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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/2484-h.zip b/2484-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3d051ce --- /dev/null +++ b/2484-h.zip diff --git a/2484-h/2484-h.htm b/2484-h/2484-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1727d4b --- /dev/null +++ b/2484-h/2484-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,14263 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The Boys' and Girls' Plutarch, by Plutarch + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Boys' and Girls' Plutarch, by Plutarch + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Boys' and Girls' Plutarch + Being Parts of The "Lives" of Plutarch + +Author: Plutarch + +Editor: John S. White + +Release Date: January 4, 2009 [EBook #2484] +Last Updated: February 7, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' PLUTARCH *** + + + + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer, and David Widger + + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' PLUTARCH + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + BEING PARTS OF THE "LIVES" OF PLUTARCH + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Plutarch + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h3> + Edited for Boys and Girls With Introductions By John S. White <br /><br /> + Head-Master Berkeley School + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> THESEUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> ROMULUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> COMPARISON OF THESEUS AND ROMULUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> LYCURGUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0005"> SOLON </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0006"> THEMISTOCLES </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0007"> CAMILLUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0008"> PERICLES </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0009"> DEMOSTHENES </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0010"> CICERO </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0011"> COMPARISON OF DEMOSTHENES AND CICERO </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0012"> ALCIBAIDES </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0013"> CORIOLANUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0014"> COMPARISON OF ALCIBIADES AND CORIOLANUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0015"> ARISTIDES </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0016"> CIMON </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0017"> POMPEY </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0018"> THE ENGINES OF ARCHIMEDES FROM THE LIFE OF + MARCELLUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0019"> DESCRIPTION OF CLEOPATRA FROM THE LIFE OF + ANTONY </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0020"> ANECDOTES FROM THE LIFE OF AGESILAUS, KING OF + SPARTA </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0021"> THE BROTHERS FROM THE LIFE OF TIMOLEON </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0022"> THE WOUND OF PHILOPOEMEN </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0023"> A ROMAN TRIUMPH FROM THE LIFE OF PAULUS + AEMILIUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0024"> THE NOBLE CHARACTER OF CAIUS FABRICIUS FROM + THE LIFE OF PYRRHUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0025"> FROM THE LIFE OF QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0026"> THE CRUELTY OF LUCIUS CORNELIUS SYLLA </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0027"> THE LUXURY OF LUCULLUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0028"> FROM THE LIFE OF SERTORIUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0029"> THE SCROLL-FROM THE LIFE OF LYSANDER </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0030"> THE CHARACTER OF MARCUS CATO </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0031"> THE SACRED THEBAN BAND FROM THE LIFE OF + PELOPIDAS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0032"> FROM THE LIFE OF TITUS FLAMININUS, THE + CONQUEROR OF PHILIP </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0033"> ALEXANDER THE GREAT </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0034"> THE DEATH OF CAESAR </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + THESEUS + </h2> + <p> + As geographers crowd into the edges of their maps parts of the world which + they do not know about, adding notes in the margin to the effect that + beyond this lies nothing but sandy deserts full of wild beasts, + unapproachable bogs, Seythian ice, or frozen sea, so, in this great work + of mine, in which I have compared the lives of the greatest men with one + another, after passing through those periods which probable reasoning can + reach to and real history find a footing in, I might very well say of + those that are farther off, Beyond this there is nothing but prodigies and + fictions; the only inhabitants are the poets and inventors of fables; + there is no credit, or certainty any farther. Yet, after publishing an + account of Lycurgus the lawgiver and Numa the king, I thought I might, not + without reason, ascend as high as to Romulus, being brought by my history + so near to his time. Considering therefore with myself + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Whom shall I set so great a man face to face? + Or whom oppose? Who's equal to the place? +</pre> + <p> + (as Aeschylus expresses it), I found none so fit as he who peopled the + beautiful and far-famed city of Athens, to be set in opposition with the + father of the invincible and renowned city of Rome. Let us hope that Fable + may, in what shall follow, so submit to the purifying processes of Reason + as to take the character of exact history. We shall beg that we may meet + with candid readers, and such as will receive with indulgence the stories + of antiquity. + </p> + <p> + Theseus seemed to me to resemble Romulus in many particulars. Both of them + had the repute of being sprung from the gods. + </p> + <p> + Both warriors; that by all the world's allowed. + </p> + <p> + Both of them united with strength of body an equal vigor of mind; and of + the two most famous cities of the world, the one built in Rome, and the + other made Athens be inhabited. Neither of them could avoid domestic + misfortunes nor jealousy at home; but toward the close of their lives are + both of them said to have incurred great odium with their countrymen, if, + that is, we may take the stories least like poetry as our guide to truth. + </p> + <p> + Theseus was the son of Aegeus and Aethra. His lineage, by his father's + side, ascends as high as to Erechtheus and the first inhabitants of + Attica. By his mother's side, he was descended of Pelops, who was the most + powerful of all the kings of Peloponnesus. + </p> + <p> + When Aegeus went from the home of Aethra in Troezen to Athens, he left a + sword and a pair of shoes, hiding them under a great stone that had a + hollow in it exactly fitting them; and went away making her only privy to + it, and commanding her that, if, when their son came to man's estate, he + should be able to lift up the stone and take away what he had left there, + she should send him away to him with those things with all secrecy, and + with injunctions to him as much as possible to conceal his journey from + everyone; for he greatly feared the Pallantidae, who were continually + mutinying against him, and despised him for his want of children, they + themselves being fifty brothers, all sons of Pallas, the brother of + Aegeus. + </p> + <p> + When Aethra's son was born, some say that he was immediately named + Theseus, from the tokens which his father had put under the stone; others + that he received his name afterwards at Athens, when Aegeus acknowledged + him for his son. He was brought up under his grandfather Pittheus, and had + a tutor and attendant set over him named Connidas, to whom the Athenians, + even to this time, the day before the feast that is dedicated to Theseus, + sacrifice a ram, giving this honor to his memory upon much juster grounds + than to Silanio and Parrhasius, for making pictures and statues of + Theseus. There being then a custom for the Grecian youth, upon their first + coming to a man's estate, to go to Delphi and offer firstfruits of their + hair to the god, Theseus also went thither, and a place there to this day + is yet named Thesea, as it is said, from him. He clipped only the fore + part of his head, as Homer says the Abantes did. And this sort of tonsure + was from him named Theseis. The Abantes first used it, not in imitation of + the Arabians, as some imagine, nor of the Mysians, but because they were a + warlike people, and used to close fighting, and above all other nations, + accustomed to engage hand to hand; as Archilochus testifies in these + verses: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Slings shall not whirl, nor many arrows fly, + When on the plain the battle joins; but swords, + Man against man, the deadly conflict try, + As is the practice of Euboea's lords + Skilled with the spear.— +</pre> + <p> + Therefore, that they might not give their enemies a hold by their hair, + they cut it in this manner. They write also that this was the reason why + Alexander gave command to his captains that all the beards of the + Macedonians should be shaved, as being the readiest hold for an enemy. + </p> + <p> + Aethra for some time concealed the true parentage of Theseus, and a report + was given out by Pittheus that he was the son of Neptune; for the + Troezenians pay Neptune the highest veneration. He is their tutelar god, + to him they offer all their firstfruits, and in his honor stamp their + money with a trident. + </p> + <p> + Theseus displaying not only great strength of body, but equal bravery, and + a quickness alike and force of understanding, his mother Aethra, + conducting him to the stone, and informing him who was his true father, + commanded him to take from thence the tokens that Aegeus had left, and to + sail to Athens. He without any difficulty set himself to the stone and + lifted it up; but refused to take his journey by sea, though it was much + the safer way, and though his mother and grandfather begged him to do so. + For it was at that time very dangerous to go by land on the road to + Athens, no part of it being free from robbers and murderers. That age + produced a sort of men, in force of hand, and swiftness of foot, and + strength of body, excelling the ordinary rate, and wholly incapable of + fatigue; making use, however, of these gifts of nature to no good or + profitable purpose for mankind, but rejoicing and priding themselves in + insolence, and taking the benefit of their superior strength in the + exercise of inhumanity and cruelty, and in seizing, forcing, and + committing all manner of outrages upon everything that fell into their + hands; all respect for others, all justice, they thought, all equity and + humanity, though naturally lauded by common people, either out of want of + courage to commit injuries or fear to receive them, yet no way concerned + those who were strong enough to win for themselves. Some of these Hercules + destroyed and cut off in his passage through these countries, but some, + escaping his notice, while he was passing by, fled and hid themselves, or + else were spared by him in contempt of their abject submission; and after + that Hercules fell into misfortune, and, having slain Iphitus, retired to + Lydia, and for a long time was there slave to Omphale, a punishment which + he had imposed upon himself for the murder. Then, indeed, Lydia enjoyed + high peace and security, but in Greece and the countries about it the like + villainies again revived and broke out, there being none to repress or + chastise them. It was therefore a very hazardous journey to travel by land + from Athens to Peloponnesus; and Pittheus, giving him an exact account of + each of these robbers and villains, their strength, and the cruelty they + used to all strangers, tried to persuade Theseus to go by sea. But he, it + seems, had long since been secretly fired by the glory of Hercules, held + him in the highest estimation, and was never more satisfied than in + listening to any that gave an account of him; especially those that had + seen him, or had been present at any action or saying of his. So that he + was altogether in the same state of feeling as, in after ages, + Themistocles was, when he said that he could not sleep for the trophy of + Miltiades; entertaining such admiration for the virtues of Hercules that + in his dreams were all of that hero's actions, and in the day a continual + emulation stirred him up to perform the like. Besides, they were related, + being born of own cousins. For Aethra was daughter of Pittheus, and + Alcmena of Lysidice; and Lysidice and Pittheus were brother and sister, + children of Hippodamia and Pelpos. He thought it therefore a dishonorable + thing, and not to be endured, that Hercules should go out everywhere, and + purge both land and sea from the wicked men, and he should fly from the + like adventures that actually came his way; not showing his true father as + good evidence of the greatness of his birth by noble and worthy actions, + as by the tokens that he brought with him, the shoes and the sword. + </p> + <p> + With this mind and these thoughts, he set forward with a design to do + injury to nobody, but to repel and avenge himself of all those that should + offer any. And first of all, in a set combat he slew Periphtes, in the + neighborhood of Epidaurus, who used a club for his arms, and from thence + had the name of Corynetes, or the club-bearer; who seized upon him, and + forbade him to go forward in his journey. Being pleased with the club, he + took it, and made it his weapon, continuing to use it as Hercules did the + lion's skin, on whose shoulders that served to prove how huge a beast he + had killed; and to the same end Theseus carried about him this club; + overcome indeed by him, but now, in his hands, invincible. + </p> + <p> + Passing on further towards the Isthmus of Peloponnesus, he slew Sinnis, + often surnamed the Bender of Pines, after the same manner in which he + himself had destroyed many others before. And this he did without having + either practiced or ever learnt the art of bending these trees, to show + that natural strength is above all art. This Sinnis had a daughter of + remarkable beauty and stature, called Perigune, who, when her father was + killed, fled, and was sought after everywhere by Theseus; and coming into + a place overgrown with brushwood, shrubs, and asparagus-thorn, there, in a + childlike, innocent manner, prayed and begged them, as if they understood + her, to give shelter, with vows that if she escaped she would never cut + them down nor burn them. But Theseus calling upon her, and giving her his + promise that he would use her with respect, and offer no injury, she came + forth. Whence it is a family usage amongst the people called Ioxids, from + the name of her grandson, Ioxus, both male and female, never to burn + either shrubs or asparagus-thorn, but to respect and honor them. + </p> + <p> + The Crommyonian sow, which they called Phaea, was a savage and formidable + wild beast, by no means an enemy to be despised. Theseus killed her, going + out of his way on purpose to meet and engage her, so that he might not + seem to perform all his great exploits out of mere necessity; being also + of opinion that it was the part of a brave man to chastise villainous and + wicked men when attacked by them, but to seek out and overcome the more + noble wild beasts. Others relate that Phaea was a woman, a robber full of + cruelty, that lived in Crommyon, and had the name of Sow given her from + the foulness of her life and manners, and afterwards was killed by + Theseus. He slew also Sciron, upon the borders of Megara, casting him down + from the rocks, being, as most report, a notorious robber of all + passengers, and, as others add, accustomed out of insolence and + wantonness, to stretch forth his feet to strangers, commanding them to + wash them, and then while they did it, with a kick to send them down the + rock into the sea. + </p> + <p> + In Eleusis he killed Cercyon, the Arcadian, in a wrestling match. And + going on a little farther, in Erineus, he slew Damastes, otherwise called + Procrustes, forcing his body to the size of his own bed, as he himself was + used to do with all strangers; this he did in imitation of Hercules, who + always returned upon his assailants the same sort of violence that they + offered to him; sacrificed Busiris, killed Antaeus in wrestling, and + Cycnus in single combat, and Termerus by breaking his skull in pieces + (whence, they say, comes the proverb of "a Termerian mischief"), for it + seems Termerus killed passengers that he met by running with his head + against them. And so also Theseus proceeded with the same violence from + which they had inflicted upon others, justly suffering after the same + manner of their own injustice. + </p> + <p> + As he went forward on his journey, and was come as far as the River + Cephisus, some of the race of the Phytalidae met him and saluted him, and + upon his desire to use the purifications, then in custom, they performed + them with all the usual ceremonies, and having offered propitiatory + sacrifices to the gods, invited him and entertained him at their house, a + kindness which, in all his journey hitherto, he had not met. + </p> + <p> + On the eighth day of Cronius, now called Hecatombaeon, he arrived at + Athens, where he found the public affairs full of all confusion, and + divided into parties and factions. Aegeus also, and his whole private + family, laboring under the same distemper; for Medea, having fled from + Corinth, was living with him. She was first aware of Theseus, whom as yet + Aegeus did not know, and he being in years, full of jealousies and + suspicions, and fearing everything by reason of the faction that was then + in the city, she easily persuaded him to kill him by poison at a banquet, + to which he was to be invited as a stranger. He, coming to the + entertainment, thought it not fit to discover himself at once, but, + willing to give his father the occasion of first finding him out, the meat + being on the table, he drew his sword as if he designed to cut with it; + Aegeus, at once recognizing the token, threw down the cup of poison, and, + questioning his son, embraced him, and, having gathered together all his + citizens, owned him publicly before them, who, on their part, received him + gladly for the fame of his greatness and bravery. + </p> + <p> + The sons of Pallas, who were quiet, upon expectation of recovering the + kingdom after Aegeus's death, who was without issue, as soon as Theseus + appeared and was acknowledged the successor, highly resenting that Aegeus + first, as adopted son only of Pandion, and not at all related to the + family of Erechtheus, should be holding the kingdom, and that after him, + Theseus, a visitor and stranger, should be destined to succeed to it, + broke out into open war. And, dividing themselves into two companies, one + part of them marched openly from Sphettus, with their father, against the + city; the other, hiding themselves in the village of Gargettus, lay in + ambush, with a design to set upon the enemy on both sides. They had with + them a crier of the township of Agnus, named Leos, who discovered to + Theseus all the designs of the Pallentidae. He immediately fell upon those + that lay in amuscade, and cut them all off; upon tidings of which Pallas + and his company fled and were dispersed. + </p> + <p> + From hence they say is derived the custom among the people of the township + of Pallene to have no marriages or any alliance with the people of Agnus, + nor to suffer the criers to pronounce in their proclamations the words + used in all other parts of the country, Acouete Leoi (Hear ye people), + hating the very sound of Leo, because of the treason of Leos. + </p> + <p> + Theseus, longing to be in action, and desirous also to make himself + popular, left Athens to fight with the bull of Marathon, which did no + small mischief to the inhabitants of Tetrapolis. And, having overcome it, + he brought it alive in triumph through the city, and afterwards sacrificed + it to the Delphian Apollo. The story of Hecale, also, of her receiving and + entertaining Theseus in this expedition, seems to be not altogether void + of truth; for the townships round about, meeting upon a certain day, used + to offer a sacrifice, which they called Hecalesia, to Jupiter Hecaleius, + and to pay honor to Hecale, whom, by a diminutive name, they called + Hecalene, because she, while entertaining Theseus, who was quite a youth, + addressed him, as old people do, with similar endearing diminutives; and + having made a vow to Jupiter that he was going to the fight, that, if he + returned in safety, she would offer sacrifices in thanks of it, and dying + before he came back, she had these honors given her by way of return for + her hospitality, by the command of Theseus, as Philochorus tells us. + </p> + <p> + Not long afterwards came the third time from Crete the collectors of the + tribute which the Athenians paid them upon the following occasion. + Androgeus having been treacherously murdered in the confines of Attica, + not only Minos, his father, put the Athenians to extreme distress by a + perpetual war, but the gods also laid waste their country; both famine and + pestilence lay heavy upon them, and even their rivers were dried up. Being + told by the oracle that if they appeased and reconciled Minos, the anger + of the gods would cease and they should enjoy rest from the miseries they + labored under, they sent heralds, and with much supplication were at last + reconciled, entering into an agreement to send to Crete every nine years a + tribute of seven young men and as many virgins, as most writers agree in + stating; and the most poetical story adds that the Minotaur destroyed + them, or that, wandering in the Labyrinth, and finding no possible means + of getting out, they miserably ended their lives there, and that this + Minotaur was (as Euripides hath it) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + A mingled form, where two strange shapes combined, + And different natures, bull and man, were joined. +</pre> + <p> + Now when the time of the third tribute was come, and the fathers who had + any young men for their sons were to proceed by lot to the choice of those + that were to be sent, there arose fresh discontents and accusations + against Aegeus among the people, who were full of grief and indignation + that he, who was the cause of all their miseries, was the only person + exempt from the punishment; adopting and setting his kingdom upon a + foreign son, he took no thought, they said, of their destitution and loss + of their lawful children. These things sensibly affected Theseus, who, + thinking it but just not to disregard, but rather partake of, the + sufferings of his fellow citizens, offered himself for one without any + lot. All else were struck with admiration for the nobleness, and with love + for the goodness, of the act; and Aegeus, after prayers and entreaties, + finding him inflexible and not to be persuaded, proceeded to the choosing + of the rest by lot. Hellanicus, however, tells us that the Athenians did + not send the young men and virgins by lot, but that Minos himself used to + come and make his own choice, and pitched upon Theseus before all others; + according to the conditions agreed upon between, namely, that the + Athenians should furnish them with a ship, and that the young men who were + to sail with him should carry no weapon of war; but that if the Minotaur + was destroyed the tribute should cease. + </p> + <p> + On the two former occasions of the payment of the tribute, entertaining no + hopes of safety or return, they sent out the ship with a black sail, as to + unavoidable destruction; but now, Theseus encouraging his father and + speaking greatly of himself, as confident that he should kill the + Minotaur, he gave the pilot another sail, which was white, commanding him, + as he returned, if Theseus were safe, to make use of that; but if not, to + sail with the black one, and to hang out that sign of his misfortune. + Simonides says that the sail which Aegeus delivered to the pilot was not + white, but + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Scarlet, in the juicy bloom + Of the living oak-tree steeped. +</pre> + <p> + The lot being cast, and Theseus having received out of the Prytaneum those + upon whom it fell, he went to the Delphinium, and made an offering for + them to Apollo of his suppliant's badge, which was a bough of a + consecrated olive tree, with white wool tied about it. + </p> + <p> + Having thus performed his devotion, he went to sea, the sixth day of + Munychion, on which day even to this time the Athenians send their virgins + to the same temple to make supplication to the gods. It is farther + reported that he was commanded by the oracle at Delphi to make Venus his + guide, and to invoke her as the companion and conductress of his voyage, + and that, as he was sacrificing a she goat to her by the seaside, it was + suddenly changed into a he, and for this cause that goddess had the name + of Epitragia. + </p> + <p> + When he arrived at Crete, as most of the ancient historians as well as + poets tell us, having a clue of thread given him by Ariadne, who had + fallen in love with him, and being instructed by her now to use it so as + to conduct him through the windings of the Labyrinth, he escaped out of it + and slew the Minotaur, and sailed back, taking along with him Ariadne and + the young Athenian captives. Pherecydes adds that he bored holes in the + bottom of the Cretan ships to hinder their pursuit. Demon writes that + Taurus, the chief captain of Minos, was slain by Theseus at the mouth of + the port, in a naval combat, as he was sailing out for Athens. But + Philochorus gives us the story thus: That at the setting forth of the + yearly games by King Minos, Taurus was expected to carry away the prize, + as he had done before; and was much grudged the honor. His character and + manners made his power hateful, and he was accused, moreover, of too near + familiarity with Pasiphae, for which reason, when Theseus desired the + combat, Minos readily complied. And as it was a custom in Crete that the + women also should be admitted to the sight of these games, Ariadne, being + present, was struck with admiration of the manly beauty of Theseus, and + the vigor and address which he showed in combat, overcoming all that + encountered with him. Minos, too, being extremely pleased with him, + especially because he had overthrown and disgraced Taurus, voluntarily + gave up the young captives to Theseus, and remitted the tribute to the + Athenians. + </p> + <p> + There are yet many traditions about these things, and as many concerning + Ariadne, all inconsistent with each other. Some relate that she hung + herself, being deserted by Theseus. Others that she was carried away by + his sailors to the isle of Naxos, and married to Oenarus, priest of + Bacchus; and that Theseus left her because he fell in love with another, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "For Aegle's love was burning in his breast." +</pre> + <p> + Now Theseus, in his return from Crete, put in at Delos, and, having + sacrificed to the god of the island, dedicated to the temple the image of + Venus which Ariadne had given him, and danced with the young Athenians a + dance that, in memory of him, they say is still preserved among the + inhabitants of Delos, consisting in certain measured turnings and + returnings, imitative of the windings and twistings of the Labyrinth. And + this dance, as Dicaearchus writes, is called among the Delians, the Crane. + This he danced round the Ceratonian Altar, so called from its consisting + of horns taken from the left side of the head. They also say that he + instituted games in Delos, where he was the first that began the of giving + a palm to the victors. + </p> + <p> + When they were come near the coast of Attica, so great was the joy for the + happy success of their voyage, that neither Theseus himself nor the pilot + remembered to hang out the sail which should have been the token of their + safety to Aegeus, who, in despair at the sight, threw himself headlong + from a rock, and perished in the sea. But Theseus, being arrived at the + port of Phalerum, paid there the sacrifices which he had vowed to the gods + at his setting out to sea, and sent a herald to the city to carry the news + of his safe return. At his entrance, the herald found the people for the + most part full of grief for the loss of their king, others, as may well be + believed, as full of joy for the tidings that he brought, and eager to + welcome him and crown him with garlands for his good news, which he indeed + accepted of, but hung them upon his herald's staff; and thus returning to + the seaside before Theseus had finished his libation to the gods, he + stayed apart for fear of disturbing the holy rites, but, as soon as the + libation was ended, went up and related the king's death, upon the hearing + of which, with great lamentations and a confused tumult of grief, they ran + with all haste to the city. And from hence, they say, it comes that at + this day, in the feast of Oschoporia, the herald is not crowned, but his + staff, and all who are present at the libation cry out "eleleu, iou, iou," + the first of which confused sounds is commonly used by men in haste, or at + a triumph, the other is proper to people in consternation or disorder of + mind. + </p> + <p> + Theseus, after the funeral of his father, paid his vows to Apollo the + seventh day of Pyanepsion; for on that day the youth that returned with + him safe from Crete made their entry into the city. They say, also, that + the custom of boiling pulse at this feast is derived from hence; because + the young men that escaped put all that was left of their provision + together, and, boiling it in one common pot, feasted themselves with it, + and ate it all up together. Hence, also, they carry in procession an olive + branch bound about with wool (such as they then made use of in their + supplications), which they call Eiresione, crowned with all sorts of + fruits, to signify that scarcity and barrenness was ceased, singing in + their procession this song: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Eiresione brings figs, and Eiresione brings loaves; + Bring us honey in pints, and oil to rub on our bodies, + And a strong flagon of wine, for all to go mellow to bed on. +</pre> + <p> + The ship wherein Theseus and the youth of Athens returned had thirty oars, + and was preserved by the Athenians down even to the time of Demetrius + Phalereus, for they took away the old planks as they decayed, putting in + new and stronger timber in their place, insomuch that this ship became a + standing example among the philosophers, for the logical question as to + things that grow; one side holding that the ship remained the same, and + the other contending that it was not the same. + </p> + <p> + Now, after the death of his father Aegeus, forming in his mind a great and + wonderful design, he gathered together all the inhabitants of Attica into + one town, and made them one people of one city, whereas before they lived + dispersed, and were not easy to assemble upon any affair, for the common + interest. Nay, the differences and even wars often occurred between them, + which he by his persuasions appeased, going form township to township, and + from tribe to tribe. And those of a more private and mean condition + readily embracing such good advice, to those of greater power he promised + a commonwealth without monarchy, a democracy, or people's government, in + which he should only be continued as their commander in war and the + protector of their laws, all things else being equally distributed among + them;—and by this means brought a part of them over to his proposal. + The rest, fearing his power, which was already grown very formidable, and + knowing his courage and resolution, chose rather to be persuaded than + forced into a compliance. He then dissolved all the distant state-houses, + council halls, and magistracies, and built one common state-house (the + Prytaneum) and council hall on the site of the present upper town, and + gave the name of Athens to the whole state, ordaining a common feast and + sacrifice, which he called Panathenaea, or the sacrifice of all the united + Athenians. He instituted also another sacrifice, called Metoecia, or Feast + of Migration, which is yet celebrated on the sixteenth day of + Hecatombaeon. Then, as he had promised, he laid down his regal power and + proceeded to order a commonwealth, entering upon this great work not + without advice from the gods. For having sent to consult the oracle of + Delphi concerning the fortune of his new government and city, he received + this answer: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Son of the Pitthean maid, + To your town the terms and fates + My father gives of many states. + Be not anxious or afraid: + The bladder will not fail to swim + On the waves that compass him. +</pre> + <p> + Which oracle, they say, one of the sibyls long after did in a manner + repeat to the Athenians, in this verse: + </p> + <p> + The bladder may be dipt, but not be drowned. + </p> + <p> + Farther yet designing to enlarge his city, he invited all strangers to + come and enjoy equal privileges with the natives, and it is said that the + common form, "Come hither all ye people," was the words that Theseus + proclaimed when he thus set up a commonwealth, in a manner, for all + nations. Yet he did not suffer his state, by the promiscuous multitude + that flowed in, to be turned into confusion and be left without any order + or degree, but was the first that divided the commonwealth into three + distinct ranks, the noblemen, the husbandmen, and artificers. To the + nobility he committed the care of religion, the choice of magistrates, the + teaching and dispensing of the laws, and interpretation and direction in + all sacred matters; the whole city being, as it were, reduced to an exact + equality, the nobles excelling the rest in honor, the husbandmen in + profit, and the artifices in number. And that Theseus was the first, who, + as Aristotle says, out of an inclination to popular government, parted + with the regal power, Homer also seems to testify, in his catalogue of + ships, where he gives the name of "People" to the Athenians only. + </p> + <p> + He also coined money, and stamped it with the image of an ox, either in + memory of the Marathonian bull, or of Taurus, whom he vanquished, or else + to put his people in mind to follow husbandry; and from this coin came the + expression so frequent among the Greeks, as a thing being worth ten or a + hundred oxen. After this he joined Megara to Attica, and erected that + famous pillar on the isthmus, which bears an inscription of two lines, + showing the bounds of the two countries that meet there. On the east side + the inscription is,-"Peloponnesus there, Ionia here," And on the west + side,-"Peloponnesus here, Ionia there." + </p> + <p> + He also instituted the games, in emulation of Hercules, being ambitious + that as the Greeks, by that hero's appointment, celebrated the Olympian + games to the honor of Jupiter, so, by his institution, they should + celebrate the Isthmian to the honor of Neptune. At the same time he made + an agreement with the Corinthians, that they should allow those that came + from Athens to the celebration of the Isthmian games as much space of + honor before the rest to behold the spectacle in as the sail of the ship + that brought them thither, stretched to its full extent, could cover; so + Hellenicus and Andro of Halicarnassus have established. + </p> + <p> + Concerning his voyage into the Euxine Sea, Philochorus and some others + write that he made it with Hercules, offering him his service in the war + against the Amazons, and had Antiope given him for the reward of his + valor; but the greater number, of whom are Pherecides, Hellanicus, and + Herodorus, with a navy under his own command, and took the Amazon + prisoner,—the more probable story, for we do not read that any + other, of all those that accompanied him in this action, took any Amazon + prisoner. Bion adds, that, to take her, he had to use deceit and fly away; + for the Amazons, he says, being naturally lovers of men, were so far from + avoiding Theseus when he touched upon their coasts, that they sent him + presents to his ship; but he, having invited Antiope, who brought them, to + come aboard, immediately set sail and carried her away. An author named + Menecrates, that wrote the History of Nicaea in Bithynia, adds, that + Theseus, having Antiope aboard his vessel, cruised for some time about + those coasts, and that there were in the same ship three young men of + Athens, that accompanied him in his voyage, all brothers, whose names were + Euneos, Thoas, and Soloon. The last of these fell desperately in love with + Antiope; and escaping the notice of the rest, revealed the secret only to + one of his most intimate acquaintance, and employed him to disclose his + passion to Antiope. She rejected his pretences with a very positive + denial, yet treated the matter with much gentleness and discretion, and + made no complaint to Theseus of anything that had happened; but Soloon, + the thing being desperate, leaped into a river near the seaside and + drowned himself. As soon as Theseus was aquainted with his death, and his + unhappy love that was the cause of it, he was extremely distressed, and, + in the height of his grief, an oracle which he had formerly received at + Delphi came into his mind; for he had been commanded by the priestess of + Apollo Pythius, that, wherever in a strange land he was most sorrowful and + under the greatest affliction, he should build a city there, and leave + some of his followers to be governors of the place. For this cause he + there founded a city, which he called, from the name of Apollo, + Pythopolis, and, in honor of the unfortunate youth, he named the river + that runs by it Soloon, and left the two surviving brothers intrusted with + the care of the government and laws, joining with them Hermus, one of the + nobility of Athens, from whom a place in the city is called the House of + Hermus; though by an error in the accent it has been taken for the House + of Hermes, or Mercury, and the honor that was designed to the hero, + transferred to the god. + </p> + <p> + This was the origin and cause of the Amazonian invasion of Attica, which + would seem to have been no slight or womanish enterprise. For it is + impossible that they should have placed their camp in the very city, and + joined battle close by the Pnyx and the hill called Museum, unless, having + first conquered the country round about, they had thus with impunity + advanced to the city. That they made so long a journey by land, and passed + the Cimmerian Bosphorus when frozen, as Hellanicus writes, is difficult to + be believed. That they encamped all but in the city is certain, and may be + sufficiently confirmed by the names that the places thereabout yet retain, + and the graves and the monuments of those that fell the battle. Both + armies being in sight, there was a long pause and doubt on each side which + should give the first onset; at last Theseus, having sacrificed to Fear, + in obedience to the command of an oracle he had received, gave them + battle, in which action a great number of the Amazons were slain. At + length, after four months, a peace was concluded between them by the + mediation of Hippolyta (for so this historian calls the Amazon whom + Theseus married, and not Antiope), though others write that she was slain + with a dart by Molpadia, while fighting by Theseus's side, and that the + pillar which stands by the temple of Olympian Earth was erected to her + honor. Nor is it to be wondered at, that in events of such antiquity, + history should be in disorder. This is as much as is worth telling + concerning the Amazons. + </p> + <p> + The celebrated friendship between Theseus and Pirithous is said to have + been begun as follows: The fame of the strength and valor of Theseus being + spread through Greece, Pirithous was desirous to make a trial and proof of + it himself, and to this end seized a herd of oxen which belonged to + Theseus, and was driving them away from Marathon, and, when news was + brought that Theseus pursued him in arms, he did not fly, but turned back + and went to meet him. But as soon as they had viewed one another, each so + admired the gracefulness and beauty, and was seized with such a respect + for the courage of the other, that they forgot all thoughts of fighting; + and Pirithous, first stretching out his hand to Theseus, bade him be judge + in this case himself, and promised to submit willingly to any penalty he + should impose. But Theseus not only forgave him all, but entreated him to + be his friend and brother in arms; and they ratified their friendship by + oaths. After this Pirithous married Deidamia, and invited Theseus to the + wedding, entreating him to come and see his country, and make acquaintance + with the Lapithae; he had at the same time invited the Centaurs to the + feast, who, growing hot with wine and beginning to be insolent and wild, + the Lapithae took immediate revenge upon them, slaying many of them upon + the place, and afterwards, having overcome them in battle, drove the whole + race of them out of their country, Theseus all along taking the part of + the Lapithae, and fighting on their side. + </p> + <p> + Theseus was now fifty years old, as Hellanicus states, when he carried off + Helen, who was yet too young to be married. Some writers, to take away + this accusation of one of the greatest crimes laid to his charge, say that + he did not steal away Helen himself, but that Idas and Lynceus brought her + to him, and committed her to his charge, and that, therefore, he refused + to restore her at the demand of Castor and Pollux; or, indeed, they say + her own father, Tyndarus, had sent her to be kept by him, for fear of + Enarophorus, the son of Hippocoon, who would have carried her away by + force when she was yet a child. But the most probable account, and that + which has witnesses on its side, is this: Theseus and Pirithous went both + together to Sparta, and, having seized the young lady as she was dancing + in the temple of Diana Orthia, fled away with her. There were presently + men in arms sent to pursue, but they followed no farther than to Tegea; + and Theseus and Pirithous being now out of danger, having passed through + Peloponnesus, made an agreement between themselves, that he to whom the + lot should fall should have Helen to his wife, but should be obliged to + assist in procuring another for his friend. The lot fell upon Theseus, who + conveyed her to Aphidnae, not being yet marriageable, and delivered her to + one of his allies, called Aphidnus, and having sent his mother, Aethra, + after to take care of her, desired him to keep them so secretly that none + might know where they were; which done, to return the same service to his + friend Pirithous, he accompanied him in his journey to Epirus, in order to + steal away the king of the Molossians' daughter. The king, his own name + being Aidoneus, or Pluto, called his wife Proserpina, and his daughter + Cora, and a great dog which he kept Cerberus, with whom he ordered all + that came as suitors to his daughter to fight, and promised her to him + that should overcome the beast. But having been informed that the design + of Pirithous and his companion was not to court his daughter, but to force + her away, he caused them both to be seized, and threw Pirithous to be torn + to pieces by the dog, and put Theseus into prison, and kept him. + </p> + <p> + About this time Menetheus, the son of Peteus, grandson of Orneus, and + great-grandson to Erechtheus, the first man that is recorded to have + affected popularity and ingratiated himself with the multitude, stirred up + and exasperated the most eminent men of the city, who had long borne a + secret grudge to Theseus, conceiving that he had robbed them of their + several little kingdoms and lordships, and, having pent them all up in one + city, was using them as his subjects and slaves. He put also the meaner + people into commotion, telling them, that, deluded with a mere dream of + liberty, though indeed they were deprived both of that and their proper + homes and religious usages, instead of many good and gracious kings of + their own, they had given themselves up to be lorded over by a newcomer + and a stranger. Whilst he was thus busied in infecting the minds of the + citizens, the war that Castor and Pollux brought against Athens came very + opportunity to farther the sedition he had been promoting, and some say + that he by his persuasions was wholly the cause of their invading the + city. At their first approach they committed no acts of hostility, but + peaceably demanded their sister Helen; but the Athenians returning answer + that they neither had her nor knew where she was disposed of, they + prepared to assault the city, when Academus, having, by whatever means, + found it out, disclosed to them that she was secretly kept at Aphidnea. + For which reason he was both highly honored during his life by Castor and + Pollux, and the Lacedaemonians, when often in after times they made + excursions into Attica, and destroyed all the country round about, spared + the Academy for the sake of Academus. + </p> + <p> + Hercules, passing by the Molossians, was entertained in his way by + Aidoneus the king, who, in conversation, accidentally spoke of the journey + of Theseus and Pirithous into his country, of what they had designed to + do, and what they were forced to suffer. Hercules was much grieved for the + inglorious death of the one and the miserable condition of the other. As + for Pirithous, he thought it useless to complain; but begged to have + Theseus released for his sake, and obtained that favor from the king. + Theseus, being thus set at liberty, returned to Athens, where his friends + were not wholly suppressed, and dedicated to Hercules all the sacred + places which the city had set apart for himself, changing their names from + Thesea to Herculea, four only excepted, as Philochorus writes. And wishing + immediately to resume the first place in the commonwealth, and manage the + state as before, he soon found himself involved in factions and troubles; + those who long had hated him had now added to their hatred contempt; and + the minds of the people were so generally corrupted, that, instead of + obeying commands with silence, they expected to be flattered into their + duty. He had some thoughts to have reduced them by force, but was + overpowered by demagogues and factions. And at last, despairing of any + good success of his affairs in Athens, he sent away his children privately + to Euboea, commending them to the care of Elephenor, the son of Chalcodon; + and he himself, having solemnly cursed the people of Athens in the village + of Gargettus, in which there yet remains the place called Araterion, or + the place of cursing, sailed to Scyros, where he had lands left him by his + father, and friendship, as he thought, with those of the island. Lycomedes + was then king of Scyros. Theseus, therefore, addressed himself to him, and + desired to have his lands put into his possession, as designing to settle + and dwell there, though others say that he came to beg his assistance + against the Athenians. But Lycomedes, either jealous of the glory of so + great a man, or to gratify Menestheus, having led him up to the highest + cliff of the island, on pretense of showing him from thence the lands that + he desired, threw him headlong down from the rock and killed him. Others + say he fell down of himself by a slip of his foot, as he was walking + there, according to his custom, after supper. At that time there was no + notice taken, nor were any concerned for his death, but Menestheus quietly + possessed the kingdom of Athens. His sons were brought up in a private + condition, and accompanied Elephenor to the Trojan war, but, after the + decease of Menestheus in that expedition, returned to Athens, and + recovered the government. But in succeeding ages, beside several other + circumstances that moved the Athenians to honor Theseus as a demigod, in + the battle which was fought at Marathon against the Medes, many of the + soldiers believed they saw an apparition of Theseus in arms, rushing on at + the head of them against the barbarians. And after the Median war, Phaedo + being archon of Athens, the Athenians, consulting the oracle at Delphi, + were commanded to gather together the bones of Theseus, and, laying them + in some honorable place, keep them as sacred in the city. But it was very + difficult to recover these relics, or so much as to find out the place + where they lay, on account of the inhospitable and savage temper of the + barbarous people that inhabited the island. Nevertheless, afterwards, when + Cimon took the island (as is related in his life), and had a great + ambition to find the place where Theseus was buried, he, by chance, spied + an eagle upon a rising ground pecking with her beak and tearing up the + earth with her talons, when on the sudden it came into his mind, as it + were by some divine inspiration, to dig there, and search for the bones of + Theseus. There were found in that place a coffin of a man of more than + ordinary size, and a brazen spear-head, and a sword lying by it, all which + he took aboard his galley and brought with him to Athens. Upon which the + Athenians, greatly delighted, went out to meet and receive the relics with + splendid procession and with sacrifices, as if it were Theseus himself + returning alive to the city. He lies interred in the middle of the city, + near the present gymnasium. His tomb is a sanctuary and refuge for slaves, + and all those of mean condition that fly from the persecution of men in + power, in memory that Theseus while he lived was an assister and protector + of the distressed, and never refused the petitions of the afflicted that + fled to him. The chief and most solemn sacrifice which they celebrate to + him is kept on the eighth day of Pyanepsion, on which he returned with the + Athenian young men from Crete. Besides which, they sacrifice to him on the + eighth day of every month, either because he returned from Troezen the + eighth day of Hecatombaeon, as Diodorus the geographer writes, or else + thinking that number to be proper to him, because he was reputed to be + born of Neptune, because they sacrifice to Neptune on the eighth day of + every month. The number eight being the first cube of an even number, and + the double of the first square, seemed to be am emblem of the steadfast + and immovable power of this god, who from thence has the names of + Asphalius and Gaeiochus, that is, the establisher and stayer of the earth. