appeared and was acknowledged the successor, highly resenting that +Aegeus first, as adopted son only of Pandion, and not at all related to +the family of Erechtheus, should be holding the kingdom, and that after +him, Theseus, a visitor and stranger, should be destined to succeed +to it, broke out into open war. And, dividing themselves into two +companies, one part of them marched openly from Sphettus, with their +father, against the city; the other, hiding themselves in the village +of Gargettus, lay in ambush, with a design to set upon the enemy on both +sides. They had with them a crier of the township of Agnus, named +Leos, who discovered to Theseus all the designs of the Pallentidae. He +immediately fell upon those that lay in amuscade, and cut them all off; +upon tidings of which Pallas and his company fled and were dispersed. + +From hence they say is derived the custom among the people of the +township of Pallene to have no marriages or any alliance with the people +of Agnus, nor to suffer the criers to pronounce in their proclamations +the words used in all other parts of the country, Acouete Leoi (Hear ye +people), hating the very sound of Leo, because of the treason of Leos. + +Theseus, longing to be in action, and desirous also to make himself +popular, left Athens to fight with the bull of Marathon, which did no +small mischief to the inhabitants of Tetrapolis. And, having overcome +it, he brought it alive in triumph through the city, and afterwards +sacrificed it to the Delphian Apollo. The story of Hecale, also, of her +receiving and entertaining Theseus in this expedition, seems to be not +altogether void of truth; for the townships round about, meeting upon a +certain day, used to offer a sacrifice, which they called Hecalesia, +to Jupiter Hecaleius, and to pay honor to Hecale, whom, by a diminutive +name, they called Hecalene, because she, while entertaining Theseus, +who was quite a youth, addressed him, as old people do, with similar +endearing diminutives; and having made a vow to Jupiter that he was +going to the fight, that, if he returned in safety, she would offer +sacrifices in thanks of it, and dying before he came back, she had these +honors given her by way of return for her hospitality, by the command of +Theseus, as Philochorus tells us. + +Not long afterwards came the third time from Crete the collectors of +the tribute which the Athenians paid them upon the following occasion. +Androgeus having been treacherously murdered in the confines of Attica, +not only Minos, his father, put the Athenians to extreme distress by a +perpetual war, but the gods also laid waste their country; both famine +and pestilence lay heavy upon them, and even their rivers were dried up. +Being told by the oracle that if they appeased and reconciled Minos, +the anger of the gods would cease and they should enjoy rest from +the miseries they labored under, they sent heralds, and with much +supplication were at last reconciled, entering into an agreement to +send to Crete every nine years a tribute of seven young men and as many +virgins, as most writers agree in stating; and the most poetical +story adds that the Minotaur destroyed them, or that, wandering in the +Labyrinth, and finding no possible means of getting out, they miserably +ended their lives there, and that this Minotaur was (as Euripides hath +it) + + A mingled form, where two strange shapes combined, + And different natures, bull and man, were joined. + +Now when the time of the third tribute was come, and the fathers who +had any young men for their sons were to proceed by lot to the choice +of those that were to be sent, there arose fresh discontents and +accusations against Aegeus among the people, who were full of grief and +indignation that he, who was the cause of all their miseries, was the +only person exempt from the punishment; adopting and setting his kingdom +upon a foreign son, he took no thought, they said, of their destitution +and loss of their lawful children. These things sensibly affected +Theseus, who, thinking it but just not to disregard, but rather partake +of, the sufferings of his fellow citizens, offered himself for one +without any lot. All else were struck with admiration for the nobleness, +and with love for the goodness, of the act; and Aegeus, after prayers +and entreaties, finding him inflexible and not to be persuaded, +proceeded to the choosing of the rest by lot. Hellanicus, however, tells +us that the Athenians did not send the young men and virgins by lot, +but that Minos himself used to come and make his own choice, and pitched +upon Theseus before all others; according to the conditions agreed upon +between, namely, that the Athenians should furnish them with a ship, and +that the young men who were to sail with him should carry no weapon of +war; but that if the Minotaur was destroyed the tribute should cease. + +On the two former occasions of the payment of the tribute, entertaining +no hopes of safety or return, they sent out the ship with a black sail, +as to unavoidable destruction; but now, Theseus encouraging his father +and speaking greatly of himself, as confident that he should kill the +Minotaur, he gave the pilot another sail, which was white, commanding +him, as he returned, if Theseus were safe, to make use of that; but +if not, to sail with the black one, and to hang out that sign of his +misfortune. Simonides says that the sail which Aegeus delivered to the +pilot was not white, but + + Scarlet, in the juicy bloom + Of the living oak-tree steeped. + +The lot being cast, and Theseus having received out of the Prytaneum +those upon whom it fell, he went to the Delphinium, and made an offering +for them to Apollo of his suppliant's badge, which was a bough of a +consecrated olive tree, with white wool tied about it. + +Having thus performed his devotion, he went to sea, the sixth day of +Munychion, on which day even to this time the Athenians send their +virgins to the same temple to make supplication to the gods. It is +farther reported that he was commanded by the oracle at Delphi to make +Venus his guide, and to invoke her as the companion and conductress of +his voyage, and that, as he was sacrificing a she goat to her by the +seaside, it was suddenly changed into a he, and for this cause that +goddess had the name of Epitragia. + +When he arrived at Crete, as most of the ancient historians as well as +poets tell us, having a clue of thread given him by Ariadne, who had +fallen in love with him, and being instructed by her now to use it so as +to conduct him through the windings of the Labyrinth, he escaped out of +it and slew the Minotaur, and sailed back, taking along with him Ariadne +and the young Athenian captives. Pherecydes adds that he bored holes +in the bottom of the Cretan ships to hinder their pursuit. Demon writes +that Taurus, the chief captain of Minos, was slain by Theseus at the +mouth of the port, in a naval combat, as he was sailing out for Athens. +But Philochorus gives us the story thus: That at the setting forth of +the yearly games by King Minos, Taurus was expected to carry away +the prize, as he had done before; and was much grudged the honor. +His character and manners made his power hateful, and he was accused, +moreover, of too near familiarity with Pasiphae, for which reason, when +Theseus desired the combat, Minos readily complied. And as it was a +custom in Crete that the women also should be admitted to the sight of +these games, Ariadne, being present, was struck with admiration of the +manly beauty of Theseus, and the vigor and address which he showed in +combat, overcoming all that encountered with him. Minos, too, being +extremely pleased with him, especially because he had overthrown and +disgraced Taurus, voluntarily gave up the young captives to Theseus, and +remitted the tribute to the Athenians. + +There are yet many traditions about these things, and as many concerning +Ariadne, all inconsistent with each other. Some relate that she hung +herself, being deserted by Theseus. Others that she was carried away +by his sailors to the isle of Naxos, and married to Oenarus, priest of +Bacchus; and that Theseus left her because he fell in love with another, + + "For Aegle's love was burning in his breast." + +Now Theseus, in his return from Crete, put in at Delos, and, having +sacrificed to the god of the island, dedicated to the temple the +image of Venus which Ariadne had given him, and danced with the young +Athenians a dance that, in memory of him, they say is still preserved +among the inhabitants of Delos, consisting in certain measured +turnings and returnings, imitative of the windings and twistings of the +Labyrinth. And this dance, as Dicaearchus writes, is called among the +Delians, the Crane. This he danced round the Ceratonian Altar, so called +from its consisting of horns taken from the left side of the head. They +also say that he instituted games in Delos, where he was the first that +began the of giving a palm to the victors. + +When they were come near the coast of Attica, so great was the joy for +the happy success of their voyage, that neither Theseus himself nor the +pilot remembered to hang out the sail which should have been the token +of their safety to Aegeus, who, in despair at the sight, threw himself +headlong from a rock, and perished in the sea. But Theseus, being +arrived at the port of Phalerum, paid there the sacrifices which he had +vowed to the gods at his setting out to sea, and sent a herald to the +city to carry the news of his safe return. At his entrance, the herald +found the people for the most part full of grief for the loss of their +king, others, as may well be believed, as full of joy for the tidings +that he brought, and eager to welcome him and crown him with garlands +for his good news, which he indeed accepted of, but hung them upon his +herald's staff; and thus returning to the seaside before Theseus +had finished his libation to the gods, he stayed apart for fear of +disturbing the holy rites, but, as soon as the libation was ended, went +up and related the king's death, upon the hearing of which, with great +lamentations and a confused tumult of grief, they ran with all haste to +the city. And from hence, they say, it comes that at this day, in the +feast of Oschoporia, the herald is not crowned, but his staff, and all +who are present at the libation cry out "eleleu, iou, iou," the first of +which confused sounds is commonly used by men in haste, or at a triumph, +the other is proper to people in consternation or disorder of mind. + +Theseus, after the funeral of his father, paid his vows to Apollo the +seventh day of Pyanepsion; for on that day the youth that returned with +him safe from Crete made their entry into the city. They say, also, that +the custom of boiling pulse at this feast is derived from hence; because +the young men that escaped put all that was left of their provision +together, and, boiling it in one common pot, feasted themselves with +it, and ate it all up together. Hence, also, they carry in procession +an olive branch bound about with wool (such as they then made use of in +their supplications), which they call Eiresione, crowned with all sorts +of fruits, to signify that scarcity and barrenness was ceased, singing +in their procession this song: + + Eiresione brings figs, and Eiresione brings loaves; + Bring us honey in pints, and oil to rub on our bodies, + And a strong flagon of wine, for all to go mellow to bed on. + +The ship wherein Theseus and the youth of Athens returned had thirty +oars, and was preserved by the Athenians down even to the time of +Demetrius Phalereus, for they took away the old planks as they decayed, +putting in new and stronger timber in their place, insomuch that this +ship became a standing example among the philosophers, for the logical +question as to things that grow; one side holding that the ship remained +the same, and the other contending that it was not the same. + +Now, after the death of his father Aegeus, forming in his mind a great +and wonderful design, he gathered together all the inhabitants of Attica +into one town, and made them one people of one city, whereas before they +lived dispersed, and were not easy to assemble upon any affair, for +the common interest. Nay, the differences and even wars often occurred +between them, which he by his persuasions appeased, going form township +to township, and from tribe to tribe. And those of a more private and +mean condition readily embracing such good advice, to those of greater +power he promised a commonwealth without monarchy, a democracy, or +people's government, in which he should only be continued as their +commander in war and the protector of their laws, all things else being +equally distributed among them;--and by this means brought a part +of them over to his proposal. The rest, fearing his power, which was +already grown very formidable, and knowing his courage and resolution, +chose rather to be persuaded than forced into a compliance. He then +dissolved all the distant state-houses, council halls, and magistracies, +and built one common state-house (the Prytaneum) and council hall on the +site of the present upper town, and gave the name of Athens to the +whole state, ordaining a common feast and sacrifice, which he called +Panathenaea, or the sacrifice of all the united Athenians. He instituted +also another sacrifice, called Metoecia, or Feast of Migration, which +is yet celebrated on the sixteenth day of Hecatombaeon. Then, as he +had promised, he laid down his regal power and proceeded to order a +commonwealth, entering upon this great work not without advice from the +gods. For having sent to consult the oracle of Delphi concerning the +fortune of his new government and city, he received this answer: + + Son of the Pitthean maid, + To your town the terms and fates + My father gives of many states. + Be not anxious or afraid: + The bladder will not fail to swim + On the waves that compass him. + +Which oracle, they say, one of the sibyls long after did in a manner +repeat to the Athenians, in this verse: + +The bladder may be dipt, but not be drowned. + +Farther yet designing to enlarge his city, he invited all strangers to +come and enjoy equal privileges with the natives, and it is said that +the common form, "Come hither all ye people," was the words that Theseus +proclaimed when he thus set up a commonwealth, in a manner, for all +nations. Yet he did not suffer his state, by the promiscuous multitude +that flowed in, to be turned into confusion and be left without any +order or degree, but was the first that divided the commonwealth into +three distinct ranks, the noblemen, the husbandmen, and artificers. +To the nobility he committed the care of religion, the choice of +magistrates, the teaching and dispensing of the laws, and interpretation +and direction in all sacred matters; the whole city being, as it were, +reduced to an exact equality, the nobles excelling the rest in honor, +the husbandmen in profit, and the artifices in number. And that Theseus +was the first, who, as Aristotle says, out of an inclination to popular +government, parted with the regal power, Homer also seems to testify, +in his catalogue of ships, where he gives the name of "People" to the +Athenians only. + +He also coined money, and stamped it with the image of an ox, either +in memory of the Marathonian bull, or of Taurus, whom he vanquished, or +else to put his people in mind to follow husbandry; and from this coin +came the expression so frequent among the Greeks, as a thing being +worth ten or a hundred oxen. After this he joined Megara to Attica, and +erected that famous pillar on the isthmus, which bears an inscription of +two lines, showing the bounds of the two countries that meet there. On +the east side the inscription is,-"Peloponnesus there, Ionia here," And +on the west side,-"Peloponnesus here, Ionia there." + +He also instituted the games, in emulation of Hercules, being ambitious +that as the Greeks, by that hero's appointment, celebrated the Olympian +games to the honor of Jupiter, so, by his institution, they should +celebrate the Isthmian to the honor of Neptune. At the same time he made +an agreement with the Corinthians, that they should allow those that +came from Athens to the celebration of the Isthmian games as much space +of honor before the rest to behold the spectacle in as the sail of the +ship that brought them thither, stretched to its full extent, could +cover; so Hellenicus and Andro of Halicarnassus have established. + +Concerning his voyage into the Euxine Sea, Philochorus and some others +write that he made it with Hercules, offering him his service in the +war against the Amazons, and had Antiope given him for the reward of his +valor; but the greater number, of whom are Pherecides, Hellanicus, +and Herodorus, with a navy under his own command, and took the Amazon +prisoner,--the more probable story, for we do not read that any other, +of all those that accompanied him in this action, took any Amazon +prisoner. Bion adds, that, to take her, he had to use deceit and fly +away; for the Amazons, he says, being naturally lovers of men, were so +far from avoiding Theseus when he touched upon their coasts, that they +sent him presents to his ship; but he, having invited Antiope, who +brought them, to come aboard, immediately set sail and carried her +away. An author named Menecrates, that wrote the History of Nicaea in +Bithynia, adds, that Theseus, having Antiope aboard his vessel, cruised +for some time about those coasts, and that there were in the same ship +three young men of Athens, that accompanied him in his voyage, all +brothers, whose names were Euneos, Thoas, and Soloon. The last of these +fell desperately in love with Antiope; and escaping the notice of the +rest, revealed the secret only to one of his most intimate acquaintance, +and employed him to disclose his passion to Antiope. She rejected his +pretences with a very positive denial, yet treated the matter with much +gentleness and discretion, and made no complaint to Theseus of anything +that had happened; but Soloon, the thing being desperate, leaped into +a river near the seaside and drowned himself. As soon as Theseus was +aquainted with his death, and his unhappy love that was the cause of it, +he was extremely distressed, and, in the height of his grief, an oracle +which he had formerly received at Delphi came into his mind; for he had +been commanded by the priestess of Apollo Pythius, that, wherever in a +strange land he was most sorrowful and under the greatest affliction, +he should build a city there, and leave some of his followers to be +governors of the place. For this cause he there founded a city, which +he called, from the name of Apollo, Pythopolis, and, in honor of the +unfortunate youth, he named the river that runs by it Soloon, and left +the two surviving brothers intrusted with the care of the government and +laws, joining with them Hermus, one of the nobility of Athens, from whom +a place in the city is called the House of Hermus; though by an error +in the accent it has been taken for the House of Hermes, or Mercury, and +the honor that was designed to the hero, transferred to the god. + +This was the origin and cause of the Amazonian invasion of Attica, which +would seem to have been no slight or womanish enterprise. For it is +impossible that they should have placed their camp in the very city, +and joined battle close by the Pnyx and the hill called Museum, unless, +having first conquered the country round about, they had thus with +impunity advanced to the city. That they made so long a journey by land, +and passed the Cimmerian Bosphorus when frozen, as Hellanicus writes, +is difficult to be believed. That they encamped all but in the city is +certain, and may be sufficiently confirmed by the names that the places +thereabout yet retain, and the graves and the monuments of those that +fell the battle. Both armies being in sight, there was a long pause and +doubt on each side which should give the first onset; at last Theseus, +having sacrificed to Fear, in obedience to the command of an oracle he +had received, gave them battle, in which action a great number of the +Amazons were slain. At length, after four months, a peace was concluded +between them by the mediation of Hippolyta (for so this historian calls +the Amazon whom Theseus married, and not Antiope), though others write +that she was slain with a dart by Molpadia, while fighting by Theseus's +side, and that the pillar which stands by the temple of Olympian Earth +was erected to her honor. Nor is it to be wondered at, that in events +of such antiquity, history should be in disorder. This is as much as is +worth telling concerning the Amazons. + +The celebrated friendship between Theseus and Pirithous is said to have +been begun as follows: The fame of the strength and valor of Theseus +being spread through Greece, Pirithous was desirous to make a trial +and proof of it himself, and to this end seized a herd of oxen which +belonged to Theseus, and was driving them away from Marathon, and, when +news was brought that Theseus pursued him in arms, he did not fly, but +turned back and went to meet him. But as soon as they had viewed one +another, each so admired the gracefulness and beauty, and was seized +with such a respect for the courage of the other, that they forgot all +thoughts of fighting; and Pirithous, first stretching out his hand to +Theseus, bade him be judge in this case himself, and promised to submit +willingly to any penalty he should impose. But Theseus not only forgave +him all, but entreated him to be his friend and brother in arms; and +they ratified their friendship by oaths. After this Pirithous married +Deidamia, and invited Theseus to the wedding, entreating him to come and +see his country, and make acquaintance with the Lapithae; he had at the +same time invited the Centaurs to the feast, who, growing hot with +wine and beginning to be insolent and wild, the Lapithae took immediate +revenge upon them, slaying many of them upon the place, and afterwards, +having overcome them in battle, drove the whole race of them out of +their country, Theseus all along taking the part of the Lapithae, and +fighting on their side. + +Theseus was now fifty years old, as Hellanicus states, when he carried +off Helen, who was yet too young to be married. Some writers, to take +away this accusation of one of the greatest crimes laid to his charge, +say that he did not steal away Helen himself, but that Idas and +Lynceus brought her to him, and committed her to his charge, and that, +therefore, he refused to restore her at the demand of Castor and Pollux; +or, indeed, they say her own father, Tyndarus, had sent her to be kept +by him, for fear of Enarophorus, the son of Hippocoon, who would +have carried her away by force when she was yet a child. But the most +probable account, and that which has witnesses on its side, is this: +Theseus and Pirithous went both together to Sparta, and, having seized +the young lady as she was dancing in the temple of Diana Orthia, fled +away with her. There were presently men in arms sent to pursue, but they +followed no farther than to Tegea; and Theseus and Pirithous being now +out of danger, having passed through Peloponnesus, made an agreement +between themselves, that he to whom the lot should fall should have +Helen to his wife, but should be obliged to assist in procuring another +for his friend. The lot fell upon Theseus, who conveyed her to Aphidnae, +not being yet marriageable, and delivered her to one of his allies, +called Aphidnus, and having sent his mother, Aethra, after to take care +of her, desired him to keep them so secretly that none might know +where they were; which done, to return the same service to his friend +Pirithous, he accompanied him in his journey to Epirus, in order to +steal away the king of the Molossians' daughter. The king, his own name +being Aidoneus, or Pluto, called his wife Proserpina, and his daughter +Cora, and a great dog which he kept Cerberus, with whom he ordered all +that came as suitors to his daughter to fight, and promised her to him +that should overcome the beast. But having been informed that the design +of Pirithous and his companion was not to court his daughter, but to +force her away, he caused them both to be seized, and threw Pirithous to +be torn to pieces by the dog, and put Theseus into prison, and kept him. + +About this time Menetheus, the son of Peteus, grandson of Orneus, and +great-grandson to Erechtheus, the first man that is recorded to have +affected popularity and ingratiated himself with the multitude, stirred +up and exasperated the most eminent men of the city, who had long borne +a secret grudge to Theseus, conceiving that he had robbed them of their +several little kingdoms and lordships, and, having pent them all up in +one city, was using them as his subjects and slaves. He put also the +meaner people into commotion, telling them, that, deluded with a mere +dream of liberty, though indeed they were deprived both of that and +their proper homes and religious usages, instead of many good and +gracious kings of their own, they had given themselves up to be +lorded over by a newcomer and a stranger. Whilst he was thus busied +in infecting the minds of the citizens, the war that Castor and Pollux +brought against Athens came very opportunity to farther the sedition he +had been promoting, and some say that he by his persuasions was wholly +the cause of their invading the city. At their first approach they +committed no acts of hostility, but peaceably demanded their sister +Helen; but the Athenians returning answer that they neither had her nor +knew where she was disposed of, they prepared to assault the city, when +Academus, having, by whatever means, found it out, disclosed to them +that she was secretly kept at Aphidnea. For which reason he was +both highly honored during his life by Castor and Pollux, and the +Lacedaemonians, when often in after times they made excursions into +Attica, and destroyed all the country round about, spared the Academy +for the sake of Academus. + +Hercules, passing by the Molossians, was entertained in his way by +Aidoneus the king, who, in conversation, accidentally spoke of the +journey of Theseus and Pirithous into his country, of what they had +designed to do, and what they were forced to suffer. Hercules was much +grieved for the inglorious death of the one and the miserable condition +of the other. As for Pirithous, he thought it useless to complain; but +begged to have Theseus released for his sake, and obtained that favor +from the king. Theseus, being thus set at liberty, returned to Athens, +where his friends were not wholly suppressed, and dedicated to Hercules +all the sacred places which the city had set apart for himself, changing +their names from Thesea to Herculea, four only excepted, as Philochorus +writes. And wishing immediately to resume the first place in the +commonwealth, and manage the state as before, he soon found himself +involved in factions and troubles; those who long had hated him had +now added to their hatred contempt; and the minds of the people were +so generally corrupted, that, instead of obeying commands with silence, +they expected to be flattered into their duty. He had some thoughts +to have reduced them by force, but was overpowered by demagogues and +factions. And at last, despairing of any good success of his affairs in +Athens, he sent away his children privately to Euboea, commending them +to the care of Elephenor, the son of Chalcodon; and he himself, having +solemnly cursed the people of Athens in the village of Gargettus, in +which there yet remains the place called Araterion, or the place of +cursing, sailed to Scyros, where he had lands left him by his father, +and friendship, as he thought, with those of the island. Lycomedes was +then king of Scyros. Theseus, therefore, addressed himself to him, +and desired to have his lands put into his possession, as designing +to settle and dwell there, though others say that he came to beg his +assistance against the Athenians. But Lycomedes, either jealous of the +glory of so great a man, or to gratify Menestheus, having led him up to +the highest cliff of the island, on pretense of showing him from thence +the lands that he desired, threw him headlong down from the rock and +killed him. Others say he fell down of himself by a slip of his foot, +as he was walking there, according to his custom, after supper. At that +time there was no notice taken, nor were any concerned for his death, +but Menestheus quietly possessed the kingdom of Athens. His sons were +brought up in a private condition, and accompanied Elephenor to the +Trojan war, but, after the decease of Menestheus in that expedition, +returned to Athens, and recovered the government. But in succeeding +ages, beside several other circumstances that moved the Athenians to +honor Theseus as a demigod, in the battle which was fought at Marathon +against the Medes, many of the soldiers believed they saw an apparition +of Theseus in arms, rushing on at the head of them against the +barbarians. And after the Median war, Phaedo being archon of Athens, +the Athenians, consulting the oracle at Delphi, were commanded to gather +together the bones of Theseus, and, laying them in some honorable place, +keep them as sacred in the city. But it was very difficult to recover +these relics, or so much as to find out the place where they lay, on +account of the inhospitable and savage temper of the barbarous people +that inhabited the island. Nevertheless, afterwards, when Cimon took the +island (as is related in his life), and had a great ambition to find +the place where Theseus was buried, he, by chance, spied an eagle upon +a rising ground pecking with her beak and tearing up the earth with her +talons, when on the sudden it came into his mind, as it were by some +divine inspiration, to dig there, and search for the bones of Theseus. +There were found in that place a coffin of a man of more than ordinary +size, and a brazen spear-head, and a sword lying by it, all which he +took aboard his galley and brought with him to Athens. Upon which the +Athenians, greatly delighted, went out to meet and receive the relics +with splendid procession and with sacrifices, as if it were Theseus +himself returning alive to the city. He lies interred in the middle of +the city, near the present gymnasium. His tomb is a sanctuary and +refuge for slaves, and all those of mean condition that fly from the +persecution of men in power, in memory that Theseus while he lived +was an assister and protector of the distressed, and never refused the +petitions of the afflicted that fled to him. The chief and most solemn +sacrifice which they celebrate to him is kept on the eighth day of +Pyanepsion, on which he returned with the Athenian young men from Crete. +Besides which, they sacrifice to him on the eighth day of every month, +either because he returned from Troezen the eighth day of Hecatombaeon, +as Diodorus the geographer writes, or else thinking that number to be +proper to him, because he was reputed to be born of Neptune, because +they sacrifice to Neptune on the eighth day of every month. The number +eight being the first cube of an even number, and the double of the +first square, seemed to be am emblem of the steadfast and immovable +power of this god, who from thence has the names of Asphalius and +Gaeiochus, that is, the establisher and stayer of the earth. + + + + +ROMULUS + +From whom, and for what reason, the city of Rome, a name so great in +glory, and famous in the mouths of all men, was so first called, authors +do not agree. + +But the story which is most believed and has the greatest number of +vouchers in general outline runs thus: the kings of Alba reigned in +lineal descent from Aeneas, and the succession devolved at length upon +two brothers, Numitor and Amulius. Amulius proposed to divide things +into two equal shares, and set as equivalent to the kingdom the treasure +and gold that were brought from Troy. Numitor chose the kingdom; but +Amulius, having the money, and being able to do more with that than +Numitor, took his kingdom from with great ease, and, fearing lest his +daughter might have children who would supplant him, made her a Vestal, +bound in that condition forever to live a single and maiden life. This +lady some call Ilia, others Rhea, and others Silvia; however, not long +after, contrary to the established laws of the Vestals, she had two +sons of more than human size and beauty, whom Amulius, becoming yet more +alarmed, commanded a servant to take and cast away; this man some call +Faustulus, others say Faustulus was the man who brought them up. He put +the children, however, in a small trough, and went towards the river +with a design to cast them in; but seeing the waters much swollen +and coming violently down, was afraid to go nearer, and, dropping the +children near the bank, went away. The river overflowing, the flood at +last bore up the trough, and, gently wafting it, landed them on a +smooth piece of ground, which they now call Cermanus, formerly Germanus, +perhaps from "Germani," which signifies brothers. + +While the infants lay here, history tells us, a she-wolf nursed them, +and a woodpecker constantly fed and watched them. These creatures +are esteemed holy to the god Mars; the woodpecker the Latins still +especially worship and honor. Which things, as much as any, gave credit +to what the mother of the children said, that their father was the god +Mars. + +Meantime Faustulus, Amulius's swineherd, brought up the children +without any man's knowledge; or, as those say who wish to keep closer to +probabilities, with the knowledge and secret assistance of Numitor; for +it is said, they went to school at Gabii, and were well instructed in +letters, and other accomplishments befitting their birth. And they were +called Romulus and Remus (from "ruma", the dug), because they were found +suckling the wolf. In their very infancy, the size and beauty of their +bodies intimated their natural superiority; and when they grew up, they +both proved brave and manly, attempting all enterprises that seemed +hazardous, and showing in them a courage altogether undaunted. But +Romulus seemed rather to act by counsel, and to show the sagacity of +a statesman, and in all his dealings with their neighbors, whether +relating to feeding of flocks or to hunting, gave the idea of being born +rather to rule than to obey. To their comrades and inferiors they were +therefore dear; but the king's servants, his bailiffs and overseers, as +being in nothing better men than themselves, they despised and slighted, +nor were the least concerned at their commands and menaces. They used +honest pastimes and liberal studies, not esteeming sloth and idleness +honest and liberal, but rather such exercises as hunting and running, +repelling robbers, taking of thieves, and delivering the wronged and +oppressed from injury. For doing such things, they became famous. + +A quarrel occurring betwixt Numitor's and Amulius's cowherds, the +latter, not enduring the driving away of their cattle by the others, +fell upon them and put them to flight, and rescued the greatest part of +the prey. At which Numitor being highly incensed, they little regarded +it, but collected and took into their company a number of needy men and +runaway slaves,--acts which looked like the first stages of rebellion. +It so happened, that when Romulus was attending a sacrifice, being fond +of sacred rites and divination, Numitor's herdsmen, meeting with +Remus on a journey with few companions, fell upon him, and, after some +fighting, took him prisoner, carried him before Numitor, and there +accused him. Numitor would not punish him himself, fearing his brother's +anger, but went to Amulius and desired justice, as he was Amulius's +brother and was affronted by Amulius's servants. The men of Alba +likewise resenting the thing, and thinking he had been dishonorably +used, Amulius was induced to deliver Remus up into Numitor's hands, to +use him as he thought fit. He therefore took and carried him home, +and, being struck with admiration of the youth's person, in stature +and strength of body exceeding all men, and perceiving in his very +countenance the courage and force of his mind, which stood unsubdued and +unmoved by his present circumstances, and hearing further that all the +enterprises and actions of his life were answerable to what he saw of +him, but chiefly, as it seemed, a divine influence aiding and directing +the first steps that were to lead to great results, out of the mere +thought of his mind, and casually, as it were, he put his hand upon the +fact, and, in gentler terms and with a kind aspect, to inspire him with +confidence and hope, asked him who he was, and whence he was derived. +He, taking heart, spoke thus: "I will hide nothing from you, for you +seem to be of a more princely temper than Amulius, in that you give +a hearing and examine before you punish, while he condemns before the +cause is heard. Formerly, then, we (for we are twins) thought ourselves +the sons of Faustulus and Larentia, the king's servants; but since we +have been accused and aspersed with calumnies, and brought in peril of +our lives here before you, we hear great things of ourselves, the truth +of which my present danger is likely to bring to the test. Our birth is +said to have been secret, our fostering and nurture in our infancy still +more strange; by birds and beasts, to whom we were cast out, we were +fed--by the milk of a wolf, and the morsels of a woodpecker, as we lay +in a little trough by the side of the river. The trough is still in +being, and is preserved, with brass plates round it, and an inscription +in letters almost effaced, which may prove hereafter unavailing tokens +to our parents when we are dead and gone." Numitor, upon these words, +and computing the dates by the young man's looks, slighted not the hope +that flattered him, but considered how to come at his daughter privately +(for she was still kept under restraint), to talk with her concerning +these matters. + +Faustulus, hearing Remus was taken and delivered up, called on Romulus +to assist in his rescue, informing him then plainly of the particulars +of his birth--not but he had before given hints of it--and told as much +as an attentive man might make no small conclusions from; he himself, +full of concern and fear of not coming in time, took the trough, and +ran instantly to Numitor; but giving a suspicion to some of the king's +sentry at his gate, and being gazed upon by them and perplexed with +their questions, he let it be seen that he was hiding the trough under +his cloak. By chance there was one among them who was at the exposing of +the children, and was one employed in the office; he, seeing the trough +and knowing it by its make and inscription, guessed at the business, +and, without further delay, telling the king of it, brought in the man +to be examined. Faustulus, hard beset, did not show himself altogether +proof against terror; nor yet was he wholly forced out of all: confessed +indeed the children were alive, but lived, he said, as shepherds, a +great way from Alba; he himself was going to carry the trough to Ilia, +who had often greatly desired and handle it, for a confirmation of her +hopes of her children. As men generally do who are troubled in mind and +act either in fear or passion, it so fell out Amulius now did; for he +sent in haste as a messenger, a man, otherwise honest and friendly to +Numitor, with commands to learn from Numitor whether any tidings were +come to him of the children's being alive. He, coming and seeing how +little Remus wanted of being received into the arms and embraces of +Numitor, both gave him surer confidence in his hope, and advised them, +with all expedition, to proceed to action; himself too joining and +assisting them, and indeed, had they wished it, the time would not have +let them demur. For Romulus was now come very near, and many of the +citizens, out of fear and hatred of Amulius, were running out to join +him; besides, he brought great forces with him, dividing into companies, +each of an hundred men, every captain carrying a small bundle of grass +and shrubs tied to a pole. The Latins call such bundles "manipuli," and +from hence it is that in their armies still they call their captains +"manipulares." Remus rousing the citizens within to revolt, and Romulus +making attacks from without, the tyrant, not knowing either what to do, +or what expedient to think of for his security, in this perplexity and +confusion was taken and put to death. This narrative, for the most part +given by Fabius and Diocles of Peparethos, who seem to be the earliest +historians of the foundation of Rome, is suspected by some because +of its dramatic and fictitious appearance; but it would not wholly be +disbelieved, if men would remember what a poet Fortune sometimes shows +herself, and consider that the Roman power would hardly have reached so +high a pitch without a divinely ordered origin, attended with great and +extraordinary circumstances. + +Amulius now being dead and matters quietly disposed, the two brothers +would neither dwell in Alba without governing there, nor take the +government into their own hands during the life of their grandfather. +Having therefore delivered the dominion up into his hands, and paid +their mother befitting honor, they resolved to live by themselves, and +build a city in the same place where they were in their infancy brought +up. This seems the most honorable reason for their departure; though +perhaps it was necessary, having such a body of slaves and fugitives +collected about them, either to come to nothing by dispersing them, or +if not so, then to live with them elsewhere. For that the inhabitants of +Alba did not think fugitives worthy of being received and incorporated +as citizens among them plainly appears from the matter of the women, an +attempt made not wantonly, but of necessity, because they could not get +wives by good-will. For they certainly paid unusual respect and honor to +those whom they thus forcibly seized. + +Not long after the first foundation of the city, they opened a sanctuary +of refuge for all fugitives, which they called the temple of the god +Asylaeus, where they received and protected all, delivering none back, +neither the servant to his master, the debtor to his creditor, nor the +murderer into the hands of the magistrate, saying it was a privileged +place, and they could so maintain it by an order of the holy oracle; +insomuch that the city grew presently very populous, for, they say, +it consisted at first of no more than a thousand houses. But of that +hereafter. + +Their minds being fully bent upon building, there arose presently a +difference about the place where. Romulus chose what was called Roma +Quadrata, or the Square Rome, and would have the city there. Remus laid +out a piece of ground on the Aventine Mount, well fortified by nature, +which was from him called Remonium, but now Rignarium. Concluding at +last to decide the contest by a divination from a flight of birds, and +placing themselves apart at some distance, Remus, they say, saw six +vultures, and Romulus double the number; others say Remus did truly see +his number, and that Romulus feigned his, but, when Remus came to him, +that then he did, indeed, see twelve. Hence it is that the Romans, +in their divinations from birds, chiefly regard the vulture, though +Herodorus Ponticus relates that Hercules was always very joyful when +a vulture appeared to him upon any occasion. For it is a creature +the least hurtful of any, pernicious neither to corn, fruit-tree, nor +cattle; it preys only on carrion, and never kills or hurts any living +thing; and as for birds, it touches not them, though they are dead, as +being of its own species, whereas eagles, owls, and hawks mangle and +kill their own fellow-creatures; yet, as Aeschylus says,-- + +What bird is clean that preys on fellow bird? + +Besides, all other birds are, so to say, never out of our eyes; they +let themselves be seen of us continually; but a vulture is a very rare +sight, and you can seldom meet with a man that has seen their young; +their rarity and infrequency has raised a strange opinion in some, that +they come to us from some other world; as soothsayers ascribe a +divine origination to all things not produced either of nature or of +themselves. + +When Remus knew the cheat, he was much displeased; and as Romulus was +casting up a ditch, where he designed the foundation of the city wall, +he turned some pieces of the work to ridicule, and obstructed others: +at last, as he was in contempt leaping over it, some say Romulus himself +struck him, others Celer, one of his companions; he fell, however, +and in the scuffle Faustulus also was slain, and Plistinus, who, being +Faustulus's brother, story tells us, helped to bring up Romulus. Celer +upon this fled instantly into Tuscany, and from him the Romans call all +men that are swift of foot Celeres; and because Quintus Metellus, at +his father's funeral, in a few days' time gave the people a show of +gladiators, admiring his expedition in getting it ready, they gave him +the name of Celer. + +Romulus, having buried his brother Remus, together with his two +foster-fathers, on the mount Remonia, set to building his city; and sent +for men out of Tuscany, who directed him by sacred usages and written +rules in all the ceremonies to be observed, as in a religious rite. +First, they dug a round trench about that which is now the Comitium, +or Court of Assembly and into it solemnly threw the first-fruits of all +things either good by custom or necessary by nature; lastly, every man +taking a small piece of earth of the country from whence he came, they +all threw them in promiscuously together. This trench they call, as they +do the heavens, Mundus; making which their centre, they described the +city in a circle round it. Then the founder fitted to a plough, a bronze +ploughshare, and, yoking together a bull and a cow, drove himself a +deep line or furrow round the bounds; while the business of those that +followed after was to see that whatever earth was thrown up should +be turned all inwards towards the city, and not to let any clod lie +outside. With this line they described the wall, and called it, by a +contradiction, Pomoerium, that is, "post murum," after or beside the +wall; and where they designed to make a gate, there they took out the +share, carried the plough over, and left a space; for which reason they +consider the whole wall as holy, except where the gates are; for had +they adjudged them also sacred, they could not, without offence to +religion, have given free ingress and egress for the necessaries of +human life, some of which are in themselves unclean. + +As for the day they began to build the city, it is universally agreed +to have been the twenty-first of April, and that day the Romans annually +keep holy, calling it their country's birthday. At first, they say, they +sacrificed no living creatures on this day, thinking it fit to preserve +the feast of their country's birthday pure and without stain of blood. +Yet before ever the city was built, there was a feast of herdsmen and +shepherds kept on this day, which went by the name of Palilia. The Roman +and Greek months have now little or no agreement; they say, however, the +day on which Romulus began to build was quite certainly the thirtieth +of the month, at which time there was an eclipse of the sun which they +conceive to be that seen by Antimachus, the Teian poet, in the third +year of the sixth Olympiad. In the times of Varro the philosopher, a +man deeply read in Roman history, lived one Tarrutius, his familiar +acquaintance, a good philosopher and mathematician, and one, too, that +out of curiosity had studied the way of drawing schemes and tables, and +was thought to be a proficient in the art; to him Varro propounded to +cast Romulus's nativity, even to the first day and hour, making his +deductions from the several events of the man's life which he should be +informed of, exactly as in working back a geometrical problem; for it +belonged, he said, to the same science both to foretell a man's life +by knowing the time of his birth, and also to find out his birth by the +knowledge of his life. This task Tarrutius undertook, and first looking +into the actions and casualties of the man, together with the time of +his life and manner of his death, and then comparing all these remarks +together, he very confidently and positively pronounced that Romulus was +born the twenty-first day of the month Thoth, about sun-rising; and +that the first stone of Rome was laid by him the ninth day of the month +Pharmuthi, between the second and third hour. For the fortunes of +cities as well as of men, they think, have their certain periods of time +prefixed, which may be collected and foreknown from the position of the +stars at their first foundation. But these and the like relations may +perhaps not so much take and delight the reader with their novelty and +curiosity as offend him by their extravagance. + +The city now being built, Romulus enlisted all that were of age to bear +arms into military companies, each company consisting of three thousand +footmen and three hundred horse. These companies were called legions, +because they were the choicest and most select of the people for +fighting men. The rest of the multitude he called the people; an hundred +of the most eminent he chose for counselors; these he styled patricians, +and their assembly the senate, which signifies a council of elders. + +In the fourth month after the city was built, as Fabius writes, the +adventure of stealing the women was attempted. It would seem that, +observing his city to be filled by a confluence of foreigners, few +of whom had wives, and that the multitude in general, consisting of a +mixture of mean and obscure men, fell under contempt, and seemed to be +of no long continuance together, and hoping farther, after the women +were appeased, to make this injury in some measure an occasion of +confederacy and mutual commerce with the Sabines, Romulus took in his +hand this exploit after this manner. First, he gave it out that he had +found an altar of a certain god hid under ground, perhaps the equestrian +Neptune, for the altar is kept covered in the Circus Maximus at all +other times, and only at horse-races is exposed to public view. Upon +discovery of this altar, Romulus, by proclamation, appointed a day for +a splendid sacrifice, and for public games and shows, to entertain all +sorts of people; many flocked thither, and he himself sat in front, +amidst his nobles, clad in purple. Now the signal for their falling on +was to be whenever he rose and gathered up his robe and threw it over +his body; his men stood all ready armed, with their eyes intent upon +him, and when the sign was given, drawing their swords and falling on +with a great shout, they stole away the daughters of the Sabines, the +men themselves flying without any let or hindrance. Some say there +were but thirty taken, and from Curiae or Fraternities were named; but +Valerius Antias says five hundred and twenty seven, Juba, six hundred +and eighty-three. + +It continues a custom at this very day for the bride not of herself to +pass her husband's threshold, but to be lifted over, in memory that the +Sabine virgins were carried in by violence, and did not go in of their +own free will. Some say, too, the custom of parting the bride's hair +with the head of a spear was in token their marriages began at first by +war and acts of hostility. + +The Sabines were a numerous and martial people, but lived in small, +unfortified villages, as it befitted, they thought, a colony of the +Lacedaemonians to be bold and fearless; nevertheless, seeing themselves +bound by such hostages to their good behavior, and being solicitous +for their daughters, they sent ambassadors to Romulus with fair and +equitable requests, that he would return their young women and recall +that act of violence, and afterwards, by persuasion and lawful means, +seek friendly correspondence between both nations. Romulus would not +part with the young women, yet proposed to the Sabines to enter into an +alliance with them; upon which point some consulted and demurred long, +but Acron, king of the Ceninenses, a man of high spirit and a good +warrior, who had all along a jealousy of Romulus's bold attempts, and +considering particularly from this exploit upon the women that he was +growing formidable to all people, and indeed insufferable, were he not +chastised, first rose up in arms, and with a powerful army advanced +against him. Romulus likewise prepared to receive him; but when they +came within sight and viewed each other, they made a challenge to fight +a single duel, the armies standing by under arms, without participation. +And Romulus, making a vow to Jupiter, if he should conquer, to carry +himself, and dedicate his adversary's armor to his honor, overcame him +in combat, and, a battle ensuing, routed his army also, and then took +his city; but did those he found in it no injury, only commanded them to +demolish the place and attend him to Rome, there to be admitted to +all the privileges of citizens. And indeed there was nothing did more +advance the greatness of Rome, than that she did always unite and +incorporate those whom she conquered into herself. Romulus, that he +might perform his vow in the most acceptable manner to Jupiter, and +withal make the pomp of it delightful to the eye of the city, cut down a +tall oak which he saw growing in the camp, which he trimmed to the shape +of a trophy, and fastened on it Acron's whole suit of armor disposed +in proper form; then he himself, girding his clothes about him, and +crowning his head with a laurel-garland, his hair gracefully flowing, +carried the trophy resting erect upon his right shoulder, and so marched +on, singing songs of triumph, and his whole army following after, the +citizens all receiving him with acclamations of joy and wonder. The +procession of this day was the origin and model of all after triumphs. +But the statues of Romulus in triumph are, as may be seen in Rome, all +on foot. + +After the overthrow of the Ceninensians, the other Sabines still +protracting the time in preparations, the people of Fidenae, +Crustumerium, and Antemna, joined their forces against the Romans; they +in like manner were defeated in battle, and surrendered up to Romulus +their cities to be seized, their lands and territories to be divided, +and themselves to be transplanted to Rome. All the lands which Romulus +acquired he distributed among the citizens, except only what the parents +of the stolen virgins had; these he suffered to possess their own. The +rest of the Sabines, enraged thereat, choosing Tatius their captain, +marched straight against Rome. The city was almost inaccessible, having +for its fortress that which is now the Capitol, where a strong guard +was placed, and Tarpeius their captain. But Tarpeia, daughter to the +captain, coveting the golden bracelets she saw them wear, betrayed the +fort into the Sabines' hands, and asked, in reward of her treachery, the +things they wore on their left arms. Tatius conditioning thus with her, +in the night she opened one of the gates and received the Sabines in. +And truly Antigonus, it would seem, was not solitary in saying he +loved betrayers, but hated those who had betrayed; nor Caesar, who +told Rhymitalces the Thracian that he loved the treason, but hated the +traitor; but it is the general feeling of all who have occasion for +wicked men's services, as people have for the poison of venomous beasts; +they are glad of them while they are of use, and abhor their baseness +when it is over. And so did Tatius behave towards Tarpeia, for he +commanded the Sabines, in regard to their contract, not to refuse her +the least part of what they wore on their left arms; and he himself +first took his bracelet off his arm, and threw that, together with his +buckler, at her; and all the rest following, she, being borne down and +quite buried with the multitude of gold and their shields, died under +the weight and pressure of them; Tarpeius also himself, being prosecuted +by Romulus, was found guilty of treason, and that part of the Capitol +they still call the Tarpeian Rock, from which they used to cast down +malefactors. + +The Sabines being possessed of the hill, Romulus, in great fury, bade +them battle, and Tatius was confident to accept it. There were many +brief conflicts, we may suppose, but the most memorable was the last, in +which Romulus having received a wound on his head by a stone, and being +almost felled to the ground by it, and disabled, the Romans gave way, +and, being driven out of the level ground, fled towards the Palatium. +Romulus, by this time recovering from his wound a little, turned +about to renew the battle, and, facing the fliers, with a loud voice +encouraged them to stand and fight. But being overborne with numbers, +and nobody daring to face about, stretching out his hands to heaven, he +prayed to Jupiter to stop the army, and not to neglect but maintain the +Roman cause, now in extreme danger. The prayer was no sooner made +than shame and respect for their king checked many; the fears of the +fugitives changed suddenly into confidence. The place they first +stood at was where now is the temple of Jupiter Stator (which may +be translated the Stayer); there they rallied again into ranks, and +repulsed the Sabines to the place called now Regia, and to the temple +of Vesta; where both parties, preparing to begin a second battle, were +prevented by a spectacle, strange to behold, and defying description. +For the daughters of the Sabines, who had been carried off, came +running, in great confusion, some on this side, some on that, with +miserable cries and lamentations, like creatures possessed, in the midst +of the army, and among the dead bodies, to come at their husbands and +their fathers, some with their young babes in their arms, others their +hair loose about their ears, but all calling, now upon the Sabines, now +upon the Romans, in the most tender and endearing words. Hereupon both +melted into compassion, and fell back, to make room for them betwixt +the armies. The sight of the women carried sorrow and commiseration upon +both sides into the hearts of all, but still more their words, which +began with expostulation and upbraiding, and ended with entreaty and +supplication. + +"Wherein," say they, "have we injured or offended you, as to deserve +such sufferings, past and present? We were ravished away unjustly and +violently by those whose now we are; that being done, we were so long +neglected by our fathers, our brothers, and countrymen, that time, +having now by the strictest bonds united us to those we once mortally +hated, has made it impossible for us not to tremble at the danger and +weep at the death of the very men who once used violence to us. You +did not come to vindicate our honor, while we were virgins, against our +assailants; but do come now to force away wives from their husbands +and mothers from their children, a succor more grievous to its wretched +objects than the former betrayal and neglect of them. Which shall we +call the worst, their love-making or your compassion? If you were making +war upon any other occasion, for our sakes you ought to withhold your +hands from those to whom we have made you fathers-in-law and grandsires. +If it be for our own cause, then take us, and with us your sons-in-law +and grandchildren. Restore to us our parents and kindred, but do not +rob us of our children and husbands. Make us not, we entreat you, +twice captives." Having spoken many such words as these, and earnestly +praying, a truce was made, and the chief officers came to a parley; +the women, in the meantime, brought and presented their husbands and +children to their fathers and brothers; gave those that wanted, meat +and drink, and carried the wounded home to be cured, and showed also how +much they governed within doors, and how indulgent their husbands were +to them, in demeaning themselves towards them with all kindness and +respect imaginable. Upon this, conditions were agreed upon, that what +women pleased might stay where they were, exempt from all drudgery and +labor but spinning; that the Romans and Sabines should inhabit the city +together; that the city should be called Rome, from Romulus; but the +Romans, Quirites, from the country of Tatius; and that they both should +govern and command in common. The place of the ratification is still +called Comitium, from "coire," to meet. + +The city thus being doubled in number, an hundred of the Sabines were +elected senators, and the legions were increased to six thousand foot +and six hundred horse; then they divided the people into three tribes: +the first, from Romulus, named Ramnenses; the second, from Tatius, +Tatienses; the third, Luceres, from the "lucus," or grove, where the +Asylum stood, whither many fled for sanctuary, and were received into +the city. And that they were just three, the very name of "tribe" and +"tribune" seems to show. Then they constituted many things in honor to +the women, such as to give them the way wherever they met them; to +speak no ill word in their presence; that their children should wear +an ornament about their necks called the "bulla" (because it was like a +bubble), and the "praetexta," a gown edged with purple. + +The princes did not immediately join in council together, but at first +each met with his own hundred; afterwards all assembled together. Tatius +dwelt where now the temple of Moneta stands, and Romulus, close by the +steps, as they call them, of the Fair Shore, near the descent from the +Mount Palatine to the Circus Maximus. There, they say, grew the +holy cornel tree, of which they report that Romulus once, to try his +strength, threw a dart from the Aventine Mount, the staff of which was +made of cornel, which struck so deep into the ground that no one of +many that tried could pluck it up; and the soil, being fertile, gave +nourishment to the wood, which sent forth branches, and produced a +cornel-stock of considerable bigness. This did posterity preserve and +worship as one of the most sacred things; and therefore, walled it +about; and if to any one it appeared not green nor flourishing, but +inclining to pine and wither, he immediately made outcry to all he met, +and they, like people hearing of a house on fire, with one accord would +cry for water, and run from all parts with bucketfuls to the place. But +when Gaius Caesar they say, was repairing the steps about it, some of +the laborers digging too close, the roots were destroyed, and the tree +withered. + +The Sabines adopted the Roman months, of which whatever is remarkable is +mentioned in the Life of Numa. Romulus, on the other hand, adopted their +long shields, and changed his own armor and that of all the Romans, who +before wore round targets of the Argive pattern. Feasts and sacrifices +they partook of in common, not abolishing any which either nation +observed before, and instituting several new ones. This, too, is +observable as a singular thing in Romulus, that he appointed no +punishment for real parricide, but called all murder so, thinking the +one an accursed thing, but the other a thing impossible; and for a long +time, his judgement seemed to have been right; for in almost six hundred +years together, nobody committed the like in Rome; Lucius Hostius, after +the wars of Hannibal, is recorded to have been the first parricide. Let +thus much suffice concerning these matters. + +In the fifth year of the reign of Tatius, some of his friends and +kinsmen, meeting ambassadors coming from Laurentum to Rome, attempted on +the road to take away their money by force, and, upon their resistance, +killed them. So great a villany having been committed, Romulus thought +the malefactors ought at once to be punished, but Tatius shuffled off +and deferred the execution of it; and this one thing was the beginning +of an open quarrel betwixt them; in all other respects they were very +careful of their conduct, and administered affairs together with +great unanimity. The relations of the slain, being debarred of lawful +satisfaction by reason of Tatius, fell upon him as he was sacrificing +with Romulus at Lavinium, and slew him; but escorted Romulus home, +commending and extolling him for just a prince. Romulus took the body of +Tatius, and buried it very splendidly in the Aventine Mount. + +The Roman cause daily gathering strength, their weaker neighbors shrunk +away, and were thankful to be left untouched; but the stronger, out of +fear or envy, thought they ought not to give away to Romulus, but +to curb and put a stop to his growing greatness. The first were the +Veientes, a people of Tuscany, who had large possessions, and dwelt in a +spacious city; they took occasion to commence a war, by claiming Fidenae +as belonging to them. But being scornfully retorted upon by Romulus +in his answers, they divided themselves into two bodies; with one they +attacked the garrison of Fidenae, the other marched against Romulus; +that which went against Fidenae got the victory, and slew two thousand +Romans; the other was worsted by Romulus, with the loss of eight +thousand men. A fresh battle was fought near Fidenae, and here all men +acknowledge the day's success to have been chiefly the work of Romulus +himself, who showed the highest skill as well as courage, and seemed to +manifest a strength and swiftness more than human. But what some write, +that, of fourteen thousand that fell that day, above half were slain +by Romulus's own hand, verges too near to fable, and is, indeed, simply +incredible: since even the Messenians are thought to go too far in +saying that Aristomenes three times offered sacrifices for the death of +a hundred enemies, Lacedaemonians, slain by himself. The army being thus +routed, Romulus, suffering those that were left to make their escape, +led his forces against the city; they, having suffered such great +losses, did not venture to oppose, but, humbly suing him, made a league +and friendship for an hundred years; surrendering also a large district +of land called Septempagium, that is, the seven parts, as also their +salt-works upon the river, and fifty noblemen for hostages. He made his +triumph for this on the Ides of October, leading, among the rest of his +many captives, the general of the Veientes, an elderly man, but who +had not, it seemed, acted with the prudence of age; whence even now, in +sacrifices for victories, they led an old man through the market-place +to the Capitol, appareled in purple, with a bulla, or child's toy, tied +to it, and the crier cries, "Sardians to be sold;" for the Tuscans are +said to be a colony of the Sardians, and the Veientes are a city of +Tuscany. + +This was the last battle Romulus ever fought; afterwards he, as +most, nay all men, very few excepted, do, who are raised by great and +miraculous good-haps of fortune to power and greatness, so, I say, did +he: relying upon his own great actions and growing of a haughtier mind, +he forsook his popular behavior for kingly arrogance, odious to the +people; to whom in particular the state which he assumed was hateful. +For he dressed in scarlet, with the purple-bordered robe over it; he +gave audience on a couch of slate, having always about him some young +men called "Celeres," from their swiftness in doing commissions. He +suddenly disappeared on the Nones of July, as they call the month which +was then Quintilis, leaving nothing of certainty to be related of +his death; the senators suffered the people not to search, or busy +themselves about the matter, but commanded them to honor and worship +Romulus as one taken up to the gods, and about to be to them, in the +place of a good prince, now a propitious god. The multitude, hearing +this, went away believing and rejoicing in hopes of good things from +him; but there were some, who, canvassing the matter in a hostile +temper, accused the patricians, as men that persuaded the people to +believe ridiculous tales, when they were the murderers of the king. + +Things being in this disorder, one, they say, of the patricians, of +noble family and approved good character, and a faithful and familiar +friend of Romulus himself, having come with him from Alba, Julius +Proculus by name, presented himself in the forum; and taking a most +sacred oath, protested before them all, that, as he was travelling on +the road, he had seen Romulus coming to meet him, looking taller and +comelier than ever, dressed in shining and flaming armor; and he, being +affrighted at the apparition, said, "Why, O king, or for what purpose, +have you abandoned us to unjust and wicked surmises, and the whole city +to bereavement and endless sorrow?" and that he made answer, "It pleased +the gods, O Proculus, that we, who came from them, should remain so +long a time amongst men as we did; and, having built a city to be the +greatest in the world for empire and glory, should again return to +heaven. But farewell; and tell the Romans, that, by the exercise of +temperance and fortitude, they shall attain the height of human power; +we will be to you the propitious god Quirinus." This seemed credible to +the Romans, upon the honesty and oath of the relator, and laying aside +all jealousies and detractions, they prayed to Quirinus and saluted him +as a god. + +This is like some of the Greek fables of Aristeas the Proconnesian, +and Cleomedes the Astypalaean; for they say Aristeas died in a fuller's +workshop, and his friends, coming to look for him, found his body +vanished; and that some presently after, coming from abroad, said +they met him travelling towards Croton. And that Cleomedes, being +an extraordinarily strong and gigantic man, but also wild and mad, +committed many desperate freaks; and at last, in a schoolhouse, striking +a pillar that sustained the roof with his fist, broke it in the middle, +so that the house fell and destroyed the children in it; and being +pursued, he fled into a great chest, and, shutting to the lid, held it +so fast that many men, with their united strength, could not force it +open; afterwards, breaking the chest to pieces, they found no man in it +alive or dead. + +And many such improbabilities do your fabulous writers relate, deifying +creatures naturally mortal; for though altogether to disown a divine +nature in human virtue were impious and base, so again to mix heaven +with earth is ridiculous. Let us believe with Pindar, that + + All human bodies yield to Death's decree: + The soul survives to all eternity. + +For that alone is derived from the gods, thence comes, and thither +returns. + +It was in the fifty-fourth year of his age and the thirty-eighth of his +reign that Romulus, they tell us, left the world. + + + + +COMPARISON OF THESEUS AND ROMULUS + +Both Theseus and Romulus were by nature meant for governors; yet neither +lived up to the true character of a king, but fell off, and ran, the +one into popularity, the other into tyranny, falling both into the same +fault out of different passions. For a ruler's first end is to maintain +his office, which is done no less by avoiding what is unfit than by +observing what is suitable. Whoever is either too remiss or too strict +is no more a king or a governor, but either a demagogue or a despot, +and so becomes either odious or contemptible to his subjects. Though +certainly the one seems to be the fault of easiness and good-nature, the +other of pride and severity. + +But Romulus has, first of all, one great plea, that his performances +proceeded from very small beginnings; for both the brothers, being +thought servants and the sons of swineherds, before becoming freemen +themselves gave liberty to almost all the Latins, obtaining at once all +the most honorable titles, as, destroyers of their country's enemies, +preservers of their friends and kindred, princes of the people, founders +of cities; not removers, like Theseus, who raised and compiled only one +house out of many, demolishing many cities bearing the names of ancient +kings and heroes. Romulus, indeed, did the same afterwards, forcing +his enemies to deface and ruin their own dwellings, and to sojourn +with their conquerors; but at first, not by removal, or increase of +an existing city, but by foundation of a new one, he obtained himself +lands, a country, a kingdom, wives, children, and relations. And, in so +doing, he killed or destroyed nobody, but benefited those that wanted +houses and homes, and were willing to be of a society and become +citizens. Robbers and malefactors he slew not; but he subdued nations, +he overthrew cities, he triumphed over kings and commanders. As to +Remus, it is doubtful by whose hand he fell; it is generally imputed +to others. His mother he clearly retrieved from death, and placed his +grandfather, who was brought under base and dishonorable vassalage, +on the ancient throne of Aeneas, to whom he did voluntarily many good +offices, but never did him harm even inadvertently. But Theseus, in +his forgetfulness and neglect of the command concerning the flag, can +scarcely, methinks, by any excuses, or before the most indulgent +judges, avoid the imputation of parricide. And, indeed, one of the +Attic writers, perceiving it to be very hard to make an excuse for this, +feigns that Aegeus, at the approach of the ship, running hastily to the +Acropolis to see what news there was, slipped and fell down; as if he +had no servants, or none would attend him on his way to the shore. + + + + +LYCURGUS + +Those authors who are most worthy of credit deduce the genealogy of +Lycurgus, the lawgiver of Sparta, as follows: + + Aristodemus. + | + Patrocles. + | + Sous. + | + Eurypon. + | + Eunomus. + | + _________________________________________________ + Polydectes by his first wife. Lycurgus by Dionassa his second. + +Sous certainly was the most renowned of all his ancestors, under whose +conduct the Spartans made slaves of the Helots, and added to their +dominions, by conquest, a good part of Arcadia. There goes a story of +this king Sous, that, being besieged by the Clitorians in a dry +and stony place so that he could come at no water, he was at last +constrained to agree with them upon these terms, that he would restore +to them all his conquests, provided that himself and all his men should +drink of the nearest spring. After the usual oaths and ratifications, +he called his soldiers together, and offered to him that would forbear +drinking, his kingdom for a reward; and when not a man of them was able +to forbear, in short, when they had all drunk their fill, at last comes +king Sous himself to the spring, and, having sprinkled his face only, +without swallowing one drop, marches off in the face of his enemies, +refusing to yield up his conquests, because himself and all his men had +not, according to the articles, drunk of their water. + +Although he was justly had in admiration on this account, yet his family +was not surnamed from him, but from his son Eurypon (of whom they were +called Eurypontids); the reason of which was that Eurypon relaxed the +rigor of the monarchy, seeking favor and popularity with the many. They, +after this first step, grew bolder; and the succeeding kings partly +incurred hatred with their people by trying to use force, or, for +popularity's sake and through weakness, gave way; and anarchy and +confusion long prevailed in Sparta, causing, moreover, the death of the +father of Lycurgus. For as he was endeavoring to quell a riot, he was +stabbed with a butcher's knife, and left the title of king to his eldest +son Polydectes. + +He, too, dying soon after, the right of succession (as every one +thought) rested in Lycurgus; and reign he did for a time, but declared +that the kingdom belonged to the child of his sister-in-law the queen, +and that he himself should exercise the regal jurisdiction only as his +guardian; the Spartan name for which office is prodicus. Soon after, an +overture was made to him by the queen, that she would herself in some +way destroy the infant, upon condition that he would marry her when he +came to the crown. Abhorring the woman's wickedness, he nevertheless +did not reject her proposal, but, making show of closing with her, +despatched the messenger with thanks and expressions of joy, with orders +that they should bring the boy baby to him, wheresoever he were, and +whatsoever doing. It so fell out that when he was at supper with the +principal magistrates, the queen's child was presented to him, and he, +taking him into his arms, said to those about him, "Men of Sparta, +here is a king born unto us;" this said, he laid him down in the king's +place, and named him Charilaus, that is, the joy of the people; because +that all were transported with joy and with wonder at his noble and just +spirit. His reign had lasted only eight months, but he was honored +on other accounts by the citizens, and there were more who obeyed him +because of his eminent virtues, than because he was regent to the king +and had the royal power in his hands. Some, however, envied and sought +to impede his growing influence while he was still young; chiefly the +kindred and friends of the queen-mother, who pretended to have been +dealt with injuriously. Her brother Leonidas, in a warm debate which +fell out betwixt him and Lycurgus, went so far as to tell him to his +face that he was well assured that ere long he should see him king; +suggesting suspicions and preparing the way for an accusation of him, as +though he had made away with his nephew, if the child should chance +to fail, though by a natural death. Words of the like import were +designedly cast abroad by the queen-mother and her adherents. + +Troubled at this, and not knowing what it might come to, he thought +it his wisest course to avoid their envy by a voluntary exile, and to +travel from place to place until his nephew came to marriageable +years, and, by having a son, had secured the succession. Setting sail, +therefore, with this resolution, he first arrived at Crete, where, +having considered their several forms of government, and got an +acquaintance with the principal men amongst them, some of their laws +he very much approved of, and resolved to make use of them in his own +country; a good part he rejected as useless. Amongst the persons there +the most renowned for their learning and their wisdom in state matters +was one Thales, whom Lycurgus, by importunities and assurances of +friendship, persuaded to go over to Lacedaemon; where, though by his +outward appearance and his own profession he seemed to be no other than +a lyric poet, in reality he performed the part of one of the ablest +lawgivers in the world. The very songs which he composed were +exhortations to obedience and concord, and the very measure and cadence +of the verse, conveying impressions of order and tranquillity, had +so great an influence on the minds of the listeners that they were +insensibly softened and civilized, insomuch that they renounced their +private feuds and animosities, and were reunited in a common admiration +of virtue. So that it may truly be said that Thales prepared the way for +the discipline introduced by Lycurgus. + +From Crete he sailed to Asia, with design, as is said, to examine the +difference betwixt the manners and rules of life of the Cretans, which +were very sober and temperate, and those of the Ionians, a people +of sumptuous and delicate habits, and so to form a judgment; just as +physicians do by comparing healthy and diseased bodies. Here he had +the first sight of Homer's works, in the hands, we may suppose, of +the posterity of Creophylus; and, having observed that the few loose +expressions and actions of ill example which are to be found in his +poems were much outweighed by serious lessons of state and rules of +morality, he set himself eagerly to transcribe and digest them into +order, as thinking they would be of good use in his own country. They +had, indeed, already obtained some slight repute amongst the Greeks, +and scattered portions, as chance conveyed them, were in the hands of +individuals; but Lycurgus first made them really known. + +The Egyptians say that he took a voyage into Egypt, and that, being much +taken with their way of separating the soldiery from the rest of the +nation, he transferred it from them to Sparta; a removal from contact +with those employed in low and mechanical occupations giving high +refinement and beauty to the state. Some Greek writers also record +this. But as for his voyages into Spain, Africa, and the Indies, and his +conferences there with the Gymnosophists, the whole relation, as far as +I can find, rests on the single credit of the Spartan Aristocrates, the +son of Hipparchus. + +Lycurgus was much missed at Sparta, and often sent for, "For kings +indeed we have," they said, "who wear the marks and assume the titles of +royalty, but as for the qualities of their minds, they have nothing by +which they are to be distinguished from their subjects;" adding that in +him alone was the true foundation of sovereignty to be seen, a nature +made to rule, and a genius to gain obedience. Nor were the kings +themselves averse to see him back, for they looked upon his presence as +a bulwark against the insolencies of the people. + +Things being in this posture at his return, he applied himself, without +loss of time, to a thorough reformation, and resolved to change the +whole face of the commonwealth; for what could a few particular laws and +a partial alteration avail? He must act as wise physicians do, in the +case of one who labors under a complication of diseases,--by force of +medicines reduce and exhaust him, change his whole temperament, and +then set him upon a totally new regimen of diet. Having thus projected +things, away he goes to Delphi to consult Apollo there; which having +done, and offered his sacrifice, he returned with that renowned oracle, +in which he is called beloved of God, and rather God than man: that +his prayers were heard, that his laws should be the best, and the +commonwealth which observed them the most famous in the world. +Encouraged by these things, he set himself to bring over to his side the +leading men of Sparta, exhorting them to give him a helping hand in his +great undertaking: he broke it first to his particular friends, and then +by degrees gained others, and animated them all to put his design in +execution. When things were ripe for action, he gave order to thirty +of the principal men of Sparta to be ready armed at the market-place at +break of day, to the end that he might strike a terror into the opposite +party. Hermippus hath set down the names of twenty of the most eminent +of them: but the name of him whom Lycurgus most confided in, and who +was of most use to him both in making his laws and putting them in +execution, was Arthmiadas. Things growing to a tumult, king Charilaus, +apprehending that it was a conspiracy against his person, took sanctuary +in the temple of Athena of the Brazen House; but, being soon after +undeceived, and having taken an oath of them that they had no designs +against him, he quitted his refuge, and himself also entered into the +confederacy with them; of so gentle and flexible a disposition he +was, to which Archelaus, his brother-king, alluded, when, hearing him +extolled for his goodness, he said: "Who can say he is anything but +good? he is so even to the bad." + +Amongst the many changes and alterations which Lycurgus made, the first +and of greatest importance was the establishment of the senate, which, +having a power equal to the kings' in matters of great consequence, and, +as Plato expresses it, allaying and qualifying the fiery genius of the +royal office, gave steadiness and safety to the commonwealth. For the +state, which before had no firm basis to stand upon, but leaned one +while towards an absolute monarchy, when the kings had the upper hand, +and another while towards a pure democracy, when the people had the +better, found in this establishment of the senate a central weight, like +ballast in a ship, which always kept things in a just equilibrium; the +twenty-eight always adhering to the kings so far as to resist democracy, +and, on the other hand, supporting the people against the establishment +of absolute monarchy. As for the determinate number of twenty-eight, +Aristotle states that it so fell out because two of the original +associates, for want of courage, fell off from the enterprise; but +Sphaerus assures us that there were but twenty-eight of the confederates +at first; perhaps there is some mystery in the number, which consists of +seven multiplied by four, and is the first of perfect numbers after +six, being, as that is, equal to all its parts. For my part, I believe +Lycurgus fixed upon the number of twenty-eight, that, the two kings +being reckoned amongst them, they might be thirty in all. So eagerly set +was he upon this establishment, that he took the trouble to obtain an +oracle about it from Delphi; and the Rhetra (or sacred ordinance) runs +thus: "After that you have built a temple to Jupiter Hellanius, and +to Minerva Hellania, and after that you have phyle'd the people into +phyles, and obe'd them into obes, you shall establish a council of +thirty elders, the leaders included, and shall, from time to time, +assemble the people betwixt Babyca and Cnacion, there propound and put +to the vote. The commons have the final voice and decision." By phyles +and obes are meant the divisions of the people; by the leaders, the two +kings; Aristotle says Cnacion is a river, and Babyca a bridge. Betwixt +this Babyca and Cnacion, their assemblies were held, for they had no +council-house or building to meet in. Lycurgus was of opinion that +ornaments were so far from advantaging them in their councils, that they +were rather an hindrance, by diverting their attention from the business +before them to statues and pictures, and roofs curiously fretted, the +usual embellishments of such places amongst the other Greeks. The people +then being thus assembled in the open air, it was not allowed to any one +of their order to give his advice, but only either to ratify or reject +what should be propounded to them by the king or senate. + +After the creation of the thirty senators, his next task, and, indeed, +the most hazardous he ever undertook, was the making of a new division +of their lands. For there was an extreme inequality amongst them, and +their state was overloaded with a multitude of indigent and necessitous +persons, while its whole wealth had centred upon a very few. To the end, +therefore, that he might expel from the state arrogance and envy, +luxury and crime, and those yet more inveterate diseases of want and +superfluity, he obtained of them to renounce their properties, and to +consent to a new division of the land, and that they should live all +together on an equal footing; merit to be their only road to eminence, +and the disgrace of evil, and credit of worthy acts, their one measure +of difference between man and man. + +Upon their consent to these proposals, proceeding at once to put them +into execution, he divided the country of Laconia in general into thirty +thousand equal shares, and the part attached to the city of Sparta into +nine thousand; these he distributed among the Spartans, as he did the +others to the country citizens. A lot was so much as to yield, one +year with another, about seventy bushels of grain for the master of the +family, and twelve for his wife, with a suitable proportion of oil and +wine. And this he thought sufficient to keep their bodies in good health +and strength; superfluities they were better without. It is reported, +that, as he returned from a journey shortly after the division of the +lands, in harvest time, the ground being newly reaped, seeing the stacks +all standing equal and alike, he smiled, and said to those about him, +"Methinks all Laconia looks like one family estate just divided among a +number of brothers." + +Not contented with this, he resolved to make a division of their +movables too, that there might be no odious distinction or inequality +left amongst them; but finding that it would be very dangerous to go +about it openly, he took another course, and defeated their avarice +by the following stratagem: he commanded that all gold and silver coin +should be called in, and that only a sort of money made of iron should +be current, a great weight and quantity of which was worth but very +little; so that to lay up a hundred or two dollars there was required +a pretty large closet, and, to remove it, nothing less than a yoke of +oxen. With the diffusion of this money, at once a number of vices were +banished from Lacedaemon; for who would rob another of such a coin? Who +would unjustly detain or take by force, or accept as a bribe, a thing +which it was not easy to hide, nor a credit to have, nor indeed of any +use to cut in pieces? For when it was just red-hot, they quenched it in +vinegar, and by that means spoilt it, and made it almost incapable of +being worked. + +In the next place, he declared an outlawry of all needless and +superfluous arts; but here he might almost have spared his proclamation; +for they of themselves would have gone with the gold and silver, the +money which remained being not so proper payment for curious work; for, +being of iron, it was scarcely portable, neither, if they should take +the pains to export it, would it pass amongst the other Greeks, who +ridiculed it so there was now no more means of purchasing foreign goods +and small wares; merchants sent no shiploads into Laconian ports; no +rhetoric-master, no itinerant fortune-teller, or gold or silversmith, +engraver, or jeweler, set foot in a country which had no money; so that +luxury, deprived little by little of that which fed and fomented +it, wasted to nothing, and died away of itself. For the rich had no +advantage here over the poor, as their wealth and abundance had no road +to come abroad by, but were shut up at home doing nothing. And in this +way they became excellent artists in common necessary things; bedsteads, +chairs, and tables, and such like staple utensils in a family, were +admirably well made there; their cup, particularly, was very much in +fashion, and eagerly sought for by soldiers, as Critias reports; for +its color was such as to prevent water, drunk upon necessity and +disagreeable to look at, from being noticed; and the shape of it was +such that the mud stuck to the sides, so that only the purer part +came to the drinker's mouth. For this, also, they had to thank their +lawgiver, who, by relieving the artisans of the trouble of making +useless things, set them to show their skill in giving beauty to those +of daily and indispensable use. + +The third and most masterly stroke of this great lawgiver, by which +he struck a yet more effectual blow against luxury and the desire of +riches, was the ordinance he made that they should all eat in common, +of the same bread and same meat, and of kinds that were specified, and +should not spend their lives at home, laid on costly couches at splendid +tables, delivering themselves up into the hands of their tradesmen and +cooks, to fatten them in corners, like greedy brutes, and to ruin not +their minds only but their very bodies, which, enfeebled by indulgence +and excess, would stand in need of long sleep, warm bathing, freedom +from work, and, in a word, of as much care and attendance as if they +were continually sick. It was certainly an extraordinary thing to have +brought about such a result as this, but a greater yet to have taken +away from wealth, as Theophrastus observes, not merely the property of +being coveted, but its very nature of being wealth. For the rich, being +obliged to go to the same table with the poor, could not make use of or +enjoy their abundance, nor so much as please their vanity by looking at +or displaying it. So that the common proverb, that Plutus, the god of +riches, is blind, was nowhere in all the world literally verified but +in Sparta. There, indeed, he was not only blind, but, like a picture, +without either life or motion. Nor were they allowed to take food at +home first, and then attend the public tables, for everyone had an eye +upon those who did not eat and drink like the rest, and reproached them +with being dainty and effeminate. + +This last ordinance in particular exasperated the wealthier men. +They collected in a body against Lycurgus, and from ill words came +to throwing stones, so that at length he was forced to run out of the +market-place, and make to sanctuary to save his life; by good-hap +he outran all excepting one Alcander, a young man otherwise not ill +accomplished, but hasty and violent, who came up so close to him, that, +when he turned to see who was near him, he struck him upon the face +with his stick, and put out one of his eyes. Lycurgus, so far from being +daunted and discouraged by this accident, stopped short and showed his +disfigured face and eye beat out to his countrymen; they, dismayed and +ashamed at the sight, delivered Alcander into his hands to be punished, +and escorted him home, with expressions of great concern for his ill +usage. Lycurgus, having thanked them for their care of his person, +dismissed them all, excepting only Alcander; and, taking him with +him into his house, neither did nor said anything severe to him, but +dismissing those whose place it was, bade Alcander to wait upon him +at table. The young man, who was of an ingenuous temper, did without +murmuring as he was commanded; and, being thus admitted to live with +Lycurgus, he had an opportunity to observe in him, beside his gentleness +and calmness of temper, an extraordinary sobriety and an indefatigable +industry, and so, from an enemy, became one of his most zealous +admirers, and told his friends and relations that Lycurgus was not that +morose and ill-natured man they had formerly taken him for, but the +one mild and gentle character of the world. And thus did Lycurgus, for +chastisement of his fault, make of a wild and passionate young man one +of the discreetest citizens of Sparta. + +In memory of this accident, Lycurgus built a temple to Minerva. Some +authors, however, say that he was wounded, indeed, but did not lose his +eye from the blow; and that he built the temple in gratitude for the +cure. Be this as it will, certain it is, that, after this misadventure, +the Lacedaemonians made it a rule never to carry so much as a staff into +their public assemblies. + +But to return to their public repasts. They met by companies of fifteen, +more or less, and each of them stood bound to bring in monthly a bushel +of meal, eight gallons of wine, five pounds of cheese, two pounds and +a half of figs, and some very small sum of money to buy flesh or fish +with. Besides this, when any of them made sacrifice to the gods, they +always sent a dole to the common hall; and, likewise, when any of them +had been a-hunting, he sent thither a part of the venison he had killed; +for these two occasions were the only excuses allowed for supping at +home. The custom of eating together was observed strictly for a +great while afterwards; insomuch that king Agis himself, after having +vanquished the Athenians, sending for his commons at his return home, +because he desired to eat privately with his queen, was refused them +by the polemarchs; and when he resented this refusal so much as to omit +next day the sacrifice due for a war happily ended, they made him pay a +fine. + +They used to send their children to these tables as to schools of +temperance; here they were instructed in state affairs by listening to +experienced statesmen; here they learnt to converse with pleasantry, to +make jests without scurrility, and take them without ill humor. In this +point of good breeding, the Lacedaemonians excelled particularly, but +if any man were uneasy under it, upon the least hint given there was no +more to be said to him. It was customary also for the eldest man in +the company to say to each of them, as they came in, "Through this" +(pointing to the door), "no words go out." When any one had a desire to +be admitted into any of these little societies, he was to go through the +following probation: each man in the company took a little ball of soft +bread, which they were to throw into a deep basin, that a waiter carried +round upon his head; those that liked the person to be chosen dropped +their ball into the basin without altering its figure, and those who +disliked him pressed it betwixt their fingers, and made it flat; and +this signified as much as a negative voice. And if there were but one +of these flattened pieces in the basin, the suitor was rejected, +so desirous were they that all the members of the company should +be agreeable to each other. The basin was called caddichus, and the +rejected candidate had a name thence derived. Their most famous dish was +the black broth, which was so much valued that the elderly men fed only +upon that, leaving what flesh there was to the younger. + +They say that a certain king of Pontus, having heard much of this black +broth of theirs, sent for a Lacedaemonian cook on purpose to make him +some, but had no sooner tasted it than he found it extremely bad, which +the cook observing, told him, "Sir, to make this broth relish, you +should have bathed yourself first in the river Eurotas." + +After drinking moderately, every man went to his home without lights, +for the use of them was, on all occasions, forbid, to the end that they +might accustom themselves to march boldly in the dark. Such was the +common fashion of their meals. + +Lycurgus would never reduce his laws into writing; nay, there is a +Rhetra expressly to forbid it. For he thought that the most material +points, and such as most directly tended to the public welfare, being +imprinted on the hearts of their youth by a good discipline, would be +sure to remain, and would find a stronger security, than any compulsion +would be, in the principles of action formed in them by their best +lawgiver, education. + +One, then, of the Rhetras was, that their laws should not be written; +another is particularly leveled against luxury and expensiveness, for +by it it was ordained that the ceilings of their houses should only be +wrought by the axe, and their gates and doors smoothed only the saw. +Epaminondas's famous dictum about his own table, that "Treason and a +dinner like this do not keep company together," may be said to have been +anticipated by Lycurgus. Luxury and a house of this kind could not well +be companions. For a man must have a less than ordinary share of sense +that would furnish such plain and common rooms with silver-footed +couches and purple coverlets and gold and silver plate. Doubtless he +had good reason to think that they would proportion their beds to their +houses, and their coverlets to their beds, and the rest of their goods +and furniture to these. It is reported that King Leotychides, the first +of that name, was so little used to the sight of any other kind of +work, that, being entertained at Corinth in a stately room, he was much +surprised to see the timber and ceilings so finely carved and paneled, +and asked his host whether the trees grew so in his country. + +A third ordinance or Rhetra was that they should not make war often, or +long, with the same enemy, lest they should train and instruct them +in war, by habituating them to defend themselves. And this is what +Agesilaus was much blamed for a long time after; it being thought that, +by his continual incursions into Boeotia, he made the Thebans a match +for the Lacedaemonians; and therefore Antalcidas, seeing him wounded +one day, said to him that he was very well paid for taking such pains +to make the Thebans good soldiers, whether they would or no. These laws +were called the Rhetras, to intimate that they were divine sanctions and +revelations. + +In order to the good education of their youth (which, as I said before, +he thought the most important and noblest work of a lawgiver), he took +in their case all the care that was possible; he ordered the maidens +to exercise themselves with wrestling, running, throwing the quoit, and +casting the dart, to the end that they might have strong and healthy +bodies. + +It was not in the power of the father to dispose of his child as he +thought fit; he was obliged to carry it before certain "triers" at a +place called Lesche; these were some of the elders of the tribe to which +the child belonged; their business it was carefully to view the infant, +and, if they found it stout and well made, they gave order for its +rearing, and allotted to it one of the nine thousand shares of land +above mentioned for its maintenance; but if they found it puny and +ill-shaped, ordered it to be taken to what was called the Apothetae, a +sort of chasm under Taygetus; as thinking it neither for the good of the +child itself, nor for the public interest, that it should be brought +up, if it did not, from the very outset, appear made to be healthy and +vigorous. Upon the same account, the women did not bathe the new-born +children with water, as is the custom in all other countries, but with +wine, to prove the temper and complexion of their bodies; from a notion +they had that epileptic and weakly children faint and waste away upon +their being thus bathed, while, on the contrary, those of a strong and +vigorous habit acquire firmness and get a temper by it like steel. There +was much care and art, too, used by the nurses; they had no swaddling +bands; the children grew up free and unconstrained in limb and form, and +not dainty and fanciful about their food; nor afraid in the dark, or of +being left alone; without any peevishness or ill humor or crying. Upon +this account, Spartan nurses were often bought up, or hired by people of +other countries. + +Lycurgus was of another mind; he would not have masters bought out of +the market for his young Spartans, nor such as should sell their pains; +nor was it lawful, indeed, for the father himself to raise his children +after his own fancy; but as soon as they were seven years old they were +to be enrolled in certain companies and classes, where they all lived +under the same order and discipline, doing their exercises and taking +their play together. Of these he who showed the most conduct and courage +was made captain; they had their eyes always upon him, obeyed his +orders, and underwent patiently whatsoever punishment he inflicted; so +that the whole course of their education was one continued exercise of a +ready and perfect obedience. The old men, too, were spectators of their +performances, and often raised quarrels and disputes among them, to have +a good opportunity of finding out their different characters, and of +seeing which would be valiant, which a coward, when they should come +to more dangerous encounters. Reading and writing they gave them, just +enough to serve their turn; their chief care was to make them good +subjects, and to teach them to endure pain and conquer in battle. To +this end, as they grew in years, their discipline was proportionally +increased; their heads were close-clipped; they were accustomed to go +barefoot, and for the most part to play naked. + +After they were twelve years old they were no longer allowed to wear any +under-garment; they had one coat to serve them a year; their bodies were +hard and dry, with but little acquaintance of baths and unguents; these +human indulgences they were allowed only on some few particular days +in the year. They lodged together in little bands upon beds made of the +rushes which grew by the banks of the river Eurotas, which they were +to break off with their hands without a knife; if it were winter, they +mingled some thistledown with their rushes, which it was thought had the +property of giving warmth. + +Besides all this, there was always one of the best and most honest men +in the city appointed to undertake the charge and governance of them; he +again arranged them into their several bands, and set over each of +them for their captain the most temperate and bold of those they called +Irens, who were usually twenty years old, two years out of boyhood; and +the eldest of the boys, again, were Mell-Irens, as much as to say, "who +would shortly be men." This young man, therefore, was their captain when +they fought, and their master at home, using them for the offices of his +house; sending the oldest of them to fetch wood, and the weaker and less +able, to gather salads and herbs, and these they must either go without +or steal; which they did by creeping into the gardens, or conveying +themselves cunningly and closely into the eating-houses; if they were +taken in the act, they were whipped without mercy, for thieving so ill +and awkwardly. They stole, too, all other meat they could lay their +hands on, looking out and watching all opportunities, when people were +asleep or more careless than usual. If they were caught, they were not +only punished with whipping, but hunger, too, being reduced to their +ordinary allowance, which was but very slender, and so contrived on +purpose, that they might set about to help themselves, and be forced to +exercise their energy and address. + +So seriously did the Lacedaemonian children go about their stealing, +that a youth, having stolen a young fox and hid it under his coat, +suffered it to tear out his very bowels with its teeth and claws, and +died upon the place, rather than let it be seen. What is practised to +this very day in Lacedaemon is enough to gain credit to this story, for +I myself have seen several of the youths endure whipping to death at the +foot of the altar of Diana surnamed Orthia. + +The Iren, or under-master, used to stay a little with them after supper, +and one of them he bade to sing a song, to another he put a question +which required an advised and deliberate answer; for example, Who was +the best man in the city? What he thought of such an action of such +a man? They accustomed them thus early to pass a right judgment upon +persons and things, and to inform themselves of the abilities or defects +of their countrymen. If they had not an answer ready to the question, +Who was a good or who an ill-reputed citizen? they were looked upon as +of a dull and careless disposition, and to have little or no sense of +virtue and honor; besides this, they were to give a good reason for what +they said, and in as few words and as comprehensive as might be; he that +failed of this, or answered not to the purpose, had his thumb bit by his +master. + +They taught them, also, to speak with a natural and graceful raillery, +and to comprehend much matter of thought in few words. For Lycurgus, +who ordered, as we saw, that a great piece of money should be but of +an inconsiderable value, on the contrary would allow no discourse to be +current which did not contain in few words a great deal of useful and +curious sense; children in Sparta, by a habit of long silence, came to +give just and sententious answers; for, indeed, loose talkers seldom +originate many sensible words. King Agis, when some Athenian laughed at +their short swords, and said that the jugglers on the stage swallowed +them with ease, answered him, "We find them long enough to reach our +enemies with;" and as their swords were short and sharp, so, it seems to +me, were their sayings. They reach the point and arrest the attention of +the hearers better than any others. Lycurgus himself seems to have been +short and sententious, if we may trust the anecdotes of him; as +appears by his answer to one who by all means would set up democracy in +Lacedaemon. "Begin, friend," said he, "and set it up in your family." +Another asked him why he allowed of such mean and trivial sacrifices +to the gods. He replied, "That we may always have something to offer to +them." Being asked what sort of martial exercises or combats he approved +of, he answered, "All sorts, except that in which you stretch out your +hands." + +Of their dislike to talkativeness, the following apophthegms are +evidence. King Leonidas said to one who held him in discourse upon some +useful matter, but not in due time and place, "Much to the purpose, sir, +elsewhere." King Charilaus, the nephew of Lycurgus, being asked why his +uncle had made so few laws, answered, "Men of few words require but few +laws." When one blamed Hecataeus the sophist because that, being +invited to the public table, he had not spoken one word all supper-time, +Archidamidas answered in his vindication, "He who knows how to speak, +knows also when." + +The sharp, and yet not ungraceful, retorts which I mentioned may be +instanced as follows. Demaratus, being asked in a troublesome manner by +an importunate fellow, Who was the best man in Lacedaemon? answered at +last, "He, sir, that is the least like you." Some, in company where Agis +was, much extolled the Eleans for their just and honorable management of +the Olympic games; "Indeed," said Agis, "they are highly to be commended +if they can do justice one day in five years." + +We may see their character, too, in their very jests. For they did not +throw them out at random, but the very wit of them was grounded upon +something or other worth thinking about. For instance, one, being asked +to go hear a man who exactly counterfeited the voice of a nightingale, +answered, "Sir, I have heard the nightingale itself." Another, having +read the following inscription upon a tomb,-- + + Seeking to quench a cruel tyranny, + They, at Selinus, did in battle die, + +said, it served them right; for instead of trying to quench the tyranny +they should have let it burn out. A lad, being offered some game-cocks +that would die upon the spot, said he cared not for cocks that would +die, but for such as would live and kill others. In short, their answers +were so sententious and pertinent, that one said well that intellectual, +much more truly than athletic, exercise was the Spartan characteristic. + +Nor was their instruction in music and verse less carefully attended to +than their habits of grace and good breeding in conversation. And their +very songs had a life and spirit in them that inflamed and possessed +men's minds with an enthusiasm and ardor for action; the style of them +was plain and without affectation; the subject always serious and moral; +most usually it was in praise of such men as had died in defence of +their country, or in derision of those that had been cowards; the former +they declared happy and glorified; the life of the latter they described +as most miserable and abject. There were also vaunts of what they would +do, and boasts of what they had done, varying with the various ages, as, +for example, they had three choirs in their solemn festivals, the +first of the old men, the second of the young men, and the last of the +children; the old men began thus: + + We once were young, and brave and strong; + +the young men answered them, singing, + + And we're so now, come on and try; + +the children came last and said, + + But we'll be strongest by and by. + +Before they engaged in battle, the Lacedaemonians abated a little the +severity of their manners in favor of their young men, suffering them +to curl and adorn their hair, and to have costly arms, and fine clothes; +and were well pleased to see them, like proud horses, neighing and +pressing to the course. And therefore, as soon as they came to be well +grown, they took a great deal of care of their hair, to have it parted +and trimmed, especially against a day of battle, pursuant to a saying +recorded of their lawgiver, that a large head of hair added beauty to a +good face, and terror to an ugly one. + +The senate, as I said before, consisted of those who were Lycurgus's +chief aiders and assistants in his plan. The vacancies he ordered to be +supplied out of the best and most deserving men past sixty years old. +The manner of their election was as follows: the people being called +together, some selected persons were locked up in a room near the place +of election, so contrived that they could neither see nor be seen, but +could only hear the noise of the assembly without; for they decided +this, as most other affairs of moment, by the shouts of the people. This +done, the competitors were not brought in and presented all together, +but one after another by lot, and passed in order through the assembly +without speaking a word. Those who were locked up had writing-tables +with them, in which they recorded and marked each shout by its loudness, +without knowing in favor of which candidate each of them was made, but +merely that they came first, second, third, and so forth. He who was +found to have the most and loudest acclamations was declared senator +duly elected. + +When he perceived that his more important institutions had taken root in +the minds of his countrymen, that custom had rendered them familiar and +easy, that his commonwealth was now grown up and able to go alone, then, +as Plato somewhere tells us the Maker of the world, when first he saw it +existing and beginning its motion, felt joy, even so Lycurgus, viewing +with joy and satisfaction the greatness and beauty of his political +structure, now fairly at work and in motion, conceived the thought +to make it immortal too, and as far as human forecast could reach, to +deliver it down unchangeable to posterity. He called an extraordinary +assembly of all the people, and told them that he now thought everything +reasonably well established, both for the happiness and the virtue of +the state; but that there was one thing still behind, of the greatest +importance, which he thought not fit to impart until he had consulted +the oracle; in the meantime, his desire was that they would observe the +laws without even the least alteration until his return, and then he +would do as the god should direct him. They all consented readily, and +bade him hasten his journey; but, before he departed, he administered +an oath to the two kings, the senate, and the whole commons, to abide by +and maintain the established form of polity until Lycurgus should +come back. This done, he set out for Delphi, and, having sacrificed +to Apollo, asked him whether the laws he had established were good and +sufficient for a people's happiness and virtue. The oracle answered that +the laws were excellent, and that the people, while it observed them, +should live in the height of renown. Lycurgus took the oracle in +writing, and sent it over to Sparta, and, having sacrificed a second +time to Apollo, and taken leave of his friends and his son, he resolved +that the Spartans should not be released from the oath they had taken, +and that he would, of his own act, close his life where he was. He was +now about that age in which life was still tolerable, and yet might +be quitted without regret. Everything, moreover, about him was in a +sufficiently prosperous condition. He, therefore, made an end of himself +by a total abstinence from food; thinking it a statesman's duty to make +his very death, if possible, an act of service to the state, and even +in the end of his life to give some example of virtue and effect some +useful purpose. Nor was he deceived in his expectations, for the city of +Lacedaemon continued the chief city of all Greece for the space of five +hundred years, in strict observance of Lycurgus's laws; in all which +time there was no manner of alteration made, during the reign of +fourteen kings, down to the time of Agis, the son of Archidamus. + +King Theopompus, when one said that Sparta held up so long because their +kings could command so well, replied, "Nay, rather because the people +know so well how to obey." For people do not obey, unless rulers know +how to command; obedience is a lesson taught by commanders. A true +leader himself creates the obedience of his own followers; as it is +the greatest attainment in the art of riding to make a horse gentle and +tractable, so is it of the science of government to inspire men with a +willingness to obey. + +It is reported that when the bones were brought home to Sparta his tomb +was struck with lightning, an accident which befell no eminent person +but himself and Euripides. But Aristocrates, the son of Hipparchus, says +that he died in Crete, and that his Cretan friends, in accordance with +his own request, when they had burned his body, scattered the ashes +into the sea, for fear lest, if his relics should be transported to +Lacedaemon, the people might pretend to be released from their oaths, +and make innovations in the government. + + + + +SOLON + +SOLON, as Hermippus writes, when his father had ruined his estate in +doing benefits and kindnesses to other men, though he had friends enough +that were willing to contribute to his relief, yet was ashamed to +be beholden to others, since he was descended from a family who were +accustomed to do kindnesses rather than receive them; and therefore +applied himself to merchandise in his youth; though others assure us +that he traveled rather to get learning and experience than to make +money. It is certain that he was a lover of knowledge, for when he was +old he would say that he + +Each day grew older, and learnt something new. + +But that he accounted himself rather poor than rich is evident from the +lines, + + Some wicked men are rich, some good are poor, + We will not change our virtue for their store; + Virtue's a thing that none can take away, + But money changes owners all the day. + +It is stated that Anacharsis and Solon and Thales were familiarly +acquainted, and some have quoted parts of their discourse; for, they +say, Anacharsis, coming to Athens, knocked at Solon's door and told +him that he, being a stranger, was come to be his guest, and contract a +friendship with him; and Solon replying; "It is better to make friends +at home," Anacharsis replied, "Then you that are at home make friendship +with me." Solon, somewhat surprised at the readiness of the repartee, +received him kindly, and kept him some time with him, being already +engaged in public business and the compilation of his laws; which when +Anacharsis understood, he laughed at him for imagining the dishonesty +and covetousness of his countrymen could be restrained by written laws, +which were like spiders' webs, and would catch, it is true, the weak +and poor, but easily be broken by the mighty and rich. To this Solon +rejoined that men keep their promises when neither side can get anything +by the breaking of them; and he would so fit his laws to the citizens, +that all should understand it was more eligible to be just than to break +the laws. But the event rather agreed with the conjecture of Anacharsis +than Solon's hope. Anacharsis, being once at the assembly, expressed his +wonder that in Greece wise men spoke and fools decided. + +Now, when the Athenians were tired with a tedious and difficult war that +they conducted against the Megarians for the island Salamis, and made +a law that is should be death for any man, by writing or speaking, to +assert that the city ought to endeavor to recover it, Solon, vexed at +the disgrace, and perceiving thousands of the youth wished for +somebody to begin, but did not dare to stir first for fear of the law, +counterfeited a distraction, and by his own family it was spread about +the city that he was mad. He then secretly composed some elegiac verses, +and getting them by heart, that it might seem extempore, ran out into +the market-place with a cap upon his head, and, the people gathering +about him, got upon the herald's stand, and sang that elegy which begins +thus:-- + + I am a herald come from Salamis the fair, + My news from thence my verses shall declare. + +The poem is called "Salamis"; it contains a hundred verses, very +elegantly written. When it had been sung, his friends commended it, and +especially Pisistratus exhorted the citizens to obey his directions; +insomuch that they recalled the law, and renewed the war under Solon's +conduct. The popular take is, that with Pisistratus he sailed to Colias, +and, finding the women, according to the custom of the country there, +sacrificing to Ceres, he sent a trusty friend to Salamis, who should +pretend himself a renegade, and advise them, if they desired to seize +the chief Athenian women, to come with him at once to Colias; the +Megarians presently sent off men in the vessel with him, and Solon, +seeing it put off from the island, commanded the women to be gone, and +some beardless youths, dressed in their clothes, their shoes, and caps, +and privately armed with daggers, to dance and play near the shore till +the enemies had landed and the vessel was in their power. Things being +thus ordered, the Megarians were allured with the appearance, and, +coming to the shore, jumped out, eager who should first seize a prize, +so that not one of them escaped; and the Athenians set sail for the +island and took it. + +For this Solon grew famed and powerful; but his advice in favor of +defending the oracle at Delphi, to give aid, and not to suffer the +Cirrhaeans to profane it, but to maintain the honor of the god, got him +most repute among the Greeks: for upon his persuasion the Amphictyons +undertook the war. + +Now the Cylonian pollution had a long time disturbed the commonwealth, +ever since the time when Megacles the archon persuaded the conspirators +with Cylon that took sanctuary in Athena's temple to come down and stand +to a fair trial. And they, tying a thread to the image, and holding one +end of it, went down to the tribunal; but when they came to the temple +of the Furies, the thread broke of its own accord, upon which, as if the +goddess had refused them protection, they were seized by Megacles and +the other magistrates; as many as were without the temples were stoned, +those that fled for sanctuary were butchered at the altar, and only +those escaped who made supplication to the wives of the magistrates. + +The Athenians, now the Cylonian sedition was over and the polluted gone +into banishment, fell into their old quarrels about the government, +there being as many different parties as there were diversities in the +country. The Hill quarter favored democracy; the Plain, oligarchy; and +those that lived by the Sea-side stood for a mixed sort of government, +and so hindered either of the parties from prevailing. And the disparity +of fortune between the rich and the poor at that time also reached its +height; so that the city seemed to be in a truly dangerous condition, +and no other means for freeing it from disturbances and settling it to +be possible but a despotic power. + +Then the wisest of the Athenians, perceiving Solon was of all men the +only one not implicated in the troubles, that he had not joined in the +exactions of the rich, and was not involved in the necessities of +the poor, pressed him to succor the commonwealth and compose the +differences. Solon, reluctantly at first, engaged in state affairs, +being afraid of the pride of one party and the greediness of the other; +he was chosen archon, however, after Philombrotus, and empowered to be +an arbitrator and lawgiver; the rich consenting because he was wealthy, +the poor because he was honest. There was a saying of his current before +the election, that when things are even there never can be war, and this +pleased both parties, the wealthy and the poor; the one conceiving him +to mean, when all have their fair proportion; the other, when all are +absolutely equal. Thus, there being great hopes on both sides, the chief +men pressed Solon to take the government into his own hands, and, when +he was once settled, manage the business freely and according to his +pleasure; and many of the commons, perceiving it would be a difficult +change to be effected by law and reason, were willing to have one wise +and just man set over the affairs; and some say that Solon had this +oracle from Apollo: + + Take the mid-seat, and be the vessel's guide; + Many in Athens are upon your side. + +From which it is manifest that he was a man of great reputation before +he gave his laws. The several mocks that were put upon him for refusing +the power, he records in these words: + +Solon surely was a dreamer, and a man of simple mind; When the gods +would give him fortune, he of his own will declined; When the new was +full of fishes, over-heavy thinking it, He declined to haul it up, +through want of heart and want of wit. Had but I that chance of riches +and of kingship for one day, I would give my skin for flaying, and my +house to die away. + +Thus he makes the many and the low people speak of him. Yet, though he +refused the government, he did not show himself mean and submissive to +the powerful, nor make his laws to pleasure those that chose him. For +the first thing which he settled was, that what debts remained should +be forgiven, and no man, for the future, should engage the body of his +debtor for security. Though some, as Androtion, affirm that the debts +were not canceled, but the interest only lessened, which sufficiently +pleased the people; so that they named this benefit the Seisacthea, +together with the enlarging of their measures, and raising the value of +their money; for he made a pound, which before passed for seventy-three +drachmas, go for a hundred; so that, though the number of pieces in +the payment was equal, the value was less; which proved a considerable +benefit to those that were to discharge great debts, and no loss to the +creditors. + +While he was designing this, a most vexatious thing happened; for when +he had resolved to take off the debts, and was considering the proper +form and fit beginning for it, he told some of his friends, Conon, +Clinias, and Hipponicus, in whom he had a great deal of confidence, that +he would not meddle with the lands, but only free the people from their +debts; upon which, they, using their advantage, made haste and borrowed +some considerable sums of money, and purchased some large farms; and +when the law was enacted, they kept the possessions, and would not +return the money; which brought Solon into great suspicion and +dislike, as if he himself had not been abused, but was concerned in the +contrivance. But he presently stopped this suspicion, by releasing his +own debtors of five talents (for he had lent so much), according to the +law; others, as Polyzelus the Rhodian, say fifteen. + +Soon becoming sensible of the good that was done, the people laid by +their grudges, made a public sacrifice, and chose Solon to new-model +and make laws for the commonwealth, giving him the entire power over +everything, their magistracies, their assemblies, courts, and councils; +that he should appoint the number, times of meeting, and what estate +they must have that could be capable of these, and dissolve or continue +any of the present constitutions, according to his pleasure. + +First, then, he repealed all Draco's laws, except those concerning +homicide, because they were too severe and the punishments too great; +for death was appointed for almost all offences, insomuch that those +that were convicted of idleness were to die, and those that stole a +cabbage or an apple to suffer even as villains that committed sacrilege +or murder. So that Demades, in after time, was thought to have said very +happily, that Draco's laws were written not with ink, but blood; and +he himself, being once asked why he made death the punishment of most +offences, replied: "Small ones deserve that, and I have no higher for +the greater crimes." + +Next, Solon, being willing to continue the magistracies in the hands +of the rich men, and yet receive the people into the other part of the +government, took an account of the citizens' estates, and those that +were worth five hundred measures of fruits, dry and liquid, he placed +in the first rank; those that could keep a horse, or were worth three +hundred measures, were made the second class; those that had two hundred +measures, were in the third; and all the other were called Thetes, who +were not admitted to any office, but could come to the assembly, and +act as jurors; which at first seemed nothing, but afterward was found an +enormous privilege, as almost every matter of dispute came before them +in this latter capacity. Besides, it is said that he was obscure and +ambiguous in the wording of his laws, on purpose to increase the honor +of his courts; for since their differences could not be adjusted by the +letter, they would have to bring all their causes to the judges, who +thus were in a manner masters of the laws. Of this equalization he +himself makes mention in this manner: + + Such power I gave the people as might do, + Abridged not what they had, now lavished new. + Those that were great in wealth and high in place, + My counsel likewise kept from all disgrace. + Before them both I held my shield of might, + And let not either touch the other's right. + +When he had constituted the Areopagus of those who had been yearly +archons, of which he himself was a member therefore, observing that +the people, now free from their debts, were unsettled and imperious, +he formed another council of four hundred, a hundred out of each of +the four tribes, which was to inspect all matters before they were +propounded to the people, and to take care that nothing but what had +been first examined should be brought before the general assembly. The +upper council, or Areopagus, he made inspectors and keepers of the +laws, conceiving that the commonwealth, held by these two councils like +anchors, would be less liable to be tossed by tumults, and the people be +more at quiet. Such is the general statement that Solon instituted the +Areopagus. + +Amongst his other laws, one is very peculiar and surprising, which +disfranchises all who stand neuter in a sedition; for it seems he would +not have any one remain insensible and regardless of the public good, +but at once join with the good party and those that have the right upon +their side, assist and venture with them, rather than keep out of harm's +way and watch who would get the better. + +Another commendable law of Solon's is that which forbids men to speak +evil of the dead. + +Since the country has but few rivers, lakes, or large springs, and many +used wells which they had dug, there was a law made, that, where there +was a public well within a hippicon, that is, four furlongs, all should +draw at that; but then it was farther off, they should try and procure a +well of their own; and, if they had dug ten fathoms deep and could find +no water, they had liberty to fetch a pitcherful of four gallons and a +half in a day from their neighbors'; for he thought it prudent to make +provision against want, but not to supply laziness. He showed skill in +his orders about planting, for any one that would plant another tree was +not to set it within five feet of his neighbor's field; but if a fig or +an olive, not within nine, for their roots spread farther, nor can they +be planted near all sorts of trees without damage, for they draw away +the nourishment, and in some cases are noxious by their effluvia. He +that would dig a pit or a ditch was to dig it at the distance of its own +depth from his neighbor's ground; and he that would raise stocks of bees +was not to place them within three hundred feet of those which another +had already raised. + +He permitted only oil to be exported, and those that exported any other +fruit, the archon was solemnly to curse, or else pay an hundred drachmas +(a drachma was about twenty cents.) himself; and this law was written in +his first table, and, therefore, let none think it incredible, as some +affirm, that the exportation of figs was once unlawful. He made a law +also, concerning hurts and injuries from beasts, in which he commands +the master of any dog that bit a man to deliver him up with a log about +his neck four and a half feet long-a happy device for men's security. + +All his laws he established for an hundred years, and wrote them on +wooden tables or rollers, named axones, which might be turned round in +oblong cases; some of their relics were in my time still to be seen in +the Prytaneum, or common hall, at Athens. These, as Aristotle states, +were called cyrbes, and there is a passage of Cratinus the comedian, + + By Solon, and by Draco, if you please, + Whose Cyrbes make the fires that parch our peas. + +But some say those are properly cyrbes, which contain laws concerning +sacrifices and the rites of religion, and all the other axones. The +council all jointly swore to confirm the laws, and every one of the +Thesmothetae vowed for himself at the stone in the market-place, that, +if he broke any of the statutes, he would dedicate a golden statue, as +big as himself, at Delphi. + +Now when these laws were enacted, and some came to Solon every day, to +commend or dispraise them, and to advise, if possible, to leave out, or +put in something, and many criticised, and desired him to explain, +and tell the meaning of such and such a passage, he, to escape all +displeasure, it being a hard thing, as he himself says, + + In great affairs to satisfy all sides, + +As an excuse for traveling, bought a trading vessel and, having obtained +leave for ten years' absence, departed, hoping that by that time his +laws would have become familiar. + +His first voyage was for Egypt, and he lived, as he himself says, + + Near Nilus' mouth, by fair Canopus' shore, + +And spent some time in study with Psenophis of Heliopolis, and Sonchis +the Saite, the most learned of all the priests; from whom, as Plato +says, getting knowledge of the Atlantic story, he put it into a poem, +and proposed to bring it to the knowledge of the Greeks. From thence he +sailed to Cyprus, where he was made much of by Philocyprus, one of the +kings there, who had a small city built by Demophon, Theseus's son, near +the river Clarius, in a strong situation, but incommodious and uneasy +of access. Solon persuaded him, since there lay a fair plain below, +to remove, and build there a pleasanter and more spacious city. And he +stayed himself, and assisted in gathering inhabitants, and in fitting it +both for defence and convenience of living; insomuch that many flocked +to Philocyprus, and the other kings imitated the design; and, therefore, +to honor Solon, he called the city Soli. + +That Solon should discourse with Croesus, some think not agreeable with +chronology; but I cannot reject so famous and well-attested a narrative, +and, what is more, so agreeable to Solon's temper, and so worthy his +wisdom and greatness of mind, because, forsooth, it does not agree with +some chronological canons, which thousands have endeavored to regulate, +and yet, to this day, could never bring their differing opinions to any +agreement. They say, therefore, that Solon, coming to Croesus at his +request, was in the same condition as an inland man when first he goes +to see the sea; for as he fancies every river he meets with to be the +ocean, so Solon, as he passed through the court, and saw a great many +nobles richly dressed, and proudly attended with a multitude of guards +and footboys, thought every one to be the king, till he was brought to +Croesus, who was decked with every possible rarity and curiosity, in +ornaments of jewels, purple, and gold, that could make a grand and +gorgeous spectacle of him. Now when Solon came before him, and seemed +not at all surprised, nor gave Croesus those compliments he expected, +but showed himself to all discerning eyes to be a man that despised the +gaudiness and petty ostentation of it, he commanded them to open all +his treasure houses, and carry him to see his sumptuous furniture and +luxuries, though Solon did not wish it; he could judge of him well +enough by the first sight of him; and, when he returned from viewing +all, Croesus asked him if ever he had known a happier man than he. And +when Solon answered that he had known one Tellus, a fellow-citizen of +his own, and told him that this Tellus had been an honest man, had had +good children, a competent estate, and died bravely in battle for his +country, Croesus took him for an ill-bred fellow and a fool, for not +measuring happiness by the abundance of gold and silver, and preferring +the life and death of a private and mean man before so much power and +empire. He asked him however, again, if, besides Tellus, he knew any +other man more happy. And Solon replying, Yes, Cleobis and Biton, who +were loving brothers, and extremely dutiful sons to their mother, and, +when the oxen delayed her, harnessed themselves to the wagon, and drew +her to Juno's temple, her neighbors all calling her happy, and she +herself rejoicing; then, after sacrificing and feasting, they went +to rest, and never rose again, but died in the midst of their honor a +painless and tranquil death. "What," said Croesus, angrily, "and dost +not thou reckon us amongst the happy men at all?" Solon, unwilling +either to flatter or exasperate him more, replied, "The gods, O king, +have given the Greeks all other gifts in moderate degree; and so our +wisdom, too, is a cheerful and a homely, not a noble and kingly, wisdom; +and this, observing the numerous misfortunes that attend all conditions, +forbids us to grow insolent upon our present enjoyments, or to admire +any man's happiness that may yet, in course of time, suffer change. For +the uncertain future has yet to come, with every possible variety of +fortune; and him only to whom the divinity has continued happiness unto +the end, we call happy; to salute as happy one that is still in the +midst of life and hazard, we think as little safe, and conclusive as to +crown and proclaim as victorious the wrestler that is yet in the ring." +After this, he was dismissed, having given Croesus some pain, but no +instruction. + +Aesop, who wrote the fables, being then at Sardis upon Croesus's +invitation, and very much esteemed, was concerned that Solon was so +ill-received, and gave him this advice: "Solon, let your converse with +kings be either short or seasonable." "Nay, rather," replied Solon, +"either short or reasonable." So at this time Croesus despised Solon; +but when he was overcome by Cyrus, had lost his city, was taken alive, +condemned to be burnt, and laid bound upon the pile before all the +Persians and Cyrus himself, he cried out as loud as he possibly could +three times, "O Solon!" and Cyrus being surprised, and sending some to +inquire what man or god this Solon was, whom alone he invoked in this +extremity, Croesus told him the whole story, saying, "He was one of the +wise men of Greece, whom I sent for, not to be instructed, or to learn +anything that I wanted, but that he should see and be a witness of my +happiness; the loss of which was, it seems, to be a greater evil than +the enjoyment was a good; for when I had them they were goods only in +opinion, but now the loss of them has brought upon me intolerable and +real evils. And he, conjecturing from what then was, this that now is, +bade me look to the end of my life, and not rely and grow proud upon +uncertainties." When this was told Cyrus, who was a wiser man than +Croesus, and saw in the present example Solon's maxim confirmed, he not +only freed Croesus from punishment, but honored him as long as he +lived; and Solon had the glory, by the same saying, to save one king and +instruct another. + +When Solon was gone, the citizens began to quarrel; Lycurgus headed +the Plain; Megacles, the son of Alcmaeon, those of the Sea-side; and +Pisistratus the Hill-party, in which were the poorest people, the +Thetes, and greatest enemies to the rich; insomuch that, though the +city still used the new laws, yet all looked for and desired a change of +government, hoping severally that the change would be better for them, +and put them above the contrary faction. Affairs standing thus, Solon +returned, and was reverenced by all, and honored; but his old age would +not permit him to be as active, and to speak in public, as formerly; +yet, by privately conferring with the heads of the factions, he +endeavored to compose the differences, Pisistratus appearing the most +tractable; for he was extremely smooth and engaging in his language, +a great friend to the poor, and moderate in his resentments; and what +nature had not given him, he had the skill to imitate; so that he was +trusted more than the others, being accounted a prudent and orderly man, +one that loved equality, and would be an enemy to any that moved against +the present settlement. Thus he deceived the majority of people; but +Solon quickly discovered his character, and found out his design before +any one else; yet did not hate him upon this, but endeavored to humble +him, and bring him off from his ambition, and often told him and others, +that if any one could banish the passion for preeminence from his mind, +and cure him of his desire of absolute power, none would make a more +virtuous man or a more excellent citizen. Thespis, at this time, +beginning to act tragedies, and the thing, because it was new, taking +very much with the multitude, though it was not yet made a matter +of competition, Solon, being by nature fond of hearing and learning +something new, and now, in his old age, living idly, and enjoying +himself, indeed, with music and with wine, went to see Thespis himself, +as the ancient custom was, act; and after the play was done, he +addressed him, and asked him if he was not ashamed to tell so many lies +before such a number of people; and Thespis replying that it was no harm +to say or do so in play, Solon vehemently struck his staff against the +ground: "Ay," said he, "if we honor and commend such play as this, we +shall find it some day in our business." + +Now when Pisistratus, having wounded himself, was brought into the +market-place in a chariot, and stirred up the people, as if he had been +thus treated by his opponents because of his political conduct, and a +great many were enraged and cried out, Solon, coming close to him, said, +"This, O son of Hippocrates, is a bad copy of Homer's Ulysses; you do, +to trick your countrymen, what he did to deceive his enemies." After +this, the people were eager to protect Pisistratus, and met in an +assembly, where one Ariston made a motion that they should allow +Pisistratus fifty clubmen for a guard to his person. Now, the people, +having passed the law, were not nice with Pisistratus about the number +of his clubmen, but took no notice of it, though he enlisted and kept as +many as he would, until he seized the Acropolis. When that was done, and +the city in an uproar, Megacles, with all his family, at once fled; But +Solon, though he was now very old, and had none to back him, yet came +into the market-place and made a speech to the citizens, partly blaming +their inadvertency and meanness of spirit, and in part urging and +exhorting them not thus tamely to lose their liberty; and likewise then +spoke that memorable saying, that, before, it was an easier task to +stop the rising tyranny, but now the greater and more glorious action +to destroy it, when it was begun already, and had gathered strength. +But all being afraid to side with him, he returned home, and, taking his +arms, he brought them out and laid them in the porch before his door, +with these words: "I have done my part to maintain my country and my +laws," and then be busied himself no more. + +But Pisistratus, having got the command, so extremely courted Solon, so +honored him, obliged him, and sent to see him, that Solon gave him +his advice, and approved many of his actions; for he retained most of +Solon's laws, observed them himself, and compelled his friends to obey. +And he added other laws, one of which is that the maimed in the wars +should be maintained at the public charge, following Solon's example in +this, who had decreed it in the case of one Thersippus, that was maimed. + +Solon lived after Pisistratus seized the government a long time. But +the story that his ashes were scattered about the island Salamis is too +strange to be easily believed, or be thought anything but a mere +fable; and yet it is given, among other good authors, by Aristotle the +philosopher. + + + + +THEMISTOCLES + +The birth of Themistocles was somewhat too obscure to do him honor. His +father, Neocles, was not of the distinguished people of Athens, but of +the township of Phrearrhi; and by his mother's side, as it is reported, +he was low-born. + + "I am not of the noble Grecian race, + I'm poor Abrotonon, and born in Trace; + Let the Greek women scorn me, if they please, + I was the mother of Themistocles." + +From his youth he was of a vehement and impetuous nature, of a quick +apprehension, and a strong and aspiring bent for action and great +affairs, the holidays and intervals in his studies he did not spend in +play or idleness, as other children, but would be always inventing or +arranging some oration or declamation to himself, the subject of which +was generally the excusing of accusing of his companions, so that his +master would often say to him, "You, my boy, will be nothing small, +but great one way or other, for good and else for bad." he received +reluctantly and carelessly instructions given him to improve his manners +and behavior, or to teach him any pleasing or graceful accomplishment, +but whatever was said to improve him in sagacity, or in management of +affairs, he would give attention to beyond one of years, from confidence +in his natural capacities for such things. + +In the first essays of his youth he was not regular nor happily +balanced; he allowed himself to follow mere natural character, which, +without the control of reason and instruction, is apt to hurry, upon +either side, into sudden and violent courses, and very often to break +away and determine upon the worst; as he afterwards owned himself, +saying that the wildest colts make the best horses, if they only get +properly trained and broken in. + +Yet it is evident that his mind was early imbued with the keenest +interest in public affairs, and the most passionate ambition for +distinction. It is said that Themistocles was so transported with the +thoughts of glory, and so inflamed with the passion for great actions, +that, though he was still young when the battle of Marathon was +fought against the Persian, upon the skillful conduct of the general, +Miltiades, being everywhere talked about, he was observed to be +thoughtful and reserved; he passed the nights without sleep, and avoided +all his usual places of recreation, and to those how wondered at the +change, and inquired the reason of it, he gave the answer that "the +trophy of Miltiades would not let him sleep." And when others were +of opinion that the battle of Marathon would be an end to the war, +Themistocles thought that it was but the beginning of far greater +conflict, and for these, to the benefit of Greece, he kept himself in +continual readiness, and his city also in proper training, foreseeing +from far before what would happen. + +And, first of all, the Athenians being accustomed to divide amongst +themselves the revenue proceeding from the silver mines at Laurium, he +was the only man that durst propose to the people that this distribution +should cease, and that with the money, ships should be built to make +war against the Aeginetans, who were the most flourishing people in all +Greece, and by the number of their ships held the sovereignty of the +sea; and Themistocles thus, little by little, turned and drew the city +down towards the sea, in the belief that, whereas by land they were not +a match for their next neighbors, with their ships they might be able to +repel the Persian and command Greece; thus, as Plato says, from steady +soldiers he turned them into mariners and seamen tossed about the sea, +and gave occasion for the reproach against him, that he took away from +the Athenians the spear and the shield, and bound them to the bench +and the oar. He was well liked by the common people, would salute every +particular citizen by his own name, and always showed himself a +just judge in questions of business between private men; he said to +Simonides, the poet of Ceos, who desired something of him when he was +commander of the army that was no reasonable, "Simonides, you would +be no good poet if you wrote false measure, nor should I be a good +magistrate if for favor I made false law." + +Gradually growing to be great, and winning the favor of the people, +he at last gained the day with his faction over that of Aristides, and +procured his banishment by ostracism. When the kind of Persia was now +advancing against Greece, and sent messengers into Greece, with an +interpreter, to demand earth and water, as an acknowledgement of +subjection, Themistocles, by the consent of the people, seized upon +the interpreter, and put him to death, for presuming to publish the +barbarian orders and decrees in the Greek language; and having taken +upon himself the command of the Athenian forces, he immediately +endeavored to persuade the citizens to leave the city, and to embark +upon their galleys, and meet with the Persians at a great distance from +Greece. + +When the contingents met at the straits of Artemisium, the Greeks would +have the Lacedaemonians to command, and Eurybiades to be their admiral; +but the Athenians, who surpassed all the rest together in number of +vessels, would not submit to come after any other, till Themistocles, +perceiving the danger of this contest, yielded his own command to +Eurybiades, and got the Athenians to submit, persuading them that if in +this war they behaved themselves like men, he would answer for it after +that, that the Greeks, of their own will, would submit to their command. + +Though the fights between the Greeks and Persians in the straits of +Euboea were not so important as to make any final decision of the +war, yet the experience which the Greeks obtained in them was of great +advantage; for thus, by actual trial and in real danger, they found +out, that neither number of ships, or riches and ornaments, nor boasting +shouts, nor barbarous songs of victory, were any way terrible to men +that knew how to fight, and were resolved to come hand to hand with +their enemies. This, Pindar appears to have seen, and says justly enough +of the fight at Artemisium, that + + There the sons of Athens set + The stone that freedom stands on yet. + +For the first step towards victory undoubtedly is to gain courage. +Artemisium is in Euboea, beyond the city of Histiaea, a sea-beach open +to the north; there is small temple there, dedicated to Diana, surnamed +of the Dawn, and trees about it, around which again stand pillars of +white marble; and if rub them with your hand, they send forth both the +smell and color of saffron. + +But when news came from Thermopylae to Artemisium, informing that that +king Leonidas was slain, and that Xerxes had made himself master of +all the passages by land, they returned back to the interior of Greece. +Xerxes had already passed through Doris and invaded the country of +Phocis, and was burning and destroying the cities of the Phocians, yet +the Greeks sent them no relief; and, though the Athenians earnestly +desired them to meet the Persians in Boeotia, before they could come +into Attica, as they themselves had come forward by sea at Artemisium, +they gave no ear to their request, being wholly intent upon +Peloponnesus, and resolved to gather all their forces together within +the Isthmus, and to build a wall from sea to sea in that narrow neck of +land; so that the Athenians were enraged to see themselves betrayed, and +at the same time afflicted and dejected at their own destitution. For to +fight alone against such a numerous army was to no purpose, and the +only expedient now left them was to leave their city and cling to their +ships; which the people were very unwilling to submit to, imagining that +it would signify little now to gain a victory, and not understanding how +there could be deliverance any longer after they had once forsaken +the temples of their gods and exposed the tombs and monuments of their +ancestors to the fury of their enemies. + +Themistocles, being at a loss, and not able to draw the people over +to his opinion by any human reason, set his machines to work, as in a +theatre, and employed prodigies and oracles. The serpent of Athena, kept +in the inner part of her temple, disappeared; the priests gave it out +to the people and declared, by the suggestion of Themistocles, that the +goddess had left the city, and taken her flight before them towards the +sea. And he often urged them with the oracle which bade them "trust to +walls of wood," showing them that walls of wood could signify nothing +else but ships; and that the island of Salamis was termed in it not +miserable or unhappy, but had the epithet of divine, for that it should +one day be associated with a great good fortune of the Greeks. At length +his opinion prevailed, and he obtained a decree that the city should be +committed to the protection of Athena, "queen of Athens"; that they +who were of age to bear arms should embark, and that each should see to +sending away his children, women, and slaves where he could. This decree +being confirmed, most of the Athenians removed their parents, wives, and +children to Troezen, where they were received with eager good-will by +the Troezenians, who passed a vote that they should be maintained at the +public charge. + +Among the great actions of Themistocles at this crisis, the recall of +Aristides was not the least, for, before the war, he had been ostracized +by the party which Themistocles headed, and was in banishment; but now, +perceiving that the people regretted his absence, and were fearful that +he might go over to the Persians to revenge himself, and thereby ruin +the affairs of Greece, Themistocles proposed a decree that those who +were banished for a time might return again, to give assistance by word +and deed to the cause of Greece with the rest of their fellow citizens. + +Eurybiades, by reason of the greatness of Sparta, was admiral of the +Greek fleet, but yet was faint-hearted in time of danger, and willing +to weigh anchor and set sail for the Isthmus of Corinth, near which the +land army lay encamped; which Themistocles, resisted; and this was +the occasion of the well-known words, when Eurybiades, to check his +impatience, told him that at the Olympic games they that start up before +the rest are lashed. "And they," replied Themistocles, "that are left +behind are not crowned." Some say that while Themistocles was thus +speaking things upon the deck, an owl was seen flying to the right hand +of the fleet, which came and sat upon the top of the mast; and this +happy omen so far disposed the Greeks to follow his advice, that they +presently prepared to fight. Yet, when the enemy's fleet was arrived at +the haven of Phalerum, upon the coast of Attica, and with the number of +their ships concealed all the shore, and when they saw the king himself +in person come down with his land army to the sea-side, with all his +forces united, then the good counsel of Themistocles was soon forgotten, +and the Peloponnesians cast their eyes again towards the Isthmus, and +took it very ill if any one spoke against their returning home; and, +resolving to depart that night, the pilots had order what course to +steer. + +Themistocles, in great distress that the Greeks should return, and lost +the advantage of the narrow seas and strait passage, and slip home +very one to his own city, considered with himself, and contrived that +stratagem which was carried out by Sicinnus. This Sicinnus was a Persian +captive, but a great lover of Themistocles, and the attendant of his +children. Upon this occasion he sent him privately to Xerxes, commanding +him to tell the king that Themistocles, the admiral of the Athenians, +having espoused his interest, wished to be the first to inform him that +the Greeks were ready to make their escape, and that he counseled him to +hinder their flight, to set upon them while they were in this confusion +and at a distance from their land army, and thereby destroy all their +forces by sea. Xerxes was very joyful at this message, and received it +as from one who wished him all that was good, and immediately issued +instructions to the commanders of his ships that they should instantly +set out with two hundred galleys to encompass all the islands, and +enclose all the straits and passages, that none of the Greeks might +escape, and that they should afterward follow with the rest of their +fleet at leisure. This being done, Aristides, the son of Lysimachus, was +the first man that perceived it, and went to the test of Themistocles, +not out of any friendship, for he had been formerly banished by his +means, as has been related, but to inform him how they were encompassed +by their enemies. Themistocles, knowing the generosity of Aristides, and +much struck by his visit at that time, imparted to him all that he had +transacted by Sicinnus, and entreated him that, as he would be more +readily believed among the Greeks, he would make use of his credit to +help to induce them to stay and fight their enemies in the narrow seas. +Aristides applauded Themistocles, and went to the other commanders and +captains of the galleys and encouraged them to engage; yet they did not +perfectly assent to him till a galley of Tenos, which deserted from the +Persians, of which Panaetius was commander, came in, while they were +still doubting, and confirmed the news that all the straits and passages +were beset; and then their rage and fury, as well as their necessity, +provoked them all to fight. + +As soon as it was day, Xerxes placed himself high up, to view his fleet, +as Acestodorus writes, in the confines of Megara, upon those hills +which are called the Horns, where he sat in a chair of gold, with many +secretaries about him to write down all that was done in the fight. + +The number of the enemy's ships the poet Aeschylus gives in his tragedy +called the Persians, as on his certain knowledge, in the following +words: + + Xerxes, I know, did into battle lead + One thousand ships; of more than usual speed + Seven and two hundred. So is it agreed. + +The Athenians had a hundred and eighty; in every ship eighteen +men fought upon the deck, four of whom were archers and the rest +men-at-arms. + +As Themistocles had fixed upon the most advantageous place, so, with no +less sagacity, he chose the best time of fighting; for he would not run +the prows of his galleys against the Persians, nor begin the fight till +the time of day was come when there regularly blows in a fresh breeze +from the open sea, and brings in with it a strong swell into the +channel; this was no inconvenience to the Greek ships, which were +low-built, and little above the water, but did much hurt to the +Persians, which had high sterns and lofty decks, and were heavy and +cumbrous in their movements, as it presented them broadside to the +quick charges of the Greeks, who kept their eyes upon the motions of +Themistocles, as their best example, and more particularly because, +opposed to his ship, Ariamenes, admiral to Xerxes, a brave man, and by +far the best and worthiest of the king's brothers, was seen throwing +darts and shooting arrows from his huge galley, as from the walls of a +castle. Aminias the Decelean and Sosicles the Pedian, who sailed in the +same vessel, upon the ships meeting stem to stem, and transfixing each +the other with their brazen prows, so that they were fastened together, +when Ariamenes attempted to board theirs, ran at them with their pikes, +and thrust him into the sea; his body, as it floated amongst other +shipwrecks, was discovered by Artemisia, and carried to Xerxes. + +The first man that took a ship was Lycomedes the Athenian, captain of +a galley, who cut down its ensign, and dedicated it to Apollo the +Laurel-crowned. And as the Persians fought in a narrow sea, and could +bring but part of their fleet to fight, and fell foul of one another, +the Greeks thus equaled them in strength, and fought with them till the +evening, forced them back, and obtained, as says Simonides, that noble +and famous victory, than which neither amongst the Greeks nor barbarians +was ever known more glorious exploit on the seas; by the joint valor, +indeed, and zeal of all who fought, but most by the wisdom and sagacity +of Themistocles. + +After this sea-fight, Xerxes, enraged at his ill-fortune, attempted, +by casting great heaps of earth and stones into the sea, to stop up the +channel and to make a dam, upon which he might lead his land forces over +into the island of Salamis. + +Themistocles, being desirous to try the opinion of Aristides, told him +that he proposed to set sail for the Hellespont, to break the bridge +of ships, so as to shut up, he said, Aisa a prisoner within Europe; but +Aristides, disliking the design, said: "We have hitherto fought with an +enemy who has regarded little else but his pleasure and luxury; but if +we shut him up within Greece, and drive him to necessity, he that is +master of such great forces will no longer sit quietly with an umbrella +of gold over his head, looking upon the fight for his pleasure; but he +will be resolute, and attempt all things. Therefore, it is noways our +interest, Themistocles," he said, "to take away the bridge that is +already made, but rather to build another, if it were possible, that he +might make his retreat with the more expedition." To which Themistocles +answered: "If this be requisite, we must immediately use all diligence, +art, and industry, to rid ourselves of him as soon as may be;" and to +this purpose he found out among the captives one named Arnaces, whom he +sent to the king, to inform him that the Greeks, being now victorious +by sea, had decreed to sail to the Hellespont, where the boasts were +fastened together, and destroy the bridge; but that Themistocles, being +concerned for the king, revealed this to him, that he might hasten +toward the Asiatic seas, and pass over into his own dominions; and +in the meantime would cause delays, and hinder the confederates +from pursuing him. Xerxes no sooner heard this than, being very much +terrified, he proceeded to retreat out of Greece with all speed. The +prudence of Themistocles and Aristides in this was afterward more fully +understood at the battle of Plataea, where Mardonius, with a very small +fraction of the forces of Xerxes, put the Greeks in danger of losing +all. + +Herodotus writes that, of all the cities of Greece, Aegina was held to +have performed the best service in the war; while all single men +yielded to Themistocles, though, out of envy, unwillingly; and when they +returned to the entrance of Peloponnesus, where the several commanders +delivered their suffrages at the altar, to determine who was most +worthy, every one gave the first vote for himself and the second for +Themistocles. The Lacedaemonians carried him with them to Sparta, where, +giving the rewards of valor to Eurybiades, and of wisdom and conduct to +Themistocles, they crowned him with olive, presented him with the best +chariot in the city, and sent three hundred young men to accompany him +to the confines of their country. And at the next Olympic games, when +Themistocles entered the course, the spectators took no further notice +of those who were competing for the prizes, but spent the whole day +in looking upon him, showing him to the strangers, admiring him, and +applauding him by clapping their hands, and other expressions of joy, so +that he himself, much gratified, confessed to his friends that he then +reaped the fruit of all his labors for the Greeks. + +He was, indeed, by nature, a great lover of honor, as is evident from +the anecdotes recorded of him. When chosen admiral by the Athenians, he +would not quite conclude any single matter of business, either public or +private, but deferred all till the day they were to set sail, that, by +dispatching a great quantity of business all at once, and having to met +a great variety of people, he might make an appearance of greatness +and power. Viewing the dead bodies cast up by the sea, he perceived +bracelets and necklaces of gold about them, yet passed on, only showing +them to a friend that followed him, saying, "Take you these things, for +you are not Themistocles." He aid to Antiphates, a handsome young +man, "Time, young man, has taught us both a lesson." He said that the +Athenians did not honor him or admire him, but made, as it were, a sort +of plane-tree of him; sheltered themselves under him in bad weather, and +as soon as it was fine, plucked his leaves and cut his branches. When a +Seriphian told him that he had not obtained this honor by himself, but +by the greatness of his city, he replied: "You speak truth; I should +never have been famous if I had been of Seriphus; nor you, had you been +of Athens." Laughing at his own son, who got his mother, and by his +mother's means, his father also to indulge him, he told him that he had +the most power of any one is Greece: "For the Athenians command the rest +of Greece, I command the Athenians, your mother commands me, and you +command your mother." Of the two who made love to his daughter, he +preferred the man of worth to the one who was rich, saying he desired a +man without riches, rather than riches without a man. + +When the citizens of Athens began to listen willingly to those who +traduced and reproached him, he was forced, with somewhat obnoxious +frequency, to put them in mind of the great services he had performed. +And he yet more provoked the people by building a temple to Diana with +the epithet of Aristobule, or Diana of Best Counsel; intimating thereby +that he had given the best counsel, not only to the Athenians, but to +all Greece. At length the Athenians banished him, making use of the +ostracism to humble his eminence and authority, as they ordinarily +did with all whom they thought too powerful, or, by their greatness, +disproportionate to the equality thought requisite in a popular +government. For the ostracism was instituted, not so much to punish +the offender as to mitigate and pacify the violence of the envious, who +delighted to humble eminent men, and who, by fixing this disgrace upon +them, might vent some part of their rancor. + +Themistocles being banished from Athens, while he stayed at Argos the +detection of Pausanias happened. And after Pausanias was put to death, +letters and writings were found which rendered Themistocles suspected, +and his enemies among the Athenians accused him. In answer to the +malicious detractions of his enemies, he merely wrote to the citizens +urging that he who was always ambitious to govern, and not of a +character or a disposition to serve, would never sell himself and his +country into slavery to a barbarous and hostile nation. + +Notwithstanding this, the people, being persuaded by his accuser, set +officers to take him and bring him away to be tried before a council +of the Greeks; but, having timely notice of it, he passed over into the +island of Corcyra, where the state was under obligations to him; +for, being chosen as arbitrator in a difference between them and the +Corinthians, he decided the controversy by ordering the Corinthians to +pay down twenty talents, and declaring the town and island of Leucas a +joint colony from both cities. From thence he fled into Epirus, and, the +Athenians and Lacedaemonians still pursuing him, he threw himself upon +chances of safety that seemed all but desperate. For he fled fro refuge +to Admetus, kind of the Molossians, who had formerly made some request +to the Athenians when Themistocles was in the height of his authority, +and had been disdainfully used and insulted by him, and had let it +appear plain enough that could he lay hold of him he would take his +revenge. Yet in this misfortune, Themistocles, fearing the recent hatred +of his neighbors and fellow-citizens more than the old displeasure of +the king, put himself at his mercy, and became an humble suppliant to +Admetus, after a peculiar manner, different from the custom of other +countries. For taking the king's son, who was then a child, in his arms, +he laid himself down at his hearth, this being the most sacred and +only manner of supplication, among the Molossians, which was not to be +refused. + +Thucydides says, that, passing over land to the Aegean Sea, he took shop +at Pydna in the bay of Thermae, not being known to any one in the ship, +till, being terrified to see the vessel driven by the winds near to +Naxos, which was then besieged by the Athenians, he made himself +known to the master and pilot, and, partly entreating them, partly +threatening, he compelled them to bear off and stand out to sea, and +sail forward toward the coast of Aisa. + +When he arrived at Cyme, and understood that all along the coast many +laid in wait for him (the king of Persia having offered by public +proclamation two hundred talents to him that should take him), he fled +to Aegae, a small city of the Aeolians, where no one knew him but only +his host Nicogenes, who was the richest man in Aeolia, and well known to +the great men of Inner Asia. There Themistocles, going to bed, dreamed +that he saw a snake coil itself up upon his belly, and so creep to his +neck; then, as soon as it touched his face, it turned into an eagle, +which spread its wings over him, and took him up and flew away with him +a great distance; then there appeared a herald's golden wand, and +upon this at last it set him down securely, after infinite terror and +disturbance. + +His departure was effected by Nicogenes by the following artifice: the +barbarous nations, and among them the Persians especially, are extremely +jealous, severe, and suspicious about their wives, whom they keep so +strictly that no one ever sees them abroad; they spend their lives shut +up within doors, and, when they take a journey, are carried in close +tenets, curtained in on all sides, and set upon a wagon. Such a +traveling carriage being prepared for Themistocles, they hid him in it, +and carried him on his journey, and told those whom they met or spoke +with upon the road that they were conveying a young Greek woman out of +Ionia to a nobleman at court. + +When he was introduced to the king, and had paid his reverence to him, +he stood silent, till the king commanding the interpreter to ask him who +he was, he replied: "O king, I am Themistocles the Athenian, driven +into banishment by the Greeks. The evils I have done to the Persians are +numerous; but my benefits to them yet greater, in withholding the Greeks +from pursuit, so soon as the deliverance of my own country allowed me +to show kindness also to you. I come with a mind suited to my present +calamities; prepared alike for favors and for anger; to welcome your +gracious reconciliation, and to deprecate your wrath. Take my own +countrymen for witnesses of the services I have done for Persia, and +make use of this occasion to show the world your virtue, rather than to +satisfy your indignation. If you save me, you will save your suppliant; +if otherwise, you will destroy an enemy of the Greeks." + +In the morning, calling together the chief of his court, he had +Themistocles brought before him, who expected no good of it. Yet, when +he came into the presence, and again fell down, the king saluted him, +and spake to him kindly, telling him he was now indebted to him two +hundred talents; for it was just and reasonable that he should receive +the reward which was proposed to whosoever should bring Themistocles; +and promising much more, and encouraging him, he commanded him to speak +freely what he would concerning the affairs of Greece. Themistocles +replied, that a man's discourse was like to a rich Persians carpet, the +beautiful figures and patterns of which can only be shown by spreading +and extending it out; when it is contracted and folded up, they are +obscured and lost; and, therefore, he desired time. The king being +pleased with the comparison, and bidding him take what time he would, +he desired a year; in which time, having learnt the Persian language +sufficiently, he spoke with the king by himself without the help of an +interpreter; the king invited him to partake of his own pastimes and +recreations both at home and abroad, carrying him with him a-hunting, +and made him his intimate so far that he permitted him to see the +queen-mother, and converse frequently with her. By the king's command, +he also was made acquainted with the Magian learning. + +They relate, also, how Themistocles, when he was in great prosperity, +and courted by many, seeing himself splendidly served at his table, +turned to his children and said: "Children, we had been undone if we +had not been undone." Most writers say that he had three cities given +him--Magnesia, Myus and Lampsacus--to maintain him in bread, meat and +wine; and some add two more, the city of Palaescepsis, to provide him +with clothes, and Percote, with bedding and furniture for his house. + +He lived quietly in his own house in Magnesia, where for a long time he +passed his days in great security, being courted by all, and enjoying +rich presents, and honored equally with the greatest persons in the +Persian empire; the king, at that time, not minding his concerns with +Greece, being taken up with the affairs of Inner Aisa. + +But when Egypt revolted, being assisted by the Athenians, and the Greek +galleys roved about as far as Cyprus and Cilicia, and Cimon had made +himself master of the seas, the king turned his thoughts thither, and, +bending his mind chiefly to resist the Greeks, and to cheek the +growth of their power against him, began to raise forces, and send out +commanders, and to dispatch messengers to Themistocles at Magnesia, to +put him in mind of his promise, and to summon him to act against the +Greeks. Yet this did not increase his hatred nor exasperate him against +the Athenians, but, being ashamed to sully the glory of his former great +actions, and of his many victories and trophies, he determined to put a +conclusion to his life, agreeable to its previous course. He sacrificed +to the gods, and invited his friends; and having entertained them and +shaken hands with them, drank bull's blood, as is the usual story; as +others state, a poison, producing instant death; and ended his days in +the city of Magnesia, having lived sixty-five years, most of which he +had spent in politics and in the wars, in government and command. The +king, being informed of the cause and manner of his death, admired him +the more than ever, and continued to show kindness to his friends and +relations. + +The Magnesians possess a splendid sepulchre of Themistocles, placed in +the middle of their market-place. And various honors and privileges were +granted to the kindred of Themistocles at Magnesia, which were observed +down to our times, and were enjoyed by another Themistocles of Athens, +with whom I had an intimate acquaintance and friendship in the house of +Ammonius the philosopher. + + + + +CAMILLUS + +Among the many remarkable things that are related of Furius Camillus, it +seems singular that he, who continually was in the highest commands, +and obtained the greatest successes, was five times chosen dictator, +triumphed four times, and was styled a second founder of Rome, yet never +was so much as once consul. The reason of which was the state and temper +of the commonwealth at that time; for the people, being at dissension +with the senate, refused to return consuls, but they instead elected +other magistrates, called military tribunes, who acted, indeed, with +full consular power, but were thought to exercise a less obnoxious +amount of authority, because it was divided among a larger number. + +The house of the Furii was not, at that time, of any considerable +distinction; he, by his own acts, first raised himself to honor, serving +under Postumius Tubertus, dictator, in the great battle against the +Aequians and Volscians. For, riding out from the rest of the army, and +in the charge receiving a would in his thigh, he for all that did not +quit the fight, but, letting the dart drag in the would, and engaging +with the bravest of the enemy, put them to flight; for which action, +among other rewards bestowed on him, he was created censor, an office in +those days of great repute and authority. During his censorship one +very good act of his is recorded, that, whereas the wars had made many +widows, he obliged such as had no wives, some by fair persuasion, others +by threatening to set fines on their heads, to take them in marriage; +another necessary one, in causing orphans to be rated, who before were +exempted from taxes, the frequent wars requiring more than ordinary +expenses to maintain them. What, however, pressed them most was the +siege of Veii. Some call this people Veientani. This was the head city +of Tuscany, not inferior to Rome either in number of arms or multitude +of soldiers, insomuch that, presuming on her wealth and luxury, and +priding herself upon her refinement and sumptuousness, she engaged in +many honorable contests with the Romans for glory and empire. But now +they had abandoned their former ambitious hopes, having been weakened by +great defeats, so that, having fortified themselves with high and strong +walls, and furnished the city with all sorts of weapons offensive and +defensive, as likewise with corn and all manner of provisions, they +cheerfully endured a siege, which, though tedious to them, was no less +troublesome and distressing to the besiegers. For the Romans, having +never been accustomed to stay away from home except in summer, and for +no great length of time, and constantly to winter at home, were then +first compelled by the tribunes to build forts in the enemy's country, +and, raising strong works about their camp, to join winter and summer +together. And now the seventh year of the war drawing to an end, the +commanders began to be suspected as too slow and remiss in driving on +the siege, insomuch that they were discharged and others chosen for the +war, among whom was Camillus, then second time tribune. But at present +he had no hand in the siege, the duties that fell by lot to him being to +make war upon the Faliscans and Capenates, who, taking advantage of +the Romans being occupied on all hands, had carried ravages into their +country, and through all the Tuscan war, given them much annoyance, but +were now reduced by Camillus, and with great loss shut up within their +walls. + +And now, in the very heat of the war, a strange phenomenon in the +Alban lake, which, in the absence of any known cause and explanation by +natural reasons, seemed as great a prodigy as the most incredible that +are reported, occasioned great alarm. It was the beginning of autumn, +and the summer now ending had, to all observation, been neither rainy +nor much troubled with southern winds; and of the many lakes, brooks, +and springs of all sorts with which Italy abounds, some were wholly +dried up, others had very little water in them; all the rivers, as is +usual in summer, ran in a very low and hollow channel. But the Alban +lake, which is fed by no other waters but its own, and is on all sides +encircled with fruitful mountains, without any cause, unless it were +divine, began visibly to rise and swell, increasing to the feet of the +mountains, and by degrees reaching the level of the very tops of some of +them, and all this without any waves or agitation. At first it was the +wonder of shepherds and herdsmen; but when the earth, which, like a +great dam, held up the lake from falling into the lower grounds, through +the quantity and weight of water was broken down, and in a violent +stream it ran through the ploughed fields and plantations to discharge +itself in the sea, it not only struck terror into the Romans, but was +thought by all the inhabitants of Italy to portend some extraordinary +event. But the greatest talk of it was in the camp that besieged Veii, +so that in the town itself, also, the occurrence became known. + +As in long sieges it commonly happens that both parties on both sides +meet often and converse with one another, so it chanced that a Roman had +gained much confidence and familiarity with one of the besieged, a man +versed in ancient prophecies, and of repute for more than ordinary skill +in divination. The Roman, observing him to be overjoyed at the story of +the lake, and to mock at the siege, told him that this was not the only +prodigy that of late had happened to the Romans; others more wonderful +yet than this had befallen them, which he was willing to communicate to +him, that he might the better provide for his private interests in these +public distempers. The man greedily embraced the proposal, expecting to +hear some wonderful secrets; but when, little by little, he had led him +on in conversation, and insensibly drawn him a good way from the gates +of the city, he snatched him up the middle, being stronger than he, and, +by the assistance of others who came running from the camp, seized and +delivered him to the commanders. The man, reduced to this necessity, and +sensible now that destiny was not to be avoided, discovered to them the +secret oracle of Veii, that it was not possible the city should be +taken until the Alban lake, which now broke forth and had found out new +passages, was drawn back from that course, and so diverted that it +could not mingle with the sea. The senate, having heard and satisfied +themselves about the matter, decreed to send to Delphi, to ask counsel +of the god. The messengers returned with the answer that the Alban +water, if possible, they should keep from the sea, and shut it up in its +ancient bounds; but if that was not to be done, then they should carry +it off by ditches and trenches into the lower grounds, and so dry it up; +which message being delivered, the priests performed what related to the +sacrifices, and the people went to work and turned the water. + +And now the senate, in the tenth year of the war, taking away all other +commands, created Camillus dictator, who chose Cornelius Scipio for his +general of horse, and, having made vows, marched into the country of the +Faliscans, and in a great battle overthrew them and the Capenates, their +confederates; afterwards he turned to the siege of Veii, and finding +that to take it by assault would prove a difficult and hazardous +attempt, proceeded to cut mines under ground, the earth about the city +being easy to break up, and allowing such depth for the works as would +prevent their being discovered by the enemy. This design going on in a +hopeful way, he openly gave assaults to the enemy, to keep them to the +walls, until they that worked underground in the mines might, without +being perceived, arrive within the citadel, close to the temple of Juno, +which was the greatest and most honored in all the city. It is said that +the prince of the Tuscans was at that very time at sacrifice, and that +the priest, after he had looked into the entrails of the beast, cried +out with a loud voice that the gods would give the victory to those that +should complete those offerings; and that the Romans who were in the +mines, hearing the words, immediately pulled down the floor, and, +ascending with noise, and clashing of weapons, frightened away the +enemy, and, snatching up the entrails, carried them to Camillus. But +this may look like a fable. The city, however, being taken by storm, and +the soldiers busied in pillaging and gathering an infinite quantity of +riches and spoil, Camillus, from the high tower viewing what was done, +at first wept for pity; and when the bystanders congratulated him upon +his success, he lifted up his hands to heaven, and broke out into this +prayer: "O most mighty Jupiter, and ye gods that are judges of good and +evil actions, ye know that not without just cause, but constrained by +necessity, we have been forced to revenge ourselves on the city of our +unrighteous and wicked enemies. But if, the the vicissitude of things, +there by any calamity due, to counter-balance this great felicity, I beg +that it may be diverted from the city and army of the Romans, and fall, +with as little hurt as may be, upon my own head." Having said these +words, and just turning about (as the custom of the Romans is to turn +to the right after adoration or prayer), he stumbled and fell, to the +astonishment of all that were present. But, recovering himself presently +from the fall, he told them that he had received what he had prayed for, +a small mischance, in compensation for the greatest good fortune. + +Camillus, however, whether puffed up with the greatness of his +achievement in conquering a city that was the rival of Rome, and held +out a ten years' siege, or exalted with the felicitations of those that +were about him, assumed to himself more than became a civil and legal +magistrate; among other things, in the pride and haughtiness of triumph, +driving through Rome in a chariot drawn with four white horses, which no +general either before or since ever did; for the Romans consider such a +mode of conveyance to be sacred and specially set apart to the king and +father of the gods. This alienated the hearts of his fellow-citizens, +who were not accustomed to such pomp and display. + +The second pique they had against him was his opposing the law by which +the city was to be divided; for the tribunes of the people brought +forward a motion that the people and senate should be divided into two +parts, one of which should remain at home, the other, as the lot should +decide, remove to the new-taken city. By which means they should +not only have much more room, but, by the advantage of two great and +magnificent cities, be better able to maintain their territories and +their fortunes in general. The people, therefore, who were numerous and +indigent, greedily embraced it, and crowded continually to the forum, +with tumultuous demands to have it put to the vote. But the senate and +the noblest citizens, judging the proceedings of the tribunes to tend +rather to a destruction than a division of Rome, greatly averse to it, +went to Camillus for assistance, who, fearing the result if it came to a +direct contest, contrived to occupy the people with other business, and +so staved it off. He thus became unpopular. + +And now the tribunes of the people again resuming their motion for the +division of the city, the war against the Faliscans luckily broke out, +giving liberty to the chief citizens to choose what magistrates they +pleased, and to appoint Camillus military tribune, with five colleagues; +affairs then requiring a commander of authority and reputation, as well +as experience. And when the people had ratified the election, he marched +with his forces into the territories of the Faliscans, and laid siege +to Falerii, a well-fortified city, and plentifully stored with all +necessaries of war. And although he perceived it would be so small work +to take it, and no little time would be required for it, yet he was +willing to exercise the citizens and keep them abroad, that they might +have no leisure, idling at home, to follow the tribunes in factions +and seditions: a very common remedy, indeed, with the Romans, who thus +carried off, like good physicians, the ill humors of their commonwealth. +The Falerians (The Falerians, in this narrative, are the people of the +town; the Faliscans, the nation in general.), trusting in the strength +of their city, which was well fortified on all sides, made so little +account of the siege, that all, with the exception of those that guarded +the walls, as in times of peace, walked about the streets in their +common dress; the boys went to school, and were led by their master +to play and exercise about the town walls; for the Falerians, like the +Greeks, used to have a single teacher for many pupils, wishing their +children to live and be brought up from the beginning in each others +company. + +This schoolmaster, designing to betray the Falerians by their children, +led them out every day under the town wall, at first but a little way, +and, when they had exercised, brought them home again. Afterwards by +degrees he drew them farther and farther, till by practice he had made +them bold and fearless, as if no danger was about them; and at last, +having got them all together, he brought them to the outposts of the +Romans, and delivered them up, demanding to be led to Camillus. Where +being come, and standing in the middle, he said that he was the master +and teacher of these children, but, preferring his favor before all +other obligations, he had come to deliver up his charge to him, and, in +that, the whole city. When Camillus had heard him out, he was astounded +at the treachery of the act, and, turning to the standers-by observed +that, "War, indeed, is of necessity attended with much injustice and +violence! Certain laws, however, all good men observe even in war +itself, nor is victory so great an object as to induce us to incur for +its sake obligations for base and impious acts. A great general should +rely on his own virtue, and not other men's vices." Which said, he +commanded the officers to tear off the man's clothes, and bind his hands +behind him and give the boys rods and scourges, to punish the traitor +and drive him back to the city. By this time the Falerians had +discovered the treachery of the schoolmaster, and the city, as was +likely, was full of lamentations and cries for their calamity, men and +women of worth running in distraction about the walls and gates; when, +behold, the boys came whipping their master on, naked and bound, calling +Camillus their preserver and god and father; so that it struck not only +the parents, but the rest of the citizens, with such admiration and love +of Camillus's justice, that, immediately meeting in assembly, they +sent ambassadors to him, to resign whatever they had to his disposal. +Camillus sent them to Rome, where, being brought into the senate, +they spoke to this purpose: that the Romans, preferring justice before +victory, had taught them rather to embrace submission than liberty; they +did not so much confess themselves to be inferior in strength as they +must acknowledge them to be superior in virtue. The senate remitted the +whole matter to Camillus, to judge and order as he thought fit; who, +taking a sum of money of the Falerians, and making a peace with the +whole nation of Faliscans, returned home. + +But the soldiers, who had expected to have the pillage of the city, +when they came to Rome empty-handed railed against Camillus among their +fellow-citizens, as a hater of the people, and one that grudged +all advantage to the poor. The People were exasperated against him. +Gathering, therefore, together his friends and fellow-soldiers, and such +as had borne command with him, a considerable number in all, he besought +them that they would not suffer him to be unjustly overborne by shameful +accusations, and left the mock and scorn of his enemies. His friends, +having advised and consulted among themselves, made answer, that, as to +the sentence, they did not see how they could help him, but that they +would contribute to whatsoever fine should be set upon him. Not able to +endure so great an indignity, he resolved in his anger to leave the city +and go into exile; and so, having taken leave of his wife and son, he +went silently to the gate of the city, and, there stopping and turning +round, stretched out his hands to the Capitol, and prayed to the gods, +that if, without any fault of his own, but merely through the malice and +violence of the people, he was driven out into banishment, the Romans +might quickly repent of it; and that all mankind might witness their +need for the assistance, and desire for the return, of Camillus. + +And there is not a Roman but believes that immediately upon the prayers +of Camillus a sudden judgment followed, and that he received a revenge +for the injustice done unto him, which was very remarkable, and noised +over the whole world: such a punishment visited the city of Rome, an era +of such loss and danger and disgrace so quickly succeeded; whether it +thus fell out by fortune, or it be the office of god not to see injured +virtue go unavenged. + +The first token that seemed to threaten some mischief to ensure was the +death of the censor Julius; for the Romans have a religious reverence +for the office of a censor, and esteem it sacred. The second was, that, +just before Camillus went into exile, Marcus Caedicius, a person of no +great distinction, nor of the rank of senator, but esteemed a good and +respectable man, reported to the military tribunes a thing worthy their +consideration: that, going along the night before in the street called +the New Way, and being called by somebody in a loud voice, he turned +about, but could see no one, but heard a voice greater than human, which +said these words, "Go, Marcus Caedicius, and early in the morning tell +the military tribunes that they are shortly to expect the Gauls." But +the tribunes made a mock and sport with the story, and a little after +came Camillus's banishment. + +The Gauls are of the Celtic race, and are reported to have been +compelled by their numbers to leave their country, which was +insufficient to sustain them all, and to have gone in search of other +homes. And being, many thousands of them, young men able to bear +arms, and carrying with them a still greater number of women and young +children, some of them, passing the Riphaean mountains, fell upon +the Northern Ocean, and possessed themselves of the farthest parts of +Europe; others, seating themselves between the Pyrenean mountains and +the Alps, lived there a considerable time, near to the Senones and +Celtorii; but, afterwards tasting wine, which was then first brought +them out of Italy, they were all so much taken with the liquor, and +transported with the hitherto unknown delight, that, snatching up their +arms and taking their families along with them, they marched directly to +the Alps, to find out the country which yielded such fruit, pronouncing +all others barren and useless. He that first brought wine among them and +was the chief instigator of their coming into Italy is said to have been +one Aruns, A Tuscan, a man of noble extraction. + +At their first coming they at once possessed themselves of all that +country which anciently the Tuscans inhabited, reaching from the Alps +to both the seas, as the names themselves testify; for the North of +Adriatic Sea is named from the Tuscan city Adria, and that to the south +the Tuscan Sea simply. The whole country is rich in fruit trees, has +excellent pasture, and is well watered with river. It had eighteen large +and beautiful cities, well provided with all the means for industry and +wealth, and all the enjoyments and pleasures of life. The Gauls cast out +the Tuscans, and seated themselves in them. + +The Gauls at this time were besieging Clusium, a Tuscan city. The +Clusinians sent to the Romans for succor, desiring them to interpose +with the barbarians by letters and ambassadors. The Romans, perceiving +that Brennus, the leader of the Gauls, was not to be treated with, went +into Clusium and encouraged the inhabitants to make a sally with them +upon the barbarians, which they did either to try their strength or to +show their own. The sally being made, and the fight growing hot about +the walls, one of the Fabii, Quintus Ambustus, who had come as an +ambassador, being well mounted, and setting spurs to his horse, made +full against a Gaul, a man of huge bulk and stature, whom he saw riding +out at a distance from the rest. At the first he was not recognized, +through the quickness of the conflict and the glittering of the armor, +that precluded any view of him; but when he had overthrown the Gaul, and +was going to gather the spoils, Brennus knew him; and invoking the gods +to be witnesses that, contrary to the known and common law of nations, +which is holily observed by all mankind, he who had come as an +ambassador had now engaged in hostility against him, he drew off his +men, and, bidding Clusium farewell, led his army directly against Rome. + +Whilst the barbarians were hastening with all speed, the military +tribunes brought the Romans into the field to be ready to engage them, +being not inferior to the Gauls in number (for they were no less than +forty thousand foot), but most of them raw soldiers, and such as had +never handled a weapon before. Besides, they had wholly neglected +all religious usages, had not obtained favorable sacrifices, nor made +inquiries of the prophets, natural in danger and before battle. No less +did the multitude of commanders distract and confound their proceedings; +frequently before, upon less occasions, they had chosen a single leader, +with the title of dictator, being sensible of what great importance it +is in critical times to have the solders united under one general with +the entire and absolute control placed in his hands. Add to all, the +remembrance of Camillus's treatment, which made it now seem a dangerous +thing for officers to command without humoring their solders. In this +condition they left the city, and encamped by the river Allia, about +ten miles from Rome, and not far from the place where it falls into +the Tiber; and here the Gauls came upon them, and, after a disgraceful +resistance, devoid of order and discipline, they were miserably +defeated. The left wing was immediately driven into the river, and there +destroyed; the right had less damage by declining the shock, and from +the low ground getting to the tops of the hills, from whence most of +them afterwards dropped into the city; the rest, as many as escaped, the +enemy being weary of the slaughter, stole by night to Veii, giving up +Rome and all that was in it for lost. + +This battle was fought about the summer solstice, the moon being at +full, the very same day in which the sad disaster of the Fabii had +happened, when three hundred of that name were at one time cut off by +the Tuscans. + +And now, after the battle, had the Gauls immediately pursued those that +fled, there had been no remedy but Rome must have wholly been ruined, +and all those who remained in it utterly destroyed; such was the terror +that those who escaped the battle brought with them into the city, +and with such distraction and confusion were they themselves in +turn infected. But the Gauls, not imagining their victory to be so +considerable, and overtaken with the present joy, fell to feasting and +dividing the spoil, by which means they gave leisure to those who were +for leaving the city to make their escape, and to those that remained, +to anticipate and prepare for their coming. + +On the third day after the battle, Brennus appeared with his army at +the city, and, finding the gates wide open and no guards upon the walls, +first began to suspect it was some design or stratagem, never dreaming +that the Romans were in so desperate a condition. But when he found it +to be so indeed, he entered at the Colline gate, and took Rome, in the +three hundred and sixtieth year, or a little more, after it was built. + +Brennus having taken possession of Rome, set a strong guard about the +Capitol, and, going himself down into the forum, was there struck with +amazement at the sight of so many men sitting in such order and silence, +observing that they neither rose at his coming, nor so much as changed +color or countenance, but remained without fear or concern, leaning upon +their staves, and sitting quietly, looking at each other. The Gauls, +for a great while, stood wondering at the strangeness of the sight, +not daring to approach or touch them, taking them for an assembly of +superior beings. But when one, bolder than the rest, drew near to Marcus +Papirius, and, putting forth his hand, gently touched his chin and +stroked his long beard, Papirius with his staff struck him a severe blow +on the head; upon which the barbarian drew his sword and slew him. +This was the introduction to the slaughter; for the rest, following his +example, set upon them all and killed them, and dispatched all others +that came in their way; and so went on to the sacking and pillaging of +the houses, which they continued for many days ensuing. + +Camillus then sojourned in the city of Ardea, having, ever since his +leaving Rome, sequestered himself from all business, and taken to a +private life; but now he began to rouse up himself, and consider not +how to avoid or escape the enemy, but to find out an opportunity to be +revenged upon them. And perceiving that the Ardeatians wanted not men, +but rather enterprise, through the inexperience and timidity of their +officers, he began to speak with the young men, first to the effect that +they ought not to ascribe the misfortune of the Romans to the courage of +their enemy, nor attribute the losses they sustained by rash counsel to +the conduct of men who had no title to victory: the event had been +only an evidence of the power of fortune. When he found the young men +embraced the thing, he went to the magistrates and council of the city, +and, having persuaded them also, he mustered all that could bear arms, +and drew them up within the the walls, that they might not be perceived +by the enemy, who was near; who, having scoured the country, and +now returned heavy laden with booty, lay encamped in the plains in a +careless and negligent posture, so that, with the night ensuing upon +debauch and drunkenness, silence prevailed through all the camp. When +Camillus learned this from his scouts, he drew out the Ardeatians, and +in the dead of the night, passing in silence over the ground that lay +between, came up to their works, and, commanding his trumpets to sound +and his men to shout and halloo, he struck terror into them from all +quarters; while drunkenness impeded and sleep retarded their movements. +A few whom fear had sobered, getting into some order, for awhile +resisted; and so died with their weapons in their hands. But the +greatest part of them, buried in wine and sleep, were surprised without +their arms, and dispatched; and as many of them as by the advantage of +the night got out of the camp were the next day found scattered abroad +and wandering in the fields, and were picked up by the horse that +pursued them. + +The fame of this action soon flew through the neighboring cities, +and stirred up the young men from various quarters to come and join +themselves with him. But none were so much concerned as those Romans +who escaped in the battle of Allia, and were now at Veii, thus lamenting +with themselves, "O heavens, what a commander has Providence bereaved +Rome of, to honor Ardea with his actions! And that city, which brought +forth and nursed so great a man, is lost and gone, and we, destitute +of a leader and shut up within strange walls, sit idle, and see Italy +ruined before our eyes. Come, let us send to the Ardeatians to have back +our general, or else, with weapons in our hands, let us go thither to +him." To this they all agreed, and sent to Camillus to desire him to +take the command; but he answered that he would not until they that +were in the Capitol should legally appoint him. When this answer was +returned, they admired the modesty and tempter of Camillus; but they +could not tell how to find a messenger to carry the intelligence to the +Capitol, or rather, indeed, it seemed altogether impossible for any one +to get to the citadel whilst the enemy was in full possession of +the city. But among the young men there was one Pontius Cominius, of +ordinary birth, but ambitious of honor, who proffered himself to run the +hazard, and took no letters with him to those in the Capitol, lest, if +he were intercepted, the enemy might learn the intentions of Camillus; +but, putting on a poor dress and carrying corks under, he boldly +traveled the greatest part of the way by day, and came to the city when +it was dark; the bridge he could not pass, as it was guarded by the +barbarians; so that taking his clothes, which were neither many nor +heavy, and binding them about his head, he laid his body upon the +corks, and, swimming with them, got over to the city. And avoiding those +quarters where he perceived the enemy was awake, which he guessed at +by the lights and noise, he went to the Carmental gate, where there was +greatest silence, and where the hill of the Capitol is steepest, and +rises with craggy and broken rock. By this way he got up, though with +much difficulty, by the hollow of the cliff, and presented himself to +the guards, saluting them, and telling them his name; he was taken in, +and carried to the commanders. And a senate being immediately called, +he related to them in order the victory of Camillus, which they had not +heard of before, and the proceedings of the soldiers, urging them +to confirm Camillus in the command, as on him alone all their +fellow-countrymen outside the city would rely. Having heard and +consulted of the matter, the senate declared Camillus dictator, and sent +back Pontius the same way that he came, who, with the same success as +before, got through the enemy without being discovered, and delivered to +the Romans outside the decision of the senate, who joyfully received it. +Camillus, on his arrival, found twenty thousand of them ready in arms; +with which forces, and those confederates he brought along with him, he +prepared to set upon the enemy. + +But at Rome some of the barbarians passing by chance near the place at +which Pontius by night had got into the Capitol, spied in several places +marks of feet and hands, where he had laid hold and clambered, and +places where the plants that grew to the rock had been rubbed off, and +the earth had slipped, and went accordingly and reported it to the king, +who, coming in person, and viewing it, for the present said nothing, but +in the evening, picking out such of the Gauls as were nimblest of body, +and by living in the mountains were accustomed to climb, he said to +them, "The enemy themselves have shown us a way how to come at them; +where it was easy for one man to get up, it will not be hard for many, +one after another; nay, when many shall undertake it, they will be aid +and strength to each other. Rewards and honors shall be bestowed on +every man as he shall acquit himself." + +When the king had thus spoken, the Gauls cheerfully undertook to perform +it, and in the dead of night a good party of them together, with great +silence, began to climb the rock, clinging to the precipitous and +difficult ascent, which yet upon trial offered a way to them, and proved +less difficult than they had expected. So that the foremost of them +having gained the top of all, and put themselves into order, they +all but surprised the outworks, and mastered the watch, who were fast +asleep; for neither man nor dog perceived their coming. But there were +sacred geese kept near the temple of Juno, which at other times were +plentifully fed, but now, by reason that corn and all other provisions +were grown scarce for all, were in but a poor condition. The creature is +by nature of quick sense, and apprehensive of the least noise, so that +these, being moreover watchful through hunger, and restless, immediately +discovered the coming of the Gauls, and, running up and down with the +noise and cackling, they raised the whole camp; while the barbarians, on +the other side, perceiving themselves discovered, no longer endeavored +to conceal their attempt, but with shouting and violence advanced to the +assault. The Romans, every one in haste snatching up the first weapon +that came to hand, did what they could on the sudden occasion. Manlius, +a man of consular dignity, of strong body and great spirit, was the +first that made head against them, and, engaging with two of the enemy +at once, with his sword cut off the right arm of one just as he was +lifting up his blade to strike, and, running his target full in the face +of the other, tumbled him headlong down the steep rock; then mounting +the rampart, and there standing with others that came running to his +assistance, drove down the rest of them, who, indeed, to begin with, had +not been many, and did nothing worthy of so bold an attempt. The Romans, +having thus escaped this danger, early in the morning took the captain +of the watch and flung him down the rock upon the heads of their +enemies, and to Manlius for his victory voted a reward, intended more +for honor than advantage, bringing him, each man of them, as much as he +received for his daily allowance, which was half a pound of bread and +one eighth of a pint of wine. + +Henceforward, the affairs of the Gauls were daily in a worse and worse +condition; they wanted provisions, being withheld from foraging through +fear of Camillus, and sickness also was amongst them, occasioned by the +number of carcasses that lay in heaps unburied. Neither, indeed, +were things on that account any better with the besieged, for famine +increased upon them, and despondency with not hearing anything of +Camillus, it being impossible to send any one to him, the city was so +guarded by the barbarians. Things being in this sad condition on both +sides, a motion of treaty was made at first by some of the outposts, +as they happened to speak with one another; which being embraced by the +leading men, Sulpicius, tribune of the Romans, came to a parley with +Brennus, in which it was agreed that the Romans laying down a thousand +weight of gold, the Gauls upon the receipt of it should immediately quit +the city and territories. The agreement being confirmed by oath on both +sides, and the gold brought forth, the Gauls used false dealing in +the weights, secretly at first, but afterwards openly pulled back and +disturbed the balance; at which the Romans indignantly complaining, +Brennus in a scoffing and insulting manner pulled off his sword and +belt, and threw them both into the scales; and when Sulpicius asked what +that meant, "What should it mean," says he, "but woe to the conquered?" +which afterwards became a proverbial saying. + +Whilst this difference remained still unsettled, both amongst themselves +and with the Gauls, Camillus was at the gates with his army; and, having +learned what was going on, commanded the main body of his forces to +follow slowly after him in good order, and himself with the choicest of +his men hastening on, went at once to the Romans; where all giving +way to him, and receiving him as their sole magistrate, with profound +silence and order, he took the gold out of the scales, and delivered +it to his officers, and commanded the Gauls to take their weights and +scales and depart; saying that is was customary with the Romans to +deliver their country with iron, not with gold. And when Brennus began +to rage, and say that he was unjustly dealt with in such a breach of +contract, Camillus answered that it was never legally made, and the +agreement of no force or obligation; for that himself being declared +dictator, and there being no other magistrate by law, the engagement had +been made with men who had no power to enter into it; but now they might +say anything they had to urge, for he had come with full power by law +to grant pardon to such as should ask it, or inflict punishment on the +guilty, if they did not repent. At this, Brennus broke into violent +anger, and an immediate quarrel ensued; both sides drew their swords and +attacked, but in confusion, as could not otherwise be amongst houses, +and in narrow lanes and places where it was impossible to form any +order. But Brennus, presently recollecting himself, called off his +men, and, with the loss of a few only, brought them to their camp; and, +rising in the night with all his forces, left the city, and advancing +about eight miles, encamped upon the way to Gabii. As soon as day +appeared, Camillus came up with him, splendidly armed himself, and his +soldier full o courage and confidence; and there engaging with him in a +sharp conflict, which lasted a long while, overthrew his army with great +slaughter, and took their camp. Of those that fled, some were presently +cut off by the pursuers; other, and these were the greatest number, +dispersed hither and thither, and were despatched by the people that +came sallying out from the neighboring towns and villages. + +Thus Rome was strangely taken, and more strangely recovered, having been +seven whole months in the possession of the barbarians, who entered her +a little after the Ides of July, and were driven out about the Ides of +February following. Camillus triumphed, as he deserved, having saved +his country that was lost, and brought the city so to say, back again +to itself. For those that had fled abroad, together with their wives and +children, accompanied him as he rode in; and those who had been shut up +in the capitol, and were reduced almost to the point of perishing with +hunger, went out to meet him, embracing each other as they met, and +weeping for joy, and, though the excess of the present pleasure, +scarcely believing in its truth. + +It was a hard task, amidst so much rubbish, to discover and re-determine +the consecrated places; but by the zeal of Camillus, and the incessant +labor of the priest, it was at last accomplished. But when it came also +to rebuilding the city, which was wholly demolished, despondency seized +the multitude, and a backwardness to engage in a work for which they +had no materials. The senate, therefore, fearing a sedition, would not +suffer Camillus, though desirous, to lay down his authority within the +year, though no other dictator had ever held it above six months. + +Camillus thought good to refer the matter of rebuilding to general +deliberation, and himself spoke largely and earnestly in behalf of his +country, as also may others. At last, calling to Lucius Lucretius, whose +place it was to speak first, he commanded him to give his sentence, and +the rest as they followed, in order. Silence being made, and Lucretius +just about to begin, by chance a centurion, passing by outside with +his company of the day-guard, called out with a loud voice to the +ensign-bearer to halt and fix his standard, for this was the best place +to stay in. This voice, coming in that moment of time, and that crisis +of uncertainty and anxiety for the future, was taken as a direction what +was to be done; so that Lucretius, assuming an attitude of devotion, +gave sentence in concurrence with the gods, as he said, as likewise did +all that followed. Even among the common people it created a wonderful +change of feeling: every one now cheered and encouraged his neighbor, +and set himself to the work, proceeding in it, however, not by any +regular lines or divisions, but every one pitching upon that plot of +ground which came next to hand, or best pleased his fancy; by which +haste and hurry in building they constructed their city in narrow and +ill-designed lanes, and with houses huddled together one upon another; +for it is said that within the compass of the year the whole city was +raised up anew, both in its public walls and private buildings. + +And now they had scarcely got a breathing time from their trouble when +a new war came upon them; and the Aequians, and the Tuscans besieged +Sutrium, their confederate city. Camillus, being the third time chosen +dictator, armed not only those under, but also those over, the age +of service; and taking a large circuit around the mountain Maecius, +undiscovered by the enemy, lodged his army on their rear, and then by +many fires gave notice of his arrival. The besieged, encouraged by this, +prepared to sally forth and join battle; but the Latins and Volscians, +fearing this exposure to any enemy on both sides, drew themselves within +their works, and fortified their camp with a strong palisade of trees +on every side, resolving to wait for more supplies from home, and +expecting, also, the assistance of the Tuscans, their confederate. +Camillus, detecting their object, and fearing to be reduced to the same +position to which he had brought them, namely, to be besieged himself, +resolved to lose no time; and finding their rampart was all of timber, +and observing that a strong wind constantly at sun-rising blew off from +the mountains, after having prepared a quantity of combustibles, about +break of day he drew forth his forces, commanding a part with their +missiles to assault the enemy with noise and shouting on the other +quarter, whilst he, with those that were to fling in the fire, went to +that side of the enemy's camp to which the wind usually blew, and there +waited his opportunity. When the skirmish was begun, and the sun risen, +and a strong wind set in from the mountains, he gave the signal of +onset; and, heaping in an immense quantity of fiery matter, filled all +their rampart with it, so that the flame being fed by the close timber +and wooden palisades, went on and spread into all quarters. The Latins, +having nothing ready to keep it off or extinguish it, when the camp was +now almost full of fire, were driven back within a very small compass, +and at last forced by necessity to come into their enemy's hands, who +stood before the works ready armed and prepared to receive them; of +these very few escaped, while those that stayed in the camp were all a +prey to the fire, until the Romans, to gain the pillage, extinguished +it. + +These things performed, Camillus, leaving his son Lucius in the camp +to guard the prisoners and secure the booty, passed into the enemy's +country, where, having taken the city of the Aequians and reduced the +Volscians to obedience, he then immediately led his army to Sutrium, not +having heard what had befallen the Sutrians, but making haste to assist +them, as if they were still in danger and besieged by the Tuscans. +They, however, had already surrendered their city to their enemies, +and destitute of all things, with nothing left but their clothes, and +bewailing their misfortune. Camillus himself was struck with compassion, +and perceiving the soldiers weeping, and commiserating their case, +while the Sutrians hung about and clung to them, resolved not to defer +revenge, but that very day to lead his army to Sutrium; conjecturing +that the enemy, having just taken a rich and plentiful city, without +an enemy left within it, nor any from without to be expected, would be +found abandoned to enjoyment, and unguarded. Neither did his opinion +fail him: he not only passed through their country without discovery, +but came up to their very gates and possessed himself of the walls, not +a man being left to guard them, but their whole army scattered about +in the houses, drinking and making merry. Nay, when at last they did +perceive that the enemy had seized the city, they were so overloaded +with meat and wine that few were able so much as to endeavor to +escape, but either waited shamefully for their death within doors,or +surrendered themselves to the conqueror. Thus the city of the Sutrians +was twice taken in one day; and they who were in possession lost it, and +they who had lost regained it, alike by the means of Camillus. For all +which actions he received a triumph which brought him no less honor and +reputation than the two former ones; for those citizens who before most +regarded him with an evil eye, and ascribed his successes to a certain +luck rather than real merit, were compelled by these last acts of his to +allow the whole honor to his great abilities and energy. + +Of all he adversaries and enviers of his glory, Marcus Manlius was the +most distinguished, he who first drove back the Gauls when they made +their night attack upon the Capitol, and who for that reason had +been named Capitolinus. This man, affecting the first place in the +commonwealth, and not able by noble ways to outdo Camillus's reputation, +took that ordinary course toward usurpation of absolute power, namely, +to gain the multitude, those of them especially that were in debt; +defending some by pleading their causes against their creditors, +rescuing others by force, and not suffering the law to proceed against +them; insomuch that in a short time he got great numbers of indigent +people about him, whose tumults and uproars in the forum struck terror +into the principal citizens. After that Quintius Capitolinus, who was +made dictator to suppress these disorders, had committed Manlius to +prison, the people immediately changed their apparel, a thing never done +but in great and public calamities, and the senate, fearing some tumult, +ordered him to be released. He, however, when set at liberty, changed not +his course, but was rather the more insolent in his proceedings,filling +the whole city with faction and sedition. They chose, therefore, +Camillus again military tribune; and a day being appointed for Manlius +to answer to his charge, the prospect from the place where his trial was +held proved a great impediment to his accusers; for the very spot where +Manlius by night fought with the Gauls overlooked the forum from the +Capitol, so that, stretching forth his hands that way, and weeping, he +called to their remembrance his past actions, raising compassion in all +that beheld him. Insomuch that the judges were at a loss what to do, and +several times adjourned the trial, unwilling to acquit him of the crime, +which was sufficiently proved, and yet unable to execute the law while +his noble action remained, as it were, before their eyes. Camillus, +considering this, transferred the court outside the gates to the +Peteline Grove, from whence there is no prospect of the Capitol Here +his accuser went on with his charge, and his judges were capable of +remembering the duly resenting his guilty deeds. He was convicted, +carried to the Capitol, and flung headlong from the rock; so that one +and same spot was thus the witness of his greatest glory, and monument +of his most unfortunate end. The Romans, besides, razed his house, and +built there a temple to the goddess they call Moneta, ordaining for +the future that none of the patrician order should ever dwell on the +Capitoline. + +And now Camillus, being called to his sixth tribuneship, desired to +be excused, as being aged, and perhaps not unfearful of the malice of +fortune, and those reverses which seem to ensue upon great prosperity. +But the most apparent pretence was the weakness of his body, for he +happened at that time to be sick; the people, however, would admit of no +excuses, but, crying that they wanted not his strength for horse or +for foot service, but only his counsel and conduct, constrained him to +undertake the command, and with one of his fellow-tribunes to lead the +army immediately against the enemy. These were the Praenestines and +Volscians, who, with large forces, were laying waste the territory of +the Roman confederates. Having marched out with his army, he sat down +and encamped near the enemy, meaning himself to protract the war, or if +there should come any necessity or occasion of fighting, in the meantime +to regain his strength, but Lucius Furius, his colleague, carried away +with the desire of glory, was not to e held in, but, impatient to +give battle, inflamed the inferior officers of the army with the same +eagerness; so that Camillus, fearing he might seem out of envy to be +wishing to rob the young man of the glory of a noble exploit, consented, +though unwillingly, that he should draw out the forces, whilst himself, +by reason of weakness, stayed behind with a few in the camp. Lucius, +engaging rashly, was discomfited, when Camillus, perceiving the Romans +to give ground and fly, could not contain himself, but, leaping from his +bed, with those he had about him ran to meet them at the gates of the +camp, making his way through the flyers to oppose the pursuers; so that +those who had got within the camp turned back at once and followed him, +and those that came flying from without made head again and gathered +about him, exhorting one another not to forsake their general. Thus the +enemy, for that time, was stopped in his pursuit. The next day Camillus, +drawing out his forces and joining battle with them, overthrew them by +main force, and, following close upon them, entered pell-mell with +them into their camp, and took it, slaying the greatest part of them. +Afterwards, having heard that the city of Satricum was taken by the +Tuscans, and the inhabitants, all Romans, put to the sword, he sent home +to Rome the main body of his forces and heaviest-armed, and, taking +with him the lightest and most vigorous soldiers, set suddenly upon +the Tuscans, who were in the possession of the city, and mastered them, +slaying some and expelling the rest; and so, returning to Rome with +great spoils, gave signal evidence of their superior wisdom, who, not +mistrusting the weakness and age of a commander endowed with courage +and conduct, had rather chosen him who was sickly and desirous to be +excused, than young men who were forward and ambitious to command. + +When, therefore, the revolt of the Tusculans was reported, they +gave Camillus the charge of reducing them, choosing one of his five +colleagues to go with him. And when every one was eager for the place, +contrary to the expectation of all, he passed by the rest and chose +Lucius Furius, the very same man who lately, against the judgment of +Camillus, had rashly hazarded and nearly lost a battle; willing, at it +should seem, to dissemble that miscarriage, and free him from the shame +of it. The Tusculans, hearing of Camillus's coming against them, made +a cunning attempt at revoking their act of revolt; their fields, as +in times of highest peace, were full of ploughmen and shepherds; their +gates stood wide open, and their children were being taught in the +schools; of the people, such as were tradesmen, he found in their +workshops, busied about their several employments, and the better sort +of citizens walking in the public places in their ordinary dress; the +magistrates hurried about to provide quarters for the Romans, as if they +stood in fear of no danger and were conscious of no fault. Which arts, +though they could not dispossess Camillus of the conviction he had of +their treason, yet induced some compassion for their repentance; he +commanded them to go to the senate and deprecate their anger, and +joined himself as an intercessor in their behalf, so that their city was +acquitted of all guilt and admitted to Roman citizenship. These were the +most memorable actions of his sixth tribuneship. + +After these things, Licinius Stolo raised a great sedition in the city, +and brought the people to dissension with the senate, contending, that +of two consuls one should be chosen out of the commons, and not both out +of the patricians. Tribunes of the people were chosen, but the election +of consuls was interrupted and prevented by the people. And as this +absence of any supreme magistrate was leading to yet further confusion, +Camillus was the fourth time created dictator by the senate, sorely +against the people's will, and not altogether in accordance with his +own; he had little desire for a conflict with men whose past services +entitles them to tell him that he had achieved far greater actions in +war along with them than in politics with the patricians, who, indeed, +had only put him forward now out of envy; that, if successful, he might +crush the people, or, failing, be crushed himself. However, to provide +as good a remedy as he could for the present, knowing the day on which +the tribunes of the people intended to prefer the law, he appointed it +by proclamation for a general muster, and called the people from the +forum into the Campus, threatening to set heavy fines upon such as +should not obey. On the other side, the tribunes of the people met +his threats by solemnly protesting they would fine him fifty thousand +drachmas of silver, if he persisted in obstructing the people from +giving their suffrages for the law. Whether it were, then, that he +feared another banishment or condemnation, which would ill become his +age and past great actions, or found himself unable to stem the current +of the multitude, which ran strong and violent, he betook himself, +for the present, to his house, and afterwards, for some days together, +professing sickness, finally laid down his dictatorship. The senate +created another dictator; who, choosing Stolo, leader of the sedition, +to be his general of horse, suffered that law to be enacted and +ratified, which was most grievous to the patricians, namely that no +person whatsoever should possess above five hundred acres of land. Stolo +was much distinguished by the victory he had gained; but, not long after +was found himself to possess more than he had allowed to others, and +suffered the penalties of his own law. + +And now the contention about election of consuls coming on (which was +the main point and original cause of the dissension, and had throughout +furnished most matter of division between the senate and the people), +certain intelligence arrived, that the Gauls again, proceeding from the +Adriatic Sea, were marching in vast number upon Rome. On the very heels +of the report followed manifest acts also of hostility; the country +through which they marched was all wasted, and such as by flight could +not make their escape to Rome were dispersing and scattering among +the mountains. The terror of this war quieted the sedition; nobles and +commons, senate and people together, unanimously chose Camillus +the fifth time dictator; who, though very aged, not wanting much of +fourscore years, yet, considering the danger and necessity of his +country, did not, as before, pretend sickness, or depreciate his own +capacity, but at once undertook the charge, and enrolled soldiers. And, +knowing that the great force of the barbarians lay chiefly in their +swords, with which they laid about them in a rude and inartificial +manner, hacking and hewing the head and shoulders, he caused head-pieces +entire of iron to be made for most of his men, smoothing and polishing +the outside, that the enemy's swords, lighting upon them, might either +slide off or be broken; and fitted also their shields with a little rim +of brass, the wood itself not being sufficient to bear off the blows. +Besides, he taught his soldiers to use their long javelins in close +encounter, and, by bringing them under their enemy's swords, to receive +their strokes upon them. + +When the Gauls drew near, about the river Anio, dragging a heavy camp +after them, and loaded with infinite spoil, Camillus drew forth his +forces, and planted himself upon a hill of easy ascent, and which had +many dips in it, with the object that the greatest part of his army +might lie concealed, and those who appeared might be thought to have +betaken themselves, through fear, to those upper grounds. And the +more to increase this opinion in them, he suffered them, without any +disturbance, to spoil and pillage even to his very trenches, keeping +himself quiet within his works, which were well fortified; till, at +last, perceiving that part of the enemy were scattered about the country +foraging, and that those that were in the camp did nothing day and night +but drink and revel, in the night time he drew up his lightest-armed +men, and sent them out before to impede the enemy while forming into +order, and to harass them when they should first issue out of the their +camp; and early in the morning brought down his main body, and set them +in battle array in the lower round, numerous and courageous army, not, +as the barbarians had supposed, an inconsiderable and fearful division. +The first thing that shook the courage of the Gauls was, that their +enemies had, contrary to their expectation, the honor of being +aggressors. In the next place, the light-armed men, falling upon them +before they could get into their usual order or range themselves in +their proper squadrons, so disturbed and pressed upon them, that they +were obliged to fight at random, without any order at all. But at last, +when Camillus brought on his heavy-armed legions, the barbarians, with +their swords drawn, went vigorously to engage them; the Romans, however, +opposing their javelins, and receiving the force of their blows on those +parts of the defences which were well guarded with steel, turned the +edge of their weapons, beingmade of a soft and ill-tempered metal, so +that their swords bent and doubled up in their hands; and their shields +were pierced through and through, and grew heavy with the javelins +that stuck upon them. And thus forced to quit their own weapons, they +endeavored to take advantage of those of their enemies, laid hold of the +javelins with their hands, and tried to pluck them away. But the Romans, +perceiving them now naked and defenceless, betook themselves to their +swords, which they so well used, that in a little time great slaughter +was made in the foremost ranks, while the rest fled over all parts of +the level country; the hills and upper grounds Camillus had secured +beforehand, and their camp they knew it would not be difficult for +the enemy to take, as, through confidence of victory, they had left +it unguarded. This fight, it is stated, was thirteen years after the +sacking of Rome; and from henceforward the Romans took courage, and +surmounted the apprehensions they had hitherto entertained of the +barbarians, whose previous defeat they had attributed rather to +pestilence and a concurrence of mischances than to their own superior +valor. And, indeed, this fear had been formerly so great, that they made +a law, that priests should be excused from service in war, unless in an +invasion from the Gauls. + +This was the last military action that Camillus ever performed; for +the voluntary surrender of the city of the Velitrani was but a mere +accessory to it. But the greatest of all civil contests, and the hardest +to be managed, was still to be fought out against the people; who, +returning home full of victory and success, insisted, contrary to +established law, to have one of the consuls chosen out of their own +body. The senate strongly opposed it, and would not suffer Camillus +to lay down his dictatorship, thinking, that, under the shelter of his +great name and authority, they should be better able to contend for +the power of the aristocracy. But when Camillus was sitting upon the +tribunal, dispatching public affairs, an officer, sent by the tribunes +of the people, commanded him to rise and follow him, laying his and upon +him, as ready to seize and carry him away; upon which, such a noise and +tumult as was never heard before, filled the whole forum; some that were +about Camillus thrusting the officer from the bench, and the multitude +below calling out to him to bring Camillus down. Being at a loss what +to do in these difficulties, he yet laid not down his authority, but, +taking the senators along with him, he went to the senate-house; +but before he entered, besought the gods that they would bring these +troubles to a happy conclusion, solemnly vowing, when the tumult was +ended, to build a temple to Concord. A great conflict of opposite +opinions arose in the senate; but, at last, the most moderate and most +acceptable to the people prevailed, and consent was given, that of two +consuls, one should be chosen from the commonalty. When the dictator +proclaimed this determination of the senate to the people, at the moment +pleased and reconciled with the senate, as they could not well otherwise +be, they accompanied Camillus home with all expressions and acclamations +of joy; and the next day, assembling together, they voted a temple of +Concord to be built, according to Camillus's vow, facing the assembly +and the forum; and to the feasts, called the Latin holidays, they added +one day more, making four in all; and ordained that, on the present +occasion the whole people of Rome should sacrifice with garlands on +their heads. + +In the election of consuls held by Camillus, Marcus Aemilius was chosen +of the patricians, and Lucius Sextius the first of the commonalty; and +this was the last of all Camillus's actions. In the year following, a +pestilential sickness infected Rome, which, besides an infinite number +of the common people, swept away most of the magistrates, among whom +was Camillus; whose death cannot be called premature, if we consider +his great age, or greater actions, yet was he more lamented than all the +rest put together that then died of that distemper. + + + + +PERICLES + +We are inspired by acts of virtue with an emulation and eagerness that +may lead on to imitation. In other things there does not immediately +follow upon the admiration and liking of the thing done, any strong +desire of doing the like. Nay, many times, on the very contrary, when +we are pleased with the work, we slight and set little by the workman +or artist himself, as, for instance, in perfumes and purple dyes, we are +taken with the things themselves well enough, but do not think dyers and +perfumers otherwise than low and sordid people. It was not said amiss +by Antisthenes, when people told him that one Ismenias was an excellent +piper, "It may be so, but he is a wretched human being, otherwise he +would not have been an excellent piper." And King Philip, to the same +purpose, told his son Alexander, who once at a merry meeting played a +piece of music charmingly and skillfully, "Are you not ashamed, my son, +to play so well?" For it is enough for a king or prince to find leisure +sometimes to hear others sing, and he does the muses quite honor enough +when he pleases to be but present, while others engage in such exercises +and trials of skill. + +He who busies himself in mean occupations produces, in the very pains he +takes about things of little or no use, an evidence against himself of +his negligence and indisposition to what is really good. Nor did any +generous and ingenuous young man, at the sight of the statue of Jupiter +at Pisa, ever desire to be a Phidias, or, on seeing that of Juno at +Argos, long to be a Polycletus, or feel induced by his pleasure in their +poems to wish to be an Anacreon or Pliletas or Archilochus. But virtue, +by the bare statement of its actions, can so affect men's minds as to +create at once both admiration of the things done and desire to imitate +the doers of them. The goods of fortune we would possess and would +enjoy; those of virtue we long to practice and exercise; we are +content to receive the former from others, the latter we wish others to +experience from us. + +And so we have thought fit to spend our time and pains in writing of +the lives of famous persons; and have composed this tenth book upon that +subject, containing the life of Pericles, and that of Fabius Maximus, +who carried on the war against Hannibal, men alike, as in their other +virtues and good parts, so especially in their mild and upright temper +and demeanor, and in that capacity to bear the cross-grained humors of +their fellow-citizens and colleagues in office which made them both most +useful and serviceable to the interests of their countries. Whether we +take a right aim at our intended purpose, it is left to the reader to +judge by what he shall find here. + +Pericles was of the tribe of Acamantis, and the township Cholargus, of +the noblest birth both on his father's and mother's side. Xanthippus, +his father, who defeated the king of Persia's generals in the battle at +Mycale, took to Wife Agariste, the grandchild of Clisthenes, who drove +out the sons of Pisistratus, and nobly put and end to their tyrannical +usurpation, and moreover made a body of laws, and settled a model of +government admirably tempered and suited for the harmony and safety of +the people. + +Pericles in other respects was perfectly formed physically, only his +head was somewhat longish and out of proportion. For which reason almost +all the images and statues that were made of him have the head covered +with a helmet, the workmen not apparently being willing to expose him. +The poets of Athens called him "Schinocephalos," or squill-head, from +"schinos," a squill, or sea-onion. + +Pericles was a hearer of Zeno, the Eliatic, who treated of natural +philosophy in the same manner as Parmenides did, but had also perfected +himself in an art of his own for refuting and silencing opponents in +argument; as Timon of Phlius describes it,-- + + Also the two-edged tongue of mighty Zeno, who, + Say what one would, could argue it untrue. + +But he saw most of Pericles, and furnished him most especially with a +weight and grandeur of sense, superior to all arts of popularity, and +in general gave him his elevation and sublimity of purpose and of +character, was Anaxagoras of Clazomenae; whom the men of those times +called by the name of Nous, that is mind, or intelligence, whether in +admiration of the great and extraordinary gift he displayed for the +science of nature, or because he was the first of the philosophers who +did not refer the first ordering of the world to fortune or chance, nor +to necessity or compulsion, but to a pure, unadulterated intelligence, +which in all other existing mixed and compound things acts as a +principle of discrimination, and of combination of like with like. + +For this man, Pericles entertained an extraordinary esteem and +admiration, and, filling himself with this lofty and, as they call it, +up-in-the-air sort of thought, derived hence not merely, as was natural, +elevation of purpose and dignity of language, raised far above the +base and dishonest buffooneries of mob-eloquence, but, besides this, +a composure of countenance, and a serenity and calmness in all his +movements, which no occurrence whilst he was speaking could disturb, +a sustained and even tone of voice, and various other advantages of a +similar kind, which produced the greatest effect on his hearers. Once, +after being reviled and ill-spoken of all day long in his own hearing by +some abandoned fellow in the open market-place where he was engaged in +the despatch of some urgent affair, he continued his business in perfect +silence, and in the evening returned home composedly, the man still +dogging him at the heels, and pelting him all the way with abuse and +foul language; and stopping into his house, it being by this time dark, +he ordered one of hi servants to take a light and to go along with the +man and see him safe home. + +Nor were these the only advantages which Pericles derived from +Anaxagoras's acquaintance; he seems also to have become, by his +instructions, superior to that superstition with which an ignorant +wonder at appearances, for example, in the heavens, possesses the minds +of people unacquainted with their causes, eager for the supernatural, +and excitable through an inexperience which the knowledge of natural +causes removes, replacing wild and timid superstition by the good hope +and assurance of an intelligent piety. + +There is a story that once Pericles had brought to him from a country +farm of his, a ram's head with one horn, and that Lampon, the diviner, +upon seeing the horn grow strong and solid out of the midst of the +forehead, gave it as his judgement that, there being at that time +two potent factions, parties, or interests in the city, the one of +Thucydides and the other of Pericles, the government would come about to +that one of them in whose ground or estate this token or indication +of fate had shown itself. But that Anaxagoras, cleaving the skull in +sunder, showed to the bystanders that the brain had not filled up its +natural place, but being oblong, like an egg, had collected from all +parts of the vessel which contained it, in a point to that place from +whence the root of the horn took its rise. And that, for the time, +Anaxagoras was much admired for his explanation by those that were +present; and Lampon no less a little while after, when Thucydides was +overpowered, and the whole affairs of the state and government came into +the hands of Pericles. + +Pericles, while yet but a young man, stood in considerable apprehension +of the people, as he was thought in face and figure to be very like the +tyrant Pisitratus, and those of great age remarked upon the sweetness of +his voice, and his volubility and rapidity in speaking, and were struck +with amazement at the resemblance. But when Aristides was now dead, and +Themosticles driven out, and Cimon was for the most part kept abroad by +the expeditions he made in parts out of Greece, Pericles, seeing things +in this posture, now advanced and took his side, not with the rich and +few, but with the many and poor, contrary to his natural bent, which +was far from democratical; but, most likely, fearing he might fall under +suspicion of aiming at arbitrary power, and seeing Cimon on the side of +the aristocracy, and much beloved by the better and more distinguished +people, he joined the party of the people, with a view at once both to +secure himself and procure means against Cimon. + +He immediately entered, also, on quite a new course of life and +management of his time. For he was never seen to walk in any street but +that which led to the market-place and the council-hall, and he +avoided invitations of friends to supper, and all friendly visits and +intercourse whatever; in all the time he had to do with the public, +which was not a little, he was never known to have gone to any of his +friends to a supper, except that once when his near kinsman Euryptolemus +married, he remained present till the ceremony of the drink-offering, +and then immediately rose from the table and went his way. For these +friendly meetings are very quick to defeat any assumed superiority, and +in intimate familiarity an exterior of gravity is hard to maintain. Real +excellence, indeed, is best recognized when most openly looked into; and +in really good men, nothing which meets the eyes of external observers +so truly deserves their admiration, as their daily common life does +that of their nearer friends. Pericles, however, to avoid any feeling of +commonness, or any satiety on the part of the people, presented himself +at intervals only, not speaking on every business, nor at all times +coming into the assembly, but, as Critoaus says, reserving himself, +like the Salaminian galley, for great occasions, while matters of +lesser importance were despatched by friends or other speakers under his +direction. And of this number we are told Ephialtes made one, who broke +the power of the council of Areopagus, giving the people, according to +Plato's expression, so copious and so strong a draught of liberty, that, +growing wild and unruly, like an unmanageable horse, it, as the comic +poets say,-- + + "--got beyond all keeping in, + Champing at Euboea, and among the islands leaping in." + +The style of speaking most consonant to his form of life and the dignity +of his views he found, so to say, in the tones of that instrument with +which Anaxagoras had furnished him; of his teaching he continually +availed himself, and deepened the colors of rhetoric with the dye of +natural science. + +A saying of Thucydides, the son of Melesias, stands on record, spoken by +him by way of pleasantry upon Pericles's dexterity. Thucydides was +one of the noble and distinguished citizens, and had been his greatest +opponent; and, when Archidamus, the king of the Lacedaemonians, asked +him whether he or Pericles were the better wrestler, he made this +answer: "When I," said he, "have thrown him and given him a fair fall, +he by persisting that he had no fall, gets the better of me, and makes +the bystanders, in spite of their own eyes, believe him." + +The rule of Pericles has been described as an aristocratical government, +that went by the name of a democracy, but was, indeed, the supremacy of +a single great man; while many say, that by him the common people were +first encouraged and led on to such evils as appropriations of subject +territory, allowances for attending theatres, payments for performing +public duties, and by these bad habits were, under the influence of his +public measures, changed from a sober, thrifty people, that maintained +themselves by their own labors, to lovers of expense, intemperance, and +license. + +At the first, as has been said, when he set himself against Cimon's +great authority, he did caress the people. Finding himself come short +of his competitor in wealth and money, by which advantages the other was +enabled to take care of the poor, inviting every day some one or other +of the citizens that was in want to supper, and bestowing clothes on the +aged people, and breaking down the hedges and enclosures of his grounds, +that all that would might freely gather what fruit they pleased. +Pericles, thus outdone in popular arts, turned to the distribution of +the public moneys; and in a short time having bought the people over, +what with moneys allowed for shows and for service on juries, and what +with the other forms of pay and largess, he made use of them against the +council of Areopagus, and directed the exertions of his party against +this council with such success, that most of those causes and matters +which had been formerly tried there, were removed from its +cognizance; Cimon, also, was banished by ostracism as a favorer of the +Lacedaemonians and a hater of the people, though in wealth and noble +birth he was among the first, and had won several most glorious +victories over the barbarians, and had filled the city with money and +spoils of war. So vast an authority had Pericles obtained among the +people. + +The ostracism was limited by law to ten years; but the Lacedaemonians, +in the meantime, entering with a great army into the territory of +Tanagra, and the Athenians going out against the Cimon, coming from his +banishment before his time was out, put himself in arms and array with +those of his fellow-citizens that were of his own tribe, and desired by +his deeds to wipe off the suspicion of his favoring the Lacedaemonians, +by venturing his own person along with his countrymen. But Pericles's +friends, gathering in a body, forced him to retire as a banished man. +For which cause also Pericles seems to have exerted himself more than +in any other battle, and to have been conspicuous above all for his +exposure of himself to danger. All Cimon's friends, also, to a man, fell +together side by side, whom Pericles had accused with him of taking part +with the Lacedaemonians. Defeated in this battle on their own frontiers, +and expecting a new and perilous attack with return of spring, the +Athenians now felt regret and sorrow for the loss of Cimon, and +repentance for their expulsion of him. Pericles, being sensible of their +feelings, did not hesitate or delay to gratify it, and himself made the +motion for recalling him home. He, upon his return, concluded a peace +betwixt the two cities; for the Lacedaemonians entertained as kindly +feelings towards him as they did the reverse towards Pericles and the +other popular leaders. + +Cimon, while he was admiral, ended his days in the Isle of Cyprus. And +the aristocratical party, seeing that Pericles was already before +this grown to be the greatest and foremost man of all the city, but +nevertheless wishing there should be somebody set up against him, to +blunt and turn the edge of his power, that it might not altogether prove +a monarchy, put forward Thucydides of Alopece, a discreet person, and a +near kinsman of Cimon's, to conduct the opposition against him. And so +Pericles, at that time more than at any other, let loose the reins +to the people, and made his policy subservient to their pleasure, +contriving continually to have some great public show or solemnity, some +banquet, or some procession or other in the town to please them, coaxing +his countrymen like children, with such delights and pleasures as +were not, however, unedifying. Besides that, every year he sent +out threescore galleys, on board of which there went numbers of the +citizens, who were in pay eight months, at the same time learning and +practicing the art of seamanship. + +He sent, moreover, a thousand of them into the Chersonese as planters, +to share the land among them by lot, and five hundred more into the +isle of Naxos, and half that number to Andros, a thousand into Thrace to +dwell among the Bisaltae, and others into Italy, when the city Sybaris, +which now was called Thurii, was to be repeopled. And this he did +to ease and discharge the city of an idle, and, by reason of their +idleness, a busy, meddling crowd of people; and at the same time to meet +the necessities and restore the fortunes of the poor townsmen, and to +intimidate, also, and check their allies from attempting any change, by +posting such garrisons, as it were, in the midst of them. + +That which gave most pleasure and ornament to the city of Athens, and +the greatest admiration and even astonishment to all strangers, and that +which now is Greece's only evidence that the power she boasts of and her +ancient wealth are no romance or idle story, was his construction of the +public and sacred buildings. + +The materials were stone, brass, ivory, gold, ebony, and cypress-wood; +the artisans that wrought and fashioned them were smiths and carpenters, +moulders, founders and braziers, stone-cutters, dyers, goldsmiths, +ivory-workers, painters, embroiderers, turners; those again that +conveyed them to the town for use, merchants and mariners and +ship-masters by sea; and by land, cartwrights, cattle-breeders, +wagoners, rope-makers, flax-workers, shoe-makers and leather-dressers, +road-makers, miners. And every trade in the same nature, as a captain +in an army has his particular company of soldiers under him, had its own +hired company of journeymen and laborers belonging to it banded +together as in array, to be as it were the instrument and body for the +performance of the service of these public works distributed plenty +through every age and condition. + +As then grew the works up, no less stately in size than exquisite in +form, the workmen striving to outvie the material and the design with +the beauty of their workmanship, yet the most wonderful thing of all was +the rapidity of their execution. Undertakings, any one of which singly +might have required, they thought, for their completion, several +successions and ages of men, were every one of them accomplished in the +height and prime of one man's political service. Although they say, +too, that Zeuxis once, having heard Agatharchus, the painter, boast of +despatching his work with speed and ease, replied, "I take a long +time." For ease and speed in doing a thing do not give the work lasting +solidity or exactness of beauty; the expenditure of time allowed to a +man's pains beforehand for the production of a thing is repaid by way of +interest with a vital force for its preservation when once produced. +For which reason Pericles's works are especially admired, as having been +made quickly, to last long. For every particular piece of his work was +immediately, even at that time, for its beauty and elegance, antique; +and yet in its vigor and freshness looks to this day as if it were just +executed. There is a sort of bloom of newness upon those works of his, +preserving them from the touch of time, as if they had some perennial +spirit and undying vitality mingled in the composition of them. + +Phidias had the oversight of all the works, and was surveyor-general, +though upon the various portions other great masters and workmen were +employed. For Callicrates and Ictinus built the Parthenon; the chapel at +Eleusis, where the mysteries were celebrated, was begun by Coroebus, who +erected the pillars that stand upon the floor or pavement, and joined +them to the architraves; and after his death Metagenes of Xypete added +the frieze and the upper line of columns; Xenocles of Cholargus roofed +or arched the lantern on the top of the temple of Castor and Pollux; and +the long wall, which Socrates says he himself heard Pericles propose to +the people, was undertaken by Callicrates. + +The Odeum, or music-room, which in its interior was full of seats and +ranges of pillars, and outside had its roof made to slope and descend +from one single point at the top, was constructed, we are told, in +imitation of the king of Persia's Pavilion; this likewise by Pericles's +order; which Cratinus again, in his comedy called The Thracian Women, +made an occasion of raillery,-- + + So, we see here, + Jupiter Long-pate Pericles appear, + Since ostracism time he's laid aside his head, + And wears the new Odeum in its stead. + +Perils, also eager for distinction, then first obtained the decree for +a contest in musical skill to be held yearly at the Panathenaea, and he +himself, being chosen judge, arranged the order and method in which the +competitors should sing and play on the flute and the harp. And both at +that time, and at other times also, they sat in this music-room to see +and hear all such trials of skill. + +The propylaea, or entrances to the Acropolis, were finished in five +years' time, Mnesicles being the principal architect. A strange accident +happened in the course of building, which showed that the goddess was +not averse to the work, but was aiding and co-operating to bring it to +perfection. One of the artificers, the quickest and the handiest workmen +among them all, with a slip of his foot, fell down from a great height, +and lay in a miserable condition, the physician having no hopes of his +recovery. When Pericles was in distress about this, Athenia appeared +to him at night in a dream, and ordered a course of treatment which he +applied, and in a short time, and with great ease, cured the man. And +upon this occasion it was that he set up a brass statue of Athena, +surnamed Health, in the citadel near the altar, which they say was there +before. But it was Phidias who wrought the goddess's image in gold, +and he has his name inscribed on the pedestal as the workman of it; and +indeed the whole work in a manner was under his charge, and he had, as +we have said already, the oversight over all the artists and workmen, +through Pericles's friendship for him. + +When the orators, who sided with Thucydides and his party, were at +one time crying out, as their custom was, against Pericles, as one who +squandered away public money and made havoc of the state revenues, he +rose in the open assembly and put the question to the people, whether +they thought that he had laid out much; and saying, "Too much, a great +deal," "Then," said he, "since it is so, let the cost not go to your +account, but to mine; and let the inscription upon the buildings stand +in my name." When they heard him say thus, whether it were out of a +surprise to see the greatness of his spirit, or out of emulation of the +glory of the works, they cried aloud, bidding him to spend on, and lay +out what he thought fit from the public purse, and to spare no cost, +till all were finished. + +At length, coming to a final contest with Thucydides, which of the two +should ostracize the other out of the country, and, having gone through +this peril, he threw his antagonist out, and broke up the confederacy +that had been organized against him. So that now all schism and division +being at an end, and the city brought to evenness and unity, he got +all Athens and all affairs that pertained to the Athenians into his own +hands, their tributes, their armies and their galleys, the islands, the +sea, and their wide-extended power, partly over other Greeks and partly +over barbarians, and all that empire which they possessed, founded and +fortified upon subject nations and royal friendships and alliances. + +After this he was no longer the same man he had been before, nor as tame +and gentle and familiar as formerly with the populace, so as readily +to yield to their pleasures and to comply with the desires of the +multitude, as a steersman shifts with the winds. Quitting that loose, +remiss, and, in some cases, licentious court of the popular will, +he turned those soft and flowery modulations to the austerity of +aristocratical and regal rule; but, employing this uprightly and +undeviatingly for the country's best interests, he was able generally +to lead the people along, with their own will and consent, by persuading +and showing them what was to be done. + +The source of this predominance was not barely his power of language, +but, as Thucydides the historian assures us, the reputation of his life, +and the confidence felt in his character; his manifest freedom from +every kind of corruption, and superiority to all considerations of +money. Notwithstanding he had made the city of Athens, which was great +of itself, as great and rich as can be imagined, and though he were +himself in power and interest more than equal to many kings and absolute +rulers, who some of them also bequeathed by will their power to their +children, he for his part, did not make the patrimony his father left +him greater than it was by one drachma. + +Teleclides says the Athenians had surrendered to him-- + + The tributes of the cities, and, with them, the cities, too, to do + with them as he pleases, and undo; + To build up, if he likes, stone walls around a town; and again, if + so he likes, to pull them down; + Their treaties and alliances, power, empire, peace, and war, their + wealth and their success forevermore. + +Nor was all this the luck of some happy occasion; nor was it the mere +bloom and grace of a policy that flourished for a season; but having for +fifty-five years together maintained the first place among statesmen, in +the exercise of one continuous unintermitted command in the office, to +which he was annually reelected, of General, he preserved his integrity +unspotted; though otherwise he was not altogether idle or careless in +looking after his pecuniary advantage; his paternal estate, which of +right belonged to him, he so ordered that it might neither through +negligence be wasted or lessened, nor yet, being so full of business as +he was, cost him any great trouble or time with taking care of it; and +put it into such a way of management as he thought to be most easy for +himself, and the most exact. All his yearly products and profits he sold +together in a lump, and supplied his household needs afterward by buying +everything that he or his family wanted out of the market. Upon which +account, his children, when they grew to age, were not well pleased with +his management; since there was not there, as is usual in a great family +and a plentiful estate, anything to spare, or over and above; but all +that went out or came in, all disbursements and all receipts, proceeded +as it were by number and measure. His manager in all this was a single +servant, Evangelus by name, a man either naturally gifted or instructed +by Pericles so as to excel every one in this art of domestic economy. + +The Lacedaemonians beginning to show themselves troubled at the growth +of the Athenian power, Pericles, on the other hand, to elevate the +people's spirit yet more, and to raise them to the thought of great +actions, proposed a decree to summon all the Greeks in what part soever, +whether of Europe or Asia, every city, little as well as great, to send +their deputies to Athens to a general assembly or convention, there to +consult and advise concerning the Greek temples which the barbarians +had burnt down; and also concerning the navigation of the sea, that they +might henceforward all of them pass to and fro and trade securely, and +be at peace among themselves. + +Nothing was effected, nor did the cities meet by their deputies, as +was desired; the Lacedaemonians, as it is said, crossing the design +underhand, and the attempt being disappointed and baffled first in +Peloponnesus. I thought fit, however, to introduce the mention of it, to +show the spirit of the man and the greatness of his thoughts. + +In his military conduct he gained a great reputation for wariness; +he would not by his good-will engage in any fight which had much +uncertainty or hazard; he did not envy the glory of generals whose rash +adventures fortune favored with brilliant success, however they were +admired by others; nor did he think them worthy his imitation, but +always used to say to his citizens that, so far as lay in his power, +they should continue immortal, and live forever. Seeing Tolmides, +the son of Tolmaeus, upon the confidence of his former successes, and +flushed with the honor his military actions had procured him, making +preparation to attack the Boeotians in their own country, when there was +no likely opportunity, and that he had prevailed with the bravest and +most enterprising of the youth to enlist themselves as volunteers in the +service, who besides his other force made up a thousand, he endeavored +to withhold him, and advised him against it in the public assembly, +telling him in a memorable saying of which still goes about, that, if he +would not take Pericles's advice, yet he would not do amiss to wait +and be ruled by time, the wisest counselor of all. This saying, at that +time, was but slightly commended; but, within a few days after, when +news was brought that Tolmides himself had been defeated and slain in +battle near Coronea, and that many brave citizens had fallen with him, +it gained him great repute as well as good-will among the people, for +wisdom and for love of his countrymen. + +But of all his expeditions, that to the Chersonese gave most +satisfaction and pleasure, having proved the safety of the Greeks who +inhabited there. For not only by carrying along with him a thousand +fresh citizens of Athens he gave new strength and vigor to the cities, +but also by belting the neck of land, which joins the peninsula to the +continent, with bulwarks and forts from sea to sea, he put a stop to the +inroads of the Thracians, who lay all about the Chersonese, and closed +the door against a continual and grievous war, with which that country +had been long harassed, lying exposed to the encroachments and influx +of barbarous neighbors, and groaning under the evils of a predatory +population both upon and within its borders. + +Entering also the Euxine Sea with a large and finely equipped fleet, +he obtained for the Greek cities any new arrangements they wanted, and +entered into friendly relations with them; and to the barbarous nations, +and kings and chiefs round about them, displayed the greatness of the +power of the Athenians, their perfect ability and confidence to sail +wherever they had a mind, and to bring the whole sea under his control. +He left the Sinopians thirteen ships of war, with soldiers under the +command of Lamachus, to assist them against Timesileus the tyrant; and, +when he and his accomplices had been thrown out, obtained a decree that +six hundred of the Athenians that were willing should sail to Sinope and +plant themselves there with the Sinopians, sharing among them the houses +and land which the tyrant and his party had previously held. + +But in other things he did not comply with the giddy impulses of the +citizens, nor quit his own resolutions to follow their fancies, when, +carried away with the thought of their strength and great success, +they were eager to interfere again in Egypt, and to disturb the king of +Persia's maritime dominions. Nay, there were a good many who were, even +then, possessed with that unblest and unauspicious passion for Sicily, +which afterward the orators of Alciabes's party blew up into a flame. +There were some also who dreamt of Tuscany and of Carthage, and not +without plausible reason in their present large dominion and the +prosperous course of their affairs. + +But Pericles curbed this passion for foreign conquest, and unsparingly +pruned and cut down their ever-busy fancies for a multitude of +undertakings, and directed their power for the most part to securing +and consolidating what they had already got, supposing it would be quite +enough for them to do, if they could keep the Lacedaemonians in check; +to whom he entertained all along a sense of opposition; which, as upon +many other occasions, he particularly showed by what he did in the time +of the holy war. The Lacedaemonians, having gone with an army to +Delphi, restored Apollo's temple, which the Phocians had got into +their possession, to the Delphians; immediately after their departure, +Pericles, with another army, came and restored it to the Phocians. And +the Lacedaemonians having engraven the record of their privilege of +consulting the oracle before others, which the Delphians gave them, upon +the forehead of the brazen wolf which stands there, he, also, having +received from the Phocians the like privilege for the Athenians, had it +cut upon the same wolf of brass, on his right side. + +When Pericles, in giving up his accounts, stated a disbursement of +ten talents, as laid out upon fit occasion, the people, without any +question, nor troubling themselves to investigate the mystery, freely +allowed it. And some historians, in which number is Theophtastus the +philosopher, have given it as a truth that Pericles every year used +to send privately the sum of ten talents to Sparta, with which he +complimented those in office, to keep off the war; not to purchase peace +either, but time, that he might prepare at leisure, and be the better +able to carry on war hereafter. + +After this, having made a truce between the Athenians and Lacedaemonians +for thirty years, he ordered, by public decree, the expedition against +the Isle of Samos, on the ground, that, when they were bid to leave off +their war with the Milesians, they had not complied. For the two states +were at war for the possession of Priene; and the Samians, getting +the better, refused to lay down their arms and to have the controversy +betwixt them decided by arbitration before the Athenians. Pericles, +therefore, fitting out a fleet, went and broke up the oligarchal +government at Samos, and, taking fifty of the principal men of the town +as hostages, and as many of their children, sent them to the Isle of +Lemnos, there to be kept, though he had offers, as some relate, of a +talent apiece for himself from each one of the hostages, and of many +other presents from those who were anxious not to have a democracy. +Moreover, Pissuthnes the Persian, one of the king's lieutenants, bearing +some good-will to the Samians, sent him ten thousand pieces of gold to +excuse the city. Pericles, however, would receive none of all this; but +after he had taken that course with the Samians which he thought fit, +and set up a democracy among them, sailed back to Athens. + +But they, however, immediately revolted, Pissuthnes having privily got +away their hostages for them, and provided them with means for war. +Whereupon Pericles came out with a fleet a second time against them, and +found them not idle nor slinking away, but manfully resolved to try for +the dominion of the sea. The issue was, that, after a sharp sea-fight +about the island called Tragia, Pericles obtained a decisive victory, +having with forty-four ships routed seventy of the enemy's, twenty of +which were carrying soldiers. + +Together with his victory and pursuit, having made himself master of the +port, he laid siege to the Samians, and blocked them up, who yet, one +way or other, still ventured to make sallies, and fight under the city +walls. But after another greater fleet from Athens had arrived, and the +Samians were now shut up with a close leaguer on every side, Pericles, +taking with him sixty galleys, sailed out into the main sea, with the +intention, as most authors give the account, to meet a squadron of +Phoenician ships that were coming for the Samians' relief, and to +fight them at as great a distance as could be from the island; but, as +Stesimbrotus says, with a design of putting over to Cyprus; which does +not seem to be probable. But whichever of the two was his intent, it +seems to have been a miscalculation. For on his departure, Melissus, the +son of Ithagenes, a philosopher, being at that time general in Samos, +despising either the small number of ships that were left or the +inexperience of the commanders, prevailed with the citizens to attack +the Athenians. And the Samians having won the battle and taken several +of the men prisoners, and disabled several of the ships, were masters of +the sea, and brought into port all necessities they wanted for the war, +which they had not before. Aristotle says, too, that Pericles himself +had been once before this worsted by the Milissus in a sea-fight. + +The Samians, that they might requite an affront which had before been +put upon them, branded the Athenians whom they took prisoners, in their +foreheads, with the figure of an owl. For so the Athenians had marked +them before with a Samaena, which is a sort of ship, low and flat in the +prow, so as to look snub-nosed, but wide and large and well-spread in +the hold, by which it both carries a large cargo and sails well. And so +it was called, because the first of that kind was seen at Samos, having +been built by order of Polycrates the tyrant. These brands upon the +Samians' foreheads, they say, are the allusion in the passage of +Aristophanes, where he says,-- + + For, oh, the Samians are a lettered people. + +Pericles, as soon as news was brought to him of the disaster that had +befallen his army, made all the haste he could to come in to their +relief, and having defeated Melissus, who bore up against him, and put +the enemy to flight, he immediately proceeded to hem them in with a +wall, resolving to master them and take the town, rather with some cost +and time than with the wounds and hazards of his citizens. But as it was +a hard matter to keep back the Athenians, who were vexed at the delay, +and were eagerly bent to fight, he divided the whole multitude into +eight parts, and arranged by lot that that part which had the white bean +should have leave to feast and take their ease, while the other seven +were fighting. And this is the reason, they say, that people, when at +any time they have been merry, and enjoyed themselves, call it white +day, in allusion to this white bean. + +Ephorus, the historian, tells us besides, that Pericles made use of +engines of battery in this siege, being much taken with the curiousness +of the invention, with the aid and presence of Artemon himself, the +engineer, who, being lame, used to be carried about in a litter, where +the works required his attendance, and for that reason was called +Periphoretus. But Heraclides Ponticus disproves this out of Anacreon's +poems, where mention is made of this Artemon Periphoretus several ages +before the Samian war, or any of these occurrences. And he says that +Artemon, being a man who loved his ease, and had a great apprehension +of danger, for the most part kept close within doors, having two of his +servants to hold a brazen shield over his head, that nothing might fall +upon him from above; and if he were at any time forced upon necessity to +go abroad, that he was carried about in a little hanging-bed, close to +the very ground, and that for this reason he was called Periphoretus. + +In the ninth month, the Samians surrendering themselves and delivering +up the town, Pericles pulled down their walls, and seized their +shipping, and set a fine of a large sum upon them, part of which they +paid down at once, and they agreed to bring in the rest by a certain +time, and gave hostages for security. Pericles, however, after the +reduction of Samos, returning back to Athens, took care that those who +died in the war should be honorably buried, and made a funeral harangue, +as the custom is, in their commendation at their graves, for which he +gained great admiration. As he came down from the stage on which he +spoke, all the women except Elpinice, the aged sister of Cimon, came +out and complimented him, taking him by the hand, and crowning him with +garlands and ribbons, like a victorious athlete in the games. + +After this was over, the Peloponnesian war beginning to break out in +full tide, he advised the people to send help to the Corcyraeans, who +were attacked by the Corinthians, and to secure to themselves an island +possessed of great naval resources, since the Peloponnesians were +already all but in actual hostilities against them. Archidamus, the +king of the Lacedaemonians, endeavoring to bring the greater part of the +complaints and matters in dispute to a fair determination, and to pacify +and allay the heats of the allies, it is very likely that the war would +not upon any other grounds of quarrel have fallen upon the Athenians, +could they have been prevailed upon to be reconciled with the +inhabitants of Megara. + +The true occasion of the quarrel is not easy to find out. The worst +motive of all, which is confirmed by most witnesses, is to the following +effect. Phidias the Moulder had, as has before been said, undertaken +to make the statue of Athena. Now he, being admitted to friendship +with Pericles, and a great favorite of his, had many enemies upon this +account, who envied and maligned him; and they, to make trial in a case +of his what kind of judges the commons would prove, should there be +occasion to bring Pericles himself before them, having tampered with +Menon, one who had been a workman with Phidias, stationed him in the +marketplace, with a petition desiring public security upon his discovery +and impeachment of Phidias. The people admitting the man to tell his +story, and, the prosecution proceeding in the assembly, there was +nothing of theft or cheat proved against him; for Phidias, from the very +first beginning, by the advice of Pericles, had so wrought and wrapt the +gold that was used in the work about the statue, that they might take it +all off and make out the just weight of it, which Pericles at that time +bade the accusers do. But the repudiation of his works was what brought +envy upon Phidias, especially that where he represents the fight of +the Amazons upon the goddesses' shield, he had introduced a likeness of +himself as a bald old man holding up a great stone with both hands, +and had put in a very fine representation of Pericles fighting with an +Amazon. And the position of the hand, which holds out the spear in front +of the face, was ingeniously contrived to conceal in some degree the +likeness, which, meantime, showed itself on either side. + +Phidias then was carried away to Prison, and there died of a disease; +but, as some say, of poison administered by the enemies of Pericles, to +raise a slander, or a suspicion at least, as though he had procured it. +The informer Menon, upon Glycon's proposal, the people made free from +payment of taxes and customs, and ordered the generals to take care that +nobody should do him any hurt. And Pericles, finding that in Phidias's +case he had miscarried with the people, being afraid of impeachment, +kindled the war, which hitherto had lingered and smothered, and blew it +up into a flame; hoping, by that means, to disperse and scatter these +complaints and charges, and to allay their jealousy; the city usually +throwing herself upon him alone, and trusting to his sole conduct, +upon the urgency of great affairs and public dangers, by reason of his +authority and the sway he bore. + +These are given out to have been the reasons which induced Pericles +not to suffer the people of Athens to yield to the proposals of the +Lacedaemonians; but their truth is uncertain. + +The Lacedaemonians, therefore, and their allies, with a great army, +invaded the Athenian territories, under the conduct of king Archidamus, +and laying waste the country, marched on as far as Acharnae, and there +pitched their camp, presuming that the Athenians would never endure +that, but would come out and fight them for their country's and their +honor's sake. But Pericles looked upon it as dangerous to engage +in battle, to the risk of the city itself, against sixty thousand +men-at-arms of Peloponnesians and Boeotians; for so many they were in +number that made the inroad at first; and he endeavored to appease those +who were desirous to fight, and were grieved and discontented to see how +things went, and gave them good words, saying, that "trees, when they +are lopped and cut, grow up again in a short time, but men, being once +lost, cannot easily be recovered." He did not convene the people into +an assembly, for fear lest they should force him to act against his +judgement; and many of his enemies threatened and accursed him for doing +as he did, and many made songs and lampoons upon him, which were sung +about the town to his disgrace, reproaching him with the cowardly +exercise of his office of general, and the tame abandonment of +everything to the enemy's hands. + +Cleon, also, already was among his assailants, making use of the feeling +against him as a step to the leadership of the people, as appears in the +anapaestic verses of Hermippus. + + Satyr-king, instead of swords, + Will you always handle words? + Very brave indeed we find them, + But a Teles lurks behind them. + +(Teles was apparently some notorious coward.) + + Yet to gnash your teeth you're seen, + When the little dagger keen, + Whetted every day anew, + Of sharp Cleon touches you. + +Pericles, however, was not at all moved by any attacks, but took all +patiently, and submitted in silence to the disgrace they threw upon him +and the ill-will they bore him; and, sending out a fleet of a hundred +galleys to Peloponnesus, he did not go along with it in person, but +stayed behind, that he might watch at home and keep the city under his +own control, till the Peloponnesians broke up their camp and were gone. +Yet to soothe the common people, jaded and distressed with the war, +he relieved them with distributions of public moneys, and ordained +new divisions of subject land. For having turned out all the people of +Aegina, he parted the island among the Athenians, according to lot. Some +comfort, also, and ease in their miseries, they might receive from what +their enemies endured. For the fleet, sailing round the Peloponnesus, +ravaged a great deal of the country, and pillaged and plundered the +towns and smaller cities; and by land he himself entered with an army +the Megarian country, and made havoc of it all. Whence it is clear that +the Peloponnesians, though they did the Athenians much mischief by +land, yet suffering as much themselves from them by sea, would not have +protracted the war to such a length, but would quickly have given it +over, as Pericles at first foretold they would, had not some divine +power crossed human purposes. + +In the first place, the pestilential disease, or plague, seized upon the +city, and ate up all the flour and prime of their youth and strength. +Upon occasion of which the people, distempered and afflicted in their +souls, as well as in their bodies, were utterly enraged like madmen +against Pericles, and, like patients grown delirious, sought to lay +violent hands on their physician, or, as it were, their father. + +Finding the Athenians ill affected and highly displeased with him, he +tried and endeavored what he could to appease and re-encourage them. But +he could not pacify or allay their anger nor persuade or prevail with +them anyway, til they freely passed their votes upon him, resumed their +power, took away his command from him, and fined him in a sum of money. + +After this, public troubles were soon to leave him unmolested; the +people, so to say, discharged their passion in their stroke, and lost +their stings in the wound. But his domestic concerns were in an unhappy +condition, many of his friends and acquaintance having died in the +plague time, and those of his family having long since been in disorder +and in a kind of mutiny against him. For the eldest of his sons, +Xanthippus by name, being naturally prodigal, and marrying a young and +expensive wife, was highly offended at his father's economy in making +him but a scanty allowance, by little and little at a time. He sent +therefore, to a friend one day, and borrowed some money of him in his +father Pericles's name, pretending it was by his order. The man coming +afterward to demand the debt, Pericles was so far from yielding to pay +it, that he entered an action against him. Upon which the young man, +Xanthippus, thought himself so ill used and disobliged, that he openly +reviled his father; telling first, by way of ridicule, stories about his +conversations at home, and the discourses he had with the sophists and +scholars that came to his house. As for instance, how one who was a +practicer of the five games of skill, * having with a dart or javelin +unawares against his will struck and killed Epitimus the Pharsalian, his +father spent a whole day with Protagoras in a serious dispute, whether +the javelin, or the man that threw it, or the masters of the games +who appointed these sports, were, according to the strictest and best +reason, to be accounted the cause of this mischance. And in general, +this difference of the young man's with his father, in the breach +betwixt them, continued never to be healed or made up til his death. +For Xanthippus died in the plague time of the sickness. At which time +Pericles also lost his sister, and the greatest part of his relations +and friends, and those who had been most useful and serviceable to him +in managing the affairs of state. However, he did not shrink or give +in on these occasions, nor betray or lower his high spirit and even the +greatness of his mind under all his misfortunes; he was not even so much +as seen to weep or to mourn, or even attend the burial of his friends or +relations, till at last he lost his only remaining son. Subdued by this +blow, yet striving still, as far as he could, to maintain his principle, +and yet to preserve and keep up the greatness of his soul, when he came, +however, to perform the ceremony of putting a garland of flowers on the +head of the corpse, he was vanquished by his passion at the sight, so +that he burst into exclamations, and shed copious tears, having never +done any such thing in all his life before. + +The city having made trial of other generals for the conduct of war, and +orators for business of state, when they found there was no one who was +of weight enough for such a charge, or of authority sufficient to be +trusted with so great a command, regretted the loss of him, and invited +him again to address and advise them, and to resume the office of +general. He, however, lay at home in dejection and mourning; but was +persuaded by Alcibiades and others of his friends to come abroad and +show himself to the people; who having, upon his appearance, made their +acknowledgements, and apologized for their untowardly treatment of him, +he undertook the public affairs once more. + +About this time, it seems, the plague seized Pericles, not with sharp +and violent fits, as it did others that had it, but with a dull and +lingering distemper, attended with various changes and alterations, +leisurely, by little and little, wasting the strength of his body, and +undermining the noble faculties of his soul. + +When he was now near his end, the best of citizens and those of his +friends who were left alive, sitting about him, were speaking of the +greatness of his merit, and his power, and reckoning up his famous +actions and the number of his victories; there were no less than nine +trophies which, as their chief commander and conqueror of their enemies, +he had set up, for the honor of the city. They talked thus among +themselves, as though he were unable to understand or mind what they +said, but had now lost his consciousness. He had listened, however, all +the while, and attended to all, and speaking out among them, said, that +he wondered they should commend and take notice of things which were +as much owing to fortune as to anything else, and had happened to +many other commanders, and, at the same time, should not speak or make +mention of that which was the most excellent and greatest thing of all. +"For," said he, "no Athenian through my means, ever wore mourning." + +He was indeed a character deserving our high admiration, not only for +his equable and mild temper, which all along, in the many affairs of +his life, and the great animosities which he incurred, he constantly +maintained; but also for the high spirit and feeling which made him +regarded the noblest of all his honors, that, in the exercise of such +immense power, he never had gratified his envy or his passion, nor ever +had treated any enemy as irreconcilably opposed to him. And to me it +appears that this one thing gives an otherwise childish and arrogant +title a fitting and becoming significance; so dispassionate a temper, +a life so pure and unblemished, in the height of power and place, might +well be called "Olympian," in accordance with our conceptions of divine +beings, to whom, as the natural of all good and of nothing evil, we +ascribe the rule and government of the world. + +The course of public affairs after his death produced a quick and speedy +sense of the loss of Pericles. Those who, while they live, resented +his great authority, as that which eclipsed themselves, presently +after quitting the stage, making trial of other orators and demagogues, +readily acknowledged that there never had been in nature such a +disposition as his was, more moderate and reasonable in the height +of that state he took upon him, or more grave and impressive in the +mildness which he used. + + + + +DEMOSTHENES + +Whoever it was, Sosius, that wrote the poem in honor of Alcibiades, +upon his winning the chariot-race at the Olympian Games, whether it was +Euripedes, as is most commonly thought, or some other person he tells +us, that to a man's being happy it is pre-eminently requisite that he +should be born in "some famous city." + +But if anybody undertakes to write a history, that has to be collected +from materials gathered by observation and the reading of works not easy +to be got in all places, nor written always in his own language, but +many of them foreign and dispersed in other hands, for him, undoubtedly, +it is above all things most necessary, to reside in some city of good +note, devoted to liberal arts, and populous; where he may have plenty of +all sorts of books, and upon inquiry may hear and inform himself of such +particulars as, having escaped the pens of writers, are more faithfully +preserved in the memories of men. + +But for me, I live in a little town, where I am willing to continue, +lest it should grow less; and having had no leisure, while I was in Rome +and other parts of Italy, to practice myself in the Roman language, on +account of public business and of those who came to be instructed by me +in philosophy, it was very late, and in the decline of my age, before +I applied myself to the reading of Latin authors. But to appreciate the +graceful and ready pronunciation of the Roman tongue, to understand the +various figures and connection of words, and such other ornaments, in +which the beauty of speaking consists, is, I doubt not, an admirable +and delightful accomplishment; but it requires a degree of practice +and study which is not easy, and will better suit those who have more +leisure, and time enough yet before them for the occupation. + +And so in this book of my Parallel Lives, in giving an account of +Demosthenes and Cicero, my comparison of their natural dispositions and +their characters will be formed upon their actions and their lives +as statesmen, and I shall not pretend to criticise their orations one +against the other, to show which of the two was the more charming or the +more powerful speaker. For there, as Ion says, + + We are but like a fish upon dry land. + +The divine power seems originally to have designed Demosthenes and +Cicero upon the same plan, giving them many similarities in their +natural characters, as their passion for distinction and their love of +liberty in civil life, and their want of courage in dangers and war, +and at the same time also to have added many accidental resemblances. I +think there can hardly be found two other orators, who, from small and +obscure beginnings, became so great and mighty; who both contested with +kings and tyrants; both lost their daughters, were driven out of their +country, and returned with honor; who, flying from thence again, were +both seized upon by their enemies, and at last ended their lives with +the liberty of their countrymen. So that if we were to suppose that +there had been a trial of skill between nature and fortune, as there +is sometimes between artists, it would be hard to judge, whether that +succeeded best in making them alike in their dispositions and manners, +or this, in the coincidences of their lives. We will speak of the eldest +first. + +Demosthenes, the father of Demosthenes, was a citizen of good rank and +quality, as Theopompus informs us, surnamed the Sword-maker, because he +had a large workhouse, and kept servants skilful in that art at work. +Demosthenes, when only seven years old, was left by his father in +affluent circumstances, the whole value of his estate being little +short of fifteen talents, but was wronged by his guardians, part of his +fortune being embezzled by them, and the rest neglected; insomuch that +even his teachers were defrauded of their salaries. This was the reason +that he did not obtain the liberal education that he should have had; +besides that on account of weakness and delicate health, his mother +would not let him exert himself, and his teachers forebore to urge him. +He was meagre and sickly from the first, and hence had the nickname +of Batalus, given him, it is said, by the boys, in derision of his +appearance; Batalus being a certain enervated flute-player, in ridicule +of whom Antiphanes wrote a play. + +The first occasion of his eager inclination to oratory, they say, was +this. Callistratus, the orator, was to plead in open court for Oropus, +and the expectation of the issue of that cause was very great, as +well for the ability of the orator, who was then at the height of +his reputation, as also for the fame of the action itself. Therefore, +Demosthenes, having heard the tutors and schoolmasters agreeing among +themselves to be present at this trial, with much importunity persuades +his tutor to take him along with him to the hearing; who, having some +acquaintance with the doorkeepers, procured a place where the boy might +sit unseen, and hear what was said. Callistratus having got the day, and +being much admired, the boy began to look upon his glory with emulation, +observing how he was courted on all hands, and attended on his way by +the multitude; but his wonder was more than all excited by the power of +his eloquence, which seemed able to subdue and win over any thing. From +this time, therefore, bidding farewell to other sorts of learning +and study, he now began to exercise himself, and to take pains in +declaiming, as one that meant to be himself also an orator. He made use +of Isaeus as his guide to the art of speaking, though Isocrates at that +time was giving lessons; whether, as some say, because he was an orphan, +and was not able to pay Isocrates his appointed fee of ten minae, or +because he preferred Isaeus's speaking, as being more business-like and +effective in actual use. + +As soon, therefore, as he was grown up to man's estate, he began to go +to law with his guardians, and to write orations against them; who, +in the meantime, had recourse to various subterfuges and pleas for new +trials, and Demosthenes, though he was thus, as Thucydides says, taught +his business in dangers, and by his own exertions was successful in his +suit, was yet unable for all this to recover so much as a small +fraction of his patrimony. He only attained some degree of confidence in +speaking, and some competent experience in it. And having got a taste of +the honor and power which are acquired by pleadings, he now ventured +to come forth, and to undertake public business. And, as it is said of +Laomedon, the Orchomenian, that by advice of his physician, he used to +run long distances to keep off some disease of his spleen, and by that +means having, through labor and exercise, framed the habit of his body, +he betook himself to the great garland games, and became one of the +best runners at the long race; so it happened to Demosthenes, who, first +venturing upon oratory for the recovery of his own private property, by +this acquired ability in speaking, and at length, in public business, +as it were in the great games, came to have the pre-eminence of all +competitors in the assembly. But when he first addressed himself to +the people, he met with great discouragements, and was derided for his +strange and uncouth style, which was cumbered with long sentences and +tortured with formal arguments to a most harsh and disagreeable excess. +Besides, he had, it seems, a weakness in his voice, a perplexed and +indistinct utterance and a shortness of breath, which, by breaking and +disjointing his sentences, much obscured the sense and meaning of what +he spoke. So that in the end, being quite disheartened, he foresook +the assembly; and as he was walking carelessly and sauntering about +the Piraeus, Eunomus, the Thriasian, then a very old man, seeing him, +upbraided him, saying that his diction was very much like that of +Pericles, and that he was wanting to himself through cowardice and +meanness of spirit, neither bearing up with courage against popular +outcry, nor fitting his body for action, but suffering it to languish +through mere sloth and negligence. + +Another time, when the assembly had refused to hear him, and he was +going home with his head muffled up, taking it very heavily, they +relate that Satyrus, the actor followed him, and being his familiar +acquaintance, entered into conversation with him. To whom Demosthenes +bemoaned, that although he had been the most industrious of all the +pleaders, and had spent almost the whole strength and vigor of his +body in that employment, he could not yet find any acceptance with the +people, while drunken sots, mariners, and illiterate fellows were heard, +and had the hustings for their own. "You say true, Demosthenes," replied +Satyrus, "but I will quickly remedy the cause of all this, if you +will repeat to me some passage out of Euripides or Sophocles." When +Demosthenes had pronounced one, Satyrus presently taking it up after +him, gave the same passage, in his rendering of it, such a new form, by +accompanying it with the proper mien and gesture, that to Demosthenes it +seemed quite another thing. By this being convinced how much grace and +ornament language acquires from action, he began to esteem it a +small matter, and as good as nothing for a man to exercise himself in +declaiming, if he neglected enunciation and delivery. Hereupon he built +himself a place under ground to study in (which was still remaining in +our time), and hither he would come constantly every day to form +his action, and to exercise his voice; and here he would continue, +oftentimes without intermission, two or three months together, shaving +one half of his head, so that for shame he might not go abroad, though +he desired it never so much. + +Nor was this all, but he also made his conversation with people abroad, +his common speech, and his business, subservient to his studies, taking +from hence occasions and arguments as matter to work upon. For as soon +as he was parted from his company, down he would go at once into his +study, and run over everything in order that had passed, and the reasons +that might be alleged for and against it. Any speeches, also, that he +was present at, he would go over again with himself, and reduce into +periods; and whatever others spoke to him, or he to them, he would +correct, transform, and vary in several ways. Hence it was, that he was +looked upon as a person of no great natural genius, but one who owed all +the power and ability he had in speaking to labor and industry. He +was very rarely heard to speak off-hand, but though he were by name +frequently called upon by the people, as he sat in the assembly, yet he +would not rise unless he had previously considered the subject, and come +prepared for it. So that many of the popular pleaders used to make it +a jest against him; and Pytheas once, scoffing at him, said that his +arguments smelt of the lamp. To which Demosthenes gave the sharp answer, +"It is true, indeed, Pytheas, that your lamp and mine are not conscious +of the same things." To others, however, he would not deny it, but +would admit frankly enough, that he neither entirely wrote his speeches +beforehand, nor yet spoke wholly extempore. And he would affirm, that +it was the more truly popular act to use premeditation, such preparation +being a kind of