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ROMULUS + </h2> + <p> + From whom, and for what reason, the city of Rome, a name so great in + glory, and famous in the mouths of all men, was so first called, authors + do not agree. + </p> + <p> + But the story which is most believed and has the greatest number of + vouchers in general outline runs thus: the kings of Alba reigned in lineal + descent from Aeneas, and the succession devolved at length upon two + brothers, Numitor and Amulius. Amulius proposed to divide things into two + equal shares, and set as equivalent to the kingdom the treasure and gold + that were brought from Troy. Numitor chose the kingdom; but Amulius, + having the money, and being able to do more with that than Numitor, took + his kingdom from with great ease, and, fearing lest his daughter might + have children who would supplant him, made her a Vestal, bound in that + condition forever to live a single and maiden life. This lady some call + Ilia, others Rhea, and others Silvia; however, not long after, contrary to + the established laws of the Vestals, she had two sons of more than human + size and beauty, whom Amulius, becoming yet more alarmed, commanded a + servant to take and cast away; this man some call Faustulus, others say + Faustulus was the man who brought them up. He put the children, however, + in a small trough, and went towards the river with a design to cast them + in; but seeing the waters much swollen and coming violently down, was + afraid to go nearer, and, dropping the children near the bank, went away. + The river overflowing, the flood at last bore up the trough, and, gently + wafting it, landed them on a smooth piece of ground, which they now call + Cermanus, formerly Germanus, perhaps from "Germani," which signifies + brothers. + </p> + <p> + While the infants lay here, history tells us, a she-wolf nursed them, and + a woodpecker constantly fed and watched them. These creatures are esteemed + holy to the god Mars; the woodpecker the Latins still especially worship + and honor. Which things, as much as any, gave credit to what the mother of + the children said, that their father was the god Mars. + </p> + <p> + Meantime Faustulus, Amulius's swineherd, brought up the children without + any man's knowledge; or, as those say who wish to keep closer to + probabilities, with the knowledge and secret assistance of Numitor; for it + is said, they went to school at Gabii, and were well instructed in + letters, and other accomplishments befitting their birth. And they were + called Romulus and Remus (from "ruma", the dug), because they were found + suckling the wolf. In their very infancy, the size and beauty of their + bodies intimated their natural superiority; and when they grew up, they + both proved brave and manly, attempting all enterprises that seemed + hazardous, and showing in them a courage altogether undaunted. But Romulus + seemed rather to act by counsel, and to show the sagacity of a statesman, + and in all his dealings with their neighbors, whether relating to feeding + of flocks or to hunting, gave the idea of being born rather to rule than + to obey. To their comrades and inferiors they were therefore dear; but the + king's servants, his bailiffs and overseers, as being in nothing better + men than themselves, they despised and slighted, nor were the least + concerned at their commands and menaces. They used honest pastimes and + liberal studies, not esteeming sloth and idleness honest and liberal, but + rather such exercises as hunting and running, repelling robbers, taking of + thieves, and delivering the wronged and oppressed from injury. For doing + such things, they became famous. + </p> + <p> + A quarrel occurring betwixt Numitor's and Amulius's cowherds, the latter, + not enduring the driving away of their cattle by the others, fell upon + them and put them to flight, and rescued the greatest part of the prey. At + which Numitor being highly incensed, they little regarded it, but + collected and took into their company a number of needy men and runaway + slaves,—acts which looked like the first stages of rebellion. It so + happened, that when Romulus was attending a sacrifice, being fond of + sacred rites and divination, Numitor's herdsmen, meeting with Remus on a + journey with few companions, fell upon him, and, after some fighting, took + him prisoner, carried him before Numitor, and there accused him. Numitor + would not punish him himself, fearing his brother's anger, but went to + Amulius and desired justice, as he was Amulius's brother and was affronted + by Amulius's servants. The men of Alba likewise resenting the thing, and + thinking he had been dishonorably used, Amulius was induced to deliver + Remus up into Numitor's hands, to use him as he thought fit. He therefore + took and carried him home, and, being struck with admiration of the + youth's person, in stature and strength of body exceeding all men, and + perceiving in his very countenance the courage and force of his mind, + which stood unsubdued and unmoved by his present circumstances, and + hearing further that all the enterprises and actions of his life were + answerable to what he saw of him, but chiefly, as it seemed, a divine + influence aiding and directing the first steps that were to lead to great + results, out of the mere thought of his mind, and casually, as it were, he + put his hand upon the fact, and, in gentler terms and with a kind aspect, + to inspire him with confidence and hope, asked him who he was, and whence + he was derived. He, taking heart, spoke thus: "I will hide nothing from + you, for you seem to be of a more princely temper than Amulius, in that + you give a hearing and examine before you punish, while he condemns before + the cause is heard. Formerly, then, we (for we are twins) thought + ourselves the sons of Faustulus and Larentia, the king's servants; but + since we have been accused and aspersed with calumnies, and brought in + peril of our lives here before you, we hear great things of ourselves, the + truth of which my present danger is likely to bring to the test. Our birth + is said to have been secret, our fostering and nurture in our infancy + still more strange; by birds and beasts, to whom we were cast out, we were + fed—by the milk of a wolf, and the morsels of a woodpecker, as we + lay in a little trough by the side of the river. The trough is still in + being, and is preserved, with brass plates round it, and an inscription in + letters almost effaced, which may prove hereafter unavailing tokens to our + parents when we are dead and gone." Numitor, upon these words, and + computing the dates by the young man's looks, slighted not the hope that + flattered him, but considered how to come at his daughter privately (for + she was still kept under restraint), to talk with her concerning these + matters. + </p> + <p> + Faustulus, hearing Remus was taken and delivered up, called on Romulus to + assist in his rescue, informing him then plainly of the particulars of his + birth—not but he had before given hints of it—and told as much + as an attentive man might make no small conclusions from; he himself, full + of concern and fear of not coming in time, took the trough, and ran + instantly to Numitor; but giving a suspicion to some of the king's sentry + at his gate, and being gazed upon by them and perplexed with their + questions, he let it be seen that he was hiding the trough under his + cloak. By chance there was one among them who was at the exposing of the + children, and was one employed in the office; he, seeing the trough and + knowing it by its make and inscription, guessed at the business, and, + without further delay, telling the king of it, brought in the man to be + examined. Faustulus, hard beset, did not show himself altogether proof + against terror; nor yet was he wholly forced out of all: confessed indeed + the children were alive, but lived, he said, as shepherds, a great way + from Alba; he himself was going to carry the trough to Ilia, who had often + greatly desired and handle it, for a confirmation of her hopes of her + children. As men generally do who are troubled in mind and act either in + fear or passion, it so fell out Amulius now did; for he sent in haste as a + messenger, a man, otherwise honest and friendly to Numitor, with commands + to learn from Numitor whether any tidings were come to him of the + children's being alive. He, coming and seeing how little Remus wanted of + being received into the arms and embraces of Numitor, both gave him surer + confidence in his hope, and advised them, with all expedition, to proceed + to action; himself too joining and assisting them, and indeed, had they + wished it, the time would not have let them demur. For Romulus was now + come very near, and many of the citizens, out of fear and hatred of + Amulius, were running out to join him; besides, he brought great forces + with him, dividing into companies, each of an hundred men, every captain + carrying a small bundle of grass and shrubs tied to a pole. The Latins + call such bundles "manipuli," and from hence it is that in their armies + still they call their captains "manipulares." Remus rousing the citizens + within to revolt, and Romulus making attacks from without, the tyrant, not + knowing either what to do, or what expedient to think of for his security, + in this perplexity and confusion was taken and put to death. This + narrative, for the most part given by Fabius and Diocles of Peparethos, + who seem to be the earliest historians of the foundation of Rome, is + suspected by some because of its dramatic and fictitious appearance; but + it would not wholly be disbelieved, if men would remember what a poet + Fortune sometimes shows herself, and consider that the Roman power would + hardly have reached so high a pitch without a divinely ordered origin, + attended with great and extraordinary circumstances. + </p> + <p> + Amulius now being dead and matters quietly disposed, the two brothers + would neither dwell in Alba without governing there, nor take the + government into their own hands during the life of their grandfather. + Having therefore delivered the dominion up into his hands, and paid their + mother befitting honor, they resolved to live by themselves, and build a + city in the same place where they were in their infancy brought up. This + seems the most honorable reason for their departure; though perhaps it was + necessary, having such a body of slaves and fugitives collected about + them, either to come to nothing by dispersing them, or if not so, then to + live with them elsewhere. For that the inhabitants of Alba did not think + fugitives worthy of being received and incorporated as citizens among them + plainly appears from the matter of the women, an attempt made not + wantonly, but of necessity, because they could not get wives by good-will. + For they certainly paid unusual respect and honor to those whom they thus + forcibly seized. + </p> + <p> + Not long after the first foundation of the city, they opened a sanctuary + of refuge for all fugitives, which they called the temple of the god + Asylaeus, where they received and protected all, delivering none back, + neither the servant to his master, the debtor to his creditor, nor the + murderer into the hands of the magistrate, saying it was a privileged + place, and they could so maintain it by an order of the holy oracle; + insomuch that the city grew presently very populous, for, they say, it + consisted at first of no more than a thousand houses. But of that + hereafter. + </p> + <p> + Their minds being fully bent upon building, there arose presently a + difference about the place where. Romulus chose what was called Roma + Quadrata, or the Square Rome, and would have the city there. Remus laid + out a piece of ground on the Aventine Mount, well fortified by nature, + which was from him called Remonium, but now Rignarium. Concluding at last + to decide the contest by a divination from a flight of birds, and placing + themselves apart at some distance, Remus, they say, saw six vultures, and + Romulus double the number; others say Remus did truly see his number, and + that Romulus feigned his, but, when Remus came to him, that then he did, + indeed, see twelve. Hence it is that the Romans, in their divinations from + birds, chiefly regard the vulture, though Herodorus Ponticus relates that + Hercules was always very joyful when a vulture appeared to him upon any + occasion. For it is a creature the least hurtful of any, pernicious + neither to corn, fruit-tree, nor cattle; it preys only on carrion, and + never kills or hurts any living thing; and as for birds, it touches not + them, though they are dead, as being of its own species, whereas eagles, + owls, and hawks mangle and kill their own fellow-creatures; yet, as + Aeschylus says,— + </p> + <p> + What bird is clean that preys on fellow bird? + </p> + <p> + Besides, all other birds are, so to say, never out of our eyes; they let + themselves be seen of us continually; but a vulture is a very rare sight, + and you can seldom meet with a man that has seen their young; their rarity + and infrequency has raised a strange opinion in some, that they come to us + from some other world; as soothsayers ascribe a divine origination to all + things not produced either of nature or of themselves. + </p> + <p> + When Remus knew the cheat, he was much displeased; and as Romulus was + casting up a ditch, where he designed the foundation of the city wall, he + turned some pieces of the work to ridicule, and obstructed others: at + last, as he was in contempt leaping over it, some say Romulus himself + struck him, others Celer, one of his companions; he fell, however, and in + the scuffle Faustulus also was slain, and Plistinus, who, being + Faustulus's brother, story tells us, helped to bring up Romulus. Celer + upon this fled instantly into Tuscany, and from him the Romans call all + men that are swift of foot Celeres; and because Quintus Metellus, at his + father's funeral, in a few days' time gave the people a show of + gladiators, admiring his expedition in getting it ready, they gave him the + name of Celer. + </p> + <p> + Romulus, having buried his brother Remus, together with his two + foster-fathers, on the mount Remonia, set to building his city; and sent + for men out of Tuscany, who directed him by sacred usages and written + rules in all the ceremonies to be observed, as in a religious rite. First, + they dug a round trench about that which is now the Comitium, or Court of + Assembly and into it solemnly threw the first-fruits of all things either + good by custom or necessary by nature; lastly, every man taking a small + piece of earth of the country from whence he came, they all threw them in + promiscuously together. This trench they call, as they do the heavens, + Mundus; making which their centre, they described the city in a circle + round it. Then the founder fitted to a plough, a bronze ploughshare, and, + yoking together a bull and a cow, drove himself a deep line or furrow + round the bounds; while the business of those that followed after was to + see that whatever earth was thrown up should be turned all inwards towards + the city, and not to let any clod lie outside. With this line they + described the wall, and called it, by a contradiction, Pomoerium, that is, + "post murum," after or beside the wall; and where they designed to make a + gate, there they took out the share, carried the plough over, and left a + space; for which reason they consider the whole wall as holy, except where + the gates are; for had they adjudged them also sacred, they could not, + without offence to religion, have given free ingress and egress for the + necessaries of human life, some of which are in themselves unclean. + </p> + <p> + As for the day they began to build the city, it is universally agreed to + have been the twenty-first of April, and that day the Romans annually keep + holy, calling it their country's birthday. At first, they say, they + sacrificed no living creatures on this day, thinking it fit to preserve + the feast of their country's birthday pure and without stain of blood. Yet + before ever the city was built, there was a feast of herdsmen and + shepherds kept on this day, which went by the name of Palilia. The Roman + and Greek months have now little or no agreement; they say, however, the + day on which Romulus began to build was quite certainly the thirtieth of + the month, at which time there was an eclipse of the sun which they + conceive to be that seen by Antimachus, the Teian poet, in the third year + of the sixth Olympiad. In the times of Varro the philosopher, a man deeply + read in Roman history, lived one Tarrutius, his familiar acquaintance, a + good philosopher and mathematician, and one, too, that out of curiosity + had studied the way of drawing schemes and tables, and was thought to be a + proficient in the art; to him Varro propounded to cast Romulus's nativity, + even to the first day and hour, making his deductions from the several + events of the man's life which he should be informed of, exactly as in + working back a geometrical problem; for it belonged, he said, to the same + science both to foretell a man's life by knowing the time of his birth, + and also to find out his birth by the knowledge of his life. This task + Tarrutius undertook, and first looking into the actions and casualties of + the man, together with the time of his life and manner of his death, and + then comparing all these remarks together, he very confidently and + positively pronounced that Romulus was born the twenty-first day of the + month Thoth, about sun-rising; and that the first stone of Rome was laid + by him the ninth day of the month Pharmuthi, between the second and third + hour. For the fortunes of cities as well as of men, they think, have their + certain periods of time prefixed, which may be collected and foreknown + from the position of the stars at their first foundation. But these and + the like relations may perhaps not so much take and delight the reader + with their novelty and curiosity as offend him by their extravagance. + </p> + <p> + The city now being built, Romulus enlisted all that were of age to bear + arms into military companies, each company consisting of three thousand + footmen and three hundred horse. These companies were called legions, + because they were the choicest and most select of the people for fighting + men. The rest of the multitude he called the people; an hundred of the + most eminent he chose for counselors; these he styled patricians, and + their assembly the senate, which signifies a council of elders. + </p> + <p> + In the fourth month after the city was built, as Fabius writes, the + adventure of stealing the women was attempted. It would seem that, + observing his city to be filled by a confluence of foreigners, few of whom + had wives, and that the multitude in general, consisting of a mixture of + mean and obscure men, fell under contempt, and seemed to be of no long + continuance together, and hoping farther, after the women were appeased, + to make this injury in some measure an occasion of confederacy and mutual + commerce with the Sabines, Romulus took in his hand this exploit after + this manner. First, he gave it out that he had found an altar of a certain + god hid under ground, perhaps the equestrian Neptune, for the altar is + kept covered in the Circus Maximus at all other times, and only at + horse-races is exposed to public view. Upon discovery of this altar, + Romulus, by proclamation, appointed a day for a splendid sacrifice, and + for public games and shows, to entertain all sorts of people; many flocked + thither, and he himself sat in front, amidst his nobles, clad in purple. + Now the signal for their falling on was to be whenever he rose and + gathered up his robe and threw it over his body; his men stood all ready + armed, with their eyes intent upon him, and when the sign was given, + drawing their swords and falling on with a great shout, they stole away + the daughters of the Sabines, the men themselves flying without any let or + hindrance. Some say there were but thirty taken, and from Curiae or + Fraternities were named; but Valerius Antias says five hundred and twenty + seven, Juba, six hundred and eighty-three. + </p> + <p> + It continues a custom at this very day for the bride not of herself to + pass her husband's threshold, but to be lifted over, in memory that the + Sabine virgins were carried in by violence, and did not go in of their own + free will. Some say, too, the custom of parting the bride's hair with the + head of a spear was in token their marriages began at first by war and + acts of hostility. + </p> + <p> + The Sabines were a numerous and martial people, but lived in small, + unfortified villages, as it befitted, they thought, a colony of the + Lacedaemonians to be bold and fearless; nevertheless, seeing themselves + bound by such hostages to their good behavior, and being solicitous for + their daughters, they sent ambassadors to Romulus with fair and equitable + requests, that he would return their young women and recall that act of + violence, and afterwards, by persuasion and lawful means, seek friendly + correspondence between both nations. Romulus would not part with the young + women, yet proposed to the Sabines to enter into an alliance with them; + upon which point some consulted and demurred long, but Acron, king of the + Ceninenses, a man of high spirit and a good warrior, who had all along a + jealousy of Romulus's bold attempts, and considering particularly from + this exploit upon the women that he was growing formidable to all people, + and indeed insufferable, were he not chastised, first rose up in arms, and + with a powerful army advanced against him. Romulus likewise prepared to + receive him; but when they came within sight and viewed each other, they + made a challenge to fight a single duel, the armies standing by under + arms, without participation. And Romulus, making a vow to Jupiter, if he + should conquer, to carry himself, and dedicate his adversary's armor to + his honor, overcame him in combat, and, a battle ensuing, routed his army + also, and then took his city; but did those he found in it no injury, only + commanded them to demolish the place and attend him to Rome, there to be + admitted to all the privileges of citizens. And indeed there was nothing + did more advance the greatness of Rome, than that she did always unite and + incorporate those whom she conquered into herself. Romulus, that he might + perform his vow in the most acceptable manner to Jupiter, and withal make + the pomp of it delightful to the eye of the city, cut down a tall oak + which he saw growing in the camp, which he trimmed to the shape of a + trophy, and fastened on it Acron's whole suit of armor disposed in proper + form; then he himself, girding his clothes about him, and crowning his + head with a laurel-garland, his hair gracefully flowing, carried the + trophy resting erect upon his right shoulder, and so marched on, singing + songs of triumph, and his whole army following after, the citizens all + receiving him with acclamations of joy and wonder. The procession of this + day was the origin and model of all after triumphs. But the statues of + Romulus in triumph are, as may be seen in Rome, all on foot. + </p> + <p> + After the overthrow of the Ceninensians, the other Sabines still + protracting the time in preparations, the people of Fidenae, Crustumerium, + and Antemna, joined their forces against the Romans; they in like manner + were defeated in battle, and surrendered up to Romulus their cities to be + seized, their lands and territories to be divided, and themselves to be + transplanted to Rome. All the lands which Romulus acquired he distributed + among the citizens, except only what the parents of the stolen virgins + had; these he suffered to possess their own. The rest of the Sabines, + enraged thereat, choosing Tatius their captain, marched straight against + Rome. The city was almost inaccessible, having for its fortress that which + is now the Capitol, where a strong guard was placed, and Tarpeius their + captain. But Tarpeia, daughter to the captain, coveting the golden + bracelets she saw them wear, betrayed the fort into the Sabines' hands, + and asked, in reward of her treachery, the things they wore on their left + arms. Tatius conditioning thus with her, in the night she opened one of + the gates and received the Sabines in. And truly Antigonus, it would seem, + was not solitary in saying he loved betrayers, but hated those who had + betrayed; nor Caesar, who told Rhymitalces the Thracian that he loved the + treason, but hated the traitor; but it is the general feeling of all who + have occasion for wicked men's services, as people have for the poison of + venomous beasts; they are glad of them while they are of use, and abhor + their baseness when it is over. And so did Tatius behave towards Tarpeia, + for he commanded the Sabines, in regard to their contract, not to refuse + her the least part of what they wore on their left arms; and he himself + first took his bracelet off his arm, and threw that, together with his + buckler, at her; and all the rest following, she, being borne down and + quite buried with the multitude of gold and their shields, died under the + weight and pressure of them; Tarpeius also himself, being prosecuted by + Romulus, was found guilty of treason, and that part of the Capitol they + still call the Tarpeian Rock, from which they used to cast down + malefactors. + </p> + <p> + The Sabines being possessed of the hill, Romulus, in great fury, bade them + battle, and Tatius was confident to accept it. There were many brief + conflicts, we may suppose, but the most memorable was the last, in which + Romulus having received a wound on his head by a stone, and being almost + felled to the ground by it, and disabled, the Romans gave way, and, being + driven out of the level ground, fled towards the Palatium. Romulus, by + this time recovering from his wound a little, turned about to renew the + battle, and, facing the fliers, with a loud voice encouraged them to stand + and fight. But being overborne with numbers, and nobody daring to face + about, stretching out his hands to heaven, he prayed to Jupiter to stop + the army, and not to neglect but maintain the Roman cause, now in extreme + danger. The prayer was no sooner made than shame and respect for their + king checked many; the fears of the fugitives changed suddenly into + confidence. The place they first stood at was where now is the temple of + Jupiter Stator (which may be translated the Stayer); there they rallied + again into ranks, and repulsed the Sabines to the place called now Regia, + and to the temple of Vesta; where both parties, preparing to begin a + second battle, were prevented by a spectacle, strange to behold, and + defying description. For the daughters of the Sabines, who had been + carried off, came running, in great confusion, some on this side, some on + that, with miserable cries and lamentations, like creatures possessed, in + the midst of the army, and among the dead bodies, to come at their + husbands and their fathers, some with their young babes in their arms, + others their hair loose about their ears, but all calling, now upon the + Sabines, now upon the Romans, in the most tender and endearing words. + Hereupon both melted into compassion, and fell back, to make room for them + betwixt the armies. The sight of the women carried sorrow and + commiseration upon both sides into the hearts of all, but still more their + words, which began with expostulation and upbraiding, and ended with + entreaty and supplication. + </p> + <p> + "Wherein," say they, "have we injured or offended you, as to deserve such + sufferings, past and present? We were ravished away unjustly and violently + by those whose now we are; that being done, we were so long neglected by + our fathers, our brothers, and countrymen, that time, having now by the + strictest bonds united us to those we once mortally hated, has made it + impossible for us not to tremble at the danger and weep at the death of + the very men who once used violence to us. You did not come to vindicate + our honor, while we were virgins, against our assailants; but do come now + to force away wives from their husbands and mothers from their children, a + succor more grievous to its wretched objects than the former betrayal and + neglect of them. Which shall we call the worst, their love-making or your + compassion? If you were making war upon any other occasion, for our sakes + you ought to withhold your hands from those to whom we have made you + fathers-in-law and grandsires. If it be for our own cause, then take us, + and with us your sons-in-law and grandchildren. Restore to us our parents + and kindred, but do not rob us of our children and husbands. Make us not, + we entreat you, twice captives." Having spoken many such words as these, + and earnestly praying, a truce was made, and the chief officers came to a + parley; the women, in the meantime, brought and presented their husbands + and children to their fathers and brothers; gave those that wanted, meat + and drink, and carried the wounded home to be cured, and showed also how + much they governed within doors, and how indulgent their husbands were to + them, in demeaning themselves towards them with all kindness and respect + imaginable. Upon this, conditions were agreed upon, that what women + pleased might stay where they were, exempt from all drudgery and labor but + spinning; that the Romans and Sabines should inhabit the city together; + that the city should be called Rome, from Romulus; but the Romans, + Quirites, from the country of Tatius; and that they both should govern and + command in common. The place of the ratification is still called Comitium, + from "coire," to meet. + </p> + <p> + The city thus being doubled in number, an hundred of the Sabines were + elected senators, and the legions were increased to six thousand foot and + six hundred horse; then they divided the people into three tribes: the + first, from Romulus, named Ramnenses; the second, from Tatius, Tatienses; + the third, Luceres, from the "lucus," or grove, where the Asylum stood, + whither many fled for sanctuary, and were received into the city. And that + they were just three, the very name of "tribe" and "tribune" seems to + show. Then they constituted many things in honor to the women, such as to + give them the way wherever they met them; to speak no ill word in their + presence; that their children should wear an ornament about their necks + called the "bulla" (because it was like a bubble), and the "praetexta," a + gown edged with purple. + </p> + <p> + The princes did not immediately join in council together, but at first + each met with his own hundred; afterwards all assembled together. Tatius + dwelt where now the temple of Moneta stands, and Romulus, close by the + steps, as they call them, of the Fair Shore, near the descent from the + Mount Palatine to the Circus Maximus. There, they say, grew the holy + cornel tree, of which they report that Romulus once, to try his strength, + threw a dart from the Aventine Mount, the staff of which was made of + cornel, which struck so deep into the ground that no one of many that + tried could pluck it up; and the soil, being fertile, gave nourishment to + the wood, which sent forth branches, and produced a cornel-stock of + considerable bigness. This did posterity preserve and worship as one of + the most sacred things; and therefore, walled it about; and if to any one + it appeared not green nor flourishing, but inclining to pine and wither, + he immediately made outcry to all he met, and they, like people hearing of + a house on fire, with one accord would cry for water, and run from all + parts with bucketfuls to the place. But when Gaius Caesar they say, was + repairing the steps about it, some of the laborers digging too close, the + roots were destroyed, and the tree withered. + </p> + <p> + The Sabines adopted the Roman months, of which whatever is remarkable is + mentioned in the Life of Numa. Romulus, on the other hand, adopted their + long shields, and changed his own armor and that of all the Romans, who + before wore round targets of the Argive pattern. Feasts and sacrifices + they partook of in common, not abolishing any which either nation observed + before, and instituting several new ones. This, too, is observable as a + singular thing in Romulus, that he appointed no punishment for real + parricide, but called all murder so, thinking the one an accursed thing, + but the other a thing impossible; and for a long time, his judgement + seemed to have been right; for in almost six hundred years together, + nobody committed the like in Rome; Lucius Hostius, after the wars of + Hannibal, is recorded to have been the first parricide. Let thus much + suffice concerning these matters. + </p> + <p> + In the fifth year of the reign of Tatius, some of his friends and kinsmen, + meeting ambassadors coming from Laurentum to Rome, attempted on the road + to take away their money by force, and, upon their resistance, killed + them. So great a villany having been committed, Romulus thought the + malefactors ought at once to be punished, but Tatius shuffled off and + deferred the execution of it; and this one thing was the beginning of an + open quarrel betwixt them; in all other respects they were very careful of + their conduct, and administered affairs together with great unanimity. The + relations of the slain, being debarred of lawful satisfaction by reason of + Tatius, fell upon him as he was sacrificing with Romulus at Lavinium, and + slew him; but escorted Romulus home, commending and extolling him for just + a prince. Romulus took the body of Tatius, and buried it very splendidly + in the Aventine Mount. + </p> + <p> + The Roman cause daily gathering strength, their weaker neighbors shrunk + away, and were thankful to be left untouched; but the stronger, out of + fear or envy, thought they ought not to give away to Romulus, but to curb + and put a stop to his growing greatness. The first were the Veientes, a + people of Tuscany, who had large possessions, and dwelt in a spacious + city; they took occasion to commence a war, by claiming Fidenae as + belonging to them. But being scornfully retorted upon by Romulus in his + answers, they divided themselves into two bodies; with one they attacked + the garrison of Fidenae, the other marched against Romulus; that which + went against Fidenae got the victory, and slew two thousand Romans; the + other was worsted by Romulus, with the loss of eight thousand men. A fresh + battle was fought near Fidenae, and here all men acknowledge the day's + success to have been chiefly the work of Romulus himself, who showed the + highest skill as well as courage, and seemed to manifest a strength and + swiftness more than human. But what some write, that, of fourteen thousand + that fell that day, above half were slain by Romulus's own hand, verges + too near to fable, and is, indeed, simply incredible: since even the + Messenians are thought to go too far in saying that Aristomenes three + times offered sacrifices for the death of a hundred enemies, + Lacedaemonians, slain by himself. The army being thus routed, Romulus, + suffering those that were left to make their escape, led his forces + against the city; they, having suffered such great losses, did not venture + to oppose, but, humbly suing him, made a league and friendship for an + hundred years; surrendering also a large district of land called + Septempagium, that is, the seven parts, as also their salt-works upon the + river, and fifty noblemen for hostages. He made his triumph for this on + the Ides of October, leading, among the rest of his many captives, the + general of the Veientes, an elderly man, but who had not, it seemed, acted + with the prudence of age; whence even now, in sacrifices for victories, + they led an old man through the market-place to the Capitol, appareled in + purple, with a bulla, or child's toy, tied to it, and the crier cries, + "Sardians to be sold;" for the Tuscans are said to be a colony of the + Sardians, and the Veientes are a city of Tuscany. + </p> + <p> + This was the last battle Romulus ever fought; afterwards he, as most, nay + all men, very few excepted, do, who are raised by great and miraculous + good-haps of fortune to power and greatness, so, I say, did he: relying + upon his own great actions and growing of a haughtier mind, he forsook his + popular behavior for kingly arrogance, odious to the people; to whom in + particular the state which he assumed was hateful. For he dressed in + scarlet, with the purple-bordered robe over it; he gave audience on a + couch of slate, having always about him some young men called "Celeres," + from their swiftness in doing commissions. He suddenly disappeared on the + Nones of July, as they call the month which was then Quintilis, leaving + nothing of certainty to be related of his death; the senators suffered the + people not to search, or busy themselves about the matter, but commanded + them to honor and worship Romulus as one taken up to the gods, and about + to be to them, in the place of a good prince, now a propitious god. The + multitude, hearing this, went away believing and rejoicing in hopes of + good things from him; but there were some, who, canvassing the matter in a + hostile temper, accused the patricians, as men that persuaded the people + to believe ridiculous tales, when they were the murderers of the king. + </p> + <p> + Things being in this disorder, one, they say, of the patricians, of noble + family and approved good character, and a faithful and familiar friend of + Romulus himself, having come with him from Alba, Julius Proculus by name, + presented himself in the forum; and taking a most sacred oath, protested + before them all, that, as he was travelling on the road, he had seen + Romulus coming to meet him, looking taller and comelier than ever, dressed + in shining and flaming armor; and he, being affrighted at the apparition, + said, "Why, O king, or for what purpose, have you abandoned us to unjust + and wicked surmises, and the whole city to bereavement and endless + sorrow?" and that he made answer, "It pleased the gods, O Proculus, that + we, who came from them, should remain so long a time amongst men as we + did; and, having built a city to be the greatest in the world for empire + and glory, should again return to heaven. But farewell; and tell the + Romans, that, by the exercise of temperance and fortitude, they shall + attain the height of human power; we will be to you the propitious god + Quirinus." This seemed credible to the Romans, upon the honesty and oath + of the relator, and laying aside all jealousies and detractions, they + prayed to Quirinus and saluted him as a god. + </p> + <p> + This is like some of the Greek fables of Aristeas the Proconnesian, and + Cleomedes the Astypalaean; for they say Aristeas died in a fuller's + workshop, and his friends, coming to look for him, found his body + vanished; and that some presently after, coming from abroad, said they met + him travelling towards Croton. And that Cleomedes, being an + extraordinarily strong and gigantic man, but also wild and mad, committed + many desperate freaks; and at last, in a schoolhouse, striking a pillar + that sustained the roof with his fist, broke it in the middle, so that the + house fell and destroyed the children in it; and being pursued, he fled + into a great chest, and, shutting to the lid, held it so fast that many + men, with their united strength, could not force it open; afterwards, + breaking the chest to pieces, they found no man in it alive or dead. + </p> + <p> + And many such improbabilities do your fabulous writers relate, deifying + creatures naturally mortal; for though altogether to disown a divine + nature in human virtue were impious and base, so again to mix heaven with + earth is ridiculous. Let us believe with Pindar, that + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + All human bodies yield to Death's decree: + The soul survives to all eternity. +</pre> + <p> + For that alone is derived from the gods, thence comes, and thither + returns. + </p> + <p> + It was in the fifty-fourth year of his age and the thirty-eighth of his + reign that Romulus, they tell us, left the world. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + COMPARISON OF THESEUS AND ROMULUS + </h2> + <p> + Both Theseus and Romulus were by nature meant for governors; yet neither + lived up to the true character of a king, but fell off, and ran, the one + into popularity, the other into tyranny, falling both into the same fault + out of different passions. For a ruler's first end is to maintain his + office, which is done no less by avoiding what is unfit than by observing + what is suitable. Whoever is either too remiss or too strict is no more a + king or a governor, but either a demagogue or a despot, and so becomes + either odious or contemptible to his subjects. Though certainly the one + seems to be the fault of easiness and good-nature, the other of pride and + severity. + </p> + <p> + But Romulus has, first of all, one great plea, that his performances + proceeded from very small beginnings; for both the brothers, being thought + servants and the sons of swineherds, before becoming freemen themselves + gave liberty to almost all the Latins, obtaining at once all the most + honorable titles, as, destroyers of their country's enemies, preservers of + their friends and kindred, princes of the people, founders of cities; not + removers, like Theseus, who raised and compiled only one house out of + many, demolishing many cities bearing the names of ancient kings and + heroes. Romulus, indeed, did the same afterwards, forcing his enemies to + deface and ruin their own dwellings, and to sojourn with their conquerors; + but at first, not by removal, or increase of an existing city, but by + foundation of a new one, he obtained himself lands, a country, a kingdom, + wives, children, and relations. And, in so doing, he killed or destroyed + nobody, but benefited those that wanted houses and homes, and were willing + to be of a society and become citizens. Robbers and malefactors he slew + not; but he subdued nations, he overthrew cities, he triumphed over kings + and commanders. As to Remus, it is doubtful by whose hand he fell; it is + generally imputed to others. His mother he clearly retrieved from death, + and placed his grandfather, who was brought under base and dishonorable + vassalage, on the ancient throne of Aeneas, to whom he did voluntarily + many good offices, but never did him harm even inadvertently. But Theseus, + in his forgetfulness and neglect of the command concerning the flag, can + scarcely, methinks, by any excuses, or before the most indulgent judges, + avoid the imputation of parricide. And, indeed, one of the Attic writers, + perceiving it to be very hard to make an excuse for this, feigns that + Aegeus, at the approach of the ship, running hastily to the Acropolis to + see what news there was, slipped and fell down; as if he had no servants, + or none would attend him on his way to the shore. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LYCURGUS + </h2> + <p> + Those authors who are most worthy of credit deduce the genealogy of + Lycurgus, the lawgiver of Sparta, as follows: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Aristodemus. + | + Patrocles. + | + Sous. + | + Eurypon. + | + Eunomus. + | + _________________________________________________ + Polydectes by his first wife. Lycurgus by Dionassa his second. +</pre> + <p> + Sous certainly was the most renowned of all his ancestors, under whose + conduct the Spartans made slaves of the Helots, and added to their + dominions, by conquest, a good part of Arcadia. There goes a story of this + king Sous, that, being besieged by the Clitorians in a dry and stony place + so that he could come at no water, he was at last constrained to agree + with them upon these terms, that he would restore to them all his + conquests, provided that himself and all his men should drink of the + nearest spring. After the usual oaths and ratifications, he called his + soldiers together, and offered to him that would forbear drinking, his + kingdom for a reward; and when not a man of them was able to forbear, in + short, when they had all drunk their fill, at last comes king Sous himself + to the spring, and, having sprinkled his face only, without swallowing one + drop, marches off in the face of his enemies, refusing to yield up his + conquests, because himself and all his men had not, according to the + articles, drunk of their water. + </p> + <p> + Although he was justly had in admiration on this account, yet his family + was not surnamed from him, but from his son Eurypon (of whom they were + called Eurypontids); the reason of which was that Eurypon relaxed the + rigor of the monarchy, seeking favor and popularity with the many. They, + after this first step, grew bolder; and the succeeding kings partly + incurred hatred with their people by trying to use force, or, for + popularity's sake and through weakness, gave way; and anarchy and + confusion long prevailed in Sparta, causing, moreover, the death of the + father of Lycurgus. For as he was endeavoring to quell a riot, he was + stabbed with a butcher's knife, and left the title of king to his eldest + son Polydectes. + </p> + <p> + He, too, dying soon after, the right of succession (as every one thought) + rested in Lycurgus; and reign he did for a time, but declared that the + kingdom belonged to the child of his sister-in-law the queen, and that he + himself should exercise the regal jurisdiction only as his guardian; the + Spartan name for which office is prodicus. Soon after, an overture was + made to him by the queen, that she would herself in some way destroy the + infant, upon condition that he would marry her when he came to the crown. + Abhorring the woman's wickedness, he nevertheless did not reject her + proposal, but, making show of closing with her, despatched the messenger + with thanks and expressions of joy, with orders that they should bring the + boy baby to him, wheresoever he were, and whatsoever doing. It so fell out + that when he was at supper with the principal magistrates, the queen's + child was presented to him, and he, taking him into his arms, said to + those about him, "Men of Sparta, here is a king born unto us;" this said, + he laid him down in the king's place, and named him Charilaus, that is, + the joy of the people; because that all were transported with joy and with + wonder at his noble and just spirit. His reign had lasted only eight + months, but he was honored on other accounts by the citizens, and there + were more who obeyed him because of his eminent virtues, than because he + was regent to the king and had the royal power in his hands. Some, + however, envied and sought to impede his growing influence while he was + still young; chiefly the kindred and friends of the queen-mother, who + pretended to have been dealt with injuriously. Her brother Leonidas, in a + warm debate which fell out betwixt him and Lycurgus, went so far as to + tell him to his face that he was well assured that ere long he should see + him king; suggesting suspicions and preparing the way for an accusation of + him, as though he had made away with his nephew, if the child should + chance to fail, though by a natural death. Words of the like import were + designedly cast abroad by the queen-mother and her adherents. + </p> + <p> + Troubled at this, and not knowing what it might come to, he thought it his + wisest course to avoid their envy by a voluntary exile, and to travel from + place to place until his nephew came to marriageable years, and, by having + a son, had secured the succession. Setting sail, therefore, with this + resolution, he first arrived at Crete, where, having considered their + several forms of government, and got an acquaintance with the principal + men amongst them, some of their laws he very much approved of, and + resolved to make use of them in his own country; a good part he rejected + as useless. Amongst the persons there the most renowned for their learning + and their wisdom in state matters was one Thales, whom Lycurgus, by + importunities and assurances of friendship, persuaded to go over to + Lacedaemon; where, though by his outward appearance and his own profession + he seemed to be no other than a lyric poet, in reality he performed the + part of one of the ablest lawgivers in the world. The very songs which he + composed were exhortations to obedience and concord, and the very measure + and cadence of the verse, conveying impressions of order and tranquillity, + had so great an influence on the minds of the listeners that they were + insensibly softened and civilized, insomuch that they renounced their + private feuds and animosities, and were reunited in a common admiration of + virtue. So that it may truly be said that Thales prepared the way for the + discipline introduced by Lycurgus. + </p> + <p> + From Crete he sailed to Asia, with design, as is said, to examine the + difference betwixt the manners and rules of life of the Cretans, which + were very sober and temperate, and those of the Ionians, a people of + sumptuous and delicate habits, and so to form a judgment; just as + physicians do by comparing healthy and diseased bodies. Here he had the + first sight of Homer's works, in the hands, we may suppose, of the + posterity of Creophylus; and, having observed that the few loose + expressions and actions of ill example which are to be found in his poems + were much outweighed by serious lessons of state and rules of morality, he + set himself eagerly to transcribe and digest them into order, as thinking + they would be of good use in his own country. They had, indeed, already + obtained some slight repute amongst the Greeks, and scattered portions, as + chance conveyed them, were in the hands of individuals; but Lycurgus first + made them really known. + </p> + <p> + The Egyptians say that he took a voyage into Egypt, and that, being much + taken with their way of separating the soldiery from the rest of the + nation, he transferred it from them to Sparta; a removal from contact with + those employed in low and mechanical occupations giving high refinement + and beauty to the state. Some Greek writers also record this. But as for + his voyages into Spain, Africa, and the Indies, and his conferences there + with the Gymnosophists, the whole relation, as far as I can find, rests on + the single credit of the Spartan Aristocrates, the son of Hipparchus. + </p> + <p> + Lycurgus was much missed at Sparta, and often sent for, "For kings indeed + we have," they said, "who wear the marks and assume the titles of royalty, + but as for the qualities of their minds, they have nothing by which they + are to be distinguished from their subjects;" adding that in him alone was + the true foundation of sovereignty to be seen, a nature made to rule, and + a genius to gain obedience. Nor were the kings themselves averse to see + him back, for they looked upon his presence as a bulwark against the + insolencies of the people. + </p> + <p> + Things being in this posture at his return, he applied himself, without + loss of time, to a thorough reformation, and resolved to change the whole + face of the commonwealth; for what could a few particular laws and a + partial alteration avail? He must act as wise physicians do, in the case + of one who labors under a complication of diseases,—by force of + medicines reduce and exhaust him, change his whole temperament, and then + set him upon a totally new regimen of diet. Having thus projected things, + away he goes to Delphi to consult Apollo there; which having done, and + offered his sacrifice, he returned with that renowned oracle, in which he + is called beloved of God, and rather God than man: that his prayers were + heard, that his laws should be the best, and the commonwealth which + observed them the most famous in the world. Encouraged by these things, he + set himself to bring over to his side the leading men of Sparta, exhorting + them to give him a helping hand in his great undertaking: he broke it + first to his particular friends, and then by degrees gained others, and + animated them all to put his design in execution. When things were ripe + for action, he gave order to thirty of the principal men of Sparta to be + ready armed at the market-place at break of day, to the end that he might + strike a terror into the opposite party. Hermippus hath set down the names + of twenty of the most eminent of them: but the name of him whom Lycurgus + most confided in, and who was of most use to him both in making his laws + and putting them in execution, was Arthmiadas. Things growing to a tumult, + king Charilaus, apprehending that it was a conspiracy against his person, + took sanctuary in the temple of Athena of the Brazen House; but, being + soon after undeceived, and having taken an oath of them that they had no + designs against him, he quitted his refuge, and himself also entered into + the confederacy with them; of so gentle and flexible a disposition he was, + to which Archelaus, his brother-king, alluded, when, hearing him extolled + for his goodness, he said: "Who can say he is anything but good? he is so + even to the bad." + </p> + <p> + Amongst the many changes and alterations which Lycurgus made, the first + and of greatest importance was the establishment of the senate, which, + having a power equal to the kings' in matters of great consequence, and, + as Plato expresses it, allaying and qualifying the fiery genius of the + royal office, gave steadiness and safety to the commonwealth. For the + state, which before had no firm basis to stand upon, but leaned one while + towards an absolute monarchy, when the kings had the upper hand, and + another while towards a pure democracy, when the people had the better, + found in this establishment of the senate a central weight, like ballast + in a ship, which always kept things in a just equilibrium; the + twenty-eight always adhering to the kings so far as to resist democracy, + and, on the other hand, supporting the people against the establishment of + absolute monarchy. As for the determinate number of twenty-eight, + Aristotle states that it so fell out because two of the original + associates, for want of courage, fell off from the enterprise; but + Sphaerus assures us that there were but twenty-eight of the confederates + at first; perhaps there is some mystery in the number, which consists of + seven multiplied by four, and is the first of perfect numbers after six, + being, as that is, equal to all its parts. For my part, I believe Lycurgus + fixed upon the number of twenty-eight, that, the two kings being reckoned + amongst them, they might be thirty in all. So eagerly set was he upon this + establishment, that he took the trouble to obtain an oracle about it from + Delphi; and the Rhetra (or sacred ordinance) runs thus: "After that you + have built a temple to Jupiter Hellanius, and to Minerva Hellania, and + after that you have phyle'd the people into phyles, and obe'd them into + obes, you shall establish a council of thirty elders, the leaders + included, and shall, from time to time, assemble the people betwixt Babyca + and Cnacion, there propound and put to the vote. The commons have the + final voice and decision." By phyles and obes are meant the divisions of + the people; by the leaders, the two kings; Aristotle says Cnacion is a + river, and Babyca a bridge. Betwixt this Babyca and Cnacion, their + assemblies were held, for they had no council-house or building to meet + in. Lycurgus was of opinion that ornaments were so far from advantaging + them in their councils, that they were rather an hindrance, by diverting + their attention from the business before them to statues and pictures, and + roofs curiously fretted, the usual embellishments of such places amongst + the other Greeks. The people then being thus assembled in the open air, it + was not allowed to any one of their order to give his advice, but only + either to ratify or reject what should be propounded to them by the king + or senate. + </p> + <p> + After the creation of the thirty senators, his next task, and, indeed, the + most hazardous he ever undertook, was the making of a new division of + their lands. For there was an extreme inequality amongst them, and their + state was overloaded with a multitude of indigent and necessitous persons, + while its whole wealth had centred upon a very few. To the end, therefore, + that he might expel from the state arrogance and envy, luxury and crime, + and those yet more inveterate diseases of want and superfluity, he + obtained of them to renounce their properties, and to consent to a new + division of the land, and that they should live all together on an equal + footing; merit to be their only road to eminence, and the disgrace of + evil, and credit of worthy acts, their one measure of difference between + man and man. + </p> + <p> + Upon their consent to these proposals, proceeding at once to put them into + execution, he divided the country of Laconia in general into thirty + thousand equal shares, and the part attached to the city of Sparta into + nine thousand; these he distributed among the Spartans, as he did the + others to the country citizens. A lot was so much as to yield, one year + with another, about seventy bushels of grain for the master of the family, + and twelve for his wife, with a suitable proportion of oil and wine. And + this he thought sufficient to keep their bodies in good health and + strength; superfluities they were better without. It is reported, that, as + he returned from a journey shortly after the division of the lands, in + harvest time, the ground being newly reaped, seeing the stacks all + standing equal and alike, he smiled, and said to those about him, + "Methinks all Laconia looks like one family estate just divided among a + number of brothers." + </p> + <p> + Not contented with this, he resolved to make a division of their movables + too, that there might be no odious distinction or inequality left amongst + them; but finding that it would be very dangerous to go about it openly, + he took another course, and defeated their avarice by the following + stratagem: he commanded that all gold and silver coin should be called in, + and that only a sort of money made of iron should be current, a great + weight and quantity of which was worth but very little; so that to lay up + a hundred or two dollars there was required a pretty large closet, and, to + remove it, nothing less than a yoke of oxen. With the diffusion of this + money, at once a number of vices were banished from Lacedaemon; for who + would rob another of such a coin? Who would unjustly detain or take by + force, or accept as a bribe, a thing which it was not easy to hide, nor a + credit to have, nor indeed of any use to cut in pieces? For when it was + just red-hot, they quenched it in vinegar, and by that means spoilt it, + and made it almost incapable of being worked. + </p> + <p> + In the next place, he declared an outlawry of all needless and superfluous + arts; but here he might almost have spared his proclamation; for they of + themselves would have gone with the gold and silver, the money which + remained being not so proper payment for curious work; for, being of iron, + it was scarcely portable, neither, if they should take the pains to export + it, would it pass amongst the other Greeks, who ridiculed it so there was + now no more means of purchasing foreign goods and small wares; merchants + sent no shiploads into Laconian ports; no rhetoric-master, no itinerant + fortune-teller, or gold or silversmith, engraver, or jeweler, set foot in + a country which had no money; so that luxury, deprived little by little of + that which fed and fomented it, wasted to nothing, and died away of + itself. For the rich had no advantage here over the poor, as their wealth + and abundance had no road to come abroad by, but were shut up at home + doing nothing. And in this way they became excellent artists in common + necessary things; bedsteads, chairs, and tables, and such like staple + utensils in a family, were admirably well made there; their cup, + particularly, was very much in fashion, and eagerly sought for by + soldiers, as Critias reports; for its color was such as to prevent water, + drunk upon necessity and disagreeable to look at, from being noticed; and + the shape of it was such that the mud stuck to the sides, so that only the + purer part came to the drinker's mouth. For this, also, they had to thank + their lawgiver, who, by relieving the artisans of the trouble of making + useless things, set them to show their skill in giving beauty to those of + daily and indispensable use. + </p> + <p> + The third and most masterly stroke of this great lawgiver, by which he + struck a yet more effectual blow against luxury and the desire of riches, + was the ordinance he made that they should all eat in common, of the same + bread and same meat, and of kinds that were specified, and should not + spend their lives at home, laid on costly couches at splendid tables, + delivering themselves up into the hands of their tradesmen and cooks, to + fatten them in corners, like greedy brutes, and to ruin not their minds + only but their very bodies, which, enfeebled by indulgence and excess, + would stand in need of long sleep, warm bathing, freedom from work, and, + in a word, of as much care and attendance as if they were continually + sick. It was certainly an extraordinary thing to have brought about such a + result as this, but a greater yet to have taken away from wealth, as + Theophrastus observes, not merely the property of being coveted, but its + very nature of being wealth. For the rich, being obliged to go to the same + table with the poor, could not make use of or enjoy their abundance, nor + so much as please their vanity by looking at or displaying it. So that the + common proverb, that Plutus, the god of riches, is blind, was nowhere in + all the world literally verified but in Sparta. There, indeed, he was not + only blind, but, like a picture, without either life or motion. Nor were + they allowed to take food at home first, and then attend the public + tables, for everyone had an eye upon those who did not eat and drink like + the rest, and reproached them with being dainty and effeminate. + </p> + <p> + This last ordinance in particular exasperated the wealthier men. They + collected in a body against Lycurgus, and from ill words came to throwing + stones, so that at length he was forced to run out of the market-place, + and make to sanctuary to save his life; by good-hap he outran all + excepting one Alcander, a young man otherwise not ill accomplished, but + hasty and violent, who came up so close to him, that, when he turned to + see who was near him, he struck him upon the face with his stick, and put + out one of his eyes. Lycurgus, so far from being daunted and discouraged + by this accident, stopped short and showed his disfigured face and eye + beat out to his countrymen; they, dismayed and ashamed at the sight, + delivered Alcander into his hands to be punished, and escorted him home, + with expressions of great concern for his ill usage. Lycurgus, having + thanked them for their care of his person, dismissed them all, excepting + only Alcander; and, taking him with him into his house, neither did nor + said anything severe to him, but dismissing those whose place it was, bade + Alcander to wait upon him at table. The young man, who was of an ingenuous + temper, did without murmuring as he was commanded; and, being thus + admitted to live with Lycurgus, he had an opportunity to observe in him, + beside his gentleness and calmness of temper, an extraordinary sobriety + and an indefatigable industry, and so, from an enemy, became one of his + most zealous admirers, and told his friends and relations that Lycurgus + was not that morose and ill-natured man they had formerly taken him for, + but the one mild and gentle character of the world. And thus did Lycurgus, + for chastisement of his fault, make of a wild and passionate young man one + of the discreetest citizens of Sparta. + </p> + <p> + In memory of this accident, Lycurgus built a temple to Minerva. Some + authors, however, say that he was wounded, indeed, but did not lose his + eye from the blow; and that he built the temple in gratitude for the cure. + Be this as it will, certain it is, that, after this misadventure, the + Lacedaemonians made it a rule never to carry so much as a staff into their + public assemblies. + </p> + <p> + But to return to their public repasts. They met by companies of fifteen, + more or less, and each of them stood bound to bring in monthly a bushel of + meal, eight gallons of wine, five pounds of cheese, two pounds and a half + of figs, and some very small sum of money to buy flesh or fish with. + Besides this, when any of them made sacrifice to the gods, they always + sent a dole to the common hall; and, likewise, when any of them had been + a-hunting, he sent thither a part of the venison he had killed; for these + two occasions were the only excuses allowed for supping at home. The + custom of eating together was observed strictly for a great while + afterwards; insomuch that king Agis himself, after having vanquished the + Athenians, sending for his commons at his return home, because he desired + to eat privately with his queen, was refused them by the polemarchs; and + when he resented this refusal so much as to omit next day the sacrifice + due for a war happily ended, they made him pay a fine. + </p> + <p> + They used to send their children to these tables as to schools of + temperance; here they were instructed in state affairs by listening to + experienced statesmen; here they learnt to converse with pleasantry, to + make jests without scurrility, and take them without ill humor. In this + point of good breeding, the Lacedaemonians excelled particularly, but if + any man were uneasy under it, upon the least hint given there was no more + to be said to him. It was customary also for the eldest man in the company + to say to each of them, as they came in, "Through this" (pointing to the + door), "no words go out." When any one had a desire to be admitted into + any of these little societies, he was to go through the following + probation: each man in the company took a little ball of soft bread, which + they were to throw into a deep basin, that a waiter carried round upon his + head; those that liked the person to be chosen dropped their ball into the + basin without altering its figure, and those who disliked him pressed it + betwixt their fingers, and made it flat; and this signified as much as a + negative voice. And if there were but one of these flattened pieces in the + basin, the suitor was rejected, so desirous were they that all the members + of the company should be agreeable to each other. The basin was called + caddichus, and the rejected candidate had a name thence derived. Their + most famous dish was the black broth, which was so much valued that the + elderly men fed only upon that, leaving what flesh there was to the + younger. + </p> + <p> + They say that a certain king of Pontus, having heard much of this black + broth of theirs, sent for a Lacedaemonian cook on purpose to make him + some, but had no sooner tasted it than he found it extremely bad, which + the cook observing, told him, "Sir, to make this broth relish, you should + have bathed yourself first in the river Eurotas." + </p> + <p> + After drinking moderately, every man went to his home without lights, for + the use of them was, on all occasions, forbid, to the end that they might + accustom themselves to march boldly in the dark. Such was the common + fashion of their meals. + </p> + <p> + Lycurgus would never reduce his laws into writing; nay, there is a Rhetra + expressly to forbid it. For he thought that the most material points, and + such as most directly tended to the public welfare, being imprinted on the + hearts of their youth by a good discipline, would be sure to remain, and + would find a stronger security, than any compulsion would be, in the + principles of action formed in them by their best lawgiver, education. + </p> + <p> + One, then, of the Rhetras was, that their laws should not be written; + another is particularly leveled against luxury and expensiveness, for by + it it was ordained that the ceilings of their houses should only be + wrought by the axe, and their gates and doors smoothed only the saw. + Epaminondas's famous dictum about his own table, that "Treason and a + dinner like this do not keep company together," may be said to have been + anticipated by Lycurgus. Luxury and a house of this kind could not well be + companions. For a man must have a less than ordinary share of sense that + would furnish such plain and common rooms with silver-footed couches and + purple coverlets and gold and silver plate. Doubtless he had good reason + to think that they would proportion their beds to their houses, and their + coverlets to their beds, and the rest of their goods and furniture to + these. It is reported that King Leotychides, the first of that name, was + so little used to the sight of any other kind of work, that, being + entertained at Corinth in a stately room, he was much surprised to see the + timber and ceilings so finely carved and paneled, and asked his host + whether the trees grew so in his country. + </p> + <p> + A third ordinance or Rhetra was that they should not make war often, or + long, with the same enemy, lest they should train and instruct them in + war, by habituating them to defend themselves. And this is what Agesilaus + was much blamed for a long time after; it being thought that, by his + continual incursions into Boeotia, he made the Thebans a match for the + Lacedaemonians; and therefore Antalcidas, seeing him wounded one day, said + to him that he was very well paid for taking such pains to make the + Thebans good soldiers, whether they would or no. These laws were called + the Rhetras, to intimate that they were divine sanctions and revelations. + </p> + <p> + In order to the good education of their youth (which, as I said before, he + thought the most important and noblest work of a lawgiver), he took in + their case all the care that was possible; he ordered the maidens to + exercise themselves with wrestling, running, throwing the quoit, and + casting the dart, to the end that they might have strong and healthy + bodies. + </p> + <p> + It was not in the power of the father to dispose of his child as he + thought fit; he was obliged to carry it before certain "triers" at a place + called Lesche; these were some of the elders of the tribe to which the + child belonged; their business it was carefully to view the infant, and, + if they found it stout and well made, they gave order for its rearing, and + allotted to it one of the nine thousand shares of land above mentioned for + its maintenance; but if they found it puny and ill-shaped, ordered it to + be taken to what was called the Apothetae, a sort of chasm under Taygetus; + as thinking it neither for the good of the child itself, nor for the + public interest, that it should be brought up, if it did not, from the + very outset, appear made to be healthy and vigorous. Upon the same + account, the women did not bathe the new-born children with water, as is + the custom in all other countries, but with wine, to prove the temper and + complexion of their bodies; from a notion they had that epileptic and + weakly children faint and waste away upon their being thus bathed, while, + on the contrary, those of a strong and vigorous habit acquire firmness and + get a temper by it like steel. There was much care and art, too, used by + the nurses; they had no swaddling bands; the children grew up free and + unconstrained in limb and form, and not dainty and fanciful about their + food; nor afraid in the dark, or of being left alone; without any + peevishness or ill humor or crying. Upon this account, Spartan nurses were + often bought up, or hired by people of other countries. + </p> + <p> + Lycurgus was of another mind; he would not have masters bought out of the + market for his young Spartans, nor such as should sell their pains; nor + was it lawful, indeed, for the father himself to raise his children after + his own fancy; but as soon as they were seven years old they were to be + enrolled in certain companies and classes, where they all lived under the + same order and discipline, doing their exercises and taking their play + together. Of these he who showed the most conduct and courage was made + captain; they had their eyes always upon him, obeyed his orders, and + underwent patiently whatsoever punishment he inflicted; so that the whole + course of their education was one continued exercise of a ready and + perfect obedience. The old men, too, were spectators of their + performances, and often raised quarrels and disputes among them, to have a + good opportunity of finding out their different characters, and of seeing + which would be valiant, which a coward, when they should come to more + dangerous encounters. Reading and writing they gave them, just enough to + serve their turn; their chief care was to make them good subjects, and to + teach them to endure pain and conquer in battle. To this end, as they grew + in years, their discipline was proportionally increased; their heads were + close-clipped; they were accustomed to go barefoot, and for the most part + to play naked. + </p> + <p> + After they were twelve years old they were no longer allowed to wear any + under-garment; they had one coat to serve them a year; their bodies were + hard and dry, with but little acquaintance of baths and unguents; these + human indulgences they were allowed only on some few particular days in + the year. They lodged together in little bands upon beds made of the + rushes which grew by the banks of the river Eurotas, which they were to + break off with their hands without a knife; if it were winter, they + mingled some thistledown with their rushes, which it was thought had the + property of giving warmth. + </p> + <p> + Besides all this, there was always one of the best and most honest men in + the city appointed to undertake the charge and governance of them; he + again arranged them into their several bands, and set over each of them + for their captain the most temperate and bold of those they called Irens, + who were usually twenty years old, two years out of boyhood; and the + eldest of the boys, again, were Mell-Irens, as much as to say, "who would + shortly be men." This young man, therefore, was their captain when they + fought, and their master at home, using them for the offices of his house; + sending the oldest of them to fetch wood, and the weaker and less able, to + gather salads and herbs, and these they must either go without or steal; + which they did by creeping into the gardens, or conveying themselves + cunningly and closely into the eating-houses; if they were taken in the + act, they were whipped without mercy, for thieving so ill and awkwardly. + They stole, too, all other meat they could lay their hands on, looking out + and watching all opportunities, when people were asleep or more careless + than usual. If they were caught, they were not only punished with + whipping, but hunger, too, being reduced to their ordinary allowance, + which was but very slender, and so contrived on purpose, that they might + set about to help themselves, and be forced to exercise their energy and + address. + </p> + <p> + So seriously did the Lacedaemonian children go about their stealing, that + a youth, having stolen a young fox and hid it under his coat, suffered it + to tear out his very bowels with its teeth and claws, and died upon the + place, rather than let it be seen. What is practised to this very day in + Lacedaemon is enough to gain credit to this story, for I myself have seen + several of the youths endure whipping to death at the foot of the altar of + Diana surnamed Orthia. + </p> + <p> + The Iren, or under-master, used to stay a little with them after supper, + and one of them he bade to sing a song, to another he put a question which + required an advised and deliberate answer; for example, Who was the best + man in the city? What he thought of such an action of such a man? They + accustomed them thus early to pass a right judgment upon persons and + things, and to inform themselves of the abilities or defects of their + countrymen. If they had not an answer ready to the question, Who was a + good or who an ill-reputed citizen? they were looked upon as of a dull and + careless disposition, and to have little or no sense of virtue and honor; + besides this, they were to give a good reason for what they said, and in + as few words and as comprehensive as might be; he that failed of this, or + answered not to the purpose, had his thumb bit by his master. + </p> + <p> + They taught them, also, to speak with a natural and graceful raillery, and + to comprehend much matter of thought in few words. For Lycurgus, who + ordered, as we saw, that a great piece of money should be but of an + inconsiderable value, on the contrary would allow no discourse to be + current which did not contain in few words a great deal of useful and + curious sense; children in Sparta, by a habit of long silence, came to + give just and sententious answers; for, indeed, loose talkers seldom + originate many sensible words. King Agis, when some Athenian laughed at + their short swords, and said that the jugglers on the stage swallowed them + with ease, answered him, "We find them long enough to reach our enemies + with;" and as their swords were short and sharp, so, it seems to me, were + their sayings. They reach the point and arrest the attention of the + hearers better than any others. Lycurgus himself seems to have been short + and sententious, if we may trust the anecdotes of him; as appears by his + answer to one who by all means would set up democracy in Lacedaemon. + "Begin, friend," said he, "and set it up in your family." Another asked + him why he allowed of such mean and trivial sacrifices to the gods. He + replied, "That we may always have something to offer to them." Being asked + what sort of martial exercises or combats he approved of, he answered, + "All sorts, except that in which you stretch out your hands." + </p> + <p> + Of their dislike to talkativeness, the following apophthegms are evidence. + King Leonidas said to one who held him in discourse upon some useful + matter, but not in due time and place, "Much to the purpose, sir, + elsewhere." King Charilaus, the nephew of Lycurgus, being asked why his + uncle had made so few laws, answered, "Men of few words require but few + laws." When one blamed Hecataeus the sophist because that, being invited + to the public table, he had not spoken one word all supper-time, + Archidamidas answered in his vindication, "He who knows how to speak, + knows also when." + </p> + <p> + The sharp, and yet not ungraceful, retorts which I mentioned may be + instanced as follows. Demaratus, being asked in a troublesome manner by an + importunate fellow, Who was the best man in Lacedaemon? answered at last, + "He, sir, that is the least like you." Some, in company where Agis was, + much extolled the Eleans for their just and honorable management of the + Olympic games; "Indeed," said Agis, "they are highly to be commended if + they can do justice one day in five years." + </p> + <p> + We may see their character, too, in their very jests. For they did not + throw them out at random, but the very wit of them was grounded upon + something or other worth thinking about. For instance, one, being asked to + go hear a man who exactly counterfeited the voice of a nightingale, + answered, "Sir, I have heard the nightingale itself." Another, having read + the following inscription upon a tomb,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Seeking to quench a cruel tyranny, + They, at Selinus, did in battle die, +</pre> + <p> + said, it served them right; for instead of trying to quench the tyranny + they should have let it burn out. A lad, being offered some game-cocks + that would die upon the spot, said he cared not for cocks that would die, + but for such as would live and kill others. In short, their answers were + so sententious and pertinent, that one said well that intellectual, much + more truly than athletic, exercise was the Spartan characteristic. + </p> + <p> + Nor was their instruction in music and verse less carefully attended to + than their habits of grace and good breeding in conversation. And their + very songs had a life and spirit in them that inflamed and possessed men's + minds with an enthusiasm and ardor for action; the style of them was plain + and without affectation; the subject always serious and moral; most + usually it was in praise of such men as had died in defence of their + country, or in derision of those that had been cowards; the former they + declared happy and glorified; the life of the latter they described as + most miserable and abject. There were also vaunts of what they would do, + and boasts of what they had done, varying with the various ages, as, for + example, they had three choirs in their solemn festivals, the first of the + old men, the second of the young men, and the last of the children; the + old men began thus: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + We once were young, and brave and strong; +</pre> + <p> + the young men answered them, singing, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + And we're so now, come on and try; +</pre> + <p> + the children came last and said, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + But we'll be strongest by and by. +</pre> + <p> + Before they engaged in battle, the Lacedaemonians abated a little the + severity of their manners in favor of their young men, suffering them to + curl and adorn their hair, and to have costly arms, and fine clothes; and + were well pleased to see them, like proud horses, neighing and pressing to + the course. And therefore, as soon as they came to be well grown, they + took a great deal of care of their hair, to have it parted and trimmed, + especially against a day of battle, pursuant to a saying recorded of their + lawgiver, that a large head of hair added beauty to a good face, and + terror to an ugly one. + </p> + <p> + The senate, as I said before, consisted of those who were Lycurgus's chief + aiders and assistants in his plan. The vacancies he ordered to be supplied + out of the best and most deserving men past sixty years old. The manner of + their election was as follows: the people being called together, some + selected persons were locked up in a room near the place of election, so + contrived that they could neither see nor be seen, but could only hear the + noise of the assembly without; for they decided this, as most other + affairs of moment, by the shouts of the people. This done, the competitors + were not brought in and presented all together, but one after another by + lot, and passed in order through the assembly without speaking a word. + Those who were locked up had writing-tables with them, in which they + recorded and marked each shout by its loudness, without knowing in favor + of which candidate each of them was made, but merely that they came first, + second, third, and so forth. He who was found to have the most and loudest + acclamations was declared senator duly elected. + </p> + <p> + When he perceived that his more important institutions had taken root in + the minds of his countrymen, that custom had rendered them familiar and + easy, that his commonwealth was now grown up and able to go alone, then, + as Plato somewhere tells us the Maker of the world, when first he saw it + existing and beginning its motion, felt joy, even so Lycurgus, viewing + with joy and satisfaction the greatness and beauty of his political + structure, now fairly at work and in motion, conceived the thought to make + it immortal too, and as far as human forecast could reach, to deliver it + down unchangeable to posterity. He called an extraordinary assembly of all + the people, and told them that he now thought everything reasonably well + established, both for the happiness and the virtue of the state; but that + there was one thing still behind, of the greatest importance, which he + thought not fit to impart until he had consulted the oracle; in the + meantime, his desire was that they would observe the laws without even the + least alteration until his return, and then he would do as the god should + direct him. They all consented readily, and bade him hasten his journey; + but, before he departed, he administered an oath to the two kings, the + senate, and the whole commons, to abide by and maintain the established + form of polity until Lycurgus should come back. This done, he set out for + Delphi, and, having sacrificed to Apollo, asked him whether the laws he + had established were good and sufficient for a people's happiness and + virtue. The oracle answered that the laws were excellent, and that the + people, while it observed them, should live in the height of renown. + Lycurgus took the oracle in writing, and sent it over to Sparta, and, + having sacrificed a second time to Apollo, and taken leave of his friends + and his son, he resolved that the Spartans should not be released from the + oath they had taken, and that he would, of his own act, close his life + where he was. He was now about that age in which life was still tolerable, + and yet might be quitted without regret. Everything, moreover, about him + was in a sufficiently prosperous condition. He, therefore, made an end of + himself by a total abstinence from food; thinking it a statesman's duty to + make his very death, if possible, an act of service to the state, and even + in the end of his life to give some example of virtue and effect some + useful purpose. Nor was he deceived in his expectations, for the city of + Lacedaemon continued the chief city of all Greece for the space of five + hundred years, in strict observance of Lycurgus's laws; in all which time + there was no manner of alteration made, during the reign of fourteen + kings, down to the time of Agis, the son of Archidamus. + </p> + <p> + King Theopompus, when one said that Sparta held up so long because their + kings could command so well, replied, "Nay, rather because the people know + so well how to obey." For people do not obey, unless rulers know how to + command; obedience is a lesson taught by commanders. A true leader himself + creates the obedience of his own followers; as it is the greatest + attainment in the art of riding to make a horse gentle and tractable, so + is it of the science of government to inspire men with a willingness to + obey. + </p> + <p> + It is reported that when the bones were brought home to Sparta his tomb + was struck with lightning, an accident which befell no eminent person but + himself and Euripides. But Aristocrates, the son of Hipparchus, says that + he died in Crete, and that his Cretan friends, in accordance with his own + request, when they had burned his body, scattered the ashes into the sea, + for fear lest, if his relics should be transported to Lacedaemon, the + people might pretend to be released from their oaths, and make innovations + in the government. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0005" id="link2H_4_0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SOLON + </h2> + <p> + SOLON, as Hermippus writes, when his father had ruined his estate in doing + benefits and kindnesses to other men, though he had friends enough that + were willing to contribute to his relief, yet was ashamed to be beholden + to others, since he was descended from a family who were accustomed to do + kindnesses rather than receive them; and therefore applied himself to + merchandise in his youth; though others assure us that he traveled rather + to get learning and experience than to make money. It is certain that he + was a lover of knowledge, for when he was old he would say that he + </p> + <p> + Each day grew older, and learnt something new. + </p> + <p> + But that he accounted himself rather poor than rich is evident from the + lines, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Some wicked men are rich, some good are poor, + We will not change our virtue for their store; + Virtue's a thing that none can take away, + But money changes owners all the day. +</pre> + <p> + It is stated that Anacharsis and Solon and Thales were familiarly + acquainted, and some have quoted parts of their discourse; for, they say, + Anacharsis, coming to Athens, knocked at Solon's door and told him that + he, being a stranger, was come to be his guest, and contract a friendship + with him; and Solon replying; "It is better to make friends at home," + Anacharsis replied, "Then you that are at home make friendship with me." + Solon, somewhat surprised at the readiness of the repartee, received him + kindly, and kept him some time with him, being already engaged in public + business and the compilation of his laws; which when Anacharsis + understood, he laughed at him for imagining the dishonesty and + covetousness of his countrymen could be restrained by written laws, which + were like spiders' webs, and would catch, it is true, the weak and poor, + but easily be broken by the mighty and rich. To this Solon rejoined that + men keep their promises when neither side can get anything by the breaking + of them; and he would so fit his laws to the citizens, that all should + understand it was more eligible to be just than to break the laws. But the + event rather agreed with the conjecture of Anacharsis than Solon's hope. + Anacharsis, being once at the assembly, expressed his wonder that in + Greece wise men spoke and fools decided. + </p> + <p> + Now, when the Athenians were tired with a tedious and difficult war that + they conducted against the Megarians for the island Salamis, and made a + law that is should be death for any man, by writing or speaking, to assert + that the city ought to endeavor to recover it, Solon, vexed at the + disgrace, and perceiving thousands of the youth wished for somebody to + begin, but did not dare to stir first for fear of the law, counterfeited a + distraction, and by his own family it was spread about the city that he + was mad. He then secretly composed some elegiac verses, and getting them + by heart, that it might seem extempore, ran out into the market-place with + a cap upon his head, and, the people gathering about him, got upon the + herald's stand, and sang that elegy which begins thus:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am a herald come from Salamis the fair, + My news from thence my verses shall declare. +</pre> + <p> + The poem is called "Salamis"; it contains a hundred verses, very elegantly + written. When it had been sung, his friends commended it, and especially + Pisistratus exhorted the citizens to obey his directions; insomuch that + they recalled the law, and renewed the war under Solon's conduct. The + popular take is, that with Pisistratus he sailed to Colias, and, finding + the women, according to the custom of the country there, sacrificing to + Ceres, he sent a trusty friend to Salamis, who should pretend himself a + renegade, and advise them, if they desired to seize the chief Athenian + women, to come with him at once to Colias; the Megarians presently sent + off men in the vessel with him, and Solon, seeing it put off from the + island, commanded the women to be gone, and some beardless youths, dressed + in their clothes, their shoes, and caps, and privately armed with daggers, + to dance and play near the shore till the enemies had landed and the + vessel was in their power. Things being thus ordered, the Megarians were + allured with the appearance, and, coming to the shore, jumped out, eager + who should first seize a prize, so that not one of them escaped; and the + Athenians set sail for the island and took it. + </p> + <p> + For this Solon grew famed and powerful; but his advice in favor of + defending the oracle at Delphi, to give aid, and not to suffer the + Cirrhaeans to profane it, but to maintain the honor of the god, got him + most repute among the Greeks: for upon his persuasion the Amphictyons + undertook the war. + </p> + <p> + Now the Cylonian pollution had a long time disturbed the commonwealth, + ever since the time when Megacles the archon persuaded the conspirators + with Cylon that took sanctuary in Athena's temple to come down and stand + to a fair trial. And they, tying a thread to the image, and holding one + end of it, went down to the tribunal; but when they came to the temple of + the Furies, the thread broke of its own accord, upon which, as if the + goddess had refused them protection, they were seized by Megacles and the + other magistrates; as many as were without the temples were stoned, those + that fled for sanctuary were butchered at the altar, and only those + escaped who made supplication to the wives of the magistrates. + </p> + <p> + The Athenians, now the Cylonian sedition was over and the polluted gone + into banishment, fell into their old quarrels about the government, there + being as many different parties as there were diversities in the country. + The Hill quarter favored democracy; the Plain, oligarchy; and those that + lived by the Sea-side stood for a mixed sort of government, and so + hindered either of the parties from prevailing. And the disparity of + fortune between the rich and the poor at that time also reached its + height; so that the city seemed to be in a truly dangerous condition, and + no other means for freeing it from disturbances and settling it to be + possible but a despotic power. + </p> + <p> + Then the wisest of the Athenians, perceiving Solon was of all men the only + one not implicated in the troubles, that he had not joined in the + exactions of the rich, and was not involved in the necessities of the + poor, pressed him to succor the commonwealth and compose the differences. + Solon, reluctantly at first, engaged in state affairs, being afraid of the + pride of one party and the greediness of the other; he was chosen archon, + however, after Philombrotus, and empowered to be an arbitrator and + lawgiver; the rich consenting because he was wealthy, the poor because he + was honest. There was a saying of his current before the election, that + when things are even there never can be war, and this pleased both + parties, the wealthy and the poor; the one conceiving him to mean, when + all have their fair proportion; the other, when all are absolutely equal. + Thus, there being great hopes on both sides, the chief men pressed Solon + to take the government into his own hands, and, when he was once settled, + manage the business freely and according to his pleasure; and many of the + commons, perceiving it would be a difficult change to be effected by law + and reason, were willing to have one wise and just man set over the + affairs; and some say that Solon had this oracle from Apollo: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Take the mid-seat, and be the vessel's guide; + Many in Athens are upon your side. +</pre> + <p> + From which it is manifest that he was a man of great reputation before he + gave his laws. The several mocks that were put upon him for refusing the + power, he records in these words: + </p> + <p> + Solon surely was a dreamer, and a man of simple mind; When the gods would + give him fortune, he of his own will declined; When the new was full of + fishes, over-heavy thinking it, He declined to haul it up, through want of + heart and want of wit. Had but I that chance of riches and of kingship for + one day, I would give my skin for flaying, and my house to die away. + </p> + <p> + Thus he makes the many and the low people speak of him. Yet, though he + refused the government, he did not show himself mean and submissive to the + powerful, nor make his laws to pleasure those that chose him. For the + first thing which he settled was, that what debts remained should be + forgiven, and no man, for the future, should engage the body of his debtor + for security. Though some, as Androtion, affirm that the debts were not + canceled, but the interest only lessened, which sufficiently pleased the + people; so that they named this benefit the Seisacthea, together with the + enlarging of their measures, and raising the value of their money; for he + made a pound, which before passed for seventy-three drachmas, go for a + hundred; so that, though the number of pieces in the payment was equal, + the value was less; which proved a considerable benefit to those that were + to discharge great debts, and no loss to the creditors. + </p> + <p> + While he was designing this, a most vexatious thing happened; for when he + had resolved to take off the debts, and was considering the proper form + and fit beginning for it, he told some of his friends, Conon, Clinias, and + Hipponicus, in whom he had a great deal of confidence, that he would not + meddle with the lands, but only free the people from their debts; upon + which, they, using their advantage, made haste and borrowed some + considerable sums of money, and purchased some large farms; and when the + law was enacted, they kept the possessions, and would not return the + money; which brought Solon into great suspicion and dislike, as if he + himself had not been abused, but was concerned in the contrivance. But he + presently stopped this suspicion, by releasing his own debtors of five + talents (for he had lent so much), according to the law; others, as + Polyzelus the Rhodian, say fifteen. + </p> + <p> + Soon becoming sensible of the good that was done, the people laid by their + grudges, made a public sacrifice, and chose Solon to new-model and make + laws for the commonwealth, giving him the entire power over everything, + their magistracies, their assemblies, courts, and councils; that he should + appoint the number, times of meeting, and what estate they must have that + could be capable of these, and dissolve or continue any of the present + constitutions, according to his pleasure. + </p> + <p> + First, then, he repealed all Draco's laws, except those concerning + homicide, because they were too severe and the punishments too great; for + death was appointed for almost all offences, insomuch that those that were + convicted of idleness were to die, and those that stole a cabbage or an + apple to suffer even as villains that committed sacrilege or murder. So + that Demades, in after time, was thought to have said very happily, that + Draco's laws were written not with ink, but blood; and he himself, being + once asked why he made death the punishment of most offences, replied: + "Small ones deserve that, and I have no higher for the greater crimes." + </p> + <p> + Next, Solon, being willing to continue the magistracies in the hands of + the rich men, and yet receive the people into the other part of the + government, took an account of the citizens' estates, and those that were + worth five hundred measures of fruits, dry and liquid, he placed in the + first rank; those that could keep a horse, or were worth three hundred + measures, were made the second class; those that had two hundred measures, + were in the third; and all the other were called Thetes, who were not + admitted to any office, but could come to the assembly, and act as jurors; + which at first seemed nothing, but afterward was found an enormous + privilege, as almost every matter of dispute came before them in this + latter capacity. Besides, it is said that he was obscure and ambiguous in + the wording of his laws, on purpose to increase the honor of his courts; + for since their differences could not be adjusted by the letter, they + would have to bring all their causes to the judges, who thus were in a + manner masters of the laws. Of this equalization he himself makes mention + in this manner: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Such power I gave the people as might do, + Abridged not what they had, now lavished new. + Those that were great in wealth and high in place, + My counsel likewise kept from all disgrace. + Before them both I held my shield of might, + And let not either touch the other's right. +</pre> + <p> + When he had constituted the Areopagus of those who had been yearly + archons, of which he himself was a member therefore, observing that the + people, now free from their debts, were unsettled and imperious, he formed + another council of four hundred, a hundred out of each of the four tribes, + which was to inspect all matters before they were propounded to the + people, and to take care that nothing but what had been first examined + should be brought before the general assembly. The upper council, or + Areopagus, he made inspectors and keepers of the laws, conceiving that the + commonwealth, held by these two councils like anchors, would be less + liable to be tossed by tumults, and the people be more at quiet. Such is + the general statement that Solon instituted the Areopagus. + </p> + <p> + Amongst his other laws, one is very peculiar and surprising, which + disfranchises all who stand neuter in a sedition; for it seems he would + not have any one remain insensible and regardless of the public good, but + at once join with the good party and those that have the right upon their + side, assist and venture with them, rather than keep out of harm's way and + watch who would get the better. + </p> + <p> + Another commendable law of Solon's is