respect to the people. + +How then, some may say, was it, that Aeschines speaks of him as a person +much to be wondered at for his boldness in speaking? And, when Lamachus, +the Myrinaean, had written a panegyric upon king Philip and Alexander, +in which he uttered many things in reproach of the Thebans and +Olynthians, and at the Olympic Games recited it publicly, Demosthenes, +then rising up, and recounting historically and demonstratively what +benefits and advantages all Greece had received from the Thebans and +Chalcidians, and on the contrary, what mischiefs the flatterers of the +Macedonians had brought upon it, so turned the minds of all that were +present that the sophist, in alarm at the outcry against him, secretly +made his way out of the assembly. But Demosthenes, it would seem, +regarded the reserve and sustained manner of Pericles, and his +forbearing to speak on the sudden, or upon every occasion, as being the +things to which he principally owed his greatness, and this he followed, +and endeavored to imitate, neither wholly neglecting the glory which +present occasion offered, nor yet willing too often to expose his +faculty to the mercy of chance. For, in fact, the orations which were +spoken by him had much more of boldness and confidence in them than +those that he wrote. Eratosthenes says that often in his speaking he +would be transported into a kind of ecstasy, and Demetrius, that he +uttered the famous metrical adjuration to the people, + + By the earth, the springs, the rivers, and the streams, + +as a man inspired, and beside himself. One of the comedians calls him +a rhopoperperethras--a loud declaimer about petty matters; from rhopos, +small wares, and perperos, a loud talker; and another scoffs at him for +the use of antithesis:-- + + And what he took, took back; a phrase to please + The very fancy of Demosthenes. + +Unless, indeed, this also is meant by Antiphanes for a jest upon the +speech on Halonesus, which Demosthenes advised the Athenians not to take +at Philip's hands, but to take back. + +All, however, used to consider Demades, in the mere use of his natural +gifts, an orator impossible to surpass, and that in what he spoke on the +sudden, he excelled all the study and preparation of Demosthenes. And +Ariston, the Chian, has recorded a judgment which Theophrastus passed +upon the orators; for being asked what kind of orator he accounted +Demosthenes, he answered, "Worthy of the city of Athens;" and then, what +he thought of Demades, he answered, "Above it." And the same philosopher +reports, that Polyeuctus, the Sphettian, one of the Athenian politicians +about that time, was wont to say that Demosthenes was the greatest +orator, but Phocion the ablest, as he expressed the most sense in the +fewest words. And, indeed, it is related, that Demosthenes himself, +as often as Phocion stood up to plead against him, would say to his +acquaintance, "Here comes the knife to my speech." Yet it does not +appear whether he had this feeling for his powers of speaking, or for +his life and character, and meant to say that one word or nod from a man +who was really trusted, would go further than a thousand lengthy periods +from others. + +Demetrius, the Phalerian, tells us, that he was informed by Demosthenes +himself, when old, that the ways he made use of to remedy his natural +bodily infirmities and defects were such as these: his inarticulate +and stammering pronunciation he overcame and rendered more distinct +by speaking with pebbles in his mouth; his voice he disciplined by +declaiming and reciting speeches or verses when he was out of breath, +while running or going up steep places; and that in his house he had +a large looking-glass, before which he would stand and go through his +exercises. It is told that some one once came to request his assistance +as a pleader, and related how he had been assaulted and beaten. "I am +sure," said Demosthenes, "nothing of the kind can have happened to +you." Upon which the other, raising his voice, exclaimed loudly, "What, +Demosthenes, nothing has been done to me?" "Ah," replied Demosthenes, +"now I hear the voice of one that has been injured and beaten." Of so +great consequence towards the gaining of belief did he esteem the tone +and action of the speaker. When a thief, who had the nickname of the +Brazen, was attempting to upbraid him for sitting up late, and writing +by candlelight, "I know very well," said he, "that you had rather +have all lights out; and wonder not, O ye men of Athens, at the many +robberies which are committed, since we have thieves of brass and walls +of clay." + +His first entering into public business was about the time of +the Phocian war. But the object which he chose for himself in the +commonwealth was noble and just, the defence of the Greek against +Philip; and in this he behaved himself so worthily that he soon grew +famous, and excited attention everywhere for his eloquence and courage +in speaking. He was admired through all Greece, the king of Persia +courted him, and by Philip himself he was more esteemed than all the +other orators. His very enemies were forced to confess that they had to +do with a man of mark; for such a character even Aeschines and Hyperides +give him, where they accuse and speak against him. + +Demosthenes would never turn aside or prevaricate, either in word or +deed. Panaetius, the philosopher, said, that most of his orations were +written, as if they were to prove this one conclusion: that only what is +honest and virtuous is to be chosen; as that of the Crown, that against +Aristocrates, that for the Immunities, and the Philippics; in all which +he persuades his fellow-citizens to pursue not that which seems most +pleasant, easy, or profitable; but declares over and over again, +that they ought in the first place to prefer that which is just and +honorable, before their own safety and preservation. + +Excepting only Phocion, he far surpassed, even in his life and manners, +the other orators of his time. None of them addressed the people so +boldly; he attacked the faults, and opposed himself to the unreasonable +desires of the multitude, as may be seen in his orations. Theopompus +writes, that the Athenians having by name selected Demosthenes, and +called upon him to accuse a certain person, he refused to do it; upon +which the assembly being all in an uproar, he rose up and said, "Your +counselor, whether you will or no, O ye men of Athens, you shall always +have me; but a sycophant or false accuser, I shall never be." And his +conduct in the case of Antiphon was perfectly aristocratical; whom, +after he had been acquitted in the assembly, he took and brought before +the court of Areopagus, and, setting at naught the displeasure of +the people, convicted him there of having promised Philip to burn the +arsenal; whereupon the man was condemned by that court, and suffered for +it. He accused, also, Theoris, the priestess, among other misdemeanors, +of having instructed and taught the slaves to deceive and cheat their +masters, for which the sentence of death was passed upon her, and she +was executed. + +It was evident, even in time of peace, what course Demosthenes would +steer in the commonwealth; for whatever was done by the Macedonian, he +criticised and found fault with, and upon all occasions was stirring up +the people of Athens, and inflaming them against him. Therefore, in the +court of Philip, no man was so much talked of, or of so great account as +he; and when he came thither, as one of the ten ambassadors who was sent +into Macedonia, his speech was answered with most care and exactness. +But in other respects, Philip entertained him not so honorably as the +rest, neither did he show him the same kindness and civility with which +he applied himself to the party of Aeschines and Philocrates. So that, +when the others commended Philip for his able speaking, his beautiful +person, nay, and also for his good companionship in drinking, +Demosthenes could not refrain from cavilling at these praises; +the first, he said, was a quality which might well enough become a +rhetorician, the second a woman, and the last was only the property of a +sponge; no one of them was the proper commendation of a prince. + +Not long after, he undertook an embassy through the States of Greece, +which he solicited and so far incensed against Philip, that a few only +excepted, he brought them all into a general league. So that, besides +the forces composed of the citizens themselves, there was an army +consisting of fifteen + +thousand foot and two thousand horse, and the money to pay these +strangers was levied and brought in with great cheerfulness. On which +occasion it was, says Theophrastus, on the allies requesting that their +contributions for the war might be ascertained and stated, Crobylus, the +orator, made use of the saying, "War can't be fed at so much a day." Now +was all Greece up in arms, and in great expectation what would be the +event. The Euboeans, the Achaeans, the Corinthians, the Megarians, the +Leucadians, and Corcyraeans, their people and their cities, were all +joined together in a league. But the hardest task was yet behind, left +for Demosthenes, to draw the Thebans into this confederacy with the +rest. Their country bordered next upon Attica, they had great forces for +the war, and at that time they were accounted the best soldiers of all +Greece, but it was no easy matter to make them break with Philip, who +by many good offices, had so lately obliged them in the Phocian war; +especially considering how the subjects of dispute and variance between +the two cities were continually renewed and exasperated by petty +quarrels, arising out of the proximity of their frontiers. + +But after Philip, puffed up with his good success at Amphissa, on a +sudden surprised Elatea and possessed himself of Phocis, the Athenians +were in a great consternation, none durst venture to rise up to +speak, all were at a loss, and the whole assembly was in silence and +perplexity. In this extremity of affairs, Demosthenes was the only man +who appeared, his counsel to them being alliance with the Thebans. And +having in other ways encouraged the people, and, as his manner was, +raised their spirits up with hopes, he, with some others was sent +ambassador to Thebes. To oppose him, as Marsyas says, Philip also sent +thither his envoys. Now the Thebans, in their consultations, were well +enough aware what suited best with their own interest, but every one +had before his eye the terrors of war, and their losses in the Phocian +troubles were still recent: but such was the force and power of the +orator, fanning up their courage, and firing their emulation, that, +casting away every thought of prudence, fear, or obligation, in a sort +of divine possession, they chose the path of honor, to which his words +invited them. And this success, thus accomplished by an orator, +was thought to be so glorious and of such consequence, that Philip +immediately sent heralds to treat and petition for a peace: all Greece +was aroused, and up in arms to help. And the commanders-in-chief, not +only of Attica, but of Boeotia, applied themselves to Demosthenes, and +observed his directions. He managed all the assemblies of the Thebans, +no less than those of the Athenians; he was beloved both by the one and +by the other, and exercised the same supreme authority with both; and +that not by unfair means, or without just cause, but it was no more than +was due to his merit. + +But there was, it should seem, some divinely-ordered fortune, +commissioned, in the revolution of things, to put a period at this time +to the liberty of Greece, which opposed and thwarted all their actions, +and by many signs foretold what should happen. Such were the sad +predictions uttered by the Pythian priestess, and this old oracle cited +out of the Sibyl's verses: + + The battle on Thermodon that shall be + Safe at a distance I desire to see, + Far, like an eagle, watching in the air. + Conquered shall weep, and conqueror perish there. + +This Thermodon, they say, is a little rivulet here in our country in +Chaeronea, running into the Cephisus. But we know of none that is so +called at the present time; and can only conjecture that the streamlet +which is now called Haemon, and runs by the Temple of Hercules, +where the Greeks were encamped, might perhaps in those days be called +Thermodon. + +But of Demosthenes it is said, that he had such great confidence in +the Greek forces, and was so excited by the sight of the courage and +resolution of so many brave men ready to engage the enemy, that he would +by no means endure they should give any heed to oracles, or hearken to +prophecies, but gave out that he suspected even the prophetess herself, +as if she had been tampered with to speak in favor of Philip. He put the +Thebans in mind of Epaminondas, the Athenians of Pericles, who always +took their own measures and governed their actions by reason, looking +upon things of this kind as mere pretexts for cowardice. Thus far, +therefore, Demosthenes acquitted himself like a brave man. But in the +fight he did nothing honorable, nor was his performance answerable +to his speeches. For he fled, deserting his place disgracefully, and +throwing away his arms, not ashamed, as Pytheas observed, to belie +the inscription written on his shield, in letters of gold, "With good +fortune." + +In the meantime Philip, in the first moment of victory, was so +transported with joy, that he grew extravagant, and going out, after he +had drunk largely, to visit the dead bodies, he chanted the first words +of the decree that had been passed on the motion of Demosthenes, + + The motion of Demosthenes, Demosthenes's son, + + dividing it metrically into feet, and marking the beats. + +But when he came to himself, and had well considered the danger he was +lately under, he could not forbear from shuddering at the wonderful +ability and power of an orator who had made him hazard his life and +empire on the issue of a few brief hours. The fame of it also +reached even to the court of Persia, and the king sent letters to his +lieutenants, commanding them to supply Demosthenes with money, and to +pay every attention to him, as the only man of all the Greeks who was +able to give Philip occupation and find employment for his forces near +home, in the troubles of Greece. + +At this time, however, upon the ill success which now happened to the +Greeks, those of the contrary faction in the commonwealth turned upon +Demosthenes, and took the opportunity to frame several informations and +indictments against him. But the people not only acquitted him of these +accusations, but continued towards him their former respect, and when +the bones of those who had been slain at Chaeronea were brought home +to be solemnly interred, Demosthenes was the man they chose to make the +funeral oration. The speech, therefore, was spoken by Demosthenes. But +the subsequent decrees he would not allow to be passed in his own name, +but made use of those of his friends, one after another, looking upon +his own as unfortunate and inauspicious; till at length he took courage +again after the death of Philip, who did not long outlive his victory at +Chaeronea. And this, it seems, was that which was foretold in the last +verse of the oracle, + + Conquered shall weep, and conqueror perish there. + +Demosthenes had secret intelligence of the death of Philip, and laying +hold of this opportunity to prepossess the people with courage and +better hopes for the future, he came into the assembly with a cheerful +countenance, pretending to have had a dream that presaged some great +good fortune for Athens; and, not long after, arrived the messengers who +brought the news of Philip's death. No sooner had the people received +it, but immediately they offered sacrifice to the gods, and decreed +that Pausanias should be presented with a crown. Demosthenes appeared +publicly in a rich dress, with a chaplet on his head, though it were +but the seventh day since the death of his daughter, as is said by +Aeschines, who upbraids him upon this account, and rails at him as +one void of natural affection towards his children. Whereas, Aeschines +rather betrays himself to be of a poor spirit, if he really means +to make wailings and lamentation the only signs of a gentle and +affectionate nature. I must commend the behavior of Demosthenes, who +leaving tears and lamentations and domestic sorrows to the women, made +it his business to attend to the interests of the commonwealth. + +But now to return to my narrative. The cities of Greece were inspirited +once more by the efforts of Demosthenes to form a league together. The +Thebans, whom he had provided with arms, set upon their garrison, and +slew many of them; the Athenians made preparations to join their forces +with them; Demosthenes ruled supreme in the popular assembly, and wrote +letters to the Persian officers who commanded under the king in Asia, +inciting them to make war upon the Macedonian, calling him child and +simpleton. But as soon as Alexander had settled matters in his own +country, and come in person with his army into Boeotia, down fell the +courage of the Athenians, and Demosthenes was hushed; the Thebans, +deserted by them, fought by themselves, and lost their city. After +which, the people of Athens, all in distress and great perplexity, +resolved to send ambassadors to Alexander, and amongst others, made +choice of Demosthenes for one; but his heart failing him for fear of the +king's anger, he returned back from Cithaeron, and left the embassy. In +the mean time, Alexander sent to Athens, requiring eight of the +orators to be delivered up to him,--Demosthenes, Polyeuctus, Ephialtes, +Lycurgus, Moerocles, Demon, Callisthenes, and Charidemus. It was upon +this occasion that Demosthenes related to them the fable in which the +sheep are said to deliver up their dogs to the wolves; himself and +those who with him contended for the people's safety, being, in his +comparison, the dogs that defended the flock, and Alexander "the +Macedonian arch wolf." He further told them, "As we see corn-dealers +sell their whole stock by a few grains of wheat which they carry about +with them in a dish, as a sample of the rest, so you, by delivering +up us, who are but a few, do at the same time unawares surrender up +yourselves all together with us." The Athenians were deliberating, and +at a loss what to do, when Demades, having agreed with the persons whom +Alexander had demanded, for five talents, undertook to go ambassador, +and to intercede with the king for them; and, whether it was that he +relied on his friendship and kindness, or that he hoped to find him +satiated, as a lion glutted with slaughter, he certainly went, and +prevailed with him both to pardon the men, and to be reconciled to the +city. + +So he and his friends, when Alexander went away, were great men, and +Demosthenes was quite put aside. Yet when Agis, the Spartan, made his +insurrection, he also for a short time attempted a movement in his +favor; but he soon shrunk back again, as the Athenians would not +take any part in it, and, Agis being slain, the Lacedaemonians were +vanquished. During this time it was that the indictment against +Ctesiphon, concerning the Crown, was brought to trial. The action was +commenced a little before the battle in Chaeronea, when Chaerondas +was archon, but it was not proceeded with till about ten years after, +Aristophon being then archon. Never was any public cause more celebrated +than this, alike for the fame of the orators, and for the generous +courage of the judges, who, though at that time the accusers of +Demosthenes, were in the height of power, and supported by all the +favor of the Macedonians, yet would not give judgment against him, but +acquitted him so honorably, that Aeschines did not obtain the fifth part +of their suffrages on his side, so that, immediately after, he left +the city, and spent the rest of his life in teaching rhetoric about the +island of Rhodes, and upon the continent in Ionia. + +It was not long after that Harpalus fled from Alexander, and came to +Athens out of Asia; knowing himself guilty of many misdeeds into which +his love of luxury had led him, and fearing the king, who was now grown +terrible even to his best friends. Yet this man had no sooner addressed +himself to the people, and delivered up his goods, his ships, and +himself to their disposal, but the other orators of the town had their +eyes quickly fixed upon his money, and came in to his assistance, +persuading the Athenians to receive and protect their suppliant. +Demosthenes at first gave advice to chase him out of the country, and +to beware lest they involved their city in a war upon an unnecessary and +unjust occasion. But some few days after, as they were taking an account +of the treasure, Harpalus, perceiving how much he was pleased with a cup +of Persian manufacture, and how curiously he surveyed the sculpture and +fashion of it, desired him to poise it in his hand, and consider the +weight of the gold. Demosthenes, being amazed to feel how heavy it was +asked him what weight it came to. "To you," said Harpalus, smiling, "it +shall come with twenty talents." And presently after, when night drew +on, he sent him the cup with so many talents. Harpalus, it seems, was a +person of singular skill to discern a man's covetousness by the air of +his countenance, and the look and movement of his eyes. For Demosthenes +could not resist the temptation, but admitting the present, like an +armed garrison, into the citadel of his house, he surrendered himself up +to the interest of Harpalus. The next day he came into the assembly with +his neck swathed about with wool and rollers, and when they called on +him to rise up and speak, he made signs as if he had lost his voice. But +the wits, turning the matter to ridicule, said that certainly the orator +had been seized that night with no other than a silver quinsy. And soon +after, the people, becoming aware of the bribery, grew angry, and would +not suffer him to speak, or make any apology for himself, but ran him +down with noise; and one man stood up and cried out, "What, ye men of +Athens, will you not hear the cup-bearer?" So at length they banished +Harpalus out of the city; and fearing lest they should be called to +account for the treasures which the orators had purloined, they made a +strict inquiry, going from house to house. + +Demosthenes resisted the inquisition, and proposed a decree to refer the +business to the court of Areopagus, and to punish those whom that court +should find guilty. But being himself one of the first whom the court +condemned, when he came to the bar, he was fined fifty talents, and +committed to prison; where, out of shame of the crime for which he was +condemned, and through the weakness of his body, growing incapable of +supporting the confinement, he made his escape, by the carelessness of +some and by the connivance of others of the citizens. He did not show +much fortitude in his banishment, spending his time for the most part +in Aegina and Troezen, and, with tears in his eyes, looking towards the +country of Attica. The young men that came to visit and converse with +him, he deterred from meddling with state affairs, telling them, that +if at first two ways had been proposed to him, the one leading to the +speaker's stand and the assembly, the other going direct to destruction, +and he could have foreseen the many evils which attend those who deal in +public business, such as fears, envies, calumnies, and contentions, he +would certainly have taken that which led straight on to his death. + +But now happened the death of Alexander, while Demosthenes was in this +banishment which we have been speaking of. And the Greeks were once +again up in arms, encouraged by the brave attempts of Leosthenes, who +was then drawing a circumvallation about Antipater, whom he held close +besieged in Lamia. Pytheas, therefore, the orator, and Callimedon, +called the Crab, fled from Athens, and taking sides with Antipater, went +about with his friends and ambassadors to keep the Greeks from revolting +and taking part with the Athenians. But, on the other side, Demosthenes, +associating himself with the ambassadors that came from Athens, used +his utmost endeavors and gave them his best assistance in persuading the +cities to fall unanimously upon the Macedonians, and to drive them out +of Greece. With this conduct the people of Athens were so well pleased, +that they decreed the recall of Demosthenes from banishment. The decree +was brought in by Demon the Paeanian, cousin to Demosthenes. So they +sent him a ship to Aegina, and he landed at the port of Piraeus, where +he was met and joyfully received by all the citizens, not so much as an +Archon or a priest staying behind. And Demetrius, the Magnesian, says, +that he lifted up his hands towards heaven, and blessed this day of his +happy return, as far more honorable than that of Alcibiades; since he +was recalled by his countrymen, not through any force or constraint +put upon them, but by their own good-will and free inclinations. There +remained only his pecuniary fine, which, according to law, could not be +remitted by the people. But they found out a way to elude the law. It +was a custom with them to allow a certain quantity of silver to those +who were to furnish and adorn the altar for the sacrifice of Jupiter +Soter. This office, for that turn, they bestowed on Demosthenes, and for +the performance of it ordered him fifty talents, the very sum in which +he was condemned. + +Yet it was no long time that he enjoyed his country after his return, +the attempts of the Greeks being soon all utterly defeated. And in the +month of Pyanepsion following Demosthenes died after this manner. + +Upon the report that Antipater was coming to Athens, Demosthenes with +his party took their opportunity to escape privily out of the city; but +sentence of death was, upon the motion of Demades, passed upon them by +the people. They dispersed themselves, flying some to one place, some +to another; and Antipater sent about his soldiers into all quarters to +apprehend them. Archias, formerly an actor, was their captain, and +was thence called the exile-hunter. This Archias finding Hyperides the +orator, Aristonicus and Himeraeus in Aegina, took them by force out of +the temple of Aeacus, whither they had fled for safety, and sent them to +Antipater, and put them all to death; and Hyperides, they say, had his +tongue cut out. + +Demosthenes, he heard, had taken sanctuary at the temple of Neptune at +Calauria, and, crossing over thither in some light vessels, as soon as +he had landed himself, and the Thracian spear-men that came with him, he +endeavored to persuade Demosthenes to accompany him to Antipater, as +if he should meet with no hard usage from him. But Demosthenes, in his +sleep the night before, had a strange dream. It seemed to him that he +was acting a tragedy, and contended with Archias for the victory; and +though he acquitted himself well, and gave good satisfaction to the +spectators, yet for want of better furniture and provision for the +stage, he lost the day. And so, while Archias was discoursing to him +with many expressions of kindness, he sat still in the same posture, +and looking up steadfastly upon him, said: "O Archias, I am as little +affected by your promises now as I used formerly to be by your acting." +Archias at this beginning to grow angry and to threaten him, "Now," said +Demosthenes, "you speak like the genuine Macedonian oracle; before you +were but acting a part. Therefore forebear only a little, while I write +a word or two home to my family." Having thus spoken, he withdrew into +the temple, and taking a scroll, as if he meant to write, he put the +reed into his mouth, and biting it, as he was wont to do when he was +thoughtful or writing, he held it there for some time. Then he bowed +down his head and covered it. The soldiers that stood at the door, +supposing all this to proceed from want of courage and fear of death, +in derision called him effeminate, and faint-hearted, and coward. And +Archias, drawing near, desired him to rise up, and repeating the same +kind things he had spoken before, he once more promised him to make his +peace with Antipater. But Demosthenes, perceiving that now the poison +had pierced and seized his vitals, uncovered his head, and fixing +his eyes upon Archias, "Now," said he, "as soon as you please you may +commence the part of Creon in the tragedy, and cast out this body of +mine unburied. But, O gracious Neptune, I, for my part, while I am yet +alive, arise up and depart out of this sacred place; though Antipater +and the Macedonians have not left so much as thy temple unpolluted." +After he had thus spoken and desired to be held up, because already he +began to tremble and stagger, as he was going forward, and passing by +the altar, he fell down, and with a groan gave up the ghost. + +Ariston says that he took the poison out of a reed, as we have shown +before. And Eratosthenes also says that he kept the poison in a hollow +ring, which he wore about his arm. There are various other statements +made by the many authors who have related the story, but there is no +need to enter into their discrepancies; yet I must not omit what is said +by Demochares, the relation of Demosthenes, who is of opinion, it was +not by the help of poison that he met with no sudden and so easy a +death, but that by the singular favor and providence of the gods he +was thus rescued from the cruelty of the Macedonians. He died on +the sixteenth of Pyanepsion, the most sad and solemn day of the +Thesmophoria, which the women observe by fasting in the temple of the +goddess. + +Soon after his death, the people of Athens bestowed on him such honors +as he had deserved. They erected his statue of brass; they decreed that +the eldest of his family should be maintained in the Prytaneum; and on +the base of his statue was engraven the famous inscription,-- + + Had you for Greece been strong, as wise you were, + The Macedonian had not conquered her. + +A little before we went to Athens, the following incident was said to +have happened. A soldier, being summoned to appear before his superior +officer, and answer to an accusation brought against him, put a little +gold which he had into the hands of Demosthenes's statue. The fingers +of this statue were folded one within another, and near it grew a small +plane-tree, from which many leaves, either accidentally blown thither by +the wind, or placed so on purpose by the man himself, falling together, +and lying round about the gold, concealed it for a long time. In the +end, the soldier returned, and found his treasure entire, and the fame +of this incident was spread abroad. And many ingenious persons of +the city competed with each other, on this occasion, to vindicate the +integrity of Demosthenes, in several epigrams which they made on the +subject. + +As for Demades, he did not long enjoy the new honors he now came in +for, divine vengeance for the death of Demosthenes pursuing him into +Macedonia, where he was justly put to death by those whom he had basely +flattered. + + + + +CICERO + +It is generally said that Helvia, the mother of Cicero, was well born; +but of his father nothing is reported but in extremes. For whilst some +would have him the son of a fuller, and educated in that trade, others +carry back the origin of his family to Tullus Attius, an illustrious +king of the Volscians, who waged war not without honor against the +Romans. However, he who first of that house was surnamed Cicero seems +to have been a person worthy to be remembered; since those who succeeded +him not only did not reject, but were fond of that name, though vulgarly +made a matter of reproach. For the Latins call a vetch Cicer, and a nick +or dent at the tip of his nose, which resembled the opening in a vetch, +gave him the surname of Cicero. + +Cicero, whose story I am writing, is said to have replied with spirit to +some of his friends, who recommended him to lay aside or change the name +when he first stood for office and engaged in politics, that he would +make it his endeavor to render the name of Cicero more glorious than +that of the Scauri and Catuli. And when he was quaestor in Sicily, and +was making an offering of silver plate to the gods, and had inscribed +his two names, Marcus and Tullius, instead of the third, he jestingly +told the artificer to engrave the figure of a vetch by them. + +Cicero was born on the third of January, the same day on which now the +magistrates of Rome pray and sacrifice for the emperor. As soon as he +was of an age to begin to have lessons, he became so distinguished for +his talent, and got such a name and reputation amongst the boys, that +their fathers would often visit the school, that they might see young +Cicero, and might be able to say that they themselves had witnessed the +quickness and readiness in learning for which he was renowned. And the +more rude among them used to be angry with their children, to see them, +as they walked together, receiving Cicero with respect into the middle +place. And being, as Plato would have the scholar-like and philosophical +temper, eager for every kind of learning, and indisposed to no +description of knowledge or instruction, he showed, however, a more +peculiar propensity to poetry; and there is a poem now extant, made +by him when a boy, in tetrameter verse, called Pontius Glaucus. +And afterwards, when he applied himself more curiously to these +accomplishments, he had the name of being not only the best orator, but +also the best poet of Rome. And the glory of his rhetoric still remains, +notwithstanding the many new modes in speaking since his time; but his +verses are forgotten and out of all repute, so many ingenious poets have +followed him. + +Leaving his juvenile studies, he became an auditor of Philo the +Academic, whom the Romans, above all the other scholars of Clitomachus, +admired for his eloquence and loved for his character. He also sought +the company of the Mucii, who were eminent statesmen and leaders in the +senate, and acquired from them a knowledge of the laws. For some short +time he served in arms under Sylla, in the Marsian war. But perceiving +the commonwealth running into factions, and from faction all things +tending to an absolute monarchy, he betook himself to a retired and +contemplative life, and conversing with the learned Greeks, devoted +himself to study, till Sylla had obtained the government. + +At this time, Chrysogonus, Sylla's emancipated slave, having laid an +information about an estate belonging to one who was said to have been +put to death by proscription, had bought it himself for two thousand +drachmas. And when Roscius, the son and heir of the dead, complained, +and demonstrated the estate to be worth two hundred and fifty talents, +Sylla took it angrily to have his actions questioned, and preferred +a process against Roscius for the murder of his father, Chrysogonus +managing the evidence. None of the advocates durst assist him, but +fearing the cruelty of Sylla, avoided the cause. The young man, being +thus deserted, came for refuge to Cicero. Cicero's friends encouraged +him, saying he was not likely ever to have a fairer and more honorable +introduction to public life; he therefore undertook the defence, carried +the cause, and got much renown for it. + +But fearing Sylla, he traveled into Greece, and gave it out that he did +so for the benefit of his health. And indeed he was lean and meagre, +and had such a weakness in his stomach that he could take nothing but +a spare and thin diet, and that not till late in the evening. His voice +was loud and good, but so harsh and ill-managed that in vehemence and +heat of speaking he always raised it to so high a tone, that there +seemed to be reason to fear for his health. + +At Athens, he became a hearer of Antiochus of Ascalon, with whose +fluency and elegance of diction he was much taken, although he did not +approve of his innovations in doctrine. And Cicero made up his mind that +if he should be disappointed of any employment in the commonwealth, +to retire from pleading and politics, and pass his life quietly in the +study of philosophy. + +But after he had received the news of Sylla's death, and his body, +strengthened again by exercise, had grown vigorous, and his voice +was rendered sweet and full to the ear, his friends at Rome earnestly +solicited him by letters to return to public affairs. He, therefore, +again prepared for use his orator's instrument of rhetoric, and summoned +into action his political faculties, diligently exercising himself in +declamations, and attending the most celebrated rhetoricians of the +time. He sailed from Athens for Asia and Rhodes. Among the Asian +masters, he conversed with Xenocles of Adramyttium, Dionysius of +Magnesia, and Menippus of Caria; at Rhodes, he studied oratory +with Apollonius, the son of Molon, and philosophy with Posidonius. +Apollonius, we are told, not understanding Latin, requested Cicero to +declaim in Greek. He complied willingly, thinking that his faults would +thus be better pointed out to him. After he finished, all his other +hearers were astonished, and vied with each other in praising him, but +Apollonius showed no signs of excitement while he was hearing him, and +now, when he had finished, sat musing for some time, without any remark. +And when Cicero was discomposed at this, he said, "You have my praise +and admiration, Cicero, and Greece my pity and commiseration, since +those arts and that eloquence which are the only glories that remain to +her, will now be transferred by you to Rome." + +And now when Cicero, full of expectation, was again bent upon political +affairs, a certain oracle blunted the edge of his inclination; for +consulting the god of Delphi how he should attain most glory, the +Pythoness answered, "By making your own genius and not the opinion of +the people the guide of your life;" and therefore at first he passed his +time in Rome cautiously, and was very backward in pretending to public +offices, so that he was at that time in little esteem, and had got the +names, so readily given by low and ignorant people in Rome, of Greek and +Scholar. But when his own desire of fame and the eagerness of his father +and relations had made him take in earnest to pleading, he made no slow +or gentle advance to the first place, but shone out in full lustre at +once, and far surpassed all the advocates at the bar. At first, it is +said, he as well as Demosthenes, was defective in his delivery, and +on that account paid much attention to the instructions, sometimes of +Roscius, the comedian, and sometimes of Aesop, the tragedian. They +tell of this Aesop, that while representing in the theatre Atreus +deliberating the revenge of Thyestes, he was so transported beyond +himself in the heat of action, that he struck with his sceptre one of +the servants, who was running across the stage, so violently, that he +laid him dead upon the place. And such afterwards was Cicero's delivery, +that it did not a little contribute to render his eloquence persuasive. +He used to ridicule loud speakers, saying that they shouted because they +could not speak, like lame men who get on horseback because they cannot +walk. And his readiness and address in wit and sarcasm were thought to +suit a pleader well. + +He was appointed quaestor in a great scarcity of corn, and had Sicily +for his province, where, at first, he displeased many, by compelling +them to send in their provisions to Rome, yet after they had had +experience of his care, justice, and clemency, they honored him more +than ever they did any of their governors before. It happened, also, +that some young Romans of good and noble families, charged with neglect +of discipline and misconduct in military service, were brought before +the praetor in Sicily. Cicero undertook their defence, which he +conducted admirably, and got them acquitted. So returning to Rome with +a great opinion of himself for these things, a ludicrous incident befell +him, as he tells us himself. Meeting an eminent citizen in Campania, +whom he accounted his friend, he asked him what the Romans said and +thought of his actions, as if the whole city had been filled with the +glory of what he had done. His friend asked him in reply, "Where is it +you have been, Cicero?" Utterly mortified and cast down, he perceived +that the report of his actions had sunk into the city of Rome as into an +immense ocean, without any visible effect or result in reputation. + +On beginning to apply himself more resolutely to public business, +he remarked it as unreasonable that artificers, using vessels and +instruments inanimate, should know the name, place, and use of every +one of them, and yet the statesman, whose instruments for carrying +out public measures are men, should be negligent and careless in the +knowledge of persons. And so he not only acquainted himself with the +names, but also knew the very place where every one of the more eminent +citizens dwelt, what lands he possessed, his friends and his neighbors, +and when he traveled on any road in Italy, he could readily name +and show the estates and seats of his acquaintances. Having a small +competency for his own expenses, it was much wondered at that he took +neither fees nor gifts from his clients, and especially, that he did not +do so when he undertook the prosecution of Verres. This Verres, who had +been praetor of Sicily, and stood charged by the Sicilians with many +evil practices during his government there, Cicero succeeded in getting +condemned, not by speaking, but, as it were, by holding his tongue. +For the praetors, favoring Verres, had deferred the trial by several +adjournments to the last day, in which it was evident there could not be +sufficient time for the advocates to be heard, and the cause brought to +an issue. Cicero, therefore, came forward, and said there was no need of +speeches; and after producing and examining witnesses, he required the +judges to proceed to sentence. Many witty sayings are on record, as +having been used by Cicero on the occasion. When a man named Caecilius, +one of the freed slaves, who was said to be given to Jewish practices, +would have put by the Sicilians, and undertaken the prosecution of +Verres himself, Cicero asked, "What has a Jew to do with swine?" verres +being the Roman word for a boar. And when Verres began to reproach +Cicero with effeminate living, "You ought," replied he, "to use this +language at home, to your sons;" Verres having a son who had fallen +into disgraceful courses. Hortensius, the orator, not daring directly to +undertake the defence of Verres, was yet persuaded to appear for him at +the laying on of the fine, and received an ivory sphinx for his reward; +and when Cicero, in some passage of his speech, obliquely reflected +on him, and Hortensius told him he was not skilful in solving riddles, +"No," said Cicero, "and yet you have the Sphinx in your house!" + +Verres was thus convicted; though Cicero, who set the fine at +seventy-five myriads, lay under the suspicion of being corrupted by +bribery to lessen the sum. But the Sicilians, in testimony of their +gratitude, came and brought him all sorts of presents from the island, +when he was aedile; of which he made no private profit himself, but used +their generosity only to reduce the public price of provisions. + +He had a very pleasant seat at Arpi, he had also a farm near Naples, and +another near Pompeii, but none were of any great value. The portion of +his wife, Terentia, amounted to ten myriads, and he had a bequest +valued at nine myriads of denarii: upon these he lived in a liberal +but temperate style, with the learned Greeks and Romans that were his +familiars. He rarely, if at any time, sat down to meat till sunset, +and that not so much on account of business as for his health and the +weakness of his stomach. He was otherwise in the care of his body nice +and delicate, appointing himself, for example, a set number of walks +and rubbings. And after this manner managing the habit of his body, he +brought it in time to be healthful, and capable of supporting many great +fatigues and trials. His father's house he made over to his brother, +living himself near the Palatine Hill, that he might not give the +trouble of long journeys to those that made suit to him. And, indeed, +there were not fewer daily appearing at his door, to do their court to +him, than there were that came to Crassus for his riches, or to Pompey +for his power among the soldiers, these being at that time the two men +of the greatest repute and influence in Rome. Nay, even Pompey himself +used to pay court to Cicero, and Cicero's public actions did much to +establish Pompey's authority and reputation in the state. + +Numerous distinguished competitors stood with him for the praetor's +office; but he was chosen before them all, and managed the decision of +causes with justice and integrity. It is related that Licinius Macer, +a man himself of great power in the city, and supported also by the +assistance of Crassus, was accused before him of extortion, and that, in +confidence on his own interest and the diligence of his friends, whilst +the judges were debating about the sentence, he went to his house, +where hastily trimming his hair and putting on a clean gown, as already +acquitted, he was setting off again to go to the Forum; but at his hall +door meeting Crassus, who told him that he was condemned by all +the votes, he went in again, threw himself upon his bed, and died +immediately. This verdict was considered very creditable to Cicero, as +showing his careful management of the courts of justice. + +Yet he was preferred to the consulship no less by the nobles than +the common people for the good of the city; and both parties jointly +assisted his promotion, for the following reasons. The change of +government made by Sylla, which at first seemed a senseless one, by time +and usage had now come to be considered by the people no unsatisfactory +settlement. But there were some that endeavored to alter and subvert the +whole present state of affairs, not from any good motives, but for their +own private gain; and Pompey being at this time employed in the wars +with the kings of Pontus and Armenia, there was no sufficient force +at Rome to suppress any attempts at a revolution. These people had +for their head a man of bold, daring, and restless character, Lucius +Catiline, who was accused, besides other great offences, of killing his +own brother; and fearing to be prosecuted at law, he persuaded Sylla to +set his brother down, as though he were yet alive, amongst those +that were to be put to death by proscription. This man the profligate +citizens choosing for their captain, gave faith to one another, amongst +other pledges, by sacrificing a man and eating of his flesh; and a great +part of the young men of the city were corrupted by him, he providing +for every one pleasures and drink, and profusely supplying the expense +of their debauches. Etruria, moreover, had all been excited to revolt, +as well as a great part of Gaul within the Alps. But Rome itself was +in the most dangerous inclination to change on account of the unequal +distribution of wealth and property, those of highest rank and greatest +spirit having impoverished themselves by shows, entertainments, running +for office, and sumptuous buildings, and the riches of the city had thus +fallen into the hands of mean and low-born persons. So that it required +but a slight impetus to set all in motion, it being in the power of any +daring man to overturn a sickly commonwealth. + +Catiline, however, being desirous of procuring a strong position to +carry out his designs, stood for the consulship, and had great hopes +of success, thinking he should be appointed, with Caius Antonius as his +colleague, who was a man fit to lead neither in a good cause nor in +a bad one, but might be a valuable accession to another's power. The +greater part of the good and honest citizens apprehending these things, +put Cicero upon standing for the consulship; whom the people readily +receiving, Catiline was put by, so that he and Caius Antonius were +chosen, although amongst the competitors he was the only man descended +from the father of the equestrian, and not of the senatorial, order. + +Though the designs of Catiline were not yet publicly known, yet +considerable trouble immediately followed Cicero's entrance upon the +consulship. For, on the one side, those who were disqualified by +the laws of Sylla from holding any public offices, being neither +inconsiderable in power nor in number, came forward as candidates and +entreated the people; on the other hand, the tribunes of the people +proposed laws to the same purpose, constituting a commission of ten +persons, with unlimited powers, in whom as supreme governors should be +vested the right of selling the public lands of all Italy and Syria and +Pompey's new conquests, of judging and banishing whom they pleased, of +planting colonies, of taking money out of the treasury, and of levying +and paying what soldiers should be though needful. And several of the +nobility favored this law, but especially Caius Antonius, Cicero's +colleague, in hopes of being one of the ten. But what gave the greatest +fear to the nobles was, that he was thought privy to the conspiracy of +Catiline, and not to dislike it because of his great debts. + +Cicero, endeavoring in the first place to provide a remedy against +this danger, procured a decree assigning to Antonius the province of +Macedonia, he himself declining that of Gaul, which was offered to him. +And this piece of favor so completely won over Antonius, that he was +ready to second, like a hired player, whatever Cicero said for the good +of the country. And now, having made his colleague tame and tractable, +he could with greater courage attack the conspirators. Therefore, in the +senate, making an oration against the law of the ten commissioners, he +so confounded those who proposed it, that they had nothing to reply. + +For Cicero, it may be said, was the one man, above all others, who made +the Romans feel how great a charm eloquence lends to what is good, and +how invincible justice is if it be well presented. An incident occurred +in the theatre, during his consulship, which showed what his speaking +could do. Formerly the knights of Rome were mingled in the theatre +with the common people, and took their places amongst them just as it +happened; but when Marcus Otho became praetor he distinguished them from +the other citizens, and appointed them special seats, which they still +enjoy as their place in the theatre. This the common people took as +an indignity done to them, and, therefore, when Otho appeared in the +theatre they hissed him; the knights, on the contrary, received him +with loud clapping. The people repeated and increased their hissing; the +knights continued their clapping. Upon this, turning upon one another, +they broke out into insulting words, so that the theatre was in great +disorder. Cicero, being informed of it, came himself to the theatre, and +summoning the people into the temple of Bellona, he so effectually chid +and chastised them for it, that, again returning into the theatre, they +received Otho with loud applause, contending with the knights as to who +should give him the greatest demonstrations of honor and respect. + +The conspirators with Catiline, at first cowed and disheartened, began +presently to take courage again. And assembling together, they exhorted +one another boldly to undertake the design before Pompey's return. But +the old soldiers of Sylla were Catiline's chief stimulus to action. +They had been disbanded all about Italy, but the greatest number and the +fiercest of them lay scattered among the cities of Etruria entertaining +themselves with dreams of new plunder and rapine among the hoarded +riches of Italy. These, having for their leader Manlius, who had served +with distinction in the wars under Sylla, joined themselves to Catiline, +and came to Rome to assist him with their suffrages at the election. For +he again aspired for the consulship, having resolved to kill Cicero in a +tumult at the elections. The divine powers seemed to give intimation +of the coming troubles, by earthquakes, thunderbolts and strange +appearances. Nor was human evidence wanting, certain enough in itself, +though not sufficient to convict the noble and powerful Catiline. +Therefore Cicero, deferring the day of election, summoned Catiline +into the senate, and questioned him as to the charges made against him. +Catiline, believing there were many in the senate desirous of change, +and to give a specimen of himself to the conspirators present, returned +an audacious answer. "What harm," said he, "when I see two bodies, the +one lean and consumptive with a head, the other one great and strong +without one, if I put a head to that body which wants one?" This +covert representation of the senate and the people excited yet greater +apprehensions in Cicero. He put on armor, and was attended from his +house by the noble citizens in a body; and a number of the young men +went with him into the Plain. Here, designedly letting his tunic slip +partly off from his shoulders, he showed his armor underneath, and +discovered his danger to the spectators, who, being much moved at it, +gathered around about him for his defence. At length, Catiline was by +general suffrage again put by, and Silanus and Murena chosen consuls. + +Not long after this, Catiline's soldiers got together in a body in +Etruria, and began to form themselves into companies, the day appointed +for the design being near at hand. About midnight, some of the principal +and most powerful citizens of Rome, Marcus, Crassus, Marcus Marcellus, +and Scipio Metellus went to Cicero's house, where, knocking at the gate, +and calling up the porter, they commanded him to awake Cicero, and +tell him they were there. The business was this: Crassus's porter after +supper had delivered to him letters brought by an unknown person. Some +of them were directed to others, but one to Crassus, without a name; +this only Crassus read, which informed him that there was a great +slaughter intended by Catiline, and advised him to leave the city. The +others he did not open, but went with them immediately to Cicero, being +affrighted at the danger, and to free himself of the suspicion he lay +under for his familiarity with Catiline. Cicero, considering the matter, +summoned the senate at break of day. The letters he brought with him, +and delivered them to those to whom they were directed, commanding +them to read them publicly; they all alike contained an account of +the conspiracy. And when Quintus Arrius, a man of praetorian dignity, +recounted to them, how soldiers were collecting in companies in Etruria, +and Manlius was stated to be in motion with a large force, hovering +about those cities, in expectation of intelligence from Rome, the senate +made a decree to place all in the hands of the consuls, who should +undertake the conduct of everything, and do their best to save the +state. This was not a common thing, but only done by the senate in cases +of imminent danger. + +After Cicero had received this power, he committed all affairs outside +to Quintus Metellus; but the management of the city he kept in his own +hands. Such a numerous attendance guarded him every day when he went +abroad that the greater part of the forum was filled with his train when +he entered it. Catiline, impatient of further delay, resolved himself to +break forth and go to Manlius; but he commanded Marcius and Cethegus to +take their swords and go early in the morning to Cicero's gates, as if +only intending to salute him, and then to fall upon him and slay him. A +noble lady, Fulvia, coming by night, discovered this to Cicero, bidding +him beware of Cethegus and Marcius. They came by break of day, and being +denied entrance, made an outcry and disturbance at the gates, which +excited all the more suspicion. But Cicero, going forth, summoned the +senate into the temple of Jupiter Stator, which stands at the end of the +Sacred Street, going up to the Palatine. And when Catiline with others +of his party also came, as though intending to make his defence, none of +the senators would sit by him, but all of them left the bench where he +had placed himself. And when he began to speak, they interrupted him +with outcries. At length, Cicero, standing up, commanded him to leave +the city; for, since one governed the commonwealth with words, the other +with arms, it was necessary that there should be a wall betwixt them. +Catiline, therefore, immediately left the town, with three hundred +armed men; and assuming, like a magistrate, the rods, axes, and military +ensigns, he went to Manlius, and having got together a body of near +twenty thousand men, with these he marched to the several cities, +endeavoring to persuade or force them to revolt. It being now come to +open war, Antonius was sent forth to fight him. + +The remainder of those in the city whom he had corrupted, Cornelius +Lentulus kept together and encouraged. He had the surname Sura, and was +a man of a noble family, but a dissolute liver, who for his debauchery +was formerly turned out of the senate, and was now holding the office of +praetor for the second time, as the custom is with those who desire to +regain the dignity of senator. It is said that he got the surname Sura +upon this occasion; being quaestor in the time of Sylla, he had lavished +away and consumed a great quantity of the public moneys, at which Sylla, +being provoked, called him to give an account in the senate. He appeared +with great coolness and contempt, and said he had no account to give, +but they might take this, holding up the calf of his leg, as boys do at +ball, when they have missed. Upon which he was surnamed Sura, sura being +the Roman word for the calf of the leg. Being at another time prosecuted +at law, and having bribed some of the judges, he escaped by only two +votes, and complained of the needless expense he had gone to in paying +for a second, as one would have sufficed to acquit him. This man, such +in his own nature, and now inflamed by Catiline, false prophets and +fortune-tellers had also corrupted with vain hopes, quoting to him +fictitious verses and oracles, and proving from the Sibylline prophecies +that there were three of the name Cornelius designed by fate to be +monarchs of Rome; two of whom, Cinna and Sylla, had already fulfilled +the decree, and that divine fortune was now advancing with the gift of +monarchy for the remaining third Cornelius; and that therefore he +ought by all means to accept it, and not lose opportunity by delay, as +Catiline had done. + +Lentulus, therefore, designed no mean or trivial matter, for he had +resolved to kill the whole senate, and as many other citizens as he +could, to fire the city, and spare nobody, except Pompey's children, +intending to seize and keep them as pledges of his reconciliation with +Pompey. For there was then a common report that Pompey was on his way +homeward from his great expedition. The night appointed for the design +was one of the Saturnalia; swords, flax, and sulphur they carried +and hid in the house of Cethegus; and providing one hundred men, and +dividing the city into as many parts, they had allotted to every one +singly his proper place, so that in a moment, many kindling the fire, +the city might be in a flame all together. Others were appointed to stop +up the aqueducts, and to kill those who should endeavor to carry water +to put it out. While these plans were preparing, it happened that there +were two ambassadors from the Allobroges staying in Rome; a nation at +that time in a distressed condition, and very uneasy under the Roman +government. These Lentulus and his party, judging useful instruments to +move Gaul to revolt, admitted into the conspiracy, and they gave them +letters to their own magistrates, and letters to Catiline; in those +they promised liberty, in these they exhorted Catiline to set all +slaves free, and to bring them along with him to Rome. They sent also +to accompany them to Catiline, one Titus, a native of Croton, who was to +carry those letters to him. + +These counsels of inconsidering men, who conversed together over their +wine, Cicero watched with sober industry and forethought, and with most +admirable sagacity, having several emissaries abroad, who observed +and traced with him all that was done, and keeping also a secret +correspondence with many who pretended to join in the conspiracy. He +thus knew all the discourse which passed between them and the strangers; +and lying in wait for them by night, he took the Crotonian with his +letters, the ambassadors of the Allobroges acting secretly in concert +with him. + +By break of day, he summoned the senate into the temple of Concord, +where he read the letters and examined the informers. Junius Silanus +further stated that several persons had heard Cethegus say that three +consuls and four praetors were to be slain; Piso, also, a person of +consular dignity, testified other matters of like nature; and Caius +Sulpicius, one of the praetors, being sent to Cethegus's house, found +there a quantity of darts and of armor, and a still greater number +of swords and daggers, all recently whetted. At length, the senate, +decreeing indemnity to the Crotonian upon his confession of the whole +matter, Lentulus was convicted, abjured his office (for he was then +praetor), and put off his robe edged with purple in the senate, changing +it for another garment more agreeable to his present circumstances. He, +thereupon, with the rest of his confederates present, was committed to +the charge of the praetors in free custody. + +It being evening, and the common people in crowds expecting without, +Cicero went forth to them, and told them what was done, and then, +attended by them, went to the house of a friend and near neighbor; for +his own was taken up by the women, who were celebrating with secret +rites the feast of the goddess whom the Romans call the Good, and the +Greeks, the Women's goddess. For a sacrifice is annually performed to +her in the consul's house, either by his wife or mother, in the presence +of the vestal virgins. And having got into his friend's house privately, +a few only being present, he began to deliberate how he should treat +these men. The severest and the only punishment fit for such heinous +crimes, he was somewhat shy and fearful of inflicting, as well from the +clemency of his nature, as also lest he should be thought to exercise +his authority too insolently, and to treat too harshly men of the +noblest birth and most powerful friendships in the city; and yet, if he +should use them more mildly, he had a dreadful prospect of danger from +them. For there was no likelihood that, if they suffered less than +death, they would be reconciled, but, rather, adding new rage to their +former wickedness, they would rush into every kind of audacity, while +he himself, whose character for courage already did not stand very high +with the multitude, would be thought guilty of the greatest cowardice +and want of manliness. + +While Cicero was in doubt what course to take, a portent happened to +the women in their sacrificing. For on the altar, where the fire seemed +wholly extinguished, a great and bright flame issued forth from the +ashes of the burnt wood; at which others were affrighted, but the holy +virgins called to Terentia, Cicero's wife, and bade her hasten to her +husband, and command him to execute what he had resolved for the good of +his country, for the goddess had sent a great light to the increase of +his safety and glory. Terentia, therefore, as she was otherwise in her +own nature neither tender-hearted nor timorous, but a woman eager for +distinction (who, as Cicero himself says, would rather thrust herself +into his public affairs than communicate her domestic matters to him), +told him these things, and excited him against the conspirators. So also +did Quintus his brother, and Publius Nigidius, one of his philosophical +friends, whom he often made use of in his most weighty affairs of state. + +The next day, a debate arising in the senate about the punishment of the +men, Silanus, being the first who was asked his opinion, said, it was +fit that they should be all sent to prison, and there suffer the utmost +penalty. With him all agreed in order till it came to Caius Caesar, who +was afterwards dictator. He was then but a young man, and only at the +outset of his career, but had already directed his hopes and policy +to that course by which he afterwards changed the Roman state into a +monarchy. + +When it came Caesar's turn to give his opinion, he stood up and proposed +that the conspirators should not be put to death, but their estates +confiscated, and their persons confined in such cities in Italy as +Cicero should approve, there to be kept in custody till Catiline was +conquered. To this sentence, as it was the most moderate, and he that +delivered it a most powerful speaker, Cicero himself gave no small +weight, for he stood up and, turning the scale on either side, spoke +in favor partly of the former, partly of Caesar's sentence. And all +Cicero's friends, judging Caesar's sentence most expedient for Cicero, +because he would incur the less blame if the conspirators were not put +to death, chose rather the latter; so that Silanus, also, changing his +mind, retracted his opinion, and said he had not declared for +capital, but only the utmost punishment, which to a Roman senator +is imprisonment. The first man who spoke against Caesar's motion was +Catulus Lutatius. Cato followed, and so vehemently urged in his speech +the strong suspicion about Caesar himself, and so filled the senate with +anger and resolution, that a decree was passed for the execution of the +conspirators. But Caesar opposed the confiscation of their goods, not +thinking it fair that those who had rejected the mildest part of his +sentence should avail themselves of the severest. And when many insisted +upon it, he appealed to the tribunes, but they would do nothing; till +Cicero himself yielding, remitted that part of the sentence. + +After this, Cicero went out with the senate to the conspirators; they +were not all together in one place, but the several praetors had them, +some one, some another, in custody. And first he took Lentulus from the +Palatine, and brought him by the Sacred Street, through the middle of +the market-place, a circle of the most eminent citizens encompassing and +protecting him. The people, affrighted at what was doing, passed along +in silence, especially the young men; as if, with fear and trembling, +they were undergoing a rite of initiation into some ancient, sacred +mysteries of aristocratic power. Thus passing from the market-place, and +coming to the gaol, he delivered Lentulus to the officer, and commanded +him to execute him; and after him Cethegus, and so all the rest in +order, he brought and delivered up to execution. And when he saw many +of the conspirators in the market-place, still standing together +in companies, ignorant of what was done, and waiting for the night, +supposing the men were still alive and in a possibility of being +rescued, he called out in a loud voice, and said, "They did live"; for +so the Romans, to avoid inauspicious language, name those that are dead. + +It was now evening, when he returned from the market-place to his own +house, the citizens no longer attending him with silence, nor in order, +but receiving him, as he passed, with acclamations and applauses, and +saluting him as the savior and founder of his country. A bright light +shone through the streets from the lamps and torches set up at the +doors, and the women showed lights from the tops of the houses, to honor +Cicero, and to behold him returning home with a splendid train of the +principal citizens; amongst whom were many who had conducted great wars, +celebrated triumphs, and added to the possessions of the Roman empire, +both by sea and land. These, as they passed along with him, acknowledged +to one another, that though the Roman people were indebted to several +officers and commanders of that age for riches, spoils, and power, yet +to Cicero alone they owed the safety and security of all these, for +delivering them from so great and imminent a danger. For though it +might seem no wonderful thing to prevent the design, and punish the +conspirators, yet to defeat the greatest of all conspiracies with so +little disturbance, trouble, and commotion, was very extraordinary. For +the greater part of those who had flocked in to Catiline, as soon as +they heard of the fate of Lentulus and Cethegus, forsook him, and he +himself, with his remaining forces, joining battle with Antonius, was +destroyed with his army. + +And yet there were some who were very ready both to speak ill of Cicero, +and to do him hurt for these actions; and they had for their leaders +some of the magistrates of the ensuing year, as Caesar, who was one of +the praetors, and Metellus and Bestia, the tribunes. These, entering +upon their office some few days before Cicero's consulate expired, would +not permit him to make any address to the people, but, throwing the +benches before the Rostra, hindered his speaking, telling him he might, +if he pleased, make the oath of withdrawal from office, and then come +down again. Cicero, accordingly, accepting the conditions, came forward +to make his withdrawal; and silence being made, he recited his oath, not +in the usual, but in a new and peculiar form, namely, that he had saved +his country, and preserved the empire; the truth of which oath all the +people confirmed with theirs. Caesar and the tribunes, all the more +exasperated by this, endeavored to create him further trouble, and for +this purpose proposed a law for calling Pompey home with his army, to +put an end to Cicero's usurpation. But it was a very great advantage for +Cicero and the whole commonwealth that Cato was at that time one of the +tribunes. For he, being of equal power with the rest, and of greater +reputation, could oppose their designs. He easily defeated their other +projects, and, in an oration to the people, so highly extolled Cicero's +consulate, that the greatest honors were decreed him, and he was +publicly declared the Father of his Country, which title he seems to +have obtained, the first man who did so, when Cato applied it to him in +this address to the people. + +At this time, therefore, his authority was very great in the city; but +he created himself much envy, and offended very many, not by any evil +action, but because he was always lauding and magnifying himself. For +neither senate, nor assembly of the people, nor court of judicature +could meet, in which he was not heard to talk of Catiline and Lentulus. +Indeed, he filled his books and writings with his own praises, to such +an excess as to render a style, in itself most pleasant and delightful, +nauseous and irksome to his hearers. This ungrateful humor, like a +disease, always clove to him. Still, though fond of his own glory, +he was very free from envying others, but was, on the contrary, +most liberally profuse in commending both the ancients and his +contemporaries, as any one may see in his writings. He called Aristotle +a river of flowing gold, and said of Plato's Dialogues, that if Jupiter +were to speak, it would be in language like theirs. He used to call +Theophrastus his special luxury. And being asked which of Demosthenes's +orations he liked best, he answered, "The longest." And as for the +eminent men of his own time, either in eloquence or philosophy, there +was not one of them whom he did not, by writing or speaking favorably of +him, render more illustrious. + +An example of his love of praise is the way in which sometimes, to +make his orations more striking, he neglected decorum and dignity. +When Munatius, who had escaped conviction by his advocacy, immediately +prosecuted his friend Sabinus, he said in the warmth of his resentment, +"Do you suppose you were acquitted for your own merits, Munatius, or was +it not that I so darkened the case, that the court could not see your +guilt?" When from the Rostra he had made a eulogy on Marcus Crassus, +with much applause, and within a few days after again as publicly +reproached him, Crassus called to him, and said, "Did not you yourself +two days ago, in this same place, commend me?" "Yes," said Cicero, "I +exercised my eloquence in declaiming upon a bad subject." At another +time, Crassus had said that no one of his family had ever lived beyond +sixty years of age, and afterwards denied it, and asked, "What should +put it into my head to say so?" "It was to gain the people's favor," +answered Cicero; "you knew how glad they would be to hear it." When +Vatinius, who had swellings in his neck, was pleading a cause, he called +him the tumid orator; and having been told by some one that Vatinius was +dead, on hearing soon after that he was alive, he said, "may the rascal +perish, for his news not being true." + +Upon Caesar's bringing forward a law for the division of the lands in +Campania amongst the soldiers, many in the senate opposed it; amongst +the rest, Lucius Gellius, one of the oldest men in the house, said it +should never pass whilst he lived. "Let us postpone it," said Cicero, +"Gellius does not ask us to wait long." There was a man of the name of +Octavius, suspected to be of African descent. He once said, when Cicero +was pleading, that he could not hear him; "yet there are holes," said +Cicero, "in your ears." When Metellus Nepos told him that he had ruined +more as a witness than he had saved as an advocate, "I admit," said +Cicero, "that I have more truth than eloquence." To a young man who was +suspected of having given a poisoned cake to his father, and who talked +largely of the invectives he meant to deliver against Cicero, "Better +these," replied he, "than your cakes." Publius Sextius, having amongst +others retained Cicero as his advocate in a certain cause, was yet +desirous to say all for himself, and would not allow anybody to speak +for him; when he was about to receive his acquittal from the judges, and +the ballots were passing, Cicero called to him, "make haste, Sextius, +and use your time; to-morrow you will be nobody." He cited Publius Cotta +to bear testimony in a certain cause, one who affected to be thought a +lawyer, though ignorant and unlearned; but when Cotta had said, "I know +nothing at all about the matter," Cicero answered: "You think, perhaps, +we are asking you about a point of law." When Marcus Appius, in the +opening of some speech in a court of justice, said that his friend had +desired him to employ industry, eloquence, and fidelity in that cause, +Cicero asked, "And how have you had the heart not to accede to any one +of his requests?" + +One Clodius, whom Cicero had vehemently opposed in an important trial, +having got himself chosen one of the tribunes, immediately attacked +Cicero, endeavoring to incite everybody against him. The common people +he gained over with popular laws; to each of the consuls he decreed +large provinces, to Piso, Macedonia, and to Gabinius, Syria. Of the +three men then in greatest power, Crassus was Cicero's open enemy, +Pompey indifferently made advances to both, and Caesar was going with +an army into Gaul. To him, though not his friend, Cicero applied, +requesting an appointment as one of his lieutenants in the province. +Caesar accepted him, and Clodius, perceiving that Cicero would thus +escape his tribunician authority, professed to be inclinable to a +reconciliation, made always a favorable mention of him, and addressed +him with kind expressions, as one who felt no hatred or ill-will, but +who merely wished to urge his complaints in a moderate and friendly +way. By these artifices, he so freed Cicero of all his fears, that +he resigned his appointment to Caesar, and betook himself again to +political affairs. At which Caesar being exasperated, joined the party +of Clodius against him, and wholly alienated Pompey from him; he also +himself declared in a public assembly of the people, that he did not +think Lentulus and Cethegus, with their accomplices, were fairly and +legally put to death without being brought to trial. And this, indeed, +was the crime charged upon Cicero, and this impeachment he was summoned +to answer. And so, as an accused man, and in danger for the result, he +changed his dress, and went round with his hair untrimmed, in the attire +of a suppliant, to beg the people's grace. But Clodius met him in every +corner, having a band of abusive and daring fellows about him, who +derided Cicero for his change of dress and his humiliation, and often, +by throwing dirt and stones at him, interrupted his supplication to the +people. + +However, first of all, almost the whole equestrian order changed +their dress with him, and no less than twenty thousand young gentlemen +followed him with their hair untrimmed, and supplicating with him to the +people. And then the senate met, to pass a decree that the people should +change their dress as in time of public sorrow. But the consuls opposing +it, and Clodius with armed men besetting the senate-house, many of the +senators ran out, crying aloud and tearing their clothes. But this sight +moved neither shame nor pity; Cicero must either fly or determine it by +the sword with Clodius. He entreated Pompey to aid him, who on purpose +had gone out of the way, and was staying at his country-house in the +Alban hills; and first he sent his son-in-law Piso to intercede with +him, and afterwards set out to go himself. But Pompey being informed, +would not stay to see him, being ashamed at the remembrance of the many +conflicts in the commonwealth which Cicero had undergone in his behalf, +and how much of his policy he had directed for his advantage. But being +now Caesar's son-in-law, at his instance he had set aside all former +kindness, and, slipping out at another door, avoided the interview. +Thus being forsaken by Pompey, and left alone to himself, he fled to +the consuls. Gabinius was rough with him, as usual, but Piso spoke more +courteously, desiring him to yield for a while to the fury of Clodius, +and to await a change of times, and to be now, as before, his country's +savior from the peril of these troubles and commotions which Clodius was +exciting. + +Cicero, receiving this answer, consulted with his friends. Lucullus +advised him to stay, as being sure to prevail at last; others to fly, +because the people would soon desire him again, when they should have +enough of the rage and madness of Clodius. This last Cicero approved. +But first he took a statue of Minerva, which had been long set up and +greatly honored in his house, and carrying it to the capitol, there +dedicated it, with the inscription, "To Minerva, Patroness of Rome." And +receiving an escort from his friends, about the middle of the night +he left the city, and went by land through Lucania, intending to reach +Sicily. + +But as soon as it was publicly known that he was fled, Clodius proposed +to the people a decree of exile, and by his own order interdicted him +fire and water, prohibiting any within five hundred miles in Italy to +receive him into their houses. Most people, out of respect for Cicero, +paid no regard to this edict, offering him every attention, and +escorting him on his way. But at Hipponium, a city of Lucania, now +called Vibo, one Vibius, a Sicilian by birth, who, amongst may other +instances of Cicero's friendship, had been made head of the state +engineers when he was consul, would not receive him into his house, +sending him word that he would appoint a place in the country for his +reception. Caius Vergilius, the praetor of Sicily, who had been on +the most intimate terms with him, wrote to him to forbear coming +into Sicily. Cicero, thoroughly disheartened at these things, went to +Brundusium, whence he put forth with a prosperous wind, but a contrary +gale blowing from the sea carried him back to Italy the next day. He +put again to sea, and having reached Dyrrachium, on his coming to shore +there, it is reported that an earthquake and a convulsion in the sea +happened at the same time, signs which the diviners said intimated +that his exile would not be long, for these were prognostics of change. +Although many visited him with respect, and the cities of Greece +contended with each other in honoring him, he yet continued +disconsolate, like an unfortunate lover, often casting his looks back +upon Italy; and, indeed, he had become more humiliated and dejected +by his misfortunes than any one could have expected in a man who had +devoted so much of his life to study and learning. And yet he often +desired his friends not to call him orator, but philosopher, because +he had made philosophy his business, and had only used rhetoric as an +instrument for attaining his objects in public life. + +Clodius, having thus driven away Cicero, fell to burning his +farm-buildings and villas, and afterwards his city house, and built on +the site of it a temple to Liberty. The rest of his property he exposed +for sale by daily proclamation, but nobody came to buy. By this course +he became formidable to the noble citizens, and, being followed by the +commonalty, whom he had filled with insolence and licentiousness, +he began at last to try his strength against Pompey, some of whose +arrangements in the countries he conquered, he attacked. The disgrace +of this made Pompey begin to reproach himself for his cowardice in +deserting Cicero, and, changing his mind, he now wholly set himself with +his friends to contrive his return. And when Clodius opposed it, the +senate made a vote that no public measure should be ratified or passed +by them till Cicero was recalled. But when Lentulus was consul, the +commotions grew so high upon this matter, that the tribunes were wounded +in the Forum, and Quintus, Cicero's brother, was left as dead, lying +unobserved amongst the slain. The people began to change in their +feelings; and Annius Milo, one of their tribunes, was the first who had +the courage to summon Clodius to trial for acts of violence. Many of +the common people in Rome and the neighboring cities formed a party with +Pompey, who headed them in person, drove Clodius out of the Forum, and +summoned the people to pass their vote. And, it is said, the people +never passed any suffrage more unanimously than this. The senate, also, +striving to outdo the people, sent letters of thanks to those cities +which had received Cicero with respect in his exile, and decreed that +his house and his country-places, which Clodius had destroyed, should be +rebuilt at the public charge. + +Thus Cicero returned sixteen months after his exile, and the cities were +so glad, and the people so zealous to meet him, that his boast, that +Italy had brought him on her shoulders home to Rome, was rather less +than the truth. And Crassus himself, who had been his enemy before his +exile, went voluntarily to meet him, and was reconciled, as he said, to +please his son Publius, who was Cicero's affectionate admirer. + +Cicero had not been long at Rome, when, taking the opportunity of +Clodius's absence, he went, with a great company, to the capitol, and +there tore and defaced the tribunician tables, in which were recorded +the acts done in the time of Clodius. And on Clodius calling him in +question for this, he answered, that he, being of the patrician order, +had obtained the office of tribune against the law, and, therefore, +nothing done by him was valid. Cato was displeased at this, and opposed +Cicero, not that he commended Clodius, but rather disapproved of his +whole administration; yet, he contended, that it was an irregular and +violent course for the senate to vote the illegality of so many decrees +and acts, including those of Cato's own government in Cyprus and at +Byzantium. This occasioned a breach between Cato and Cicero, which, +though it did not come to open enmity, made a more reserved friendship +between them. + +After this, Milo killed Clodius, and, being arraigned for the murder, +he procured Cicero for his advocate. The senate, fearing lest the +questioning of so eminent and high-spirited a citizen as Milo might +disturb the peace of the city, committed the superintendence of this +and of the other trials to Pompey, who should undertake to maintain +the security alike of the city and of the courts of justice. Pompey, +therefore, went in the night, and occupying the high grounds about it, +surrounded the Forum with soldiers. Milo, fearing lest Cicero, being +disturbed by such an unusual sight, should conduct his cause the less +successfully, persuaded him to come in a litter into the Forum, and +there rest till the judges had taken their seats, and the court was +filled. For Cicero, it seems, not only wanted courage in arms, but, in +his speaking also, began with timidity, and in many cases scarcely left +off trembling and shaking when he had got thoroughly into the current +and the substance of his speech. Once when he had to defend Licinius +Murena against the prosecution of Cato, being eager to outdo Hortensius, +who had made his plea with great applause, he took so little rest the +night before, and was so disordered with thought and over-watching, that +he spoke much worse than usual. And so now, on quitting his litter to +commence the cause of Milo, at the sight of Pompey, encamped, as it +were, with his troops, and seeing arms shining round about the Forum, +he was so confounded that he could hardly begin his speech, for the +trembling of his body and hesitancy of his tongue; whereas Milo, +meantime, was so bold and intrepid in his demeanor, that he disdained +either to let his hair grow, or to put on the mourning habit. And this, +indeed, seems to have been the principal cause of his condemnation. And +Cicero was thought not so much to have shown timidity for himself, as +anxiety about his friend. + +When the outbreak between Caesar and Pompey came, Cicero wavered +painfully between both, for he writes in his epistles, "To which side +should I turn? Pompey has the fair and honorable plea for war; and +Caesar, on the other hand, has managed his affairs better, and is more +able to secure himself and his friends. So that I know whom I should +fly from, not whom I should fly to." But when Trebatius, one of Caesar's +friends, by letter signified to him that Caesar thought it was his most +desirable course to join his side, but if he considered himself too +old a man for this, he would do better to retire into Greece, and stay +quietly there, out of the way of either party, Cicero, wondering that +Caesar had not written himself, replied angrily that he should do +nothing unbecoming his past life. + +But as soon as Caesar had marched into Spain, he immediately sailed away +to join Pompey. And he was welcomed by all but Cato; who, taking him +privately aside, chid him for coming to Pompey. As for himself, he said, +it would have been indecent to forsake that part in the commonwealth +which he had chosen from the beginning; but Cicero might have been +more useful to his country and friends, if, remaining neutral, he had +attended and used his influence to moderate the result, instead of +coming hither to make himself, without reason or necessity, an enemy to +Caesar, and a partner in such great dangers. By this language, Cicero's +feelings were altered, and partly, also, because Pompey made no great +use of him. Although he was himself really the cause of it, by his +not denying that he was sorry he had come, by his deprecating Pompey's +resources, finding fault underhand with his counsels, and continually +indulging in jests and sarcastic remarks on his fellow-soldiers. + +After the battle of Pharsalia was over, at which he was not present for +want of health, and Pompey had fled, Cato, having considerable +forces and a great fleet at Dyrrachium, would have had Cicero +commander-in-chief, according to law, and the precedence of his consular +dignity. But on his refusing the command, and wholly declining to take +part in their plans for continuing the war, he was in the greatest +danger of being killed, young Pompey and his friends calling him +traitor, and drawing their swords upon him; only that Cato interposed, +and with difficulty rescued and brought him out of the camp. + +Afterwards, arriving at Brundusium, he tarried there some time in +expectation of Caesar, who was delayed by his affairs in Asia and Egypt. +And when it was told him that he had arrived at Tarentum, and was coming +thence by land to Brundusium, he hastened towards him, not altogether +without hope, and yet in some fear of making experiment of the temper of +an enemy and conqueror in the presence of many witnesses. But there was +no necessity for him either to speak or do anything unworthy of himself; +for Caesar, as soon as he saw him coming a good way before the rest of +the company, went forward to meet him, saluted him, and, leading the +way, conversed with him alone for some furlongs. And from that time on +he continued to treat him with honor and respect, so that, when Cicero +wrote an oration in praise of Cato, Caesar, in writing an answer to it, +took occasion to commend Cicero's own life and eloquence, comparing him +to Pericles and Teramenes. Cicero's oration was called "Cato"; Caesar's, +"Anti-Cato." + +So also, it is related that when Quintus Ligarius was prosecuted for +having been in arms against Caesar, and Cicero had undertaken his +defence, Caesar said to his friends, "Ligarius, without question, is a +wicked man and an enemy. But why might we not as well once more hear +a speech from Cicero?" yet when Cicero began to speak, he wonderfully +moved him, and proceeded in his speech with such varied pathos, and +such a charm of language, that the color of Caesar's countenance often +changed, and it was evident that all the passions of his soul were in +commotion. And when at length, the orator touched upon the Pharsalian +battle, he was so affected that his whole frame trembled and some of the +papers he held dropped out of his hands. And thus he was overpowered, +and acquitted Ligarius. + +Henceforth, the commonwealth being changed into a monarchy, Cicero +withdrew himself from public affairs, and employed his leisure in +instructing those young men that wished, in philosophy; and by the near +intercourse he thus had with some of the noblest and highest in rank, +he again began to possess great influence in the city. The work which he +set himself to do was to compose and translate philosophical dialogues +and to render logical and physical terms into the Roman idiom. For he +it was, as it is said, who first or principally gave Latin names to +technical Greek terms, which, either by metaphors or other means of +accommodation, he succeeded in making intelligible to the Romans. For +his recreation, he exercised his dexterity in poetry, and when he was +set to it, would make five hundred verses in a night. He spent the +greatest part of his time at his country-house near Tusculum. + +He had a design, it is said, of writing the history of his country, +combining with it much of that of Greece, and incorporating in it all +the stories and legends of the past that he had collected. But his +purposes were interfered with by various public and various private +unhappy occurrences and misfortunes; for most of which he was himself in +fault. For first of all, he put away his wife, Terentia, by whom he +had been neglected in the time of the war, and sent away destitute +of necessaries for his journey; neither did he find her kind when he +returned into Italy, for she did not join him at Brundusium, where he +staid a long time, and would not allow her young daughter, who undertook +so long a journey, decent attendance, or the requisite expenses; +besides, she left him a naked and empty house, and yet had involved him +in many and great debts. These were alleged as the fairest reasons +for the divorce. But Terentia, who denied them all, had the most +unmistakable defence furnished her by her husband himself, who not long +after married a young maiden for the love of her beauty, as Terentia +upbraided him; or as Tiro, his emancipated slave, has written, for her +riches, to discharge his debts. For the young woman was very rich, and +Cicero had the custody of her estate, being left guardian in trust; and +being in debt many myriads of money, he was persuaded by his friends and +relations to marry her, notwithstanding their disparity of age, and +to use her money to satisfy his creditors. Antony, who mentions this +marriage in his answer to the Phillippics, reproaches him for putting +away a wife with whom he had lived to old age; adding some happy strokes +of sarcasm on Cicero's domestic, inactive, unsoldier-like habits. Not +long after this marriage, his daughter died at Lentulus's house, to whom +she had been married after the death of Piso, her former husband. The +philosophers from all parts came to comfort Cicero; for his grief was so +excessive, that he put away his newly-married wife, because she seemed +to be pleased at the death of Tullia. + +He had no concern in the design that was now forming to kill Caesar, +although, in general, he was Brutus's confidant. + +But as soon as the act was committed by Brutus and Cassius, and the +friends of Caesar had assembled, so that there was danger of another +civil war, Antony, being consul, convened the senate, and made a short +address recommending concord. And Cicero, following with various remarks +such as the occasion called for, persuaded the senate to imitate the +Athenians, and decree an amnesty for what had been done in Caesar's +case, and to bestow provinces on Brutus and Cassius. But neither of +these things took effect. For as soon as the common people, who were +naturally inclined to pity, saw the dead body of Caesar borne through +the market-place, and Antony showing his clothes stained with blood, and +pierced through in every part with swords, they were enraged to such a +degree of frenzy, that they made a search for the murderers, and with +firebrands in their hands ran to their houses to burn them. + +Antony at this was in exultation, and every one was alarmed at the +prospect that he would make himself sole ruler, and Cicero more than any +one else. For Antony, seeing his influence reviving in the commonwealth, +and knowing how closely he was connected with Brutus, was ill-pleased +to have him in the city. Besides, there had been some former jealousy +between them, occasioned by the difference of their manners. Cicero, +fearing the event, was inclined to go as lieutenant with Dolabella into +Syria. But Hirtius and Pansa, consuls-elect as successors of Antony, +good men and lovers of Cicero, entreated him not to leave them, +undertaking to put down Antony if he would stay in Rome. And he, neither +distrusting wholly, nor trusting them, let Dolabella go without him, +promising Hirtius that he would go and spend his summer at Athens, +and return again when he entered upon his office. So he set out on his +journey; but some delay occurring in his passage, new intelligence, +as often happens, came suddenly from Rome, that Antony had made an +astonishing change, and was managing the public affairs in harmony with +the will of the senate, and that there wanted nothing but his presence +to bring things to a happy settlement. Therefore, blaming himself for +his cowardice, he returned to Rome, and was not deceived in his hopes +at the beginning. For such multitudes flocked out to meet him, that the +compliments and civilities which were paid him at the gates, and at this +entrance into the city, took up almost a whole day's time. + +On the morrow, Antony convened the senate, and summoned Cicero thither. +But he kept his bed, pretending to be ill from his journey; but the +true reason seemed to be the fear of some design against him, upon a +suspicion and intimation given him on his way to Rome. Antony, however, +showed great offence at the affront, and sent soldiers, commanding them +to bring him or burn his house; but many interceding and supplicating +for him, he was contented to accept sureties. Ever after when they met, +they passed one another in silence, and continued on their guard, till +the younger Caesar (Augustus), coming from Apollonia, entered on the +first Caesar's inheritance, and was engaged in a dispute with Antony +about two thousand five hundred myriads of money, which Antony detained +from the estate. + +Upon this, Philippus, who married the mother, and Marcellus, who married +the sister of young Caesar, came with the young man to Cicero, and +agreed with him that Cicero should give them the aid of his eloquence +and political influence with the senate and people, and Caesar give +Cicero the defence of his riches and arms. For the young man had +already a great party of the soldiers of Caesar about him. And Cicero's +readiness to join him was founded, it is said, on some yet stronger +motives; for it seems, while Pompey and Caesar were yet alive, Cicero, +in his sleep, had fancied himself engaged in calling some of the sons +of the senators into the capitol, Jupiter, according to the dream, being +about to declare one of them the chief ruler of Rome. The citizens, +running up with curiosity, stood about the temple, and the youths, +sitting in their purple-bordered robes, kept silence. On a sudden the +doors opened, and the youths, arising one by one in order, passed round +the god, who reviewed them all, and, to their sorrow, dismissed them; +but when this one was passing by, the god stretched forth his right hand +and said, "O ye Romans, this young man, when he shall be lord of Rome, +shall put an end to all your civil wars." It is said that Cicero formed +from his dream a distinct image of the youth, and retained it afterwards +perfectly, but did not know who it was. The next day, going down into +the Campus Martius, he met the boys returning from their gymnastic +exercises, and the first was he, just as he had appeared to him in his +dream. Being astonished at it, he asked him who were his parents. And +it proved to be this young Caesar, whose father was a man of no great +eminence, Octavius, and his mother, Attia, Caesar's sister's daughter; +for which reason, Caesar, who had no children, made him by will the +heir of his house and property. From that time, it is said that Cicero +studiously noticed the youth whenever he met him, and he as kindly +received the civility; and by fortune he happened to be born when Cicero +was consul. + +These were the reasons spoken of; but it was principally Cicero's hatred +of Antony, and a temper unable to resist honor, which fastened him to +Caesar, with the purpose of getting the support of Caesar's power for +his own public designs. For the young man went so far in his court +to him, that he called him Father; at which Brutus was so highly +displeased, that, in his epistles to Atticus he reflected on Cicero +saying, it was manifest, by his courting Caesar for fear of Antony, +he did not intend liberty to his country, but an indulgent master +to himself. Notwithstanding, Brutus took Cicero's son, then studying +philosophy at Athens, gave him a command, and employed him in various +ways, with a good result. Cicero's own power at this time was at the +greatest height in the city, and he did whatsoever he pleased; he +completely overpowered and drove out Antony, and sent the two consuls, +Hirtius and Pansa, with an army, to reduce him; and, on the other +hand, persuaded the senate to allow Caesar the lictors and ensigns of a +praetor, as though he were his country's defender. But after Antony was +defeated in battle, and the two consuls slain, the armies united, and +ranged themselves with Caesar. And the senate, fearing the young man, +and his extraordinary fortune, endeavored by honors and gifts, to call +off the soldiers from him, and to lessen his power; professing there was +no further need of arms, now Antony was put to flight. + +This gave Caesar a fright, and he privately sent friends to entreat +Cicero to procure the consular dignity for them both together; saying +that he should manage the affair as he pleased, should have the supreme +power, and govern the young man who was only desirous of name and glory. + +And now, more than at any other time, Cicero let himself be carried away +and deceived, though an old man, by the persuasions of a boy. He joined +him in soliciting votes, and procured the good-will of the senate, not +without blame at the time on the part of his friends; and he, too, soon +enough after, saw that he had ruined himself, and betrayed the liberty +of his country. For the young man, once established, and possessed of +the office of consul, bade Cicero farewell; and reconciling himself +with Antony and Lepidus, joined his power with theirs, and divided the +government, like a piece of property, with them. Thus united, they made +a schedule of above two hundred persons who were to be put to death. +But the greatest contention in all their debates was on the question of +Cicero's case. Antony would come to no conditions, unless he should be +the first man to be killed. Lepidus held with Antony, and Caesar opposed +them both. They met secretly and by themselves, for three days together, +near the town of Bononia. The spot was not far from the camp, with a +river surrounding it. Caesar, it is said, contended earnestly for Cicero +the first two days; but on the third day he yielded, and gave him up. +The terms of their mutual concessions were these; that Caesar should +desert Cicero, Lepidus his brother Paulus, and Antony, Lucius Caesar, +his uncle by his mother's side. Thus they let their anger and fury take +from them the sense of humanity, and demonstrated that no beast is more +savage than man, when possessed with power proportioned to his rage. + +While these things were contriving, Cicero was with his brother at his +country-house near Tusculum; whence, hearing of the proscriptions, they +determined to pass to Astura, a villa of Cicero's near the sea, and to +take shipping from there for Macedonia to Brutus, of whose strength in +that province news had already been heard. They traveled together in +their separate litters, overwhelmed with sorrow; and often stopping on +the way till their litters came together, condoled with one another. +But Quintus was the more disheartened, when he reflected on his want of +means for his journey; for, as he said, he had brought nothing with him +from home. And even Cicero himself had but a slender provision. It was +judged therefore most expedient that Cicero should make what haste he +could to fly, and Quintus return home to provide necessaries, and thus +resolved, they mutually embraced, and parted with many tears. + +Quintus, within a few days after, was betrayed by his servants to those +who came to search for him, and slain, together with his young son. But +Cicero was carried to Astura, where, finding a vessel, he immediately +went on board of her, and sailed as far as Circaeum with a prosperous +gale; but when the pilots resolved immediately to set sail from there, +whether he feared the sea, or did not wholly lose faith in Caesar, he +went on shore, and passed by land a hundred furlongs, as if he was going +to Rome. But losing resolution and changing his mind, he again returned +to the sea, and there spent the night in fear and perplexity. Sometimes +he resolved to go into Caesar's house privately, and there kill himself +upon the altar of his household gods, to bring divine vengeance upon +him; but the fear of torture restrained him. And after passing through a +variety of confused and uncertain counsels, at last he let his servants +carry him by sea to Capitae, where he had a house, an agreeable place to +retire to in the heat of summer, when the Etesian winds are so pleasant. + +There was at that place a chapel of Apollo, not far from the sea-side, +from which a flight of crows rose with a great noise, and made towards +Cicero's vessel as it rowed to land, and lighting on both sides of the +yard, some croaked, others pecked the ends of the ropes. This was looked +upon by all as an evil omen; and, therefore, Cicero went again ashore, +and entering his house, lay down upon his bed to compose himself at +rest. Many of the crows settled about the window, making a dismal +cawing; but one of them alighted upon the bed where Cicero lay covered +up, and with its bill, little by little pecked off the clothes from his +face. His servants, seeing this, blamed themselves that they should +stay to be spectators of their master's murder, and do nothing in his +defence, while the brute creatures came to assist and take care of him +in his undeserved affliction; and therefore, partly by entreaty, partly +by force, they took him up, and carried him in his litter toward the +sea-side. + +But in the meantime the assassins had come with a band of +soldiers--Herennius, a centurion, and Popillius, a tribune, whom Cicero +had formerly defended when prosecuted for the murder of his father. +Finding the door shut, they broke them open, and when Cicero did not +appear and those within said they did not know where he was, it is +stated that a youth, who had been educated by Cicero in the liberal arts +and sciences, an emancipated slave of his brother Quintus, Philologus +by name, informed the tribune that the litter was on its way to the sea +through the close and shady walks. The tribune, taking a few with +him, ran to the place where he was to come out. And Cicero, perceiving +Herennius running in the walks, commanded his servants to set down the +litter; and stroking his chin, as he used to do, with his left hand, he +looked steadfastly upon his murderers, his person covered with dust, his +beard and hair untrimmed, and his face worn with his troubles. So that +the greatest part of those that stood by covered their faces whilst +Herennius slew him. And thus was he murdered, stretching forth his neck +out of the litter, being now in his sixty-fourth year. Herennius cut +off his head, and, by Antony's command, his hands also, by which his +Philippics were written; for so Cicero styled those orations he wrote +against Antony, and so they are called to this day. + +When these members of Cicero were brought to Rome, Antony was holding +an assembly for the choice of public officers; and when he heard it, and +saw them, he cried out, "Now let there be an end of our proscriptions." +He commanded his head and hands to be fastened up over the Rostra, where +the orators spoke; a sight which the Roman people shuddered to behold, +and they believed they saw there not the face of Cicero, but the image +of Antony's own soul. + +A long time after, Augustus, when visiting one of his daughter's +sons, found him with a book of Cicero's in his hand. The boy for fear +endeavored to hide it under his gown; but Caesar took it from him, and +turning over a great part of the book standing, gave it to him again, +and said, "My child, this was a learned man, and a lover of his +country." And immediately after he had vanquished Antony, being then +consul, he made Cicero's son his colleague in the office; and, under +that consulship, the senate took down all the statues of Antony, and +abolished all the other honors that had been given him, and decreed that +none of that family should thereafter bear the name of Marcus; and thus +the final acts of the punishment of Antony were, by the divine powers, +devolved upon the family of Cicero. + + + + +COMPARISON OF DEMOSTHENES AND CICERO + +These are the most memorable circumstances recorded in history of +Demosthenes and Cicero which have come to our knowledge. But, omitting +an exact comparison of their respective faculties in speaking, yet this +seems fit to be said: That Demosthenes, to make himself a master in +rhetoric, applied all the faculties he had, natural or acquired, wholly +that way; that he far surpassed in force and strength of eloquence in +political and judicial speaking all his contemporaries, in grandeur and +majesty all the panegyrical orators, and in accuracy and science all the +logicians and rhetoricians of his day; that Cicero was highly educated, +and by his diligent study became a most accomplished general scholar +in all these branches, having left behind him numerous philosophical +treatises of his own on Academic principles; as, indeed, even in his +written speeches, both political and judicial, we see him continually +trying to show his learning by the way. And one may discover the +different temper of each of them in their speeches. For Demosthenes's +oratory was, without all embellishment and jesting, wholly composed +for real effect and seriousness; not smelling of the lamp, as Pytheas +scoffingly said, but of the temperance, thoughtfulness, austerity, and +grave earnestness of his temper. Whereas, Cicero's love of mockery +often ran him into scurrility; and in his love of laughing away serious +arguments in judicial cases by jests and facetious remarks, with a view +to the advantage of his clients, he paid too little regard to what was +decent. We are told that Cicero, being consul, undertook the defence of +Murena against Cato's prosecution; and, by way of bantering Cato, made +a long series of jokes upon the absurd paradoxes, as they are called, of +the Stoic sect. When loud laughter passed from the crowd to the judges, +Cato, with a quiet smile, said to those that sat next to him, "My +friends, what an amusing consul we have." + +And, indeed, Cicero was by natural temper very much disposed to +mirth and pleasantry, and always appeared with a smiling and serene +countenance. But Demosthenes had constant care and thoughtfulness in his +look, and a serious anxiety which he seldom, if ever, laid aside; and, +therefore, was accounted by his enemies, as he himself confessed, morose +and ill-mannered. + +Also, it is very evident, out of their several writings, that +Demosthenes never touched upon his own praises but decently and without +offence when there was need of it, and for some weightier end. But +Cicero's immeasurable boasting of himself in his orations argues him +guilty of an uncontrollable appetite for distinction, his cry being +evermore that "Arms should give place to the gown, and the soldier's +laurel to the tongue." And at last we find him extolling not only +his deeds and actions, but his orations, as well those that were only +spoken, as those that were published. + +It is necessary for a political leader to be an able speaker; but it is +an ignoble thing for any man to admire the glory of his own eloquence. +And, in this matter, Demosthenes had a more than ordinary gravity and +magnificence of mind, for he considered his talent in speaking nothing +more than a mere accomplishment and matter of practice, the success of +which must depend greatly on the good-will and candor of his hearers, +and regarded those who pride themselves on such accounts to be men of a +low and petty disposition. + +The power of persuading and governing the people did, indeed, equally +belong to both, so that those who had armies and camps at command stood +in need of their assistance; as Chares, Diopithes, and Leosthenes did +that of Demosthenes, and Pompey and young Caesar of Cicero's, as the +latter himself admits in his Memoirs addressed to Agrippa and Maecenas. +But what are thought and commonly said most to demonstrate and try the +tempers of men, namely, authority and place, by moving every passion, +and discovering every frailty, these are things which Demosthenes never +received; nor was he ever in a position to give such proof of himself, +having never obtained any eminent office, nor led any of those armies +into the field against Philip which he raised by his eloquence. Cicero, +on the other hand, was sent quaestor into Sicily, and proconsul into +Cilicia and Cappadocia, at a time when avarice was at the height, and +the commanders and governors who were employed abroad, as though they +thought it a mean thing to steal, set themselves to seize by open force; +so that it seemed no heinous matter to take bribes, but he that did it +most moderately was in good esteem. And yet he, at this time, gave the +most abundant proofs alike of his contempt of riches and of his humanity +and good-nature. And at Rome, when he was created consul in name, but +indeed received sovereign and dictatorial authority against Catiline and +his conspirators, he attested the truth of Plato's prediction, that then +only would the miseries of states be at an end, when by a happy fortune +supreme power, wisdom, and justice should be united in one. + +It is said, to the reproach of Demosthenes, that his eloquence was +mercenary; that he privately made orations for Phormion and Apollodorus, +though adversaries in the same cause; that he was charged with moneys +received from the king of Persia, and condemned for bribes from +Harpalus. And should we grant that all those (and they are not few) who +have made these statements against him have spoken what is untrue, yet +we cannot assert that Demosthenes was not the character to look without +desire on the presents offered him out of respect and gratitude by +royal persons. But that Cicero refused, from the Sicilians when he was +quaestor, from the king of Cappadocia when he was proconsul, and from +his friends at Rome when he was in exile, many presents, though urged to +receive them, has been said already. + +Moreover, Demosthenes's banishment was infamous, upon conviction for +bribery; Cicero's very honorable, for ridding his country of a set of +villains. Therefore, when Demosthenes fled from his country, no man +regarded it; for Cicero's sake the senate changed their habit, and put +on mourning, and would not be persuaded to make any act before Cicero's +return was decreed. Cicero, however, passed his exile idly in Macedonia. +But the very exile of Demosthenes made up a great part of the services +he did for his country; for he went through the cities of Greece, and +everywhere, as we have said, joined in the conflict on behalf of the +Greeks, driving out the Macedonian ambassadors, and approving himself +a much better citizen than Themistocles and Alcibiades did in a similar +fortune. And, after his return, he again devoted himself to the same +public service, and continued firm in his opposition to Antipater and +the Macedonians. Whereas Laelius reproached Cicero in the senate for +sitting silent when Caesar, a beardless youth, asked leave to come +forward, contrary to the law, as a candidate for the consulship; and +Brutus, in his epistles, charges him with nursing and rearing a greater +and more heavy tyranny than that they had removed. + +Finally, Cicero's death excites our pity; for an old man to be miserably +carried up and down by his servants, flying and hiding himself from that +death which was, in the course of nature, so near at hand; and yet +at last to be murdered. Demosthenes, though he seemed to supplicate a +little at first, yet, by his preparing and keeping the poison by him, +demands our admiration; and still more admirable was his using it. +When the temple of the god no longer afforded him a sanctuary, he took +refuge, as it were, at a mightier altar, freeing himself from arms and +soldiers, and laughing to scorn the cruelty of Antipater. + + + + +ALCIBAIDES + +Alcibiades, it is supposed, was descended from Ajax, by his father's +side; and by his mother's side from Alcmaeon. Dinomache, his mother, +was the daughter of Megacles. His father (Clinias) having fitted out +a galley at his own expense, gained great honor in the seafight at +Artemisium, and was afterwards slain in the battle of Coronea, fighting +against the Boeotians. The friendship which Socrates felt for him has +much contributed to his fame; and though we have no account from any +writer concerning the mother of Nicias or Demosthenes, of Lamachus or +Phormion, of Thrasybulus or Theramenes, notwithstanding these were +all illustrious men of the same period, yet we know even the nurse of +Alcibiades, that her country was Lacedaemon, and her name Amycla; and +that Zopyrus was his teacher and attendant; the one being recorded by +Antisthenes, and the other by Plato. + +It is not, perhaps, material to say anything of the beauty of +Alcibiades, only that it bloomed with him in all the ages of his life, +in his infancy, in his youth, and in his manhood; and, in the peculiar +character becoming to each of these periods, gave him, in every one of +them a grace and a charm. What Euripides says, that "Of all fair things +the autumn, too, is fair," is by no means universally true. But it +happened so with Alcibiades, amongst few others, by reason of his happy +constitution and natural vigor of body. It is said that his lisping, +when he spoke, became him well, and gave a grace and persuasiveness to +his rapid speech. Aristophanes takes notice of it in the verses in which +he jests at Theorus: "How like a colax he is," says Alcibiades, meaning +a corax*; on which it is remarked, + + "How very happily he lisped the truth," + + (*This fashionable Attic lisp, or careless articulation, + turned the sound r into l. Colax, a flatterer; corax, a + crow.) + +His conduct displayed many inconsistencies, not unnaturally, in +accordance with the many wonderful vicissitudes of his fortunes; but, +among the many strong passions of his real character, the most powerful +of all was his ambition for superiority, which appears in several +anecdotes told of him while he was a child. Once being hard pressed in +wrestling, and fearing to be thrown, he got the hand of his antagonist +to his mouth, and bit it with all his force; and when the other loosed +his hold presently, and said, "You bite, Alcibiades, like a woman." +"No," replied he, "like a lion." Another time, when playing at dice in +the street, being then only a child, a loaded cart came that way, just +as it was his turn to throw; at first he called to the driver to stop, +because he was about to throw in the way over which the cart would pass; +but when the man paid him no attention, and was driving on, the rest of +the boys divided and sprang away; but Alcibiades threw himself on his +face before the cart, and, stretching himself out, bade the carter pass +on now if we would. The man was so startled that he put back his horses, +while all that saw it were terrified, and, crying out, ran to assist +Alcibiades. When he began to study, he obeyed all his other masters +fairly well, but refused to learn upon the flute, as a thing unbecoming +a free citizen; saying that to play upon the lute or the harp does not +in any way disfigure a man's body or face, but one is hardly to be known +by his most intimate friends, when playing on the flute. Besides, one +who plays on the harp may speak or sing at the same time; but the use +of the flute stops the mouth, intercepts the voice, and prevents all +articulation. "Therefore," said he, "let the Theban youths pipe, who do +not know how to speak, but we Athenians, as our ancestors have told us, +have Athena for our patroness, and Apollo for our protector, one of whom +threw away the flute, and the other stripped the Flute-player of his +skin." Thus, between raillery and good earnest, Alcibiades kept not only +himself but others from learning, as it presently became the talk of the +young boys, how Alcibiades despised playing on the flute, and ridiculed +those who studied it. In consequence of which, it ceased to be reckoned +amongst the liberal accomplishments, and became generally neglected. + +It was manifest that the many well-born persons who were continually +seeking his company, and making court to him, were attracted and +captivated by his extraordinary beauty only. But the affection which +Socrates entertained for him is a great evidence of the natural noble +qualities and good disposition of the boy, which Socrates, detected +under his personal beauty; and fearing that his wealth and station, +and the great number both of strangers and Athenians who flattered +and caressed him, might at last corrupt him, resolved, if possible, to +interpose, and preserve so hopeful a plant from perishing in the flower, +before its fruit came to perfection. For never did fortune surround a +man with so many of those things which we vulgarly call goods, or so +protect him from every weapon of philosophy, and fence him from every +access of free and searching words, as she did Alcibiades; who, from the +beginning, was exposed to the flatteries of those who sought merely +his gratification, such as might well unnerve him, and indispose him to +listen to any real adviser or instructor. Yet such was the happiness of +his genius, that he selected Socrates from the rest, and admitted him, +while he drove away the wealthy and the noble who made court to him. +In a little time, they grew intimate and Alcibiades, listening now to +language entirely free from every thought of unmanly fondness and silly +displays of affection, found himself with one who sought to la open +to him the deficiencies of his mind and repress his vain and foolish +arrogance, and "Dropped like the craven cock his conquered wing." He +esteemed these endeavors of Socrates as most truly a means which the +gods made use of for the care and preservation of youth, and it was a +matter of general wonder, when people saw him joining Socrates in his +meals and his exercises, living with him in the same tent, while he was +reserved and rough to all others who made their addresses to him. + +He behaved in the same manner to all others who courted him, except one +stranger, who, as the story is told, having but a small estate, sold it +all for about a hundred staters, which he presented to Alcibiades, and +besought him to accept. Alcibiades, smiling and well pleased at the +thing, invited him to supper, and, after a very kind entertainment, gave +him his gold again, requiring him, moreover, not to fail to be present +the next day, when the public revenue was offered to farm, and to outbid +all others. The man would have excused himself, because the contract was +so large, and would cost many talents; but Alcibiades, who at that time +a private pique against the existing farmers of the revenue threatened +to have him beaten if he refused. The next morning, the stranger, coming +to the market-place, offered a talent more that the existing rate; upon +which the farmers, enraged and consulting together, called upon him to +name his sureties, concluding that he could find none. The poor man, +being startled at the proposal, began to retire; but ALCIBAIDES, +standing at a distance, cried out to the magistrates, "Set my name down, +he is a friend of mine; I will be security for him." When the other +bidders heard this, they perceived that all their contrivance was +defeated; for their way was, with the profits for the second year to pay +the rent for the year preceding; so that, not seeing any other way to +extricate themselves out of the difficulty, they began to treat with the +stranger, and offered him a sum of money. Alcibiades would not suffer +him to accept of less than a talent; but when that was paid down, he +commanded him to relinquish the bargain, having by this device relieved +his necessity. + +Though Socrates had many power rivals, yet the natural good qualities +of Alcibiades gave his affection the mastery. His words overcame him so +much, as to draw tears from his eyes, and to disturb his very soul. Yet +sometimes he would abandon himself to flatteries, when they proposed to +him varieties of pleasure, and would desert Socrates; who, then, would +pursue him, as if he had been a fugitive slave. He despised every one +else, and had no reverence or awe for any but him. But as iron which +is softened by the fire grows hard with the cold, and all its parts are +closed again; so, as often as Socrates observed Alcibiades to be misled +by luxury or pride he reduced and corrected him by his addresses, and +made him humble and modest, by showing him in how many things he was +deficient, and how very far from perfection in virtue. + +When he was past his childhood, he went once to a grammar-school, and +asked the master for one of Homer's books; and when he made answer that +he had nothing of Homer's, Alcibiades gave him a blow with his fist, and +went away. Another schoolmaster telling him that he had a copy of Homer +corrected by himself; "Why?" said Alcibiades, "do you employ your time +in teaching children to read? You, who are able to amend Homer, may well +undertake to instruct men." + +When he was very young, he was a soldier in the expedition against +Potidaea, where Socrates lodged in the same tent with him, and stood +next to him in battle. Once there happened a sharp skirmish, in which +they both behaved with signal bravery; but Alcibiades receiving a wound, +Socrates threw himself before him to defend him, and beyond any question +saved him and his arms from the enemy, and so in all justice might +have challenged the prize of valor. But the generals appearing eager +to adjudge the honor to Alcibiades, because of his rank, Socrates, who +desired to increase his thirst after glory of a noble kind, was the +first to give evidence for him, and pressed them to crown, and to decree +to him the complete suit of armor. Afterwards, in the battle of Delium, +when the Athenians were routed and Socrates with a few others was +retreating on foot, Alcibiades, who was on horseback, observed it, +and would not pass on, but stayed to shelter him from the danger, and +brought him safely off, though the enemy pressed hard upon them, and cut +off many. + +He gave a box on the ear to Hipponicus, the father of Callias, whose +birth and wealth made him a person of great influence and repute. And +this he did unprovoked by any passion or quarrel between them, but only +because, in a frolic, he had agreed with his companions to do it. People +were justly offended at this insolence, when it became known through +the city; but early the next morning, Alcibiades went to his house and +knocked at the door, and, being admitted to him, took off his outer +garment, and presenting his naked body, desired him to scourge and +chastise him as he pleased. Upon this Hipponicus forgot all his +resentment, and not only pardoned him, but soon after gave him his +daughter Hipparete in marriage. + +Alcibiades had a dog which cost him seventy minas, and was very large +and handsome. His tail, which was his principal ornament, he caused to +be cut off, and an acquaintance exclaiming at him for it, and telling +him that all Athens was sorry for the dog, and cried out against him +for this action, he laughed and said, "Just what I wanted has happened, +then, I wished the Athenians to talk about this, that they might not say +something worse of me." + +It is said that the first time he came into the assembly was upon +occasion of a largess of money which he made to the people. This was not +done by design, but as he passed along he heard a shout, and inquired +the cause; and having learned that there was a gift-making to the +people, he went in among them and gave money also. The multitude +thereupon applauding him, and shouting, he was so transported at it, +that he forgot a quail which he had under his robe, and the bird, being +frightened at the noise, flew off; upon which the people made louder +acclamations than before, and many of them started up to pursue the +bird; and Antiochus, a pilot, caught it and restored it to him, for +which he was ever after a favorite with Alcibiades. + +He had great advantages for entering public life; his noble birth, his +riches, the personal courage he had shown in divers battles, and the +multitude of his friends and dependents, threw open, so to say, folding +doors for his admittance. But he did not consent to let his power with +the people rest on any thing, rather than on his own gift of eloquence. +That he was a master in the art of speaking, the comic poets bear +him witness; and the most eloquent of public speakers, in his oration +against Midias, allows that Alcibiades, among other perfections, was a +most accomplished orator. + +His expenses in horses kept for the public games, and in the number of +his chariots, were matters of great observation; never did any one +but he, either private person king, send seven chariots to the Olympic +games. And to have carried away at once the first, the second, and the +fourth prize, as Thucydides says, or the third, as Euripides relates it, +outdoes every distinction that was ever thought of in that kind. + +The emulation displayed by the deputations of various states, in +the presents which they made to him, rendered this success yet +more illustrious. The Ephesians erected a tent for him, adorned +magnificently; the city of Chios furnished him with provender for his +horses and with great numbers of beasts for sacrifice; and the Lesbians +sent him wine and other provisions for the many entertainments which he +made. + +As soon as he began to intermeddle in the government, which was when he +was very young, he quickly lessened the credit of all who aspired to +the confidence of the people, except Phaeax and Nicias, who alone could +contest with him. Nicias was arrived at a mature age, and was esteemed +their first general. Phaeax was but a rising statesman like Alcibiades; +he was descended from noble ancestors, but was his inferior in many +other things, but principally in eloquence. + +Alcibiades was not less disturbed at the distinction which Nicias gained +among the enemies of Athens, than at the honors which the Athenians +themselves paid to him. It was commonly said in Greece, that the war in +the Peloponnesus was begun by Pericles, and that Nicias made an end of +it, and the peace was generally called the peace of Nicias. Alcibiades +was extremely annoyed at this, and being full of envy, set himself to +break the league. First, therefore observing that the Argives as well +out of fear as hatred to the Lacedaemonians, sought for protection +against them, he gave them a secret assurance of alliance with Athens. +He exclaimed fiercely against Nicias, and accused him of many things, +which seemed probable enough: as that, when he was general, he made no +attempt himself to capture their enemies that were shut up in the isle +of Sphacteria, but, when they were afterwards made prisoners by others, +he procured their release and sent them back to the Lacedaemonians, only +to get favor with them. + +It happened, at the very time when Nicias was by these arts brought into +disgrace with the people, that ambassadors arrived from Lacedaemon, who, +at their first coming, said what seemed very satisfactory, declaring +that they had full powers to arrange all matters in dispute upon fair +and equal terms. The council received their propositions, and the people +was to assemble on the morrow to give them audience. Alcibiades grew +very apprehensive of this, and contrived to gain a secret conference +with the ambassadors. When they were met, he said: "What is it you +intend, you men of Sparta? If you expect to obtain equal terms from the +Athenians, and would not have things extorted from you contrary to +your inclinations, begin to treat with he people upon some reasonable +articles, not avowing yourselves plenipotentiaries; and I will be ready +to assist you, out of good-will to the Lacedaemonians." When he had said +this, he gave them his oath for the performance of what he promised, +and by this way drew them from Nicias to rely entirely upon himself, and +left them full of admiration of the discernment and sagacity they +had seen in him. The next day, when the people were assembled and +the ambassadors introduced, Alcibiades, with great apparent courtesy, +demanded of them: With what powers they had come? They made answer that +they had not come as plenipotentiaries. + +Instantly upon that, Alcibiades, with a loud voice, as though he +had received and not done the wrong, began to call them dishonest +prevaricators, and to urge that such men could not possibly come with +a purpose to say or do anything that was sincere. The council was +incensed, the people were in a rage, and Nicias, who knew nothing of +the deceit and the imposture, was in the greatest confusion, equally +surprised and ashamed at such a change in the men. So thus the +Lacedaemonian ambassadors were utterly rejected, and Alcibiades was +declared general, who presently united the Argives, the Eleans, and the +people of Mantinea, into a confederacy with the Athenians. + +No man commended the method by which Alcibiades effected all this, +yet it was a great political feat thus to divide and shake almost +all Peloponnesus, and to combine so many men in arms against the +Lacedaemonians in one day before Mantinea; and, moreover, to remove the +war and the danger so far from the frontier of the Athenians, that even +success would profit the enemy but little, should they be conquerors, +whereas, if they were defeated, Sparta itself was hardly safe. + +But with all these words and deeds, and with all this sagacity and +eloquence, he intermingled exorbitant luxury and wantonness in his +eating and drinking and dissolute living; wore long purple robes like +a woman, which dragged after him as he went through the market-place; +caused the planks of his galley to be cut away, that so he might lie the +softer, his bed not being placed on the boards, but hanging upon girths. +His shield, again, which was richly gilded, had not the usual ensigns +of the Athenians, but a Cupid, holding a thunderbolt in his hand, was +painted upon it. The sight of all this made the people of good repute +in the city feel disgust and abhorrence and apprehension also, at his +free-living, and his contempt of law, as things monstrous in themselves, +and indicating designs of usurpation. Aristophanes has well expressed +the people's feeling towards him:-- + + "They love, and hate, and cannot do without him." + +And still more strongly, under a figurative expression, + + "Best rear no lion in your state, 't is true; + But treat him like a lion if you do." + +The truth is, his liberalities, his public shows, and other munificence +to the people, which were such as nothing could exceed, the glory of +his ancestors, the force of his eloquence, the grace of his person, +his strength of body, joined with his great courage and knowledge in +military affairs, prevailed upon the Athenians to endure patiently his +excesses, to indulge him in many things, and, according to their habit, +to give the softest names to his faults, attributing them to youth +and good nature. As, for example, he kept Agatharcus, the painter, a +prisoner till he had painted his whole house, but then dismissed him +with a reward. He publicly struck Taureas, who exhibited certain +shows in opposition to him, and contended with him for the prize. When +Aristophon, the artist, had drawn Nemea sitting and holding Alcibiades +in her arms, the multitude seemed pleased with the piece, and thronged +to see it, but elder people did not relish it, but looked on these +things as enormities, and movements toward tyranny. So that it was +not said amiss by Archestratus, that Greece could not support a second +Alcibiades. Once, when Alcibiades succeeded well in an oration which he +made, and the whole assembly attended upon him to do him honor, Timon, +the misanthrope, did not pass slightly by him, nor avoid him, as he did +others, but purposely met him, and, taking him by the hand, said, "Go +on boldly, my son, and increase in credit with the people, for thou wilt +one day bring them calamities enough." Some that were present laughed at +the saying, and some reviled Timon; but there were others upon whom it +made a deep impression. + +The Athenians, even in the lifetime of Pericles, had already cast a +longing eye upon Sicily; but did not attempt any thing till after his +death. Then, under pretence of aiding their confederates, they sent +succor upon all occasions to those who were oppressed by the Syracusans, +preparing the way for sending over a greater force. But Alcibiades +was the person who inflamed this desire of theirs to the height, and +prevailed with them no longer to proceed secretly, and little by little, +in their design, but to sail out with a great fleet, and undertake at +once to make themselves masters of the island. He possessed the people +with great hopes, and he himself entertained yet greater; and the +conquest of Sicily, which was the utmost bound of their ambition, was +but the mere outset of his expectation. Nicias endeavored to divert the +people from the expedition, by representing to them that the taking of +Syracuse would be a work of great difficulty; but Alcibiades dreamed +of nothing less than the conquest of Carthage and Libya and by the +accession of these conceiving himself at once made master of Italy +and of Peloponnesus, seemed to look upon Sicily as little more than a +magazine for the war. The young men were soon elevated with these hopes, +and listened gladly to those of riper years, who talked wonders of +the countries they were going to; so that you might see great numbers +sitting in the wrestling grounds and public places, drawing on the +ground the figure of the island and the situation of Libya and Carthage. + +Together with Alcibiades, Nicias, much against his will, was appointed +general: and he endeavored to avoid the command, not the less on account +of his colleague. But the Athenians thought the war would proceed more +prosperously, if they did not send Alcibiades free from all restraint, +but tempered his heat with the caution of Nicias. This they chose the +rather to do, because Lamachus, the third general, though he was of +mature years, yet in several battles had appeared no less hot and rash +than Alcibiades himself. When all things were fitted for the voyage, +many unlucky omens appeared. The mutilation of the images of Mercury, +most of which, in one night, had their faces all disfigured, terrified +many persons who were wont to despise most things of that nature. Alike +enraged and terrified at the thing, looking upon it to proceed from a +conspiracy of persons who designed some commotions in the state, +the council, as well as the assembly of the people, which was held +frequently in a few days' space, examined diligently every thing +that might administer ground for suspicion. During this examination, +Androcles, one of the demagogues, produced slaves and strangers before +them, who accused Alcibiades and some of his friends of defacing other +images in the same manner, and of having profanely acted the sacred +mysteries at a drunken meeting. The people were highly exasperated +and incensed against Alcibiades upon this accusation. But when they +perceived that all the seamen designed for Sicily were for him, and +the soldiers declared that they had undertaken this distant maritime +expedition for the sake of Alcibiades, and that, if he was ill-used, +they would all go home; they let him set sail at once, and decided +that when the war should be at an end, he might then in person make his +defence according to the laws. + +Alcibiades perceived the malice of this postponement, and, appearing in +the assembly, represented that it was monstrous for him to be sent with +the command of so large an army, when he lay under such accusations and +calumnies. But he could not prevail with the people, who commanded him +to sail immediately. So he departed, together with the other generals, +having with them near 140 galleys, 5,100 men at arms, and about 1,300 +archers, slingers, and light-armed men, and all the other provisions +corresponding. + +Arriving on the coast of Italy, he landed at Rhegium, and there stated +his views of the manner in which they ought to conduct the war. He was +opposed by Nicias; but Lamachus being of his opinion, they sailed for +Sicily forthwith, and took Catana. This was all that was done while he +was there, for he was soon after recalled by the Athenians to abide +his trial. At first, as we before said, there were only some slight +suspicions advanced against Alcibiades. But afterwards, in his absence, +his enemies attacked him more violently, and confounded together the +breaking the images with the profanation of the mysteries, as though +both had been committed in pursuance of the same conspiracy for changing +the government. The truth is, his accusers alleged nothing against him +which could be positively proved. One of them, being asked how he knew +the men who defaced the images, replied, that he saw them by the light +of the moon, making a palpable misstatement, for it was just new moon +when the act was committed. This made all men of understanding cry out +upon the thing; but the people were as eager as ever to receive +further accusations. And, in conclusion, they sent the galley named the +Salaminian to recall Alcibiades. But they expressly commanded those that +were sent, to use no violence, nor seize upon his person, but address +themselves to him in the mildest terms, requiring him to follow them to +Athens in order to abide his trial, and clear himself before the people. +For they feared mutiny and sedition in the army in an enemy's country, +which indeed it would have been easy for Alcibiades to effect, if he +had wished it. For the soldiers were dispirited upon his departure, +expecting for the future tedious delays, and that the war would be drawn +out into a lazy length by Nicias, when Alcibiades, who was the spur to +action, was taken away. For though Lamachus was a soldier, and a man +of courage, poverty deprived him of authority and respect in the army. +Alcibiades, just upon his departure, prevented Messena from falling into +the hands of the Athenians. There were some in that city who were +upon the point of delivering it up, but he, knowing the persons, gave +information to some friends of the Syracusans, and so defeated the whole +contrivance. When he arrived at Thurii, he went on shore, and concealing +himself there, escaped those who searched after him. But to one who knew +him, and asked him if he durst not trust his own native country, he made +answer, "In every thing else, yes; but in a matter that touches my life, +I would not even my own mother, lest she might by mistake throw in the +black ball instead of the white." When, afterwards, he was told that the +assembly had pronounced judgment of death against him, all he said was +"I will make them feel that I am alive." + +The information against him was framed in this form:--"Thessalus lays +information that Alcibiades has committed a crime against the goddesses +Ceres and Proserpine, by representing in derision the holy mysteries, +and showing them to his companions in his own house." + +He was condemned as contumacious upon his not appearing, his property +confiscated, and it was decreed that all the priests and priestesses +should solemnly curse him. + +Alcibiades, lying under these heavy decrees and sentences, when he fled +from Thurii, passed over into Peloponnesus, and remained some time at +Argos. But being there in fear of his enemies and seeing himself utterly +hopeless of return to his native country, he sent to Sparta, desiring +safe conduct, and assuring them that he would make them amends by his +future services for all the mischief he had done them while he was their +enemy. The Spartans giving him the security he desired, he went eagerly, +was well received, and, at his very first coming, succeeded in +inducing them, without any further caution or delay, to send aid to +the Syracusans; and so roused and excited them, that they forthwith +despatched Gylippus into Sicily, to crush the forces which the Athenians +had in Sicily. A second point was, to renew the war upon the Athenians +at home. But the third thing, and the most important of all, was to +make them fortify Decelea, which above everything reduced and wasted the +resources of the Athenians. + +The renown which he earned by these public services was equaled by the +admiration he attracted to his private life; he captivated and won +over everybody by his conformity to Spartan habits. People who saw him +wearing his hair close cut, bathing in cold water, eating coarse meal, +and dining on black broth, doubted, or rather could not believe, that he +ever had a cook in his house, or had ever seen a perfumer, or had worn a +mantle of Milesian purple. For he had, as it was observed, this peculiar +talent for gaining men's affections, that he could at once comply with +and really enter into their habits and ways of life, and change faster +than the chameleon. One color, indeed, they say the chameleon cannot +assume; it cannot make itself appear white; but Alcibiades, whether with +good men or with bad, could adapt himself to his company, and equally +wear the appearance of virtue or vice. At Sparta, he was devoted to +athletic exercises, was frugal and reserved; in Ionia, luxurious, +gay, and indolent; in Thrace, always drinking; in Thessaly, ever on +horseback; and when he lived with Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap, he +exceeded the Persians, themselves in magnificence and pomp. Not that his +natural disposition changed so easily, nor that his real character was +so very variable, but whenever he was sensible that by pursuing his own +inclinations he might give offence to those with whom he had occasion to +converse, he transformed himself into any shape and adopted any fashion, +that he observed to be most agreeable to them. So that to have seen +him at Lacedaemon, a man, judging by the outward appearance, would +have said, "'T is not Achilles' son, but he himself, the very man" that +Lycurgus designed to form. + +After the defeat which the Athenians received in Sicily, ambassadors +were despatched to Sparta at once from Chios and Lesbos and Cyzicus, +to signify their purpose of revolting from the Athenians. But the +Lacedaemonians, at the persuasion of Alcibiades, chose to assist Chios +before all others. He himself, also, went instantly to sea, procured +the immediate revolt of almost all Ionia, and, co-operating with the +Lacedaemonian generals, did great mischief to the Athenians. But +King Agis was his enemy, and impatient of his glory, as almost every +enterprise and every success was ascribed to Alcibiades. Others, also, +of the most powerful and ambitious amongst the Spartans, were possessed +with jealousy of him, and, at last, prevailed with the magistrates in +the city to send orders into Ionia that he should be killed. Alcibiades, +however, had secret intelligence of this, and, in apprehension of the +result, while he communicated all affairs to the Lacedaemonians, yet +took care not to put himself into their power. At last he retired to +Tissaphernes, the satrap of the king of Persia, for his security, and +immediately became the first and most influential person about him. +For this barbarian, not being himself sincere, but a lover of guile and +wickedness, admired his address and wonderful subtlety. And, indeed, the +charm of daily intercourse with him was more than any character could +resist or any disposition escape. Even those who feared and envied him +could not but have a sort of kindness for him, when they saw him and +were in his company. So that Tissaphernes, otherwise a cruel character, +and, above all other Persians, a hater of the Greeks, was yet so won by +the flatteries of Alcibiades, that he set himself even to exceed him +in responding to them. The most beautiful of his parks, containing +salubrious streams and meadows, where he had built pavilions, and places +of retirement royally and exquisitely adorned, received by his direction +the name of Alcibiades, and was always so called and so spoken of. + +Thus Alcibiades, quitting the interests of the Spartans, whom he could +no longer trust, because he stood in fear of Agis, endeavored to do them +ill offices, and render them odious to Tissaphernes, who, by his means, +was hindered from assisting them vigorously, and from finally ruining +the Athenians. For his advice was to furnish them but sparingly with +money, and so wear them out, and consume them insensibly; when they had +wasted their strength upon one another, they would both become ready to +submit to the king. + +At that time the whole strength of the Athenians was in Samos. Their +fleet maintained itself here, and issued from these head-quarters to +reduce such as had revolted, and protect the rest of their territories; +in one way or other still contriving to be a match for their enemies +at sea. What they stood in fear of, was Tissaphernes and the Phoenician +fleet of one hundred and fifty galleys, which was said to be already +under sail; if those came, there remained then no hopes for the +commonwealth of Athens. Understanding this, Alcibiades sent secretly +to the chief men of the Athenians, who were then at Samos, giving them +hopes, that he would make Tissaphernes their friend; he was willing, he +implied, to do some favor, not to the people, nor in reliance upon them, +but to the better citizens, if only, like brave men, they would make +the attempt to put down the insolence of the people, and, by taking upon +them the government, would endeavor to save the city from ruin. All +of them gave a ready ear to the proposal made by Alcibiades, except +Phrynichus of the township of Dirades, despatched Pisander to Athens +to attempt a change of government, and to encourage the aristocratical +citizens to take upon themselves the government, and overthrow the +democracy, representing to them, that, upon these terms, Alcibiades +would procure them the friendship and alliance of Tissaphernes. + +Those who were at Samos set sail for the Piraeus; and, sending for +Alcibiades declared him general. He, however, in that juncture did not, +as it might have been thought a man would, on being suddenly exalted by +the favor of a multitude, think himself under an obligation to gratify +and submit to all the wishes of those who, from a fugitive and an exile, +had created him general of so great an army and given him the command of +such a fleet. But, as became a great captain, he opposed himself to +the precipitate resolutions which their rage led them to, and, by +restraining them from the great error they were about to commit, +unequivocally saved the commonwealth. For if they had then sailed to +Athens, all Ionia and the islands and the Hellespont would have fallen +into the enemies' hands without opposition, while the Athenians, +involved in civil war, would have been fighting with one another within +the circuit of their own walls. It was Alcibiades alone, or, at least, +principally, who prevented all this mischief; for he not only used +persuasion to the whole army, and showed them the danger, but applied +himself to them, one by one, entreating some, and constraining others. +He was much assisted, however, by Thrasybulus of Stiria, who, having the +loudest voice, as we are told, of all the Athenians, went along with +him and cried out to those who were ready to go. A second great service +which Alcibiades did for them was his undertaking that the Phoenician +fleet, which the Lacedaemonians expected to be sent to them by the king +of Persia, should either come in aid of the Athenians, or otherwise +should not come at all. And now the people in the city not only desired, +but commanded Alcibiades to return home from his exile. He, however, +desired not to owe his return to the mere grace and commiseration of the +people, and resolved to come back, not with empty hands, but with glory +and after some service done. To this end, he sailed from Samos with a +few ships, and cruised on the sea of Cnidos and about the isle of Cos; +but receiving intelligence there that Mindarus, the Spartan admiral, had +sailed with his whole army into the Hellespont, and that the Athenians +had followed him, he hurried back to succor the Athenian commanders, +and, by good fortune, arrived with eighteen galleys at a critical time. +For both the fleets having engaged near Abydos, the fight between them +had lasted till night, the one side having the advantage on one quarter, +and the other on another. Upon his first appearance, both sides formed a +false impression; the enemy was encouraged, and the Athenians terrified. +But Alcibiades suddenly raised the Athenian ensign in the admiral +ship, and fell upon those galleys of the Peloponnesians which had the +advantage and were in pursuit. He soon put these to flight, and followed +them so close that he forced them on shore, and broke the ships in +pieces, the sailors abandoning them and swimming away, in spite of all +the efforts of Pharnabazus, who had come down to their assistance by +land, and did what he could to protect them from the shore. In fine, the +Athenians, having taken thirty of the enemy's ships, and recovered all +their own, erected a trophy. After the gaining of so glorious a victory +his vanity made him eager to show himself to Tissaphernes, and, having +furnished himself with gifts and presents, and an equipage suitable to +his dignity, he set out to visit him. But the thing did not succeed +as he had imagined, for Tissaphernes had long been suspected by the +Lacedaemonians, and was afraid to fall into disgrace with his king +upon that account, therefore thinking that Alcibiades had arrived +very opportunely, he immediately caused him to be seized and sent away +prisoner to Sardis; fancying, by this act of injustice, to clear himself +from all former imputations. + +But about thirty days after, Alcibiades escaped from his keepers, and, +having got a horse, fled to Clazomenae, where he procured Tissaphernes +additional disgrace by professing that he was a party to his escape. +From there he sailed to the Athenian camp, and, being informed that +Mindarus and Pharnabazus were together at Cyzicus, he made a speech to +the soldiers, telling them that sea-fighting, land-fighting, and, by the +gods, fighting against fortified cities too, must be all one for them, +as, unless they conquered everywhere, there was no money for them. As +soon as he got them on ship-board, he hastened to Proconnesus and gave +command to seize all the small vessels they met, and guard them safely +in the interior of the fleet, that the enemy might have no notice of +his coming; and a great storm of rain, accompanied with thunder and +darkness, which happened at the same time, contributed much to the +concealment of his enterprise. Indeed, it was not only undiscovered +by the enemy, but the Athenians themselves were ignorant of it, for he +commanded them suddenly on board, and set sail when they had abandoned +all intention of it. As the darkness presently passed away, the +Peloponnesian fleet were seen riding out at sea in front of the harbor +of Cyzicus. Fearing, if they discovered the number of his ships, they +might endeavor to save themselves by land, he commanded the rest of the +captains to slacken, and follow him slowly, whilst he, advancing with +forty ships, showed himself to the enemy and provoked them to fight. The +enemy, being deceived as to their numbers, despised them, and, supposing +they were to contend with those only, made ready and began the fight. +But as soon as they were engaged, they perceived the other part of the +fleet coming down upon them, at which they were so terrified that they +fled immediately. Upon that, Alcibiades, breaking through the midst of +them with twenty of his best ships, hastened to the shore, disembarked, +and pursued those who abandoned their ships and fled to land, and made +a great slaughter of them. Mindarus and Pharnabazus, coming to their +succor were utterly defeated. Mindarus was slain fighting valiantly; +Pharnabazus saved himself by flight. The Athenians slew great numbers of +their enemies, won much spoil, and took all their ships. They also made +themselves masters of Cyzicus, which was deserted by Pharnabazus, and +destroyed its Peloponnesian garrison, and thereby not only secured to +themselves the Hellespont, but by force drove the Lacedaemonians out of +all the rest of the sea. They intercepted some letters written to the +ephors, which gave an account of this fatal overthrow, after their +short, Iaconic manner. "Our hopes are at an end. Mindarus is slain. The +men are starving. We know not what to do." + +And now Alcibiades began to desire to see his native country again, +or rather to show his fellow-citizens a person who had gained so many +victories for them. He set sail for Athens, the ships that accompanied +him being adorned with great numbers of shields and other spoils, and +towing after them many galleys taken from the enemy, and the ensigns and +ornaments of many others which he had sunk and destroyed; all of them +together amounting to two hundred. Little credit, perhaps, can be given +to what Duris the Samian, who professed to be descended from Alcibiades, +adds, that Chrysogonus, who had gained a victory at the Pythian games, +played upon his flute for the galleys, whilst the oars kept time with +the music; and that Callippides, the tragedian, attired in his buskins, +his purple robes, and other ornaments used in the theatre, gave the word +to the rowers, and that the admiral's galley entered into the port with +a purple sail. It is not credible, that one who had returned from so +long an exile, and such a variety of misfortunes, should come to his +countrymen in the style of revelers breaking up from a drinking-party. +On the contrary, he entered the harbor full of fear, nor would he +venture to go on shore, till, standing on the deck, he saw Euryptolemus, +his cousin, and others of his friends and acquaintance, who were ready +to receive him, and invited him to land. As soon as he was landed, the +multitude who came out to meet him scarcely appeared to see any of the +other captains, but came in throngs about Alcibiades, and saluted him +with loud acclamations, and followed him; those who could press near him +crowned him with garlands, and they who could not come up so close yet +stayed to behold him afar off, and the old men pointed him out to the +young ones. Nevertheless, this public joy was mixed with some tears, and +the present happiness was diminished by the remembrance of the miseries +they had endured. They made reflections, that they could not have so +unfortunately miscarried in Sicily, if they had left the management of +their affairs and the command of their forces, to Alcibiades, since, +upon his undertaking the administration, when they were absolutely +driven from the sea, and could scarcely defend the suburbs of their city +by land, and at the same time, were miserably distracted with intestine +factions, he had raised them up from this low and deplorable condition, +and had not only restored them to their ancient dominion of the sea, but +had also made them everywhere victorious over their enemies on land. + +The people being summoned to an assembly, Alcibiades came in among them, +and first bewailed and lamented his own sufferings, and, in general +terms complaining of the usage he had received, imputed all to his hard +fortune, and some ill genius that attended him: then he spoke at large +of their prospects, and exhorted them to courage and good hope. The +people crowned him with crowns of gold, and created him general, both +at land and sea, with absolute power. They also made a decree that his +estate should be restored to him, and that the Eumolpiadae and the +holy heralds should absolve him from the curses which they had solemnly +pronounced against him by the sentence of the people. All the rest +obeyed, but Theodorus, the high-priest, excused himself, "For," said he, +"if he is innocent, I never cursed him." + +Certainly, if ever man was ruined by his own glory, it was Alcibiades. +For his continual success had produced such an idea of his courage and +conduct, that, if he failed in anything he undertook, it was imputed to +his neglect, and no one would believe it was through want of power. For +they thought nothing was too hard for him, if he went about it in good +earnest. Now, having departed with a fleet of one hundred ships for the +reduction of Chios, and of the rest of Ionia, the people grew impatient +that things were not effected as fast and as rapidly as they could wish +for them. They never considered how extremely money was wanting, and +that, having to carry on war with an enemy who had supplies of all +things from a great king, he was often forced to quit his armament, +in order to procure money and provisions for the subsistence of his +soldiers. This very thing gave occasion for the last accusation which +was made against him. For Lysander, being sent from Lacedaemon with a +commission to be admiral of their fleet, and being furnished by Cyrus +with a great sum of money, gave every sailor four obols a day, whereas +before thy had but three. Alcibiades could hardly allow his men three +obols, and therefore was obliged to go into Caria to furnish himself +with money. He left the care of the fleet, in his absence, to Antiochus, +an experienced seaman, but rash and inconsiderate, who had express +orders from Alcibiades not to engage, though the enemy provoked him. +But he slighted and disregarded these directions to such a degree that, +having made ready his own galley and another, he stood for Ephesus, +where the enemy lay, and, as he sailed before the heads of their +galleys, used every provocation possible, both in words and deeds. +Lysander manned out a few ships and pursued him. But all the Athenian +ships coming in to his assistance, Lysander, also, brought up his whole +fleet, which gained an entire victory. He slew Antiochus himself, took +many men and ships, and erected a trophy. + +As soon as Alcibiades heard this news, he returned to Samos, and loosing +from thence with his whole fleet, came and offered battle to Lysander. +But Lysander, content with the victory he had gained, would not stir. +Amongst others in the army who hated Alcibiades, Thrasybulus, the son +of Thrason, was his particular enemy, and went purposely to Athens +to accuse him, and to exasperate his enemies in the city against him. +Addressing the people, he represented that Alcibiades had ruined their +affairs and lost their ships by mere self-conceited neglect of his +duties, committing the government of the army, in his absence, to men +who gained his favor by drinking and scurrilous talking, whilst he +wandered up and down at pleasure to raise money, giving himself up to +every sort of luxury in Abydos and Ionia, at a time when the enemy's +navy were on the watch close at hand. It was also objected to him, that +he had fortified a castle near Bisanthe in Thrace, for a safe retreat +for himself, as one that either could not, or would not, live in his own +country. The Athenians gave credit to these informations, and showed +the resentment and displeasure which they had conceived against him, by +choosing other generals. + +As soon as Alcibiades heard of this, he immediately forsook the army, +afraid of what might follow; and, collecting a body of mercenary +soldiers, made war upon his own account against those Thracians who +called themselves free, and acknowledged no king. By this means he +amassed for himself considerable treasure, and, at the same time, +secured the bordering Greeks from the incursions of the barbarians. +Tydeus, Menander, and Adimantus, the newly made generals, were at that +time posted at Aegospotami, with all the ships which the Athenians +had left. Whence they used to go out every morning, offer battle to +Lysander, who lay near Lampsacus, and, returning back again, lie all the +rest of the day, carelessly and without order, in contempt of the enemy. +Alcibiades, who was not far off, did not think so lightly of their +danger, nor neglect to let them know it, but, mounting his horse, came +to the generals, and represented to them that they had chosen a very +inconvenient station, where there was no safe harbor, and where they +were distant from any town; so that they were constrained to send for +their necessary provisions as far as Sestos. He also pointed out to them +their carelessness in suffering the soldiers, when they went ashore, +disperse and wander up and down at their pleasure, while the enemy's +fleet under the command of one general, and strictly obedient to +discipline, lay so very near them. He advised them to remove the fleet +to Sestos. But the admirals not only disregarded what he said, but +Tydeus, with insulting expressions, commanded him to be gone saying, +that now not he, but others, had the command of the forces. The event, +soon made it evident how rightly he had judged of the errors which the +Athenians were committing. For Lysander fell upon them on a sudden, when +they least suspected it, with such fury that Conon alone, with eight +galleys, escaped him; all the rest, about two hundred, he took and +carried away, together with three thousand prisoners, whom he put to +death. And within a short time after, he took Athens itself, burnt +all the ships which he found there, demolished their long walls, and +established the rule of the Thirty Tyrants. + +After this, Alcibiades, standing in dread of the Lacedaemonians, who +were now masters both at sea and land, retired into Bithynia. He sent +there great treasure before him, took much with him, but left much more +in the castle where he had before resided. But he lost a great part +of his wealth in Bithynia, being robbed by some Thracians who lived in +those parts, and thereupon determined to go to the court of Artaxerxes, +not doubting but that the king, if he would make trial of his abilities, +would find him not inferior to Themistocles, besides being recommended +by a more honorable cause. For he went, not as Themistocles did, +to offer his service against his fellow-citizens, but against their +enemies, and to implore the king's aid for the defence of his country. +The Athenians, in the meantime, miserably afflicted at their loss of +empire and liberty, acknowledged and bewailed their former errors and +follies, and judged this second ill-usage of Alcibiades to be of all the +most inexcusable. For he was rejected, without any fault committed by +himself; and only because they were incensed against his subordinate +for having shamefully lost a few ships, they were much more shamefully +deprived the commonwealth of its most valiant and accomplished general. + +Critias finally represented to Lysander that the Lacedaemonians could +never securely enjoy the dominion of Greece, till the Athenian democracy +was absolutely destroyed; and though now the people of Athens seemed +quietly and patiently to submit to so small a number of governors, yet +so long as Alcibiades lived, the knowledge of this fact would never +suffer them to acquiesce in their present circumstances. + +Yet Lysander could not be prevailed upon by these representation, till +at last he received secret orders from the magistrates of Lacedaemon, +expressly requiring him to get Alcibiades despatched: whether it +was that they feared his energy and boldness in undertaking what was +hazardous, or that it was done to gratify king Agis. Upon receipt of +this order, Lysander sent a messenger away to Pharnabazus, desiring +him to put it in execution. Alcibiades resided at that time in a small +village in Phrygia. Those who were sent to assassinate him had not +courage enough to enter the house, but surrounded it first, and set it +on fire. Alcibiades, as soon as he perceived it, wrapped his cloak about +his left arm, and holding his naked sword in his right, cast himself +into the middle of the fire, and escaped securely through it, before his +clothes were burnt. The barbarians, as soon as they saw him, retreated, +and none of them durst engage with him, but standing at a distance, they +slew him with their darts and arrows. + + + + +CORIOLANUS + +The patrician house of the Marcii in Rome produced many men of +distinction, and among the rest, Ancus Marcius, grandson to Numa by his +daughter, and king after Tulus Hostillus. Of the same family were also +Publius and Quintus Marcius, which two conveyed into the city the best +and most abundant supply of water they have at Rome. But Caius Marcius, +of whom I now write, being left an orphan, and brought up under the +widowhood of his mother, has shown us by experience, that, although the +early loss of a father may be attended with other disadvantages, yet it +can hinder none from being either virtuous or eminent in the world, and +that it is no obstacle to true goodness and excellence. Those who saw +with admiration how proof his nature was against pleasure, hardships, +and the allurements of gain, while allowing to that universal firmness +of his the respective names of temperance, fortitude, and justice, yet, +in the life of the citizen and the statesman, could not but be +offended at the severity and ruggedness of his deportment, and with his +overbearing, haughty, and imperious temper. + +Those were times at Rome in which that kind of worth was most esteemed +which displayed itself in military achievements; one evidence of which +we find in the Latin word for virtue, which is properly equivalent to +many courage. But Marcius, having a more passionate inclination than any +of that age for feats of war, began from his very childhood to handle +arms; and feeling that adventitious implements and artificial arms would +be of small use to such as have not their natural weapons well prepared +for services, he so exercised and inured his body to all sorts of +activity and accouter, that, besides the lightness of a racer, he had a +weight in close seizures and wrestlings with an enemy, from which it was +hard for anybody to disengage himself; so that his competitors at +home in displays of bravery, loath to own themselves inferior in that +respect, were wont to ascribe their deficiencies to his strength of +body, which they said no resistance and no fatigue could exhaust. + +The first time he went out to the wards, being yet a stripling, was +when Tarquinius Superbus, who had been king of Rome and was afterwards +expelled, after many unsuccessful attempts now entered upon his last +effort, and proceeded to hazard all as it were upon a single throw. +A great number of the Latins and other people of Italy joined their +forces, and were marching with him toward the city, to procure his +restoration; not, however, so much out of a desire to serve and oblige +Tarquin, as to gratify their own fear and envy at the increase of the +Roman greatness, which they were anxious to check. The armies met and +engaged in a decisive battle, in the vicissitudes of which, Marcius, +while fighting bravely in the dictator's presence, saw a Roman soldier +struck down at a little distance, and immediately stepped in before him, +and slew his assailant. The general, after having gained the victory, +crowned him for this act with a garland of oak branches; it being the +Roman custom thus to adorn those who had saved the life of a citizen; +whether the law intended some special honor to the oak, in memory of +the Arcadians, a people the oracle had made famous by the name of +acorn-eaters; or, the oak wreath, being sacred to Jupiter, the guardian +of the city, might, therefore be thought a proper ornament for one who +preserved a citizen. And the oak, in truth, is the tree which bears the +most and the prettiest of any that grow wild, and is the strongest of +all that are under cultivation; its acorns were the principal diet of +the first mortals, and the honey found in it gave them drink. + +In this battle it is stated that Castor and Pollux appeared, and, +immediately after the battle, were seen at Rome just by the fountain +where their temple now stands, with their horses foaming with sweat, and +told the news of the victory of the people in the Forum. The fifteenth +of July, being the day of this conquest, became consequently a solemn +holiday sacred to the Twin Brothers. + +It may be observed, in general, that when young men arrive early at fame +and repute, if they are of a nature but slightly touched with emulation, +this early attainment is apt to extinguish their thirst and satiate +their small appetite; whereas the first distinctions of more solid and +weighty characters only stimulate and quicken them, and take them away, +like a wind, in the pursuit of honor; they look upon these marks and +testimonies to their virtue not as a recompense received for what they +have already done, but as a pledge given by themselves of what they will +perform hereafter, ashamed now to forsake or underlive the credit they +have won, or, rather, not to exceed and obscure all that is gone before +by the lustre of their following actions. Marcius, having a spirit +of this noble make, was ambitious always to surpass himself, and did +nothing, how extraordinary soever, but he thought he was bound to outdo +it at the next occasion; and ever desiring to give continual fresh +instances of his prowess, he added one exploit to another, and heaped up +trophies upon trophies, so as to make it a matter of contest also among +his commanders, the latter still vying with the earlier, which should +pay him the greatest honor and speak highest in his commendation. Of all +the numerous wars and conflicts in those days, there was not one from +which he returned without laurels and rewards. And, whereas others made +glory the end of their daring, the end of his glory was his mother's +gladness; the delight we took to hear him praised and to see him +crowned, and her weeping for joy in his embraces, rendered him, in +his own thoughts, the most honored and most happy person in the world. +Epaminondas is similarly said to have acknowledged his feeling, that it +was the greatest felicity of his whole life that his father and mother +survived to hear of his successful generalship and his victory at +Leuctra. And he had the advantage, indeed, to have both his parents +partake with him, and enjoy the pleasure of his good fortune. But +Marcius, believing himself bound to pay his mother Volumnia all that +gratitude and duty which would have belonged to his father, had he also +been alive, could never satiate himself in his tenderness and respect to +her. He took a wife, also, at her request and wish, and continued, +even after he had children, to live with his mother, without parting +families. + +The repute of his integrity and courage had, by this time, gained him +considerable influence and authority in Rome, when the senate, favoring +the wealthier citizens, began to be at variance with the common people, +who made sad complaints of the rigorous and inhuman usage they received +from the money-lenders. + +There had been frequent assemblies of the whole senate within a small +compass of time about this difficulty, but without any definite result; +the poor commonality, therefore, perceiving there was likely to be no +redress of their grievances, collected in a body, and, encouraging each +other in their resolution, forsook the city with one accord, and seizing +the hill which is now called the Holy Mount, sat down by the river Anio, +without committing any sort of violence or seditious outrage, but merely +exclaiming, as they went along, that they had this long time past been +expelled from the city by the cruelty of the rich; that Italy would +everywhere afford them the benefit of air and water and a place of +burial, which was all they could expect in the city, unless it were +perhaps, the privilege of being wounded and killed in time of war +for the defence of their creditors. The senate apprehending the +consequences, sent the most moderate and popular men of their own order +to treat with them. + +Menenius Agrippa, their chief spokesman, after much entreaty to the +people, concluded, at length, with this celebrated fable: "It once +happened, that all the other members of a man mutinied against the +stomach, which they accused as the only idle, uncontributing part in the +whole body, while the rest were put to hardships and the expense of +much labor to minister to its appetites. The stomach, however, merely +ridiculed the silliness of the members, who appeared not to be aware +that the stomach certainly does receive the general nourishment, but +only to return it again, and redistribute it amongst the rest. Such is +the case," he said, "citizens, between you and the senate. The counsels +and plans that are there duly digested, secure to all of you, your +proper benefit and support." + +A reconciliation ensued, the senate acceding to the request of the +people for the annual election of five protectors for those in need of +succor, the same that are now called the tribunes of the people; and the +first two they pitched upon were Junius Brutus and Sicinnius Vellutus, +their leaders in the secession. + +The city being thus united, the commons stood presently to their arms, +and followed their commanders. + +The Romans were now at war with the Volscian nation, whose principal +city was Corioli; when, therefore, Cominius the consul had invested this +important place, the rest of the Volscians, fearing it would be taken, +mustered up whatever force they could from all parts, to relieve it, +designing to give the Romans battle before the city, and so attack them +on both sides. Cominius, to avoid this inconvenience, divided his army, +marching himself with one body to encounter the Volscians on their +approach from without, and leaving Titus Lartius, one of the bravest +Romans of his time, to command the other and continue the siege. Those +within Corioli, despising now the smallness of their number, made a +sally upon them, and prevailed at first, and pursued the Romans into +their trenches. Here it was that Marcius, flying out with a slender +company, and cutting those in pieces that first enraged him, obliged +the other assailants to slacken their speed; and then, with loud cries, +called upon the Romans to renew the battle. For he had, what Cato +thought a great point in a soldier, not only strength of hand and +stroke, but also a voice and look that of themselves were a terror to +an enemy. Some of his own party now rallying and making up to him, the +enemies soon retreated; but Marcius, not content to see them draw off +and retire, pressed hard upon the rear, and drove them, as they fled +away in haste, to the very gates of their city; where, perceiving the +Romans to fall back from their pursuit, beaten off by the multitude of +darts poured in upon them from the walls, and that none of his followers +had the hardiness to think of falling in pell-mell among the fugitives +and so entering a city full of enemies in arms, he, nevertheless, stood +and urged them to the attempt, crying out, that fortune had not opened +Corioli, not so much to shelter the vanquished, as to receive the +conquerors. Seconded by a few that were willing to venture with him, he +bore along through the crowd, made good his passage, and thrust himself +into the gate through the midst of them, nobody at first daring to +resist him. But when the citizens, on looking about, saw that a very +small number had entered, they now took courage, and came up and +attacked them. A combat ensued of the most extraordinary description, +in which Marcius, by strength of hand, swiftness of foot, and daring of +soul, overpowered every one that he assailed, succeeded in driving the +enemy to seek refuge, for the most part, in the interior of the town, +while the remainder submitted, and threw down their arms; thus affording +Lartius abundant opportunity to bring in the rest of the Romans with +ease and safety. + +Corioli being thus surprised and taken, the greater part of the +soldiers employed themselves in spoiling and pillaging it, while Marcius +indignantly reproached them, and exclaimed that it was a dishonorable +and unworthy thing, when the consul and their fellow-citizens had now +perhaps encountered the other Volscians, and were hazarding their lives +in battle, basely to mis-spend the time in running up and down for +booty, and, under a pretence of enriching themselves, keep out of +danger. Few paid him any attention, but, putting himself at the head of +these, he took the road by which the consul's army had marched before +him, encouraging his companions, and beseeching them, as they went +along, not to give up, and praying often to the gods, too, that he might +be so happy as to arrive before the fight was over, and come seasonably +up to assist Cominius, and partake in the peril of the action. + +It was customary with the Romans of that age, when they were moving into +battle array, and were on the point of taking up their bucklers, and +girding their coats about them, to make at the same time an unwritten +will, or verbal testament, and to name who should be their heirs, in +the hearing of three or four witnesses. In this precise posture Marcius +found them at his arrival, the enemy having advanced within view. + +They were not a little disturbed by his first appearance, seeing him +covered with blood and sweat, and attended with a small train; but when +he hastily made up to the consul with gladness in his looks, giving him +his hand, and recounting to him how the city had been taken, and when +they saw Cominius also embrace and salute him, every one took fresh +heart; those that were near enough hearing, and those that were at a +distance guessing, what had happened; and all cried out to be led to +battle. First, however, Marcius desired to know of him how the Volscians +had arrayed their army, and where they had placed their best men, and on +his answering that he took the troops of the Activates in the centre to +be their prime warriors, than would yield to none in bravery, "Let me +then demand and obtain of you," said Marcius, "that we may be posted +against them." The consul granted the request, with much admiration of +his gallantry. And when the conflict began by the soldiers darting +at each other, and Marcius sallied out before the rest the Volscians +opposed to him were not able to make head against him; wherever he fell +in, he broke their ranks, and made a lane through them; but the parties +turning again, and enclosing him on each side with their weapons, +the consul, who observed the danger he was in, despatched some of the +choicest men he had for his rescue. The conflict then growing warm and +sharp about Marcius, and many falling dead in a little space, the Romans +bore so hard upon the enemies, and pressed them with such violence, +that they forced them at length to abandon their ground, and to quit the +field. And, going now to prosecute the victory, they besought Marcius, +tired out with his toils, and faint and heavy through the loss of blood, +that he would retire to the camp. He replied, however, that weariness +was not for conquerors, and joined with them in the pursuit. The rest of +the Volscian army was in like manner defeated, great numbers killed, and +no less taken captive. + +The day after, when Marcius, with the rest of the army, presented +themselves at the consul's tent, Cominius rose, and having rendered +all due acknowledgment to the gods for the success of that enterprise, +turned next to Marcius, and first of all delivered the strongest +encomium upon his rare exploits, of which he had partly been an +eye-witness himself, in the late battle, and had partly learned from the +testimony of Lartius. And then he required him to choose a tenth part +of all the treasure and horses and captives that had fallen into their +hands, before any division should be made to others; besides which, he +made him the special present of a horse with trappings and ornaments, +in honor of his actions. The whole army applauded; Marcius, however, +stepped forth, and declaring his thankful acceptance of the horse and +his gratification at the praises of his general, said, that all other +things which he could only regard rather as mercenary advantages than +any significations of honor, he must waive, and should be content with +the ordinary proportion of such rewards. "I have only," said he "one +special grace to beg, and this I hope you will not deny me. There was a +certain hospitable friend of mine among the Volscians, a man of probity +and virtue, who is become a prisoner, and from former wealth and +freedom is now reduced to servitude. Among his many misfortunes let my +intercession redeem him from the one of being sold as a common slave." +Such a refusal and such a request on the part of Marcius were followed +with yet louder acclamations; and he had many more admirers of this +generous superiority to avarice, than of the bravery he had shown in +battle. The very persons who conceived some envy and despite to see him +so specially honored, could not but acknowledge, that one who so nobly +could refuse reward, was beyond others worth to receive it; and were +more charmed with that virtue which made him despise advantage, than +with any of those former actions that had gained him his title to it. It +is a higher accomplishment to use money well than to use arms; but not +to need it is more noble than to use it. + +When the noise of approbation and applause ceased, Cominius, resuming, +said, "It is idle, fellow-soldiers, to force those other gifts of ours +on one who is unwilling to accept them; let us, therefore, give him +one of such a kind that he cannot well reject it; let us pass a vote, +I mean, that he shall hereafter be called Coriolanus, unless you +think that his performance at Corioli has itself anticipated any such +resolution." Hence, therefore, he had his third name of Coriolanus, +making it all the plainer that Gaius was a personal proper name, and +the second, or surname, Marcius, one common to his house and family; the +third being a subsequent addition which used to be imposed either from +particular act or fortune, bodily characteristic, or good quality of the +bearer. + +Not long after Marcius stood for the consulship. It was usual for +candidates for office to solicit personally the citizens, presenting +themselves in the forum with the toga on alone, and no tunic under it; +either to promote their supplications by the humility of their dress, or +that such as had received wounds might more readily display those marks +of their fortitude. + +Marcius, therefore, as the fashion of candidates was, showing the scars +and gashes that were still visible on his body, from the many conflicts +in which he had signalized himself during a service of seventeen years +together, the people were affected at this display of merit, and told +one another that they ought in common modesty to create him consul. But +when the day of election had come, and Marcius appeared in the forum +with a pompous train of senators attending him, and the patricians all +seemed to be exerting greater effort than they had ever done before on a +similar occasion, the commons then fell off again from the kindness they +had conceived for him, and in the place of their late benevolence, began +to feel something of indignation and envy; passions assisted by the +fear they entertained, that if a man of such aristocratic temper, and +so influential among the patricians, should be invested with the power +which that office would give him, he might employ it to deprive the +people of all that liberty which was yet left them. In conclusion, +they rejected Marcius. Two other names were announced, to the great +mortification of the senators, who felt as if the indignity reflected +rather upon themselves than on Marcius. He, for his part, could not bear +the affront with any patience. He had always indulged his temper, and +had regarded the proud and contentious element of human nature as a sort +of nobleness and magnanimity; reason and discipline had not imbued +him with that solidity and equanimity which enter so largely into the +virtues for the statesman. He had never learned how essential it is +for any one who undertakes public business, and desires to deal with +mankind, to avoid above all things that self-will, which, as Plato says, +belongs to the family of solitude; and to pursue, above all things, +that capacity so generally ridiculed, of submission to ill-treatment. +Marcius, straightforward and direct, stand together, and come in to +their assistance. The assembly met, and soon became tumultuous. The sum +of what Marcius had spoken, having been reported to the people, excited +them to such fury, that they were ready to break in upon the senate. The +tribunes prevented this, by laying all the blame on Coriolanus, and they +accordingly cited him to come before them, and defend himself. + +He came, therefore, as it were, to make his apology, and clear himself; +in which belief the people kept silence, and gave him a quiet hearing. +But when instead of the submissive and deprecatory language expected +from him, he began to use not only an offensive kind of freedom, seeming +rather to accuse than apologize, but as well by the tone of his voice as +the expression of his countenance, displayed a security that was not +far from disdain and contempt of them, the whole multitude then became +angry, and gave evident signs of impatience and disgust; and Sicinnius, +the most violent of the tribunes, after a little private conference with +his colleagues, proceeded solemnly to pronounce before them all, that +Marcius was condemned to die by the tribunes of the people, and bid +the Aediles take him to the Tarpeian rock, and without delay throw him +headlong from the precipice. When they, however, in compliance with the +order, came to seize upon his body, many, even of the plebeian party, +felt it to be a horrible and extravagant act; the patricians, meantime, +wholly beside themselves with distress and horror, hurried with cries +to the rescue; and persuaded them not to despatch him by any sudden +violence, but refer the cause to the general suffrage of the people. +But when the people met together, the tribunes, contrary to all former +practice, extorted first, that votes should be taken, not by centuries, +but tribes; a change, by which the rabble, that had no respect for +honesty and justice, would be sure to carry it against those who were +rich and well known, and accustomed to serve the state in war. In the +next place, whereas they had engaged to prosecute Marcius upon no other +head but that of tyranny, which could never be made out against him, +they relinquished this plea, and urged instead, his language in the +senate against an abatement of the price of corn, and for the overthrow +of the tribunician power; adding further, as a new impeachment, the +distribution that was made by him of the spoil and booty he had taken +from the Antiates, when he overran their country, which he had divided +among those that had followed him, whereas it ought rather to have been +brought into the public treasure; which last accusation did, they say, +more discompose Marcius than all the rest, as he had not anticipated +he should ever be questioned on that subject, and, therefore, was less +provided with any satisfactory answer to it on the sudden. And when, +by way of excuse, he began to magnify the merits of those who had been +partakers with him in the action, those that had stayed at home, being +more numerous than the other, interrupted him with the outcries. In +conclusion, when they came to vote, a majority of three tribes condemned +him; the penalty being perpetual banishment. + +Marcius himself, was neither stunned nor humiliated. In mien, carriage, +and countenance, he bore the appearance of entire composure, and while +all his friends were full of distress, seemed the only man that was +not touched with his misfortune. On his return home, after saluting his +mother and his wife, who were in tears and full of loud lamentations, +and exhorting them to moderate the sense they had of his calamity, he +proceeded at once to the city gates, whither all the nobility came to +attend him; and not taking anything with him, or making any request to +the company, he departed from them, having only three or four clients +with him. He continued solitary for a few days in a place in the +country, distracted with a variety of counsels, such as rage and +indignation suggested to him; and proposing to himself no honorable +or useful end, but only how he might best satisfy his revenge on the +Romans, he resolved at length to arouse a heavy war against them from +their nearest neighbors. He determined, first to make trial of the +Volscians, whom he knew to be still vigorous and flourishing, both in +men and treasure, and he imagined their force and power was not so much +abated, as their spite and anger increased, by the late overthrows they +had received from the Romans. + +There was a man of Antium, called Tullus Aufidius, who, for his +wealth and bravery and the splendor of his family, had the respect and +privilege of a king among the Volscians, but whom Marcius knew to have +a particular hostility to himself, above all other Romans. Frequent +menaces and challenges had passed in battle between them, and those +exchanges of defiance to which their hot and eager emulation is apt +to prompt young soldiers had added private animosity to their national +feelings of opposition. Yet for all this, considering Tullus to have a +certain generosity of temper, and knowing that no Volscian, so much as +he, desired an occasion to requite upon the Romans the evils they had +done, he put on a dress which completely disguised him and thus, like +Ulysses,-- + + He entered the town of his mortal foes. + +His arrival at Antium was about evening, and though several met him in +the streets, yet he passed along without recognition, and went directly +to the house of Tullus, and entering undiscovered, went up to the +fire-hearth, and seated himself there without speaking a work, covering +up his head. Those of the family could not but wonder, and yet they were +afraid either to raise or question him, for there was a certain air of +majesty both in his posture and silence, but they recounted to Tullus, +then at supper, the strangeness of this accident. He immediately rose +from table and came in, and asked him who he was, and for what business +he came there; and then Marcius, unmuffling himself, and pausing awhile +said, "If you cannot yet call me to mind, Tullus, or do not believe your +eyes concerning me, I must of necessity be my own accuser. I am Gaius +Marcius, the author of so much mischief to the Volscians; of which, were +I seeking to deny it, the surname of Coriolanus I now bear would be a +sufficient evidence against me. The one recompense I received for +all the hardships and perils I have gone through, was the title that +proclaims my enmity to your nation, and this is the only thing which +is still left me. Of all other advantages, I have been stripped +and deprived by the envy of the Roman people, and the cowardice and +treachery of the magistrates and those of my own order. I am driven out +as an exile, and become an humble suppliant at your hearth, not so much +for safety and protection (should I have come hither, had I been afraid +to die?), as to seek vengeance against those that expelled me; which, +methinks, I have already obtained, by putting myself into your hands. +If, therefore, you have really a mind to attack your enemies, make use +of that affliction you see me in to assist the enterprise, and convert +my personal infelicity into a common blessing to the Volscians; as I am +likely to be more serviceable in fighting for than against you, with the +advantage, which I now possess, of knowing all the secrets of the enemy +that I am attacking." + +Tullus, on hearing this, was extremely rejoiced, and giving him his +right hand, exclaimed, "rise, Marcius, and be of good courage; it is +a great happiness you bring to Antium, in the present you make us of +yourself; expect everything that is good from the Volscians." he then +proceeded to feast and entertain him with every display of kindness, and +for several days after they were in close deliberation together on the +prospects of a war. + +Although the Volscians had sworn to a truce of arms for the space of +two years, the Romans themselves soon furnished them with a pretence, +by making proclamation, out of some jealousy or slanderous report, at +an exhibition of games, that all the Volscians who had come to see them +should depart from the city before sunset. Some affirm that this was a +contrivance of Marcius, who sent a man privately to the consuls, falsely +to accuse the Volscians of intending to fall upon the Romans during the +games, and to set the city on fire. This public affront aroused their +hostility to the Romans; and Tullus, perceiving it, took advantage of +it, aggravating the fact, and working on their indignation, till he +persuaded them, at last, to despatch ambassadors to Rome, requiring the +Romans to restore that part of their country and those towns which they +had taken from the Volscian in the late war. When the Romans heard the +message, they indignantly replied, that the Volscians were the first +that took up arms, but the Romans would be the last to lay them down. +This answer being brought back, Tullus called a general assembly of the +Volscians; and the voted passing for a war, he then proposed that they +should call in Marcius, laying aside the remembrance of former grudges, +and assuring themselves that the services they should now receive from +him as friend and associate, would abundantly outweigh any harm or +damage he had done them when he was their enemy. Marcius was accordingly +summoned, and having made his entrance, and spoken tot he people, won +their good opinion of his capacity, his skill, counsel, and boldness, +not less by his present words than by his past actions. They joined him +in commission with Tullus, to have full power as general of their forces +in all that related to the war. And he, fearing lest the time that would +be requisite to bring all the Volscians together in full preparation +might be so long as to lose him the opportunity of action, left order +with the chief persons and magistrates for the city to provide other +things, while he himself, prevailing upon the readiest to assemble and +march out with him as volunteers without staying to be enrolled, made +a sudden inroad into the Roman confines, when nobody expected him, and +possessed himself of so much booty, that the Volscians found they had +more than they could either carry away or use in the camp. The abundance +of provision which he gained, and the waste and havoc of the country +which he made, were, however, the smallest results of that invasion; +the great mischief he intended, and his special object in all, was to +increase at Rome the suspicions entertained of the patricians, and +to make them upon worse terms with the people. With this view, while +despoiling all the fields and destroying the property of other men, he +took special care to preserve their farms and lands untouched, and would +not allow his soldiers to ravage there, or seize upon any thing which +belonged to them. Hence the quarrels broke out afresh, and rose to +a greater height than ever; the senators reproaching those of the +commonalty with their late injustice to Marcius; while the plebeians, on +their side, did not hesitate to accuse them of having, out of spite and +revenge, solicited him to this enterprise, and thus, when others +were involved in the miseries of a war by their means, they sat like +unconcerned spectators furnished with a guardian abroad of their +fortunes, in the very person of the public enemy. After this incursion +and exploit, which was of great advantage to the Volscians, since they +learned by it to be more courageous and to despise their enemy, Marcius +drew them off, and returned in safety. + +But when the whole strength of the Volscians was brought together into +the field, with great expedition, it appeared so considerable a body, +that they agreed to leave part in garrison, for the security of their +towns, and with the other part to march against the Romans. Marcius +now desired Tullus to choose which of the two charges would be most +agreeable to him. Tullus answered, that since he knew Marcius to be +equally valiant with himself, and far more fortunate, he would have him +take the command of those that were going out to the war, while he made +it his care to defend their cities at home, and provide all conveniences +for the army abroad. Marcius thus reinforced, and much stronger than +before, moved first towards the city called Circaeum, a Roman colony. +He received its surrender, and did the inhabitants no injury; passing +thence, he entered and laid waste the country of the Latins, where +he expected the Romans would meet him, as the Latins were their +confederates and allies, and had often sent to demand succor from them. +the people, however, on their part, showing little inclination for the +service, and the consuls themselves being unwilling to run the hazard of +a battle, when the time of their office was almost ready to expire, they +dismissed the Latin ambassadors without any effect; so that Marcius, +finding no army to oppose him, marched up to their cities, and, having +taken by force Toleria, Lavici, Peda, and Bols, all of which offered +resistance, not only plundered their houses, but made a prey likewise +of their persons. Meantime, he showed particular regard for all such +as came over to his party, and, for fear they might sustain any damage +against his will, encamped them at the greatest distance he could, and +wholly abstained from their property. + +After, however, he had made himself master of Bols, a town not above ten +miles from Rome, where he found great treasure, and put almost all +the adults to the sword; the other Volscians that were ordered to +stay behind and protect their cities, hearing of his achievements +and success, had not patience to remain any longer at home, but came +hastening in their arms to Marcius, saying that he alone was their +general and the sole commander they would own; with all this, his name +and renown spread throughout all Italy, and universal wonder prevailed +at the sudden and mighty revolution in the fortunes for two nations +which the loss and the accession of a single man had effected. + +All at Rome was in great disorder; they were utterly averse from +fighting, and spent their whole time in cabals and disputes and +reproaches against each other; until news was brought that the enemy had +laid close siege to Lavinium, where were the images and sacred things of +their tutelar gods, and whence they derived the origin of their nations, +that being the first city which Aeneas built in Italy. These tidings +produced a change as universal as it was extraordinary in the thoughts +and inclinations of the people, but occasioned a yet stranger revulsion +of feeling among the patricians. The people now were for repealing the +sentence against Marcius, and calling him back into the city; whereas +the senate, being assembled to consider the decree, opposed and finally +rejected the proposal, either out of the mere humor of opposing the +people in whatever they should desire, or because they were unwilling, +perhaps, that he should owe his restoration to their kindness. When +Marcius heard of this, he was more exasperated than ever, and, quitting +the siege of Lavinium, marched furiously towards Rome, and encamped at +a place called the Cluilian ditches, about five miles from the city. +The nearness of his approach did, indeed, create much terror and +disturbance, yet it also ended their dissensions for the present; as +nobody now, whether consul or senator, durst any longer contradict the +people in their design of recalling Marcius. + +It was therefore, unanimously agreed by all parties, that ambassadors +should be despatched, offering him return to his country, and desiring +him to free them from the terrors and distresses of the war. The persons +sent by the senate with this message were chosen out of his kindred +and acquaintance, who naturally expected a very kind reception at their +first interview; in which, however, they were much mistaken. Being led +through the enemy's camp, they found him sitting in state amid the chief +men of the Volscians, looking insupportably proud and arrogant. He +bade them declare the cause of their coming, which they did in the most +gently terms, and with a behavior suitable to their language. When they +had made an end of speaking, he returned them a sharp answer, full of +bitterness and angry resentment, as to what concerned himself, and the +ill usage he had received from them; but as general of the Volscians, he +demanded restitution of the cities and the lands which had been seized +upon during the late war, and that the same rights and franchises should +be granted them at Rome, which had been before accorded to the Latins; +since there could be no assurance that a peace would be firm and lasting +without just conditions on both sides. He allowed them thirty days to +consider and resolve. + +The ambassadors having departed; he withdrew his forces from the Roman +territory. Those of the Volscians who had long envied his reputation, +and could not endure to see the influence he had with the people, laid +hold of this as a matter of complaint against him. Among them was Tullus +himself, not for any wrong done him personally by Marcius, but through +the weakness incident to human nature. He could not help feeling +mortified to find his own glory totally obscured, and himself overlooked +and neglected now by the Volscians, who had so great an opinion of their +new leader. Yet Marcius spent no part of the time idly, but attacked the +confederates of the enemy, ravaged their land, and took from them +seven great and populous cities in that interval. The Romans, in the +meanwhile, durst not venture out to their relief; but were utterly +fearful, and showed no more disposition or capacity for action, than if +their bodies had been struck with a palsy, and become destitute of sense +and motion. But when the thirty days were expired, and Marcius appeared +again with his whole army, they sent another embassy to beseech him that +he would moderate his displeasure, and would withdraw the Volscian army, +and then make any proposals he thought best for both parties, but if it +were his opinion that the Volscians ought to have any favor shown them, +upon laying down their arms they might obtain all they could in reason +desire. + +The reply of Marcius was, that he should make no answer to this as a +general of the Volscians, but in the quality still for a roman citizen, +he would advise them to return to him before three days were at an end, +with a ratification of his previous demands. + +When the ambassadors came back, and acquainted the senate with the +answer, seeing the whole state now threatened as it were by a tempest, a +decree was made, that the whole order of their priests should go in full +procession to Marcius with their pontifical array, and the dress and +habit which they respectively used in their several functions, and +should urge him, as before, to withdraw his forces, and then treat with +his countrymen in favor of the Volscians. He granted nothing at all, nor +so much as expressed himself more mildly; but without capitulating or +receding, bade them once for all choose whether they would yield or +fight, since the old terms were the only terms of peace. In this great +perplexity, the roman women went, some to other temples, but the +greater part, and the ladies of highest rank, tot he altar of Jupiter +Capitolinus. Among these suppliants was Valeria, sister to the great +Poplicola, who happily lighting, not without divine guidance, on the +right expedient, rose, and bade the others rise, and went directly with +them to the house of Volumnia, the mother of Marcius. And coming in +and finding her sitting with her daughter-in-law, and with her little +grandchildren on her lap, Valeria, then surrounded by her companions, +spoke in the name of them all:-- + +"We, O Volumnia, and Vergilia, are come as women to women, to request a +thing on which our own and the common safety depends, and which, if you +consent to it, will raise our glory above that of the daughters of +the Sabines, who won over their fathers and their husbands from mortal +enmity to peace and friendship. Arise and come with us to Marcius; join +in our supplication, for your country's sake." + +The words of Valeria were seconded by the acclamations of the other +women, to which Volumnia made answer:--"I and Vergilia, my countrywomen, +have an equal share with you all in the common miseries, and we have the +additional sorrow, which is wholly ours, that we have lost the merit and +good fame of Marcius, and see his person confined, rather than protected +by the arms of the enemy. Make use, however, of our service; and lead +us, if you please, to him; we are able, if nothing more, at least to +spend our last breath in making suit to him for our country." + +Having spoken thus, she took Vergilia by the hand, and the young +children, and so accompanied them to the Volscian camp. So lamentable +a sight much affected the enemies themselves, who viewed them in +respectful silence. Marcius, seeing the party of women advance, came +down hastily to meet them, saluting his mother first, and embracing her +a long time, and then his wife and children, sparing neither tears nor +cares, but suffering himself to be borne away and carried headlong, as +it were, but the impetuous violence of his passion. + +when he had satisfied himself, and observed that his mother Volumnia was +desirous to say something, the Volscian council being first called in, +he heard her to the following effect: "Our dress and our very persons, +my son, might tell you, though we should say nothing ourselves, in how +forlorn a condition we have lived at home since your banishment and +absence from us; and now consider with yourself, whether we may not pass +for the most unfortunate of all women, to have that sight, which should +be the sweetest that we could see, converted, through I know not +what fatality, to one of all others the most formidable and +dreadful,--Volumnia to behold her son, and Vergilia her husband, in arms +against the walls of Rome. As for myself, if I cannot prevail with you +to prefer amity and concord to quarrel and hostility, and to be the +benefactor to both parties, rather than the destroyer of one of them, +be assured of this, that you shall not be able to reach your country, +unless you trample first upon the corpse of her that brought you into +life. For it will be ill in me to loiter in the world till the day com +wherein I shall see a child of mine, either led in triumph by his own +countrymen, or triumphing over them." + +Marcius listened to his mother while she spoke, without answering her a +word; and Volumnia, seeing him stand mute also for a long time after she +had ceased, resumed: "O my son, what is the meaning of this silence? Is +it wrong to gratify a mother in a request like this? You have punished +your country already; you have not yet paid your debt to me." Having +said this, she threw herself down at his feet, as did also his wife and +children; upon which Marcius, crying out, "O mother! what is it you have +done to me?" raised her from the ground, and pressing her right hand +with more than ordinary vehemence said, "You have gained a victory, +fortunate enough for the Romans, but destructive to your son; whom you, +though none else, have defeated." And after a little private conference +with his mother and his wife, he went them back again to Rome, as they +desired of him. + +the next morning, he broke up his camp, and led the Volscians homeward, +variously affected with what he had done. None, however, opposed +his commands; they all obediently followed him, though rather from +admiration of his virtue, than any regard they now had to his authority. +The Roman people, meantime began to crown themselves with garlands and +prepare for sacrifice, as they were wont to do upon tidings brought +of an signal victory. But the joy and transport of the whole city was +chiefly remarkable in the honors and marks of affection paid to the +women, as well by the senate as the people in general; every one +declaring that they were, beyond all question, the instruments of the +public safety. And the senate having passed a decree that whatsoever +they would ask in the way of an a favor or honor should be allowed and +done for them by the magistrates, they demanded simply that a temple +might be erected to the Goddess Fortuna, the expense of which they +offered to defray out of their own contributions, if the city would be +at the cost of sacrifices, and other matters pertaining to the due honor +of the gods, out of the common treasury. The senate, much commending +their public spirit, caused the temple to be built and a statue set +up in it at the public charge; they however, made up a sum among +themselves, for a second image of Fortune, which the Romans say utter +these words as they were putt it up "Blessed of the gods, O women, is +your gift." + +When Marcius came back to Antium, Tullus, who thoroughly hated +and greatly feared him, proceeded at once to contrive how he might +immediately despatch him; as, if he escaped now, he was never likely +to give him such another advantage. Having, therefore, got together and +suborned several partisans against him, he required Marcius to resign +his charge, and give the Volscians an account of his administration. + +An assembly was called, and popular speakers, as had been concerted, +came forward to exasperate and incense the multitude; but when Marcius +stood up to answer, even the most tumultuous part of the people became +quiet on a sudden, and out of reverence allowed him to speak without +the least disturbance; while all the better people, and such as were +satisfied with a peace, made it evident by their whole behavior, +that they would give him a favorable hearing, and judge and pronounce +according to equity. + +For these reasons, the conspirators judged it prudent not to test the +general feeling; but the boldest of their faction fell upon Marcius in +a body, and slew him there, none of those that were present offering +to defend him. But it quickly appeared that the action was in nowise +approved of by the majority of the Volscians, who hurried out of +their several cities to show respect to his corpse; to which they gave +honorable interment, adorning his sepulchre with arms and trophies, as +the monument of a noble hero and a famous general. When the Romans heard +tidings of his death, they gave no other signification either of honor +or of anger toward him, but simply granted the request of the women, +that they might put themselves into mourning and bewail him for ten +months, as the usage was upon the loss of a father or a son or a +brother; that being the period fixed for the longest lamentation by the +laws of Numa Pompilius. + +Marcius was no sooner deceased, than the Volscians felt the need of his +assistance. They quarreled first with the Aequians, their confederates +and friends, about the appointment of the general of their joint forces, +and carried their dispute to the length of bloodshed and slaughter; and +were then defeated by the Romans in a pitched battle, where not only +Tullus lost his life, but the flower of their whole army was cut to +pieces; so that they were forced to submit and accept of peace upon very +dishonorable terms, becoming subjects of Rome, and pledging themselves +to submission. + + + + +COMPARISON OF ALCIBIADES AND CORIOLANUS + +Having described all their actions that seem to deserve commemoration, +their military ones, we may say, incline the balance very decidedly upon +neither side. They both, in pretty equal measure, displayed on numerous +occasions the daring and courage of the soldier, and the skill and +foresight of the general; unless, indeed, the fact that Alcibiades was +victorious and successful in many contests both by sea and land, ought +to gain him the title of a more complete commander. That so long as they +remained and held command in their respective countries, they eminently +sustained, and when they were driven into exile, yet more eminently +damaged the fortunes of those countries, is common to both. All the +sober citizens felt disgust at the petulance, the low flattery, and +base seductions which Alcibiades, in his public life, allowed himself +to employ with the view of winning the people's favor; and the +ungraciousness, pride, and oligarchical haughtiness which Marcius, +on the other hand, displayed in his, were the abhorrence of the Roman +populace. + +Marcius, according to our common conceptions of his character, was +undoubtedly simple and straightforward; Alcibiades, unscrupulous as a +public man, and false. He is more especially blamed for the dishonorable +and treacherous way in which, as Thucydides relates, he imposed upon the +Lacedaemonian ambassadors, and disturbed the continuance of the peace. +yet this policy, which engaged the city again in way, nevertheless +placed it in a powerful and formidable position, by the accession, which +Alcibiades obtained for it, of the alliance of Argos and Mantinea. And +Coriolanus also, Dionysius relates, used unfair means to excite war +between the Romans and the Volscians, in the false report which he +spread about the visitors at the Games; and the motive of this action +seems to make it the worse for the two; since it was not done, like +the other, out of ordinary political jealousy, strife and competition. +simply to gratify anger, from which as Ion says, no one ever yet got any +return, he threw whole districts of Italy into confusion, and sacrificed +to his passion against his country numerous innocent cities. It is true, +indeed, that Alcibiades, by his resentment, was the occasion of great +disasters to his country, but he relented as soon as he found their +feelings to be changed; and after he was driven out a second time, +so far from taking pleasure in the errors and inadvertencies of their +commanders, or being indifferent to the danger they were thus incurring, +he did the very thing that Aristides is so highly commended for doing to +Themistocles: he came to the generals who were his enemies, and pointed +out to them what they ought to do. Coriolanus, on the other hand, first +all attacked the whole body of his countrymen, though only one portion +of them had done him any wrong, while the other, the better and nobler +portion, had actually suffered, as well as sympathized, with him. And, +secondly, by the obduracy with which he resisted numerous embassies and +supplications, addressed in propitiation of his person anger, he showed +that it had been to destroy and overthrow, not to recover and regain his +country, that he had excited bitter and implacable hostilities against. +There is, indeed, one distinction that may be drawn. Alcibiades, it may +be said, was not safe among the Spartans, and had the inducements at +once of fear and of hatred to lead him again to Athens; whereas Marcius +could not honorably have left the Volscians, when they were behaving +so well to him: he, in the command of their forces and the enjoyment +of their entire confidence, was in a very different position from +Alcibiades, whom the Lacedaemonians did not so much wish to adopt into +their service, as to use, and then abandon. Driven about from house to +house in the city, and from general to general in the camp, the latter +had no resort but to place himself in the hands of Tissaphernes; unless +we are to suppose that his object in courting favor with him was to +avert the entire destruction of his native city, whither he wished +himself to return. + +As regards money, Alcibiades, we are told, was often guilty of procuring +it by accepting bribes, and spent it in luxury and dissipation. +Coriolanus declined to receive it, even when pressed upon him by his +commanders as an honor; and one great reason for the odium he incurred +with the populace in the discussions about their debts was, that he +trampled upon the poor, not for money's sake, but out of pride and +insolence. + +Antipater, in a letter written upon the death of Aristotle the +philosopher, observes, "Amongst his other gifts he had that of +persuasiveness," and the absence of this in the character of Marcius +made all his great actions and noble qualities unacceptable to those +whom they benefited: pride, and self-will, the consort, as Plato calls +it, of solitude, made him insufferable. With the skill which Alcibiades, +on the contrary, professed to treat every one in the way most agreeable +to him, we cannot wonder that all his successes were attended with +the most exuberant favor and honor; his very errors, at times, being +accompanied by something of grace and felicity. And so, in spite of +great and frequent hurt that he had done the city, he was repeatedly +appointed to office and command; while Coriolanus stood in vain for a +place which his great services had made his due. + +Alcibiades never professed to deny that it was pleasant to him to be +honored and distasteful to him to be overlooked; and, accordingly, he +always tried to place himself upon good terms with all that he met; +Coriolanus' pride forbade him to pay attentions to those who could have +promoted his advancement, and yet his love of distinction made him feel +hurt and angry when he was disregarded. Such are the faulty parts of +his character, which in all other respects was a noble one. For his +temperance, continence, and probity, he might claim to be compared +with the best and purest of the Greeks; not in any sort of kind with +Alcibiades, the least scrupulous and most entirely careless of human +beings in all these points. + + + + +ARISTIDES + +Aristides, the son of Lysimachus, was of the tribe Antiochis, and +township of Alopece. Being the friend and supporter of that Clisthenes, +who settled the government after the expulsion of the tyrants, and +emulating and admiring Lycurgus the Lacedaemonian above all politicians, +he adhered to the aristocratical principles of government; and had +Themistocles, son to Neocles, his adversary on the side of the populace. +Some say that, when boys together, they were always at variance in all +their words and actions, serious as well as playful. One was ready, +venturesome, and subtle, engaging readily and eagerly in everything; the +other of a staid and settled temper, intent on the exercise of justice, +not admitting any degree of falsity, indecorum, or trickery, even at his +play. Ariston of Ceos says that the first origin of enmity which rose to +so great a height, was a love affair; they were rivals for the +affection of the beautiful Stesilaus of Ceos, and were passionate beyond +moderation, and did not lay aside their animosity when the beauty that +had excited it passed away; but carried their heats and differences into +public business. + +Themistocles joined an association of partisans, and fortified himself +with considerable strength; so that when some one told him that if he +were impartial, he would make a good magistrate, "I wish," replied he, +"I may never sit on that tribunal where my friends shall not plead a +greater privilege than strangers." + +But Aristides walked alone on his path in politics being unwilling to +go with associates in ill doing, or to cause them vexation by not +gratifying their wishes. + +When he had once opposed Themistocles in some measures that were +expedient, and had got the better of him, he could not refrain from +saying, when he left the assembly, that unless they sent Themistocles +and himself to the barathrum,(a pit into which the dead bodies of +malefactors were thrown) there could be no safety for Athens. Another +time, when urging some proposal upon the people, although there was much +opposition to it, yet he was gaining the day; but just as the president +of the assembly was about to put it to the vote, perceiving by what had +been said in debate the inexpediency of his advice, he let it fall. He +often brought in his bills by other persons, lest Themistocles, thought +party spirit against him, should be any hindrance to the good of the +public. + +In all the vicissitudes of public affairs, the constancy he showed was +admirable, not being elated with honors, and demeaning himself sedately +in adversity. Once, at the recital of these verses of Aeshcylus in the +theatre, relating to Amphiaraus, + + For not at seeming just, but being so + He aims; and from his depth of soil below, + Harvest of wise and prudent counsels grow, + +the eyes of all the spectators were turned upon Aristides, as if this +virtue in an especial manner belonged to him. + +He was a most determined champion of justice, not only against feelings +of friendship and favor, but wrath and malice. + +Thus it is reported of him that prosecuting one who was his enemy, +when the judges after accusation refused to hear the criminal, and were +proceeding immediately to pass sentence upon him, he rose in haste from +his seat and joined in petition with him for a hearing, and that he +might enjoy the privilege of the law. Another time, judging between +two private persons, when the one declared his adversary had very much +injured Aristides; "Tell me rather, good friend," he said, "what wrong +he has done you: for it is your cause, not my own, which I now sit +judge of." Being chosen to the charge of the public revenue, he made it +appear, that not only those of his time, but the preceding officers, had +alienated much treasure, and especially Themistocles: + + Well known he was an able man to be, + But with his fingers apt to be too free. + +Therefore, Themistocles associating several persons against Aristides, +and impeaching him when he gave in his accounts, caused him to be +condemned of robbing of the public; so Idomeneus states; but the best +and chief men of the city much resented it, so that he was not only +exempted from the fine imposed upon him, but again called to the +same employment. Pretending now to repent of his former practice, and +carrying himself with more remissness, he became acceptable to such +as pillaged the treasury, by not detecting or calling them to an exact +account. So that those who had their fill of the public money began +highly to applaud Aristides, and sued to the people, to have him once +more chosen treasurer. But when they were upon the point of election, he +reproved the Athenians in these words: "When I discharged my office +well and faithfully, I was insulted and abused; but now that I have +countenanced the public thieves in a variety of malpractices, I am +considered an admirable patriot. I am more ashamed, therefore, of this +present honor than of the former sentence; and I pity your condition, +with whom is more praiseworthy to oblige bad men than to preserve the +revenue of public." + +When Datis was sent by Darius under pretense of punishing the Athenians +for their burning of Sardis, but in reality to reduce the Greeks under +his dominion, and had landed at Marathon and laid waste the country, +among the ten commanders appointed by the Athenians for the war, +Miltiades was of the greatest name; but the second place, both for +reputation and power, was possessed by Aristides: and when his opinion +to join battle was added to that of Miltiades, it did much to incline +the balance. Every leader by his day having the command in chief, when +it came to Aristides' turn, he delivered it into the hands of Miltiades, +showing his fellow officers, that it is not dishonorable to obey and +follow wise and able men, but, on the contrary, noble and prudent. So +appeasing their rivalry, and bringing them to acquiesce in the best +advice, he confirmed Miltiades in the strength of undivided and +unmolested authority. And now every one, yielding his day of command, +looked for orders only to him. During the fight the main body of the +Athenians being the hardest pressed, the barbarians, for a long time, +making opposition there against the tribes Leontis and Antiochis, +Themistocles and Aristides being ranged together, fought valiantly; the +one being of the tribe Leontis, the other of the Antiochis. But, after +they had beaten the barbarians back to their ships, and perceived that +they did sail for the isles, but were driven in by the force of sea and +wind towards the country of Attica, fearing lest they should take the +city, they hurried away thither with nine tribes, and reached it the +same day. + +Of all the virtues of Aristides, the common people were most affected +with his justice, because of its continual and common use; and thus, +although of mean fortune and ordinary birth, he possessed himself of the +most kingly and divine appellation of Just; which kings, however, and +tyrants have never sought after; but have taken delight to be surnamed +besiegers of cities, thunderers, conquerors, eagles and hawks; +affecting, it seems, the reputation which proceeds from power and +violence, rather than that of virtue. + +Aristides, therefore, had at first the fortune to be beloved for this +surname, but at length envied. Especially when Themistocles spread a +rumor amongst the people, that, by determining and judging all matters +privately, he had destroyed the courts of judicature, and was secretly +making way for a monarchy in his own person, without the assistance +of guards. Moreover, the spirit of the people, now grown high, and +confident with their late victory, naturally entertained feelings of +dislike to all of more than common fame and reputation. Coming together, +therefore, from all parts into the city, they banished Aristides by the +ostracism, giving their jealousy of his reputation the name of fear of +tyranny. For ostracism was not the punishment of any criminal act, +but was speciously said to be the mere depression and humiliation of +excessive greatness and power; and was in fact a gentle relief and +mitigation of envious feeling, which was thus allowed to vent itself +in inflicting no intolerable injury, only a ten years' banishment. +But after it came be exercised upon base and villainous fellows, they +desisted from it; Hyperbolus, being the last whom they banished by the +ostracism. + +The cause of Hyperbolus's banishment is said to have been this. +Alcibiades and Nicias, men that bore the greatest sway in the city, were +of different factions. As the people, therefore, were about to vote the +ostracism, and obviously to decree it against one of them, consulting +together and uniting their parties, they contrived the banishment of +Hyperbolus. Upon which the people, being offended, as if some contempt +or affront was put upon the thing, left off and quite abolished it. +It was performed, to be short, in this manner. Every one taking an +ostracon, that is, a sherd, a piece of earthenware, wrote upon it the +citizen's he would have banished, and carried it to a certain part of +the market-place surrounded with wooden rails. First, the magistrates +numbered all the sherds in gross (for if there were less than six +thousand, the ostracism was imperfect); then, laying every name by +itself, they pronounced him whose name was written by the largest +number, banished for ten years, with the enjoyment of his estate. As, +therefore, they were writing the names on the sherds, it is reported +that an illiterate clownish fellow, giving Aristides his sherd, +supposing him a common citizen, begged him write Aristides upon it; and +he being surprised and asking if Aristides had ever done him any injury, +"None at all," said he, "neither know I the man; but I am tired of +hearing him everywhere called the Just." Aristides, hearing this, is +said to have made no reply, but returned the sherd with his own name +inscribed. At his departure from the city, lifting up his hands to +heaven, he made a prayer (the reverse, it would seem, of that of +Achilles), that the Athenians might never have any occasion which should +constrain them to remember Aristides. + +But three years afterwards, when Xerxes was marching through Thessaly +and Boeotia into the country of Attica, they repealed the law, and +decreed the return of the banished: chiefly fearing lest Aristides might +join himself to the enemy, and bring over many of his fellow-citizens to +the party of the barbarians; much mistaking the man, who, already before +the decree, was exerting himself to excite and encourage the Greeks to +the defense of their liberty. + +After the battle of Salamis, Xerxes, much terrified, immediately +hastened to the Hellespont. But Mardonius was left with the most +serviceable part of the army, about three hundred thousand men, and was +a formidable enemy, confident in his infantry, and writing messages +of defiance to the Greeks: "You have overcome by sea men accustomed +to fight on land and unskilled at the oar; but there lies now the open +country of Thessaly; and the plains of Boeotia offer a broad and worthy +field for brave men, either horse or foot, to contend in." + +But he sent privately to the Athenians, both by letter and word of mouth +from the king, promising to rebuild their city, to give them a vast +sum of money, and constitute them lords of all Greece on condition they +would not engage in the war. The Lacedaemonians receiving news of this, +and fearing, dispatched an embassy to the Athenians, entreating that +they would send their wives and children to Sparta, and receive support +from them for their superannuated. For, being despoiled both of their +city and country, the people were suffering extreme distress. Having +given audience to the ambassadors, they returned an answer, upon the +motion of Aristides, worthy of the highest admiration; declaring, that +they forgave their enemies if they thought all things purchasable by +wealth, than which they knew nothing of greater value; but that they +felt offended at the Lacaemonians, for looking only to their present +poverty, without any remembrance of their valor and magnanimity, and +offering them their victuals, to fight in the cause of Greece. Aristides +made this proposal, brought back the ambassadors into the assembly, and +charged them to tell the Lacaemonians that all the treasure on earth or +under it was of less value with the people of Athens than the liberty of +Greece. And, showing the sun to those who came from Mardonius, "as long +as that retains the same course, so long," said he, "shall the citizens +of Athens wage war with the Persians for the country which has been +wasted, and the temples that have been profaned and burnt by them." +Moreover, he proposed a decree, that the priests should anathematize him +who sent any herald to the Medes, or deserted the alliance of Greece. + +When Mardonius made a second incursion into the country of Attica, the +people passed over again into the isle of Salamis. Aristides himself +went to Lacedaemon, and reproved them for the delay and neglect in +abandoning Athens once more to the barbarians; and demanded their +assistance for that part of Greece which was not yet lost. The Ephori, +hearing this, made show of sporting all day, and of carelessly keeping +holy day (for they were then celebrating the Hyacinthian festival), +but in the night, selecting five thousand Spartans, each of whom was +attended by seven Helots, they sent them forth unknown to those from +Athens. And when Aristides again reprehended them, they told him in +derision that he either doted or dreamed, for the army was already +at Oresteum, in their march towards the strangers; as they called the +Persians. Aristides answered that they jested unreasonably, deluding +their friends, instead of their enemies. + +Being chosen general for the war, he repaired to Plataea, with eight +thousand Athenians, where Pausanias, generalissimo of all Greece, +joined him with the Spartans; and the forces of the other Greeks came in +to them. The encampment of the barbarians extended all along the bank of +the river Asopus, their numbers being so great, there was no enclosing +them all, but their baggage and most valuable things were surrounded +with a square bulwark, each side of which was the length of ten +furlongs. + +The Tegeatans, contesting the post of honor with the Athenians, +demanded, that according to custom, the Lacedaemonians being ranged on +the right wing of the battle, they might have the left, alleging +several matters in commendation of their ancestors. The Athenians being +indignant at the claim, Aristides came forward and said: "To contend +with the Tegeatans for noble descent and valor, the present time permits +not: but this we say to you, O you Spartans, and you the rest of the +Greeks, that place neither takes away nor contributes courage: we shall +endeavor by maintaining the post you assign us, to reflect no dishonor +on our former performances. For we are come, not to differ with our +friends, but to fight our enemies; not to extol our ancestors, but to +behave as valiant men. This battle will manifest how much each city, +captain, and private soldier is worth to Greece." The council of war, +upon this address, decided for the Athenians, and gave them the other +wing of the battle. + +At this juncture, Mardonius made trial of the Grecian courage, by +sending his whole number of horse, in which he thought himself much +the stronger, against them, while they were all, except the Megarians, +encamped at the foot of Mount Cithaeron, in strong and rocky places. +They being three thousand in number, had pitched their tents on the +plain, where the cavalry charged and made inroads upon them from all +sides. They sent, therefore, in haste to Pausanias, demanding relief, +not being able alone to sustain the great numbers of the barbarians. +Pausanias, hearing this, and perceiving the tents of the Megarians +almost hidden by the multitude of darts and arrows, and themselves +driven together into a narrow space, was at a loss how to aid them with +his battalions of heavy-armed Lacedaemonians. He asked, therefore, as +a test of emulation and love of distinction, to the commanders and +captains who were around him, if any would voluntarily take upon the +defense and succor of the Megarians. + +The rest being backward, Aristides undertook the enterprise for the +Athenians, and sent Olympiodorus, the most valiant of his inferior +officers, with three hundred chosen men and some archers under his +command. These were soon in readiness, and running upon the enemy, as +soon as it was perceived by Masistius, who commanded the cavalry of the +barbarians, a man of wonderful courage and of extraordinary bulk and +comeliness of person, he turned his steed and made towards them. They +sustained the shock and joined battle with him, as though by this +encounter they were to try the success of the whole war. But after +Masistius's horse received a wound, and flung him, and he falling, could +hardly raise himself through the weight of his armor, the Athenians +pressed upon him with blows, but could not easily get at his person, +armed as he was, breast, head, and limbs all over, with gold and brass +and iron; but one of them at last, running a javelin under the visor of +his helmet, slew him; and the rest of the Persians, leaving the body, +fled. The greatness of the Greek success was known, not by the multitude +of the slain, (for an inconsiderable number were killed), but by the +sorrow the barbarians expressed. For they shaved themselves, their +horses, and mules for the death of Masistius, and filled the plain with +howling and lamentation; having lost a person, who, next to Mardonius +himself, was by far the chief among them, both for valor and authority. + +After this skirmish of the horse, they kept from fighting a long time; +for the soothsayers, by the sacrifices, foretold the victory both to +Greeks and Persians, if they stood upon the defensive part only, but if +they became aggressors, the contrary. At length Mardonious, when he +had but a few days' provision, and the Greek forces were increasing +continually, impatient of delay, determined to lie still no longer, but +passing Asopus by daybreak, to fall unexpectedly upon the Greeks. This +he signified the night before to the captains of his host. But about +midnight, a certain horseman stole into the Greek camp, and coming to +the watch, desired them to summon Aristides, the Athenian, to him. +He came speedily, and the stranger said: "I am Alexander, king of the +Macedonians, and have come here through the greatest danger in the world +for the goodwill I bear you, lest a sudden onset should dismay you, so +as to behave in the fight worse than usual. For to-morrow Mardonius will +give you battle, urged, not by any hope of success or courage, but by +want of victuals: for the prophets prohibit him from the battle, the +sacrifices and oracles being unfavorable; but the army is in despondency +and consternation; and necessity forces him to try his fortune, or sit +still and endure the last extremity of want." Alexander, thus saying, +entreated Aristides to take notice and remember him, but not tell any +other. But he replied that it was not fair conceal to the matter from +Pausanias (because he was general); as for any others he would keep it +secret from them till the battle was fought; but if the Greeks obtained +the victory, that then no one should be ignorant of Alexander's goodwill +and kindness towards them. After this, the king of the Macedonians rode +back again, and Aristides went to Pausanias's tent and told him; and +they sent for the rest of the captains and gave orders that the army +should be in battle array. + +Meantime, day came upon them; and Mardonious having his army in array, +fell upon the Lacedaemonians with great shouting and noise of barbarous +people, as if they were not about to join battle, but crush the Greeks +in their flight--a thing which very nearly came to pass. For Pausanius, +perceiving what was done, made a halt, and commanded every one to put +themselves in order for the battle; but through the disturbance he was +in, on account of the sudden approach of the enemy, he forgot to give +the signal to the Greeks in general. Whence it was, that they did +not come immediately, or in a body, to their assistance, but by small +companies and straggling, when the fight was already begun. Pausanias, +offering sacrifice, could not procure favorable omens, and so commanded +the Lacedaemonians to set down their shields at their feet and wait +quietly await for his directions, making no resistance to any of their +enemies. At this time, Callicrates, who, we are told, was the most +comely man in the army, being shot with an arrow and upon the point of +expiring, said that he did not lament his death (for he came from home +to lay down his life in defense of Greece) but that he died without +action. While Pausanias was thus in the act of supplication, the +sacrifices appeared propitious, and the soothsayers foretold victory. +The word being given, the Lacedaemonian battalion of foot seemed, on the +sudden, like some fierce animal, setting up his bristles, and +betaking himself to the combat; and the barbarians perceived that they +encountered with men who would fight to the death. Therefore, holding +their wicker shields before them, they shot their arrows amongst the +Lacedaemonians. But they, keeping together in the order of a phalanx, +and falling upon their enemies forced their shields out of their hands, +and, striking with their pikes at the breasts and faces of the Persians, +overthrew many of them; they, however, fell neither unrevenged nor +without courage. For taking hold of the spears with their bare hands, +they broke many of them, and betook themselves with effect to the +sword; and making use of their falchions and scimitars, and wresting the +Lacedaemonians' shields from them, and grappling with them, for a long +time stood their ground. + +Meanwhile, the Athenians were standing still, waiting for the +Lacedaemonians to come up. But when they heard a great noise as of men +engaged in fight, and a messenger came from Pausanias to inform them +of what was going on, they made haste to their assistance. And as they +passed through the plain to the place where the noise was, the recreant +Greeks, who took part with the enemy, came upon them. Aristides, as soon +as he saw them, going a considerable space before the rest, cried out to +them, by the guardian gods of Greece, not to enter the fight, and be no +impediment to those who were going to succor the defenders of Greece. +But when he perceived that they gave no attention to him, and had +prepared themselves for the battle, then turning from the present relief +of the Lacedaemonians, he engaged with them, being five thousand in +number. But the greatest part soon gave way and retreated, as the +barbarians were also put to flight. + +The battle being thus divided, the Lacedaemonians first beat off the +Persians; and a Spartan, named Arimnestus, slew Mardonius by a blow on +the head with a stone, as the oracle in the temple of Amphiaraus had +foretold to him. For Mardonius sent a Lydian thither, and another +person, a Carian, to the cave of Trophonius. The latter, the priest of +the oracle answered in his own language. But to the Lydian sleeping +in the temple of Amphiaraus, it seemed that a minister of the divinity +stood before him and commanded him to be gone; and on his refusing to +do it, flung a great stone at his head, so that he thought himself slain +with the blow. Such is the story. + +Of three hundred thousand of the enemy, forty thousand only are said to +have escaped with Artabazus; while on the Greeks' side there perished in +all thirteen hundred and sixty; of whom fifty-two were Athenians, all of +the tribe Aeantis, that fought, says Clidemus, with the greatest +courage of all; and for this reason the men of this tribe used to offer +sacrifice for the victory, as enjoined by the oracle, at the public +expense; ninety-one were Lacedaemonians, and sixteen Tegeatans. They +engraved upon the altar this inscription: + + The Greeks, when by their courage and their might, + They had repelled the Persian in the fight, + The common altar of freed Greece to be, + Reared this to Jupiter who guards the free. + +The battle of Plataea was fought on the fourth day of the month +Boedromion, on which day there is still a convention of the Greeks +at Plataea, and the Plateans still offer sacrifice for the victory to +"Jupiter of freedom." + +After this, the Athenians, not yielding the honor of the day to the +Lacedaemonians, nor consenting that they should erect a trophy, peace +was well-nigh destroyed by a dissension among the armed Greeks; but +Aristides, by soothing and counseling the commanders, especially +Leocrates and Myronides, pacified and persuaded them to leave the thing +to the decision of the Greeks. Cleocritus of Corinth rising up, made +people think he would ask the palm for the Corinthians (for next to +Sparta and Athens, Corinth was in greatest estimation); but he delivered +his opinion, to the general admiration, in favor of the Plataeans; and +counseled to take away all contention by giving them the reward and +the glory of the victory, whose being honored could be distasteful to +neither party. This being said, first Aristides gave consent in the name +of the Athenians, and Pausanias then, for the Lacedaemonians. So, being +reconciled, they set apart eighty talents for the Plateans, with which +they built the temple and dedicated the image to Minerva, and adorned +the temple with pictures, which even to this very day retain their +lustre. But the Lacedaemonians and Athenians each erected a trophy apart +by themselves. On their consulting the oracle about offering sacrifice, +Apollo answered that they should dedicate an altar to Jupiter of +freedom, but should not sacrifice till they had extinguished the fires +throughout the country, as having been defiled by the barbarians, +and had kindled unpolluted fire at the common altar at Delphi. The +magistrates of Greece, therefore, went forthwith and compelled such as +had fire to put it out; and Euchidas, a Plataean, promising to fetch +fire with all possible speed, from the altar of the god, ran to Delphi, +and having sprinkled and purified his body, crowned himself with laurel; +and taking the fire from the altar ran back to Plataea, arriving before +sunset, and performing in one day a journey of a thousand furlongs; +and saluting his fellow-citizens and delivering them the fire, +he immediately fell down and a short time after expired. Then the +Plataeans, taking him up, interred him in the temple of Diana Euclia, +setting this inscription over him: "Euchidas ran to Delphi and back +again in one day." + +A general assembly of all the Greeks being called, Aristides proposed +a decree, that the deputies and religious representatives of the +Greek states should assemble annually at Plataea, and every fifth year +celebrate the Eleutheria, or games of freedom. And that there should +be a levy upon all Greece, for the war against the barbarians, of ten +thousand spearmen, one thousand horse, and a hundred sail of ships; +but the Plateans to be exempt, and sacred to the service of the gods, +offering sacrifice for the welfare of Greece. These things being +ratified, the Plateans undertook the performance of annual sacrifice to +such as were slain and buried in that place; which they still perform +in the following manner. On the sixteenth day of Maemacterion they +make their procession, which, beginning by break of day, is led by a +trumpeter sounding for onset; then follow chariots loaded with myrrh and +garlands; and then a black bull; then come the young men of free birth +carrying libations of wine and milk in large two-handed vessels, and +jars of oil and precious ointments, none of servile condition being +permitted to have any hand in this ministration, because the men died in +defense of freedom; after all comes the chief magistrate of Plataea (for +whom it is unlawful at other times for him either to touch iron, or wear +any other colored garment but white), at that time appareled in a purple +robe; and taking a water-pot out of the city record-office, he proceeds, +bearing a sword in his hand, through the middle of the town to the +sepulchres. Then drawing water out of a spring, he washes and anoints +the monuments, and sacrificing the bull upon a pile of wood, and making +supplication to Jupiter and Mercury of the earth, invites those valiant +men who perished in the defense of Greece, to the banquet and the +libations of blood. After this, mixing a bowl of wine, and pouring out +for himself, he says, "I drink to those who lost their lives for the +liberty of Greece." These solemnities the Plataeans observe to this day. + +Theophrastus tells us that Aristides was, in his own private affairs, +and those of his own fellow-citizens, rigorously just, but that in +public matters he acted often in accordance with his country's policy, +which demanded, sometimes, not a little injustice. It is reported of him +that he said in a debate, upon the motion of the Samians for removing +the treasure from Delos to Athens, contrary to the league, that the +thing indeed was not just, but was expedient. + +In fine, having established the dominion of his city over so many +people, he himself remained indigent; and always delighted as much in +the glory of being poor, as in that of his trophies; as is evident from +the following story. Callias, the torch-bearer was related to him: and +was prosecuted by his enemies in a capital cause, in which, after +they had slightly argued the matters on which they indicted him, they +proceeded, beside the point, to address the judges: "You know," said +they, "Aristides, the son of Lysimachus, who is the admiration of all +Greece. In what a condition do you think his family is at his house, +when you see him appear in public in such a threadbare cloak? Is it not +probable that one, who, out of doors, goes thus exposed to the cold, +must want food and other necessaries at home? Callias, the wealthiest +of the Athenians, does nothing to relieve either him or his wife and +children in their poverty, though he is his own cousin, and has made use +of him in many cases, and often reaped advantage by his interest with +you." But Callias, perceiving that the judges were particularly moved +by this, and were exasperated against him, called in Aristides, who +testified that when Callias offered him divers presents, and entreated +him to accept them, he had refused, answering, that it became him better +to be proud of his poverty than Callias of his wealth. On Aristides +deposing these facts in favor of Callias, there was not one who heard +them that went way desirous rather to be poor like Aristides, than rich +as Callias. Thus Aeschines, the scholar of Socrates, writes. But Plato +declares, that of all the great and renowned men in the city of Athens, +he was the only one worthy of consideration; for while Themistocles, +Cimon, and Pericles filled the city with porticoes, treasure, and many +other vain things, Aristides guided his public life by the rule of +justice. He showed his moderation very plainly in his conduct toward +Themistocles himself. For though Themistocles had been his adversary in +all his undertakings, and was the cause of his banishment, yet when he +afforded a similar opportunity of revenge, being accused by the city, +Aristides bore him no malice; but while Alcmaeon, Cimon, and many others +were prosecuting and impeaching him, Aristides alone, neither did, nor +said any evil against him, and no more triumphed over his enemy in his +adversity, than he had envied him his prosperity. + +Some say Aristides died in Pontus, during a voyage upon the affairs of +the public. Others say that he died of old age at Athens, being in great +honor and veneration among his fellow-citizens. + +His monument is to be seen at Phalerum, which they say was built for him +by the city, he not having left enough even to defray funeral charges. +And it is stated, that his two daughters were publicly married out of +the prytaneum, or state-house, by the city, which decreed each of +them three thousand drachmas for her portion; and that upon his son +Lysimachus, the people bestowed a hundred minas of money, and as many +acres of planted land, and ordered him besides, upon the motion of +Alcibiades, four drachmas a day. + + + + +CIMON + +Cimon was the son of Miltiades and Hegesipyle, who was by birth a +Thracian, and daughter to the king Olorus. By this means the historian +Thucydides was his kinsman by the mother's side; for his father's name +also, in remembrance of this common ancestor, was Olorus, and he was +the owner of the gold mines in Thrace, and met his death, it is said, by +violence, in Scapte Hyle, a district of Thrace. Cimon was left an orphan +very young, with his sister Elpinice, who was also young and unmarried. +And at first he had but an indifferent reputation, being looked upon +as disorderly in his habits, fond of drinking, and resembling his +grandfather, also called Cimon, in character, whose simplicity got him +the surname of Coalemus the simpleton. Stesimbrotus of Thasos, who +lived about the same time with Cimon, reports of him that he had little +acquaintance either with music, or any of the other liberal studies +and accomplishments, then common among the Greeks; that he had nothing +whatever of the quickness and the ready speech of his countrymen in +Attica; that he had great nobleness and candor in his disposition, and +in his character in general, resembled rather a native of Peloponnesus, +than of Athens; as Euripides describes Hercules:-- + + ----Rude And unrefined, for great things, well-endued; + +for this may fairly be added to the character which Stesimbrotus has +given of him. + +Almost all the points of Cimon's character were noble and good. He was +as daring as Miltiades, and not inferior to Themistocles in judgment, +and was incomparably more just and honest than either of them. Fully +their equal in all military virtues, in the ordinary duties of a citizen +at home he was immeasurably their superior. And this, too, when he +was very young, his years not strengthened by any experience. For when +Themistocles, upon the Median invasion, advised the Athenians to forsake +their city and their country, and to carry all their arms on shipboard, +and fight the enemy by sea, in the straits of Salamis; when all the +people stood amazed at the confidence and rashness of this advice, Cimon +was seen, the first of all men, passing with a cheerful countenance +through the Ceramics, on his way with his companions to the citadel, +carrying a bridle in his hand to offer to the goddess, intimating that +there was no more need of horsemen now, but of mariners. There, after +he had paid his devotions to the goddess, and offered up the bridle, he +took down one of the bucklers that hung upon the walls of the temple, +and went down to the port; by this example giving confidence to many of +the citizens. He was also of a fairly handsome person, according to the +poet Ion, tall and large, and let his thick and curly hair grow long. +After he had acquitted himself gallantly in this battle of Salamis, +he obtained great repute among the Athenians, and was regarded with +affection, as well as admiration. He had many who followed after him, +and bade him aspire to actions not less famous than his father's battle +of Marathon. And when he came forward in political life, the people +welcomed him gladly, being now weary of Themistocles; in opposition to +whom, and because of the frankness and easiness of his temper, which was +agreeable to every one, they advanced Cimon to the highest employments +in the government. The man that contributed most to his promotion was +Aristides, who early discerned in his character his natural capacity, +and purposely raised him, that he might be a counterpoise to the craft +and boldness of Themistocles. After the Medes had been driven out of +Greece, Cimon was sent out as admiral, when the Athenians had not yet +attained their dominion by sea, but still followed Pausanias and the +Lacedaemonians; and his fellow-citizens under his command were highly +distinguished, both for the excellence of their discipline, and for +their extraordinary zeal and readiness. And further, perceiving that +Pausanias was carrying on secret communications with the barbarians, and +writing letters to the king of Persia to betray Greece, and, puffed +up with authority and success, was treating the allies haughtily, and +committing many wanton injustices, Cimon, taking advantage, by acts of +kindness to those who were suffering wrong, and by his general humane +bearing, robbed him of the command of the Greeks, before he was aware, +not by arms, but by his mere language and character. Cimon, strengthened +with the accession of the allies, went as general into Thrace. For he +was told that some great men among the Persians, of the king's kindred, +being in possession of Eion, a city situated upon the river Strymon, +infested the neighboring Greeks. First he defeated these Persians in +battle, and shut them up within the walls of their town. Then he fell +upon the Thracians of the country beyond the Strymon, because they +supplied Eion with victuals, and driving them entirely out of the +country, took possession of it as conqueror, by which means he reduced +the besieged to such straits, that Butes, who commanded there for the +king, in desperation set fire to the town, and burned himself, his +goods, and all his relations, in one common flame. By this means, +Cimon got the town, but no great booty; as the barbarians had not only +consumed themselves in the fire, but the richest of their effects. +However, he put the country into the hands of the Athenians, a most +advantageous and desirable situation for a settlement. For this action, +the people permitted him to erect the stone Mercuries, upon the first of +which was this inscription:-- + +Of bold and patient spirit, too, were those Who, where the Strymon under +Eion flows, With famine and the sword, to utmost need Reduced at last +the children of the Mede. + +Upon the second stood this:-- + +The Athenians to their leaders this reward For great and useful service +did accord; Others hereafter, shall, from their applause, Learn to be +valiant in their country's cause. + +And upon the third, the following:-- + +With Atreus' sons, this city sent of yore Divine Menestheus to the +Trojan shore; Of all the Greeks, so Homer's verses say, The ablest man +an army to array; So old the title of her sons the name Of chiefs and +champions in the field to claim. + +Though the name of Cimon is not mentioned in these inscriptions, yet his +contemporaries considered them to be the very highest honors to him; +as neither Miltiades nor Themistocles ever received the like. When +Miltiades claimed a garland, Sochares of Decelea stood up in the midst +of the assembly and opposed it, using words which, though ungracious, +were received with applause by the people. "When you have gained a +victory by yourself, Miltiades, then you may ask to triumph so too." + +One mark of Cimon's great favor with the people, was the judgment, +afterwards so famous upon the tragic poets. Sophocles, still a young +man, had just brought forward his first plays; opinions were much +divided, and the spectators had taken sides with some heat. So, to +determine the case, Apsephion, who was at that time Archon, would +not cast lots who should be judges; but when Cimon, and his brother +commanders with him, came into the theatre, after they had performed +the usual rites to the god of the festival, he would not allow them to +retire, but came forward and made them swear, being ten in all, one from +each tribe, the usual oath; and so being sworn judges, he made them sit +down to give sentence. The eagerness for victory grew all the warmer, +from the ambition to get the suffrages of such honorable judges. And the +victory was at last adjudged to Sophocles, which Aeschylus is said to +have taken so ill, that he left Athens shortly after, and went in anger +to Sicily, where he died, and was buried near the city of Gela. + +Ion relates that when he was a young man, and had recently come from +Chios to Athens, he chanced to sup with Cimon, at Laomedon's house. +After supper, when they had, according to custom, poured out wine to the +honor of the gods, Cimon was desired by the company to give them a song, +which he did with sufficient success, and received the commendations of +the company, who remarked on his superiority to Themistocles, who, on a +like occasion, had declared he had never learnt to sing, or to play, and +only knew how to make a city rich and powerful. After talking of things +incident to such entertainments, they entered upon the particulars of +the several actions for which Cimon had been famous. And when they were +mentioning the most signal, he told them they had omitted one, upon +which he valued himself most for address and good contrivance. He gave +this account of it. When the allies had taken a great number of +the barbarians prisoners in Sestos and Byzantium, they gave him the +preference to divide the booty; he accordingly put the prisoners in one +lot, and the spoils of their rich attire and jewels in the other. This +the allies complained of as an unequal division; but he gave them their +choice to take which lot they would, saying that the Athenians should be +content with that which they refused. Herophytus of Samos advised them +to take the ornaments for their share, and leave the slaves to the +Athenians; and Cimon went away, and was much laughed at for his +ridiculous division. For the allies carried away the golden bracelets, +and armlets, and collars, and purple robes, and the Athenians had only +the naked bodies of the captives, which they could make no advantage of, +being unused to labor. But a little while after, the friends and kinsmen +of the prisoners coming from Lydia and Phrygia, redeemed every one his +relations at a high ransom; so that by this means Cimon got so much +treasure that he maintained his whole fleet of galleys with the money +for four months; and yet there was some left to lay up in the treasury +at Athens. + +Cimon now grew rich, and what he gained from the barbarians with honor, +he spent yet more honorably upon the citizens. For he pulled down all +the enclosures of his gardens and grounds, that strangers, and the needy +of his fellow-citizens, might gather of its fruits freely. At home, he +kept a table, plain, but sufficient for a considerable number, to which +any poor townsman had free access, and so might support himself without +labor, with his whole time left free for public duties. Aristotle +states, however, that this reception did not extend to all the +Athenians, but only to his own fellow townsmen, the Laciadae.* Besides +this, he always went attended by two or three young companions, very +well clad; and if he met with an elderly citizen in a poor habit, one +of these would change clothes with the decayed citizen, which was +looked upon as very nobly done. He enjoined them, likewise, to carry +a considerable quantity of coin about them, which they were to convey +silently into the hands of the better class of poor men, as they stood +by them in the market-place. This, Cratinus, the poet, speaks of in one +of his comedies, the Archilochi:-- + + For I, Metrobius too, the scrivener poor, + Of ease and comfort in my age secure, + By Greece's noblest son in life's decline, + Cimon, the generous-hearted, the divine, + Well-fed and feasted hoped till death to be, + Death which, alas! has taken him ere me. + +Gorgias the Leontine gives him this character, that he got riches that +he might use them, and used them that he might get honor by them. And +Critias, one of the thirty tyrants, makes it, in his elegies, his wish +to have + + The Scopads' wealth, and Cimon's nobleness, + And king Agesilaus's success. + +Lichas, we know, became famous in Greece, only because on the days of +the sports, when the young boys ran naked, he used to entertain the +strangers that came to see these diversions. But Cimon's generosity +outdid all the old Athenian hospitality and good-nature. For though +it is the city's just boast that their forefathers taught the rest of +Greece to sow corn, and how to use springs of water, and to kindle fire, +yet Cimon, by keeping open house for his fellow-citizens, and giving +travelers liberty to eat the fruits which the several seasons produced +in his land, seemed to restore to the world that community of goods, +which mythology says existed in the reign of Saturn. Those who object to +him that he did this to be popular, and gain the applause of the vulgar, +are confuted by the constant tenor of the rest of his actions, which all +ended to uphold the interests of the nobility and the Spartan policy, +of which he gave instances, when, together with Aristides, he opposed +Themistocles, who was advancing the authority of the people beyond its +just limits, and resisted Ephialtes, who to please the multitude, was +for abolishing the jurisdiction of the court of Areopagus. And when all +the men of his time, except Aristides and Ephialtes, enriched themselves +out of the public money, he still kept his hands clean and untainted, +and to his last day never acted or spoke for his own private gain or +emolument. They tell us that Rhoesaces, a Persian, who had traitorously +revolted from the king his master, fled to Athens, and there, being +harassed by sycophants who were still accusing him to the people, he +applied himself to Cimon for redress, and to gain his favor, laid down +in his doorway two cups, the one full of gold, and the other of silver +Darics. Cimon smiled and asked him whether he wished to have Cimon's +hired service or his friendship. He replied, his friendship. "If so," +said he, "take away these pieces, for being your friend, when I shall +have occasion for them, I will send and ask for them." + +The allies of the Athenians began now to be weary of war and military +service, willing to have repose, and to look after their husbandry and +traffic. For they saw their enemies driven out of the country, and did +not fear any new vexations from them. They still paid the tax they were +assessed at, but did not send men and galleys, as they had done before. +This the other Athenian generals wished to constrain them to, and +by judicial proceedings against defaulters, and penalties which they +inflicted on them, made the government uneasy, and even odious. But +Cimon practiced a contrary method; he forced no man to go that was not +willing, but of those that desired to be excused from service he took +money and vessels unmanned, and let them yield to the temptation of +staying at home, to attend to their private business. Thus they lost +their military habits, and luxury and their own folly quickly changed +them into unwarlike husbandmen and traders; while Cimon, continually +embarking large numbers of Athenians on board his galleys, thoroughly +disciplined them in his expeditions, and ere long made them the lords of +their own paymasters. The allies, whose indolence maintained them, while +they thus went sailing about everywhere, and incessantly bearing +arms and acquiring skill, began to fear and flatter them, and found +themselves after a while allies no longer, but unwittingly become +tributaries and slaves. + +Nor did any man ever do more than Cimon did to humble the pride of +the Persian king. He was not content with ridding Greece of him; but +following close at his heels, before the barbarians could take breath +and recover themselves, what with his devastations, and his forcible +reduction of some places and the revolts and voluntary accession of +others, in the end, from Ionia to Pamphylia, all Asia was clear of +Persian soldiers. Word being brought him that the royal commanders were +lying in wait upon the coast of Pamphylia, with a numerous land army, +and a large fleet, he determined to make the whole sea on this side the +Chelidonian islands so formidable to them that they should never dare +to show themselves in it; and setting off from Cnidos and the Triopian +headland, with two hundred galleys, which had been originally built with +particular care by Themistocles, for speed and rapid evolutions, and +to which he now gave greater width and roomier decks along the sides +to move to and fro upon, so as to allow a great number of full-armed +soldiers to take part in the engagements and fight from them, he shaped +his course first of all against the town of Phaselis, which, though +inhabited by Greeks, yet would not quit the interests of Persia, but +denied his galleys entrance into their port. Upon this he wasted the +country, and drew up his army to their very walls; but the soldiers of +Chios, who were then serving under him, being ancient friends to the +Phaselites, endeavoring to propitiate the general in their behalf, at +the same time shot arrows into the town, to which were fastened letters +conveying intelligence. At length he concluded peace with them, upon the +conditions that they should pay down ten talents, and follow him against +the barbarians. The Persian admiral lay waiting for him with the whole +fleet at the mouth of the river Eurymedon, with no design to fight, but +expecting a reinforcement of eighty Phoenician ships on their way from +Cyprus. Cimon, aware of this, put out to sea, resolved, if they would +not fight a battle willingly, to force them to it. The barbarians, +seeing this, retired within the mouth of the river to avoid +being attacked; but when they saw the Athenians come upon them, +notwithstanding their retreat, they met them with six hundred ships, +as Phanodemus relates, but according to Ephorus, with three hundred +and fifty. However, they did nothing worthy such mighty forces, but +immediately turned the prows of their galleys toward the shore, where +those that came first threw themselves upon the land, and fled to their +army drawn up thereabout, while the rest perished with their vessels, or +were taken. By this, one may guess at their number, for though a great +many escaped out of the fight, and a great many others were sunk, yet +two hundred galleys were taken by the Athenians. + +When their land army drew toward the seaside, Cimon was in suspense +whether he should venture to try and force his way on shore; as he +should thus expose his Greeks, wearied with slaughter in the first +engagement, to the swords of the barbarians, who were all fresh men, and +many times their number. But seeing his men resolute, and flushed with +victory, he bade them land, though they were not yet cool from their +first battle. As soon as they touched ground, they set up a shout and +ran upon the enemy, who stood firm and sustained the first shock +with great courage, so that the fight was a hard one, and some of +the principal men of the Athenians in rank and courage were slain. At +length, though with much ado, they routed the barbarians, and killing +some, took others prisoners, and plundered all their tents and +pavilions, which were full of rich spoil. Cimon, liked a skilled athlete +at the games, having in one day carried off two victories, wherein +he surpassed that of Salamis by sea, and that of Plataea by land, was +encouraged to try for yet another success. News being brought that the +Phoenician succors, in number eighty sail, had come in sight at Hydrum, +he set off with all speed to find them, while they as yet had not +received any certain account of the larger fleet, and were in doubt what +to think; so that thus surprised, they lost all their vessels, and most +of their men with them. This success of Cimon so daunted the king +of Persia, that he presently made that celebrated peace, by which he +engaged that his armies should come no nearer the Grecian sea than the +length of a horse's course; and that none of his galleys or vessels +of war should appear between the Cyanean and Chelidonian isles. In the +collection which Craterus made of the public acts of the people, there +is a draft of this treaty given. + +The people of Athens raised so much money from the spoils of this war, +which were publicly sold, that, besides other expenses, and raising the +south wall of the citadel, they laid the foundation of the long walls, +not, indeed, finished till at a later time, which were called the Legs. +And the place where they built them being soft and marshy ground, they +were forced to sink great weights of stone and rubble to secure the +foundation, and did all this out of the money Cimon supplied them with. + +It was he, likewise, who first embellished the upper city with those +fine and ornamental places of exercise and resort, which they afterward +so much frequented and delighted in. He set the market-place with plane +trees; and the Academy, which was before a bare, dry, and dirty spot, he +converted into a well-watered grove, with shady alleys to walk in, and +open courses for races. + +When the Persians who had made themselves masters of the Chersonese, so +far from quitting it, called in the people of the interior of Thrace +to help them against Cimon, whom they despised for the smallness of his +forces, he set upon them with only four galleys, and took thirteen of +theirs; and having driven out the Persians, and subdued the Thracians, +he made the hole Chersonese the property of Athens. Next, he attacked +the people of Thasos, who had revolted from the Athenians; and, having +defeated them in a fight at sea, where he captured thirty-three of their +vessels, he took their own by siege, and acquired for the Athenians all +the mines of gold on the opposite coast, and the territory dependent on +Thasos. + +This opened him a fair passage into Macedon, so that he might, it was +thought, have acquired a good portion of that country, and because he +neglected the opportunity, he was suspected of corruption, and of +having been bribed off by king Alexander. So, by the combination of +his adversaries, he was accused of being false to his country. In his +defence he told the judges, that he had always shown himself in his +public life the friend, not, like other men, of rich Ionians and +Thessalonians, to be courted, and to receive presents, but of the +Lacedaemonians; for as he admired, so he wished to imitate, the +plainness of their habits, their temperance, and simplicity of living, +which he preferred to any sort of riches; but that he always had +been, and still was proud to enrich his country with the spoils of her +enemies. Pericles proved the mildest of his prosecutors, and rose up but +once all the while, almost as a matter of form, to plead against him. +Cimon was acquitted. + +In his public life after this, he continued, while at home, to control +the common people, who would have trampled upon the nobility, and drawn +all the power and sovereignty to themselves. But when he afterwards was +sent out to war, the multitude broke loose, as it were, and overthrew +all the ancient laws and customs they had hitherto observed, and, +chiefly at the instigation of Ephialtes, withdrew the cognizance of +almost all causes from the Areopagus; so that all jurisdiction now being +transferred to them, the government was reduced to a perfect democracy, +and this by the help of Pericles, who was already powerful, and had +pronounced in favor of the common people. + +He was indeed a favorer of the Lacedaemonians even from his youth, and +gave the names of Lacedaemonius and Eleus to his two sons, twins. + +Cimon was countenanced by the Lacedaemonians in opposition to +Themistocles, whom they disliked; and while he was yet very young, +they endeavored to raise and increase his credit in Athens. This +the Athenians perceived at first with pleasure, and the favor the +Lacedaemonians showed him was in various ways advantageous to them and +their affairs; as at that time they were just rising to power, and were +occupied in winning the allies to their side. So they seemed not at all +offended with the honor and kindness showed to Cimon, who then had the +chief management of all the affairs of Greece, and was acceptable to +the Lacedaemonians, and courteous to the allies. But afterwards the +Athenians, grown more powerful, when they saw Cimon so entirely devoted +to the Lacedaemonians, began to be angry, for he would always in +speeches prefer them to the Athenians, and upon every occasion, when he +would reprimand them for a fault, or incite them to emulation, he +would exclaim, "The Lacedaemonians would not do thus." This raised the +discontent, and got him in some degree the hatred of the citizens; but +that which ministered chiefly to the accusation against him fell out +upon the following occasion. + +In the fourth year of the reign of Archidamus, the son of Zeuxidamus, +king of Sparta, there happened in the country of Lacedaemon, the +greatest earthquake that was known in the memory of ma; the earth opened +into chasms, and the mountain Taygetus was so shaken that some of the +rocky points of it fell down, and except five houses, all the town of +Sparta was shattered to pieces. They say that a little before any +motion was perceived, as the young men and the boys just grown up were +exercising themselves together in the middle of the portico, a hare, +of a sudden, started out just by them, which the young men, though all +naked and daubed with oil, ran after for sport. No sooner were they +gone from the place, than the gymnasium fell down upon the boys who had +stayed behind, and killed them all. Their tomb is to this day called +Sismatias.* Archidamus, by the present danger made apprehensive of what +might follow, and seeing the citizens intent upon removing the most +valuable of their goods out of their houses, commanded an alarm to be +sounded, as if an enemy were coming upon them, in order that they should +collect about him in a body, with arms. It was this alone that saved +Sparta at that time, for the Helots had come together from the country +about, with design of surprising the Spartans, and overpowering +those whom the earthquake had spared. But finding them armed and well +prepared, they retired into the towns and openly made war with them, +gaining over a number of the Laconians of the country districts; while +at the same time the Messenians, also, made an attack upon the Spartans, +who therefore despatched Periclidas to Athens to solicit succor, of whom +Aristophanes says in mockery that he came and + + In a red jacket, at the altars seated, + With a white face, for men and arms entreated. + +This Ephialtes opposed, protesting that they ought not to raise up or +assist a city that was a rival to Athens; but that being down, it +were best to keep her so, and let the pride and arrogance of Sparta +be trodden under. But Cimon, as Critias says, preferring the safety of +Lacedaemon to the aggrandizement of his own country, so persuaded the +people, that he soon marched out with a large army to their relief. Ion +records, also, the most successful expression which he used to move the +Athenians. "They ought not to suffer Greece to be lamed, nor their own +city to be deprived of her yoke fellow." + +In his return from aiding the Lacedaemonians, he passed with his army +through the territory of Corinth; whereupon Lachartus reproached him for +bringing his army into the country, without first asking leave of the +people. For he that knocks at another man's door ought not to enter +the house till the master gives him leave. "But you, Corinthians, O +Lachartus," said Cimon, "did not knock at the gates of the Cleonaeans +and Megarians, but broke them down and entered by force, thinking that +all places should be open to the stronger." And having thus rallied +the Corinthian, he passed on with his army. Some time after this, the +Lacedaemonians sent a second time to desire succor of the Athenians +against the Messenians and Helots, who had seized upon Ithome. But when +they came, fearing their boldness and gallantry, of all that came to +their assistance, they sent them only back, alleging that they were +designing innovations. The Athenians returned home, enraged at this +usage, and vented their anger upon all those who were favorers of the +Lacedaemonians; and seizing some slight occasion, they banished Cimon +for ten years, which is the time prescribed to those that are banished +by the ostracism. In the mean time, the Lacedaemonians, on their return +after freeing Delphi from the Phocians, encamped their army at Tanagra, +whither the Athenians presently marched with design to fight them. + +Cimon also, came thither armed and ranged himself among those of his own +tribe, which was the Oeneis, desirous of fighting with the rest against +the Spartans; but the council of five hundred being informed of this, +and frightened at it, his adversaries crying out that he would disorder +the army, and bring the Lacedaemonians to Athens, commanded the officers +not to receive him. Wherefore Cimon left the army, conjuring Euthippus, +the Anaphylstian, and the rest of his companions, who were most +suspected as favoring the Lacedaemonians, to behave themselves bravely +against their enemies, and by their actions make their innocence evident +to their countrymen. These, being in all a hundred, took the arms of +Cimon, and followed his advice; and making a body by themselves, fought +so desperately with the enemy, that they were all cut off, leaving the +Athenians deep regret for the loss of such brave men, and repentance for +having so unjustly suspected them. Accordingly, they did not long retain +their severity toward Cimon, partly upon remembrance of his former +services, and partly, perhaps, induced by the juncture of the times. +For being defeated at Tanagra in a great battle, and fearing the +Peloponnesians would come upon them at the opening of the spring, they +recalled Cimon by a decree, of which Pericles himself was author. So +reasonable were men's resentments in those times, and so moderate their +anger, that it always gave way to the public good. Even ambition, +the least governable of all human passions, could then yield to the +necessities of the State. + +Cimon, as soon as he returned, put an end to the war, and reconciled the +two cities. Peace thus established, seeing the Athenians impatient of +being idle, and eager for the honor and aggrandizement of war, lest they +should set upon the Greeks themselves, or with so many ships cruising +about the isles and Peloponnesus, they should give occasions for +intestine wars, or complaints of their allies against them, he equipped +two hundred galleys, with design to make an attempt upon Egypt and +Cyprus; purposing, by this means, to accustom the Athenians to fight +against the barbarians, and enrich themselves honestly by despoiling +those who were the natural enemies to Greece. But when all things were +prepared, and the army ready to embark, Cimon had this dream. It seemed +to him that there was a furious female dog barking at him, and, mixed +with the barking, a kind of human voice uttered these words: + + Come on, for thou shalt shortly be + A pleasure to my whelps and me. + +This dream was hard to interpret, yet Astyphilus of Posidonia, a man +skilled in divinations, and intimate with Cimon, told him that his death +was presaged by this vision, which he thus explained. A dog is enemy +to him he barks at; and one is always most a pleasure to one's enemies, +when one is dead; the mixture of human voice with barking signifies the +Medes, for the army of the Medes is mixed up of Greeks and barbarians. +After this dream, as he was sacrificing to Bacchus, and the priest +cutting up the victim, a number of ants, taking up the congealed +particles of the blood, laid them about Cimon's great toes. This was not +observed for a good while, but at the very time when Cimon spied it, the +priest came and showed him the liver of the sacrifice imperfect, wanting +that part of it called the head. But he could not then recede from the +enterprise, so he set sail. Sixty of his ships he sent toward Egypt; +with the rest he went and fought the king of Persia's fleet, composed +of Phoenician and Cilician galleys, recovered all the cities thereabout, +and threatened Egypt; designing no less than the entire ruin of the +Persian empire. And the more because he was informed that Themistocles +was in great repute among the barbarians, having promised the king +to lead his army, whenever he should make war upon Greece. But +Themistocles, it is said, abandoning all hopes of compassing his +designs, very much out of the despair of overcoming the valor and +good-fortune of Cimon, died a voluntary death. Cimon, intent on great +designs, which he was now to enter upon, keeping his navy about the isle +of Cyprus, sent messengers to consult the oracle of Jupiter Ammon upon +some secret matter. For it is not known about what they were sent, and +the god would give them no answer, but commanded them to return again, +for Cimon was already with him. Hearing this, they returned to sea, and +as soon as they came to the Grecian army, which was then about Egypt, +they understood that Cimon was dead; and computing the time of the +oracle, they found that his death had been signified, he being then +already with the gods. + +He died, some say, of sickness, while besieging Citium, in Cyprus; +according to others, of a wound he received in a skirmish with the +barbarians. When he perceived that he was going to die, he commanded +those under his charge to return, and by no means to let the news of his +death be known by the way; this they did with such secrecy that they all +came home safe, and neither their enemies nor the allies knew what had +happened. Thus, as Phanodemus relates, the Grecian army was, as it were, +conducted by Cimon thirty days after he was dead. But after his +death there was not one commander among the Greeks that did any thing +considerable against the barbarians, and instead of uniting against +their common enemies, the popular leaders and partisans of war animated +them against one another to such a degree, that none could interpose +their good offices to reconcile them. And while, by their mutual +discord, they ruined the power of Greece, they gave the Persians time +to recover breath, and repair all their losses. It is true, indeed, +Agesilaus carried the arms of Greece into Asia, but it was a long time +afterwards; there were some brief appearances of a war against the +king's lieutenants in the maritime provinces, but they all quickly +vanished; before he could perform any thing of moment, he was recalled +by fresh civil dissensions and disturbances at home. So that he was +forced to leave the Persian king's officers to impose what tribute they +pleased on the Greek cities in Asia, the confederates and allies of +the Lacedaemonians. Whereas, in the time of Cimon, not so much as a +letter-carrier, or a single horseman, was ever seen to come within four +hundred furlongs of the sea. + +The monuments, called Cimonian to this day, in Athens, show that his +remains were conveyed home, yet the inhabitants of the city Citium pay +particular honor to a certain tomb which they call the tomb of Cimon, +according to Nausicrates the rhetorician, who states that in a time +of famine, when the crops of their land all failed, they sent to the +oracle, which commanded them not to forget Cimon, but give him the +honors of a superior being. + + + + +POMPEY + +The people of Rome appear, from the first, to have been affected towards +Pompey, much in the same manner as Prometheus, in Aeschylus, was towards +Hercules, when after that hero had delivered him from his chains, he +says-- + + The sire I hated, but the son I loved. + +For never did the Romans entertain a stronger and more rancorous hatred +for any general than for Strabo, the father of Pompey. While he lived, +indeed, they were afraid of his abilities as a soldier, for he had +great talents for war; but upon his death, which happened by a stroke +of lightning, they dragged his corpse from the bier, on the way to the +funeral pile, and treated it with the greatest indignity. On the other +hand, no man ever experienced from the same Romans an attachment more +early begun, more disinterested in all the stages of his prosperity, or +more constant and faithful in the decline of his fortune, than Pompey. + +The sole cause of their aversion to the father was his insatiable +avarice; but there were many causes of their affection for the son; +his temperate way of living, his application to martial exercises, his +eloquent and persuasive address, his strict honor and fidelity, and the +easiness of access to him upon all occasions; for no man was ever less +importunate in asking favors, or more gracious in conferring them. When +he gave, it was without arrogance; and when he received, it was with +dignity. + +In his youth he had a very engaging countenance, which spoke for him +before he opened his lips. Yet that grace of aspect was not attended +with dignity, and amidst his youthful bloom there was a venerable and +princely air. His hair naturally curled a little before; which, together +with the shining moisture and quick turn of his eye, produced a stronger +likeness to Alexander the Great than that which appeared in the statues +of that prince. + +As to the simplicity of his diet, there is a remarkable saying of his +upon record. In a great illness, when his appetite was almost gone, the +physician ordered him a thrush. His servants, upon inquiry, found there +was not one to be had for money, for the season was passed. They +were informed, however, that Lucullus had them all the year in his +menageries. This being reported to Pompey, he said, "Does Pompey's life +depend upon the luxury of Lucullus?" Then, without any regard to the +physician, he ate something that was easy to be had. + +After the death of Cinna, Carbo, a tyrant still more savage, took the +reins of government. It was not long, however, before Sylla returned to +Italy, to the great satisfaction of most of the Romans, who, in their +present unhappy circumstances, thought the change of their master no +small advantage. + +Pompey, at the age of twenty-three, without a commission from any +superior authority, erected himself into a general; and having placed +his tribunal in the most public part of the great city of Auximum, +enlisted soldiers and appointed tribunes, centurions, and other +officers, according to the established custom. He did the same in all +the neighboring cities; for the partisans of Carbo retired and gave +place to him; and the rest were glad to range themselves under his +banners. So that in a little time he raised three complete legions, +and furnished himself with provisions, beasts of burden, carriages; in +short, with the whole apparatus of war. + +In this form he moved towards Sylla, not by hasty marches, nor as if +he wanted to conceal himself; for he stopped by the way to harass the +enemy; and attempted to draw off from Carbo all the parts of Italy +through which he passed. At last, three generals of the opposite party, +Carinna, Caelius, and Brutus, came against him all at once, not in +front, or in one body, but they hemmed him in with their three armies, +in hopes to demolish him entirely. + +Pompey, far from being terrified, assembled all his forces, and charged +the army of Brutus at the head of his cavalry. The Gaulish horse on the +enemy's side sustained the first shock; but Pompey attacked the foremost +of them, who was a man of prodigious strength, and brought him down with +a push of his spear. The rest immediately fled and threw the infantry +into such disorder that the whole was soon put to flight. This produced +so great a quarrel among the three generals, that they parted and took +separate routes. In consequence of which, the cities, concluding that +the fears of the enemy had made them part, adopted the interest of +Pompey. + +Not long after, Scipio the consul advanced to engage him. But before the +infantry were near enough to discharge their lances, Scipio's soldiers +saluted those of Pompey, and came over to them. Scipio, therefore, +was forced to fly. At last, Carbo sent a large body of cavalry against +Pompey, near the river Arsis. He gave them so warm a reception, that +they were soon broken, and in the pursuit drove them upon impracticable +ground; so that finding it impossible to escape, they surrendered +themselves with their arms and horses. + +Sylla had not yet been informed of these transactions; but upon the +first news of Pompey's being engaged with so many adversaries, and such +respectable generals, he dreaded the consequence, and marched with +all expedition to his assistance. Pompey, having intelligence of his +approach, ordered his officers to see that the troops were armed and +drawn up in such a manner as to make the handsomest and most gallant +appearance before the commander-in-chief. For he expected great honours +from him, and he obtained greater. Sylla no sooner saw Pompey advancing +to meet him, with an army in excellent condition, both as to age and +size of the men, and the spirits which success had given them, than he +alighted; and upon being saluted of course by Pompey as Imperator, he +returned his salutation with the same title: though no one imagined that +he would have honoured a young man not yet admitted into the senate with +a title for which he was contending with the Scipios and the Marii. The +rest of his behavior was as respectable as that in the first interview. +He used to rise up and uncover his head, whenever Pompey came to him; +which he was rarely observed to do for any other, though he had a number +of persons of distinction about him. + +While Pompey was in Sicily, he received a decree of the senate, and +letters from Sylla, in which he was commanded to cross over to Africa +and to carry on the war with the utmost vigor against Domitius, who had +assembled a much more powerful army than that which Marius carried not +long before from Africa to Italy, when he made himself master of +Rome, and from a fugitive became a tyrant. Pompey soon finished his +preparation for this expedition; and leaving the command in Sicily to +Memmius, his sister's husband, he set sail with one hundred and twenty +armed vessels, and eight hundred store-ships, laden with provisions, +arms, money, and machines of war. Part of his fleet landed at Utica, and +part at Carthage: immediately after which seven thousand of the enemy +came over to him; and he had brought with him six legions complete. + +On his arrival he met with a whimsical adventure. Some of his soldiers, +it seems, found a treasure, and rest of the troops concluded that the +place was full of money, which the Carthaginians had hid there in some +time of public distress. Pompey, therefore could make no use of them for +several days, as they were searching for treasures; and he had nothing +to do but walk about and amuse himself with the sight of so many +thousands digging and turning up the ground. At last, they gave up +the point, and bade him lead them wherever be pleased, for they were +sufficiently punished for their folly. + +Domitius advanced to meet him, and put his troops in order of battle. +There happened to be a channel between them, craggy and difficult to +pass. Moreover, in the morning it began to rain, and the wind blew +violently; insomuch that Domitius, not imagining there would be any +action that day, ordered his army to retire. But Pompey looked upon this +as his opportunity, and he passed the defile with the utmost expedition. +The enemy stood upon their defence, but it was in a disorderly and +tumultuous manner, and the resistance they made was neither general +nor uniform. Besides the wind and rain beat in their faces. The storm +incommoded the Romans, too, for they could not well distinguish each +other. Nay, Pompey himself was in danger of being killed by a soldier, +who asked him the pass-word, and did not receive a speedy answer. At +length, however, he routed the enemy with great slaughter; not above +three thousand of them escaping out of twenty thousand. The soldiers +then saluted Pompey, Imperator, but he said he would not accept that +title while the enemy's camp stood untouched; therefore, if they chose +to confer such an honor upon him, they must first make themselves +masters of the intrenchments. + +At that instant they advanced with great fury against them. Pompey +fought without his helmet, for fear of such an accident as he had just +escaped. The camp was taken, and Domitius slain; in consequence of +which most of the cities immediately submitted, and rest were taken by +assault. He took Iarbas, one of the confederates of Domitius, prisoner, +and bestowed his crown on Hiempsal. Advancing with the same tide of +fortune, and while his army had all the spirits inspired by success, he +entered Numidia, in which he continued his march for several days, and +subdued all that came in his way. Thus he revived the terror of the +Roman name, which the barbarians had begun to disregard. Nay, he chose +not to leave the savage beasts in the deserts without giving them a +specimen of the Roman valor and success. Accordingly he spent a few days +in hunting lions and elephants. The whole time he passed in Africa, +they tell us, was not above forty days; in which he defeated the enemy, +reduced the whole country, and brought the affairs of its kings under +proper regulations, though he was only in his twenty-fourth year. + +Upon his return to Utica, he received letters from Sylla, in which he +was ordered to send home the rest of his army, and to wait there +with one legion only for a successor. This gave him a great deal of +uneasiness, which he kept to himself, but the army expressed their +indignation aloud; insomuch that when he entreated them to return to +Italy, they launched out into abusive terms against Sylla, and declared +they would never abandon Pompey, or suffer him to trust a tyrant. At +first, he endeavored to pacify them with mild representations; and +when he found those had no effect, he descended from the tribunal, and +retired to his tent in tears. However, they went and took him thence, +and paced him again upon the tribunal, where they spent a great part of +the day; they insisting that he should stay and keep the command, and he +in persuading them to obey Sylla's orders, and to form no new faction. +At last, seeing no end of their clamors and importunity, he assured +them, with an oath, that he would kill himself, if they attempted to +force him. And even this hardly brought them to desist. + +The first news that Sylla heard was, that Pompey had revolted; upon +which he said to his friends, "Then it is my fate to have to contend +with boys in my old age." This he said, because Marius, who was very +young, had brought him into so much trouble and danger. But when he +received true information of the affair, and observed that all the +people flocked out to receive Pompey to conduct him home with marks of +great regard, he resolved to exceed them in his regards, if possible. +He, therefore, hastened to meet him, and embracing him in the most +affectionate manner, saluted him aloud by the surname of Magnus, or The +Great; at the same time he ordered all about him to give him the same +appellation. Others say, it was given him by the whole army in Africa, +but did not generally obtain till it was authorized by Sylla. It is +certain, he was the last to take it himself, and he did not make use of +it till a long time after, when he was sent into Spain with the dignity +of pro-consul against Sertorius. Then he began to write himself in +his letters in all his edicts, Pompey the Great; for the world was +accustomed to the name, and it was no longer invidious. In this respect +we may justly admire the wisdom of the ancient Romans, who bestowed on +their great men such honorable names and titles, not only for military +achievements, but for the great qualities and arts which adorn civil +life. + +When Pompey arrived at Rome, he demanded a triumph, in which he was +opposed by Sylla. The latter alleged that the laws did not allow that +honor to any person who was not either consul or praetor. Hence it was +that the first Scipio, when he returned victorious from greater wars and +conflicts with the Carthaginians in Spain, did not demand a triumph; for +he was neither consul nor praetor. He added, that if Pompey, who was +yet little better than a beardless youth, and who was not of age to be +admitted into the senate, should enter the city in triumph, it would +bring an odium both upon the dictator's power, and those honors of his +friend. These arguments Sylla insisted on, to show him that he would not +allow of his triumph, and that, in case he persisted, he would chastise +his obstinacy. + +Pompey, not in the least intimidated, bade him consider, that more +worshiped the rising than the setting sun; intimating that his power was +increasing, and Sylla's upon the decline. Sylla did not hear well what +he said, but perceiving by the looks and gestures of the company that +they were struck with the expression, he asked what it was. When he was +told it, he admired the spirit of Pompey and cried, "Let him triumph! +Let him triumph!" + +There is no doubt that he might then have been easily admitted a +senator, if he had desired it; but his ambition was to pursue honor in +a more uncommon track. It would have been nothing strange, if Pompey +had been a senator before the age fixed for it; but it was a very +extraordinary instance of honor to lead up a triumph before he was a +senator. And it contributed not a little to gain him the affections of +the multitude; the people were delighted to see him, after his triumph, +class with the equestrian order. + +The power of the pirates had its foundation in Cilicia. Their progress +was the more dangerous, because at first it was little taken notice +of. In the Mithridatic war they assumed new confidence and courage, on +account of some services they had rendered the king. After this, the +Romans being engaged in civil wars at the very gates of their capital, +the sea was left unguarded, and the pirates by degrees attempted higher +things; they not only attacked ships, but islands, and maritime towns. +Many persons, distinguished for their wealth, their birth, and their +capacity, embarked with them, and assisted in the depredations, as if +their employment had been worthy the ambition of men of honor. They +had in various places arsenals, ports, and watch-towers, all strongly +fortified. Their fleets were not only extremely well manned, supplied +with skillful pilots, and fitted for their business by their lightness +and celerity; but there was a parade of vanity about them more +mortifying than their strength, in gilded sterns, purpose canopies, and +plated oars; as if they took a pride and triumphed in their villainy. +Music resounded, and drunken revels were exhibited on every coast. Here +generals were made prisoners; there the cities the pirates had taken +were paying their ransom; all to the great disgrace of the Roman power. +The number of their galleys amounted to one thousand, and the cities +they were masters of to four hundred. + +Temples which had stood inviolably sacred till that time, they +plundered. They ruined the temple of Apollo at Claros, that of the +Cabiri in Samothrace, of Ceres at Hermione, of Aesculapius at Epidaurus, +those of Neptune in the Isthmus, at Taenarus and in Calauria, those +of Apollo at Actium and in the isle of Leucas, those of Juno at Samos, +Argos, and the promontory of Lacinium. + +They likewise offered strange sacrifices; those of Olympus I mean; and +they celebrated certain secret mysteries, among which those of Mithra +continue to this day, being originally instituted by them. They not only +insulted the Romans at sea but infested the great roads, and plundered +the villas near the coast; they carried off Sextilius and Bellinus, two +praetors, in their purple robes, which all their servants and lictors. +They seized the daughter of Antony, a man who had been honored with a +triumph, as she was going to her country house, and he was forced to pay +a large ransom for her. + +But the most contemptible circumstance of all was, that when they had +taken a prisoner, and he cried out that he was a Roman, and told them +his name, they pretended to be struck with terror, smote their thighs, +and fell upon their knees to ask him pardon. The poor man, seeing them +thus humble themselves before him, thought them in earnest, and said he +would forgive them; for some were so officious as to put on his shoes, +and others to help him on with his gown, that his quality might no more +be mistaken. When they had carried on this farce, and enjoyed it for +some time, they let a ladder down into the sea, and bade him go in +peace; and if he refused to do it, they pushed him off the deck, and +drowned him. + +Their power extended over the whole Tuscan sea, so that the Romans found +their trade and navigation entirely cut off. The consequence of which +was, that their markets were not supplied, and they had reason to +apprehend a famine. This at last led them to send Pompey to clear the +sea of pirates. Gabinius, one of Pompey's intimate friends, proposed +the decree, which created him not admiral, but monarch, and invested him +with absolute power. The decree gave him the empire of the sea as far +as the Pillars of Hercules, and of the land for 400 furlongs from the +coasts. There were few parts of the Roman empire which this commission +did not take in; and the most considerable of the barbarous nations, and +most powerful kings, were moreover comprehended in it. Besides this he +was empowered to choose out of the senators fifteen lieutenants, to +act under him in such districts, and with such authority as he should +appoint. He was to take from the quaestors, and other public receivers, +what money he pleased, and equip a fleet of two hundred sail. The number +of marine forces, of mariners and rowers, was left entirely to his +discretion. + +When this decree was read in the assembly, the people received it with +inconceivable pleasure. The most respectable part of the senate saw, +indeed, that such an absolute and unlimited power was above envy, but +they considered it as a real object of fear. They therefore all, except +Caesar, opposed its passing into a law. He was for it, not out of regard +for Pompey, but to insinuate himself into the good graces of the people, +which he had long been courting. The rest were very severe in the +expressions against Pompey; and one of the consuls venturing to say, +"If he imitates Romulus, he will not escape his fate," was in danger of +being pulled in pieces by the populace. + +It is true, when Catulus rose up to speak against the law, out of +reverence for his person they listened to him with great attention. +After he had freely given Pompey the honor that was his due, and said +much in his praise, he advised them to spare him, and not to expose such +a man to so many dangers; "for where will you find another," said he, +"if you lose him?" They answered with one voice, "Yourself." Finding his +arguments had no effect, he retired. Then Roscius mounted the rostrum, +but not a man would give ear to him. However he made signs to them with +his fingers, that they should not appoint Pompey alone, but give him a +colleague. Incensed at the proposal, they set up such a shout, that a +crow, which was flying over the forum, was stunned with the force of it, +and fell down among the crowd. Hence we may conclude, that when birds +fall on such occasions, it is not because the air is so divided with the +shock as to leave a vacuum, but rather because the sound strikes them +like a blow, when it ascends with force, and produces so violent an +agitation. + +The assembly broke up that day without coming to any resolution. When +the day came that they were to give their suffrages, Pompey retired into +the country; and, on receiving information that the decree was passed, +he returned to the city by night, to prevent the envy which the +multitudes of people coming to meet him would have excited. Next morning +at break of day he made his appearance, and attended the sacrifice. +After which, he summoned an assembly, and obtained a grant of almost as +much more as the first decree had given him. He was empowered to fit +out 500 galleys, and to raise an army of 120,000 foot, and 5,000 +horse. Twenty-four senators were selected, who had all been generals or +praetors, and were appointed his lieutenants; and he had two quaestors +given him. As the price of provisions fell immediately, the people were +greatly pleased, and it gave them occasion to say that the very name of +Pompey had terminated the war. + +However, in pursuance of his charge, he divided the whole Mediterranean +into thirteen parts, appointing a lieutenant for each, and assigning him +a squadron. By thus stationing his fleet in all quarters, he enclosed +the pirates as it were in a net, took great numbers of them, and brought +them into harbor. Such of their vessels as had dispersed and made off +in time, or could escape the general chase, retired to Cilicia, like +so many bees into a hive. Against these he proposed to go himself, with +sixty of his best galleys; but first he resolved to clear the Tuscan +sea, and the coasts of Africa, Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily, of all +piratical adventurers; which he effected in forty days, by his own +indefatigable endeavors and those of his lieutenants. But, as the consul +Piso was indulging his malignity at home, in wasting his stores and +discharging his seamen, he sent his fleet round to Brundusium, and went +himself by land through Tuscany to Rome. + +As soon as the people were informed of his approach, they went in crowds +to receive him, in the same manner as they had done a few days before, +to conduct him on his way. Their extraordinary joy was owing to the +speed with which he had executed his commission, so far beyond all +expectation, and to the superabundant plenty which reigned in the +markets. For this reason Piso was in danger of being deposed from the +consulship, and Gabinius had a decree ready drawn up for that purpose; +but Pompey would not suffer him to propose it. On the contrary, his +speech to the people was full of candor and moderation; and when he had +provided such things as he wanted, he went to Brundusium, and put to sea +again. Though he was straightened for time, and in his haste sailed by +many cities without calling, yet he stopped at Athens. He entered the +town and sacrificed to the gods; after which he addressed the people, +and then prepared to reembark immediately. As he went out of the gate he +observed two inscriptions, each comprised in one line. + +That within the gate was: + + But know thyself a man, and be a god. + +That without: + + We wish'd, we saw; we loved, and we adored. + +Some of the pirates, who yet traversed the seas, made their submission; +and as he treated them in a humane manner, when he had them and their +ships in his power, others entertained hope of mercy, and avoiding the +other officers, surrendered themselves to Pompey, together with their +wives and children. He spared them all; and it was principally by +their means that he found out and took a number who were guilty of +unpardonable crimes, and therefore had concealed themselves. + +Still, however, there remained a great number, and indeed the most +powerful part of these corsairs, who sent their families, treasures, and +all useless hands, into castles and fortified towns upon Mount Taurus. +Then they manned their ships, and waited for Pompey at Coracesium, in +Cilicia. A battle ensued, and the pirates were defeated; after which +they retired into the fort. But they had not been long besieged before +they capitulated, and surrendered themselves, together with the cities +and islands which they had conquered and fortified, and which by their +works as well as situation were almost impregnable. Thus the war was +finished, and whole force of the pirates destroyed, within three months +at the farthest. + +Besides the other vessels, Pompey took ninety ships with beaks of brass; +and the prisoners amounted to 20,000. He did not choose to put them +to death, and at the same time he thought it wrong to suffer them +to disperse, because they were not only numerous, but warlike and +necessitous, and therefore would probably knit again and give future +trouble. He reflected, that man by nature is neither a savage nor an +unsocial creature; and when he becomes so, it is by vices contrary +to nature; yet even then he may be humanized by changing his place of +abode, and accustoming him to a new manner of life; as beasts that are +naturally wild put off their fierceness when they are kept in a domestic +way. For this reason he determined to remove the pirates to a great +distance from the sea, and bring them to taste the sweets of civil life, +by living in cities, and by the culture of the ground. He placed some +of them in the little towns of Cilicia, which were almost desolate, and +which received them with pleasure, because at the same time he gave them +an additional proportion of lands. He repaired the city of Soli, which +had lately been dismantled and deprived of its inhabitants by Tigranes, +king of Armenia, and peopled it with a number of these corsairs. The +remainder, which was a considerable body, he planted in Dyma, a city of +Achaia, which, though it had a large and fruitful territory, was in want +of inhabitants. + +Pompey, having secured the sea from Phoenicia to the Bosphorus, marched +in quest of Mithridates, who had an army of 30,000 foot and 2,000 horse, +but durst not stand an engagement. That prince was in possession of a +strong and secure post upon a mountain, which he quitted upon Pompey's +approach, because it was destitute of water. Pompey encamped in the same +place; and conjecturing, from the nature of the plants and the crevices +in the mountain, that springs might be found, he ordered a number of +wells to be dug, and the camp was in a short time plentifully supplied +with water. He was not a little surprised that this did not occur to +Mithridates during the whole time of his encampment there. + +After this, Pompey followed him to his new camp, and drew a line of +circumvallation round him. Mithridates stood a siege of forty-five days, +after which he found means to steal off with his best troops, having +first killed all the sick, and such as could be of no service. Pompey +overtook him near the Euphrates, and encamped over against him; but +fearing he might pass the river unperceived, he drew out his troops +at midnight. At that time Mithridates is said to have had a dream +prefigurative of what was to befall him. He thought he was upon +the Pontic Sea, sailing with a favorable wind, and in sight of the +Bosphorus; so that he felicitated his friends in the ship, like a man +perfectly safe, and already in harbor. But suddenly he beheld himself in +the most destitute condition, swimming upon a piece of wreck. While he +was in all the agitation which this dream produced, his friends awaked +him, and told him that Pompey was at hand. He was now under a necessity +of fighting for his camp, and his generals drew up the forces with all +possible expedition. + +Pompey, seeing them prepared, was loth to risk a battle in the dark. He +thought it sufficient to surround them, so as to prevent their +flight; and what inclined him still more to wait for daylight, was +the consideration that his troops were much better than the enemy's. +However, the oldest of his officers entreated him to proceed immediately +to the attack, and at last prevailed. It was not indeed very dark; for +the moon, though near her setting, gave light enough to distinguish +objects. But it was a great disadvantage to the king's troops, that the +moon was so low, and on the backs of the Romans; because she projected +their shadows so far before them, that the enemy could form no just +estimate of the distances, but thinking them at hand, threw their +javelins before they could do the least execution. + +The Romans, perceiving their mistake, advanced to the charge with all +the alarm of voices. The enemy were in such a consternation, that they +made not the least stand, and, in their flight, vast numbers were +slain. They lost above 10,000 men, and their camp was taken. As for +Mithridates, he broke through the Romans with 800 horses, in the +beginning of the engagement. That corps, however, did not follow him far +before they dispersed, and left him with only three of his people. + +The pursuit of Mithridates was attended with great difficulties; for he +concealed himself among the nations settled about the Bosphorus and the +Palus Maeotis. Besides, news was brought to Pompey that the Albanians +had revolted, and taken up arms again. The desire of revenge determined +him to march back, and chastise them. But it was with infinite trouble +and danger that he passed the Cyrnus again, the barbarians having fenced +it on their side with palisades all along the banks. And when he was +over, he had a large country to traverse, which afforded no water. +This last difficulty he provided against by filling 10,000 bottles; +and pursuing his march, he found the enemy drawn up on the banks of the +river Abas, to the number of 60,000 foot and 12,000 horse, but many +of them ill-armed, and provided with nothing of the defensive kind but +skins of beasts. + +They were commanded by the king's brother, named Cosis; who, at the +beginning of the battle, singled out Pompey, and rushing in upon him, +struck his javelin into the joints of his breastplate. Pompey in return +run him through with his spear, and laid him dead on the spot. It is +said that the Amazons came to the assistance of the barbarians from +the mountains near the river Thermodon, and fought in this battle. The +Romans, among the plunder of the field, did, indeed, meet with bucklers +in the form of a half-moon, and such buskins as the Amazons wore; but +there was not the body of a woman found among the dead. They inhabit +that part of Mount Caucasus which stretches toward the Hyrcanian Sea, +and are not next neighbors to the Albanians; for Gelae and Leges lie +between; but they meet that people, and spend two months with them every +year on the banks of the Thermodon; after which they retire to their own +country. + +Pompey had advanced near to Petra, and encamped, and was taking some +exercise on horseback without the trenches, when messengers arrived from +Pontus; and it was plain they brought good news, because the points +of their spears were crowned with laurel. The soldiers seeing this, +gathered about Pompey, who was inclined to finish his exercise before +he opened the packet; but they were so earnest in their entreaties, that +they prevailed upon him to alight and take it. He entered the camp with +it in his hand; and as there was no tribunal ready, and the soldiers +were too impatient to raise one of turf, which the common method, they +piled a number of pack-saddles one upon the other, upon which Pompey +mounted, and gave them this information: "Mithridates is dead. He killed +himself upon the revolt of his son Pharnaces. And Pharnaces has seized +all that belonged to his father; which he declares he has done for +himself and Romans." + +At this news the army, as might be expected, gave a loose rein to their +joy, which they expressed in sacrifices to the gods, and in reciprocal +entertainments, as if 10,000 of their enemies had been slain in +Mithridates. Pompey having thus brought the campaign and the whole +war to a conclusion so happy, and so far beyond his hopes, immediately +quitted Arabia, traverses the provinces between that and Galatia with +great rapidity, and soon arrived at Amisus. There he found many presents +from Pharnaces, and several corpses of the royal family, among which was +that of Mithridates. As for Pompey, he would not see the body, but to +propitiate the avenging Nemesis, sent it to Sinope. However, he looked +upon and admired the magnificence of his habit, and the size and beauty +of his arms. The scabbard of his sword cost four hundred talents, and +the diadem was of most exquisite workmanship. + +Pompey having thoroughly settled the affairs of Asia, hoped to return to +Italy the greatest and happiest of men. + +People talked variously at Rome concerning his intentions. Many +disturbed themselves at the thought that he would march with his army +immediately to Rome and make himself sole and absolute master there. +Crassus took his children and money, and withdrew; whether it was that +he had some real apprehensions, or rather that he chose to countenance +the calumny, and add force to the sting of envy; the latter seems the +more probable. But Pompey had no sooner set foot in Italy, than he +called an assembly of his soldiers, and, after a kind and suitable +address, ordered them to disperse in their respective cities, and attend +to their own affairs till his triumph, on which occasion they were to +repair to him again. + +Pompey's triumph was so great, that though it was divided into two days, +the time was far from being sufficient for displaying what was prepared +to be carried in procession; there remained still enough to adorn +another triumph. At the head of the show appeared the titles of the +conquered nations: Pontus, Armenia, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, Media, +Colchis, the Iberians, the Albanians, Syria, Cilicia, Mesopotamia, +Phoenicia, Palestine, Judaea, Arabia, the pirates subdued both by sea +and land. In these countries, it was mentioned that there were not less +than 1,000 castles and 900 cities captured, 800 galleys taken from the +pirates, and 39 desolate cities repeopled. On the face of the tablets it +appeared besides, that whereas the revenues of the Roman empire +before these conquests amounted but to 50,000,000 drachmas, by the +new acquisitions they were advanced to 85,000,000; and that Pompey +had brought into the public treasury in money, and in gold and silver +vessels, the value of 20,000 talents; besides what he had distributed +among the soldiers, of whom he that received least had 1,500 drachmas +to his share. The captives who walked in the procession (not the mention +the chiefs of the pirates) were the son of Tigranes, king of Armenia, +together with his wife and daughter; Zosima, the wife of Tigranes +himself; Aristobulus, king of Judaea; the sister of Mithridates, with +her five sons, and some Scythian women. The hostages of the Albanians +and Iberians, and of the king of Commagene also appeared in the train; +and as many trophies were exhibited as Pompey had gained victories, +either in person or by his lieutenants, the number of which was not +small. + +But the most honorable circumstance, and what no other Roman could +boast, was that his third triumph was over the third quarter of the +world, after his former triumphs had been over the other two. Others +before him had been honored with three triumphs; but his first triumph +was over Africa, his second over Europe, and his third over Asia; so +that the three seemed to declare him conqueror of the world. + +Those who desire to make the parallel between him and Alexander agree +in all respects, tell us he was at this time not quite thirty-four, +whereas, in fact, he was entering upon his fortieth year. (It should be +the forty-sixth year. Pompey was born in the beginning of the month of +August, in the year of Rome 647, and his triumph was in the same month +in the year of Rome 692.) Happy it had been for him, if he had ended his +days while he was blessed with Alexander's good fortune! The rest of +his life, every instance of success brought its proportion of envy, and +every misfortune was irretrievable. + +In the meantime the wars in Gaul lifted Caesar to the first sphere of +greatness. The scene of action was at a great distance from Rome, and he +seemed to be wholly engaged with the Belgae, the Suevi, and the Britons; +but his genius all the while was privately at work among the people of +Rome, and he was undermining Pompey in his most essential interests. His +war with the barbarians was not his principal object. He exercised his +army, indeed, in those expeditions, as he would have done his own body, +in hunting and other diversions of the field, by which he prepared +them for higher conflicts, and rendered them not only formidable but +invincible. + +The gold and silver, and other rich spoils which he took from the enemy +in great abundance, he sent to Rome; and by distributing them freely +among the aediles, praetors, consuls, and their wives, he gained a great +party. Consequently when he passed the Alps and wintered at Lucca, among +the crowd of men and women, who hastened to pay their respects to him, +there were two hundred senators, Pompey and Crassus of the number; and +there were no fewer than one hundred and twenty proconsuls and praetors, +whose faces were to be seen at the gates of Caesar. He made it his +business in general to give them hopes of great things, and his money +was at their devotion; but he entered into a treaty with Crassus +and Pompey, by which it was agreed that they should apply for the +consulship, and that Caesar should assist them, by sending a great +number of his soldiers to vote at the election. As soon as they were +chosen, they were to share the provinces, and take the command of +armies, according to their pleasure, only confirming Caesar in the +possession of what he had for five years more. + +Crassus, upon the expiration of his consulship, repaired to his +province. Pompey remaining at Rome, opened his theatre; and to make the +dedication more magnificent, exhibited a variety of gymnastic games, +entertainments of music, and battles with wild beasts, in which +were killed 500 lions; but the battle of elephants afforded the most +astonishing spectacle. (Dio says the elephants fought with armed men. +There were no less than eighteen of them; and he adds, that some of them +seemed to appeal, with piteous cries to the people; who, in compassion, +saved their lives. If we may believe him, an oath had been taken before +they left Africa, that no injury should be done them.) These things +gained him the love and admiration of the public; but he incurred their +displeasure again, by leaving his provinces and armies entirely to his +friends and lieutenants, and roving about Italy with his wife from +one villa to another. The strong attachment of Julia appeared on the +occasion of an election of aediles. The people came to blows, and some +were killed so near Pompey that he was covered with blood, and forced to +change his clothes. There was a great crowd and tumult about his door, +when his servants went home with a bloody robe; and Julia, happening +to see it, fainted away and was with difficulty restored. Shortly after +Julia died, and the alliance which had rather covered than restrained +the ambition of the two great competitors for power was now no more. +To add to the misfortune, news was brought soon after that Crassus was +slain by the Parthians; and in him another great obstacle to a civil war +was removed. Out of fear of him, they had both kept some measures with +each other. But when fortune had carried off the champion who could take +up the conqueror, we may say with the comic poet-- + + High spirits of emprise + Elates each chief; they oil their brawny limbs, + and dip their hands in dust. + +So little able is fortune to fill the capacities of the human mind; when +such a weight of power, and extent of command, could not satisfy the +ambition of two men. They had heard and read that the gods had divided +the universe into three shares, + +(Plutarch alludes here to a passage in the fifteenth book of the Iliad, +where Neptune says to Iris-- + + Assign'd by lot our triple rule we know; + Infernal Pluto sways the shades below; + O'er the wide clouds, and o'er the starry plain, + Ethereal Jove extends his high domain; + My court beneath the hoary waves I keep, + And hush the roarings of the sacred deep.) + +and each was content with that which fell to his lot, and yet these +men could not think the Roman empire sufficient for two of them. Such +anarchy and confusion took place that numbers began to talk boldly of +setting up a dictator. Cato, now fearing he should be overborne, was of +opinion that it were better to give Pompey some office whose authority +was limited by law, than to intrust him with absolute power. Bibulus, +though Pompey's declared enemy, moved in full senate, that he should be +appointed sole consul. "For by that means," said he, "the commonwealth +will either recover from her disorder, or, if she must serve, will +serve a man of the greatest merit." The whole house was surprised at +the motion; and when Cato rose up, it was expected he would oppose it. +A profound silence ensued, and he said, he should never have been the +first to propose such an expedient, but as it was proposed by another, +he thought it advisable to embrace it; for he thought any kind of +government better than anarchy, and knew no man fitter to rule than +Pompey, in a time of so much trouble. The senate came into his opinion, +and a decree was issued, that Pompey should be appointed sole consul, +and that if he should have need of a colleague, he might choose one +himself, provided it were not before the expiration of two months. + +Pompey being declared sole consul by the Interrex Sulpitius, made his +compliments to Cato, acknowledged himself much indebted to his support, +and desired his advice and assistance in the cabinet, as to the measures +to be pursued in his administration. Cato made answer, that Pompey was +not under the least obligation to him; for what he had said was not out +of regard to him, but to his country. "If you apply to me," continued +he, "I shall give you my advice in private; if not, I shall inform +you of my sentiments in public." Such was Cato, and the same on all +occasions. + +Pompey then went into the city, and married Cornelia, the daughter of +Metellus Scipio. She was a widow, having been married, when very young, +to Publius the son of Crassus, who was lately killed in the Parthian +expedition. This woman had many charms beside her beauty. She was well +versed in polite literature; she played upon the lyre, and understood +geometry; and she had made considerable improvements by the precepts +of philosophy. What is more, she had nothing of that petulance and +affectation which such studies are apt to produce in women of her age. +And her father's family and reputation were unexceptionable. + +Pompey's confidence made him so extremely negligent, that he laughed at +those who seemed to fear the war. And when they said if Caesar should +advance in a hostile manner to Rome, they did not see what forces they +had to oppose him, he bade them, with an open and smiling countenance, +give themselves no pain: "For, if in Italy," said he, "I do but stamp +upon the ground, an army will appear." + +Meantime Caesar was exerting himself greatly. He was now at no great +distance from Italy, and not only sent his soldiers to vote in the +elections, but by private pecuniary applications, corrupted many of +the magistrates. Paulus the consul was of the number, and he had one +thousand five hundred talents for changing sides. So also was Curio, one +of the tribunes of the people, for whom he paid off an immense debt, and +Mark Antony, who, out of friendship for Curio, had stood engaged with +him for the debt. + +It is said, that when one of Caesar's officers, who stood before the +senate-house, waiting the issue of the debates, was informed that they +would not give Caesar a longer term in his command, he laid his hand +on his sword, and said, "But this shall give it." Indeed, all the +preparations of his general tended that way; though Curio's demands in +behalf of Caesar seemed more plausible. He proposed, that either Pompey +should likewise be obliged to dismiss his forces, or Caesar suffered +to keep his. "If they are both reduced to a private station," said +he, "they will agree upon reasonable terms; or, if each retains his +respective power, they will be satisfied. But he who weakens the one, +without doing the same by the other, must double that force which he +fears will subvert the government." + +But now news was brought that Caesar was marching directly towards Rome +with all his forces. The last circumstance, indeed, was not true. He +advanced with only three hundred horse and five thousand foot; the rest +of his forces were on the other side of the Alps, and he would not +wait for them, choosing rather to put his adversaries in confusion by a +sudden and unexpected attack, than to fight them when better prepared. +When he came to the river Rubicon, which was the boundary of his +province, he stood silent a long time, weighing with himself the +greatness of his enterprise. At last, like one who plunges down from the +top of a precipice into a gulf of immense depth, he silenced his reason, +and shut his eyes against the danger; and crying out in the Greek +language, "The die is cast," he marched over with his army. + +Upon the first report of this at Rome, the city was in greater disorder +and astonishment than had ever been known. + +All Italy was in motion, with the stir of the coming storm. Those who +lived out of Rome fled to it from all quarters, and those who lived +in it abandoned it as fast. These saw, that in such a tempestuous and +disorderly state of affairs, the well disposed part of the city wanted +strength, and that the ill disposed were so refractory that they could +not be managed by the magistrates. The terrors of the people could not +be removed, and no one would suffer Pompey to lay a plan of action for +himself. According to the passion wherewith each was actuated, whether +fear, sorrow, or doubt, they endeavored to inspire him with the same; +insomuch that he adopted different measures the same day. He could +gain no certain intelligence of the enemy's motions, because every man +brought him the report he happened to take up, and was angry if it did +not meet with credit. + +Pompey at last caused it to be declared by a formal edict, that the +commonwealth was in danger, and no peace was to be expected. After +which, he signified that he should look upon those who remained in the +city as the partisans of Caesar; and then quitted it in the dusk of the +evening. The consuls also fled, without offering the sacrifices which +their customs required before a war. However, in this great extremity, +Pompey could not but be considered as happy in the affections of his +countrymen. Though many blamed the war, there was not a man who +hated the general. Nay, the number of those who followed him, out of +attachment to his person, was greater than that of the adventurers in +the cause of liberty. + +A few days after, Caesar arrived at Rome. When he was in possession +of the city, he behaved with great moderation in many respects, and +composed in a good measure the minds of its remaining inhabitants. + +Pompey, who was the master of Brundusium, and had a sufficient number of +transports, desired the consuls to embark without loss of time, and sent +them before him with thirty cohorts to Dyrrhachium. But at the same +time he sent his father-in-law Scipio and his son Cnaeus into Syria, +to provide ships of war. He had well secured the gates of the city, and +planted the lightest of his slingers and archers upon the walls; and +having now ordered the Brundusians to keep within doors, he caused a +number of trenches to be cut, and sharp stakes to be driven into them, +and then covered with earth, in all the streets, except two which +led down to the sea. In three days all his other troops were embarked +without interruption; and then he suddenly gave the signal to those who +guarded the walls; in consequence of which, they ran swiftly down to the +harbor, and got on board. Thus having his whole complement, he set sail, +and crossed the sea to Dyrrhachium. + +When Caesar came and saw the walls left destitute of defence, he +concluded that Pompey had taken to flight, and in his eagerness to +pursue, would certainly have fallen upon the sharp stakes in the +trenches, had not the Brundusians informed him of them. He then avoided +the streets, and took a circuit round the town, by which he discovered +that all the vessels had weighed anchor, except two that had not many +soldiers aboard. + +This manoeuvre of Pompey was commonly reckoned among the greatest act +of generalship. Caesar, however, could not help wondering, that his +adversary, who was in possession of a fortified town, and expected his +forces from Spain, and at the same time was master of them, should give +up Italy in such a manner. + +Caesar thus made himself master of all Italy in sixty days without the +least bloodshed, and he would have been glad to have gone immediately +in pursuit of Pompey. But as he was in want of shipping, he gave up that +design for the present, and marched to Spain, with an intent to gain +Pompey's forces there. + +In the meantime Pompey assembled a great army; and at sea he was +altogether invincible. For he had five hundred ships of war, and the +number of his lighter vessels was still greater. As for his land forces, +he had seven thousand horse, the flower of Rome and Italy, all men +of family, fortune, and courage. His infantry, though numerous, was +a mixture of raw, undisciplined soldiers; he therefore exercised them +during his stay at Beroea, where he was by no means idle, but went +through the exercises of a soldier, as if he had been in the flower of +his age. It inspired his troops with new courage, when they saw Pompey +the Great, at the age of fifty-eight, going through the whole military +discipline, in heavy armor, on foot; and then mounting his horse, +drawing his sword with ease when at full speed, and as dexterously +sheathing it again. As to the javelin, he threw it not only with great +exactness, but with such force that few of the young men could dart it +to a greater distance. + +Many kings and princes repaired to his camp; and the number of Roman +officers who had commanded armies was so great, that it was sufficient +to make up a complete senate. Labienus, who had been honored with +Caesar's friendship, and served under him in Gaul, now joined Pompey. + +Caesar had now made himself master of Pompey's forces in Spain, and +though it was not without a battle, he dismissed the officers, and +incorporated the troops with his own. After this, he passed the Alps +again, and marched through Italy to Brundusium, where he arrived at the +time of the winter solstice. There he crossed the sea, and landed at +Oricum; from whence he dispatched Vibullius, one of Pompey's friends, +whom he had brought prisoner thither, with proposals of a conference +between him and Pompey, in which they should agree to disband their +armies within three days, renew their friendship, confirm it with solemn +oath, and then both return to Italy. Pompey took this overture for +another snare, and therefore drew down in haste to the sea, and secured +all the forts and places of strength for land forces, as well as all the +ports and other commodious stations for shipping; so that there was not +a wind that blew, which did not bring him either provisions, or troops, +or money. On the other hand, Caesar was reduced to such straits, both +by sea and land, that he was under the necessity of seeking a battle. +Accordingly, he attacked Pompey's intrenchments, and bade him defiance +daily. In most of these attacks and skirmishes he had the advantage; but +one day was in danger of losing his whole army. Pompey fought with +so much valor, that he put Caesar's whole detachment to flight, after +having killed two thousand men upon the spot; but was either unable or +afraid to pursue his blow, and enter their camp with them. Caesar said +to his friends on this occasion, "This day the victory had been the +enemy's had their general known how to conquer." + +Pompey's troops, elated with this success, were in great haste to come +to a decisive battle. Nay, Pompey himself seemed to give in to their +opinions by writing to the kings, the generals, and cities, in his +interest, in the style of a conqueror. Yet all this while he dreaded the +issue of a general action, believing it much better, by length of time, +by famine and fatigue, to tire out men who had been ever invincible in +arms, and long accustomed to conquer when they fought together. Besides, +he knew the infirmities of age had made them unfit for the other +operations of war, for long marches and countermarches, for digging +trenches and building forts, and that, therefore, they wished for +nothing so much as a battle. Pompey, with all these arguments, found it +no easy matter to keep his army quiet. + +After this last engagement, Caesar was in such want of provisions, that +he was forced to decamp, and he took his way through Athamania into +Thessaly. This added so much to the high opinion Pompey's soldiers had +of themselves, that it was impossible to keep them within bounds. They +cried out with one voice, "Caesar is fled." Some called upon the general +to pursue; some to pass over into Italy. Others sent their friends and +servants to Rome, to engage homes near the forum, for the convenience of +soliciting the great offices of state. And not a few went of their +own accord to Cornelia, who had been privately lodged in Lesbos, to +congratulate her upon the conclusion of the war. + +While he thus softly followed the enemy's steps, a complaint was raised +against him, and urged with much clamor, that he was not exercising his +generalship upon Caesar, but upon the Senate and the whole commonwealth, +in order that he might forever keep the command in his hands, and have +those for his guards and servants who had a right to govern the world. +Domitius Aenobarbus, to increase the odium, always called him Agamemnon, +or king of kings. Favonius piqued him no less with a jest, than others +by their unseasonable severity; he went about crying, "My friends, we +shall eat no figs in Tusculum this year." + +These and many other like sallies of ridicule had such an effect upon +Pompey, who was ambitious of being spoken well of by the world, and had +too much deference for the opinions of his friends, that he gave up his +own better judgment, to follow them in the career of their false hopes +and prospects. A thing which would have been unpardonable in the pilot +or master of a ship, much more in the commander-in-chief of so many +nations and such numerous armies. He had often commended the physician +who gives no indulgence to the whimsical longings of his patients, and +yet he humored the sickly cravings of his army, and was afraid to give +them pain, though necessary for the preservation of their life and +being. For who can say that army was in a sound and healthy state, when +some of the officers went about the camp canvassing for the offices of +consul and praetor; and others, namely, Spinther, Domitius, and Scipio, +were engaged in quarrels and cabals about Caesar's high-priesthood, as +if their adversary had been only a Tigranes, a king of Armenia, or a +prince of the Nabathaeans; and not that Caesar and that army who had +stormed one thousand cities, subdued above three hundred nations, +gained numberless battles of the Germans and Gauls, taken one million +prisoners, and killed as many fairly in the field. Notwithstanding all +this, they continued loud and tumultuous in their demands of a battle; +and when they came to the plains of Pharsalia, forced Pompey to call a +council of war. Lebienus, who had the command of the cavalry, rose up +first, and took an oath, that he would not return from the battle, till +he had put the enemy to flight. All the other officers swore the same. + +The night following, Pompey had this dream. He thought he entered +his own theatre, and was received with loud plaudits; after which, +he adorned the temple of Venus the Victorious with many spoils. This +vision, on one side, encouraged him, and on the other alarmed him. +He was afraid that Caesar, who was a descendant of Venus, would be +aggrandized at his expense. Besides, a panic (A Panic was so called, +from the terror which the god Pan is said to have struck the enemies of +Greece with, at the battle of Marathon.) fear ran through the camp, the +noise of which awakened him. And about the morning watch, over Caesar's +camp, where everything was perfectly quiet, there suddenly appeared a +great light, from which a stream of fire issued in the form of a torch, +and fell upon that of Pompey. Caesar himself says he saw it as he was +going his rounds. + +Caesar was preparing, at break of day, to march to Scotusa; his soldiers +were striking their tents, and the servants and beasts of burden were +already in motion, when his scouts brought intelligence that they had +seen arms handed about in the enemy's camp, and perceived a noise and +bustle, which indicated an approaching battle. After these, others came +and assured him that the first ranks were drawn up. + +Upon this Caesar said: "The long-wished day is come, on which we shall +fight with men, and not with want and famine." Then he immediately +ordered the red mantle to be put up before his pavilion, which, among +the Romans, is the signal of a battle. The soldiers no sooner beheld +it, than they left their tents as they were, and ran to arms with loud +shouts, and every expression of joy. And when the officers began to put +them in order of battle, each man fell into his proper rank as quietly, +and with as much skill and ease, as a chorus in a tragedy. + +Pompey placed himself in his right wing over against Antony, and his +father-in-law, Scipio, in the centre, opposite Domitius Calvinus. +His left wing was commanded by Lucius Domitius, and supported by the +cavalry; for they were almost all ranged on that side, in order to break +in upon Caesar, and cut off the tenth legion, which was accounted the +bravest in his army, and in which he used to fight in person. Caesar, +seeing the enemy's left wing so well guarded with horse, and fearing the +excellence of their armor, sent for a detachment of six cohorts from +the body of the reserve, and placed them behind the tenth legion, with +orders not to stir before the attack, lest they should be discovered by +the enemy; but when the enemy's cavalry had charged, to make up through +the foremost ranks, and then not to discharge their javelins at a +distance, as brave men generally do in their eagerness to come to sword +in hand, but to reserve them till they came to close fighting, and to +push them forward into the eyes and faces of the enemy. "For those fair +young dancers," said he, "will never stand the steel aimed at their +eyes, but will fly to save their handsome faces." + +While Caesar was thus employed, Pompey took a view on horseback of the +order of both armies; and finding that they enemy kept their ranks with +the utmost exactness, and quietly waited for the signal of battle, while +his own men, for want of experience, were fluctuating and unsteady, +he was afraid they would be broken up on the first onset. He therefore +commanded the vanguard to stand firm in their ranks, and in that close +order to receive the enemy's charge. Caesar condemned this measure, +as not only tending to lessen the vigor of the blows, which is always +greatest in the assailants, but also to damp the fire and spirit of the +men; whereas those who advance with impetuosity, and animate each other +with shouts, are filled with an enthusiastic valor and superior ardor. + +Caesar's army consisted of twenty-two thousand men, and Pompey's was +something more than twice that number. When the signal was given on both +sides, and the trumpets sounded a charge, each common man attended only +to his own concern. But some of the principal Romans and Greeks, who +only stood and looked on, when the dreadful moment of action approached, +could not help considering to what the avarice and ambition of two men +had brought the Roman Empire. The same arms on both sides, the troops +marshalled in the same manner, the same standards; in short, the +strength and flower of one and the same city turned upon itself! What +could be a stronger proof of the blindness and infatuation of human +nature, when carried away by its passions? Had they been willing to +enjoy the fruits of their labors in peace and tranquillity, the greatest +and best part of the world was their own. Or, if they must have indulged +their thirst of victories and triumphs, the Parthians and Germans were +yet to be subdued. Scythia and India yet remained; together with a very +plausible color for their lust of new acquisitions, the pretence of +civilizing barbarians. And what Scythian horse, what Parthian arrows, +what Indian treasures, could have resisted seventy thousand Romans, led +on by Pompey and Caesar, with whose names those nations had long been +acquainted! Into such a variety of wild and savage countries had these +two generals carried their victorious arms! Whereas now they stood +threatening each other with destruction; not sparing even their own +glory, though to it they sacrificed their country, but prepared, one of +them, to lose the reputation of being invincible, which hitherto they +had both maintained. So that the alliance which they had contracted by +Pompey's marriage to Julia, was from the first only an artful expedient; +and her charms were to form a self-interested compact, instead of being +the pledge of a sincere friendship. + +The plain of Pharsalia was now covered with men, and horses and arms; +and the signal of battle being given on both sides, the first on +Caesar's side who advanced to the charge was Caius Crastinus, who +commanded a corps of one hundred and twenty men, and was determined to +make good his promise to his general. He was the first man Caesar saw +when he went out of the trenches in the morning; and upon Caesar's +asking him what he thought of the battle, he stretched out his hand, and +answered in a cheerful tone, "You will gain a glorious victory, and I +shall have your praise this day, either alive or dead." In pursuance of +this promise, he advanced the foremost, and many following to support +him, he charged into the midst of the enemy. They soon took to their +swords, and numbers were slain; but as Crastinus was making his way +forward, and cutting down all before him, one of Pompey's men stood to +receive him, and pushed his sword in at his mouth with such force, that +it went through the nape of his neck. Crastinus thus killed, the fight +was maintained with equal advantage on both sides. + +Pompey did not immediately lead on his right wing, but often directed +his eyes to the left, and lost time in waiting to see what execution his +cavalry would do there. Meanwhile they had extended their squadrons to +surround Caesar, and prepared to drive the few horse he had placed in +front, back upon the foot. At that instant Caesar gave the signal; +upon which his cavalry retreated a little; and the six cohorts, which +consisted of 3000 men, and had been placed behind the tenth legion, +advanced to surround Pompey's cavalry; and coming close up to them, +raised the points of their javelins, as they had been taught, and aimed +them at the face. Their adversaries, who were not experienced in any +kind of fighting, and had not the least previous idea of this, could not +parry or endure the blows upon their faces, but turned their backs, or +covered their eyes with their hands, and soon fled with great dishonor. +Caesar's men took no care to pursue them, but turned their force upon +the enemy's infantry, particularly upon that wing, which, now stripped +of its horse, lay open to the attack on all sides. The six cohorts, +therefore, took them in flank, while the tenth legion charged them in +front; and they, who had hoped to surround the enemy, and now, instead +of that, saw themselves surrounded, made but a short resistance, and +then took to a precipitate flight. + +By the great dust that was raised, Pompey conjectured the fate of his +cavalry; and it is hard to say what passed in his mind at that +moment. He appeared like a man moonstruck and distracted; and without +considering that he was Pompey the Great, or speaking to any one, he +quitted the ranks, and retired step by step toward his camp--a scene +which cannot be better painted than in these verses of Homer: (In the +eleventh book of the Iliad, where he is speaking of the flight of Ajax +before Hector.) + + But partial Jove, espousing Hector's part, + Shot heaven-bred horror through the Grecian's heart; + Confused, unnerv'd in Hector's presence grown, + Amazed he stood with terrors not his own. + O'er his broad back his moony shield he threw, + And, glaring round, by tardy steps withdrew. + +In this condition he entered his tent, where he sat down, and uttered +not a word, till at last, upon finding that some of the enemy entered +the camp with the fugitives, he said, "What! Into my camp, too!" After +this short exclamation, he rose up, and dressing himself in a manner +suitable to his fortune, privately withdrew. All the other legions fled; +and a great slaughter was made in the camp, of the servants and others +who had the care of the tents. But Asinius Pollio, who then fought on +Caesar's side, assures us, that of the regular troops there were not +above six thousand men killed. (Caesar says, that in all there were +fifteen thousand killed, and twenty-four thousand taken prisoners.) + +Upon the taking of the camp, there was a spectacle which showed, in +strong colors, the vanity and folly of Pompey's troops. All the tents +were crowned with myrtle; the beds were strewn with flowers; the tables +covered with cups, and bowls of wine set out. In short, everything had +the appearance of preparations for feasts and sacrifices, rather than +for men going out to battle. To such a degree had their vain hopes +corrupted them, and with such a senseless confidence they took to the +field! + +When Pompey had got at a little distance from the camp, he quitted +his horse. He had very few people about him; and, as he saw he was +not pursued, he went softly on, wrapped up in such thoughts as we +may suppose a man to have, who had been used for thirty-four years to +conquer and carry all before him, and now in his old age first came to +know what it was to be defeated and to fly. We may easily conjecture +what his thoughts must be, when in one short hour he had lost the +glory and the power which had been growing up amidst so many wars and +conflicts; and he who was lately guarded with such armies of horse and +foot, and such great and powerful fleets, was reduced to so mean and +contemptible an equipage, that his enemies, who were in search of him, +could not know him. + +He passed by Larissa, and came to Tempe, where, burning with thirst, he +threw himself upon his face, and drank out of the river; after which, +he passed through the valley, and went down to the sea-coast. There +he spent the remainder of the night in a poor fisherman's cabin. Next +morning, about break of day, he went on board a small river-boat, taking +with him such of his company as were freemen. The slaves he dismissed, +bidding them go to Caesar, and fear nothing. + +As he was coasting along, he saw a whip of burden just ready to sail; +the master of which was Peticius, a Roman citizen, who, though not +acquainted with Pompey, knew him by sight. Therefore, without waiting +for any further application, he took him up, and such of his companions +as he thought proper, and then hoisted sail. The persons Pompey took +with him, were the two Lentuli and Favonius; and a little after, they +saw king Deiotarus beckoning to them with great earnestness from the +shore, and took him up likewise. The master of the ship provided them +with the best supper he could, and when it was almost ready, Pompey, for +want of a servant, was going to wash himself, but Favonius, seeing it, +stepped up, and both washed and anointed him. All the time he was on +board, he continued to wait upon him in all the offices of a servant, +even to the washing of his feet and providing his supper; insomuch, that +one who saw the unaffected simplicity and sincere attachment with which +Favonius performed these offices, cried out-- + + The generous mind adds dignity + To every act, and nothing misbecomes it. + +Pompey, in the course of his voyage, sailed by Amphipolis, and from +thence steered for Mitylene, to take up Cornelia and his son. As soon +as he reached the island, he sent a messenger to the town with news far +different from what Cornelia expected. For, by the flattering accounts +which many officious persons had given her, she understood that the +dispute was decided at Dyrrhachium, and that nothing but the pursuit of +Caesar remained to be attended to. The messenger, finding her possessed +with such hopes, had not power to make the usual salutations; but +expressing the greatness of Pompey's misfortunes by his tears rather +than words, only told her she must make haste if she had a mind to see +Pompey with one ship only, and that not his own. + +At this news Cornelia threw herself upon the ground, where she lay a +long time insensible and speechless. At last, coming to herself, she +perceived there was no time to be lost in tears and lamentations, and +therefore hastened through the town to the sea. Pompey ran to meet her, +and received her to his arms as she was just going to fall. While she +hung upon his neck, she thus addressed him: "I see, my dear husband, +your present unhappy condition is the effect of my ill fortune, and not +yours. Alas! how are you reduced to one poor vessel, who, before your +marriage with Cornelia, traversed the sea with 500 galleys! Why did you +come to see me, and not rather leave me to my evil destiny, who have +loaded you, too, with such a weight of calamities? How happy had it been +for me to have died before I heard that Publius, my first husband, was +killed by the Parthians! How wise, had I followed him to the grave, as +I once intended! What have I lived for since, but to bring misfortunes +upon Pompey the Great?" + +Such, we are assured, was the speech of Cornelia; and Pompey answered: +"Till this moment, Cornelia, you have experienced nothing but the smiles +of fortune; and it was she who deceived you, because she stayed with me +longer than she commonly does with her favorites. But, fated as we are, +we must bear this reverse, and make another trial of her. For it is no +more improbable that we may emerge from this poor condition and rise to +great things again, than it was that we should fall from great things +into this poor condition." + +Cornelia then sent to the city for her most valuable movables and her +servants. + +As soon as his wife and his friends were embarked, he set sail, and +continued his course without touching at any port, except for water and +provisions, till he came to Attalia, a city of Pamphylia. There he +was joined by some Cilician galleys; and beside picking up a number of +soldiers, he found in a little time sixty senators about him. When he +was informed that his fleet was still entire, and that Cato was gone +to Africa with a considerable body of men which he had collected after +their flight, he lamented to his friends his great error, in suffering +himself to be forced into an engagement on land, and making no use of +those forces, in which he was confessedly stronger; nor even taking care +to fight near his fleet, that, in case of his meeting with a check +on land, he might have been supplied from the sea with another army, +capable of making head against the enemy. Indeed, we find no greater +mistake in Pompey's whole conduct, nor a more remarkable instance of +Caesar's generalship, than in removing the scene of action to such a +distance from the naval force. + +However, as it was necessary to undertake something with the small means +he had left, he sent to some cities, and sailed to others himself, to +raise money, and to get a supply of men for his ships. But knowing the +extraordinary celerity of the enemy's motions, he was afraid he might be +beforehand with him, and seize all that he was preparing. He, therefore, +began to think of retiring to some asylum, and proposed the matter in +council. They could not think of any province in the Roman empire +that would afford a safe retreat; and when they cast their eyes on the +foreign kingdoms, Pompey mentioned Parthia as the most likely to receive +and protect them in their present weak condition, and afterwards to send +them back with a force sufficient to retrieve their affairs. Others were +of opinion it was proper to apply to Africa, and to Juba in particular. +But Theophanes of Lesbos observed it was madness to leave Egypt, which +was distant but three days' sail. Besides, Ptolemy, who was growing +towards manhood, had particular obligations to Pompey on his father's +account. As so it was determined that they should seek for refuge in +Egypt. Being informed that Ptolemy was with his army at Pelusium, where +he was engaged in war with his sister, he proceeded thither, and sent a +messenger before him to announce his arrival, and to entreat the king's +protection. + +Ptolemy was very young, fourteen years of age, and Photinus, his prime +minister, called a council of his ablest officers; though their advice +had no more weight than he was pleased to allow it. He ordered each, +however, to give his opinion. But who can, without indignation, consider +that the fate of Pompey the Great was to be determined by the wretch +Photinus, by Theodotus, a man of Chios, who was hired to teach the +prince rhetoric, and by Achillas, an Egyptian? For among the king's +chamberlains and tutors these had the greatest influence over him +and were the persons he most consulted. Pompey lay at anchor at some +distance from the place waiting the determination of this respectable +board; while he thought it beneath him to be indebted to Caesar for his +safety. The council were divided in their opinions, some advising the +prince to give him an honorable reception, and others to send him an +order to depart. But Theodotus, to display his eloquence, insisted that +both were wrong. "If you receive him," said he, "you will have Caesar +for your enemy, and Pompey for your master. If you order him off, Pompey +may one day revenge the affront and Caesar resent your not having put +him in his hands: the best method, therefore, is to send for him and put +him to death. By this means you will do Caesar a favor, and have nothing +to fear from Pompey." He added with a smile, "Dead men do not bite." + +This advice being approved of, the execution of it was committed to +Achillas. In consequence of which he took with him Septimius, who had +formerly been one of Pompey's officers, and Salvius, who had also acted +under him as a centurion, with three or four assistants, and made up to +Pompey's ship, where his principal friends and officers had assembled +to see how the affair went on. When they perceived there was nothing +magnificent in their reception, nor suitable to the hopes which +Theophanes had conceived, but that a few men only in a fishing-boat +came to wait upon them, such want of respect appeared a suspicious +circumstance, and they advised Pompey, while he was out of the reach of +missive weapons, to get out to the main sea. + +Meantime, the boat approaching, Septimius spoke first, addressing Pompey +in Latin by the title of Imperator. Then Achillas saluted him in Greek, +and desired him to come into the boat, because the water was very +shallow towards the shore, and a galley must strike upon the sands. At +the same time they saw several of the king's ships getting ready, and +the shore covered with troops, so that if they would have changed their +minds it was then too late; besides, their distrust would have furnished +the assassins with a pretence for their injustice. He therefore embraced +Cornelia, who lamented his sad exit before it happened; and ordered two +centurions, one of his enfranchised slaves, named Philip, and a servant +called Scenes, to get into the boat before him. When Achillas had hold +of his hand, and he was going to step in himself, he turned to his wife +and son, and repeated that verse of Sophocles-- + + Seek'st thou a tyrant's door? + Then farewell freedom! + Though FREE as air before. + +These were the last words he spoke to them. + +As there was a considerable distance between the galley and the +shore, and he observed that not a man in the boat showed him the least +civility, or even spoke to him, he looked at Septimius, and said, +"Methinks, I remember you to have been my fellow-soldier;" but he +answered only with a nod, without testifying any regard or friendship. +A profound silence again taking place, Pompey took out a paper, in which +he had written a speech in Greek that he designed to make to Ptolemy, +and amused himself with reading it. + +When they approached the shore, Cornelia, with her friends in the +galley, watched the event with great anxiety. She was a little +encouraged, when she saw a number of the king's great officers coming +down to the strand, in all appearance to receive her husband and do him +honor. But the moment Pompey was taking hold of Philip's hand, to raise +him with more ease, Septimius came behind, and ran him through the body; +after which Salvius and Achillas also drew their swords. Pompey took his +robe in both hands and covered his face, and without saying or doing +the least thing unworthy of him, submitted to his fate, only uttering +a groan, while they despatched him with many blows. He was then just +fifty-nine years old, for he was killed the day after his birthday. + +Cornelia, and her friends in the galley, upon seeing him murdered, gave +a shriek that was heard to the shore, and weighed anchor immediately. +Their flight was assisted by a brisk gale, as they got out more to +sea; so that the Egyptians gave up their design of pursuing them. The +murderers having cut off Pompey's head, threw the body out of the boat +naked, and left it exposed to all who were desirous of such a sight. +Philip stayed till their curiosity was satisfied, and then washed the +body with sea-water, and wrapped it in one of his own garments, because +he had nothing else at hand. The next thing was to look out for wood for +the funeral pile; and casting his eyes over the shore, he spied the +old remains of a fishing-boat; which, though not large, would make a +sufficient pile for a poor naked body that was not quite entire. + +While he was collecting the pieces of plank and putting them together, +an old Roman, who had made some of his first campaigns under Pompey, +came up and said to Philip, "Who are you that are preparing the funeral +of Pompey the Great?" Philip answered, "I am his freedman." "But you +shall not," said the old Roman, "have this honor entirely to yourself. +As a work of piety offers itself, let me have a share in it; that I +may not absolutely repent my having passed so many years in a foreign +country; but, to compensate many misfortunes, may have the consolation +of doing some of the last honors to the greatest general Rome ever +produced." In this manner was the funeral of Pompey conducted. + +Such was the end of Pompey the Great. As for Caesar, he arrived not +long after in Egypt, which he found in great disorder. When they came to +present the head, he turned from it, and the person that brought it, +as a sight of horror. He received the seal, but it was with tears. +The device was a lion holding a sword. The two assassins, Achillas +and Photinus, he put to death; and the king, being defeated in battle, +perished in the river. Theodotus, the rhetorician, escaped the vengeance +of Caesar, by leaving Egypt; but he wandered about a miserable fugitive, +and was hated wherever he went. At last, Marcus Brutus, who killed +Caesar, found the wretch, in his province of Asia, and put him to death, +after having made him suffer the most exquisite tortures. The ashes of +Pompey were carried to Cornelia, who buried them in his lands near Alba. +(Langhorne has well remarked that Pompey has, in all appearance, and +in all consideration of his character, had less justice done him by +historians than any other man of his time. His popular humanity, +his military and political skills, his prudence (which he sometimes +unfortunately gave up), his natural bravery and generosity, his conjugal +virtues, which (though sometimes impeached) were both naturally +and morally great; his cause, which was certainly, in its original +interests, the cause of Rome; all these circumstances entitled him to +a more distinguished and more respectable character than any of his +historians have thought proper to afford him.) + + + + +THE ENGINES OF ARCHIMEDES FROM THE LIFE OF MARCELLUS + +Marcellus now moved with his whole army to Syracuse, and, camping near +the wall, proceeded to attack the city both by land and by sea. The land +forces were conducted by Appius: Marcellus, with sixty galleys, each +with five rows of oars, furnished with all sorts of arms and missiles, +and a huge bridge of planks laid upon eight ships chained together, upon +which was carried the engine to cast stones and darts, assaulted the +walls, relying on the abundance and magnificence of his preparations, +and on his own previous glory; all which, however, were, it would seem, +but trifles for Archimedes and his machines. + +These machines he had designed and contrived, not as matters of any +importance, but as mere amusements in geometry; in compliance with King +Hiero's desire and request, some little time before, that he should +reduce to practice some part of his admirable speculations in science, +and by accommodating the theoretical truth to sensation and ordinary +use, bring it more within the appreciation of people in general. Eudoxus +and Archytas had been the originators of this far-famed and highly +prized art of mechanics, which they employed as an elegant illustration +of geometrical truths, and as a means of sustaining experimentally, to +the satisfaction of the senses, conclusions too intricate for proof +by words and diagrams. As, for example, to solve the problem, so often +required in constructing geometrical figures, given the two extreme, to +find the two mean lines of a proportion, both these mathematicians had +recourse to the aid of instruments, adapting to their purpose certain +curves and sections of lines. (The 'mesolabes or mesalabium, was the +name by which this instrument was commonly known.) But what with Plato's +indignation at it, and his invectives against it as the mere corruption +and annihilation of the one good of geometry,--which was thus shamefully +turning its back upon the unembodied objects of pure intelligence to +recur to sensation, and to ask help (not to be obtained without haste +subservience and depravation) from matter; so it was that mechanics came +to be separated from geometry, and, being repudiated and neglected by +philosophers, took its place as a military art. Archimedes, however, +in writing to King Hiero, whose friend and near relation he was, had +stated, that given the force, any weight might be moved, and even +boasted, we are told, relying on the strength of demonstration, that if +there were another earth, by going into it he could remove this. Hiero +being struck with amazement at this, and entreating him to make good +this problem by actual experiment, and show some great weight moved by +a small engine, he fixed accordingly upon a ship of burden out of the +king's arsenal, which could not be drawn out of the dock without great +labor and many men; and, loading her with many passengers and a full +freight, sitting himself the while far off, with no great endeavor, but +only holding the head of the pulley in his hand and drawing the cord by +degrees, he drew the ship in a straight line, as smoothly and evenly as +if she had been in the sea. The king, astonished at this, and convinced +of the power of the art, prevailed upon Archimedes to make him engines +accommodated to all the purposes, offensive and defensive, of a siege. +These the king himself never made use of, because he spent almost +all his life in a profound quiet, and the highest influence. But +the apparatus was, in a most opportune time, ready at hand for the +Syracusans, and with it also the engineer himself. + +When, therefore, the Romans assaulted the walls in two places at once, +fear and consternation stupefied the Syracusans, believing that nothing +was able to resist that violence and those forces. But when Archimedes +began to ply his engines, he at once shot against the land forces all +sorts of missile weapons, and immense masses of stone that came down +with incredible noise and violence, against which no man could stand; +for they knocked down those upon whom they fell, in heaps, breaking all +their ranks and files. In the mean time huge poles thrust out from the +walls over the ships, sunk some by the great weights which they let down +from on high upon them; others they lifted up into the air by an iron +hand or beak like a crane's beak, and, when they had drawn them up by +the prow, and set them on end upon the poop, they plunged them to the +bottom of the sea; or else the ships, drawn by engines within, and +whirled about, were dashed against steep rocks that stood jutting out +under the walls, with great destruction of the soldiers that were aboard +them. A ship was frequently lifted up to a great height in the air (a +dreadful thing to behold), and was rolled to and fro, and kept swinging, +until the mariners were all thrown out, when at length it was dashed +against the rocks, or let fall. In the meantime, Marcellus himself +brought up his engine upon the bridge of ships, which was called +"Sambuca," from some resemblance it had to an instrument of music, but +while it was as yet approaching the wall, there was discharged at it a +piece of rock of ten talents' weight, then a second and a third, which, +striking upon it with immense force and with a noise like thunder, +broke all its foundations to pieces, shook out all its fastenings, and +completely dislodged it from the bridge. So Marcellus, doubtful what +counsel to pursue, drew off his ships to a safer distance, and sounded a +retreat to his forces on land. They then took a resolution of coming +up under the walls, if it were possible, in the night; thinking that as +Archimedes used ropes stretched at length in playing his engines, the +soldiers would now be under the shot, and the darts would, for want of +sufficient distance to throw them, fly over their heads without effect. +But he, it appeared, had long before framed for such occasion engines +accommodated to any distance, and shorter weapons; and had made numerous +small openings in the walls, through which, with engines of a shorter +range, unexpected blows were inflicted on the assailants. Thus, when +they who thought to deceive the defenders came close up to the walls, +instantly a shower of darts and other missile weapons was again cast +upon them. And when stones came tumbling down perpendicularly upon their +heads, and, as it were, the whole wall shot out arrows at them, they +retired. And now, again, as they were going off, arrows and darts of +a longer range inflicted a great slaughter among them, and their ships +were driven one against another; while they themselves were not able +to retaliate in any way; for Archimedes had fixed most of his engines +immediately under the wall. The Romans, seeing that infinite mischiefs +overwhelmed them from no visible means, began to think they were +fighting with the gods. + +Yet Marcellus escaped unhurt, and, deriding his own artificers +and engineers, exclaimed "What! Must we give up fighting with this +geometrical Briareus, who plays pitch and toss with our ships, and, +with the multitude of darts which he showers at a single moment upon us, +really outdoes the hundred-handed giants of mythology?" The rest of the +Syracusans were but the body of Archimedes' designs, one soul moving +and governing all; for, laying aside all other arms, with his alone they +infested the Romans, and protected themselves. In fine, when such terror +had seized upon the Romans, that, if they did but see a little rope or +a piece of wood from the wall, they instantly cried out, "There it is +again! Archimedes is about to let fly another engine at us," and turned +their backs and fled, Marcellus desisted from conflicts and assaults, +putting all his hope in a long siege. Yet Archimedes possessed so high a +spirit, so profound a soul, and such treasures of scientific knowledge, +that though these inventions had now obtained him the renown of more +than human sagacity, he yet would not deign to leave behind him any +commentary or writing on such subjects; but, repudiating as sordid and +ignoble the whole trade of engineering, and every sort of art that +lends itself to mere use and profit, he placed his whole affection and +ambition in those purer speculations where there can be no reference +to the vulgar needs of life; studies, the superiority of which to all +others is unquestioned, and in which the only doubt can be, whether +the beauty and grandeur of the subjects examined, or the precision and +cogency of the methods and means of proof, most deserve our admiration. +It is not possible to find in all geometry more difficult and intricate +questions, or more simple and lucid explanations. Some ascribe this to +his natural genius; while others think that incredible effort and toil +produced these apparently easy and unlabored results. No amount of +investigation of yours would succeed in attaining the proof, and yet, +once seen, you immediately believe you would have discovered it; by so +smooth and so rapid a path he leads you to the conclusion required. And +thus it ceases to be incredible that (as is commonly told of him), the +charm of his familiar and domestic Siren made him forget his food and +neglect his person, to such a degree that when he was occasionally +carried by absolute violence to bathe, or have his body anointed, he +used to trace geometrical figures in the ashes of the fire, and diagrams +in the oil on his body, being in a state of entire preoccupation, and, +in the truest sense, divinely possessed with his love and delight in +science. His discoveries were numerous and admirable; and he is said +to have requested his friends and relations that when he was dead, they +would place over his tomb a cylinder containing a sphere, inscribing it +with the ratio of three to two which the containing solid bears to the +contained. + + + + +DESCRIPTION OF CLEOPATRA FROM THE LIFE OF ANTONY + +When Antony was making preparation for the Parthian war, he sent to +command Cleopatra to make her personal appearance in Cilicia, to answer +the accusation, that she had given great assistance, in the late wars, +to Cassius. Dellius, who was sent on this message, had no sooner seen +her face, and remarked her adroitness and subtlety in speech, than he +felt convinced that Antony would not so much as think of giving any +molestation to a woman like this; on the contrary, she would be the +first in favor with him. So he set himself at once to pay his court to +the Egyptia, and gave her his advice, "to go," in the Homeric style, to +Cilicia, "in her best attire," and bade her fear nothing from Antony, +the gentlest and the kindest of soldiers. She had some faith in the +words of Dellius, but more in her own attractions, which, having +formerly recommended her to Caesar and the young Gnaeus Pompey, she +did not doubt might prove yet more successful with Antony. Their +acquaintance was with her when a girl, young, and ignorant of the world, +but she was to meet Antony in the time of life when women's beauty is +most splendid, and their intellects are in full maturity, for she was +now about twenty-eight years of age. She made great preparation for her +journey, of money, gifts, and ornaments of value, such as so wealthy a +kingdom might afford, but she brought with her her surest hopes in her +own magic arts and charms. + +She received several letters, both from Antony and from his friends, to +summon her, but she paid no attention to these orders; and at last, as +if in mockery of them, she came sailing up the river Cydnus, in a barge +with gilded stern and outspread sails of purple, while oars of silver +beat time to the music of flutes and fifes and harps. She herself lay +stretched along under a canopy of cloth of gold, dressed as Venus in a +picture, and beautiful young boys, like painted Cupids, stood on each +side to fan her. Her maids were dressed like Sea Nymphs and Graces, some +steering at the rudder, some working at the ropes. The perfumes +diffused themselves from the vessel to the shore, which was covered with +multitudes, part following the galley up the river on either bank, part +running out of the city to see the sight. The market-place was quite +emptied, and Antony at last was left alone sitting upon the tribunal; +while the word went through all the multitude, that Venus had come to +feast with Bacchus, for the common good of Asia. On her arrival, Antony +sent to invite her to supper. She thought it fitter he should come to +her; so, willing to show his good-humor and courtesy, he complied, +and went. He found the preparations to receive him magnificent beyond +expression, but nothing so admirable as the great number of lights; +for on a sudden there were let down all together so great numbers of +branches with lights in them so ingeniously disposed, some in squares, +and some in circles, that the whole thing was a spectacle that has +seldom been equaled for beauty. + +The next day, Antony invited her to supper, and was very desirous to +outdo her as well in magnificence as contrivance; but he found he was +altogether beaten in both, and was so well convinced of it, that he was +himself the first to jest and mock at his poverty of wit, and his rustic +awkwardness. She, perceiving that his raillery was broad and gross, +and savored more of the soldier than the courtier, rejoined in the +same taste, and fell into it at once, without any sort of reluctance +or reserve. For her actual beauty, it is said, was not in itself so +remarkable that none could be compared with her, or that no one could +see her without being struck by it, but the contact of her presence, +if you lived with her, was irresistible; the attraction of her person, +joining with the charm of her conversation, and the character that +attended all she said or did, was something bewitching. It was a +pleasure merely to hear the sound of her voice, with which, like an +instrument of many strings, she could pass from one language to another; +so that there were few of the barbarian nations that she answered by an +interpreter; to most of them she spoke herself, as to the Aethiopians, +Troglodytes, Hebrews, Arabians, Syrians, Medes, Parthians, and +many others, whose language she had learnt; which was all the more +surprising, because most of the kings her predecessors scarcely gave +themselves the trouble to acquire the Egyptian tongue, and several of +them quite abandoned the Macedonian. + +Antony was so captivated by her that, leaving his troops assembled in +Mesopotamia, and ready to enter Syria, he suffered himself to be carried +away by her to Alexandria, there to keep holiday, like a boy, in play +and diversion, squandering and fooling away in enjoyments that most +costly, as Antiphon says, of all valuable, time. They had a sort of +company, to which they gave a particular name, calling it that of the +"Inimitable Livers." The members entertained one another daily in turn, +with an extravagance of expenditure beyond measure or belief. Philotas, +a physician of Amphissa, who was at that time a student of medicine in +Alexandria, used to tell my grandfather, Lamprias, that, having some +acquaintance with one of the royal cooks, he was invited by him, being a +young man, to come and see the sumptuous preparations for supper. So he +was taken into the kitchen, where he admired the prodigious variety of +all things; but particularly, seeing eight wild boars roasting whole, he +exclaimed, "Surely you have a great number of guests." The cook laughed +at his simplicity, and told him there were not more than twelve to sup, +but that every dish was to be served up just roasted to a turn, and if +anything was but one minute ill-timed, it was spoiled; "And," said he, +"maybe Antony will sup just now, maybe not this hour, maybe he will call +for wine, or begin to talk, and will put it off. So that," he continued, +"not one, but many suppers must be had in readiness, as it impossible to +guess at his hour." + +Plato admits four sorts of flattery, but Cleopatra had a thousand. Were +Antony serious or disposed to mirth, she had at any moment some new +delight or charm to meet his wishes. She played at dice with him, drank +with him, hunted with him; and when he exercised in arms, she was there +to see. At night she would go rambling with him to disturb and torment +people at their doors and windows, dressed like a servant-woman, for +Antony also went in servant's disguise, and from these expeditions +he often came home very scurvily answered, and sometimes even beaten +severely, though most people guessed who it was. It would be trifling +without end to be particular in his follies, but his fishing must not +be forgotten. He went out one day to angle with Cleopatra, and, being +so unfortunate as to catch nothing in the presence of the queen, he gave +secret orders to the fishermen to dive under water, and put fishes that +had been already taken upon his hooks; and these he drew so fast that +the Egyptian perceived it. But, feigning great admiration, she told +everybody how dexterous Antony was, and invited them next day to come +and see him again. So, when a number of them had come on board the +fishing boats, as soon as he had let down his hook, one of her servants +was beforehand with his divers, and fixed upon his hook a salted fish +from Pontus. Antony, feeling his line give, drew up the prey, and when, +as may be imagined, great laughter ensued, Cleopatra said, "Leave the +fishing-rod, general, to us poor sovereigns of Pharos and Canopus; your +game is cities, provinces, and kingdoms." + + + + +ANECDOTES FROM THE LIFE OF AGESILAUS, KING OF SPARTA + +Agesilaus is said to have been a little man, of a contemptible presence; +but the goodness of his humor, and his constant cheerfulness and +playfulness of temper, always free from anything of moroseness or +haughtiness, made him more attractive, even to his old age, than the +most beautiful and youthful men of the nation. Theophrastus writes, +that the Ephors laid a fine upon Archidamus for marrying a little wife, +"For," said they, "she will bring us a race of kinglets, instead of +kings." + +Agesilaus was excessively fond of his children; and it is to him the +story belongs, that when they were little ones, he used to make a horse +of a stick, and ride with them; and being caught at this sport by a +friend, he desired him not to mention it, till he himself should be the +father of children. + +When the Mantineans revolted from Thebes to Sparta, and Epaminondas +understood that Agesilaus had come to their assistance with a powerful +army, he privately in the night quitted his quarters at Tegea, and +unknown to the Mantineans, passing by Agesilaus, marched toward Sparta, +insomuch that he failed very little of taking it empty and unarmed. +Agesilaus had intelligence sent him by Euthynus, the Thespian, as +Callisthenes says, but Xenophon says by a Cretan, and immediately +despatched a horseman to Lacedaemon, to apprise them of it, and to let +them know that he was hastening to them. Shortly after his arrival the +Thebans crossed the Eurotas. They made an assault upon the town, and +were received by Agesilaus with great courage, and with exertions beyond +what was to be expected at his years. For he did not now fight with that +caution and cunning which he formerly made use of, but put all upon a +desperate push; which, though not his usual method, succeeded so well, +that he rescued the city out of the very hands of Epaminondas, and +forced him to retire, and, at the erection of a trophy, was able, in the +presence of their wives and children, to declare that the Lacedaemonians +had nobly paid their debt to their country, and particularly his son +Archidamus, who had that day made himself illustrious, both by his +courage and agility of body, rapidly passing about by the short lanes to +every endangered point, and everywhere maintaining the town against the +enemy with but few to help him. Isadas, too, the son of Phoebidas, +must have been, I think, the admiration of the enemy as well as of his +friends. He was a youth of remarkable beauty and stature, in the very +flower of the most attractive time of life, when the boy is just rising +into the man. He had no arms upon him, and scarcely clothes; he had just +anointed himself at home, when, upon the alarm, without further waiting, +in that undress, he snatched a spear in one hand, and a sword in the +other, and broke his way through the combatants to the enemies, striking +at all he met. He received no wound, whether it were that a special +divine care rewarded his valor with an extraordinary protection, +or whether his shape being so large and beautiful, and his dress +so unusual, they thought him more than a man. The Ephors gave him a +garland; but as soon as they had done so, they fined him a thousand +drachma, for going out to battle unarmed. + + + + +THE BROTHERS FROM THE LIFE OF TIMOLEON + +Timoleon had an older brother, whose name was Timophanes, who was +every way unlike him, being indiscreet and rash and infected by the +suggestions of some friends and foreign soldiers, whom he kept always +about him, with a passion for absolute power. He seemed to have a +certain force and vehemence in all military service, and even to delight +in dangers, and thus he took much with the people, and was advanced +to the highest charges as a vigorous and effective warrior; in the +obtaining of which offices and promotions Timoleon much assisted him, +helping to conceal or at least to extenuate his errors, embellishing +by his praise whatever was commendable in him, and setting off his good +qualities to the best advantage. + +It happened once in the battle fought by the Corinthians against the +forces of Argos and Cleonae, that Timoleon served among the infantry, +when Timophanes, commanding their cavalry, was brought into extreme +danger; for his horse being wounded fell forward, and threw him headlong +amidst the enemies, while part of his companions dispersed at once in +a panic, and the small number that remained, bearing up against a great +multitude, had much ado to maintain any resistance. As soon, therefore, +as Timoleon was aware of the accident, he ran hastily to his brother's +rescue, and covering the fallen Timophanes with his buckler, after +having received an abundance of darts and several strokes by the sword +upon his body and his armor, he at length with much difficulty obliged +the enemies to retire, and brought off his brother alive and safe. But +when the Corinthians, for fear of losing their city a second time, +as they had once before, by admitting their allies, made a decree to +maintain four hundred mercenaries for its security, and gave Timophanes +the command over them, he, abandoning all regard for honor and equity, +at once proceeded to put into execution his plans for making himself +absolute, and bringing the place under his own power; and having cut off +many principal citizens, uncondemned and without trial, who were most +likely to hinder his design, he declared himself tyrant of Corinth; a +procedure that infinitely afflicted Timoleon, to whom the wickedness +of such a brother appeared to be his own reproach and calamity. He +undertook to persuade him by reasoning to desist from that wild and +unhappy ambition, and bethink himself how he could make the Corinthians +some amends, and find out an expedient to remedy the evils he had done +them. When his single admonition was rejected and contemned by him, he +made a second attempt, taking with him Aeschylus his kinsman, brother to +the wife of Timophanes, and a certain diviner, that was his friend, +whom Theopompus in his history calls Satyrus. This company coming to his +brother, all three of them surrounded and earnestly importuned him upon +the same subject, that now at length he would listen to reason and be +of another mind. But when Timophanes began first to laugh at the men's +simplicity, and presently broke out into rage and indignation against +them, Timoleon stepped aside from him and stood weeping with his face +covered, while the other two, drawing out their swords, despatched him +in a moment. + +When the rumor of this act was spread about, the better and more +generous of the Corinthians highly applauded Timoleon for the hatred of +wrong and the greatness of soul that had made him, though of a gentle +disposition and full of love and kindness for his family, think the +obligations to his country stronger than the ties of consanguinity, and +prefer that which is good and just before gain and interest and his own +particular advantage. For the same brother, who with so much bravery had +been saved by him when he fought valiantly in the cause of Corinth, he +had now as nobly sacrificed for enslaving her afterward by a base and +treacherous usurpation. But when he came to understand how heavily his +mother took it, and that she likewise uttered the saddest complaints and +most terrible imprecations against him, he went to satisfy and comfort +her, but he found that she would not endure so much as to look upon him, +but caused her doors to be shut that he might have no admission into +her presence, and with grief at this he grew so disordered in mind and +disconsolate, that he determined to put an end to his perplexity with +his life, by abstaining from all manner of sustenance. But through the +care and diligence of his friends, who were very persistent with him, +and added force to their entreaties, he promised at last that he +would endure living, provided it might be in solitude, and remote from +company; so that, quitting all civil transactions and commerce with the +world, for a long while after his first retirement he never came into +Corinth, but wandered up and down the fields, full of anxious and +tormenting thoughts, and for almost twenty years did not offer to +concern himself in any honorable or public action. + + + + +THE WOUND OF PHILOPOEMEN + +Cleomenes, king of the Lacedaemonians, surprised Megalopolis by night, +forced the guards, broke in, and seized the market-place. + +Awhile after, king Antigonus coming down to succor the Achaeans, they +marched with their united forces against Cleomenes; who, having seized +the avenues, lay advantageously posted on the hills of Sellasia. +Antigonus drew up close by him, with a resolution to force him in his +strength. Philopoemen, with his citizens, was that day placed among the +horse, next to the Illyrian foot, a numerous body of bold fighters, who +completed the line of battle, forming, together with the Achaeans, the +reserve. Their orders were to keep their ground, and not engage till +they should see a red coat lifted up on the point of a spear from the +other wing, where the king fought in person. The Achaeans obeyed their +order and stood fast; but the Illyrians were led on by their commanders +to the attack. Euclidas, the brother of Cleomenes; seeing the foot +thus severed from the horse, detached the best of his light-armed men, +commanding them to wheel about and charge the unprotected Illyrians +in the rear. This charge put things into confusion, and Philopoemen, +considering that those light-armed men could be easily repelled, went +first to the king's officers to make them sensible of what the occasion +required. But when they did not mind what he said, slighting him as a +hare-brained fellow (as indeed he was not yet of any repute sufficient +to give credit to a proposal of such importance). he charged with his +own citizens, and at the first encounter disordered, and soon after put +the troops to flight with great slaughter. Then, to encourage the +king's army further, to bring them all upon the enemy while he was in +confusion, he quitted his horse, and fighting with extreme difficulty +in his heavy horseman's dress, in rough, uneven ground, full of +water-courses and hollows, had both his thighs struck through with a +thonged javelin. It was thrown with great force, so that the head came +out on the other side, and made a severe though not a mortal wound. +There he stood awhile, as if he had been shackled, unable to move. The +fastening which joined the thong to the javelin made it difficult to +get it drawn out, nor would anybody about him venture to do it. But the +fight being now at the hottest, and likely to be quickly decided, he +was transported with the desire of partaking in it, and struggled and +strained so violently, setting one leg forward, the other back, that +at last he broke the shaft in two, and thus got the pieces pulled out. +Being in this manner set at liberty he caught up his sword, and running +through the midst of those who were fighting in the first ranks, +animated his men, and set them afire with emulation. Antigonus, after +the victory, asked the Macedonians, to try them, how it happened that +the cavalry had charged without orders before the signal? and when they +answered that they were forced to it against their wills by a young man +of Megalopolis, who had fallen in before it was time, Antigonus replied, +smiling, "That young man acted like an experienced commander." + + + + +A ROMAN TRIUMPH FROM THE LIFE OF PAULUS AEMILIUS + +Paulus Aemilius, advanced in years, being nearly threescore, yet +vigorous in his own person, and rich in valiant sons and sons-in-law, +besides a great number of influential relations and friends, all of whom +joined in urging him to yield to the desires of the people, who called +him to the consulship. He at first manifested some shyness of the +people, and withdrew himself from their importunity, professing +reluctance to hold office; but, when they daily came to his doors, +urging him to come forth to the place of election, and pressing him with +noise and clamor, he acceded to their request. When he appeared amongst +the candidates, it did not look as if it were to sue for the consulship, +but to bring victory and success, that he came down into the Campus; +with such hopes and such gladness did they all receive him there, +unanimously choosing him a second time consul; nor would they suffer the +lots to be cast, as was usual, to determine which province should fall +to his share, but immediately decreed him the command of the Macedonian +war. It is told, that when he had been proclaimed general against +Perseus, and was honorably accompanied home by great numbers of people, +he found his daughter Tertia, a very little girl, weeping, and taking +her to him asked her why she was crying. She, catching him about the +neck and kissing him, said, "O father, do you not know that Perseus is +dead?" meaning a little dog of that name who had been brought up in the +house with her; to which Aemilius replied, "Good fortune, my daughter; +I embrace the omen." Thus Cicero, the orator, relates in his book on +divination. + +* * * * * + +The triumph of Aemilius over Perseus was performed in this manner. + +The people erected scaffolds in the Forum, in the circuses, as they call +their buildings, for horse-races, and in all other parts of the city +where they could best behold the show. The spectators were clad in white +garments; all the temples were open, and full of garlands and perfumes; +the ways were cleared and kept open by numerous officers, who drove back +all who crowded into or ran across the main avenue. This triumph lasted +three days. On the first, which was scarcely long enough for the sight, +were to be seen the statues, pictures, and colossal images, which were +taken from the enemy, drawn upon two hundred and fifty chariots. On the +second, was carried in a great many wagons the finest and richest armor +of the Macedonians, both of brass and steel, all newly polished and +glittering; the pieces of which were piled up and arranged purposely +with the greatest art, so as to seem to be tumbled in heaps carelessly +and by chance; helmets were thrown upon shields, coats of mail upon +greaves; Cretan targets, and Thracian bucklers and quivers of arrows, +lay huddled amongst horses' bits, and through these there appeared the +points of naked swords, intermixed with long Macedonian sarissas. All +these arms were fastened together with just so much looseness that they +struck against one another as they were drawn along, and made a harsh +and alarming noise, so that, even as spoils of a conquered enemy, they +could not be beheld without dread. After these wagons loaded with +armor, there followed three thousand men who carried the silver that was +coined, in seven hundred and fifty vessels, each of which weighed three +talents, and was carried by four men. Others brought silver bowls and +goblets and cups, all disposed in such order as to make the best show, +and all curious as well for their size as the solidity of their embossed +work. + +On the third day, early in the morning, first came the trumpeters, who +did not sound as they were wont in a procession or solemn entry, but +such a charge as the Romans use when they encourage the soldiers to +fight. Next followed young men wearing frocks with ornamented borders, +who led to the sacrifice a hundred and twenty stalled oxen, with their +horns gilded, and their heads adorned with ribbons and garlands; and +with these were boys that carried basins for libation, of silver and +gold. After this was brought the gold coin, which was divided into +vessels that weighed three talents, like those that contained the +silver; they were in number seventy-seven. These were followed by those +that brought the consecrated bowl which Aemilius had caused to be made, +that weighed ten talents, and was set with precious stones. Then were +exposed to view the cups of Antigonus and Seleucus, and those of the +Thericlean make (Thericles, according to the more probable supposition, +was a Corinthian potter: the first maker of a particular kind of cup, +which long continued to bear his name.) and all the gold plate that was +used at Perseus' table. Next to these came Perseus' chariot, in which +his armor was placed, and on that his diadem. And, after a little +intermission, the king's children were led captives, and with them a +train of their attendants, masters, and teachers, all shedding tears, +and stretching out their hands to the spectators, and making the +children themselves also beg and entreat their compassion. There were +two sons and a daughter whose tender age made them but little sensible +of the greatness of their misery, which very insensibility of their +condition rendered it the more deplorable; insomuch that Perseus himself +was scarcely regarded as he went along, whilst pity fixed the eyes of +the Romans upon the infants; many of them could not forbear tears, and +all beheld the sight with a mixture of sorrow and pleasure, until the +children had passed. + +After his children and their attendants came Perseus himself, clad all +in black, and wearing the boots of his country; and looking like one +altogether stunned and deprived of reason, through the greatness of his +misfortunes. Next followed a great company of his friends and familiars, +whose countenances were disfigured with grief, and who let the +spectators see, by their tears and their continual looking upon Perseus, +that it was his fortune they so much lamented, and that they were +regardless of their own. Perseus sent to Aemilius to entreat that he +might not be led in pomp, but be left out of the triumph; who, deriding, +as was but just, his cowardice and fondness of life, sent him this +answer, that as for that, it had been before, and was now, in his own +power; giving him to understand that the disgrace could be avoided by +death; which the faint-hearted man not having the spirit for, and made +effeminate by I know not what hopes, allowed himself to appear as a part +of his own spoils. After these were carried four hundred crowns, all +made of gold, sent from the cities by their respective deputations to +Aemilius, in honor of his victory. Then he himself came, seated on a +chariot magnificently adorned (a man well worthy to be looked at, even +without these ensigns of power), dressed in a robe of purple, interwoven +with gold, and holding a laurel branch in his right hand. All the army, +in like manner, with boughs of laurel in their hands, divided into +their bands and companies, followed the chariot of their commander; some +singing verses, according to the usual custom, mingled with raillery; +others, songs of triumph, and the praise of Aemilius's deeds; who, +indeed, was admired and accounted happy by all men, and unenvied by +every one that was good; except so far as it seems the province of some +god to lessen that happiness which is too great and inordinate, and so +to mingle the affairs of human life that no one should be entirely free +from calamities; but, as we read in Homer*, only those should think +themselves truly blessed to whom fortune has given an equal share of +good and evil. + + * "Grief is useless; cease to lament," Achilles to Priam, + his suppliant for the body of Hecor. "For thus have the gods + appointed for mortal men; that they should live in vexation, + while the gods themselves are untroubled. Two vessels are + set upon the threshold of Zeus, of the gifts that he + dispenses; one of evil things, the other of good; he who + receives from both at the hand of thundering Zeus, meets at + one time with evil, and at another with good; he who + receives from only one, is a miserable wretch." + + + + +THE NOBLE CHARACTER OF CAIUS FABRICIUS FROM THE LIFE OF PYRRHUS + +Caius Fabricius, a man of highest consideration among the Romans as an +honest man and a good soldier, but extremely poor, went upon an embassy +to Pyrrhus to treat about prisoners that had been taken. Pyrrhus +received him with much kindness, and privately would have persuaded +him to accept of his gold, not for any evil purpose, but as a mark of +respect and hospitable kindness. Upon Fabricius's refusal, he pressed +him no further, but the next day, having a mind to discompose him, as +he had never seen an elephant before, he commanded one of the largest, +completely armed, to be placed behind the hangings, as they were talking +together. This being done, at a given signal the hanging was drawn +aside, and the elephant, raising his trunk over the head of Fabricius, +made a horrid and ugly noise. He gently turned about and, smiling, said +to Pyrrhus, "neither your money yesterday, nor this beast today make any +impression upon me." At supper, amongst all sorts of things that were +discoursed of, but more particularly Greece and the philosophers there, +Cineas, by accident, had occasion to speak of Epicurus, and explained +the opinions his followers hold about the gods and the commonwealth, and +the object of life, who place the chief happiness of man in pleasure, +and decline public affairs as an injury and disturbance of a happy life, +and remove the gods afar off both from kindness or anger, or any +concern for us at all, to a life wholly without business and flowing in +pleasures. Before he had done speaking, Fabricius cried out to Pyrrhus, +"O Hercules! may Pyrrhus and the Samnites entertain themselves with this +sort of opinions as long as they are at war with us." Pyrrhus, admiring +the wisdom and gravity of the man, was the more transported with desire +to make friendship instead of war with the city, and entreated him, +personally, after the peace should be concluded, to accept of living +with him as the chief of his ministers and generals. Fabricius answered +quietly, "Sir, this will not be for your advantage, for they who now +honor and admire you, when they have had experience of me, will rather +choose to be governed by me, than by you." And Pyrrhus received his +answer without any resentment or tyrannic passion; nay, among his +friends he highly commended the great mind of Fabricius, and intrusted +the prisoners to him alone, on condition that if the senate should not +vote a peace, after they had conversed with their friends and celebrated +the festival of Saturn, they should be remanded. And, accordingly, they +were sent back after the holidays; death being decreed for any that +stayed behind. + +After this, when Fabricius had taken the consulate, a person came with +a letter to the camp written by the king's principal physician, offering +to take Pyrrhus off by poison, and so end the war without further hazard +to the Romans, if he might have a reward proportional to his service. +Fabricius, despising the villany of the man, and disposing the other +consul to the same opinion, sent despatches immediately to Pyrrhus to +caution him against the treason. His letter was to this effect: "Caius +Fabricius and Quintus Aemilius, consuls of the Romans, to Pyrrhus the +king, health. You seem to have made a bad judgement both of your friends +and your enemies; you will understand by reading this letter sent to us, +that you are at war with honest men, and trust villains and knaves. Nor +do we disclose this out of any favor to you, but lest your ruin might +bring a reproach upon us, as if we had ended the war by treachery +because not able to do it by force." When Pyrrhus had read the letter, +and made inquiry into the treason, he punished the physician, and as an +acknowledgement to the Romans sent to Rome the prisoners without ransom. +But they, regarding it as at once too great a kindness from an enemy, +and too great a reward for not doing a mean act to accept their +prisoners so, released in return an equal number of the Tarentines +and Samnites, but would admit of no debate of alliance or peace until +Pyrrhus had removed his arms and forces out of Italy, and sailed back to +Epirus with the same ships that brought him over. + + + + +FROM THE LIFE OF QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS + +Hannibal was within five miles of Tarentum, when he was informed that +the town had been taken by Fabius. He said openly, "Rome, then, has also +got a Hannibal; as we won Tarentum, so have we lost it." And, in private +with some of his confidants, he told them, for the first time, that he +always thought it difficult, but now he held it impossible, with the +forces he then had, to master Italy. + +Upon this success, Fabius had a triumph decreed him at Rome, much more +splendid than his first; they looked upon him now as a champion who had +learned to cope with his antagonist, and could now easily foil his arts +and prove his best skill ineffectual. And, indeed the army of Hannibal +was at this time partly worn out with continual action, and partly +weakened and become dissolute with over abundance and luxury. Marcus +Livius, who was governor of Tarentum when it was betrayed to Hannibal, +and had then retired into the citadel, which he kept till the town +was retaken, was annoyed at these honors and distinctions, and, on one +occasion, openly declared in the senate, that by his resistance, more +than by any actions of Fabius, Tarentum had been recovered; on which +Fabius laughingly replied: "What you say is very true, for if Marcus +Livius had not lost Tarentum, Fabius Maximus had never recovered it." +The people, among other marks of gratitude, gave his son the consulship +of the next year; shortly after whose entrance upon his office, there +being some business on foot about provision for the war, his father, +either on account of age and infirmity, or perhaps out of design to try +his son, came up to him on horseback. While he was still at a distance, +the young consul observed it, and bade one of his lictors command his +father to alight, and tell him that, if he had any business with the +consul, he should come on foot. The bystanders seemed offended at the +imperiousness of the son towards a father so venerable for his age and +his authority, and turned their eyes in silence towards Fabius. He, +however, instantly alighted from his horse, and with open arms came up, +almost running, and embracing him said, "Yes, my son, you do well, and +understand what authority you have received, and over whom you are to +use it. This was the way by which we and our forefathers advanced +the dignity of Rome, preferring ever her honor and service to our own +fathers and children." + +And, in fact, it is told that the great-grandfather of Fabius, who was +undoubtedly the greatest man of Rome in his time, both in reputation +and authority, who had been five times consul, and had been honored with +several triumphs for victories obtained by him, took pleasure in serving +as lieutenant under his own son, when he went as consul to his command. +And when afterwards his son had a triumph bestowed upon him for his good +service, the old man followed his triumphant chariot, on horseback, as +one of his attendants; and made it his glory, that while he really +was, and was acknowledged to be, the greatest man in Rome, and held a +father's full power over his son, he yet submitted himself to the law +and the magistrate. + + + + +THE CRUELTY OF LUCIUS CORNELIUS SYLLA + +Sylla's general personal appearance may be known by his statues; only +his blue eyes, of themselves extremely keen and glaring, were rendered +all the more forbidding and terrible by the complexion of his face, in +which white was mixed with rough blotches of fiery red. Hence, it is +said, he was surnamed Sylla, and in allusion to it one of the scurrilous +jesters at Athens made the verse upon him, + + Sylla is a mulberry sprinkled o'er with meal. + +Sylla being wholly bent upon slaughter, filled the city with executions +without number or limit, many wholly uninterested persons falling a +sacrifice to private enmity, through his permission and indulgence to +his friends. At last Caius Metellus, one of the younger men, made bold +in the senate to ask him what end there was of these evils, and at what +point he might be expected to stop? "We do ask you," said he, "to pardon +any whom you have resolved to destroy, but to free from doubt those whom +you are pleased to save." Sylla answering, that he knew not as yet whom +to spare, he asked: "Will you then tell us whom you will punish?" This +Sylla said he would do. These last words, some authors say, were spoken +not by Metellus, but by Afidius, one of Sylla's fawning companions. +Immediately upon this, without communicating with any magistrates, Sylla +proscribed eighty persons, and notwithstanding the general indignation, +after one day's respite, he posted two hundred and twenty more, and on +the third again, as many. In an address to the people on this occasion, +he told them he had put up as many names as he could think of; those +which had escaped his memory, he would publish at a future time. He +issued an edict likewise, making death the punishment of humanity, +proscribing any who should dare to receive and cherish a proscribed +person, without exception to brother, son, or parents. And to him who +should slay any one proscribed person, he ordained two talents' reward, +even were it a slave who had killed his master, or a son his father. +And what was thought most unjust of all, he caused the attainder to +pass upon their sons, and sons' sons, and made open sale of all their +property. Nor did the proscription prevail only at Rome, but throughout +all the cities of Italy the effusion of blood was such that neither +sanctuary of the gods nor hearth of hospitality nor ancestral home +escaped. Men were butchered in the embraces of their wives, children in +the arms of their mothers. Those who perished through public animosity, +or private enmity, were nothing in comparison to the numbers of those +who suffered for their riches. Even the murderers began to say, that +"his fine house killed this man, a garden that, a third, his hot baths." +Quintus Aurelius, a quiet, peaceable man, and one who thought all his +part in the common calamity consisted in condoling with the misfortunes +of others, coming into the forum to read the list, and finding himself +among the proscribed, cried out, "Woe is me, my Alban farm has informed +against me." He had not gone far, before he was despatched by a ruffian, +sent on that errand. + +In the meantime, Marius, on the point of being taken, killed himself; +and Sylla, coming to Praeneste, at first proceeded judicially against +each particular person, till at last, finding it a work of too much +time, he cooped them up together in one place, to the number of twelve +thousand men, and gave order for the execution of them all, save his own +host (The friend, that is, with whom he always stayed when he happened +to be at Praeneste, his 'xenos;' a relationship much regarded to the +Greek and Roman world) alone excepted. But he, brave man, telling him +he could not accept the obligation of life from the hands of one who +had been the ruin of his country, went in among the rest, and submitted +willingly to the stroke. + + + + +THE LUXURY OF LUCULLUS + +Lucullus' life, like the Old comedy, presents us at the commencement +with acts of policy and of war, and at the end offers nothing but good +eating and drinking, feastings, and revelings, and mere play. For I give +no higher name to his sumptuous buildings, porticos and baths, still +less to his paintings and sculptures, and all his industry about these +curiosities, which he collected with vast expense, lavishly bestowing +all the wealth and treasure which he got in the war upon them, insomuch +that even now, with all the advance of luxury, the Lucullean gardens are +counted the noblest the emperor has. Tubero, the stoic, when he saw his +buildings at Naples, where he suspended the hills upon vast tunnels, +brought in the sea for moats and fish-ponds round his house, and +pleasure-houses in the waters, called him Xerxes in a gown. He had also +fine seats in Tusculum, belvederes, and large open balconies for men's +apartments, and porticos to walk in, where Pompey coming to see him, +blamed him for making a house which would be pleasant in summer, but +uninhabitable in winter; whom he answered with a smile, "You think me, +then, less provident than cranes and storks, not to change my home with +the season." When a praetor, with great expense and pains, was preparing +a spectacle for the people, and asked him to lend him some purple robes +for the performers in a chorus, he told him he would go home and see, +and if he had any, would let him take them; and the next day asking how +many he wanted, and being told that a hundred would suffice, bade him +take twice as many: on which the poet Horace observes, that a house is +indeed a poor one, where the valuables unseen and unthought of do not +exceed all those that meet the eye. + +Lucullus' daily entertainments were ostentatiously extravagant, not +only in purple coverlets, and plate adorned with precious stones, and +dancings, and interludes, but with the greatest diversity of dishes and +the most elaborate cookery, for the vulgar to admire and envy. It was a +happy thought of Pompey in his sickness, when his physician prescribed +a thrush for his dinner, and his servants told him that in summer time +thrushes were not to be found anywhere but in Lucullus' fattening coops, +that he would not suffer them to fetch one thence, but observed to +his physician, "So if Lucullus had not been an epicure, Pompey had +not lived," and ordered something else that could easily be got to be +prepared for him. Cato was his friend and connection, but, nevertheless, +so hated his life and habits, that when a young man in the senate made a +long and tedious speech in praise of frugality and temperance, Cato +got up and said, "How long do you mean to go making money like Crassus, +living like Lucullus, and talking like Cato?" + +It is plain from the anecdotes on record of him, that Lucullus was not +only pleased with, but even gloried in his way of living. For he is said +to have feasted several Greeks upon their coming to Rome day after day, +who, out of a true Grecian principle, being ashamed, and declining the +invitation, where so great an expense was every day incurred for them, +he with a smile said to them, "Some of this, indeed, my Grecian friends, +is for your sakes, but more for that of Lucullus." Once when he supped +alone, there being only one course, and that but moderately furnished, +he called his steward and reproved him, who, professing to have supposed +that there would be no need of any great entertainment, when nobody +was invited, was answered, "What, did you not know, then, that today +Lucullus was to dine with Lucullus?" This being much spoken of about +the city, Cicero and Pompey one day met him loitering in the forum, the +former his intimate friend and familiar, and, though there had been some +ill-will between Pompey and him about the command in the war, still +they used to see each other and converse on easy terms together. Cicero +accordingly saluted him, and asked him whether today was a good time for +asking a favor of him, and on his answering, "Very much so," and begging +to hear what it was, Cicero said, "then we should like to dine with you +today, just on the dinner that is prepared for yourself." Lucullus being +surprised, and requesting a day's time, they refused to grant it, and +would not allow him to talk with his servants, for fear he should give +orders for more than was appointed before. But this they consented to, +that before their faces he might tell his servant, that today he would +sup in "the Apollo" (for so one of his best dining-rooms was called), +and by this evasion he outwitted his guests. For every room, as it +seems, had its own assessment of expenditure, dinner at such a price, +and all else in accordance; so that the servants, on knowing where he +would dine, knew also how much was to be expended, and in what style +and form dinner was to be served. The expense for the Apollo was fifty +thousand drachmas, and such a sum being that day laid out, the greatness +of the cost did not so much amaze Pompey and Cicero, as the rapidity +of the outlay. One might believe that Lucullus thought his money really +captive and barbarian, so wantonly and contumeliously did he treat it. + +His furnishing of a library, however, deserves praise and record, for he +collected very many choice manuscripts; and the use they were put to was +even more magnificent than the purchase, the library being always open, +and the walks and reading rooms about it free to all Greeks, whose +delight it was to leave their other occupations and hasten thither as +to the habitation of the Muses, there walking about, and diverting one +another. He himself often passed his hours there, disputing with the +learned in the walks, and giving his advice to statesmen who required +it, insomuch that his house was altogether a home, and in a manner, a +Greek prytaneum for those that visited Rome. + + + + +FROM THE LIFE OF SERTORIUS + +(The Roman who endeavored to establish a separate government for himself +in Spain.) + +Sertorius was highly honored for his introducing discipline and good +order among the Spaniards, for he altered their furious and savage +manner of fighting, and brought them to make use of the Roman armor, +taught them to keep their ranks, and observe signals and watchwords; +and out of a confused horde of thieves and robbers, he constituted a +regular, well-disciplined army. He bestowed silver and gold upon them +liberally to gild and adorn their helmets, he had their shields worked +with various figures and designs, he brought them into the mode of +wearing flowered and embroidered cloaks and coats, and by supplying +money for these purposes, and joining with them in all improvements, he +won the hearts of all. That, however, which delighted them most, was the +care that he took of their children. He sent for all the boys of noblest +parentage out of all their tribes, and placed them in the great city +of Osca, where he appointed masters to instruct them in the Grecian +and Roman learning, that when they came to be men, they might, as he +professed, be fitted to share with him in authority, and in conducting +the government, although under this pretext he really made them +hostages. However, their fathers were wonderfully pleased to see their +children going daily to the schools in good order, handsomely dressed +in gowns edged with purple, and that Sertorius paid for their lessons, +examined them often, distributed rewards to the most deserving, and +gave them the golden bosses to hang around their necks, which the Romans +called "bullae." + +All the cities on this side of the river Ebro finally united their +forces under his command, and his army grew very great, for they +flocked together and flowed in upon him from all quarters. But when they +continually cried out to attack the enemy, and were impatient of delay, +their inexperienced, disorderly rashness caused Sertorius much trouble, +who at first strove to restrain them with reason and good counsel, but +when he perceived them refractory and unseasonably violent, he gave way +to their impetuous desires, and permitted them to engage with the enemy, +in such a way that they might be repulsed, yet not totally routed, and +so become more obedient to his commands for the future. This happening +as he had anticipated, he soon rescued them, and brought them safe into +his camp. And after a few days, being willing to encourage them again, +when he had called all his army together, he caused two horses to be +brought into the field, one an old, feeble, lean animal, the other a +lusty, strong horse, with a remarkably thick and long tail. Near the +lean one he placed a tall, strong man, and near the strong, young horse +a weak, despicable-looking fellow; and at a given signal the strong man +took hold of the weak horse's tail with both his hands, and drew it to +him with his whole force, as if he would pull it off; the other, the +weak man, in the meantime, set to work to pluck off hair by hair the +great horse's tail. And when the strong man had given trouble enough +to himself in vain, and sufficient diversion to the company, and had +abandoned his attempt, whilst the weak, pitiful fellow in a short time +and with little pains had left not a hair on the great horse's tail, +Sertorius arose and said to his army, "You see, fellow-soldiers, that +perseverance is more prevailing than violence, and that many things +which cannot be overcome when they are together, yield readily when +taken little by little. Assiduity and persistence are irresistible, +and in time overthrow and destroy the greatest powers. Time being the +favorable friend and assistant of those who use their judgment to await +his occasions, and the destructive enemy of those who are unseasonably +urging and pressing forward." + +Of all his remarkable exploits, none raised greater admiration than that +which he put in practice against the Characitanians. These are a people +beyond the river Tagus, who inhabit neither cities nor towns, but live +in a vast, high hill, within the deep dens and caves of the rocks, the +mouths of which all open towards the north. The country below is of a +soil resembling a light clay, so loose as easily to break into powder, +and is not firm enough to bear any one that treads upon it, and if you +touch it in the least, it flies about like ashes or unslaked lime. In +any danger of war, these people enter their caves, and carrying in their +booty and prey along with them, stay quietly within, secure from every +attack. And when Sertorius, leaving Metellus some distance off, +had placed his camp near this hill, they slighted and despised him, +imagining that he retired into these parts to escape being overthrown +by the Romans. And whether out of anger and resentment, or out of +his unwillingness to be thought to fly from his enemies, early in the +morning he rode up to view the situation of the place. But finding there +was no way to come at it, as he rode about, threatening them in vain and +disconcerted, he took notice that the wind raised the dust and carried +it up towards the caves of the Characitanians, and the northerly wind, +which some call Caecias, prevailing most in those parts, coming up out +of moist plains or mountains covered with snow, at this particular +time, in the heat of summer, being further supplied and increased by +the melting of the ice in the northern regions, blew a delightful, fresh +gale, cooling and refreshing the Characitanians and their cattle all the +day long. Sertorius, considering well all circumstances in which either +the information of the inhabitants, or his own experience had instructed +him, commanded his soldiers to shovel up a great quantity of this light, +dusty earth, to heap it together, and make a mound of it over against +the hill in which these barbarous people lived, who, imagining that all +this preparation was for raising a mound to get at them, only mocked +and laughed at it. However, he continued the work till the evening, and +brought his soldiers back into their camp. The next morning a gentle +breeze at first arose, and moved the lightest parts of the earth, and +dispersed it about as the chaff before the wind; but when the sun got +higher, and the strong, northerly wind had covered the hills with the +dust, the soldiers came and turned this mound of earth over and over, +and broke the hard clods in pieces, whilst others on horseback rode +through it backward and forward, and raised a cloud of dust into the +air; then with the wind the whole of it was carried away and blown into +the dwellings of the Characitanians, all lying open to the north. And +there being no other vent or breathing-place than that through which the +Caecias rushed in upon them, it quickly blinded their eyes, and filled +their lungs, and all but choked them, whilst they strove to draw in the +rough air mingled with dust and powdered earth. Nor were they able, with +all they could do, to hold out more than two days, but surrendered +on the third, adding, by their defeat, not so much to the power of +Sertorius, as to his renown, in proving that he was able to conquer +places by art, which were impregnable by the force of arms. + + + + +THE SCROLL-FROM THE LIFE OF LYSANDER + +The scroll is made up thus: when the Ephors send an admiral or general +on his way, they take two round pieces of wood, both exactly of a length +and thickness, and cut even to one another; they keep one themselves, +and the other the give to the person they send forth; and these pieces +of wood they call Scytales. When, therefore, they have occasion to +communicate any secret or important matter, making a scroll of parchment +long and narrow like a leathern thong, they roll it about their own +staff of wood, leaving no space void between, but covering the surface +of the staff with the scroll all over. When they have done this, they +write what they please on the scroll, as it is wrapped about the staff; +and when they have written, they take off the scroll, and send it to the +general without the wood. He, when he has received it, can read nothing +of the writing, because the words and letters are not connected, but +all broken up; but taking his own staff, he winds the slip of the scroll +about it, so that this folding, restoring all the parts into the same +order that they were in before, and putting what comes first into +connection with what follows, brings the whole consecutive contents to +view round the outside. And this scroll is called a _staff_, after the +name of the wood, as a thing measured is by the name of the measure. + + + + +THE CHARACTER OF MARCUS CATO + +Marcus Cato grew so powerful by his eloquence that he was commonly +called the Roman Demosthenes; but his manner of life was yet more famous +and talked of. For oratorical skill was, as an accomplishment, commonly +studied and sought after by all young men; but he was a rare man who +would cultivate the old habits of bodily labor, or prefer a light +supper, and a breakfast which never saw the fire; or be in love with +poor clothes and a homely lodging, or could set his ambition rather +on doing without luxuries than on possessing them. For now the state, +unable to keep its purity by reason of its greatness, and having so many +affairs, and people from all parts under its government, was fain to +admit many mixed customs, and new examples of living. With reason, +therefore, everybody admired Cato, when they saw others sink under +labors, and grow effeminate by pleasures, but beheld him unconquered by +either; and that, too, not only when he was young and desirous of honor, +but also when old and gray-headed, after a consulship and triumph; +like some famous victor in the games, persevering in his exercise and +maintaining his character to the very last. He himself says, that he +never wore a suit of clothes which cost more than a hundred drachmas; +and that, when he was general and consul, he drank the same wine which +his workmen did; and that the meat or fish which was bought in the +market for his dinner, did not cost above thirty 'asses.' All which was +for the sake of the commonwealth, that his body might be the hardier for +the war. Having a piece of embroidered Babylonian tapestry left him, he +sold it; because none of his farm-houses were so much as plastered. Nor +did he ever buy a slave for above fifteen hundred drachmas; as he did +not seek for effeminate and handsome ones, but able, sturdy workmen, +horse-keepers, and cow-herds; and these he thought ought to be sold +again, when they grew old, and no useless servants fed in a house. In +short, he reckoned nothing a good bargain, which was superfluous; but +whatever it was, though sold for a farthing, he would think it a great +price, if you had no need of it. + +Yet, in my judgment, it marks an over-rigid temper for a man to take the +work out of his servants as out of brute beasts, turning them off +and selling them in their old age. A kind-natured man will keep even +worn-out horses and dogs, and not only take care of them when they are +foals and whelps, but also when they are grown old. The Athenians, when +they built their Hecatompedon,* (*The Parthenon; built on the site of +an older temple which had borne the name of Hecatompedon, or a "hundred +feet long." The name was retained for the new building.) turned those +mules loose to feed freely, which they had observed to have done the +hardest labor. One of these came once of itself to offer its service, +and ran along with, nay, went before, the teams which drew the wagons up +to the Acropolis, as if it would incite and encourage them to draw more +stoutly; upon which a vote was passed that the creature should be kept +at the public charge till it died. The graves of Cimon's horses, which +thrice won the Olympian races, are yet to be seen close by his own +monument. Old Xanthippus, too, the father of Pericles, entombed his +dogs which swam after his galley to Salamis, when the people fled from +Athens, on the top of a cliff, which they call the dogs' tomb to this +day. + +For his general temperance, however, and self-control, Cato really +deserves the highest admiration. For when he commanded the army, he +never took for himself, and those that belonged to him, more than three +bushels of wheat for a month, and somewhat less than a bushel and a half +a day of barley for his baggage-cattle. And when he entered upon the +government of Sardinia, where his predecessors had been used to require +tents, bedding, and clothes upon the public account, and to charge the +state heavily with the cost of provisions and entertainments for a great +train of servants and friends, the difference he showed in his economy +was something incredible. There was nothing of any sort for which he put +the public to expense; he would walk, instead of taking a carriage to +visit the cities, with only one of the common town officers, who carried +his dress, and a cup to offer libation with. Yet on the other hand, +he showed most inflexible severity and strictness, in what related to +public justice, and was rigorous, and precise in what concerned the +ordinances of the commonwealth; so that the Roman government never +seemed more terrible, nor yet more mild, than under his administration. + +His very manner of speaking seemed to have such a kind of idea with +it; for it was courteous, and yet forcible; pleasant, yet overwhelming; +facetious, yet austere; sententious, and yet vehement: like Socrates, in +the description of Plato, who seemed outwardly to those about him to be +but a simple, talkative, blunt fellow; whilst at the bottom he was full +of such gravity and matter, as would even move tears, and touch the very +hearts of his auditors. Reproving on one occasion the sumptuous habits +of the Romans, he said: "It is hard to preserve a city, where a fish is +sold for more than an ox." He had a saying, also, that the Roman people +were like sheep; for they, when single, do not obey, but when altogether +in a flock, they follow their leaders: "So you," said he, "when you have +got together in a body let yourselves be guided by those whom singly you +would never think of being advised by." + +The Romans having sent three ambassadors to Bithnia, of whom one was +gouty, another had his skull trepanned, and the other seemed little +better than a fool; Cato, laughing, gave out that the Romans had sent an +embassy, which had neither feet, head, nor heart.* (*Both the Romans and +the Greeks conceived of the region of the heart, the chest, as the seat +not of emotion, nor of will and courage merely, but more especially of +judgment, deliberation, and practical sense. Thus the Greeks derived +their word for moral wisdom from Phren, the diaphragm, and the Romans by +'egregie cordatus homo' meant a wise statesman.) + +Cato also said that in his whole life he most repented of three things; +one was, that he had trusted a secret to a woman; another that he +went by water when he might have gone by land; the third, that he had +remained one whole day without doing any business of moment. + +He was a good father, an excellent husband to his wife, and an +extraordinary economist; and as he did not manage his affairs of this +kind carelessly, and as things of little moment, I think I ought to +record a little further whatever was commendable in him in these points. +He married a wife more noble than rich; being of opinion that the rich +and the high-born are equally haughty and proud; but that those of +noble blood would be more ashamed of base things, and consequently more +obedient to their husbands in all that was fit and right. A man who beat +his wife or child, laid violent hands, he said, on what was most sacred; +and a good husband he reckoned worthy of more praise than a great +senator; and he admired the ancient Socrates for nothing so much, as for +having lived a temperate and contented life with a wife who was a scold, +and children who were half-witted. + +When his son began to come to years of discretion, Cato himself would +teach him to read, although he had a servant, a very good grammarian, +called Chilo, who taught many others; but he thought not fit, as he +himself said, to have his son reprimanded by a slave, or pulled, it may +be, by the ears when found tardy in his lesson: nor would he have him +owe to a servant the obligation of so great a thing as his learning; he +himself, therefore, taught him his grammar, his law, and his gymnastic +exercises. Nor did he only show him, too, how to throw a dart, to fight +in armor, and to ride, but to box also and to endure both heat and cold, +and to swim over the most rapid and rough rivers. He says, likewise, +that he wrote histories, in large characters, with his own hand, that +so his son, without stirring out of the house, might learn to know about +his countrymen and forefathers: nor did he less abstain from speaking +any thing improper before his son, than if it had been in the presence +of the sacred virgins, called vestals. Nor would he ever go into the +bath with him; which seems indeed to have been the common custom of the +Romans. + +Thus, like an excellent work, Cato formed and fashioned his son to +virtue. + + + + +THE SACRED THEBAN BAND FROM THE LIFE OF PELOPIDAS. + +Gorgidas, according to some, first formed the Sacred Band of three +hundred chosen men, to whom, as being a guard for the citadel, the State +allowed provision, and all things necessary for exercise: and hence +they were called the city band, as citadels of old were usually called +cities. Others say that it was composed of young men attached to each +other by personal affection, and a pleasant saying of Pammenes is +current, that Homer's Nestor was not well skilled in ordering an army, +when he advised the Greeks to rank tribe and tribe, and family and +family together, that + + "So tribe might tribe, and kinsmen kinsmen aid," + +but that he should have joined lovers and their beloved. For men of the +same tribe or family little value one another when dangers press; but a +band cemented by friendship grounded upon love, is never to be broken, +and invincible; since all, ashamed to be base in sight of their beloved, +willingly rush into danger for the relief of one another. Nor can that +be wondered at; since they have more regard for their absent loving +friends than for others present; as in the instance of the man who, +when his enemy was going to kill him, earnestly requested him to run him +through the breast, that his lover might not blush to see him wounded in +the back. It is a tradition likewise, that Iolaus, who assisted Hercules +in his labors and fought at his side, was beloved of him; and Aristotle +observes, that even in his time, lovers plighted their faith at Iolaus' +tomb. It is likely, therefore, that this band was called sacred on this +account; as Plato calls a lover a divine friend. It is stated that it +was never beaten till the battle at Chaeronea: and when Philip, after +the fight, took a view of the slain, and came to the place where the +three hundred that fought his phalanx lay dead together, he was filled +with wonder, and understanding that it was the band of lovers, he shed +tears and said, "Perish any man who suspects that these men either did +or suffered any thing that was base." + + + + +FROM THE LIFE OF TITUS FLAMININUS, THE CONQUEROR OF PHILIP + +Among the songs written after the battle of Cynos Cephalas (the +Dog-heads), was the following epigram, composed by Alcaeus in mockery of +Philip, exaggerating the number of the slain: + + Naked and tombless see, O passer-by + The thirty thousand men of Thessaly, + Slain by the Aetolians and the Latin band, + That came with Titus from Italia's land: + Alas for mighty Macedon! that day, + Swift as a roe, king Philip fled away. + +Titus himself thought more highly of his liberation of Greece than of +any other of his actions, as appears by the inscription upon some silver +targets, dedicated together with his own shield, to Apollo at Delphi: + + Ye Spartan Tyndarids, twin sons of Jove, + Who in swift horsemanship have placed your love, + Titus, of great Aeneas' race, leaves this + In honor of the liberty of Greece. + +And a golden crown, also offered to Apollo, bore this inscription: + + This golden crown upon thy locks divine, + O blest Latona's son, was set to shine + By the great captain of the Aenean name + O Phoebus, grant the noble Titus fame! + +When the ambassadors of Antiochus were recounting to those of Achaea, +the various multitudes composing their royal master's forces, and ran +over a long catalogue of hard names, "I supped once," said Titus, "with +a friend, and could not forbear expostulating with him at the number +of dishes he had provided, and said I wondered where he had furnished +himself with such a variety; 'Sir,' replied he, 'to confess the truth, +it is all hog's flesh differently cooked.' And so, men of Achaea, when +you are told of Antiochus' lancers, and pikemen, and foot-guards, I +advise you not to be surprised; since in fact they are all Syrians +differently armed." + +The Chalcidians, who owed their lives to Titus, dedicated to him all the +best and most magnificent of their sacred buildings, inscriptions upon +which, like the following, may be seen to this day: THE PEOPLE DEDICATE +THIS GYMNASIUM TO TITUS AND TO HERCULES; so again: THE PEOPLE +CONSECRATE THE DELPHINIUM TO TITUS AND TO HERCULES; and what is yet more +remarkable, even in our time, a priest of Titus was formally elected +and declared; and after sacrifice and libation, they sang a set song, of +which these are the closing verses:-- + + The Roman Faith, whose aid of yore, + Our vows were offered to implore, + We worship now and evermore. + To Rome, to Titus, and to Jove, + O maidens, in the dances move. + Dances and Io-Paeans too + Unto the Roman Faith are due + O Savior Titus, and to you. + + + + +ALEXANDER THE GREAT + +It must be borne in mind that my design has been not to write histories, +but lives. And the most glorious exploits do not always furnish us with +the clearest discoveries of virtue or vice in men; sometimes a matter +of less moment, an expression or a jest, informs us better of their +characters and inclinations, than the most famous sieges, the +greatest armaments, or the bloodiest battles whatsoever. Therefore as +portrait-painters are more exact in the lines and features of the face, +in which the character is seen, than in the other parts of the body, so +I must be allowed to give my more particular attention to the marks and +indications of the souls of men, in my portrayal of their lives. + +It is agreed on by all hands, that on the father's side, Alexander +descended from Hercules by Caranus, and from Aeacus by Neoptolemus on +the mother's side. His father Philip, being in Samothrace, when he was +quite young, fell in love there with Olympias, in company with whom he +was initiated in the religious ceremonies of the country, and her father +and mother being both dead, soon after, with the consent of her brother +Arymbas, he married her. + +Alexander was born on the sixth of Hecatombaeon, the same day that the +temple of Diana at Ephesus was burnt. The statues that gave the best +representation of Alexander's person, were those of Lysippus, those +peculiarities which many of his successors afterwards and his friends +used to affect to imitate,--the inclination of his head a little on +one side towards his left shoulder, and his melting eye,--having been +expressed by this artist with great exactness. But Apelles, who drew him +with thunderbolts in his hand, made his complexion browner and darker +than it was naturally; for he was fair and of a light color, passing +into ruddiness in his face and upon his breast. His temperance, as to +all pleasures, was apparent in him in his very childhood, as he was +with much difficulty incited to them, and always used them with great +moderation; though in other things he was extremely eager and vehement, +and in his love of glory and the pursuit of it, he showed a solidity of +high spirit and magnanimity far above his age. For he neither sought nor +valued it upon every occasion, as his father Philip did (who affected to +show his eloquence almost to a degree of pedantry, and took care to have +the victories of his racing chariots at the Olympic games engraved on +his coin), but when he was asked by some about him, whether he would run +a race in the Olympic games, as he was very swift-footed, he answered, +that he would, if he might have kings to run with him. + +While he was yet very young, he entertained the ambassadors from the +king of Persia, in the absence of his father, and entering much into +conversation with them, gained so much upon them by his affability, +and the questions he asked them, which were far from being childish or +trifling (for he inquired of them the length of the ways, the nature of +the road into inner Asia, the character of their king, how he carried +himself toward his enemies, and what forces he was able to bring into +the field), that they were struck with admiration of him, and looked +upon the ability so much famed of Philip, to be nothing in comparison +with the forwardness and high purpose that appeared thus early in his +son. Whenever he heard that Philip had taken any town of importance, or +won any signal victory, instead of rejoicing at it altogether, he would +tell his companions that his father would anticipate every thing, and +leave him and them no opportunities of performing great and illustrious +actions. For being more bent upon action and glory than upon either +pleasure or riches, he esteemed all that he should receive from his +father as a diminution of his own future achievements; and would have +chosen rather to succeed to a kingdom involved in troubles and wars, +which would have afforded him frequent exercise of his courage, and a +large field of honor, than to one already flourishing and settled, where +his inheritance would be an inactive life, and the mere enjoyment of +wealth and luxury. + +The care of his education, as it might be presumed, was committed to a +great many attendants, preceptors, and teachers, over the whole of +whom Leonidas, a near kinsman of Olympias, a man of an austere temper, +presided, who did not indeed himself decline the name of what in reality +is a noble and honorable office, but in general his dignity, and +his near relationship, obtained him from other people the title of +Alexander's fosterfather and governor. But he who took upon him +the actual place and style of his "pedagogue," was Lysimachus the +Acarnanian. + +Philonicus the Thessalian brought the horse Bucephalas to Philip, +offering to sell him for thirteen talents; but when they went into the +field to try him, they found him so very vicious and unmanageable, that +he reared up when they endeavored to mount him, and would not so much as +endure the voice of any of Philip's attendants. Upon which, as they were +leading him away as wholly useless and untractable, Alexander, who stood +by, said, "What a magnificent horse they lose, for want of address and +boldness to manage him!" Philip at first took no notice of what he said, +but when he heard him repeat the same thing several times, and perceived +that he was much vexed to see the horse sent away, he said to him, "Do +you reproach those who are older than yourself, as if you knew more, and +were better able to manage him than they?" "I could manage this horse," +replied he, "better than others do." "And if you fail," said Philip, +"what will you forfeit for your rashness?" "I will pay," answered +Alexander, "the whole price of the horse." At this the whole company +fell to laughing; and as soon as the wager was settled amongst them, he +immediately ran to the horse, and taking hold of the bridle, turned +him directly towards the sun, having, it seems, observed that he was +disturbed at and afraid of the motion of his own shadow; then letting +him go forward a little, still keeping the reins in his hand, and +stroking him gently when he found him beginning to grow eager and fiery, +he let fall his upper garment softly, and with one nimble leap securely +mounted him, and when he was seated, little by little drew in the +bridle, and curbed him without either striking or spurring him. +Presently, when he found him free from all rebelliousness, and only +impatient for the course, he let him go at full speed, inciting him now +with a commanding voice, and urging him also with his heel. Philip and +his friends looked on at first in silence and anxiety for the result, +till seeing him turn at the end of his career, and come back rejoicing +and triumphing for what he had performed, they all burst out into +acclamations of applause; and his father, shedding tears, it is +said, for joy, kissed him as he came down from his horse, and in his +transport, said, "O my son, seek out a kingdom worthy of thyself, for +Macedonia is too little for thee." + +After this, considering him to be of a temper easy to be led to his +duty by reason, but by no means to be compelled, he always endeavored +to persuade rather than to command or force him to any thing; and now +looking upon the instruction and tuition of his youth to be of greater +difficulty and importance, than to be wholly trusted to the ordinary +masters in music and poetry, and the common school subjects, and to +require, as Sophocles says, + + The bridle and the rudder too, + +he sent for Aristotle, the most learned and most celebrated philosopher +of his time, and rewarded him with a munificence proportionable to and +becoming the care he took to instruct his son. For he repeopled his +native city Stagira, which he had caused to be demolished a little +before, and restored all the citizens who were in exile or slavery, +to their habitations. As a place for the pursuit of their studies and +exercises, he assigned the temple of the Nymphs, near Mieza, where, +to this very day, they show you Aristotle's stone seats, and the shady +walks which he was wont to frequent. It would appear that Alexander +received from him not only his doctrines of Morals, and of Politics, but +also something of those more abstruse and profound theories which these +philosophers, by the very names they gave them, professed to reserve for +oral communication to the initiated, and did not allow many to become +acquainted with. For when he was in Asia, and heard Aristotle had +published some treatises of that kind, he wrote to him, using very +plain language to him in behalf of philosophy, the following letter: +"Alexander to Aristotle greeting. You have not done well to publish your +books of oral doctrine, for what is there now that we excel others in, +if those things which we have been particularly instructed in be laid +open to all? For my part, I assure you, I had rather excel others in +the knowledge of what is excellent, than in the extent of my power +and dominion. Farewell." And Aristotle, soothing this passion for +pre-eminence, speaks, in his excuse for himself, of these doctrines, as +in fact both published and not published. To tell the truth, his books +on metaphysics are written in a style which makes them useless for +ordinary teaching, and instructive only in the way of memoranda, for +those who have been already conversant with that sort of learning. + +Doubtless also it was to Aristotle, that he owed the inclination he had, +not to the theory only, but also to the practice of the art of medicine. +For when any of his friends were sick, he would often prescribe for them +their course of diet, and medicines proper to their disease, as we may +find in his epistles. He was naturally a great lover of all kinds of +learning and reading; and Onesicritus informs us, that he constantly +laid Homer's Iliads, according to the copy corrected by Aristotle, +called "The casket copy," with his dagger under his pillow, declaring +that he esteemed it a perfect portable treasure of all military virtue +and knowledge. When he was in the upper Asia, being destitute of other +books, he ordered Harpalus to send him some; who furnished him with +Philistus's History, a great many of the plays of Euripides, Sophocles, +and Aeschylus, and some dithyrambic odes, composed by Telestes and +Philoxenus. + +While Philip went on his expedition against the Byzantines, he left +Alexander, then sixteen years old, his lieutenant in Macedonia, +committing the charge of his seal to him; who, not to sit idle, reduced +the rebellious Maedi, and having taken their chief town by storm, drove +out the barbarous inhabitants, and planting a colony of several nations +in their room, called the place after his own name, Alexandropolis. At +the battle of Chaeronea, which his father fought against the Greeks, +he is said to have been the first man that charged the Thebans' sacred +band. And even in my remembrance, there stood an old oak near the river +Cephisus, which people called Alexander's oak, because his tent was +pitched under it. And not far off are to be seen the graves of the +Macedonians who fell in that battle. This early bravery made Philip so +fond of him, that nothing pleased him more than to hear his subjects +call himself their general and Alexander their king. + +But later on, through an unfortunate marriage of Philip with Cleopatra, +the niece of Attalus, an estrangement grew up between them. And not long +after the brother of Alexander, Pausanias, having had an insult done to +him at the instance of Attalus and Cleopatra, when he found he could +get no reparation for his disgrace at Philip's hands, watched his +opportunity and murdered him. + +Alexander was but twenty years old when his father was murdered, and +succeeded to a kingdom beset on all sides with great dangers, and +rancorous enemies. Hearing the Thebans were in revolt, and the Athenians +in correspondence with them, he immediately marched through the pass +of Thermopylae, saying that to Demosthenes, who had called him a child +while he was in Illyria, and a youth when he was in Thessaly, he would +appear a man before the walls of Athens. + +When he came to Thebes, to show how willing he was to accept of their +repentance for what was past, he only demanded of them Phoenix and +Prothytes, the authors of the rebellion, and proclaimed a general +pardon to those who would come over to him. But when the Thebans merely +retorted by demanding Philotas and Antipater to be delivered into their +hands, he applied himself to make them feel the last extremities of war. +The Thebans defended themselves with a zeal and courage beyond their +strength, being much outnumbered by their enemies. But when the +Macedonian garrison sallied out upon them from the citadel, they were +so hemmed in on all sides, that the greater part of them fell in the +battle; the city itself being taken by storm, was sacked and razed, +Alexander's hope being that so severe an example might terrify the rest +of Greece into obedience. So that, except the priests, and a few who +had heretofore been the friends and connections of the Macedonians, the +family of the poet Pindar, and those who were known to have opposed the +public vote for the war, all the rest, to the number of thirty thousand, +were publicly sold for slaves; and it is computed that upwards of six +thousand were put to the sword. Among the other calamities that befell +the city, it happened that some Thracian soldiers having broken into +the house of a matron of high character and repute named Timoclea, their +captain, to satisfy his avarice, asked her if she knew of any money +concealed; to which she readily answered that she did, and bade him +follow her into a garden, where she showed him a well, into which, she +told him, upon the taking of the city she had thrown what she had of +most value. The greedy Thracian presently stooping down to view the +place where he thought the treasure lay, she came behind him, and pushed +him into the well, and then flung great stones in upon him, till she +had killed him. After which, when the soldiers led her away bound to +Alexander, her very mien and gait showed her to be a woman of dignity +and high mind, not betraying the least sign of fear or astonishment. +And when the king asked her who she was, she said, "I am the sister +of Theagenes, who fought at the battle of Chaeronea with your father, +Philip, and fell there in command for the liberty of Greece." Alexander +was so surprised, both at what she had done, and what she said, that +he could not chose but give her and her children their freedom to go +whither they pleased. + +After this he received the Athenians into favor. Whether it were, like +the lion, that his passion was now satisfied, or that after an example +of extreme cruelty, he had a mind to appear merciful, it happened well +for the Athenians. Certain it is, too, that in after-time he often +repented of his severity to the Thebans, and his remorse had such +influence on his temper as to make him ever after less rigorous to all +others. And it was observed that whatsoever any Theban, who had the +good fortune to survive this victory, asked of him, he was sure to grant +without the least difficulty. + +Soon after, the Greeks being assembled at the Isthmus, declared their +resolution of joining with Alexander in the war against the Persians, +and proclaimed him their general. While he stayed here, many public +ministers and philosophers came from all parts to visit him, and +congratulated him on his election, but contrary to his expectation, +Diogenes of Sinope, who then was living at Corinth, thought so little +of him, that instead of coming to compliment him, he never so much as +stirred out of the suburb called the Cranium, where Alexander ran across +him lying at full length in the sun. When he saw so much company near +him, he raised himself a little, and vouchsafed to look upon Alexander; +and when he kindly asked him whether he wanted any thing, "Yes," said +he, "I would have you stand from between me and the sun." Alexander was +so struck at this answer, and surprised at the greatness of the man, +who had taken so little notice of him, that as he went away, he told his +followers who were laughing at the moroseness of the philosopher, that +if he were not Alexander, he would choose to be Diogenes. + +His army consisted of about thirty thousand foot, and four thousand +horse; and Aristobulus says, he had not a fund of over seventy talents +for their pay, nor more than thirty days' provision, if we may believe +Duris. However narrow the beginnings of so vast an undertaking might +seem to be, yet he would not embark his army until he had informed +himself particularly what means his friends had to enable them to follow +him, and supplied what they wanted, by giving good farms to some, +a village to one, and the revenue of some hamlet or harbor town to +another. So that at last he had portioned out or engaged almost all the +royal property; which giving Perdiccas an occasion to ask him what he +would leave himself, he answered, "My hopes." "Your soldiers," replied +Perdiccas, "will be your partners in those," and refused to accept of +the estate he had assigned him. + +With such vigorous resolutions, and his mind thus disposed, he passed +the Hellespont, and at Troy sacrificed to Minerva, and honored the +memory of the heroes who were buried there, with solemn libations; +especially Achilles, whose gravestone he anointed, and with his friends, +as the ancient custom is, ran naked about his sepulchre, and crowned it +with garlands, declaring how happy he esteemed him, in having, while he +lived, so faithful a friend, and when he was dead, so famous a poet to +proclaim his actions. While he was viewing the rest of the antiquities +and curiosities of the place, being told he might see Paris's harp, if +he pleased, he said, he thought it not worth looking at, but he should +be glad to see that of Achilles, to which he used to sing the glories +and great actions of brave men. + +In the meantime Darius's captains having collected large forces, were +encamped on the further bank of the river Granicus, and it was necessary +to fight, as it were, in the gate of Asia for an entrance into it. And +when Parmenio advised him not to attempt anything that day, because it +was late, he told him that he should disgrace the Hellespont, should he +fear the Granicus. And so without saying more, he immediately took the +river with thirteen troops of horse, and advanced against whole showers +of darts thrown from the steep opposite side, which was covered with +armed multitudes of the enemy's horse and foot, notwithstanding the +disadvantage of the ground and the rapidity of the stream; so that the +action seemed to have more of frenzy and desperation in it, than of +prudent conduct. However, he persisted obstinately to gain the passage, +and at last with much ado making his way up the banks, which were +extremely muddy and slippery, he had instantly to join in a mere +confused hand-to-hand combat with the enemy, before he could draw up his +men, who were still passing over, into any order. For the enemy pressed +upon him with loud and warlike outcries; and charging horse against +horse, with their lances, after they had broken and spent these, they +fell to it with their swords. And Alexander, being easily known by his +buckler, and a large plume of white feathers on each side of his helmet, +was attacked on all sides, yet escaped without a wound, though his +cuirass was pierced by a javelin in one of the joinings. And Rhoesaces +and Spithridates, two Persian commanders, falling upon him at once, he +avoided one of them, and struck at Rhoesaces, who had a good cuirass +on, with such force, that his spear breaking in his hand, he was glad to +betake himself to his dagger. While they were thus engaged, Spithridates +came up on the other side of him, and raising himself upon his horse, +gave him such a blow with his battle-axe on the helmet, that he cut off +the crest of it, with one of his plumes, and the helmet was only just so +far strong enough to save him, that the edge of the weapon touched the +hair of his head. But as he was about to repeat his stroke, Clitus, +called the black Clitus, prevented him, by running him through the body +with his spear. At the same time Alexander despatched Rhoesaces with +his sword. While the horse were thus dangerously engaged, the Macedonian +phalanx passed the river, and the foot on each side advanced to fight. +But the enemy hardly sustaining the first onset, soon gave ground and +fled, all but the mercenary Greeks, who, making a stand upon a rising +ground, desired quarter, which Alexander, guided rather by passion than +judgment, refused to grant, and charging them himself first, had his +horse (not Bucephalas, but another) killed under him. And this obstinacy +of his to cut off these experienced, desperate men, cost him the lives +of more of his own soldiers than all the battle before, besides those +who were wounded. The Persians lost in this battle twenty thousand foot, +and two thousand five hundred horse. On Alexander's side, Aristobulus +says there were not over four and thirty missing, of whom nine were +foot-soldiers; and in memory of them he caused as many statues of +brass, of Lysippus's making, to be erected. And that the Greeks might +participate in the honor of his victory, he sent a portion of the spoils +home to them, particularly to the Athenians three hundred bucklers, and +upon all the rest he ordered this inscription to be set: "Alexander the +son of Philip, and the Greeks, except the Lacedaemonians, won these from +the barbarians who inhabit Asia." All the plate and purple garments, and +other things of the same kind that he took from the Persians, except a +very small quantity which he reserved for himself, he sent as a present +to his mother. + +This battle presently made a great change of affairs to Alexander's +advantage. For Sardis itself, the chief seat of the barbarians' power +in the maritime provinces, and many other considerable places, were +surrendered to him; only Halicarnassus and Miletus stood out, which he +took by force, together with the territory about them. After which +he was a little unsettled in his opinion how to proceed. Sometimes he +thought it best to find out Darius as soon as he could, and put all +to the hazard of a battle; at another time he looked upon it as a more +prudent course to make an entire reduction of the sea-coast, and not +to seek the enemy till he had first exercised his power here and made +himself secure of the resources of these provinces. While he was thus +deliberating what to do, it happened that a spring of water near the +city of Xanthus in Lycia, of its own accord swelled over its banks, +and threw up a copper plate upon the margin, in which was engraven in +ancient characters, that the time would come, when the Persian empire +should be destroyed by the Greeks. Encouraged by this incident, he +proceeded to reduce the maritime parts of Cilicia and Phoenicia, and +passed his army along the sea-coasts of Pamphylia with such expedition +that many historians have described and extolled it with a height of +admiration, as if it were no less than a miracle, and an extraordinary +effect of divine favor, that the waves which usually come rolling in +violently from the main, and hardly ever leave so much as a narrow beach +under the steep, broken cliffs at any time uncovered, should on a sudden +retire to afford him passage. Menander, in one of his comedies, alludes +to this marvel when he says, + + Was Alexander ever favored more? + Each man I wish for meets me at the door, + And should I ask for passage through the sea, + The sea, I doubt not, would retire for me. + +Then he subdued the Pisidians who made head against him, and conquered +the Phrygians, at whose chief city Gordium, which is said to be the seat +of the ancient Midas, he saw the famous chariot fastened with cords +made of the rind of the cornel-tree, about which the inhabitants had a +tradition, that for him who should untie it, was reserved the empire +of the world. Most authors tell the story of Alexander, finding himself +unable to untie the knot, the ends of which were secretly twisted round +and folded up within it, cut it asunder with his sword. But Aristobulus +tells us it was easy for him to undo it, by only pulling the pin out +of the pole, to which the yoke was tied, and afterwards drawing off the +yoke itself from below. + +Darius was by this time upon his march from Susa, very confident, in the +number of his men, which amounted to six hundred thousand. But Alexander +was detained in Cilicia by a sickness, which some say he contracted from +his fatigues, others from bathing in the river Cydnus, whose waters were +exceedingly cold. None of his physicians would venture to give him any +remedies, they thought his case so desperate, and were so afraid of the +suspicions and ill-will of the Macedonians if they should fail in the +cure; till Philip, the Acarnanian, seeing how critical his case was, but +relying on his own well-known friendship for him, resolved to try the +last efforts of his art, and rather hazard his own credit and life, +than suffer him to perish for want of physic, which he confidently +administered to him, encouraging him to take it boldly, if he desired +a speedy recovery, in order to prosecute the war. At this very time, +Parmenio wrote to Alexander from the camp, bidding him have a care of +Philip, as one who was bribed by Darius to kill him, with great sums of +money, and a promise of his daughter in marriage. When he had perused +the letter, he put it under his pillow, without so much as showing it +to any of his most intimate friends, and when Philip came in with the +potion, he took it with great cheerfulness and assurance, giving him +meantime the letter to read. This was a spectacle well worth being +present at, to see Alexander take the draught, and Philip read the +letter at the same time, and then turn and look upon one another, but +with different sentiments; for Alexander's looks were cheerful and open, +to show his kindness to and confidence in his physician, while the other +was full of surprise and alarm at the accusation, appealing to the gods +to witness his innocence, sometimes lifting up his hands to heaven, and +then throwing himself down by the bedside, and beseeching Alexander to +lay aside all fear, and follow his directions without apprehension. For +the medicine at first worked so strongly as to drive, as it were, the +vital forces into the interior; he lost his speech, and falling into a +swoon, had scarcely any sense or pulse left. However, in a very short +time, by Philip's means, his health and strength returned, and he showed +himself in public to the Macedonians, who were in continual fear and +dejection until they saw him abroad again. + +Darius, in the meantime marched into Cilicia, at the same time that +Alexander advanced into Syria to meet him; and missing one another in +the night, they both turned back again. Alexander, greatly pleased with +the event, made all the haste he could to fight in the defiles, and +Darius to recover his former ground, and draw his army out of so +disadvantageous a place. For now he began to see his error in engaging +himself too far in a country in which the sea, the mountains, and the +river Pinarus running through the midst of it, would force him to divide +his forces, render his horse almost unserviceable, and only cover and +support the weakness of the enemy. Fortune was not kinder to Alexander +in the choice of the ground, than he was careful to improve it to his +advantage. For being much inferior in numbers, so far from allowing +himself to be outflanked, he stretched his right wing much further out +than the left wing of his enemies, and fighting there himself in the +very foremost ranks, put the barbarians to flight. In this battle he was +wounded in the thigh, Chares says by Darius, with whom he fought hand to +hand. But in the account which he gave Antipater of the battle, +though he owns he was wounded in the thigh with a sword, though not +dangerously, he does not mention who it was that wounded him. + +Nothing was wanting to complete this victory, in which he overthrew +above a hundred and ten thousand of his enemies, but the taking of the +person of Darius, who escaped very narrowly by flight. However, having +captured his chariot and his bow, he returned from pursuing him, and +found his own men busy in pillaging the barbarians' camp, which +(though to disburden themselves, they had left most of their baggage +at Damascus) was exceedingly rich. But Darius's tent, which was full of +splendid furniture, and quantities of gold and silver, they reserved +for Alexander himself, who after he had put off his arms, went to bathe +himself, saying, "Let us now cleanse ourselves from the toils of war +in the bath of Darius." "Not so," replied one of his followers, "but in +Alexander's rather; for the property of the conquered is, and should be +called, the conqueror's." Here, when he beheld the bathing vessels, the +water-pots, the pans, and the ointment boxes, all of gold, curiously +wrought, and smelt the fragrant odors with which the whole place was +exquisitely perfumed, and from thence passed into a pavilion of great +size and height, where the couches and tables and preparations for an +entertainment were perfectly magnificent, he turned to those about him +and said, "This, it seems, is royalty." + +But as he was going to supper, word was brought him that Darius's mother +and wife and two unmarried daughters, being taken among the rest of the +prisoners, were all in mourning and sorrow upon the sight of his chariot +and bow, imagining him to be dead. After a little he sent Leonnatus to +them, to let them know Darius was not dead, and that they need not fear +any harm from Alexander, who made war upon him only for dominion. But +the noblest and most royal part of their usage was, that he treated +these illustrious prisoners according to their virtue and character, not +suffering them to hear, or receive, or so much as to apprehend any thing +that was unbecoming. So that they seemed rather lodged in some temple, +or some holy chambers, where they enjoyed their privacy sacred and +uninterrupted, than in the camp of an enemy. Yet Darius's wife was +accounted the most beautiful princess then living, as her husband the +tallest and handsomest man of his time, and the daughters were not +unworthy of their parents. + +In his diet Alexander was most temperate, as appears, omitting many +other circumstances, by what he said to Ada, whom he adopted, with the +title of mother, and afterwards created queen of Caria. For when she out +of kindness sent him every day many curious dishes, and sweetmeats, +and would have furnished him with some cooks and pastry-men, who were +thought to have great skill, he told her he wanted none of them, his +preceptor, Leonidas, having already given him the best, which were "a +night march to prepare for breakfast, and a moderate breakfast to create +an appetite for supper." Leonidas also, he added, used to open and +search the furniture of his chamber, and his wardrobe, to see if his +mother had left him any thing that was delicate or superfluous. He was +much less addicted to wine than was generally believed; that which gave +people occasion to think so of him was, that when he had nothing else to +do, he loved to sit long and talk, rather than drink, and over every cup +hold a long conversation. For when his affairs called upon him, he would +not be detained, as other generals often were, either by wine, or sleep, +nuptial solemnities, spectacles, or any other diversion whatsoever; a +convincing argument of which is, that in the short time he lived, +he accomplished so many and so great actions. When he was free from +employment, after he was up, and had sacrificed to the gods, he used to +sit down to breakfast, and then spend the rest of the day in hunting, +or writing memoirs, giving decisions on some military questions, or +reading. In marches that required no great haste, he would practice +shooting as he went along, or to mount a chariot, and alight from it +in full speed. Sometimes, for sport's sake, as his journals tell us, he +would hunt foxes and go fowling. When he came in for the evening, after +he had bathed and was anointed, he would call for his bakers and chief +cooks, to know if they had his dinner ready. He never cared to dine +till it was pretty late and beginning to be dark, and as wonderfully +circumspect at meals that every one who sat with him should be served +alike and with proper attention; and his love of talking, as was said +before, made him delight to sit long at his wine. And no prince's +conversation was ever so agreeable, yet he would at times fall into a +temper of ostentation and soldierly boasting, which gave his flatterers +a great advantage to ride him, and made his better friends very uneasy. +After such an entertainment, he was wont to bathe, and then perhaps +he would sleep till noon, and sometimes all day long. He was so very +temperate in his eating, that when any rare fish or fruits were sent +him, he would distribute them among his friends, and often reserve +nothing for himself. His table, however, was always magnificent, the +expense of it still increasing with his good fortune, till it amounted +to ten thousand drachmas a day, to which sum he limited it, and beyond +this he would suffer none to lay out in any entertainment where he +himself was the guest. + +Among the treasures and other booty that was taken from Darius, there +was a very precious casket, which being brought to Alexander for a great +rarity, he asked those about him what they thought fittest to be laid up +in it; and when they had delivered their various opinions, he told them +he should keep Homer's Iliad in it. Nor did Homer prove an unprofitable +companion to him in his expeditions. For, after he had become master of +Egypt he determined to found a great and populous city, and give to it +his own name. And when he had measured and staked out the ground with +the advice of the best architects, he chanced one night in his sleep to +see a wonderful vision; a gray-headed old man, of a venerable aspect, +appeared to stand by him, and pronounce these verses: + + An island lies, where loud the billows roar, + Pharos they call it, on the Egyptian shore. + +Alexander upon this immediately rose up and went to Pharos, which, at +that time, was an island lying a little above the Canobic mouth of the +river Nile, though it has now been joined to the main land by a mole. +As soon as he saw the commodious situation of the place, it being a +long neck of land, stretching like an isthmus between large lagoons and +shallow waters on one side, and the sea on the other, the latter at the +end of it making a spacious harbor, he said, Homer, besides his other +excellences, was a very good architect, and ordered the plan of a city +to be drawn out answerable to the place. To do which, for want of chalk, +the soil being black, they laid out their lines with flour, taking in +a pretty large compass of ground in a semicircular figure, and drawing +into the inside of the circumference equal straight lines from each end, +thus giving it something of the form of a cloak or cape. While he was +pleasing himself with his design, on a sudden an infinite number of +great birds of several kinds, rising like a black cloud out of the river +and the lake, came and devoured every morsel of the flour that had been +used in setting out the lines; at which omen even Alexander himself was +troubled, till the augurs restored his confidence again by telling him +it was a sign that the city he was about to build would not only abound +in all things within itself, but also be the nurse and feeder of many +nations. + +The great battle of all that was fought with Darius, was not, as most +writers tell us, at Arbela, but at Gaugamela, which, in their language, +signifies the camel's house, forasmuch as one of their ancient kings +having escaped the pursuit of his enemies on a swift camel, in gratitude +to his beast settled him at this place, with an allowance of certain +villages and rents for his maintenance. It came to pass that in the +month Boedromion, about the beginning of the Feast of Mysteries at +Athens, there was an eclipse of the moon, the eleventh night after +which, the two armies being now in view of one another, Darius kept +his men in arms, and by torchlight took a general review of them. But +Alexander, while his soldiers slept, spent the night before his tent +with his diviner Aristander, performing certain mysterious ceremonies, +and sacrificing to the god Fear. + +In the meanwhile the oldest of his commanders, and chiefly Parmenio, +when they beheld all the plain between Niphates and the Gordyaean +mountains shining with the lights and fires which were made by the +barbarians, and heard the uncertain and confused sound of voices out of +their camp, like the distant roaring of a vast ocean, were so amazed +at the thoughts of such a multitude, that after some conference among +themselves, they concluded it an enterprise too difficult and hazardous +for them to engage so numerous an enemy in the day, and therefore +meeting the king as he came from sacrificing, besought him to attack +Darius by night, that the darkness might conceal the danger of the +ensuing battle. To this he gave them the celebrated answer, "I will not +steal a victory," which, though some at the time thought it a boyish and +inconsiderate speech, as if he played with danger, others regarded as an +evidence that the confided in his present condition, and acted on a true +judgment of the future, not wishing to leave Darius, in case he were +worsted, the pretext of trying his fortune again, which he might suppose +himself to have, if he could impute his overthrow to the disadvantage of +the night, as he did before to the mountains, the narrow passages, and +the sea. For while he had such numerous forces and large dominions still +remaining, it was not any want of men or arms that could induce him +to give up the war, but only the loss of all courage and hope upon the +conviction of an undeniable and manifest defeat. + +After they were gone from him with this answer, he laid himself down +in his tent and slept the rest of the night more soundly than was usual +with him, to the astonishment of the commanders. Not only before the +battle, but in the height of the danger, he showed himself great, and +manifested the self-possession of a just foresight and confidence. For +the battle for some time fluctuated and was dubious. The left wing, +where Parmenio commanded, was so impetuously charged by the Bactrian +horse that it was disordered and forced to give ground, at the same time +that Mazaeus had sent a detachment around to fall upon those who guarded +the baggage, which so disturbed Parmenio, that he sent messengers to +acquaint Alexander that the camp and baggage would be all lost unless he +immediately relieved the rear by a considerable reinforcement drawn out +of the front. This message being brought him just as he was giving the +signal to those about him for the onset, he bade them tell Parmenio that +he must have surely lost the use of his reason, and had forgotten, +in his alarm, that soldiers, if victorious, become masters of their +enemies' baggage; and if defeated, instead of taking care of their +wealth or their slaves, have nothing more to do but to fight gallantly +and die with honor. When he had said this, he put on his helmet, having +the rest of his arms on before he came out of his tent, which were +a coat of the Sicilian make, girt close about him, and over that a +breastpiece of thickly quilted linen, which was taken among other booty +at the battle of Issus. The helmet, which was made by Theophilus, though +of iron, was so well wrought and polished, that it was as bright as the +most refined silver. To this was fitted a gorget of the same metal, set +with precious stones His sword, which was the weapon he most used +in fight, was given him by the king of the Citieans, and was of an +admirable temper and lightness. The belt which he also wore in all +engagements, was of much richer workmanship than the rest of his armor. +It was the work of the ancient Helicon, and had been presented to him +by the Rhodians, as a mark of their respect to him. So long as he +was engaged in drawing up his men, or riding about to give orders or +directions, or to view them, he spared Bucephalas, who was now growing +old, and made use of another horse; but when he was actually to fight, +he sent for him again, and as soon as he was mounted, commenced the +attack. + +He made the longest address that day to the Thessalians and other +Greeks, who answered him with loud shouts desiring him to lead them on +against the barbarians, upon which he shifted his javelin into his left +hand, and with his right lifted up towards heaven, besought the gods, +as Callisthenes tells us, that if he was of a truth the son of Jupiter, +they would be pleased to assist and strengthen the Grecians. At the same +time the augur Aristander, who had a white mantle about him, and a crown +of gold on his head, rode by and showed them an eagle that soared just +over Alexander, and directed his flight towards the enemy; which +so animated the beholders, that after mutual encouragements and +exhortations, the cavalry charged at full speed, and were followed in a +mass by the whole phalanx of the foot. But before they could well come +to blows with the first ranks, the barbarians shrunk back, and were +hotly pursued by Alexander, who drove those that fled before him into +the middle of the battle, where Darius himself was in person, whom he +saw from a distance over the foremost ranks, conspicuous in the midst +of his lifeguard, a tall and fine-looking man, drawn in a lofty chariot, +defended by an abundance of the best cavalry who stood close in order +about it, ready to receive the enemy. But Alexander's approach was so +terrible, forcing those who gave back upon those who yet maintained +their ground, that he beat down and dispersed them almost all. Only a +few of the bravest and valiantest opposed the pursuit, who were slain +in their king's presence, falling in heaps upon one another, and in the +very pangs of death striving to catch hold of the horses. Darius now +seeing all was lost, that those who were placed in front to defend +him were broken and beaten back upon him, that he could not turn or +disengage his chariot without great difficulty, the wheels being clogged +and entangled among the dead bodies, which lay in such heaps as not only +stopped, but almost covered the horses, and made them rear and grow so +unruly, that the frighted charioteer could govern them no longer, in +this extremity was glad to quit his chariot and his arms, and mounting, +it is said, upon a mare that had been taken from her foal, betook +himself to flight. + +This battle being thus over, seemed to put a period to the Persian +empire; and Alexander, who was now proclaimed king of Asia, returned +thanks to the gods in magnificent sacrifices, and rewarded his friends +and followers with great sums of money, and places, and governments of +provinces. + +From here he marched through the province of Babylon, which immediately +submitted to him, and was much surprised at the sight in one place where +fire issues in a continuous stream, like a spring of water, out of a +cleft in the earth, and the stream of naphtha, which, not far from this +spot, flows out so abundantly as to form a sort of lake. This naphtha, +in other respects resembling bitumen, is so subject to take fire, that +before it touches the flame, it will kindle at the very light that +surrounds it, and often inflame the intermediate air also. The +barbarians, to show the power and nature of it, sprinkled the street +that led to the king's lodgings with little drops of it, and when it was +almost night, stood at the further end with torches, which being applied +to the moistened places, the first at once taking fire, instantly, as +quick as a man could think of it, it caught from one end to another, in +such a manner that the whole street was one continuous flame. + +Alexander, in his own letters, has given us an account of his war with +Porus. He says that two armies were separated by the river Hydaspes, +on whose opposite bank Porus continually kept his elephants in order of +battle, with their heads towards their enemies, to guard the passage; +that he, on the other hand, made every day a great noise and clamor in +his camp, to dissipate the apprehensions of the barbarians; that one +stormy, dark night he passed the river, at a distance from the place +where the enemy lay, into a little island, with part of his foot, and +the best of his horse. Here there fell a most violent storm of rain +accompanied with lightning and whirlwinds, and although he saw some of +his men burnt and dying with the lightning, he nevertheless quitted the +island and made over to the other side. Here, apprehending the multitude +of the enemy, and to avoid the shock of their elephants, he divided his +forces, and attacked their left wing himself, commanding Coenus to fall +upon the right, which was performed with good success. By this means +both wings being broken, the enemies fell back in their retreat upon the +centre, and crowded in upon their elephants. There rallying, they fought +a hand to hand battle, and it was the eighth hour of the day before they +were entirely defeated. + +Almost all the historians agree in relating that Porus was four cubits +and a span high, and that when he was upon his elephant, which was +of the largest size, his stature and bulk were so answerable, that he +appeared to be proportionably mounted, as a horseman on his horse. This +elephant, during the whole battle, gave many singular proofs of sagacity +and of particular care of the king, whom as long as he was strong and in +a condition to fight, he defended with great courage, repelling those +who set upon him; and as soon as he perceived him overpowered with his +numerous wounds and the multitude of darts that were thrown at him, to +prevent his falling off, he softly knelt down and began to draw out the +darts with his proboscis. When Porus was taken prisoner, and Alexander +asked him how he expected to be used, he answered, "As a king." And +Alexander, accordingly, not only suffered him to govern his own kingdom +as satrap under himself, but gave him also the additional territory of +various independent tribes whom he subdued. + +Some little time after the battle with Porus, Bucephalas died, as most +of the authorities state, under cure of his wounds, or as Onesicritus +says, of fatigue and age, being thirty years old. Alexander was no +less concerned at his death, than if he had lost an old companion or an +intimate friend, and built a city, which he named Bucephalia, in memory +of him, on the bank of the river Hydaspes. + +Aristobulus tells us that Alexander died of a raging fever, having, in a +violent thirst, taken a copious draught of wine, upon which he fell into +delirium, and died on the thirtieth day of the month Daesius. + +But the journals give the following record. On the eighteenth of the +month, he slept in the bathing-room on account of his fever. The next +day he bathed and removed into his chamber, and spent his time in +playing at dice with Medius. In the evening he bathed and sacrificed, +and ate freely, and had the fever on him through the night. On the +twenty-fourth he was much worse, and was carried out of his bed to +assist at the sacrifices, and gave order that the general officers +should wait within the court, whilst the inferior officers kept watch +without doors. On the twenty-fifth he was removed to his palace on the +other side the river, where he slept a little, but his fever did not +abate, and when the generals came into his chamber, he was speechless, +and continued so the following day. The Macedonians, therefore, +supposing he was dead, came with great clamors to the gates, and menaced +his friends so that they were forced to admit them, and let them all +pass through unarmed along by his bedside. The same day Python and +Seleucus were despatched to the temple of Serapis to inquire if they +should bring Alexander thither, and were answered by the god, that they +should not remove him. On the twenty-eighth, in the evening, he died. + + + + +THE DEATH OF CAESAR + +The place destined for the scene of this murder, in which the senate met +that day, was the same in which Pompey's statue stood, and was one of +the edifices which Pompey had raised and dedicated with his theatre to +the use of the public, plainly showing that there was something of a +supernatural influence which guided the action, and ordered it to that +particular place. Cassius, just before the act, is said to have looked +towards Pompey's statue, and silently implored his assistance, though +he had been inclined to the doctrines of Epicurus. But this occasion +and the instant danger, carried him away out of all his reasonings, and +filled him for the time with a sort of inspiration. As for Antony, who +was firm to Caesar, and a strong man, Brutus Albinus kept him outside +the house, and delayed him with a long conversation contrived on +purpose. When Caesar entered, the senate stood up to show their respect +to him, and of Brutus's confederates, some came about his chair and +stood behind it, others met him, pretending to add their petitions to +those of Tillius Cimber, in behalf of his brother, who was in exile; +and they followed him with their joint supplications till he came to his +seat. When he had sat down, he refused to comply with their requests, +and upon their urging him further, began to reproach them severally for +their importunities, when Tillius, laying hold of his robe with both +his hands, pulled it down from his neck, which was the signal for the +assault. Casca gave him the first cut, in the neck, which was not mortal +nor dangerous, coming, as it did, from one who at the beginning of +such a bold action was probably very much disturbed. Caesar immediately +turned about, and laid his hand upon the dagger and kept hold of it. And +both of them at the same time cried out, he that received the blow, in +Latin, "Vile Casca, what does this mean?" and he that gave it, in Greek, +to his brother, "Brother, help!" Upon this first onset, those who were +not privy to the design were astounded, and their horror and amazement +at what they saw were so great, that they durst not fly nor assist +Caesar, nor so much as speak a word. But those who came prepared for the +business inclosed him on every side, with their naked daggers in their +hands. Which way soever he turned, he met with blows, and saw their +swords leveled at his face and eyes, and was encompassed, like a wild +beast in the toils, on every side. For it had been agreed that they +should each make a thrust at him, and flesh themselves with his blood; +for which reason Brutus also gave him one stab in the groin. Some say +that he fought and resisted all the rest, shifting his body to avoid +the blows, and calling out for help, but that when he saw Brutus's sword +drawn, he covered his face with his robe and submitted, letting himself +fall, whether it were by chance, or that he was pushed in that direction +by his murderers, at the foot of the pedestal on which Pompey's statue +stood, and which was thus wet with his blood. So that Pompey himself +seemed to have presided, as it were, over the revenge done upon his +adversary, who lay here at his feet, and breathed out his soul through +his multitude of wounds, for they say he received three and twenty. And +the conspirators themselves were many of them wounded by each other, +whilst they all leveled their blows at the same person. + +When Caesar's will was opened, and it was found that he had left a +considerable legacy to each one of the Roman citizens, and when his body +was seen carried through the marketplace all mangled with wounds, +the multitude could no longer contain themselves within the bounds of +tranquility and order, but heaped together a pile of benches, bars, and +tables, upon which they placed the corpse, and setting fire to it, burnt +it on them. Then they took brands from the pile, and ran some to fire +the conspirators, others up and down the city, to find out the men and +tear them to pieces, but met, however, with none of them, they having +taken effectual care to secure themselves. + +Caesar died in his fifty-sixth year, not having survived Pompey above +four years. That empire and power which he had pursued through the +whole course of his life with so much hazard, he did at last with much +difficulty compass, but reaped no other fruits from it than the empty +name and invidious glory. But the great genius which attended him +through his lifetime, even after his death remained as the avenger +of his murder, pursuing through every sea and land all those who were +concerned in it, and suffering none to escape, but reaching all who in +any sort or kind were either actually engaged in the fact, or by their +counsels any way promoted it. + +The most remarkable of mere human coincidences was that which befell +Cassius, who, when he was defeated at Philippi, killed himself with the +same dagger which he had made use of against Caesar. The most signal +preternatural appearances were the great comet, which shone very bright +for seven nights after Caesar's death, and then disappeared, and the +dimness of the sun, whose orb continued pale and dull for the whole of +that year, never showing its ordinary radiance at its rising, and giving +but a feeble heat. The air consequently was damp and gross, for want of +stronger rays to open and rarefy it. The fruits, for that reason, never +properly ripened, and began to wither and fall off for want of heat, +before they were fully formed. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Boys' and Girls' Plutarch, by Plutarch + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' PLUTARCH *** + +***** This file should be named 2484.txt or 2484.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/8/2484/ + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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