that which forbids men to speak evil + of the dead. + </p> + <p> + Since the country has but few rivers, lakes, or large springs, and many + used wells which they had dug, there was a law made, that, where there was + a public well within a hippicon, that is, four furlongs, all should draw + at that; but then it was farther off, they should try and procure a well + of their own; and, if they had dug ten fathoms deep and could find no + water, they had liberty to fetch a pitcherful of four gallons and a half + in a day from their neighbors'; for he thought it prudent to make + provision against want, but not to supply laziness. He showed skill in his + orders about planting, for any one that would plant another tree was not + to set it within five feet of his neighbor's field; but if a fig or an + olive, not within nine, for their roots spread farther, nor can they be + planted near all sorts of trees without damage, for they draw away the + nourishment, and in some cases are noxious by their effluvia. He that + would dig a pit or a ditch was to dig it at the distance of its own depth + from his neighbor's ground; and he that would raise stocks of bees was not + to place them within three hundred feet of those which another had already + raised. + </p> + <p> + He permitted only oil to be exported, and those that exported any other + fruit, the archon was solemnly to curse, or else pay an hundred drachmas + (a drachma was about twenty cents.) himself; and this law was written in + his first table, and, therefore, let none think it incredible, as some + affirm, that the exportation of figs was once unlawful. He made a law + also, concerning hurts and injuries from beasts, in which he commands the + master of any dog that bit a man to deliver him up with a log about his + neck four and a half feet long-a happy device for men's security. + </p> + <p> + All his laws he established for an hundred years, and wrote them on wooden + tables or rollers, named axones, which might be turned round in oblong + cases; some of their relics were in my time still to be seen in the + Prytaneum, or common hall, at Athens. These, as Aristotle states, were + called cyrbes, and there is a passage of Cratinus the comedian, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + By Solon, and by Draco, if you please, + Whose Cyrbes make the fires that parch our peas. +</pre> + <p> + But some say those are properly cyrbes, which contain laws concerning + sacrifices and the rites of religion, and all the other axones. The + council all jointly swore to confirm the laws, and every one of the + Thesmothetae vowed for himself at the stone in the market-place, that, if + he broke any of the statutes, he would dedicate a golden statue, as big as + himself, at Delphi. + </p> + <p> + Now when these laws were enacted, and some came to Solon every day, to + commend or dispraise them, and to advise, if possible, to leave out, or + put in something, and many criticised, and desired him to explain, and + tell the meaning of such and such a passage, he, to escape all + displeasure, it being a hard thing, as he himself says, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + In great affairs to satisfy all sides, +</pre> + <p> + As an excuse for traveling, bought a trading vessel and, having obtained + leave for ten years' absence, departed, hoping that by that time his laws + would have become familiar. + </p> + <p> + His first voyage was for Egypt, and he lived, as he himself says, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Near Nilus' mouth, by fair Canopus' shore, +</pre> + <p> + And spent some time in study with Psenophis of Heliopolis, and Sonchis the + Saite, the most learned of all the priests; from whom, as Plato says, + getting knowledge of the Atlantic story, he put it into a poem, and + proposed to bring it to the knowledge of the Greeks. From thence he sailed + to Cyprus, where he was made much of by Philocyprus, one of the kings + there, who had a small city built by Demophon, Theseus's son, near the + river Clarius, in a strong situation, but incommodious and uneasy of + access. Solon persuaded him, since there lay a fair plain below, to + remove, and build there a pleasanter and more spacious city. And he stayed + himself, and assisted in gathering inhabitants, and in fitting it both for + defence and convenience of living; insomuch that many flocked to + Philocyprus, and the other kings imitated the design; and, therefore, to + honor Solon, he called the city Soli. + </p> + <p> + That Solon should discourse with Croesus, some think not agreeable with + chronology; but I cannot reject so famous and well-attested a narrative, + and, what is more, so agreeable to Solon's temper, and so worthy his + wisdom and greatness of mind, because, forsooth, it does not agree with + some chronological canons, which thousands have endeavored to regulate, + and yet, to this day, could never bring their differing opinions to any + agreement. They say, therefore, that Solon, coming to Croesus at his + request, was in the same condition as an inland man when first he goes to + see the sea; for as he fancies every river he meets with to be the ocean, + so Solon, as he passed through the court, and saw a great many nobles + richly dressed, and proudly attended with a multitude of guards and + footboys, thought every one to be the king, till he was brought to + Croesus, who was decked with every possible rarity and curiosity, in + ornaments of jewels, purple, and gold, that could make a grand and + gorgeous spectacle of him. Now when Solon came before him, and seemed not + at all surprised, nor gave Croesus those compliments he expected, but + showed himself to all discerning eyes to be a man that despised the + gaudiness and petty ostentation of it, he commanded them to open all his + treasure houses, and carry him to see his sumptuous furniture and + luxuries, though Solon did not wish it; he could judge of him well enough + by the first sight of him; and, when he returned from viewing all, Croesus + asked him if ever he had known a happier man than he. And when Solon + answered that he had known one Tellus, a fellow-citizen of his own, and + told him that this Tellus had been an honest man, had had good children, a + competent estate, and died bravely in battle for his country, Croesus took + him for an ill-bred fellow and a fool, for not measuring happiness by the + abundance of gold and silver, and preferring the life and death of a + private and mean man before so much power and empire. He asked him + however, again, if, besides Tellus, he knew any other man more happy. And + Solon replying, Yes, Cleobis and Biton, who were loving brothers, and + extremely dutiful sons to their mother, and, when the oxen delayed her, + harnessed themselves to the wagon, and drew her to Juno's temple, her + neighbors all calling her happy, and she herself rejoicing; then, after + sacrificing and feasting, they went to rest, and never rose again, but + died in the midst of their honor a painless and tranquil death. "What," + said Croesus, angrily, "and dost not thou reckon us amongst the happy men + at all?" Solon, unwilling either to flatter or exasperate him more, + replied, "The gods, O king, have given the Greeks all other gifts in + moderate degree; and so our wisdom, too, is a cheerful and a homely, not a + noble and kingly, wisdom; and this, observing the numerous misfortunes + that attend all conditions, forbids us to grow insolent upon our present + enjoyments, or to admire any man's happiness that may yet, in course of + time, suffer change. For the uncertain future has yet to come, with every + possible variety of fortune; and him only to whom the divinity has + continued happiness unto the end, we call happy; to salute as happy one + that is still in the midst of life and hazard, we think as little safe, + and conclusive as to crown and proclaim as victorious the wrestler that is + yet in the ring." After this, he was dismissed, having given Croesus some + pain, but no instruction. + </p> + <p> + Aesop, who wrote the fables, being then at Sardis upon Croesus's + invitation, and very much esteemed, was concerned that Solon was so + ill-received, and gave him this advice: "Solon, let your converse with + kings be either short or seasonable." "Nay, rather," replied Solon, + "either short or reasonable." So at this time Croesus despised Solon; but + when he was overcome by Cyrus, had lost his city, was taken alive, + condemned to be burnt, and laid bound upon the pile before all the + Persians and Cyrus himself, he cried out as loud as he possibly could + three times, "O Solon!" and Cyrus being surprised, and sending some to + inquire what man or god this Solon was, whom alone he invoked in this + extremity, Croesus told him the whole story, saying, "He was one of the + wise men of Greece, whom I sent for, not to be instructed, or to learn + anything that I wanted, but that he should see and be a witness of my + happiness; the loss of which was, it seems, to be a greater evil than the + enjoyment was a good; for when I had them they were goods only in opinion, + but now the loss of them has brought upon me intolerable and real evils. + And he, conjecturing from what then was, this that now is, bade me look to + the end of my life, and not rely and grow proud upon uncertainties." When + this was told Cyrus, who was a wiser man than Croesus, and saw in the + present example Solon's maxim confirmed, he not only freed Croesus from + punishment, but honored him as long as he lived; and Solon had the glory, + by the same saying, to save one king and instruct another. + </p> + <p> + When Solon was gone, the citizens began to quarrel; Lycurgus headed the + Plain; Megacles, the son of Alcmaeon, those of the Sea-side; and + Pisistratus the Hill-party, in which were the poorest people, the Thetes, + and greatest enemies to the rich; insomuch that, though the city still + used the new laws, yet all looked for and desired a change of government, + hoping severally that the change would be better for them, and put them + above the contrary faction. Affairs standing thus, Solon returned, and was + reverenced by all, and honored; but his old age would not permit him to be + as active, and to speak in public, as formerly; yet, by privately + conferring with the heads of the factions, he endeavored to compose the + differences, Pisistratus appearing the most tractable; for he was + extremely smooth and engaging in his language, a great friend to the poor, + and moderate in his resentments; and what nature had not given him, he had + the skill to imitate; so that he was trusted more than the others, being + accounted a prudent and orderly man, one that loved equality, and would be + an enemy to any that moved against the present settlement. Thus he + deceived the majority of people; but Solon quickly discovered his + character, and found out his design before any one else; yet did not hate + him upon this, but endeavored to humble him, and bring him off from his + ambition, and often told him and others, that if any one could banish the + passion for preeminence from his mind, and cure him of his desire of + absolute power, none would make a more virtuous man or a more excellent + citizen. Thespis, at this time, beginning to act tragedies, and the thing, + because it was new, taking very much with the multitude, though it was not + yet made a matter of competition, Solon, being by nature fond of hearing + and learning something new, and now, in his old age, living idly, and + enjoying himself, indeed, with music and with wine, went to see Thespis + himself, as the ancient custom was, act; and after the play was done, he + addressed him, and asked him if he was not ashamed to tell so many lies + before such a number of people; and Thespis replying that it was no harm + to say or do so in play, Solon vehemently struck his staff against the + ground: "Ay," said he, "if we honor and commend such play as this, we + shall find it some day in our business." + </p> + <p> + Now when Pisistratus, having wounded himself, was brought into the + market-place in a chariot, and stirred up the people, as if he had been + thus treated by his opponents because of his political conduct, and a + great many were enraged and cried out, Solon, coming close to him, said, + "This, O son of Hippocrates, is a bad copy of Homer's Ulysses; you do, to + trick your countrymen, what he did to deceive his enemies." After this, + the people were eager to protect Pisistratus, and met in an assembly, + where one Ariston made a motion that they should allow Pisistratus fifty + clubmen for a guard to his person. Now, the people, having passed the law, + were not nice with Pisistratus about the number of his clubmen, but took + no notice of it, though he enlisted and kept as many as he would, until he + seized the Acropolis. When that was done, and the city in an uproar, + Megacles, with all his family, at once fled; But Solon, though he was now + very old, and had none to back him, yet came into the market-place and + made a speech to the citizens, partly blaming their inadvertency and + meanness of spirit, and in part urging and exhorting them not thus tamely + to lose their liberty; and likewise then spoke that memorable saying, + that, before, it was an easier task to stop the rising tyranny, but now + the greater and more glorious action to destroy it, when it was begun + already, and had gathered strength. But all being afraid to side with him, + he returned home, and, taking his arms, he brought them out and laid them + in the porch before his door, with these words: "I have done my part to + maintain my country and my laws," and then be busied himself no more. + </p> + <p> + But Pisistratus, having got the command, so extremely courted Solon, so + honored him, obliged him, and sent to see him, that Solon gave him his + advice, and approved many of his actions; for he retained most of Solon's + laws, observed them himself, and compelled his friends to obey. And he + added other laws, one of which is that the maimed in the wars should be + maintained at the public charge, following Solon's example in this, who + had decreed it in the case of one Thersippus, that was maimed. + </p> + <p> + Solon lived after Pisistratus seized the government a long time. But the + story that his ashes were scattered about the island Salamis is too + strange to be easily believed, or be thought anything but a mere fable; + and yet it is given, among other good authors, by Aristotle the + philosopher. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0006" id="link2H_4_0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THEMISTOCLES + </h2> + <p> + The birth of Themistocles was somewhat too obscure to do him honor. His + father, Neocles, was not of the distinguished people of Athens, but of the + township of Phrearrhi; and by his mother's side, as it is reported, he was + low-born. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "I am not of the noble Grecian race, + I'm poor Abrotonon, and born in Trace; + Let the Greek women scorn me, if they please, + I was the mother of Themistocles." +</pre> + <p> + From his youth he was of a vehement and impetuous nature, of a quick + apprehension, and a strong and aspiring bent for action and great affairs, + the holidays and intervals in his studies he did not spend in play or + idleness, as other children, but would be always inventing or arranging + some oration or declamation to himself, the subject of which was generally + the excusing of accusing of his companions, so that his master would often + say to him, "You, my boy, will be nothing small, but great one way or + other, for good and else for bad." he received reluctantly and carelessly + instructions given him to improve his manners and behavior, or to teach + him any pleasing or graceful accomplishment, but whatever was said to + improve him in sagacity, or in management of affairs, he would give + attention to beyond one of years, from confidence in his natural + capacities for such things. + </p> + <p> + In the first essays of his youth he was not regular nor happily balanced; + he allowed himself to follow mere natural character, which, without the + control of reason and instruction, is apt to hurry, upon either side, into + sudden and violent courses, and very often to break away and determine + upon the worst; as he afterwards owned himself, saying that the wildest + colts make the best horses, if they only get properly trained and broken + in. + </p> + <p> + Yet it is evident that his mind was early imbued with the keenest interest + in public affairs, and the most passionate ambition for distinction. It is + said that Themistocles was so transported with the thoughts of glory, and + so inflamed with the passion for great actions, that, though he was still + young when the battle of Marathon was fought against the Persian, upon the + skillful conduct of the general, Miltiades, being everywhere talked about, + he was observed to be thoughtful and reserved; he passed the nights + without sleep, and avoided all his usual places of recreation, and to + those how wondered at the change, and inquired the reason of it, he gave + the answer that "the trophy of Miltiades would not let him sleep." And + when others were of opinion that the battle of Marathon would be an end to + the war, Themistocles thought that it was but the beginning of far greater + conflict, and for these, to the benefit of Greece, he kept himself in + continual readiness, and his city also in proper training, foreseeing from + far before what would happen. + </p> + <p> + And, first of all, the Athenians being accustomed to divide amongst + themselves the revenue proceeding from the silver mines at Laurium, he was + the only man that durst propose to the people that this distribution + should cease, and that with the money, ships should be built to make war + against the Aeginetans, who were the most flourishing people in all + Greece, and by the number of their ships held the sovereignty of the sea; + and Themistocles thus, little by little, turned and drew the city down + towards the sea, in the belief that, whereas by land they were not a match + for their next neighbors, with their ships they might be able to repel the + Persian and command Greece; thus, as Plato says, from steady soldiers he + turned them into mariners and seamen tossed about the sea, and gave + occasion for the reproach against him, that he took away from the + Athenians the spear and the shield, and bound them to the bench and the + oar. He was well liked by the common people, would salute every particular + citizen by his own name, and always showed himself a just judge in + questions of business between private men; he said to Simonides, the poet + of Ceos, who desired something of him when he was commander of the army + that was no reasonable, "Simonides, you would be no good poet if you wrote + false measure, nor should I be a good magistrate if for favor I made false + law." + </p> + <p> + Gradually growing to be great, and winning the favor of the people, he at + last gained the day with his faction over that of Aristides, and procured + his banishment by ostracism. When the kind of Persia was now advancing + against Greece, and sent messengers into Greece, with an interpreter, to + demand earth and water, as an acknowledgement of subjection, Themistocles, + by the consent of the people, seized upon the interpreter, and put him to + death, for presuming to publish the barbarian orders and decrees in the + Greek language; and having taken upon himself the command of the Athenian + forces, he immediately endeavored to persuade the citizens to leave the + city, and to embark upon their galleys, and meet with the Persians at a + great distance from Greece. + </p> + <p> + When the contingents met at the straits of Artemisium, the Greeks would + have the Lacedaemonians to command, and Eurybiades to be their admiral; + but the Athenians, who surpassed all the rest together in number of + vessels, would not submit to come after any other, till Themistocles, + perceiving the danger of this contest, yielded his own command to + Eurybiades, and got the Athenians to submit, persuading them that if in + this war they behaved themselves like men, he would answer for it after + that, that the Greeks, of their own will, would submit to their command. + </p> + <p> + Though the fights between the Greeks and Persians in the straits of Euboea + were not so important as to make any final decision of the war, yet the + experience which the Greeks obtained in them was of great advantage; for + thus, by actual trial and in real danger, they found out, that neither + number of ships, or riches and ornaments, nor boasting shouts, nor + barbarous songs of victory, were any way terrible to men that knew how to + fight, and were resolved to come hand to hand with their enemies. This, + Pindar appears to have seen, and says justly enough of the fight at + Artemisium, that + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + There the sons of Athens set + The stone that freedom stands on yet. +</pre> + <p> + For the first step towards victory undoubtedly is to gain courage. + Artemisium is in Euboea, beyond the city of Histiaea, a sea-beach open to + the north; there is small temple there, dedicated to Diana, surnamed of + the Dawn, and trees about it, around which again stand pillars of white + marble; and if rub them with your hand, they send forth both the smell and + color of saffron. + </p> + <p> + But when news came from Thermopylae to Artemisium, informing that that + king Leonidas was slain, and that Xerxes had made himself master of all + the passages by land, they returned back to the interior of Greece. Xerxes + had already passed through Doris and invaded the country of Phocis, and + was burning and destroying the cities of the Phocians, yet the Greeks sent + them no relief; and, though the Athenians earnestly desired them to meet + the Persians in Boeotia, before they could come into Attica, as they + themselves had come forward by sea at Artemisium, they gave no ear to + their request, being wholly intent upon Peloponnesus, and resolved to + gather all their forces together within the Isthmus, and to build a wall + from sea to sea in that narrow neck of land; so that the Athenians were + enraged to see themselves betrayed, and at the same time afflicted and + dejected at their own destitution. For to fight alone against such a + numerous army was to no purpose, and the only expedient now left them was + to leave their city and cling to their ships; which the people were very + unwilling to submit to, imagining that it would signify little now to gain + a victory, and not understanding how there could be deliverance any longer + after they had once forsaken the temples of their gods and exposed the + tombs and monuments of their ancestors to the fury of their enemies. + </p> + <p> + Themistocles, being at a loss, and not able to draw the people over to his + opinion by any human reason, set his machines to work, as in a theatre, + and employed prodigies and oracles. The serpent of Athena, kept in the + inner part of her temple, disappeared; the priests gave it out to the + people and declared, by the suggestion of Themistocles, that the goddess + had left the city, and taken her flight before them towards the sea. And + he often urged them with the oracle which bade them "trust to walls of + wood," showing them that walls of wood could signify nothing else but + ships; and that the island of Salamis was termed in it not miserable or + unhappy, but had the epithet of divine, for that it should one day be + associated with a great good fortune of the Greeks. At length his opinion + prevailed, and he obtained a decree that the city should be committed to + the protection of Athena, "queen of Athens"; that they who were of age to + bear arms should embark, and that each should see to sending away his + children, women, and slaves where he could. This decree being confirmed, + most of the Athenians removed their parents, wives, and children to + Troezen, where they were received with eager good-will by the Troezenians, + who passed a vote that they should be maintained at the public charge. + </p> + <p> + Among the great actions of Themistocles at this crisis, the recall of + Aristides was not the least, for, before the war, he had been ostracized + by the party which Themistocles headed, and was in banishment; but now, + perceiving that the people regretted his absence, and were fearful that he + might go over to the Persians to revenge himself, and thereby ruin the + affairs of Greece, Themistocles proposed a decree that those who were + banished for a time might return again, to give assistance by word and + deed to the cause of Greece with the rest of their fellow citizens. + </p> + <p> + Eurybiades, by reason of the greatness of Sparta, was admiral of the Greek + fleet, but yet was faint-hearted in time of danger, and willing to weigh + anchor and set sail for the Isthmus of Corinth, near which the land army + lay encamped; which Themistocles, resisted; and this was the occasion of + the well-known words, when Eurybiades, to check his impatience, told him + that at the Olympic games they that start up before the rest are lashed. + "And they," replied Themistocles, "that are left behind are not crowned." + Some say that while Themistocles was thus speaking things upon the deck, + an owl was seen flying to the right hand of the fleet, which came and sat + upon the top of the mast; and this happy omen so far disposed the Greeks + to follow his advice, that they presently prepared to fight. Yet, when the + enemy's fleet was arrived at the haven of Phalerum, upon the coast of + Attica, and with the number of their ships concealed all the shore, and + when they saw the king himself in person come down with his land army to + the sea-side, with all his forces united, then the good counsel of + Themistocles was soon forgotten, and the Peloponnesians cast their eyes + again towards the Isthmus, and took it very ill if any one spoke against + their returning home; and, resolving to depart that night, the pilots had + order what course to steer. + </p> + <p> + Themistocles, in great distress that the Greeks should return, and lost + the advantage of the narrow seas and strait passage, and slip home very + one to his own city, considered with himself, and contrived that stratagem + which was carried out by Sicinnus. This Sicinnus was a Persian captive, + but a great lover of Themistocles, and the attendant of his children. Upon + this occasion he sent him privately to Xerxes, commanding him to tell the + king that Themistocles, the admiral of the Athenians, having espoused his + interest, wished to be the first to inform him that the Greeks were ready + to make their escape, and that he counseled him to hinder their flight, to + set upon them while they were in this confusion and at a distance from + their land army, and thereby destroy all their forces by sea. Xerxes was + very joyful at this message, and received it as from one who wished him + all that was good, and immediately issued instructions to the commanders + of his ships that they should instantly set out with two hundred galleys + to encompass all the islands, and enclose all the straits and passages, + that none of the Greeks might escape, and that they should afterward + follow with the rest of their fleet at leisure. This being done, + Aristides, the son of Lysimachus, was the first man that perceived it, and + went to the test of Themistocles, not out of any friendship, for he had + been formerly banished by his means, as has been related, but to inform + him how they were encompassed by their enemies. Themistocles, knowing the + generosity of Aristides, and much struck by his visit at that time, + imparted to him all that he had transacted by Sicinnus, and entreated him + that, as he would be more readily believed among the Greeks, he would make + use of his credit to help to induce them to stay and fight their enemies + in the narrow seas. Aristides applauded Themistocles, and went to the + other commanders and captains of the galleys and encouraged them to + engage; yet they did not perfectly assent to him till a galley of Tenos, + which deserted from the Persians, of which Panaetius was commander, came + in, while they were still doubting, and confirmed the news that all the + straits and passages were beset; and then their rage and fury, as well as + their necessity, provoked them all to fight. + </p> + <p> + As soon as it was day, Xerxes placed himself high up, to view his fleet, + as Acestodorus writes, in the confines of Megara, upon those hills which + are called the Horns, where he sat in a chair of gold, with many + secretaries about him to write down all that was done in the fight. + </p> + <p> + The number of the enemy's ships the poet Aeschylus gives in his tragedy + called the Persians, as on his certain knowledge, in the following words: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Xerxes, I know, did into battle lead + One thousand ships; of more than usual speed + Seven and two hundred. So is it agreed. +</pre> + <p> + The Athenians had a hundred and eighty; in every ship eighteen men fought + upon the deck, four of whom were archers and the rest men-at-arms. + </p> + <p> + As Themistocles had fixed upon the most advantageous place, so, with no + less sagacity, he chose the best time of fighting; for he would not run + the prows of his galleys against the Persians, nor begin the fight till + the time of day was come when there regularly blows in a fresh breeze from + the open sea, and brings in with it a strong swell into the channel; this + was no inconvenience to the Greek ships, which were low-built, and little + above the water, but did much hurt to the Persians, which had high sterns + and lofty decks, and were heavy and cumbrous in their movements, as it + presented them broadside to the quick charges of the Greeks, who kept + their eyes upon the motions of Themistocles, as their best example, and + more particularly because, opposed to his ship, Ariamenes, admiral to + Xerxes, a brave man, and by far the best and worthiest of the king's + brothers, was seen throwing darts and shooting arrows from his huge + galley, as from the walls of a castle. Aminias the Decelean and Sosicles + the Pedian, who sailed in the same vessel, upon the ships meeting stem to + stem, and transfixing each the other with their brazen prows, so that they + were fastened together, when Ariamenes attempted to board theirs, ran at + them with their pikes, and thrust him into the sea; his body, as it + floated amongst other shipwrecks, was discovered by Artemisia, and carried + to Xerxes. + </p> + <p> + The first man that took a ship was Lycomedes the Athenian, captain of a + galley, who cut down its ensign, and dedicated it to Apollo the + Laurel-crowned. And as the Persians fought in a narrow sea, and could + bring but part of their fleet to fight, and fell foul of one another, the + Greeks thus equaled them in strength, and fought with them till the + evening, forced them back, and obtained, as says Simonides, that noble and + famous victory, than which neither amongst the Greeks nor barbarians was + ever known more glorious exploit on the seas; by the joint valor, indeed, + and zeal of all who fought, but most by the wisdom and sagacity of + Themistocles. + </p> + <p> + After this sea-fight, Xerxes, enraged at his ill-fortune, attempted, by + casting great heaps of earth and stones into the sea, to stop up the + channel and to make a dam, upon which he might lead his land forces over + into the island of Salamis. + </p> + <p> + Themistocles, being desirous to try the opinion of Aristides, told him + that he proposed to set sail for the Hellespont, to break the bridge of + ships, so as to shut up, he said, Aisa a prisoner within Europe; but + Aristides, disliking the design, said: "We have hitherto fought with an + enemy who has regarded little else but his pleasure and luxury; but if we + shut him up within Greece, and drive him to necessity, he that is master + of such great forces will no longer sit quietly with an umbrella of gold + over his head, looking upon the fight for his pleasure; but he will be + resolute, and attempt all things. Therefore, it is noways our interest, + Themistocles," he said, "to take away the bridge that is already made, but + rather to build another, if it were possible, that he might make his + retreat with the more expedition." To which Themistocles answered: "If + this be requisite, we must immediately use all diligence, art, and + industry, to rid ourselves of him as soon as may be;" and to this purpose + he found out among the captives one named Arnaces, whom he sent to the + king, to inform him that the Greeks, being now victorious by sea, had + decreed to sail to the Hellespont, where the boasts were fastened + together, and destroy the bridge; but that Themistocles, being concerned + for the king, revealed this to him, that he might hasten toward the + Asiatic seas, and pass over into his own dominions; and in the meantime + would cause delays, and hinder the confederates from pursuing him. Xerxes + no sooner heard this than, being very much terrified, he proceeded to + retreat out of Greece with all speed. The prudence of Themistocles and + Aristides in this was afterward more fully understood at the battle of + Plataea, where Mardonius, with a very small fraction of the forces of + Xerxes, put the Greeks in danger of losing all. + </p> + <p> + Herodotus writes that, of all the cities of Greece, Aegina was held to + have performed the best service in the war; while all single men yielded + to Themistocles, though, out of envy, unwillingly; and when they returned + to the entrance of Peloponnesus, where the several commanders delivered + their suffrages at the altar, to determine who was most worthy, every one + gave the first vote for himself and the second for Themistocles. The + Lacedaemonians carried him with them to Sparta, where, giving the rewards + of valor to Eurybiades, and of wisdom and conduct to Themistocles, they + crowned him with olive, presented him with the best chariot in the city, + and sent three hundred young men to accompany him to the confines of their + country. And at the next Olympic games, when Themistocles entered the + course, the spectators took no further notice of those who were competing + for the prizes, but spent the whole day in looking upon him, showing him + to the strangers, admiring him, and applauding him by clapping their + hands, and other expressions of joy, so that he himself, much gratified, + confessed to his friends that he then reaped the fruit of all his labors + for the Greeks. + </p> + <p> + He was, indeed, by nature, a great lover of honor, as is evident from the + anecdotes recorded of him. When chosen admiral by the Athenians, he would + not quite conclude any single matter of business, either public or + private, but deferred all till the day they were to set sail, that, by + dispatching a great quantity of business all at once, and having to met a + great variety of people, he might make an appearance of greatness and + power. Viewing the dead bodies cast up by the sea, he perceived bracelets + and necklaces of gold about them, yet passed on, only showing them to a + friend that followed him, saying, "Take you these things, for you are not + Themistocles." He aid to Antiphates, a handsome young man, "Time, young + man, has taught us both a lesson." He said that the Athenians did not + honor him or admire him, but made, as it were, a sort of plane-tree of + him; sheltered themselves under him in bad weather, and as soon as it was + fine, plucked his leaves and cut his branches. When a Seriphian told him + that he had not obtained this honor by himself, but by the greatness of + his city, he replied: "You speak truth; I should never have been famous if + I had been of Seriphus; nor you, had you been of Athens." Laughing at his + own son, who got his mother, and by his mother's means, his father also to + indulge him, he told him that he had the most power of any one is Greece: + "For the Athenians command the rest of Greece, I command the Athenians, + your mother commands me, and you command your mother." Of the two who made + love to his daughter, he preferred the man of worth to the one who was + rich, saying he desired a man without riches, rather than riches without a + man. + </p> + <p> + When the citizens of Athens began to listen willingly to those who + traduced and reproached him, he was forced, with somewhat obnoxious + frequency, to put them in mind of the great services he had performed. And + he yet more provoked the people by building a temple to Diana with the + epithet of Aristobule, or Diana of Best Counsel; intimating thereby that + he had given the best counsel, not only to the Athenians, but to all + Greece. At length the Athenians banished him, making use of the ostracism + to humble his eminence and authority, as they ordinarily did with all whom + they thought too powerful, or, by their greatness, disproportionate to the + equality thought requisite in a popular government. For the ostracism was + instituted, not so much to punish the offender as to mitigate and pacify + the violence of the envious, who delighted to humble eminent men, and who, + by fixing this disgrace upon them, might vent some part of their rancor. + </p> + <p> + Themistocles being banished from Athens, while he stayed at Argos the + detection of Pausanias happened. And after Pausanias was put to death, + letters and writings were found which rendered Themistocles suspected, and + his enemies among the Athenians accused him. In answer to the malicious + detractions of his enemies, he merely wrote to the citizens urging that he + who was always ambitious to govern, and not of a character or a + disposition to serve, would never sell himself and his country into + slavery to a barbarous and hostile nation. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding this, the people, being persuaded by his accuser, set + officers to take him and bring him away to be tried before a council of + the Greeks; but, having timely notice of it, he passed over into the + island of Corcyra, where the state was under obligations to him; for, + being chosen as arbitrator in a difference between them and the + Corinthians, he decided the controversy by ordering the Corinthians to pay + down twenty talents, and declaring the town and island of Leucas a joint + colony from both cities. From thence he fled into Epirus, and, the + Athenians and Lacedaemonians still pursuing him, he threw himself upon + chances of safety that seemed all but desperate. For he fled fro refuge to + Admetus, kind of the Molossians, who had formerly made some request to the + Athenians when Themistocles was in the height of his authority, and had + been disdainfully used and insulted by him, and had let it appear plain + enough that could he lay hold of him he would take his revenge. Yet in + this misfortune, Themistocles, fearing the recent hatred of his neighbors + and fellow-citizens more than the old displeasure of the king, put himself + at his mercy, and became an humble suppliant to Admetus, after a peculiar + manner, different from the custom of other countries. For taking the + king's son, who was then a child, in his arms, he laid himself down at his + hearth, this being the most sacred and only manner of supplication, among + the Molossians, which was not to be refused. + </p> + <p> + Thucydides says, that, passing over land to the Aegean Sea, he took shop + at Pydna in the bay of Thermae, not being known to any one in the ship, + till, being terrified to see the vessel driven by the winds near to Naxos, + which was then besieged by the Athenians, he made himself known to the + master and pilot, and, partly entreating them, partly threatening, he + compelled them to bear off and stand out to sea, and sail forward toward + the coast of Aisa. + </p> + <p> + When he arrived at Cyme, and understood that all along the coast many laid + in wait for him (the king of Persia having offered by public proclamation + two hundred talents to him that should take him), he fled to Aegae, a + small city of the Aeolians, where no one knew him but only his host + Nicogenes, who was the richest man in Aeolia, and well known to the great + men of Inner Asia. There Themistocles, going to bed, dreamed that he saw a + snake coil itself up upon his belly, and so creep to his neck; then, as + soon as it touched his face, it turned into an eagle, which spread its + wings over him, and took him up and flew away with him a great distance; + then there appeared a herald's golden wand, and upon this at last it set + him down securely, after infinite terror and disturbance. + </p> + <p> + His departure was effected by Nicogenes by the following artifice: the + barbarous nations, and among them the Persians especially, are extremely + jealous, severe, and suspicious about their wives, whom they keep so + strictly that no one ever sees them abroad; they spend their lives shut up + within doors, and, when they take a journey, are carried in close tenets, + curtained in on all sides, and set upon a wagon. Such a traveling carriage + being prepared for Themistocles, they hid him in it, and carried him on + his journey, and told those whom they met or spoke with upon the road that + they were conveying a young Greek woman out of Ionia to a nobleman at + court. + </p> + <p> + When he was introduced to the king, and had paid his reverence to him, he + stood silent, till the king commanding the interpreter to ask him who he + was, he replied: "O king, I am Themistocles the Athenian, driven into + banishment by the Greeks. The evils I have done to the Persians are + numerous; but my benefits to them yet greater, in withholding the Greeks + from pursuit, so soon as the deliverance of my own country allowed me to + show kindness also to you. I come with a mind suited to my present + calamities; prepared alike for favors and for anger; to welcome your + gracious reconciliation, and to deprecate your wrath. Take my own + countrymen for witnesses of the services I have done for Persia, and make + use of this occasion to show the world your virtue, rather than to satisfy + your indignation. If you save me, you will save your suppliant; if + otherwise, you will destroy an enemy of the Greeks." + </p> + <p> + In the morning, calling together the chief of his court, he had + Themistocles brought before him, who expected no good of it. Yet, when he + came into the presence, and again fell down, the king saluted him, and + spake to him kindly, telling him he was now indebted to him two hundred + talents; for it was just and reasonable that he should receive the reward + which was proposed to whosoever should bring Themistocles; and promising + much more, and encouraging him, he commanded him to speak freely what he + would concerning the affairs of Greece. Themistocles replied, that a man's + discourse was like to a rich Persians carpet, the beautiful figures and + patterns of which can only be shown by spreading and extending it out; + when it is contracted and folded up, they are obscured and lost; and, + therefore, he desired time. The king being pleased with the comparison, + and bidding him take what time he would, he desired a year; in which time, + having learnt the Persian language sufficiently, he spoke with the king by + himself without the help of an interpreter; the king invited him to + partake of his own pastimes and recreations both at home and abroad, + carrying him with him a-hunting, and made him his intimate so far that he + permitted him to see the queen-mother, and converse frequently with her. + By the king's command, he also was made acquainted with the Magian + learning. + </p> + <p> + They relate, also, how Themistocles, when he was in great prosperity, and + courted by many, seeing himself splendidly served at his table, turned to + his children and said: "Children, we had been undone if we had not been + undone." Most writers say that he had three cities given him—Magnesia, + Myus and Lampsacus—to maintain him in bread, meat and wine; and some + add two more, the city of Palaescepsis, to provide him with clothes, and + Percote, with bedding and furniture for his house. + </p> + <p> + He lived quietly in his own house in Magnesia, where for a long time he + passed his days in great security, being courted by all, and enjoying rich + presents, and honored equally with the greatest persons in the Persian + empire; the king, at that time, not minding his concerns with Greece, + being taken up with the affairs of Inner Aisa. + </p> + <p> + But when Egypt revolted, being assisted by the Athenians, and the Greek + galleys roved about as far as Cyprus and Cilicia, and Cimon had made + himself master of the seas, the king turned his thoughts thither, and, + bending his mind chiefly to resist the Greeks, and to cheek the growth of + their power against him, began to raise forces, and send out commanders, + and to dispatch messengers to Themistocles at Magnesia, to put him in mind + of his promise, and to summon him to act against the Greeks. Yet this did + not increase his hatred nor exasperate him against the Athenians, but, + being ashamed to sully the glory of his former great actions, and of his + many victories and trophies, he determined to put a conclusion to his + life, agreeable to its previous course. He sacrificed to the gods, and + invited his friends; and having entertained them and shaken hands with + them, drank bull's blood, as is the usual story; as others state, a + poison, producing instant death; and ended his days in the city of + Magnesia, having lived sixty-five years, most of which he had spent in + politics and in the wars, in government and command. The king, being + informed of the cause and manner of his death, admired him the more than + ever, and continued to show kindness to his friends and relations. + </p> + <p> + The Magnesians possess a splendid sepulchre of Themistocles, placed in the + middle of their market-place. And various honors and privileges were + granted to the kindred of Themistocles at Magnesia, which were observed + down to our times, and were enjoyed by another Themistocles of Athens, + with whom I had an intimate acquaintance and friendship in the house of + Ammonius the philosopher. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0007" id="link2H_4_0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CAMILLUS + </h2> + <p> + Among the many remarkable things that are related of Furius Camillus, it + seems singular that he, who continually was in the highest commands, and + obtained the greatest successes, was five times chosen dictator, triumphed + four times, and was styled a second founder of Rome, yet never was so much + as once consul. The reason of which was the state and temper of the + commonwealth at that time; for the people, being at dissension with the + senate, refused to return consuls, but they instead elected other + magistrates, called military tribunes, who acted, indeed, with full + consular power, but were thought to exercise a less obnoxious amount of + authority, because it was divided among a larger number. + </p> + <p> + The house of the Furii was not, at that time, of any considerable + distinction; he, by his own acts, first raised himself to honor, serving + under Postumius Tubertus, dictator, in the great battle against the + Aequians and Volscians. For, riding out from the rest of the army, and in + the charge receiving a would in his thigh, he for all that did not quit + the fight, but, letting the dart drag in the would, and engaging with the + bravest of the enemy, put them to flight; for which action, among other + rewards bestowed on him, he was created censor, an office in those days of + great repute and authority. During his censorship one very good act of his + is recorded, that, whereas the wars had made many widows, he obliged such + as had no wives, some by fair persuasion, others by threatening to set + fines on their heads, to take them in marriage; another necessary one, in + causing orphans to be rated, who before were exempted from taxes, the + frequent wars requiring more than ordinary expenses to maintain them. + What, however, pressed them most was the siege of Veii. Some call this + people Veientani. This was the head city of Tuscany, not inferior to Rome + either in number of arms or multitude of soldiers, insomuch that, + presuming on her wealth and luxury, and priding herself upon her + refinement and sumptuousness, she engaged in many honorable contests with + the Romans for glory and empire. But now they had abandoned their former + ambitious hopes, having been weakened by great defeats, so that, having + fortified themselves with high and strong walls, and furnished the city + with all sorts of weapons offensive and defensive, as likewise with corn + and all manner of provisions, they cheerfully endured a siege, which, + though tedious to them, was no less troublesome and distressing to the + besiegers. For the Romans, having never been accustomed to stay away from + home except in summer, and for no great length of time, and constantly to + winter at home, were then first compelled by the tribunes to build forts + in the enemy's country, and, raising strong works about their camp, to + join winter and summer together. And now the seventh year of the war + drawing to an end, the commanders began to be suspected as too slow and + remiss in driving on the siege, insomuch that they were discharged and + others chosen for the war, among whom was Camillus, then second time + tribune. But at present he had no hand in the siege, the duties that fell + by lot to him being to make war upon the Faliscans and Capenates, who, + taking advantage of the Romans being occupied on all hands, had carried + ravages into their country, and through all the Tuscan war, given them + much annoyance, but were now reduced by Camillus, and with great loss shut + up within their walls. + </p> + <p> + And now, in the very heat of the war, a strange phenomenon in the Alban + lake, which, in the absence of any known cause and explanation by natural + reasons, seemed as great a prodigy as the most incredible that are + reported, occasioned great alarm. It was the beginning of autumn, and the + summer now ending had, to all observation, been neither rainy nor much + troubled with southern winds; and of the many lakes, brooks, and springs + of all sorts with which Italy abounds, some were wholly dried up, others + had very little water in them; all the rivers, as is usual in summer, ran + in a very low and hollow channel. But the Alban lake, which is fed by no + other waters but its own, and is on all sides encircled with fruitful + mountains, without any cause, unless it were divine, began visibly to rise + and swell, increasing to the feet of the mountains, and by degrees + reaching the level of the very tops of some of them, and all this without + any waves or agitation. At first it was the wonder of shepherds and + herdsmen; but when the earth, which, like a great dam, held up the lake + from falling into the lower grounds, through the quantity and weight of + water was broken down, and in a violent stream it ran through the ploughed + fields and plantations to discharge itself in the sea, it not only struck + terror into the Romans, but was thought by all the inhabitants of Italy to + portend some extraordinary event. But the greatest talk of it was in the + camp that besieged Veii, so that in the town itself, also, the occurrence + became known. + </p> + <p> + As in long sieges it commonly happens that both parties on both sides meet + often and converse with one another, so it chanced that a Roman had gained + much confidence and familiarity with one of the besieged, a man versed in + ancient prophecies, and of repute for more than ordinary skill in + divination. The Roman, observing him to be overjoyed at the story of the + lake, and to mock at the siege, told him that this was not the only + prodigy that of late had happened to the Romans; others more wonderful yet + than this had befallen them, which he was willing to communicate to him, + that he might the better provide for his private interests in these public + distempers. The man greedily embraced the proposal, expecting to hear some + wonderful secrets; but when, little by little, he had led him on in + conversation, and insensibly drawn him a good way from the gates of the + city, he snatched him up the middle, being stronger than he, and, by the + assistance of others who came running from the camp, seized and delivered + him to the commanders. The man, reduced to this necessity, and sensible + now that destiny was not to be avoided, discovered to them the secret + oracle of Veii, that it was not possible the city should be taken until + the Alban lake, which now broke forth and had found out new passages, was + drawn back from that course, and so diverted that it could not mingle with + the sea. The senate, having heard and satisfied themselves about the + matter, decreed to send to Delphi, to ask counsel of the god. The + messengers returned with the answer that the Alban water, if possible, + they should keep from the sea, and shut it up in its ancient bounds; but + if that was not to be done, then they should carry it off by ditches and + trenches into the lower grounds, and so dry it up; which message being + delivered, the priests performed what related to the sacrifices, and the + people went to work and turned the water. + </p> + <p> + And now the senate, in the tenth year of the war, taking away all other + commands, created Camillus dictator, who chose Cornelius Scipio for his + general of horse, and, having made vows, marched into the country of the + Faliscans, and in a great battle overthrew them and the Capenates, their + confederates; afterwards he turned to the siege of Veii, and finding that + to take it by assault would prove a difficult and hazardous attempt, + proceeded to cut mines under ground, the earth about the city being easy + to break up, and allowing such depth for the works as would prevent their + being discovered by the enemy. This design going on in a hopeful way, he + openly gave assaults to the enemy, to keep them to the walls, until they + that worked underground in the mines might, without being perceived, + arrive within the citadel, close to the temple of Juno, which was the + greatest and most honored in all the city. It is said that the prince of + the Tuscans was at that very time at sacrifice, and that the priest, after + he had looked into the entrails of the beast, cried out with a loud voice + that the gods would give the victory to those that should complete those + offerings; and that the Romans who were in the mines, hearing the words, + immediately pulled down the floor, and, ascending with noise, and clashing + of weapons, frightened away the enemy, and, snatching up the entrails, + carried them to Camillus. But this may look like a fable. The city, + however, being taken by storm, and the soldiers busied in pillaging and + gathering an infinite quantity of riches and spoil, Camillus, from the + high tower viewing what was done, at first wept for pity; and when the + bystanders congratulated him upon his success, he lifted up his hands to + heaven, and broke out into this prayer: "O most mighty Jupiter, and ye + gods that are judges of good and evil actions, ye know that not without + just cause, but constrained by necessity, we have been forced to revenge + ourselves on the city of our unrighteous and wicked enemies. But if, the + the vicissitude of things, there by any calamity due, to counter-balance + this great felicity, I beg that it may be diverted from the city and army + of the Romans, and fall, with as little hurt as may be, upon my own head." + Having said these words, and just turning about (as the custom of the + Romans is to turn to the right after adoration or prayer), he stumbled and + fell, to the astonishment of all that were present. But, recovering + himself presently from the fall, he told them that he had received what he + had prayed for, a small mischance, in compensation for the greatest good + fortune. + </p> + <p> + Camillus, however, whether puffed up with the greatness of his achievement + in conquering a city that was the rival of Rome, and held out a ten years' + siege, or exalted with the felicitations of those that were about him, + assumed to himself more than became a civil and legal magistrate; among + other things, in the pride and haughtiness of triumph, driving through + Rome in a chariot drawn with four white horses, which no general either + before or since ever did; for the Romans consider such a mode of + conveyance to be sacred and specially set apart to the king and father of + the gods. This alienated the hearts of his fellow-citizens, who were not + accustomed to such pomp and display. + </p> + <p> + The second pique they had against him was his opposing the law by which + the city was to be divided; for the tribunes of the people brought forward + a motion that the people and senate should be divided into two parts, one + of which should remain at home, the other, as the lot should decide, + remove to the new-taken city. By which means they should not only have + much more room, but, by the advantage of two great and magnificent cities, + be better able to maintain their territories and their fortunes in + general. The people, therefore, who were numerous and indigent, greedily + embraced it, and crowded continually to the forum, with tumultuous demands + to have it put to the vote. But the senate and the noblest citizens, + judging the proceedings of the tribunes to tend rather to a destruction + than a division of Rome, greatly averse to it, went to Camillus for + assistance, who, fearing the result if it came to a direct contest, + contrived to occupy the people with other business, and so staved it off. + He thus became unpopular. + </p> + <p> + And now the tribunes of the people again resuming their motion for the + division of the city, the war against the Faliscans luckily broke out, + giving liberty to the chief citizens to choose what magistrates they + pleased, and to appoint Camillus military tribune, with five colleagues; + affairs then requiring a commander of authority and reputation, as well as + experience. And when the people had ratified the election, he marched with + his forces into the territories of the Faliscans, and laid siege to + Falerii, a well-fortified city, and plentifully stored with all + necessaries of war. And although he perceived it would be so small work to + take it, and no little time would be required for it, yet he was willing + to exercise the citizens and keep them abroad, that they might have no + leisure, idling at home, to follow the tribunes in factions and seditions: + a very common remedy, indeed, with the Romans, who thus carried off, like + good physicians, the ill humors of their commonwealth. The Falerians (The + Falerians, in this narrative, are the people of the town; the Faliscans, + the nation in general.), trusting in the strength of their city, which was + well fortified on all sides, made so little account of the siege, that + all, with the exception of those that guarded the walls, as in times of + peace, walked about the streets in their common dress; the boys went to + school, and were led by their master to play and exercise about the town + walls; for the Falerians, like the Greeks, used to have a single teacher + for many pupils, wishing their children to live and be brought up from the + beginning in each others company. + </p> + <p> + This schoolmaster, designing to betray the Falerians by their children, + led them out every day under the town wall, at first but a little way, + and, when they had exercised, brought them home again. Afterwards by + degrees he drew them farther and farther, till by practice he had made + them bold and fearless, as if no danger was about them; and at last, + having got them all together, he brought them to the outposts of the + Romans, and delivered them up, demanding to be led to Camillus. Where + being come, and standing in the middle, he said that he was the master and + teacher of these children, but, preferring his favor before all other + obligations, he had come to deliver up his charge to him, and, in that, + the whole city. When Camillus had heard him out, he was astounded at the + treachery of the act, and, turning to the standers-by observed that, "War, + indeed, is of necessity attended with much injustice and violence! Certain + laws, however, all good men observe even in war itself, nor is victory so + great an object as to induce us to incur for its sake obligations for base + and impious acts. A great general should rely on his own virtue, and not + other men's vices." Which said, he commanded the officers to tear off the + man's clothes, and bind his hands behind him and give the boys rods and + scourges, to punish the traitor and drive him back to the city. By this + time the Falerians had discovered the treachery of the schoolmaster, and + the city, as was likely, was full of lamentations and cries for their + calamity, men and women of worth running in distraction about the walls + and gates; when, behold, the boys came whipping their master on, naked and + bound, calling Camillus their preserver and god and father; so that it + struck not only the parents, but the rest of the citizens, with such + admiration and love of Camillus's justice, that, immediately meeting in + assembly, they sent ambassadors to him, to resign whatever they had to his + disposal. Camillus sent them to Rome, where, being brought into the + senate, they spoke to this purpose: that the Romans, preferring justice + before victory, had taught them rather to embrace submission than liberty; + they did not so much confess themselves to be inferior in strength as they + must acknowledge them to be superior in virtue. The senate remitted the + whole matter to Camillus, to judge and order as he thought fit; who, + taking a sum of money of the Falerians, and making a peace with the whole + nation of Faliscans, returned home. + </p> + <p> + But the soldiers, who had expected to have the pillage of the city, when + they came to Rome empty-handed railed against Camillus among their + fellow-citizens, as a hater of the people, and one that grudged all + advantage to the poor. The People were exasperated against him. Gathering, + therefore, together his friends and fellow-soldiers, and such as had borne + command with him, a considerable number in all, he besought them that they + would not suffer him to be unjustly overborne by shameful accusations, and + left the mock and scorn of his enemies. His friends, having advised and + consulted among themselves, made answer, that, as to the sentence, they + did not see how they could help him, but that they would contribute to + whatsoever fine should be set upon him. Not able to endure so great an + indignity, he resolved in his anger to leave the city and go into exile; + and so, having taken leave of his wife and son, he went silently to the + gate of the city, and, there stopping and turning round, stretched out his + hands to the Capitol, and prayed to the gods, that if, without any fault + of his own, but merely through the malice and violence of the people, he + was driven out into banishment, the Romans might quickly repent of it; and + that all mankind might witness their need for the assistance, and desire + for the return, of Camillus. + </p> + <p> + And there is not a Roman but believes that immediately upon the prayers of + Camillus a sudden judgment followed, and that he received a revenge for + the injustice done unto him, which was very remarkable, and noised over + the whole world: such a punishment visited the city of Rome, an era of + such loss and danger and disgrace so quickly succeeded; whether it thus + fell out by fortune, or it be the office of god not to see injured virtue + go unavenged. + </p> + <p> + The first token that seemed to threaten some mischief to ensure was the + death of the censor Julius; for the Romans have a religious reverence for + the office of a censor, and esteem it sacred. The second was, that, just + before Camillus went into exile, Marcus Caedicius, a person of no great + distinction, nor of the rank of senator, but esteemed a good and + respectable man, reported to the military tribunes a thing worthy their + consideration: that, going along the night before in the street called the + New Way, and being called by somebody in a loud voice, he turned about, + but could see no one, but heard a voice greater than human, which said + these words, "Go, Marcus Caedicius, and early in the morning tell the + military tribunes that they are shortly to expect the Gauls." But the + tribunes made a mock and sport with the story, and a little after came + Camillus's banishment. + </p> + <p> + The Gauls are of the Celtic race, and are reported to have been compelled + by their numbers to leave their country, which was insufficient to sustain + them all, and to have gone in search of other homes. And being, many + thousands of them, young men able to bear arms, and carrying with them a + still greater number of women and young children, some of them, passing + the Riphaean mountains, fell upon the Northern Ocean, and possessed + themselves of the farthest parts of Europe; others, seating themselves + between the Pyrenean mountains and the Alps, lived there a considerable + time, near to the Senones and Celtorii; but, afterwards tasting wine, + which was then first brought them out of Italy, they were all so much + taken with the liquor, and transported with the hitherto unknown delight, + that, snatching up their arms and taking their families along with them, + they marched directly to the Alps, to find out the country which yielded + such fruit, pronouncing all others barren and useless. He that first + brought wine among them and was the chief instigator of their coming into + Italy is said to have been one Aruns, A Tuscan, a man of noble extraction. + </p> + <p> + At their first coming they at once possessed themselves of all that + country which anciently the Tuscans inhabited, reaching from the Alps to + both the seas, as the names themselves testify; for the North of Adriatic + Sea is named from the Tuscan city Adria, and that to the south the Tuscan + Sea simply. The whole country is rich in fruit trees, has excellent + pasture, and is well watered with river. It had eighteen large and + beautiful cities, well provided with all the means for industry and + wealth, and all the enjoyments and pleasures of life. The Gauls cast out + the Tuscans, and seated themselves in them. + </p> + <p> + The Gauls at this time were besieging Clusium, a Tuscan city. The + Clusinians sent to the Romans for succor, desiring them to interpose with + the barbarians by letters and ambassadors. The Romans, perceiving that + Brennus, the leader of the Gauls, was not to be treated with, went into + Clusium and encouraged the inhabitants to make a sally with them upon the + barbarians, which they did either to try their strength or to show their + own. The sally being made, and the fight growing hot about the walls, one + of the Fabii, Quintus Ambustus, who had come as an ambassador, being well + mounted, and setting spurs to his horse, made full against a Gaul, a man + of huge bulk and stature, whom he saw riding out at a distance from the + rest. At the first he was not recognized, through the quickness of the + conflict and the glittering of the armor, that precluded any view of him; + but when he had overthrown the Gaul, and was going to gather the spoils, + Brennus knew him; and invoking the gods to be witnesses that, contrary to + the known and common law of nations, which is holily observed by all + mankind, he who had come as an ambassador had now engaged in hostility + against him, he drew off his men, and, bidding Clusium farewell, led his + army directly against Rome. + </p> + <p> + Whilst the barbarians were hastening with all speed, the military tribunes + brought the Romans into the field to be ready to engage them, being not + inferior to the Gauls in number (for they were no less than forty thousand + foot), but most of them raw soldiers, and such as had never handled a + weapon before. Besides, they had wholly neglected all religious usages, + had not obtained favorable sacrifices, nor made inquiries of the prophets, + natural in danger and before battle. No less did the multitude of + commanders distract and confound their proceedings; frequently before, + upon less occasions, they had chosen a single leader, with the title of + dictator, being sensible of what great importance it is in critical times + to have the solders united under one general with the entire and absolute + control placed in his hands. Add to all, the remembrance of Camillus's + treatment, which made it now seem a dangerous thing for officers to + command without humoring their solders. In this condition they left the + city, and encamped by the river Allia, about ten miles from Rome, and not + far from the place where it falls into the Tiber; and here the Gauls came + upon them, and, after a disgraceful resistance, devoid of order and + discipline, they were miserably defeated. The left wing was immediately + driven into the river, and there destroyed; the right had less damage by + declining the shock, and from the low ground getting to the tops of the + hills, from whence most of them afterwards dropped into the city; the + rest, as many as escaped, the enemy being weary of the slaughter, stole by + night to Veii, giving up Rome and all that was in it for lost. + </p> + <p> + This battle was fought about the summer solstice, the moon being at full, + the very same day in which the sad disaster of the Fabii had happened, + when three hundred of that name were at one time cut off by the Tuscans. + </p> + <p> + And now, after the battle, had the Gauls immediately pursued those that + fled, there had been no remedy but Rome must have wholly been ruined, and + all those who remained in it utterly destroyed; such was the terror that + those who escaped the battle brought with them into the city, and with + such distraction and confusion were they themselves in turn infected. But + the Gauls, not imagining their victory to be so considerable, and + overtaken with the present joy, fell to feasting and dividing the spoil, + by which means they gave leisure to those who were for leaving the city to + make their escape, and to those that remained, to anticipate and prepare + for their coming. + </p> + <p> + On the third day after the battle, Brennus appeared with his army at the + city, and, finding the gates wide open and no guards upon the walls, first + began to suspect it was some design or stratagem, never dreaming that the + Romans were in so desperate a condition. But when he found it to be so + indeed, he entered at the Colline gate, and took Rome, in the three + hundred and sixtieth year, or a little more, after it was built. + </p> + <p> + Brennus having taken possession of Rome, set a strong guard about the + Capitol, and, going himself down into the forum, was there struck with + amazement at the sight of so many men sitting in such order and silence, + observing that they neither rose at his coming, nor so much as changed + color or countenance, but remained without fear or concern, leaning upon + their staves, and sitting quietly, looking at each other. The Gauls, for a + great while, stood wondering at the strangeness of the sight, not daring + to approach or touch them, taking them for an assembly of superior beings. + But when one, bolder than the rest, drew near to Marcus Papirius, and, + putting forth his hand, gently touched his chin and stroked his long + beard, Papirius with his staff struck him a severe blow on the head; upon + which the barbarian drew his sword and slew him. This was the introduction + to the slaughter; for the rest, following his example, set upon them all + and killed them, and dispatched all others that came in their way; and so + went on to the sacking and pillaging of the houses, which they continued + for many days ensuing. + </p> + <p> + Camillus then sojourned in the city of Ardea, having, ever since his + leaving Rome, sequestered himself from all business, and taken to a + private life; but now he began to rouse up himself, and consider not how + to avoid or escape the enemy, but to find out an opportunity to be + revenged upon them. And perceiving that the Ardeatians wanted not men, but + rather enterprise, through the inexperience and timidity of their + officers, he began to speak with the young men, first to the effect that + they ought not to ascribe the misfortune of the Romans to the courage of + their enemy, nor attribute the losses they sustained by rash counsel to + the conduct of men who had no title to victory: the event had been only an + evidence of the power of fortune. When he found the young men embraced the + thing, he went to the magistrates and council of the city, and, having + persuaded them also, he mustered all that could bear arms, and drew them + up within the the walls, that they might not be perceived by the enemy, + who was near; who, having scoured the country, and now returned heavy + laden with booty, lay encamped in the plains in a careless and negligent + posture, so that, with the night ensuing upon debauch and drunkenness, + silence prevailed through all the camp. When Camillus learned this from + his scouts, he drew out the Ardeatians, and in the dead of the night, + passing in silence over the ground that lay between, came up to their + works, and, commanding his trumpets to sound and his men to shout and + halloo, he struck terror into them from all quarters; while drunkenness + impeded and sleep retarded their movements. A few whom fear had sobered, + getting into some order, for awhile resisted; and so died with their + weapons in their hands. But the greatest part of them, buried in wine and + sleep, were surprised without their arms, and dispatched; and as many of + them as by the advantage of the night got out of the camp were the next + day found scattered abroad and wandering in the fields, and were picked up + by the horse that pursued them. + </p> + <p> + The fame of this action soon flew through the neighboring cities, and + stirred up the young men from various quarters to come and join themselves + with him. But none were so much concerned as those Romans who escaped in + the battle of Allia, and were now at Veii, thus lamenting with themselves, + "O heavens, what a commander has Providence bereaved Rome of, to honor + Ardea with his actions! And that city, which brought forth and nursed so + great a man, is lost and gone, and we, destitute of a leader and shut up + within strange walls, sit idle, and see Italy ruined before our eyes. + Come, let us send to the Ardeatians to have back our general, or else, + with weapons in our hands, let us go thither to him." To this they all + agreed, and sent to Camillus to desire him to take the command; but he + answered that he would not until they that were in the Capitol should + legally appoint him. When this answer was returned, they admired the + modesty and tempter of Camillus; but they could not tell how to find a + messenger to carry the intelligence to the Capitol, or rather, indeed, it + seemed altogether impossible for any one to get to the citadel whilst the + enemy was in full possession of the city. But among the young men there + was one Pontius Cominius, of ordinary birth, but ambitious of honor, who + proffered himself to run the hazard, and took no letters with him to those + in the Capitol, lest, if he were intercepted, the enemy might learn the + intentions of Camillus; but, putting on a poor dress and carrying corks + under, he boldly traveled the greatest part of the way by day, and came to + the city when it was dark; the bridge he could not pass, as it was guarded + by the barbarians; so that taking his clothes, which were neither many nor + heavy, and binding them about his head, he laid his body upon the corks, + and, swimming with them, got over to the city. And avoiding those quarters + where he perceived the enemy was awake, which he guessed at by the lights + and noise, he went to the Carmental gate, where there was greatest + silence, and where the hill of the Capitol is steepest, and rises with + craggy and broken rock. By this way he got up, though with much + difficulty, by the hollow of the cliff, and presented himself to the + guards, saluting them, and telling them his name; he was taken in, and + carried to the commanders. And a senate being immediately called, he + related to them in order the victory of Camillus, which they had not heard + of before, and the proceedings of the soldiers, urging them to confirm + Camillus in the command, as on him alone all their fellow-countrymen + outside the city would rely. Having heard and consulted of the matter, the + senate declared Camillus dictator, and sent back Pontius the same way that + he came, who, with the same success as before, got through the enemy + without being discovered, and delivered to the Romans outside the decision + of the senate, who joyfully received it. Camillus, on his arrival, found + twenty thousand of them ready in arms; with which forces, and those + confederates he brought along with him, he prepared to set upon the enemy. + </p> + <p> + But at Rome some of the barbarians passing by chance near the place at + which Pontius by night had got into the Capitol, spied in several places + marks of feet and hands, where he had laid hold and clambered, and places + where the plants that grew to the rock had been rubbed off, and the earth + had slipped, and went accordingly and reported it to the king, who, coming + in person, and viewing it, for the present said nothing, but in the + evening, picking out such of the Gauls as were nimblest of body, and by + living in the mountains were accustomed to climb, he said to them, "The + enemy themselves have shown us a way how to come at them; where it was + easy for one man to get up, it will not be hard for many, one after + another; nay, when many shall undertake it, they will be aid and strength + to each other. Rewards and honors shall be bestowed on every man as he + shall acquit himself." + </p> + <p> + When the king had thus spoken, the Gauls cheerfully undertook to perform + it, and in the dead of night a good party of them together, with great + silence, began to climb the rock, clinging to the precipitous and + difficult ascent, which yet upon trial offered a way to them, and proved + less difficult than they had expected. So that the foremost of them having + gained the top of all, and put themselves into order, they all but + surprised the outworks, and mastered the watch, who were fast asleep; for + neither man nor dog perceived their coming. But there were sacred geese + kept near the temple of Juno, which at other times were plentifully fed, + but now, by reason that corn and all other provisions were grown scarce + for all, were in but a poor condition. The creature is by nature of quick + sense, and apprehensive of the least noise, so that these, being moreover + watchful through hunger, and restless, immediately discovered the coming + of the Gauls, and, running up and down with the noise and cackling, they + raised the whole camp; while the barbarians, on the other side, perceiving + themselves discovered, no longer endeavored to conceal their attempt, but + with shouting and violence advanced to the assault. The Romans, every one + in haste snatching up the first weapon that came to hand, did what they + could on the sudden occasion. Manlius, a man of consular dignity, of + strong body and great spirit, was the first that made head against them, + and, engaging with two of the enemy at once, with his sword cut off the + right arm of one just as he was lifting up his blade to strike, and, + running his target full in the face of the other, tumbled him headlong + down the steep rock; then mounting the rampart, and there standing with + others that came running to his assistance, drove down the rest of them, + who, indeed, to begin with, had not been many, and did nothing worthy of + so bold an attempt. The Romans, having thus escaped this danger, early in + the morning took the captain of the watch and flung him down the rock upon + the heads of their enemies, and to Manlius for his victory voted a reward, + intended more for honor than advantage, bringing him, each man of them, as + much as he received for his daily allowance, which was half a pound of + bread and one eighth of a pint of wine. + </p> + <p> + Henceforward, the affairs of the Gauls were daily in a worse and worse + condition; they wanted provisions, being withheld from foraging through + fear of Camillus, and sickness also was amongst them, occasioned by the + number of carcasses that lay in heaps unburied. Neither, indeed, were + things on that account any better with the besieged, for famine increased + upon them, and despondency with not hearing anything of Camillus, it being + impossible to send any one to him, the city was so guarded by the + barbarians. Things being in this sad condition on both sides, a motion of + treaty was made at first by some of the outposts, as they happened to + speak with one another; which being embraced by the leading men, + Sulpicius, tribune of the Romans, came to a parley with Brennus, in which + it was agreed that the Romans laying down a thousand weight of gold, the + Gauls upon the receipt of it should immediately quit the city and + territories. The agreement being confirmed by oath on both sides, and the + gold brought forth, the Gauls used false dealing in the weights, secretly + at first, but afterwards openly pulled back and disturbed the balance; at + which the Romans indignantly complaining, Brennus in a scoffing and + insulting manner pulled off his sword and belt, and threw them both into + the scales; and when Sulpicius asked what that meant, "What should it + mean," says he, "but woe to the conquered?" which afterwards became a + proverbial saying. + </p> + <p> + Whilst this difference remained still unsettled, both amongst themselves + and with the Gauls, Camillus was at the gates with his army; and, having + learned what was going on, commanded the main body of his forces to follow + slowly after him in good order, and himself with the choicest of his men + hastening on, went at once to the Romans; where all giving way to him, and + receiving him as their sole magistrate, with profound silence and order, + he took the gold out of the scales, and delivered it to his officers, and + commanded the Gauls to take their weights and scales and depart; saying + that is was customary with the Romans to deliver their country with iron, + not with gold. And when Brennus began to rage, and say that he was + unjustly dealt with in such a breach of contract, Camillus answered that + it was never legally made, and the agreement of no force or obligation; + for that himself being declared dictator, and there being no other + magistrate by law, the engagement had been made with men who had no power + to enter into it; but now they might say anything they had to urge, for he + had come with full power by law to grant pardon to such as should ask it, + or inflict punishment on the guilty, if they did not repent. At this, + Brennus broke into violent anger, and an immediate quarrel ensued; both + sides drew their swords and attacked, but in confusion, as could not + otherwise be amongst houses, and in narrow lanes and places where it was + impossible to form any order. But Brennus, presently recollecting himself, + called off his men, and, with the loss of a few only, brought them to + their camp; and, rising in the night with all his forces, left the city, + and advancing about eight miles, encamped upon the way to Gabii. As soon + as day appeared, Camillus came up with him, splendidly armed himself, and + his soldier full o courage and confidence; and there engaging with him in + a sharp conflict, which lasted a long while, overthrew his army with great + slaughter, and took their camp. Of those that fled, some were presently + cut off by the pursuers; other, and these were the greatest number, + dispersed hither and thither, and were despatched by the people that came + sallying out from the neighboring towns and villages. + </p> + <p> + Thus Rome was strangely taken, and more strangely recovered, having been + seven whole months in the possession of the barbarians, who entered her a + little after the Ides of July, and were driven out about the Ides of + February following. Camillus triumphed, as he deserved, having saved his + country that was lost, and brought the city so to say, back again to + itself. For those that had fled abroad, together with their wives and + children, accompanied him as he rode in; and those who had been shut up in + the capitol, and were reduced almost to the point of perishing with + hunger, went out to meet him, embracing each other as they met, and + weeping for joy, and, though the excess of the present pleasure, scarcely + believing in its truth. + </p> + <p> + It was a hard task, amidst so much rubbish, to discover and re-determine + the consecrated places; but by the zeal of Camillus, and the incessant + labor of the priest, it was at last accomplished. But when it came also to + rebuilding the city, which was wholly demolished, despondency seized the + multitude, and a backwardness to engage in a work for which they had no + materials. The senate, therefore, fearing a sedition, would not suffer + Camillus, though desirous, to lay down his authority within the year, + though no other dictator had ever held it above six months. + </p> + <p> + Camillus thought good to refer the matter of rebuilding to general + deliberation, and himself spoke largely and earnestly in behalf of his + country, as also may others. At last, calling to Lucius Lucretius, whose + place it was to speak first, he commanded him to give his sentence, and + the rest as they followed, in order. Silence being made, and Lucretius + just about to begin, by chance a centurion, passing by outside with his + company of the day-guard, called out with a loud voice to the + ensign-bearer to halt and fix his standard, for this was the best place to + stay in. This voice, coming in that moment of time, and that crisis of + uncertainty and anxiety for the future, was taken as a direction what was + to be done; so that Lucretius, assuming an attitude of devotion, gave + sentence in concurrence with the gods, as he said, as likewise did all + that followed. Even among the common people it created a wonderful change + of feeling: every one now cheered and encouraged his neighbor, and set + himself to the work, proceeding in it, however, not by any regular lines + or divisions, but every one pitching upon that plot of ground which came + next to hand, or best pleased his fancy; by which haste and hurry in + building they constructed their city in narrow and ill-designed lanes, and + with houses huddled together one upon another; for it is said that within + the compass of the year the whole city was raised up anew, both in its + public walls and private buildings. + </p> + <p> + And now they had scarcely got a breathing time from their trouble when a + new war came upon them; and the Aequians, and the Tuscans besieged + Sutrium, their confederate city. Camillus, being the third time chosen + dictator, armed not only those under, but also those over, the age of + service; and taking a large circuit around the mountain Maecius, + undiscovered by the enemy, lodged his army on their rear, and then by many + fires gave notice of his arrival. The besieged, encouraged by this, + prepared to sally forth and join battle; but the Latins and Volscians, + fearing this exposure to any enemy on both sides, drew themselves within + their works, and fortified their camp with a strong palisade of trees on + every side, resolving to wait for more supplies from home, and expecting, + also, the assistance of the Tuscans, their confederate. Camillus, + detecting their object, and fearing to be reduced to the same position to + which he had brought them, namely, to be besieged himself, resolved to + lose no time; and finding their rampart was all of timber, and observing + that a strong wind constantly at sun-rising blew off from the mountains, + after having prepared a quantity of combustibles, about break of day he + drew forth his forces, commanding a part with their missiles to assault + the enemy with noise and shouting on the other quarter, whilst he, with + those that were to fling in the fire, went to that side of the enemy's + camp to which the wind usually blew, and there waited his opportunity. + When the skirmish was begun, and the sun risen, and a strong wind set in + from the mountains, he gave the signal of onset; and, heaping in an + immense quantity of fiery matter, filled all their rampart with it, so + that the flame being fed by the close timber and wooden palisades, went on + and spread into all quarters. The Latins, having nothing ready to keep it + off or extinguish it, when the camp was now almost full of fire, were + driven back within a very small compass, and at last forced by necessity + to come into their enemy's hands, who stood before the works ready armed + and prepared to receive them; of these very few escaped, while those that + stayed in the camp were all a prey to the fire, until the Romans, to gain + the pillage, extinguished it. + </p> + <p> + These things performed, Camillus, leaving his son Lucius in the camp to + guard the prisoners and secure the booty, passed into the enemy's country, + where, having taken the city of the Aequians and reduced the Volscians to + obedience, he then immediately led his army to Sutrium, not having heard + what had befallen the Sutrians, but making haste to assist them, as if + they were still in danger and besieged by the Tuscans. They, however, had + already surrendered their city to their enemies, and destitute of all + things, with nothing left but their clothes, and bewailing their + misfortune. Camillus himself was struck with compassion, and perceiving + the soldiers weeping, and commiserating their case, while the Sutrians + hung about and clung to them, resolved not to defer revenge, but that very + day to lead his army to Sutrium; conjecturing that the enemy, having just + taken a rich and plentiful city, without an enemy left within it, nor any + from without to be expected, would be found abandoned to enjoyment, and + unguarded. Neither did his opinion fail him: he not only passed through + their country without discovery, but came up to their very gates and + possessed himself of the walls, not a man being left to guard them, but + their whole army scattered about in the houses, drinking and making merry. + Nay, when at last they did perceive that the enemy had seized the city, + they were so overloaded with meat and wine that few were able so much as + to endeavor to escape, but either waited shamefully for their death within + doors,or surrendered themselves to the conqueror. Thus the city of the + Sutrians was twice taken in one day; and they who were in possession lost + it, and they who had lost regained it, alike by the means of Camillus. For + all which actions he received a triumph which brought him no less honor + and reputation than the two former ones; for those citizens who before + most regarded him with an evil eye, and ascribed his successes to a + certain luck rather than real merit, were compelled by these last acts of + his to allow the whole honor to his great abilities and energy. + </p> + <p> + Of all he adversaries and enviers of his glory, Marcus Manlius was the + most distinguished, he who first drove back the Gauls when they made their + night attack upon the Capitol, and who for that reason had been named + Capitolinus. This man, affecting the first place in the commonwealth, and + not able by noble ways to outdo Camillus's reputation, took that ordinary + course toward usurpation of absolute power, namely, to gain the multitude, + those of them especially that were in debt; defending some by pleading + their causes against their creditors, rescuing others by force, and not + suffering the law to proceed against them; insomuch that in a short time + he got great numbers of indigent people about him, whose tumults and + uproars in the forum struck terror into the principal citizens. After that + Quintius Capitolinus, who was made dictator to suppress these disorders, + had committed Manlius to prison, the people immediately changed their + apparel, a thing never done but in great and public calamities, and the + senate, fearing some tumult, ordered him to be released. He, however, when + set at liberty, changed not his course, but was rather the more insolent + in his proceedings,filling the whole city with faction and sedition. They + chose, therefore, Camillus again military tribune; and a day being + appointed for Manlius to answer to his charge, the prospect from the place + where his trial was held proved a great impediment to his accusers; for + the very spot where Manlius by night fought with the Gauls overlooked the + forum from the Capitol, so that, stretching forth his hands that way, and + weeping, he called to their remembrance his past actions, raising + compassion in all that beheld him. Insomuch that the judges were at a loss + what to do, and several times adjourned the trial, unwilling to acquit him + of the crime, which was sufficiently proved, and yet unable to execute the + law while his noble action remained, as it were, before their eyes. + Camillus, considering this, transferred the court outside the gates to the + Peteline Grove, from whence there is no prospect of the Capitol Here his + accuser went on with his charge, and his judges were capable of + remembering the duly resenting his guilty deeds. He was convicted, carried + to the Capitol, and flung headlong from the rock; so that one and same + spot was thus the witness of his greatest glory, and monument of his most + unfortunate end. The Romans, besides, razed his house, and built there a + temple to the goddess they call Moneta, ordaining for the future that none + of the patrician order should ever dwell on the Capitoline. + </p> + <p> + And now Camillus, being called to his sixth tribuneship, desired to be + excused, as being aged, and perhaps not unfearful of the malice of + fortune, and those reverses which seem to ensue upon great prosperity. But + the most apparent pretence was the weakness of his body, for he happened + at that time to be sick; the people, however, would admit of no excuses, + but, crying that they wanted not his strength for horse or for foot + service, but only his counsel and conduct, constrained him to undertake + the command, and with one of his fellow-tribunes to lead the army + immediately against the enemy. These were the Praenestines and Volscians, + who, with large forces, were laying waste the territory of the Roman + confederates. Having marched out with his army, he sat down and encamped + near the enemy, meaning himself to protract the war, or if there should + come any necessity or occasion of fighting, in the meantime to regain his + strength, but Lucius Furius, his colleague, carried away with the desire + of glory, was not to e held in, but, impatient to give battle, inflamed + the inferior officers of the army with the same eagerness; so that + Camillus, fearing he might seem out of envy to be wishing to rob the young + man of the glory of a noble exploit, consented, though unwillingly, that + he should draw out the forces, whilst himself, by reason of weakness, + stayed behind with a few in the camp. Lucius, engaging rashly, was + discomfited, when Camillus, perceiving the Romans to give ground and fly, + could not contain himself, but, leaping from his bed, with those he had + about him ran to meet them at the gates of the camp, making his way + through the flyers to oppose the pursuers; so that those who had got + within the camp turned back at once and followed him, and those that came + flying from without made head again and gathered about him, exhorting one + another not to forsake their general. Thus the enemy, for that time, was + stopped in his pursuit. The next day Camillus, drawing out his forces and + joining battle with them, overthrew them by main force, and, following + close upon them, entered pell-mell with them into their camp, and took it, + slaying the greatest part of them. Afterwards, having heard that the city + of Satricum was taken by the Tuscans, and the inhabitants, all Romans, put + to the sword, he sent home to Rome the main body of his forces and + heaviest-armed, and, taking with him the lightest and most vigorous + soldiers, set suddenly upon the Tuscans, who were in the possession of the + city, and mastered them, slaying some and expelling the rest; and so, + returning to Rome with great spoils, gave signal evidence of their + superior wisdom, who, not mistrusting the weakness and age of a commander + endowed with courage and conduct, had rather chosen him who was sickly and + desirous to be excused, than young men who were forward and ambitious to + command. + </p> + <p> + When, therefore, the revolt of the Tusculans was reported, they gave + Camillus the charge of reducing them, choosing one of his five colleagues + to go with him. And when every one was eager for the place, contrary to + the expectation of all, he passed by the rest and chose Lucius Furius, the + very same man who lately, against the judgment of Camillus, had rashly + hazarded and nearly lost a battle; willing, at it should seem, to + dissemble that miscarriage, and free him from the shame of it. The + Tusculans, hearing of Camillus's coming against them, made a cunning + attempt at revoking their act of revolt; their fields, as in times of + highest peace, were full of ploughmen and shepherds; their gates stood + wide open, and their children were being taught in the schools; of the + people, such as were tradesmen, he found in their workshops, busied about + their several employments, and the better sort of citizens walking in the + public places in their ordinary dress; the magistrates hurried about to + provide quarters for the Romans, as if they stood in fear of no danger and + were conscious of no fault. Which arts, though they could not dispossess + Camillus of the conviction he had of their treason, yet induced some + compassion for their repentance; he commanded them to go to the senate and + deprecate their anger, and joined himself as an intercessor in their + behalf, so that their city was acquitted of all guilt and admitted to + Roman citizenship. These were the most memorable actions of his sixth + tribuneship. + </p> + <p> + After these things, Licinius Stolo raised a great sedition in the city, + and brought the people to dissension with the senate, contending, that of + two consuls one should be chosen out of the commons, and not both out of + the patricians. Tribunes of the people were chosen, but the election of + consuls was interrupted and prevented by the people. And as this absence + of any supreme magistrate was leading to yet further confusion, Camillus + was the fourth time created dictator by the senate, sorely against the + people's will, and not altogether in accordance with his own; he had + little desire for a conflict with men whose past services entitles them to + tell him that he had achieved far greater actions in war along with them + than in politics with the patricians, who, indeed, had only put him + forward now out of envy; that, if successful, he might crush the people, + or, failing, be crushed himself. However, to provide as good a remedy as + he could for the present, knowing the day on which the tribunes of the + people intended to prefer the law, he appointed it by proclamation for a + general muster, and called the people from the forum into the Campus, + threatening to set heavy fines upon such as should not obey. On the other + side, the tribunes of the people met his threats by solemnly protesting + they would fine him fifty thousand drachmas of silver, if he persisted in + obstructing the people from giving their suffrages for the law. Whether it + were, then, that he feared another banishment or condemnation, which would + ill become his age and past great actions, or found himself unable to stem + the current of the multitude, which ran strong and violent, he betook + himself, for the present, to his house, and afterwards, for some days + together, professing sickness, finally laid down his dictatorship. The + senate created another dictator; who, choosing Stolo, leader of the + sedition, to be his general of horse, suffered that law to be enacted and + ratified, which was most grievous to the patricians, namely that no person + whatsoever should possess above five hundred acres of land. Stolo was much + distinguished by the victory he had gained; but, not long after was found + himself to possess more than he had allowed to others, and suffered the + penalties of his own law. + </p> + <p> + And now the contention about election of consuls coming on (which was the + main point and original cause of the dissension, and had throughout + furnished most matter of division between the senate and the people), + certain intelligence arrived, that the Gauls again, proceeding from the + Adriatic Sea, were marching in vast number upon Rome. On the very heels of + the report followed manifest acts also of hostility; the country through + which they marched was all wasted, and such as by flight could not make + their escape to Rome were dispersing and scattering among the mountains. + The terror of this war quieted the sedition; nobles and commons, senate + and people together, unanimously chose Camillus the fifth time dictator; + who, though very aged, not wanting much of fourscore years, yet, + considering the danger and necessity of his country, did not, as before, + pretend sickness, or depreciate his own capacity, but at once undertook + the charge, and enrolled soldiers. And, knowing that the great force of + the barbarians lay chiefly in their swords, with which they laid about + them in a rude and inartificial manner, hacking and hewing the head and + shoulders, he caused head-pieces entire of iron to be made for most of his + men, smoothing and polishing the outside, that the enemy's swords, + lighting upon them, might either slide off or be broken; and fitted also + their shields with a little rim of brass, the wood itself not being + sufficient to bear off the blows. Besides, he taught his soldiers to use + their long javelins in close encounter, and, by bringing them under their + enemy's swords, to receive their strokes upon them. + </p> + <p> + When the Gauls drew near, about the river Anio, dragging a heavy camp + after them, and loaded with infinite spoil, Camillus drew forth his + forces, and planted himself upon a hill of easy ascent, and which had many + dips in it, with the object that the greatest part of his army might lie + concealed, and those who appeared might be thought to have betaken + themselves, through fear, to those upper grounds. And the more to increase + this opinion in them, he suffered them, without any disturbance, to spoil + and pillage even to his very trenches, keeping himself quiet within his + works, which were well fortified; till, at last, perceiving that part of + the enemy were scattered about the country foraging, and that those that + were in the camp did nothing day and night but drink and revel, in the + night time he drew up his lightest-armed men, and sent them out before to + impede the enemy while forming into order, and to harass them when they + should first issue out of the their camp; and early in the morning brought + down his main body, and set them in battle array in the lower round, + numerous and courageous army, not, as the barbarians had supposed, an + inconsiderable and fearful division. The first thing that shook the + courage of the Gauls was, that their enemies had, contrary to their + expectation, the honor of being aggressors. In the next place, the + light-armed men, falling upon them before they could get into their usual + order or range themselves in their proper squadrons, so disturbed and + pressed upon them, that they were obliged to fight at random, without any + order at all. But at last, when Camillus brought on his heavy-armed + legions, the barbarians, with their swords drawn, went vigorously to + engage them; the Romans, however, opposing their javelins, and receiving + the force of their blows on those parts of the defences which were well + guarded with steel, turned the edge of their weapons, beingmade of a soft + and ill-tempered metal, so that their swords bent and doubled up in their + hands; and their shields were pierced through and through, and grew heavy + with the javelins that stuck upon them. And thus forced to quit their own + weapons, they endeavored to take advantage of those of their enemies, laid + hold of the javelins with their hands, and tried to pluck them away. But + the Romans, perceiving them now naked and defenceless, betook themselves + to their swords, which they so well used, that in a little time great + slaughter was made in the foremost ranks, while the rest fled over all + parts of the level country; the hills and upper grounds Camillus had + secured beforehand, and their camp they knew it would not be difficult for + the enemy to take, as, through confidence of victory, they had left it + unguarded. This fight, it is stated, was thirteen years after the sacking + of Rome; and from henceforward the Romans took courage, and surmounted the + apprehensions they had hitherto entertained of the barbarians, whose + previous defeat they had attributed rather to pestilence and a concurrence + of mischances than to their own superior valor. And, indeed, this fear had + been formerly so great, that they made a law, that priests should be + excused from service in war, unless in an invasion from the Gauls. + </p> + <p> + This was the last military action that Camillus ever performed; for the + voluntary surrender of the city of the Velitrani was but a mere accessory + to it. But the greatest of all civil contests, and the hardest to be + managed, was still to be fought out against the people; who, returning + home full of victory and success, insisted, contrary to established law, + to have one of the consuls chosen out of their own body. The senate + strongly opposed it, and would not suffer Camillus to lay down his + dictatorship, thinking, that, under the shelter of his great name and + authority, they should be better able to contend for the power of the + aristocracy. But when Camillus was sitting upon the tribunal, dispatching + public affairs, an officer, sent by the tribunes of the people, commanded + him to rise and follow him, laying his and upon him, as ready to seize and + carry him away; upon which, such a noise and tumult as was never heard + before, filled the whole forum; some that were about Camillus thrusting + the officer from the bench, and the multitude below calling out to him to + bring Camillus down. Being at a loss what to do in these difficulties, he + yet laid not down his authority, but, taking the senators along with him, + he went to the senate-house; but before he entered, besought the gods that + they would bring these troubles to a happy conclusion, solemnly vowing, + when the tumult was ended, to build a temple to Concord. A great conflict + of opposite opinions arose in the senate; but, at last, the most moderate + and most acceptable to the people prevailed, and consent was given, that + of two consuls, one should be chosen from the commonalty. When the + dictator proclaimed this determination of the senate to the people, at the + moment pleased and reconciled with the senate, as they could not well + otherwise be, they accompanied Camillus home with all expressions and + acclamations of joy; and the next day, assembling together, they voted a + temple of Concord to be built, according to Camillus's vow, facing the + assembly and the forum; and to the feasts, called the Latin holidays, they + added one day more, making four in all; and ordained that, on the present + occasion the whole people of Rome should sacrifice with garlands on their + heads. + </p> + <p> + In the election of consuls held by Camillus, Marcus Aemilius was chosen of + the patricians, and Lucius Sextius the first of the commonalty; and this + was the last of all Camillus's actions. In the year following, a + pestilential sickness infected Rome, which, besides an infinite number of + the common people, swept away most of the magistrates, among whom was + Camillus; whose death cannot be called premature, if we consider his great + age, or greater actions, yet was he more lamented than all the rest put + together that then died of that distemper. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0008" id="link2H_4_0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PERICLES + </h2> + <p> + We are inspired by acts of virtue with an emulation and eagerness that may + lead on to imitation. In other things there does not immediately follow + upon the admiration and liking of the thing done, any strong desire of + doing the like. Nay, many times, on the very contrary, when we are pleased + with the work, we slight and set little by the workman or artist himself, + as, for instance, in perfumes and purple dyes, we are taken with the + things themselves well enough, but do not think dyers and perfumers + otherwise than low and sordid people. It was not said amiss by + Antisthenes, when people told him that one Ismenias was an excellent + piper, "It may be so, but he is a wretched human being, otherwise he would + not have been an excellent piper." And King Philip, to the same purpose, + told his son Alexander, who once at a merry meeting played a piece of + music charmingly and skillfully, "Are you not ashamed, my son, to play so + well?" For it is enough for a king or prince to find leisure sometimes to + hear others sing, and he does the muses quite honor enough when he pleases + to be but present, while others engage in such exercises and trials of + skill. + </p> + <p> + He who busies himself in mean occupations produces, in the very pains he + takes about things of little or no use, an evidence against himself of his + negligence and indisposition to what is really good. Nor did any generous + and ingenuous young man, at the sight of the statue of Jupiter at Pisa, + ever desire to be a Phidias, or, on seeing that of Juno at Argos, long to + be a Polycletus, or feel induced by his pleasure in their poems to wish to + be an Anacreon or Pliletas or Archilochus. But virtue, by the bare + statement of its actions, can so affect men's minds as to create at once + both admiration of the things done and desire to imitate the doers of + them. The goods of fortune we would possess and would enjoy; those of + virtue we long to practice and exercise; we are content to receive the + former from others, the latter we wish others to experience from us. + </p> + <p> + And so we have thought fit to spend our time and pains in writing of the + lives of famous persons; and have composed this tenth book upon that + subject, containing the life of Pericles, and that of Fabius Maximus, who + carried on the war against Hannibal, men alike, as in their other virtues + and good parts, so especially in their mild and upright temper and + demeanor, and in that capacity to bear the cross-grained humors of their + fellow-citizens and colleagues in office which made them both most useful + and serviceable to the interests of their countries. Whether we take a + right aim at our intended purpose, it is left to the reader to judge by + what he shall find here. + </p> + <p> + Pericles was of the tribe of Acamantis, and the township Cholargus, of the + noblest birth both on his father's and mother's side. Xanthippus, his + father, who defeated the king of Persia's generals in the battle at + Mycale, took to Wife Agariste, the grandchild of Clisthenes, who drove out + the sons of Pisistratus, and nobly put and end to their tyrannical + usurpation, and moreover made a body of laws, and settled a model of + government admirably tempered and suited for the harmony and safety of the + people. + </p> + <p> + Pericles in other respects was perfectly formed physically, only his head + was somewhat longish and out of proportion. For which reason almost all + the images and statues that were made of him have the head covered with a + helmet, the workmen not apparently being willing to expose him. The poets + of Athens called him "Schinocephalos," or squill-head, from "schinos," a + squill, or sea-onion. + </p> + <p> + Pericles was a hearer of Zeno, the Eliatic, who treated of natural + philosophy in the same manner as Parmenides did, but had also perfected + himself in an art of his own for refuting and silencing opponents in + argument; as Timon of Phlius describes it,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Also the two-edged tongue of mighty Zeno, who, + Say what one would, could argue it untrue. +</pre> + <p> + But he saw most of Pericles, and furnished him most especially with a + weight and grandeur of sense, superior to all arts of popularity, and in + general gave him his elevation and sublimity of purpose and of character, + was Anaxagoras of Clazomenae; whom the men of those times called by the + name of Nous, that is mind, or intelligence, whether in admiration of the + great and extraordinary gift he displayed for the science of nature, or + because he was the first of the philosophers who did not refer the first + ordering of the world to fortune or chance, nor to necessity or + compulsion, but to a pure, unadulterated intelligence, which in all other + existing mixed and compound things acts as a principle of discrimination, + and of combination of like with like. + </p> + <p> + For this man, Pericles entertained an extraordinary esteem and admiration, + and, filling himself with this lofty and, as they call it, up-in-the-air + sort of thought, derived hence not merely, as was natural, elevation of + purpose and dignity of language, raised far above the base and dishonest + buffooneries of mob-eloquence, but, besides this, a composure of + countenance, and a serenity and calmness in all his movements, which no + occurrence whilst he was speaking could disturb, a sustained and even tone + of voice, and various other advantages of a similar kind, which produced + the greatest effect on his hearers. Once, after being reviled and + ill-spoken of all day long in his own hearing by some abandoned fellow in + the open market-place where he was engaged in the despatch of some urgent + affair, he continued his business in perfect silence, and in the evening + returned home composedly, the man still dogging him at the heels, and + pelting him all the way with abuse and foul language; and stopping into + his house, it being by this time dark, he ordered one of hi servants to + take a light and to go along with the man and see him safe home. + </p> + <p> + Nor were these the only advantages which Pericles derived from + Anaxagoras's acquaintance; he seems also to have become, by his + instructions, superior to that superstition with which an ignorant wonder + at appearances, for example, in the heavens, possesses the minds of people + unacquainted with their causes, eager for the supernatural, and excitable + through an inexperience which the knowledge of natural causes removes, + replacing wild and timid superstition by the good hope and assurance of an + intelligent piety. + </p> + <p> + There is a story that once Pericles had brought to him from a country farm + of his, a ram's head with one horn, and that Lampon, the diviner, upon + seeing the horn grow strong and solid out of the midst of the forehead, + gave it as his judgement that, there being at that time two potent + factions, parties, or interests in the city, the one of Thucydides and the + other of Pericles, the government would come about to that one of them in + whose ground or estate this token or indication of fate had shown itself. + But that Anaxagoras, cleaving the skull in sunder, showed to the + bystanders that the brain had not filled up its natural place, but being + oblong, like an egg, had collected from all parts of the vessel which + contained it, in a point to that place from whence the root of the horn + took its rise. And that, for the time, Anaxagoras was much admired for his + explanation by those that were present; and Lampon no less a little while + after, when Thucydides was overpowered, and the whole affairs of the state + and government came into the hands of Pericles. + </p> + <p> + Pericles, while yet but a young man, stood in considerable apprehension of + the people, as he was thought in face and figure to be very like the + tyrant Pisitratus, and those of great age remarked upon the sweetness of + his voice, and his volubility and rapidity in speaking, and were struck + with amazement at the resemblance. But when Aristides was now dead, and + Themosticles driven out, and Cimon was for the most part kept abroad by + the expeditions he made in parts out of Greece, Pericles, seeing things in + this posture, now advanced and took his side, not with the rich and few, + but with the many and poor, contrary to his natural bent, which was far + from democratical; but, most likely, fearing he might fall under suspicion + of aiming at arbitrary power, and seeing Cimon on the side of the + aristocracy, and much beloved by the better and more distinguished people, + he joined the party of the people, with a view at once both to secure + himself and procure means against Cimon. + </p> + <p> + He immediately entered, also, on quite a new course of life and management + of his time. For he was never seen to walk in any street but that which + led to the market-place and the council-hall, and he avoided invitations + of friends to supper, and all friendly visits and intercourse whatever; in + all the time he had to do with the public, which was not a little, he was + never known to have gone to any of his friends to a supper, except that + once when his near kinsman Euryptolemus married, he remained present till + the ceremony of the drink-offering, and then immediately rose from the + table and went his way. For these friendly meetings are very quick to + defeat any assumed superiority, and in intimate familiarity an exterior of + gravity is hard to maintain. Real excellence, indeed, is best recognized + when most openly looked into; and in really good men, nothing which meets + the eyes of external observers so truly deserves their admiration, as + their daily common life does that of their nearer friends. Pericles, + however, to avoid any feeling of commonness, or any satiety on the part of + the people, presented himself at intervals only, not speaking on every + business, nor at all times coming into the assembly, but, as Critoaus + says, reserving himself, like the Salaminian galley, for great occasions, + while matters of lesser importance were despatched by friends or other + speakers under his direction. And of this number we are told Ephialtes + made one, who broke the power of the council of Areopagus, giving the + people, according to Plato's expression, so copious and so strong a + draught of liberty, that, growing wild and unruly, like an unmanageable + horse, it, as the comic poets say,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "—got beyond all keeping in, + Champing at Euboea, and among the islands leaping in." +</pre> + <p> + The style of speaking most consonant to his form of life and the dignity + of his views he found, so to say, in the tones of that instrument with + which Anaxagoras had furnished him; of his teaching he continually availed + himself, and deepened the colors of rhetoric with the dye of natural + science. + </p> + <p> + A saying of Thucydides, the son of Melesias, stands on record, spoken by + him by way of pleasantry upon Pericles's dexterity. Thucydides was one of + the noble and distinguished citizens, and had been his greatest opponent; + and, when Archidamus, the king of the Lacedaemonians, asked him whether he + or Pericles were the better wrestler, he made this answer: "When I," said + he, "have thrown him and given him a fair fall, he by persisting that he + had no fall, gets the better of me, and makes the bystanders, in spite of + their own eyes, believe him." + </p> + <p> + The rule of Pericles has been described as an aristocratical government, + that went by the name of a democracy, but was, indeed, the supremacy of a + single great man; while many say, that by him the common people were first + encouraged and led on to such evils as appropriations of subject + territory, allowances for attending theatres, payments for performing + public duties, and by these bad habits were, under the influence of his + public measures, changed from a sober, thrifty people, that maintained + themselves by their own labors, to lovers of expense, intemperance, and + license. + </p> + <p> + At the first, as has been said, when he set himself against Cimon's great + authority, he did caress the people. Finding himself come short of his + competitor in wealth and money, by which advantages the other was enabled + to take care of the poor, inviting every day some one or other of the + citizens that was in want to supper, and bestowing clothes on the aged + people, and breaking down the hedges and enclosures of his grounds, that + all that would might freely gather what fruit they pleased. Pericles, thus + outdone in popular arts, turned to the distribution of the public moneys; + and in a short time having bought the people over, what with moneys + allowed for shows and for service on juries, and what with the other forms + of pay and largess, he made use of them against the council of Areopagus, + and directed the exertions of his party against this council with such + success, that most of those causes and matters which had been formerly + tried there, were removed from its cognizance; Cimon, also, was banished + by ostracism as a favorer of the Lacedaemonians and a hater of the people, + though in wealth and noble birth he was among the first, and had won + several most glorious victories over the barbarians, and had filled the + city with money and spoils of war. So vast an authority had Pericles + obtained among the people. + </p> + <p> + The ostracism was limited by law to ten years; but the Lacedaemonians, in + the meantime, entering with a great army into the territory of Tanagra, + and the Athenians going out against the Cimon, coming from his banishment + before his time was out, put himself in arms and array with those of his + fellow-citizens that were of his own tribe, and desired by his deeds to + wipe off the suspicion of his favoring the Lacedaemonians, by venturing + his own person along with his countrymen. But Pericles's friends, + gathering in a body, forced him to retire as a banished man. For which + cause also Pericles seems to have exerted himself more than in any other + battle, and to have been conspicuous above all for his exposure of himself + to danger. All Cimon's friends, also, to a man, fell together side by + side, whom Pericles had accused with him of taking part with the + Lacedaemonians. Defeated in this battle on their own frontiers, and + expecting a new and perilous attack with return of spring, the Athenians + now felt regret and sorrow for the loss of Cimon, and repentance for their + expulsion of him. Pericles, being sensible of their feelings, did not + hesitate or delay to gratify it, and himself made the motion for recalling + him home. He, upon his return, concluded a peace betwixt the two cities; + for the Lacedaemonians entertained as kindly feelings towards him as they + did the reverse towards Pericles and the other popular leaders. + </p> + <p> + Cimon, while he was admiral, ended his days in the Isle of Cyprus. And the + aristocratical party, seeing that Pericles was already before this grown + to be the greatest and foremost man of all the city, but nevertheless + wishing there should be somebody set up against him, to blunt and turn the + edge of his power, that it might not altogether prove a monarchy, put + forward Thucydides of Alopece, a discreet person, and a near kinsman of + Cimon's, to conduct the opposition against him. And so Pericles, at that + time more than at any other, let loose the reins to the people, and made + his policy subservient to their pleasure, contriving continually to have + some great public show or solemnity, some banquet, or some procession or + other in the town to please them, coaxing his countrymen like children, + with such delights and pleasures as were not, however, unedifying. Besides + that, every year he sent out threescore galleys, on board of which there + went numbers of the citizens, who were in pay eight months, at the same + time learning and practicing the art of seamanship. + </p> + <p> + He sent, moreover, a thousand of them into the Chersonese as planters, to + share the land among them by lot, and five hundred more into the isle of + Naxos, and half that number to Andros, a thousand into Thrace to dwell + among the Bisaltae, and others into Italy, when the city Sybaris, which + now was called Thurii, was to be repeopled. And this he did to ease and + discharge the city of an idle, and, by reason of their idleness, a busy, + meddling crowd of people; and at the same time to meet the necessities and + restore the fortunes of the poor townsmen, and to intimidate, also, and + check their allies from attempting any change, by posting such garrisons, + as it were, in the midst of them. + </p> + <p> + That which gave most pleasure and ornament to the city of Athens, and the + greatest admiration and even astonishment to all strangers, and that which + now is Greece's only evidence that the power she boasts of and her ancient + wealth are no romance or idle story, was his construction of the public + and sacred buildings. + </p> + <p> + The materials were stone, brass, ivory, gold, ebony, and cypress-wood; the + artisans that wrought and fashioned them were smiths and carpenters, + moulders, founders and braziers, stone-cutters, dyers, goldsmiths, + ivory-workers, painters, embroiderers, turners; those again that conveyed + them to the town for use, merchants and mariners and ship-masters by sea; + and by land, cartwrights, cattle-breeders, wagoners, rope-makers, + flax-workers, shoe-makers and leather-dressers, road-makers, miners. And + every trade in the same nature, as a captain in an army has his particular + company of soldiers under him, had its own hired company of journeymen and + laborers belonging to it banded together as in array, to be as it were the + instrument and body for the performance of the service of these public + works distributed plenty through every age and condition. + </p> + <p> + As then grew the works up, no less stately in size than exquisite in form, + the workmen striving to outvie the material and the design with the beauty + of their workmanship, yet the most wonderful thing of all was the rapidity + of their execution. Undertakings, any one of which singly might have + required, they thought, for their completion, several successions and ages + of men, were every one of them accomplished in the height and prime of one + man's political service. Although they say, too, that Zeuxis once, having + heard Agatharchus, the painter, boast of despatching his work with speed + and ease, replied, "I take a long time." For ease and speed in doing a + thing do not give the work lasting solidity or exactness of beauty; the + expenditure of time allowed to a man's pains beforehand for the production + of a thing is repaid by way of interest with a vital force for its + preservation when once produced. For which reason Pericles's works are + especially admired, as having been made quickly, to last long. For every + particular piece of his work was immediately, even at that time, for its + beauty and elegance, antique; and yet in its vigor and freshness looks to + this day as if it were just executed. There is a sort of bloom of newness + upon those works of his, preserving them from the touch of time, as if + they had some perennial spirit and undying vitality mingled in the + composition of them. + </p> + <p> + Phidias had the oversight of all the works, and was surveyor-general, + though upon the various portions other great masters and workmen were + employed. For Callicrates and Ictinus built the Parthenon; the chapel at + Eleusis, where the mysteries were celebrated, was begun by Coroebus, who + erected the pillars that stand upon the floor or pavement, and joined them + to the architraves; and after his death Metagenes of Xypete added the + frieze and the upper line of columns; Xenocles of Cholargus roofed or + arched the lantern on the top of the temple of Castor and Pollux; and the + long wall, which Socrates says he himself heard Pericles propose to the + people, was undertaken by Callicrates. + </p> + <p> + The Odeum, or music-room, which in its interior was full of seats and + ranges of pillars, and outside had its roof made to slope and descend from + one single point at the top, was constructed, we are told, in imitation of + the king of Persia's Pavilion; this likewise by Pericles's order; which + Cratinus again, in his comedy called The Thracian Women, made an occasion + of raillery,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + So, we see here, + Jupiter Long-pate Pericles appear, + Since ostracism time he's laid aside his head, + And wears the new Odeum in its stead. +</pre> + <p> + Perils, also eager for distinction, then first obtained the decree for a + contest in musical skill to be held yearly at the Panathenaea, and he + himself, being chosen judge, arranged the order and method in which the + competitors should sing and play on the flute and the harp. And both at + that time, and at other times also, they sat in this music-room to see and + hear all such trials of skill. + </p> + <p> + The propylaea, or entrances to the Acropolis, were finished in five years' + time, Mnesicles being the principal architect. A strange accident happened + in the course of building, which showed that the goddess was not averse to + the work, but was aiding and co-operating to bring it to perfection. One + of the artificers, the quickest and the handiest workmen among them all, + with a slip of his foot, fell down from a great height, and lay in a + miserable condition, the physician having no hopes of his recovery. When + Pericles was in distress about this, Athenia appeared to him at night in a + dream, and ordered a course of treatment which he applied, and in a short + time, and with great ease, cured the man. And upon this occasion it was + that he set up a brass statue of Athena, surnamed Health, in the citadel + near the altar, which they say was there before. But it was Phidias who + wrought the goddess's image in gold, and he has his name inscribed on the + pedestal as the workman of it; and indeed the whole work in a manner was + under his charge, and he had, as we have said already, the oversight over + all the artists and workmen, through Pericles's friendship for him. + </p> + <p> + When the orators, who sided with Thucydides and his party, were at one + time crying out, as their custom was, against Pericles, as one who + squandered away public money and made havoc of the state revenues, he rose + in the open assembly and put the question to the people, whether they + thought that he had laid out much; and saying, "Too much, a great deal," + "Then," said he, "since it is so, let the cost not go to your account, but + to mine; and let the inscription upon the buildings stand in my name." + When they heard him say thus, whether it were out of a surprise to see the + greatness of his spirit, or out of emulation of the glory of the works, + they cried aloud, bidding him to spend on, and lay out what he thought fit + from the public purse, and to spare no cost, till all were finished. + </p> + <p> + At length, coming to a final contest with Thucydides, which of the two + should ostracize the other out of the country, and, having gone through + this peril, he threw his antagonist out, and broke up the confederacy that + had been organized against him. So that now all schism and division being + at an end, and the city brought to evenness and unity, he got all Athens + and all affairs that pertained to the Athenians into his own hands, their + tributes, their armies and their galleys, the islands, the sea, and their + wide-extended power, partly over other Greeks and partly over barbarians, + and all that empire which they possessed, founded and fortified upon + subject nations and royal friendships and alliances. + </p> + <p> + After this he was no longer the same man he had been before, nor as tame + and gentle and familiar as formerly with the populace, so as readily to + yield to their pleasures and to comply with the desires of the multitude, + as a steersman shifts with the winds. Quitting that loose, remiss, and, in + some cases, licentious court of the popular will, he turned those soft and + flowery modulations to the austerity of aristocratical and regal rule; + but, employing this uprightly and undeviatingly for the country's best + interests, he was able generally to lead the people along, with their own + will and consent, by persuading and showing them what was to be done. + </p> + <p> + The source of this predominance was not barely his power of language, but, + as Thucydides the historian assures us, the reputation of his life, and + the confidence felt in his character; his manifest freedom from every kind + of corruption, and superiority to all considerations of money. + Notwithstanding he had made the city of Athens, which was great of itself, + as great and rich as can be imagined, and though he were himself in power + and interest more than equal to many kings and absolute rulers, who some + of them also bequeathed by will their power to their children, he for his + part, did not make the patrimony his father left him greater than it was + by one drachma. + </p> + <p> + Teleclides says the Athenians had surrendered to him— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The tributes of the cities, and, with them, the cities, too, to do + with them as he pleases, and undo; + To build up, if he likes, stone walls around a town; and again, if + so he likes, to pull them down; + Their treaties and alliances, power, empire, peace, and war, their + wealth and their success forevermore. +</pre> + <p> + Nor was all this the luck of some happy occasion; nor was it the mere + bloom and grace of a policy that flourished for a season; but having for + fifty-five years together maintained the first place among statesmen, in + the exercise of one continuous unintermitted command in the office, to + which he was annually reelected, of General, he preserved his integrity + unspotted; though otherwise he was not altogether idle or careless in + looking after his pecuniary advantage; his paternal estate, which of right + belonged to him, he so ordered that it might neither through negligence be + wasted or lessened, nor yet, being so full of business as he was, cost him + any great trouble or time with taking care of it; and put it into such a + way of management as he thought to be most easy for himself, and the most + exact. All his yearly products and profits he sold together in a lump, and + supplied his household needs afterward by buying everything that he or his + family wanted out of the market. Upon which account, his children, when + they grew to age, were not well pleased with his management; since there + was not there, as is usual in a great family and a plentiful estate, + anything to spare, or over and above; but all that went out or came in, + all disbursements and all receipts, proceeded as it were by number and + measure. His manager in all this was a single servant, Evangelus by name, + a man either naturally gifted or instructed by Pericles so as to excel + every one in this art of domestic economy. + </p> + <p> + The Lacedaemonians beginning to show themselves troubled at the growth of + the Athenian power, Pericles, on the other hand, to elevate the people's + spirit yet more, and to raise them to the thought of great actions, + proposed a decree to summon all the Greeks in what part soever, whether of + Europe or Asia, every city, little as well as great, to send their + deputies to Athens to a general assembly or convention, there to consult + and advise concerning the Greek temples which the barbarians had burnt + down; and also concerning the navigation of the sea, that they might + henceforward all of them pass to and fro and trade securely, and be at + peace among themselves. + </p> + <p> + Nothing was effected, nor did the cities meet by their deputies, as was + desired; the Lacedaemonians, as it is said, crossing the design underhand, + and the attempt being disappointed and baffled first in Peloponnesus. I + thought fit, however, to introduce the mention of it, to show the spirit + of the man and the greatness of his thoughts. + </p> + <p> + In his military conduct he gained a great reputation for wariness; he + would not by his good-will engage in any fight which had much uncertainty + or hazard; he did not envy the glory of generals whose rash adventures + fortune favored with brilliant success, however they were admired by + others; nor did he think them worthy his imitation, but always used to say + to his citizens that, so far as lay in his power, they should continue + immortal, and live forever. Seeing Tolmides, the son of Tolmaeus, upon the + confidence of his former successes, and flushed with the honor his + military actions had procured him, making preparation to attack the + Boeotians in their own country, when there was no likely opportunity, and + that he had prevailed with the bravest and most enterprising of the youth + to enlist themselves as volunteers in the service, who besides his other + force made up a thousand, he endeavored to withhold him, and advised him + against it in the public assembly, telling him in a memorable saying of + which still goes about, that, if he would not take Pericles's advice, yet + he would not do amiss to wait and be ruled by time, the wisest counselor + of all. This saying, at that time, was but slightly commended; but, within + a few days after, when news was brought that Tolmides himself had been + defeated and slain in battle near Coronea, and that many brave citizens + had fallen with him, it gained him great repute as well as good-will among + the people, for wisdom and for love of his countrymen. + </p> + <p> + But of all his expeditions, that to the Chersonese gave most satisfaction + and pleasure, having proved the safety of the Greeks who inhabited there. + For not only by carrying along with him a thousand fresh citizens of + Athens he gave new strength and vigor to the cities, but also by belting + the neck of land, which joins the peninsula to the continent, with + bulwarks and forts from sea to sea, he put a stop to the inroads of the + Thracians, who lay all about the Chersonese, and closed the door against a + continual and grievous war, with which that country had been long + harassed, lying exposed to the encroachments and influx of barbarous + neighbors, and groaning under the evils of a predatory population both + upon and within its borders. + </p> + <p> + Entering also the Euxine Sea with a large and finely equipped fleet, he + obtained for the Greek cities any new arrangements they wanted, and + entered into friendly relations with them; and to the barbarous nations, + and kings and chiefs round about them, displayed the greatness of the + power of the Athenians, their perfect ability and confidence to sail + wherever they had a mind, and to bring the whole sea under his control. He + left the Sinopians thirteen ships of war, with soldiers under the command + of Lamachus, to assist them against Timesileus the tyrant; and, when he + and his accomplices had been thrown out, obtained a decree that six + hundred of the Athenians that were willing should sail to Sinope and plant + themselves there with the Sinopians, sharing among them the houses and + land which the tyrant and his party had previously held. + </p> + <p> + But in other things he did not comply with the giddy impulses of the + citizens, nor quit his own resolutions to follow their fancies, when, + carried away with the thought of their strength and great success, they + were eager to interfere again in Egypt, and to disturb the king of + Persia's maritime dominions. Nay, there were a good many who were, even + then, possessed with that unblest and unauspicious passion for Sicily, + which afterward the orators of Alciabes's party blew up into a flame. + There were some also who dreamt of Tuscany and of Carthage, and not + without plausible reason in their present large dominion and the + prosperous course of their affairs. + </p> + <p> + But Pericles curbed this passion for foreign conquest, and unsparingly + pruned and cut down their ever-busy fancies for a multitude of + undertakings, and directed their power for the most part to securing and + consolidating what they had already got, supposing it would be quite + enough for them to do, if they could keep the Lacedaemonians in check; to + whom he entertained all along a sense of opposition; which, as upon many + other occasions, he particularly showed by what he did in the time of the + holy war. The Lacedaemonians, having gone with an army to Delphi, restored + Apollo's temple, which the Phocians had got into their possession, to the + Delphians; immediately after their departure, Pericles, with another army, + came and restored it to the Phocians. And the Lacedaemonians having + engraven the record of their privilege of consulting the oracle before + others, which the Delphians gave them, upon the forehead of the brazen + wolf which stands there, he, also, having received from the Phocians the + like privilege for the Athenians, had it cut upon the same wolf of brass, + on his right side. + </p> + <p> + When Pericles, in giving up his accounts, stated a disbursement of ten + talents, as laid out upon fit occasion, the people, without any question, + nor troubling themselves to investigate the mystery, freely allowed it. + And some historians, in which number is Theophtastus the philosopher, have + given it as a truth that Pericles every year used to send privately the + sum of ten talents to Sparta, with which he complimented those in office, + to keep off the war; not to purchase peace either, but time, that he might + prepare at leisure, and be the better able to carry on war hereafter. + </p> + <p> + After this, having made a truce between the Athenians and Lacedaemonians + for thirty years, he ordered, by public decree, the expedition against the + Isle of Samos, on the ground, that, when they were bid to leave off their + war with the Milesians, they had not complied. For the two states were at + war for the possession of Priene; and the Samians, getting the better, + refused to lay down their arms and to have the controversy betwixt them + decided by arbitration before the Athenians. Pericles, therefore, fitting + out a fleet, went and broke up the oligarchal government at Samos, and, + taking fifty of the principal men of the town as hostages, and as many of + their children, sent them to the Isle of Lemnos, there to be kept, though + he had offers, as some relate, of a talent apiece for himself from each + one of the hostages, and of many other presents from those who were + anxious not to have a democracy. Moreover, Pissuthnes the Persian, one of + the king's lieutenants, bearing some good-will to the Samians, sent him + ten thousand pieces of gold to excuse the city. Pericles, however, would + receive none of all this; but after he had taken that course with the + Samians which he thought fit, and set up a democracy among them, sailed + back to Athens. + </p> + <p> + But they, however, immediately revolted, Pissuthnes having privily got + away their hostages for them, and provided them with means for war. + Whereupon Pericles came out with a fleet a second time against them, and + found them not idle nor slinking away, but manfully resolved to try for + the dominion of the sea. The issue was, that, after a sharp sea-fight + about the island called Tragia, Pericles obtained a decisive victory, + having with forty-four ships routed seventy of the enemy's, twenty of + which were carrying soldiers. + </p> + <p> + Together with his victory and pursuit, having made himself master of the + port, he laid siege to the Samians, and blocked them up, who yet, one way + or other, still ventured to make sallies, and fight under the city walls. + But after another greater fleet from Athens had arrived, and the Samians + were now shut up with a close leaguer on every side, Pericles, taking with + him sixty galleys, sailed out into the main sea, with the intention, as + most authors give the account, to meet a squadron of Phoenician ships that + were coming for the Samians' relief, and to fight them at as great a + distance as could be from the island; but, as Stesimbrotus says, with a + design of putting over to Cyprus; which does not seem to be probable. But + whichever of the two was his intent, it seems to have been a + miscalculation. For on his departure, Melissus, the son of Ithagenes, a + philosopher, being at that time general in Samos, despising either the + small number of ships that were left or the inexperience of the + commanders, prevailed with the citizens to attack the Athenians. And the + Samians having won the battle and taken several of the men prisoners, and + disabled several of the ships, were masters of the sea, and brought into + port all necessities they wanted for the war, which they had not before. + Aristotle says, too, that Pericles himself had been once before this + worsted by the Milissus in a sea-fight. + </p> + <p> + The Samians, that they might requite an affront which had before been put + upon them, branded the Athenians whom they took prisoners, in their + foreheads, with the figure of an owl. For so the Athenians had marked them + before with a Samaena, which is a sort of ship, low and flat in the prow, + so as to look snub-nosed, but wide and large and well-spread in the hold, + by which it both carries a large cargo and sails well. And so it was + called, because the first of that kind was seen at Samos, having been + built by order of Polycrates the tyrant. These brands upon the Samians' + foreheads, they say, are the allusion in the passage of Aristophanes, + where he says,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + For, oh, the Samians are a lettered people. +</pre> + <p> + Pericles, as soon as news was brought to him of the disaster that had + befallen his army, made all the haste he could to come in to their relief, + and having defeated Melissus, who bore up against him, and put the enemy + to flight, he immediately proceeded to hem them in with a wall, resolving + to master them and take the town, rather with some cost and time than with + the wounds and hazards of his citizens. But as it was a hard matter to + keep back the Athenians, who were vexed at the delay, and were eagerly + bent to fight, he divided the whole multitude into eight parts, and + arranged by lot that that part which had the white bean should have leave + to feast and take their ease, while the other seven were fighting. And + this is the reason, they say, that people, when at any time they have been + merry, and enjoyed themselves, call it white day, in allusion to this + white bean. + </p> + <p> + Ephorus, the historian, tells us besides, that Pericles made use of + engines of battery in this siege, being much taken with the curiousness of + the invention, with the aid and presence of Artemon himself, the engineer, + who, being lame, used to be carried about in a litter, where the works + required his attendance, and for that reason was called Periphoretus. But + Heraclides Ponticus disproves this out of Anacreon's poems, where mention + is made of this Artemon Periphoretus several ages before the Samian war, + or any of these occurrences. And he says that Artemon, being a man who + loved his ease, and had a great apprehension of danger, for the most part + kept close within doors, having two of his servants to hold a brazen + shield over his head, that nothing might fall upon him from above; and if + he were at any time forced upon necessity to go abroad, that he was + carried about in a little hanging-bed, close to the very ground, and that + for this reason he was called Periphoretus. + </p> + <p> + In the ninth month, the Samians surrendering themselves and delivering up + the town, Pericles pulled down their walls, and seized their shipping, and + set a fine of a large sum upon them, part of which they paid down at once, + and they agreed to bring in the rest by a certain time, and gave hostages + for security. Pericles, however, after the reduction of Samos, returning + back to Athens, took care that those who died in the war should be + honorably buried, and made a funeral harangue, as the custom is, in their + commendation at their graves, for which he gained great admiration. As he + came down from the stage on which he spoke, all the women except Elpinice, + the aged sister of Cimon, came out and complimented him, taking him by the + hand, and crowning him with garlands and ribbons, like a victorious + athlete in the games. + </p> + <p> + After this was over, the Peloponnesian war beginning to break out in full + tide, he advised the people to send help to the Corcyraeans, who were + attacked by the Corinthians, and to secure to themselves an island + possessed of great naval resources, since the Peloponnesians were already + all but in actual hostilities against them. Archidamus, the king of the + Lacedaemonians, endeavoring to bring the greater part of the complaints + and matters in dispute to a fair determination, and to pacify and allay + the heats of the allies, it is very likely that the war would not upon any + other grounds of quarrel have fallen upon the Athenians, could they have + been prevailed upon to be reconciled with the inhabitants of Megara. + </p> + <p> + The true occasion of the quarrel is not easy to find out. The worst motive + of all, which is confirmed by most witnesses, is to the following effect. + Phidias the Moulder had, as has before been said, undertaken to make the + statue of Athena. Now he, being admitted to friendship with Pericles, and + a great favorite of his, had many enemies upon this account, who envied + and maligned him; and they, to make trial in a case of his what kind of + judges the commons would prove, should there be occasion to bring Pericles + himself before them, having tampered with Menon, one who had been a + workman with Phidias, stationed him in the marketplace, with a petition + desiring public security upon his discovery and impeachment of Phidias. + The people admitting the man to tell his story, and, the prosecution + proceeding in the assembly, there was nothing of theft or cheat proved + against him; for Phidias, from the very first beginning, by the advice of + Pericles, had so wrought and wrapt the gold that was used in the work + about the statue, that they might take it all off and make out the just + weight of it, which Pericles at that time bade the accusers do. But the + repudiation of his works was what brought envy upon Phidias, especially + that where he represents the fight of the Amazons upon the goddesses' + shield, he had introduced a likeness of himself as a bald old man holding + up a great stone with both hands, and had put in a very fine + representation of Pericles fighting with an Amazon. And the position of + the hand, which holds out the spear in front of the face, was ingeniously + contrived to conceal in some degree the likeness, which, meantime, showed + itself on either side. + </p> + <p> + Phidias then was carried away to Prison, and there died of a disease; but, + as some say, of poison administered by the enemies of Pericles, to raise a + slander, or a suspicion at least, as though he had procured it. The + informer Menon, upon Glycon's proposal, the people made free from payment + of taxes and customs, and ordered the generals to take care that nobody + should do him any hurt. And Pericles, finding that in Phidias's case he + had miscarried with the people, being afraid of impeachment, kindled the + war, which hitherto had lingered and smothered, and blew it up into a + flame; hoping, by that means, to disperse and scatter these complaints and + charges, and to allay their jealousy; the city usually throwing herself + upon him alone, and trusting to his sole conduct, upon the urgency of + great affairs and public dangers, by reason of his authority and the sway + he bore. + </p> + <p> + These are given out to have been the reasons which induced Pericles not to + suffer the people of Athens to yield to the proposals of the + Lacedaemonians; but their truth is uncertain. + </p> + <p> + The Lacedaemonians, therefore, and their allies, with a great army, + invaded the Athenian territories, under the conduct of king Archidamus, + and laying waste the country, marched on as far as Acharnae, and there + pitched their camp, presuming that the Athenians would never endure that, + but would come out and fight them for their country's and their honor's + sake. But Pericles looked upon it as dangerous to engage in battle, to the + risk of the city itself, against sixty thousand men-at-arms of + Peloponnesians and Boeotians; for so many they were in number that made + the inroad at first; and he endeavored to appease those who were desirous + to fight, and were grieved and discontented to see how things went, and + gave them good words, saying, that "trees, when they are lopped and cut, + grow up again in a short time, but men, being once lost, cannot easily be + recovered." He did not convene the people into an assembly, for fear lest + they should force him to act against his judgement; and many of his + enemies threatened and accursed him for doing as he did, and many made + songs and lampoons upon him, which were sung about the town to his + disgrace, reproaching him with the cowardly exercise of his office of + general, and the tame abandonment of everything to the enemy's hands. + </p> + <p> + Cleon, also, already was among his assailants, making use of the feeling + against him as a step to the leadership of the people, as appears in the + anapaestic verses of Hermippus. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Satyr-king, instead of swords, + Will you always handle words? + Very brave indeed we find them, + But a Teles lurks behind them. +</pre> + <p> + (Teles was apparently some notorious coward.) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Yet to gnash your teeth you're seen, + When the little dagger keen, + Whetted every day anew, + Of sharp Cleon touches you. +</pre> + <p> + Pericles, however, was not at all moved by any attacks, but took all + patiently, and submitted in silence to the disgrace they threw upon him + and the ill-will they bore him; and, sending out a fleet of a hundred + galleys to Peloponnesus, he did not go along with it in person, but stayed + behind, that he might watch at home and keep the city under his own + control, till the Peloponnesians broke up their camp and were gone. Yet to + soothe the common people, jaded and distressed with the war, he relieved + them with distributions of public moneys, and ordained new divisions of + subject land. For having turned out all the people of Aegina, he parted + the island among the Athenians, according to lot. Some comfort, also, and + ease in their miseries, they might receive from what their enemies + endured. For the fleet, sailing round the Peloponnesus, ravaged a great + deal of the country, and pillaged and plundered the towns and smaller + cities; and by land he himself entered with an army the Megarian country, + and made havoc of it all. Whence it is clear that the Peloponnesians, + though they did the Athenians much mischief by land, yet suffering as much + themselves from them by sea, would not have protracted the war to such a + length, but would quickly have given it over, as Pericles at first + foretold they would, had not some divine power crossed human purposes. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, the pestilential disease, or plague, seized upon the + city, and ate up all the flour and prime of their youth and strength. Upon + occasion of which the people, distempered and afflicted in their souls, as + well as in their bodies, were utterly enraged like madmen against + Pericles, and, like patients grown delirious, sought to lay violent hands + on their physician, or, as it were, their father. + </p> + <p> + Finding the Athenians ill affected and highly displeased with him, he + tried and endeavored what he could to appease and re-encourage them. But + he could not pacify or allay their anger nor persuade or prevail with them + anyway, til they freely passed their votes upon him, resumed their power, + took away his command from him, and fined him in a sum of money. + </p> + <p> + After this, public troubles were soon to leave him unmolested; the people, + so to say, discharged their passion in their stroke, and lost their stings + in the wound. But his domestic concerns were in an unhappy condition, many + of his friends and acquaintance having died in the plague time, and those + of his family having long since been in disorder and in a kind of mutiny + against him. For the eldest of his sons, Xanthippus by name, being + naturally prodigal, and marrying a young and expensive wife, was highly + offended at his father's economy in making him but a scanty allowance, by + little and little at a time. He sent therefore, to a friend one day, and + borrowed some money of him in his father Pericles's name, pretending it + was by his order. The man coming afterward to demand the debt, Pericles + was so far from yielding to pay it, that he entered an action against him. + Upon which the young man, Xanthippus, thought himself so ill used and + disobliged, that he openly reviled his father; telling first, by way of + ridicule, stories about his conversations at home, and the discourses he + had with the sophists and scholars that came to his house. As for + instance, how one who was a practicer of the five games of skill, * having + with a dart or javelin unawares against his will struck and killed + Epitimus the Pharsalian, his father spent a whole day with Protagoras in a + serious dispute, whether the javelin, or the man that threw it, or the + masters of the games who appointed these sports, were, according to the + strictest and best reason, to be accounted the cause of this mischance. + And in general, this difference of the young man's with his father, in the + breach betwixt them, continued never to be healed or made up til his + death. For Xanthippus died in the plague time of the sickness. At which + time Pericles also lost his sister, and the greatest part of his relations + and friends, and those who had been most useful and serviceable to him in + managing the affairs of state. However, he did not shrink or give in on + these occasions, nor betray or lower his high spirit and even the + greatness of his mind under all his misfortunes; he was not even so much + as seen to weep or to mourn, or even attend the burial of his friends or + relations, till at last he lost his only remaining son. Subdued by this + blow, yet striving still, as far as he could, to maintain his principle, + and yet to preserve and keep up the greatness of his soul, when he came, + however, to perform the ceremony of putting a garland of flowers on the + head of the corpse, he was vanquished by his passion at the sight, so that + he burst into exclamations, and shed copious tears, having never done any + such thing in all his life before. + </p> + <p> + The city having made trial of other generals for the conduct of war, and + orators for business of state, when they found there was no one who was of + weight enough for such a charge, or of authority sufficient to be trusted + with so great a command, regretted the loss of him, and invited him again + to address and advise them, and to resume the office of general. He, + however, lay at home in dejection and mourning; but was persuaded by + Alcibiades and others of his friends to come abroad and show himself to + the people; who having, upon his appearance, made their acknowledgements, + and apologized for their untowardly treatment of him, he undertook the + public affairs once more. + </p> + <p> + About this time, it seems, the plague seized Pericles, not with sharp and + violent fits, as it did others that had it, but with a dull and lingering + distemper, attended with various changes and alterations, leisurely, by + little and little, wasting the strength of his body, and undermining the + noble faculties of his soul. + </p> + <p> + When he was now near his end, the best of citizens and those of his + friends who were left alive, sitting about him, were speaking of the + greatness of his merit, and his power, and reckoning up his famous actions + and the number of his victories; there were no less than nine trophies + which, as their chief commander and conqueror of their enemies, he had set + up, for the honor of the city. They talked thus among themselves, as + though he were unable to understand or mind what they said, but had now + lost his consciousness. He had listened, however, all the while, and + attended to all, and speaking out among them, said, that he wondered they + should commend and take notice of things which were as much owing to + fortune as to anything else, and had happened to many other commanders, + and, at the same time, should not speak or make mention of that which was + the most excellent and greatest thing of all. "For," said he, "no Athenian + through my means, ever wore mourning." + </p> + <p> + He was indeed a character deserving our high admiration, not only for his + equable and mild temper, which all along, in the many affairs of his life, + and the great animosities which he incurred, he constantly maintained; but + also for the high spirit and feeling which made him regarded the noblest + of all his honors, that, in the exercise of such immense power, he never + had gratified his envy or his passion, nor ever had treated any enemy as + irreconcilably opposed to him. And to me it appears that this one thing + gives an otherwise childish and arrogant title a fitting and becoming + significance; so dispassionate a temper, a life so pure and unblemished, + in the height of power and place, might well be called "Olympian," in + accordance with our conceptions of divine beings, to whom, as the natural + of all good and of nothing evil, we ascribe the rule and government of the + world. + </p> + <p> + The course of public affairs after his death produced a quick and speedy + sense of the loss of Pericles. Those who, while they live, resented his + great authority, as that which eclipsed themselves, presently after + quitting the stage, making trial of other orators and demagogues, readily + acknowledged that there never had been in nature such a disposition as his + was, more moderate and reasonable in the height of that state he took upon + him, or more grave and impressive in the mildness which he used. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0009" id="link2H_4_0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + DEMOSTHENES + </h2> + <p> + Whoever it was, Sosius, that wrote the poem in honor of Alcibiades, upon + his winning the chariot-race at the Olympian Games, whether it was + Euripedes, as is most commonly thought, or some other person he tells us, + that to a man's being happy it is pre-eminently requisite that he should + be born in "some famous city." + </p> + <p> + But if anybody undertakes to write a history, that has to be collected + from materials gathered by observation and the reading of works not easy + to be got in all places, nor written always in his own language, but many + of them foreign and dispersed in other hands, for him, undoubtedly, it is + above all things most necessary, to reside in some city of good note, + devoted to liberal arts, and populous; where he may have plenty of all + sorts of books, and upon inquiry may hear and inform himself of such + particulars as, having escaped the pens of writers, are more faithfully + preserved in the memories of men. + </p> + <p> + But for me, I live in a little town, where I am willing to continue, lest + it should grow less; and having had no leisure, while I was in Rome and + other parts of Italy, to practice myself in the Roman language, on account + of public business and of those who came to be instructed by me in + philosophy, it was very late, and in the decline of my age, before I + applied myself to the reading of Latin authors. But to appreciate the + graceful and ready pronunciation of the Roman tongue, to understand the + various figures and connection of words, and such other ornaments, in + which the beauty of speaking consists, is, I doubt not, an admirable and + delightful accomplishment; but it requires a degree of practice and study + which is not easy, and will better suit those who have more leisure, and + time enough yet before them for the occupation. + </p> + <p> + And so in this book of my Parallel Lives, in giving an account of + Demosthenes and Cicero, my comparison of their natural dispositions and + their characters will be formed upon their actions and their lives as + statesmen, and I shall not pretend to criticise their orations one against + the other, to show which of the two was the more charming or the more + powerful speaker. For there, as Ion says, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + We are but like a fish upon dry land. +</pre> + <p> + The divine power seems originally to have designed Demosthenes and Cicero + upon the same plan, giving them many similarities in their natural + characters, as their passion for distinction and their love of liberty in + civil life, and their want of courage in dangers and war, and at the same + time also to have added many accidental resemblances. I think there can + hardly be found two other orators, who, from small and obscure beginnings, + became so great and mighty; who both contested with kings and tyrants; + both lost their daughters, were driven out of their country, and returned + with honor; who, flying from thence again, were both seized upon by their + enemies, and at last ended their lives with the liberty of their + countrymen. So that if we were to suppose that there had been a trial of + skill between nature and fortune, as there is sometimes between artists, + it would be hard to judge, whether that succeeded best in making them + alike in their dispositions and manners, or this, in the coincidences of + their lives. We will speak of the eldest first. + </p> + <p> + Demosthenes, the father of Demosthenes, was a citizen of good rank and + quality, as Theopompus informs us, surnamed the Sword-maker, because he + had a large workhouse, and kept servants skilful in that art at work. + Demosthenes, when only seven years old, was left by his father in affluent + circumstances, the whole value of his estate being little short of fifteen + talents, but was wronged by his guardians, part of his fortune being + embezzled by them, and the rest neglected; insomuch that even his teachers + were defrauded of their salaries. This was the reason that he did not + obtain the liberal education that he should have had; besides that on + account of weakness and delicate health, his mother would not let him + exert himself, and his teachers forebore to urge him. He was meagre and + sickly from the first, and hence had the nickname of Batalus, given him, + it is said, by the boys, in derision of his appearance; Batalus being a + certain enervated flute-player, in ridicule of whom Antiphanes wrote a + play. + </p> + <p> + The first occasion of his eager inclination to oratory, they say, was + this. Callistratus, the orator, was to plead in open court for Oropus, and + the expectation of the issue of that cause was very great, as well for the + ability of the orator, who was then at the height of his reputation, as + also for the fame of the action itself. Therefore, Demosthenes, having + heard the tutors and schoolmasters agreeing among themselves to be present + at this trial, with much importunity persuades his tutor to take him along + with him to the hearing; who, having some acquaintance with the + doorkeepers, procured a place where the boy might sit unseen, and hear + what was said. Callistratus having got the day, and being much admired, + the boy began to look upon his glory with emulation, observing how he was + courted on all hands, and attended on his way by the multitude; but his + wonder was more than all excited by the power of his eloquence, which + seemed able to subdue and win over any thing. From this time, therefore, + bidding farewell to other sorts of learning and study, he now began to + exercise himself, and to take pains in declaiming, as one that meant to be + himself also an orator. He made use of Isaeus as his guide to the art of + speaking, though Isocrates at that time was giving lessons; whether, as + some say, because he was an orphan, and was not able to pay Isocrates his + appointed fee of ten minae, or because he preferred Isaeus's speaking, as + being more business-like and effective in actual use. + </p> + <p> + As soon, therefore, as he was grown up to man's estate, he began to go to + law with his guardians, and to write orations against them; who, in the + meantime, had recourse to various subterfuges and pleas for new trials, + and Demosthenes, though he was thus, as Thucydides says, taught his + business in dangers, and by his own exertions was successful in his suit, + was yet unable for all this to recover so much as a small fraction of his + patrimony. He only attained some degree of confidence in speaking, and + some competent experience in it. And having got a taste of the honor and + power which are acquired by pleadings, he now ventured to come forth, and + to undertake public business. And, as it is said of Laomedon, the + Orchomenian, that by advice of his physician, he used to run long + distances to keep off some disease of his spleen, and by that means + having, through labor and exercise, framed the habit of his body, he + betook himself to the great garland games, and became one of the best + runners at the long race; so it happened to Demosthenes, who, first + venturing upon oratory for the recovery of his own private property, by + this acquired ability in speaking, and at length, in public business, as + it were in the great games, came to have the pre-eminence of all + competitors in the assembly. But when he first addressed himself to the + people, he met with great discouragements, and was derided for his strange + and uncouth style, which was cumbered with long sentences and tortured + with formal arguments to a most harsh and disagreeable excess. Besides, he + had, it seems, a weakness in his voice, a perplexed and indistinct + utterance and a shortness of breath, which, by breaking and disjointing + his sentences, much obscured the sense and meaning of what he spoke. So + that in the end, being quite disheartened, he foresook the assembly; and + as he was walking carelessly and sauntering about the Piraeus, Eunomus, + the Thriasian, then a very old man, seeing him, upbraided him, saying that + his diction was very much like that of Pericles, and that he was wanting + to himself through cowardice and meanness of spirit, neither bearing up + with courage against popular outcry, nor fitting his body for action, but + suffering it to languish through mere sloth and negligence. + </p> + <p> + Another time, when the assembly had refused to hear him, and he was going + home with his head muffled up, taking it very heavily, they relate that + Satyrus, the actor followed him, and being his familiar acquaintance, + entered into conversation with him. To whom Demosthenes bemoaned, that + although he had been the most industrious of all the pleaders, and had + spent almost the whole strength and vigor of his body in that employment, + he could not yet find any acceptance with the people, while drunken sots, + mariners, and illiterate fellows were heard, and had the hustings for + their own. "You say true, Demosthenes," replied Satyrus, "but I will + quickly remedy the cause of all this, if you will repeat to me some + passage out of Euripides or Sophocles." When Demosthenes had pronounced + one, Satyrus presently taking it up after him, gave the same passage, in + his rendering of it, such a new form, by accompanying it with the proper + mien and gesture, that to Demosthenes it seemed quite another thing. By + this being convinced how much grace and ornament language acquires from + action, he began to esteem it a small matter, and as good as nothing for a + man to exercise himself in declaiming, if he neglected enunciation and + delivery. Hereupon he built himself a place under ground to study in + (which was still remaining in our time), and hither he would come + constantly every day to form his action, and to exercise his voice; and + here he would continue, oftentimes without intermission, two or three + months together, shaving one half of his head, so that for shame he might + not go abroad, though he desired it never so much. + </p> + <p> + Nor was this all, but he also made his conversation with people abroad, + his common speech, and his business, subservient to his studies, taking + from hence occasions and arguments as matter to work upon. For as soon as + he was parted from his company, down he would go at once into his study, + and run over everything in order that had passed, and the reasons that + might be alleged for and against it. Any speeches, also, that he was + present at, he would go over again with himself, and reduce into periods; + and whatever others spoke to him, or he to them, he would correct, + transform, and vary in several ways. Hence it was, that he was looked upon + as a person of no great natural genius, but one who owed all the power and + ability he had in speaking to labor and industry. He was very rarely heard + to speak off-hand, but though he were by name frequently called upon by + the people, as he sat in the assembly, yet he would not rise unless he had + previously considered the subject, and come prepared for it. So that many + of the popular pleaders used to make it a jest against him; and Pytheas + once, scoffing at him, said that his arguments smelt of the lamp. To which + Demosthenes gave the sharp answer, "It is true, indeed, Pytheas, that your + lamp and mine are not conscious of the same things." To others, however, + he would not deny it, but would admit frankly enough, that he neither + entirely wrote his speeches beforehand, nor yet spoke wholly extempore. + And he would affirm, that it was the more truly popular act to use + premeditation, such preparation being a kind of respect to the people. + </p> + <p> + How then, some may say, was it, that Aeschines speaks of him as a person + much to be wondered at for his boldness in speaking? And, when Lamachus, + the Myrinaean, had written a panegyric upon king Philip and Alexander, in + which he uttered many things in reproach of the Thebans and Olynthians, + and at the Olympic Games recited it publicly, Demosthenes, then rising up, + and recounting historically and demonstratively what benefits and + advantages all Greece had received from the Thebans and Chalcidians, and + on the contrary, what mischiefs the flatterers of the Macedonians had + brought upon it, so turned the minds of all that were present that the + sophist, in alarm at the outcry against him, secretly made his way out of + the assembly. But Demosthenes, it would seem, regarded the reserve and + sustained manner of Pericles, and his forbearing to speak on the sudden, + or upon every occasion, as being the things to which he principally owed + his greatness, and this he followed, and endeavored to imitate, neither + wholly neglecting the glory which present occasion offered, nor yet + willing too often to expose his faculty to the mercy of chance. For, in + fact, the orations which were spoken by him had much more of boldness and + confidence in them than those that he wrote. Eratosthenes says that often + in his speaking he would be transported into a kind of ecstasy, and + Demetrius, that he uttered the famous metrical adjuration to the people, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + By the earth, the springs, the rivers, and the streams, +</pre> + <p> + as a man inspired, and beside himself. One of the comedians calls him a + rhopoperperethras—a loud declaimer about petty matters; from rhopos, + small wares, and perperos, a loud talker; and another scoffs at him for + the use of antithesis:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + And what he took, took back; a phrase to please + The very fancy of Demosthenes. +</pre> + <p> + Unless, indeed, this also is meant by Antiphanes for a jest upon the + speech on Halonesus, which Demosthenes advised the Athenians not to take + at Philip's hands, but to take back. + </p> + <p> + All, however, used to consider Demades, in the mere use of his natural + gifts, an orator impossible to surpass, and that in what he spoke on the + sudden, he excelled all the study and preparation of Demosthenes. And + Ariston, the Chian, has recorded a judgment which Theophrastus passed upon + the orators; for being asked what kind of orator he accounted Demosthenes, + he answered, "Worthy of the city of Athens;" and then, what he thought of + Demades, he answered, "Above it." And the same philosopher reports, that + Polyeuctus, the Sphettian, one of the Athenian politicians about that + time, was wont to say that Demosthenes was the greatest orator, but + Phocion the ablest, as he expressed the most sense in the fewest words. + And, indeed, it is related, that Demosthenes himself, as often as Phocion + stood up to plead against him, would say to his acquaintance, "Here comes + the knife to my speech." Yet it does not appear whether he had this + feeling for his powers of speaking, or for his life and character, and + meant to say that one word or nod from a man who was really trusted, would + go further than a thousand lengthy periods from others. + </p> + <p> + Demetrius, the Phalerian, tells us, that he was informed by Demosthenes + himself, when old, that the ways he made use of to remedy his natural + bodily infirmities and defects were such as these: his inarticulate and + stammering pronunciation he overcame and rendered more distinct by + speaking with pebbles in his mouth; his voice he disciplined by declaiming + and reciting speeches or verses when he was out of breath, while running + or going up steep places; and that in his house he had a large + looking-glass, before which he would stand and go through his exercises. + It is told that some one once came to request his assistance as a pleader, + and related how he had been assaulted and beaten. "I am sure," said + Demosthenes, "nothing of the kind can have happened to you." Upon which + the other, raising his voice, exclaimed loudly, "What, Demosthenes, + nothing has been done to me?" "Ah," replied Demosthenes, "now I hear the + voice of one that has been injured and beaten." Of so great consequence + towards the gaining of belief did he esteem the tone and action of the + speaker. When a thief, who had the nickname of the Brazen, was attempting + to upbraid him for sitting up late, and writing by candlelight, "I know + very well," said he, "that you had rather have all lights out; and wonder + not, O ye men of Athens, at the many robberies which are committed, since + we have thieves of brass and walls of clay." + </p> + <p> + His first entering into public business was about the time of the Phocian + war. But the object which he chose for himself in the commonwealth was + noble and just, the defence of the Greek against Philip; and in this he + behaved himself so worthily that he soon grew famous, and excited + attention everywhere for his eloquence and courage in speaking. He was + admired through all Greece, the king of Persia courted him, and by Philip + himself he was more esteemed than all the other orators. His very enemies + were forced to confess that they had to do with a man of mark; for such a + character even Aeschines and Hyperides give him, where they accuse and + speak against him. + </p> + <p> + Demosthenes would never turn aside or prevaricate, either in word or deed. + Panaetius, the philosopher, said, that most of his orations were written, + as if they were to prove this one conclusion: that only what is honest and + virtuous is to be chosen; as that of the Crown, that against Aristocrates, + that for the Immunities, and the Philippics; in all which he persuades his + fellow-citizens to pursue not that which seems most pleasant, easy, or + profitable; but declares over and over again, that they ought in the first + place to prefer that which is just and honorable, before their own safety + and preservation. + </p> + <p> + Excepting only Phocion, he far surpassed, even in his life and manners, + the other orators of his time. None of them addressed the people so + boldly; he attacked the faults, and opposed himself to the unreasonable + desires of the multitude, as may be seen in his orations. Theopompus + writes, that the Athenians having by name selected Demosthenes, and called + upon him to accuse a certain person, he refused to do it; upon which the + assembly being all in an uproar, he rose up and said, "Your counselor, + whether you will or no, O ye men of Athens, you shall always have me; but + a sycophant or false accuser, I shall never be." And his conduct in the + case of Antiphon was perfectly aristocratical; whom, after he had been + acquitted in the assembly, he took and brought before the court of + Areopagus, and, setting at naught the displeasure of the people, convicted + him there of having promised Philip to burn the arsenal; whereupon the man + was condemned by that court, and suffered for it. He accused, also, + Theoris, the priestess, among other misdemeanors, of having instructed and + taught the slaves to deceive and cheat their masters, for which the + sentence of death was passed upon her, and she was executed. + </p> + <p> + It was evident, even in time of peace, what course Demosthenes would steer + in the commonwealth; for whatever was done by the Macedonian, he + criticised and found fault with, and upon all occasions was stirring up + the people of Athens, and inflaming them against him. Therefore, in the + court of Philip, no man was so much talked of, or of so great account as + he; and when he came thither, as one of the ten ambassadors who was sent + into Macedonia, his speech was answered with most care and exactness. But + in other respects, Philip entertained him not so honorably as the rest, + neither did he show him the same kindness and civility with which he + applied himself to the party of Aeschines and Philocrates. So that, when + the others commended Philip for his able speaking, his beautiful person, + nay, and also for his good companionship in drinking, Demosthenes could + not refrain from cavilling at these praises; the first, he said, was a + quality which might well enough become a rhetorician, the second a woman, + and the last was only the property of a sponge; no one of them was the + proper commendation of a prince. + </p> + <p> + Not long after, he undertook an embassy through the States of Greece, + which he solicited and so far incensed against Philip, that a few only + excepted, he brought them all into a general league. So that, besides the + forces composed of the citizens themselves, there was an army consisting + of fifteen + </p> + <p> + thousand foot and two thousand horse, and the money to pay these strangers + was levied and brought in with great cheerfulness. On which occasion it + was, says Theophrastus, on the allies requesting that their contributions + for the war might be ascertained and stated, Crobylus, the orator, made + use of the saying, "War can't be fed at so much a day." Now was all Greece + up in arms, and in great expectation what would be the event. The + Euboeans, the Achaeans, the Corinthians, the Megarians, the Leucadians, + and Corcyraeans, their people and their cities, were all joined together + in a league. But the hardest task was yet behind, left for Demosthenes, to + draw the Thebans into this confederacy with the rest. Their country + bordered next upon Attica, they had great forces for the war, and at that + time they were accounted the best soldiers of all Greece, but it was no + easy matter to make them break with Philip, who by many good offices, had + so lately obliged them in the Phocian war; especially considering how the + subjects of dispute and variance between the two cities were continually + renewed and exasperated by petty quarrels, arising out of the proximity of + their frontiers. + </p> + <p> + But after Philip, puffed up with his good success at Amphissa, on a sudden + surprised Elatea and possessed himself of Phocis, the Athenians were in a + great consternation, none durst venture to rise up to speak, all were at a + loss, and the whole assembly was in silence and perplexity. In this + extremity of affairs, Demosthenes was the only man who appeared, his + counsel to them being alliance with the Thebans. And having in other ways + encouraged the people, and, as his manner was, raised their spirits up + with hopes, he, with some others was sent ambassador to Thebes. To oppose + him, as Marsyas says, Philip also sent thither his envoys. Now the + Thebans, in their consultations, were well enough aware what suited best + with their own interest, but every one had before his eye the terrors of + war, and their losses in the Phocian troubles were still recent: but such + was the force and power of the orator, fanning up their courage, and + firing their emulation, that, casting away every thought of prudence, + fear, or obligation, in a sort of divine possession, they chose the path + of honor, to which his words invited them. And this success, thus + accomplished by an orator, was thought to be so glorious and of such + consequence, that Philip immediately sent heralds to treat and petition + for a peace: all Greece was aroused, and up in arms to help. And the + commanders-in-chief, not only of Attica, but of Boeotia, applied + themselves to Demosthenes, and observed his directions. He managed all the + assemblies of the Thebans, no less than those of the Athenians; he was + beloved both by the one and by the other, and exercised the same supreme + authority with both; and that not by unfair means, or without just cause, + but it was no more than was due to his merit. + </p> + <p> + But there was, it should seem, some divinely-ordered fortune, + commissioned, in the revolution of things, to put a period at this time to + the liberty of Greece, which opposed and thwarted all their actions, and + by many signs foretold what should happen. Such were the sad predictions + uttered by the Pythian priestess, and this old oracle cited out of the + Sibyl's verses: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The battle on Thermodon that shall be + Safe at a distance I desire to see, + Far, like an eagle, watching in the air. + Conquered shall weep, and conqueror perish there. +</pre> + <p> + This Thermodon, they say, is a little rivulet here in our country in + Chaeronea, running into the Cephisus. But we know of none that is so + called at the present time; and can only conjecture that the streamlet + which is now called Haemon, and runs by the Temple of Hercules, where the + Greeks were encamped, might perhaps in those days be called Thermodon. + </p> + <p> + But of Demosthenes it is said, that he had such great confidence in the + Greek forces, and was so excited by the sight of the courage and + resolution of so many brave men ready to engage the enemy, that he would + by no means endure they should give any heed to oracles, or hearken to + prophecies, but gave out that he suspected even the prophetess herself, as + if she had been tampered with to speak in favor of Philip. He put the + Thebans in mind of Epaminondas, the Athenians of Pericles, who always took + their own measures and governed their actions by reason, looking upon + things of this kind as mere pretexts for cowardice. Thus far, therefore, + Demosthenes acquitted himself like a brave man. But in the fight he did + nothing honorable, nor was his performance answerable to his speeches. For + he fled, deserting his place disgracefully, and throwing away his arms, + not ashamed, as Pytheas observed, to belie the inscription written on his + shield, in letters of gold, "With good fortune." + </p> + <p> + In the meantime Philip, in the first moment of victory, was so transported + with joy, that he grew extravagant, and going out, after he had drunk + largely, to visit the dead bodies, he chanted the first words of the + decree that had been passed on the motion of Demosthenes, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The motion of Demosthenes, Demosthenes's son, + + dividing it metrically into feet, and marking the beats. +</pre> + <p> + But when he came to himself, and had well considered the danger he was + lately under, he could not forbear from shuddering at the wonderful + ability and power of an orator who had made him hazard his life and empire + on the issue of a few brief hours. The fame of it also reached even to the + court of Persia, and the king sent letters to his lieutenants, commanding + them to supply Demosthenes with money, and to pay every attention to him, + as the only man of all the Greeks who was able to give Philip occupation + and find employment for his forces near home, in the troubles of Greece. + </p> + <p> + At this time, however, upon the ill success which now happened to the + Greeks, those of the contrary faction in the commonwealth turned upon + Demosthenes, and took the opportunity to frame several informations and + indictments against him. But the people not only acquitted him of these + accusations, but continued towards him their former respect, and when the + bones of those who had been slain at Chaeronea were brought home to be + solemnly interred, Demosthenes was the man they chose to make the funeral + oration. The speech, therefore, was spoken by Demosthenes. But the + subsequent decrees he would not allow to be passed in his own name, but + made use of those of his friends, one after another, looking upon his own + as unfortunate and inauspicious; till at length he took courage again + after the death of Philip, who did not long outlive his victory at + Chaeronea. And this, it seems, was that which was foretold in the last + verse of the oracle, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Conquered shall weep, and conqueror perish there. +</pre> + <p> + Demosthenes had secret intelligence of the death of Philip, and laying + hold of this opportunity to prepossess the people with courage and better + hopes for the future, he came into the assembly with a cheerful + countenance, pretending to have had a dream that presaged some great good + fortune for Athens; and, not long after, arrived the messengers who + brought the news of Philip's death. No sooner had the people received it, + but immediately they offered sacrifice to the gods, and decreed that + Pausanias should be presented with a crown. Demosthenes appeared publicly + in a rich dress, with a chaplet on his head, though it were but the + seventh day since the death of his daughter, as is said by Aeschines, who + upbraids him upon this account, and rails at him as one void of natural + affection towards his children. Whereas, Aeschines rather betrays himself + to be of a poor spirit, if he really means to make wailings and + lamentation the only signs of a gentle and affectionate nature. I must + commend the behavior of Demosthenes, who leaving tears and lamentations + and domestic sorrows to the women, made it his business to attend to the + interests of the commonwealth. + </p> + <p> + But now to return to my narrative. The cities of Greece were inspirited + once more by the efforts of Demosthenes to form a league together. The + Thebans, whom he had provided with arms, set upon their garrison, and slew + many of them; the Athenians made preparations to join their forces with + them; Demosthenes ruled supreme in the popular assembly, and wrote letters + to the Persian officers who commanded under the king in Asia, inciting + them to make war upon the Macedonian, calling him child and simpleton. But + as soon as Alexander had settled matters in his own country, and come in + person with his army into Boeotia, down fell the courage of the Athenians, + and Demosthenes was hushed; the Thebans, deserted by them, fought by + themselves, and lost their city. After which, the people of Athens, all in + distress and great perplexity, resolved to send ambassadors to Alexander, + and amongst others, made choice of Demosthenes for one; but his heart + failing him for fear of the king's anger, he returned back from Cithaeron, + and left the embassy. In the mean time, Alexander sent to Athens, + requiring eight of the orators to be delivered up to him,—Demosthenes, + Polyeuctus, Ephialtes, Lycurgus, Moerocles, Demon, Callisthenes, and + Charidemus. It was upon this occasion that Demosthenes related to them the + fable in which the sheep are said to deliver up their dogs to the wolves; + himself and those who with him contended for the people's safety, being, + in his comparison, the dogs that defended the flock, and Alexander "the + Macedonian arch wolf." He further told them, "As we see corn-dealers sell + their whole stock by a few grains of wheat which they carry about with + them in a dish, as a sample of the rest, so you, by delivering up us, who + are but a few, do at the same time unawares surrender up yourselves all + together with us." The Athenians were deliberating, and at a loss what to + do, when Demades, having agreed with the persons whom Alexander had + demanded, for five talents, undertook to go ambassador, and to intercede + with the king for them; and, whether it was that he relied on his + friendship and kindness, or that he hoped to find him satiated, as a lion + glutted with slaughter, he certainly went, and prevailed with him both to + pardon the men, and to be reconciled to the city. + </p> + <p> + So he and his friends, when Alexander went away, were great men, and + Demosthenes was quite put aside. Yet when Agis, the Spartan, made his + insurrection, he also for a short time attempted a movement in his favor; + but he soon shrunk back again, as the Athenians would not take any part in + it, and, Agis being slain, the Lacedaemonians were vanquished. During this + time it was that the indictment against Ctesiphon, concerning the Crown, + was brought to trial. The action was commenced a little before the battle + in Chaeronea, when Chaerondas was archon, but it was not proceeded with + till about ten years after, Aristophon being then archon. Never was any + public cause more celebrated than this, alike for the fame of the orators, + and for the generous courage of the judges, who, though at that time the + accusers of Demosthenes, were in the height of power, and supported by all + the favor of the Macedonians, yet would not give judgment against him, but + acquitted him so honorably, that Aeschines did not obtain the fifth part + of their suffrages on his side, so that, immediately after, he left the + city, and spent the rest of his life in teaching rhetoric about the island + of Rhodes, and upon the continent in Ionia. + </p> + <p> + It was not long after that Harpalus fled from Alexander, and came to + Athens out of Asia; knowing himself guilty of many misdeeds into which his + love of luxury had led him, and fearing the king, who was now grown + terrible even to his best friends. Yet this man had no sooner addressed + himself to the people, and delivered up his goods, his ships, and himself + to their disposal, but the other orators of the town had their eyes + quickly fixed upon his money, and came in to his assistance, persuading + the Athenians to receive and protect their suppliant. Demosthenes at first + gave advice to chase him out of the country, and to beware lest they + involved their city in a war upon an unnecessary and unjust occasion. But + some few days after, as they were taking an account of the treasure, + Harpalus, perceiving how much he was pleased with a cup of Persian + manufacture, and how curiously he surveyed the sculpture and fashion of + it, desired him to poise it in his hand, and consider the weight of the + gold. Demosthenes, being amazed to feel how heavy it was asked him what + weight it came to. "To you," said Harpalus, smiling, "it shall come with + twenty talents." And presently after, when night drew on, he sent him the + cup with so many talents. Harpalus, it seems, was a person of singular + skill to discern a man's covetousness by the air of his countenance, and + the look and movement of his eyes. For Demosthenes could not resist the + temptation, but admitting the present, like an armed garrison, into the + citadel of his house, he surrendered himself up to the interest of + Harpalus. The next day he came into the assembly with his neck swathed + about with wool and rollers, and when they called on him to rise up and + speak, he made signs as if he had lost his voice. But the wits, turning + the matter to ridicule, said that certainly the orator had been seized + that night with no other than a silver quinsy. And soon after, the people, + becoming aware of the bribery, grew angry, and would not suffer him to + speak, or make any apology for himself, but ran him down with noise; and + one man stood up and cried out, "What, ye men of Athens, will you not hear + the cup-bearer?" So at length they banished Harpalus out of the city; and + fearing lest they should be called to account for the treasures which the + orators had purloined, they made a strict inquiry, going from house to + house. + </p> + <p> + Demosthenes resisted the inquisition, and proposed a decree to refer the + business to the court of Areopagus, and to punish those whom that court + should find guilty. But being himself one of the first whom the court + condemned, when he came to the bar, he was fined fifty talents, and + committed to prison; where, out of shame of the crime for which he was + condemned, and through the weakness of his body, growing incapable of + supporting the confinement, he made his escape, by the carelessness of + some and by the connivance of others of the citizens. He did not show much + fortitude in his banishment, spending his time for the most part in Aegina + and Troezen, and, with tears in his eyes, looking towards the country of + Attica. The young men that came to visit and converse with him, he + deterred from meddling with state affairs, telling them, that if at first + two ways had been proposed to him, the one leading to the speaker's stand + and the assembly, the other going direct to destruction, and he could have + foreseen the many evils which attend those who deal in public business, + such as fears, envies, calumnies, and contentions, he would certainly have + taken that which led straight on to his death. + </p> + <p> + But now happened the death of Alexander, while Demosthenes was in this + banishment which we have been speaking of. And the Greeks were once again + up in arms, encouraged by the brave attempts of Leosthenes, who was then + drawing a circumvallation about Antipater, whom he held close besieged in + Lamia. Pytheas, therefore, the orator, and Callimedon, called the Crab, + fled from Athens, and taking sides with Antipater, went about with his + friends and ambassadors to keep the Greeks from revolting and taking part + with the Athenians. But, on the other side, Demosthenes, associating + himself with the ambassadors that came from Athens, used his utmost + endeavors and gave them his best assistance in persuading the cities to + fall unanimously upon the Macedonians, and to drive them out of Greece. + With this conduct the people of Athens were so well pleased, that they + decreed the recall of Demosthenes from banishment. The decree was brought + in by Demon the Paeanian, cousin to Demosthenes. So they sent him a ship + to Aegina, and he landed at the port of Piraeus, where he was met and + joyfully received by all the citizens, not so much as an Archon or a + priest staying behind. And Demetrius, the Magnesian, says, that he lifted + up his hands towards heaven, and blessed this day of his happy return, as + far more honorable than that of Alcibiades; since he was recalled by his + countrymen, not through any force or constraint put upon them, but by + their own good-will and free inclinations. There remained only his + pecuniary fine, which, according to law, could not be remitted by the + people. But they found out a way to elude the law. It was a custom with + them to allow a certain quantity of silver to those who were to furnish + and adorn the altar for the sacrifice of Jupiter Soter. This office, for + that turn, they bestowed on Demosthenes, and for the performance of it + ordered him fifty talents, the very sum in which he was condemned. + </p> + <p> + Yet it was no long time that he enjoyed his country after his return, the + attempts of the Greeks being soon all utterly defeated. And in the month + of Pyanepsion following Demosthenes died after this manner. + </p> + <p> + Upon the report that Antipater was coming to Athens, Demosthenes with his + party took their opportunity to escape privily out of the city; but + sentence of death was, upon the motion of Demades, passed upon them by the + people. They dispersed themselves, flying some to one place, some to + another; and Antipater sent about his soldiers into all quarters to + apprehend them. Archias, formerly an actor, was their captain, and was + thence called the exile-hunter. This Archias finding Hyperides the orator, + Aristonicus and Himeraeus in Aegina, took them by force out of the temple + of Aeacus, whither they had fled for safety, and sent them to Antipater, + and put them all to death; and Hyperides, they say, had his tongue cut + out. + </p> + <p> + Demosthenes, he heard, had taken sanctuary at the temple of Neptune at + Calauria, and, crossing over thither in some light vessels, as soon as he + had landed himself, and the Thracian spear-men that came with him, he + endeavored to persuade Demosthenes to accompany him to Antipater, as if he + should meet with no hard usage from him. But Demosthenes, in his sleep the + night before, had a strange dream. It seemed to him that he was acting a + tragedy, and contended with Archias for the victory; and though he + acquitted himself well, and gave good satisfaction to the spectators, yet + for want of better furniture and provision for the stage, he lost the day. + And so, while Archias was discoursing to him with many expressions of + kindness, he sat still in the same posture, and looking up steadfastly + upon him, said: "O Archias, I am as little affected by your promises now + as I used formerly to be by your acting." Archias at this beginning to + grow angry and to threaten him, "Now," said Demosthenes, "you speak like + the genuine Macedonian oracle; before you were but acting a part. + Therefore forebear only a little, while I write a word or two home to my + family." Having thus spoken, he withdrew into the temple, and taking a + scroll, as if he meant to write, he put the reed into his mouth, and + biting it, as he was wont to do when he was thoughtful or writing, he held + it there for some time. Then he bowed down his head and covered it. The + soldiers that stood at the door, supposing all this to proceed from want + of courage and fear of death, in derision called him effeminate, and + faint-hearted, and coward. And Archias, drawing near, desired him to rise + up, and repeating the same kind things he had spoken before, he once more + promised him to make his peace with Antipater. But Demosthenes, perceiving + that now the poison had pierced and seized his vitals, uncovered his head, + and fixing his eyes upon Archias, "Now," said he, "as soon as you please + you may commence the part of Creon in the tragedy, and cast out this body + of mine unburied. But, O gracious Neptune, I, for my part, while I am yet + alive, arise up and depart out of this sacred place; though Antipater and + the Macedonians have not left so much as thy temple unpolluted." After he + had thus spoken and desired to be held up, because already he began to + tremble and stagger, as he was going forward, and passing by the altar, he + fell down, and with a groan gave up the ghost. + </p> + <p> + Ariston says that he took the poison out of a reed, as we have shown + before. And Eratosthenes also says that he kept the poison in a hollow + ring, which he wore about his arm. There are various other statements made + by the many authors who have related the story, but there is no need to + enter into their discrepancies; yet I must not omit what is said by + Demochares, the relation of Demosthenes, who is of opinion, it was not by + the help of poison that he met with no sudden and so easy a death, but + that by the singular favor and providence of the gods he was thus rescued + from the cruelty of the Macedonians. He died on the sixteenth of + Pyanepsion, the most sad and solemn day of the Thesmophoria, which the + women observe by fasting in the temple of the goddess. + </p> + <p> + Soon after his death, the people of Athens bestowed on him such honors as + he had deserved. They erected his statue of brass; they decreed that the + eldest of his family should be maintained in the Prytaneum; and on the + base of his statue was engraven the famous inscription,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Had you for Greece been strong, as wise you were, + The Macedonian had not conquered her. +</pre> + <p> + A little before we went to Athens, the following incident was said to have + happened. A soldier, being summoned to appear before his superior officer, + and answer to an accusation brought against him, put a little gold which + he had into the hands of Demosthenes's statue. The fingers of this statue + were folded one within another, and near it grew a small plane-tree, from + which many leaves, either accidentally blown thither by the wind, or + placed so on purpose by the man himself, falling together, and lying round + about the gold, concealed it for a long time. In the end, the soldier + returned, and found his treasure entire, and the fame of this incident was + spread abroad. And many ingenious persons of the city competed with each + other, on this occasion, to vindicate the integrity of Demosthenes, in + several epigrams which they made on the subject. + </p> + <p> + As for Demades, he did not long enjoy the new honors he now came in for, + divine vengeance for the death of Demosthenes pursuing him into Macedonia, + where he was justly put to death by those whom he had basely flattered. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0010" id="link2H_4_0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CICERO + </h2> + <p> + It is generally said that Helvia, the mother of Cicero, was well born; but + of his father nothing is reported but in extremes. For whilst some would + have him the son of a fuller, and educated in that trade, others carry + back the origin of his family to Tullus Attius, an illustrious king of the + Volscians, who waged war not without honor against the Romans. However, he + who first of that house was surnamed Cicero seems to have been a person + worthy to be remembered; since those who succeeded him not only did not + reject, but were fond of that name, though vulgarly made a matter of + reproach. For the Latins call a vetch Cicer, and a nick or dent at the tip + of his nose, which resembled the opening in a vetch, gave him the surname + of Cicero. + </p> + <p> + Cicero, whose story I am writing, is said to have replied with spirit to + some of his friends, who recommended him to lay aside or change the name + when he first stood for office and engaged in politics, that he would make + it his endeavor to render the name of Cicero more glorious than that of + the Scauri and Catuli. And when he was quaestor in Sicily, and was making + an offering of silver plate to the gods, and had inscribed his two names, + Marcus and Tullius, instead of the third, he jestingly told the artificer + to engrave the figure of a vetch by them. + </p> + <p> + Cicero was born on the third of January, the same day on which now the + magistrates of Rome pray and sacrifice for the emperor. As soon as he was + of an age to begin to have lessons, he became so distinguished for his + talent, and got such a name and reputation amongst the boys, that their + fathers would often visit the school, that they might see young Cicero, + and might be able to say that they themselves had witnessed the quickness + and readiness in learning for which he was renowned. And the more rude + among them used to be angry with their children, to see them, as they + walked together, receiving Cicero with respect into the middle place. And + being, as Plato would have the scholar-like and philosophical temper, + eager for every kind of learning, and indisposed to no description of + knowledge or instruction, he showed, however, a more peculiar propensity + to poetry; and there is a poem now extant, made by him when a boy, in + tetrameter verse, called Pontius Glaucus. And afterwards, when he applied + himself more curiously to these accomplishments, he had the name of being + not only the best orator, but also the best poet of Rome. And the glory of + his rhetoric still remains, notwithstanding the many new modes in speaking + since his time; but his verses are forgotten and out of all repute, so + many ingenious poets have followed him. + </p> + <p> + Leaving his juvenile studies, he became an auditor of Philo the Academic, + whom the Romans, above all the other scholars of Clitomachus, admired for + his eloquence and loved for his character. He also sought the company of + the Mucii, who were eminent statesmen and leaders in the senate, and + acquired from them a knowledge of the laws. For some short time he served + in arms under Sylla, in the Marsian war. But perceiving the commonwealth + running into factions, and from faction all things tending to an absolute + monarchy, he betook himself to a retired and contemplative life, and + conversing with the learned Greeks, devoted himself to study, till Sylla + had obtained the government. + </p> + <p> + At this time, Chrysogonus, Sylla's emancipated slave, having laid an + information about an estate belonging to one who was said to have been put + to death by proscription, had bought it himself for two thousand drachmas. + And when Roscius, the son and heir of the dead, complained, and + demonstrated the estate to be worth two hundred and fifty talents, Sylla + took it angrily to have his actions questioned, and preferred a process + against Roscius for the murder of his father, Chrysogonus managing the + evidence. None of the advocates durst assist him, but fearing the cruelty + of Sylla, avoided the cause. The young man, being thus deserted, came for + refuge to Cicero. Cicero's friends encouraged him, saying he was not + likely ever to have a fairer and more honorable introduction to public + life; he therefore undertook the defence, carried the cause, and got much + renown for it. + </p> + <p> + But fearing Sylla, he traveled into Greece, and gave it out that he did so + for the benefit of his health. And indeed he was lean and meagre, and had + such a weakness in his stomach that he could take nothing but a spare and + thin diet, and that not till late in the evening. His voice was loud and + good, but so harsh and ill-managed that in vehemence and heat of speaking + he always raised it to so high a tone, that there seemed to be reason to + fear for his health. + </p> + <p> + At Athens, he became a hearer of Antiochus of Ascalon, with whose fluency + and elegance of diction he was much taken, although he did not approve of + his innovations in doctrine. And Cicero made up his mind that if he should + be disappointed of any employment in the commonwealth, to retire from + pleading and politics, and pass his life quietly in the study of + philosophy. + </p> + <p> + But after he had received the news of Sylla's death, and his body, + strengthened again by exercise, had grown vigorous, and his voice was + rendered sweet and full to the ear, his friends at Rome earnestly + solicited him by letters to return to public affairs. He, therefore, again + prepared for use his orator's instrument of rhetoric, and summoned into + action his political faculties, diligently exercising himself in + declamations, and attending the most celebrated rhetoricians of the time. + He sailed from Athens for Asia and Rhodes. Among the Asian masters, he + conversed with Xenocles of Adramyttium, Dionysius of Magnesia, and + Menippus of Caria; at Rhodes, he studied oratory with Apollonius, the son + of Molon, and philosophy with Posidonius. Apollonius, we are told, not + understanding Latin, requested Cicero to declaim in Greek. He complied + willingly, thinking that his faults would thus be better pointed out to + him. After he finished, all his other hearers were astonished, and vied + with each other in praising him, but Apollonius showed no signs of + excitement while he was hearing him, and now, when he had finished, sat + musing for some time, without any remark. And when Cicero was discomposed + at this, he said, "You have my praise and admiration, Cicero, and Greece + my pity and commiseration, since those arts and that eloquence which are + the only glories that remain to her, will now be transferred by you to + Rome." + </p> + <p> + And now when Cicero, full of expectation, was again bent upon political + affairs, a certain oracle blunted the edge of his inclination; for + consulting the god of Delphi how he should attain most glory, the + Pythoness answered, "By making your own genius and not the opinion of the + people the guide of your life;" and therefore at first he passed his time + in Rome cautiously, and was very backward in pretending to public offices, + so that he was at that time in little esteem, and had got the names, so + readily given by low and ignorant people in Rome, of Greek and Scholar. + But when his own desire of fame and the eagerness of his father and + relations had made him take in earnest to pleading, he made no slow or + gentle advance to the first place, but shone out in full lustre at once, + and far surpassed all the advocates at the bar. At first, it is said, he + as well as Demosthenes, was defective in his delivery, and on that account + paid much attention to the instructions, sometimes of Roscius, the + comedian, and sometimes of Aesop, the tragedian. They tell of this Aesop, + that while representing in the theatre Atreus deliberating the revenge of + Thyestes, he was so transported beyond himself in the heat of action, that + he struck with his sceptre one of the servants, who was running across the + stage, so violently, that he laid him dead upon the place. And such + afterwards was Cicero's delivery, that it did not a little contribute to + render his eloquence persuasive. He used to ridicule loud speakers, saying + that they shouted because they could not speak, like lame men who get on + horseback because they cannot walk. And his readiness and address in wit + and sarcasm were thought to suit a pleader well. + </p> + <p> + He was appointed quaestor in a great scarcity of corn, and had Sicily for + his province, where, at first, he displeased many, by compelling them to + send in their provisions to Rome, yet after they had had experience of his + care, justice, and clemency, they honored him more than ever they did any + of their governors before. It happened, also, that some young Romans of + good and noble families, charged with neglect of discipline and misconduct + in military service, were brought before the praetor in Sicily. Cicero + undertook their defence, which he conducted admirably, and got them + acquitted. So returning to Rome with a great opinion of himself for these + things, a ludicrous incident befell him, as he tells us himself. Meeting + an eminent citizen in Campania, whom he accounted his friend, he asked him + what the Romans said and thought of his actions, as if the whole city had + been filled with the glory of what he had done. His friend asked him in + reply, "Where is it you have been, Cicero?" Utterly mortified and cast + down, he perceived that the report of his actions had sunk into the city + of Rome as into an immense ocean, without any visible effect or result in + reputation. + </p> + <p> + On beginning to apply himself more resolutely to public business, he + remarked it as unreasonable that artificers, using vessels and instruments + inanimate, should know the name, place, and use of every one of them, and + yet the statesman, whose instruments for carrying out public measures are + men, should be negligent and careless in the knowledge of persons. And so + he not only acquainted himself with the names, but also knew the very + place where every one of the more eminent citizens dwelt, what lands he + possessed, his friends and his neighbors, and when he traveled on any road + in Italy, he could readily name and show the estates and seats of his + acquaintances. Having a small competency for his own expenses, it was much + wondered at that he took neither fees nor gifts from his clients, and + especially, that he did not do so when he undertook the prosecution of + Verres. This Verres, who had been praetor of Sicily, and stood charged by + the Sicilians with many evil practices during his government there, Cicero + succeeded in getting condemned, not by speaking, but, as it were, by + holding his tongue. For the praetors, favoring Verres, had deferred the + trial by several adjournments to the last day, in which it was evident + there could not be sufficient time for the advocates to be heard, and the + cause brought to an issue. Cicero, therefore, came forward, and said there + was no need of speeches; and after producing and examining witnesses, he + required the judges to proceed to sentence. Many witty sayings are on + record, as having been used by Cicero on the occasion. When a man named + Caecilius, one of the freed slaves, who was said to be given to Jewish + practices, would have put by the Sicilians, and undertaken the prosecution + of Verres himself, Cicero asked, "What has a Jew to do with swine?" verres + being the Roman word for a boar. And when Verres began to reproach Cicero + with effeminate living, "You ought," replied he, "to use this language at + home, to your sons;" Verres having a son who had fallen into disgraceful + courses. Hortensius, the orator, not daring directly to undertake the + defence of Verres, was yet persuaded to appear for him at the laying on of + the fine, and received an ivory sphinx for his reward; and when Cicero, in + some passage of his speech, obliquely reflected on him, and Hortensius + told him he was not skilful in solving riddles, "No," said Cicero, "and + yet you have the Sphinx in your house!" + </p> + <p> + Verres was thus convicted; though Cicero, who set the fine at seventy-five + myriads, lay under the suspicion of being corrupted by bribery to lessen + the sum. But the Sicilians, in testimony of their gratitude, came and + brought him all sorts of presents from the island, when he was aedile; of + which he made no private profit himself, but used their generosity only to + reduce the public price of provisions. + </p> + <p> + He had a very pleasant seat at Arpi, he had also a farm near Naples, and + another near Pompeii, but none were of any great value. The portion of his + wife, Terentia, amounted to ten myriads, and he had a bequest valued at + nine myriads of denarii: upon these he lived in a liberal but temperate + style, with the learned Greeks and Romans that were his familiars. He + rarely, if at any time, sat down to meat till sunset, and that not so much + on account of business as for his health and the weakness of his stomach. + He was otherwise in the care of his body nice and delicate, appointing + himself, for example, a set number of walks and rubbings. And after this + manner managing the habit of his body, he brought it in time to be + healthful, and capable of supporting many great fatigues and trials. His + father's house he made over to his brother, living himself near the + Palatine Hill, that he might not give the trouble of long journeys to + those that made suit to him. And, indeed, there were not fewer daily + appearing at his door, to do their court to him, than there were that came + to Crassus for his riches, or to Pompey for his power among the soldiers, + these being at that time the two men of the greatest repute and influence + in Rome. Nay, even Pompey himself used to pay court to Cicero, and + Cicero's public actions did much to establish Pompey's authority and + reputation in the state. + </p> + <p> + Numerous distinguished competitors stood with him for the praetor's + office; but he was chosen before them all, and managed the decision of + causes with justice and integrity. It is related that Licinius Macer, a + man himself of great power in the city, and supported also by the + assistance of Crassus, was accused before him of extortion, and that, in + confidence on his own interest and the diligence of his friends, whilst + the judges were debating about the sentence, he went to his house, where + hastily trimming his hair and putting on a clean gown, as already + acquitted, he was setting off again to go to the Forum; but at his hall + door meeting Crassus, who told him that he was condemned by all the votes, + he went in again, threw himself upon his bed, and died immediately. This + verdict was considered very creditable to Cicero, as showing his careful + management of the courts of justice. + </p> + <p> + Yet he was preferred to the consulship no less by the nobles than the + common people for the good of the city; and both parties jointly assisted + his promotion, for the following reasons. The change of government made by + Sylla, which at first seemed a senseless one, by time and usage had now + come to be considered by the people no unsatisfactory settlement. But + there were some that endeavored to alter and subvert the whole present + state of affairs, not from any good motives, but for their own private + gain; and Pompey being at this time employed in the wars with the kings of + Pontus and Armenia, there was no sufficient force at Rome to suppress any + attempts at a revolution. These people had for their head a man of bold, + daring, and restless character, Lucius Catiline, who was accused, besides + other great offences, of killing his own brother; and fearing to be + prosecuted at law, he persuaded Sylla to set his brother down, as though + he were yet alive, amongst those that were to be put to death by + proscription. This man the profligate citizens choosing for their captain, + gave faith to one another, amongst other pledges, by sacrificing a man and + eating of his flesh; and a great part of the young men of the city were + corrupted by him, he providing for every one pleasures and drink, and + profusely supplying the expense of their debauches. Etruria, moreover, had + all been excited to revolt, as well as a great part of Gaul within the + Alps. But Rome itself was in the most dangerous inclination to change on + account of the unequal distribution of wealth and property, those of + highest rank and greatest spirit having impoverished themselves by shows, + entertainments, running for office, and sumptuous buildings, and the + riches of the city had thus fallen into the hands of mean and low-born + persons. So that it required but a slight impetus to set all in motion, it + being in the power of any daring man to overturn a sickly commonwealth. + </p> + <p> + Catiline, however, being desirous of procuring a strong position to carry + out his designs, stood for the consulship, and had great hopes of success, + thinking he should be appointed, with Caius Antonius as his colleague, who + was a man fit to lead neither in a good cause nor in a bad one, but might + be a valuable accession to another's power. The greater part of the good + and honest citizens apprehending these things, put Cicero upon standing + for the consulship; whom the people readily receiving, Catiline was put + by, so that he and Caius Antonius were chosen, although amongst the + competitors he was the only man descended from the father of the + equestrian, and not of the senatorial, order. + </p> + <p> + Though the designs of Catiline were not yet publicly known, yet + considerable trouble immediately followed Cicero's entrance upon the + consulship. For, on the one side, those who were disqualified by the laws + of Sylla from holding any public offices, being neither inconsiderable in + power nor in number, came forward as candidates and entreated the people; + on the other hand, the tribunes of the people proposed laws to the same + purpose, constituting a commission of ten persons, with unlimited powers, + in whom as supreme governors should be vested the right of selling the + public lands of all Italy and Syria and Pompey's new conquests, of judging + and banishing whom they pleased, of planting colonies, of taking money out + of the treasury, and of levying and paying what soldiers should be though + needful. And several of the nobility favored this law, but especially + Caius Antonius, Cicero's colleague, in hopes of being one of the ten. But + what gave the greatest fear to the nobles was, that he was thought privy + to the conspiracy of Catiline, and not to dislike it because of his great + debts. + </p> + <p> + Cicero, endeavoring in the first place to provide a remedy against this + danger, procured a decree assigning to Antonius the province of Macedonia, + he himself declining that of Gaul, which was offered to him. And this + piece of favor so completely won over Antonius, that he was ready to + second, like a hired player, whatever Cicero said for the good of the + country. And now, having made his colleague tame and tractable, he could + with greater courage attack the conspirators. Therefore, in the senate, + making an oration against the law of the ten commissioners, he so + confounded those who proposed it, that they had nothing to reply. + </p> + <p> + For Cicero, it may be said, was the one man, above all others, who made + the Romans feel how great a charm eloquence lends to what is good, and how + invincible justice is if it be well presented. An incident occurred in the + theatre, during his consulship, which showed what his speaking could do. + Formerly the knights of Rome were mingled in the theatre with the common + people, and took their places amongst them just as it happened; but when + Marcus Otho became praetor he distinguished them from the other citizens, + and appointed them special seats, which they still enjoy as their place in + the theatre. This the common people took as an indignity done to them, + and, therefore, when Otho appeared in the theatre they hissed him; the + knights, on the contrary, received him with loud clapping. The people + repeated and increased their hissing; the knights continued their + clapping. Upon this, turning upon one another, they broke out into + insulting words, so that the theatre was in great disorder. Cicero, being + informed of it, came himself to the theatre, and summoning the people into + the temple of Bellona, he so effectually chid and chastised them for it, + that, again returning into the theatre, they received Otho with loud + applause, contending with the knights as to who should give him the + greatest demonstrations of honor and respect. + </p> + <p> + The conspirators with Catiline, at first cowed and disheartened, began + presently to take courage again. And assembling together, they exhorted + one another boldly to undertake the design before Pompey's return. But the + old soldiers of Sylla were Catiline's chief stimulus to action. They had + been disbanded all about Italy, but the greatest number and the fiercest + of them lay scattered among the cities of Etruria entertaining themselves + with dreams of new plunder and rapine among the hoarded riches of Italy. + These, having for their leader Manlius, who had served with distinction in + the wars under Sylla, joined themselves to Catiline, and came to Rome to + assist him with their suffrages at the election. For he again aspired for + the consulship, having resolved to kill Cicero in a tumult at the + elections. The divine powers seemed to give intimation of the coming + troubles, by earthquakes, thunderbolts and strange appearances. Nor was + human evidence wanting, certain enough in itself, though not sufficient to + convict the noble and powerful Catiline. Therefore Cicero, deferring the + day of election, summoned Catiline into the senate, and questioned him as + to the charges made against him. Catiline, believing there were many in + the senate desirous of change, and to give a specimen of himself to the + conspirators present, returned an audacious answer. "What harm," said he, + "when I see two bodies, the one lean and consumptive with a head, the + other one great and strong without one, if I put a head to that body which + wants one?" This covert representation of the senate and the people + excited yet greater apprehensions in Cicero. He put on armor, and was + attended from his house by the noble citizens in a body; and a number of + the young men went with him into the Plain. Here, designedly letting his + tunic slip partly off from his shoulders, he showed his armor underneath, + and discovered his danger to the spectators, who, being much moved at it, + gathered around about him for his defence. At length, Catiline was by + general suffrage again put by, and Silanus and Murena chosen consuls. + </p> + <p> + Not long after this, Catiline's soldiers got together in a body in + Etruria, and began to form themselves into companies, the day appointed + for the design being near at hand. About midnight, some of the principal + and most powerful citizens of Rome, Marcus, Crassus, Marcus Marcellus, and + Scipio Metellus went to Cicero's house, where, knocking at the gate, and + calling up the porter, they commanded him to awake Cicero, and tell him + they were there. The business was this: Crassus's porter after supper had + delivered to him letters brought by an unknown person. Some of them were + directed to others, but one to Crassus, without a name; this only Crassus + read, which informed him that there was a great slaughter intended by + Catiline, and advised him to leave the city. The others he did not open, + but went with them immediately to Cicero, being affrighted at the danger, + and to free himself of the suspicion he lay under for his familiarity with + Catiline. Cicero, considering the matter, summoned the senate at break of + day. The letters he brought with him, and delivered them to those to whom + they were directed, commanding them to read them publicly; they all alike + contained an account of the conspiracy. And when Quintus Arrius, a man of + praetorian dignity, recounted to them, how soldiers were collecting in + companies in Etruria, and Manlius was stated to be in motion with a large + force, hovering about those cities, in expectation of intelligence from + Rome, the senate made a decree to place all in the hands of the consuls, + who should undertake the conduct of everything, and do their best to save + the state. This was not a common thing, but only done by the senate in + cases of imminent danger. + </p> + <p> + After Cicero had received this power, he committed all affairs outside to + Quintus Metellus; but the management of the city he kept in his own hands. + Such a numerous attendance guarded him every day when he went abroad that + the greater part of the forum was filled with his train when he entered + it. Catiline, impatient of further delay, resolved himself to break forth + and go to Manlius; but he commanded Marcius and Cethegus to take their + swords and go early in the morning to Cicero's gates, as if only intending + to salute him, and then to fall upon him and slay him. A noble lady, + Fulvia, coming by night, discovered this to Cicero, bidding him beware of + Cethegus and Marcius. They came by break of day, and being denied + entrance, made an outcry and disturbance at the gates, which excited all + the more suspicion. But Cicero, going forth, summoned the senate into the + temple of Jupiter Stator, which stands at the end of the Sacred Street, + going up to the Palatine. And when Catiline with others of his party also + came, as though intending to make his defence, none of the senators would + sit by him, but all of them left the bench where he had placed himself. + And when he began to speak, they interrupted him with outcries. At length, + Cicero, standing up, commanded him to leave the city; for, since one + governed the commonwealth with words, the other with arms, it was + necessary that there should be a wall betwixt them. Catiline, therefore, + immediately left the town, with three hundred armed men; and assuming, + like a magistrate, the rods, axes, and military ensigns, he went to + Manlius, and having got together a body of near twenty thousand men, with + these he marched to the several cities, endeavoring to persuade or force + them to revolt. It being now come to open war, Antonius was sent forth to + fight him. + </p> + <p> + The remainder of those in the city whom he had corrupted, Cornelius + Lentulus kept together and encouraged. He had the surname Sura, and was a + man of a noble family, but a dissolute liver, who for his debauchery was + formerly turned out of the senate, and was now holding the office of + praetor for the second time, as the custom is with those who desire to + regain the dignity of senator. It is said that he got the surname Sura + upon this occasion; being quaestor in the time of Sylla, he had lavished + away and consumed a great quantity of the public moneys, at which Sylla, + being provoked, called him to give an account in the senate. He appeared + with great coolness and contempt, and said he had no account to give, but + they might take this, holding up the calf of his leg, as boys do at ball, + when they have missed. Upon which he was surnamed Sura, sura being the + Roman word for the calf of the leg. Being at another time prosecuted at + law, and having bribed some of the judges, he escaped by only two votes, + and complained of the needless expense he had gone to in paying for a + second, as one would have sufficed to acquit him. This man, such in his + own nature, and now inflamed by Catiline, false prophets and + fortune-tellers had also corrupted with vain hopes, quoting to him + fictitious verses and oracles, and proving from the Sibylline prophecies + that there were three of the name Cornelius designed by fate to be + monarchs of Rome; two of whom, Cinna and Sylla, had already fulfilled the + decree, and that divine fortune was now advancing with the gift of + monarchy for the remaining third Cornelius; and that therefore he ought by + all means to accept it, and not lose opportunity by delay, as Catiline had + done. + </p> + <p> + Lentulus, therefore, designed no mean or trivial matter, for he had + resolved to kill the whole senate, and as many other citizens as he could, + to fire the city, and spare nobody, except Pompey's children, intending to + seize and keep them as pledges of his reconciliation with Pompey. For + there was then a common report that Pompey was on his way homeward from + his great expedition. The night appointed for the design was one of the + Saturnalia; swords, flax, and sulphur they carried and hid in the house of + Cethegus; and providing one hundred men, and dividing the city into as + many parts, they had allotted to every one singly his proper place, so + that in a moment, many kindling the fire, the city might be in a flame all + together. Others were appointed to stop up the aqueducts, and to kill + those who should endeavor to carry water to put it out. While these plans + were preparing, it happened that there were two ambassadors from the + Allobroges staying in Rome; a nation at that time in a distressed + condition, and very uneasy under the Roman government. These Lentulus and + his party, judging useful instruments to move Gaul to revolt, admitted + into the conspiracy, and they gave them letters to their own magistrates, + and letters to Catiline; in those they promised liberty, in these they + exhorted Catiline to set all slaves free, and to bring them along with him + to Rome. They sent also to accompany them to Catiline, one Titus, a native + of Croton, who was to carry those letters to him. + </p> + <p> + These counsels of inconsidering men, who conversed together over their + wine, Cicero watched with sober industry and forethought, and with most + admirable sagacity, having several emissaries abroad, who observed and + traced with him all that was done, and keeping also a secret + correspondence with many who pretended to join in the conspiracy. He thus + knew all the discourse which passed between them and the strangers; and + lying in wait for them by night, he took the Crotonian with his letters, + the ambassadors of the Allobroges acting secretly in concert with him. + </p> + <p> + By break of day, he summoned the senate into the temple of Concord, where + he read the letters and examined the informers. Junius Silanus further + stated that several persons had heard Cethegus say that three consuls and + four praetors were to be slain; Piso, also, a person of consular dignity, + testified other matters of like nature; and Caius Sulpicius, one of the + praetors, being sent to Cethegus's house, found there a quantity of darts + and of armor, and a still greater number of swords and daggers, all + recently whetted. At length, the senate, decreeing indemnity to the + Crotonian upon his confession of the whole matter, Lentulus was convicted, + abjured his office (for he was then praetor), and put off his robe edged + with purple in the senate, changing it for another garment more agreeable + to his present circumstances. He, thereupon, with the rest of his + confederates present, was committed to the charge of the praetors in free + custody. + </p> + <p> + It being evening, and the common people in crowds expecting without, + Cicero went forth to them, and told them what was done, and then, attended + by them, went to the house of a friend and near neighbor; for his own was + taken up by the women, who were celebrating with secret rites the feast of + the goddess whom the Romans call the Good, and the Greeks, the Women's + goddess. For a sacrifice is annually performed to her in the consul's + house, either by his wife or mother, in the presence of the vestal + virgins. And having got into his friend's house privately, a few only + being present, he began to deliberate how he should treat these men. The + severest and the only punishment fit for such heinous crimes, he was + somewhat shy and fearful of inflicting, as well from the clemency of his + nature, as also lest he should be thought to exercise his authority too + insolently, and to treat too harshly men of the noblest birth and most + powerful friendships in the city; and yet, if he should use them more + mildly, he had a dreadful prospect of danger from them. For there was no + likelihood that, if they suffered less than death, they would be + reconciled, but, rather, adding new rage to their former wickedness, they + would rush into every kind of audacity, while he himself, whose character + for courage already did not stand very high with the multitude, would be + thought guilty of the greatest cowardice and want of manliness. + </p> + <p> + While Cicero was in doubt what course to take, a portent happened to the + women in their sacrificing. For on the altar, where the fire seemed wholly + extinguished, a great and bright flame issued forth from the ashes of the + burnt wood; at which others were affrighted, but the holy virgins called + to Terentia, Cicero's wife, and bade her hasten to her husband, and + command him to execute what he had resolved for the good of his country, + for the goddess had sent a great light to the increase of his safety and + glory. Terentia, therefore, as she was otherwise in her own nature neither + tender-hearted nor timorous, but a woman eager for distinction (who, as + Cicero himself says, would rather thrust herself into his public affairs + than communicate her domestic matters to him), told him these things, and + excited him against the conspirators. So also did Quintus his brother, and + Publius Nigidius, one of his philosophical friends, whom he often made use + of in his most weighty affairs of state. + </p> + <p> + The next day, a debate arising in the senate about the punishment of the + men, Silanus, being the first who was asked his opinion, said, it was fit + that they should be all sent to prison, and there suffer the utmost + penalty. With him all agreed in order till it came to Caius Caesar, who + was afterwards dictator. He was then but a young man, and only at the + outset of his career, but had already directed his hopes and policy to + that course by which he afterwards changed the Roman state into a + monarchy. + </p> + <p> + When it came Caesar's turn to give his opinion, he stood up and proposed + that the conspirators should not be put to death, but their estates + confiscated, and their persons confined in such cities in Italy as Cicero + should approve, there to be kept in custody till Catiline was conquered. + To this sentence, as it was the most moderate, and he that delivered it a + most powerful speaker, Cicero himself gave no small weight, for he stood + up and, turning the scale on either side, spoke in favor partly of the + former, partly of Caesar's sentence. And all Cicero's friends, judging + Caesar's sentence most expedient for Cicero, because he would incur the + less blame if the conspirators were not put to death, chose rather the + latter; so that Silanus, also, changing his mind, retracted his opinion, + and said he had not declared for capital, but only the utmost punishment, + which to a Roman senator is imprisonment. The first man who spoke against + Caesar's motion was Catulus Lutatius. Cato followed, and so vehemently + urged in his speech the strong suspicion about Caesar himself, and so + filled the senate with anger and resolution, that a decree was passed for + the execution of the conspirators. But Caesar opposed the confiscation of + their goods, not thinking it fair that those who had rejected the mildest + part of his sentence should avail themselves of the severest. And when + many insisted upon it, he appealed to the tribunes, but they would do + nothing; till Cicero himself yielding, remitted that part of the sentence. + </p> + <p> + After this, Cicero went out with the senate to the conspirators; they were + not all together in one place, but the several praetors had them, some + one, some another, in custody. And first he took Lentulus from the + Palatine, and brought him by the Sacred Street, through the middle of the + market-place, a circle of the most eminent citizens encompassing and + protecting him. The people, affrighted at what was doing, passed along in + silence, especially the young men; as if, with fear and trembling, they + were undergoing a rite of initiation into some ancient, sacred mysteries + of aristocratic power. Thus passing from the market-place, and coming to + the gaol, he delivered Lentulus to the officer, and commanded him to + execute him; and after him Cethegus, and so all the rest in order, he + brought and delivered up to execution. And when he saw many of the + conspirators in the market-place, still standing together in companies, + ignorant of what was done, and waiting for the night, supposing the men + were still alive and in a possibility of being rescued, he called out in a + loud voice, and said, "They did live"; for so the Romans, to avoid + inauspicious language, name those that are dead. + </p> + <p> + It was now evening, when he returned from the market-place to his own + house, the citizens no longer attending him with silence, nor in order, + but receiving him, as he passed, with acclamations and applauses, and + saluting him as the savior and founder of his country. A bright light + shone through the streets from the lamps and torches set up at the doors, + and the women showed lights from the tops of the houses, to honor Cicero, + and to behold him returning home with a splendid train of the principal + citizens; amongst whom were many who had conducted great wars, celebrated + triumphs, and added to the possessions of the Roman empire, both by sea + and land. These, as they passed along with him, acknowledged to one + another, that though the Roman people were indebted to several officers + and commanders of that age for riches, spoils, and power, yet to Cicero + alone they owed the safety and security of all these, for delivering them + from so great and imminent a danger. For though it might seem no wonderful + thing to prevent the design, and punish the conspirators, yet to defeat + the greatest of all conspiracies with so little disturbance, trouble, and + commotion, was very extraordinary. For the greater part of those who had + flocked in to Catiline, as soon as they heard of the fate of Lentulus and + Cethegus, forsook him, and he himself, with his remaining forces, joining + battle with Antonius, was destroyed with his army. + </p> + <p> + And yet there were some who were very ready both to speak ill of Cicero, + and to do him hurt for these actions; and they had for their leaders some + of the magistrates of the ensuing year, as Caesar, who was one of the + praetors, and Metellus and Bestia, the tribunes. These, entering upon + their office some few days before Cicero's consulate expired, would not + permit him to make any address to the people, but, throwing the benches + before the Rostra, hindered his speaking, telling him he might, if he + pleased, make the oath of withdrawal from office, and then come down + again. Cicero, accordingly, accepting the conditions, came forward to make + his withdrawal; and silence being made, he recited his oath, not in the + usual, but in a new and peculiar form, namely, that he had saved his + country, and preserved the empire; the truth of which oath all the people + confirmed with theirs. Caesar and the tribunes, all the more exasperated + by this, endeavored to create him further trouble, and for this purpose + proposed a law for calling Pompey home with his army, to put an end to + Cicero's usurpation. But it was a very great advantage for Cicero and the + whole commonwealth that Cato was at that time one of the tribunes. For he, + being of equal power with the rest, and of greater reputation, could + oppose their designs. He easily defeated their other projects, and, in an + oration to the people, so highly extolled Cicero's consulate, that the + greatest honors were decreed him, and he was publicly declared the Father + of his Country, which title he seems to have obtained, the first man who + did so, when Cato applied it to him in this address to the people. + </p> + <p> + At this time, therefore, his authority was very great in the city; but he + created himself much envy, and offended very many, not by any evil action, + but because he was always lauding and magnifying himself. For neither + senate, nor assembly of the people, nor court of judicature could meet, in + which he was not heard to talk of Catiline and Lentulus. Indeed, he filled + his books and writings with his own praises, to such an excess as to + render a style, in itself most pleasant and delightful, nauseous and + irksome to his hearers. This ungrateful humor, like a disease, always + clove to him. Still, though fond of his own glory, he was very free from + envying others, but was, on the contrary, most liberally profuse in + commending both the ancients and his contemporaries, as any one may see in + his writings. He called Aristotle a river of flowing gold, and said of + Plato's Dialogues, that if Jupiter were to speak, it would be in language + like theirs. He used to call Theophrastus his special luxury. And being + asked which of Demosthenes's orations he liked best, he answered, "The + longest." And as for the eminent men of his own time, either in eloquence + or philosophy, there was not one of them whom he did not, by writing or + speaking favorably of him, render more illustrious. + </p> + <p> + An example of his love of praise is the way in which sometimes, to make + his orations more striking, he neglected decorum and dignity. When + Munatius, who had escaped conviction by his advocacy, immediately + prosecuted his friend Sabinus, he said in the warmth of his resentment, + "Do you suppose you were acquitted for your own merits, Munatius, or was + it not that I so darkened the case, that the court could not see your + guilt?" When from the Rostra he had made a eulogy on Marcus Crassus, with + much applause, and within a few days after again as publicly reproached + him, Crassus called to him, and said, "Did not you yourself two days ago, + in this same place, commend me?" "Yes," said Cicero, "I exercised my + eloquence in declaiming upon a bad subject." At another time, Crassus had + said that no one of his family had ever lived beyond sixty years of age, + and afterwards denied it, and asked, "What should put it into my head to + say so?" "It was to gain the people's favor," answered Cicero; "you knew + how glad they would be to hear it." When Vatinius, who had swellings in + his neck, was pleading a cause, he called him the tumid orator; and having + been told by some one that Vatinius was dead, on hearing soon after that + he was alive, he said, "may the rascal perish, for his news not being + true." + </p> + <p> + Upon Caesar's bringing forward a law for the division of the lands in + Campania amongst the soldiers, many in the senate opposed it; amongst the + rest, Lucius Gellius, one of the oldest men in the house, said it should + never pass whilst he lived. "Let us postpone it," said Cicero, "Gellius + does not ask us to wait long." There was a man of the name of Octavius, + suspected to be of African descent. He once said, when Cicero was + pleading, that he could not hear him; "yet there are holes," said Cicero, + "in your ears." When Metellus Nepos told him that he had ruined more as a + witness than he had saved as an advocate, "I admit," said Cicero, "that I + have more truth than eloquence." To a young man who was suspected of + having given a poisoned cake to his father, and who talked largely of the + invectives he meant to deliver against Cicero, "Better these," replied he, + "than your cakes." Publius Sextius, having amongst others retained Cicero + as his advocate in a certain cause, was yet desirous to say all for + himself, and would not allow anybody to speak for him; when he was about + to receive his acquittal from the judges, and the ballots were passing, + Cicero called to him, "make haste, Sextius, and use your time; to-morrow + you will be nobody." He cited Publius Cotta to bear testimony in a certain + cause, one who affected to be thought a lawyer, though ignorant and + unlearned; but when Cotta had said, "I know nothing at all about the + matter," Cicero answered: "You think, perhaps, we are asking you about a + point of law." When Marcus Appius, in the opening of some speech in a + court of justice, said that his friend had desired him to employ industry, + eloquence, and fidelity in that cause, Cicero asked, "And how have you had + the heart not to accede to any one of his requests?" + </p> + <p> + One Clodius, whom Cicero had vehemently opposed in an important trial, + having got himself chosen one of the tribunes, immediately attacked + Cicero, endeavoring to incite everybody against him. The common people he + gained over with popular laws; to each of the consuls he decreed large + provinces, to Piso, Macedonia, and to Gabinius, Syria. Of the three men + then in greatest power, Crassus was Cicero's open enemy, Pompey + indifferently made advances to both, and Caesar was going with an army + into Gaul. To him, though not his friend, Cicero applied, requesting an + appointment as one of his lieutenants in the province. Caesar accepted + him, and Clodius, perceiving that Cicero would thus escape his tribunician + authority, professed to be inclinable to a reconciliation, made always a + favorable mention of him, and addressed him with kind expressions, as one + who felt no hatred or ill-will, but who merely wished to urge his + complaints in a moderate and friendly way. By these artifices, he so freed + Cicero of all his fears, that he resigned his appointment to Caesar, and + betook himself again to political affairs. At which Caesar being + exasperated, joined the party of Clodius against him, and wholly alienated + Pompey from him; he also himself declared in a public assembly of the + people, that he did not think Lentulus and Cethegus, with their + accomplices, were fairly and legally put to death without being brought to + trial. And this, indeed, was the crime charged upon Cicero, and this + impeachment he was summoned to answer. And so, as an accused man, and in + danger for the result, he changed his dress, and went round with his hair + untrimmed, in the attire of a suppliant, to beg the people's grace. But + Clodius met him in every corner, having a band of abusive and daring + fellows about him, who derided Cicero for his change of dress and his + humiliation, and often, by throwing dirt and stones at him, interrupted + his supplication to the people. + </p> + <p> + However, first of all, almost the whole equestrian order changed their + dress with him, and no less than twenty thousand young gentlemen followed + him with their hair untrimmed, and supplicating with him to the people. + And then the senate met, to pass a decree that the people should change + their dress as in time of public sorrow. But the consuls opposing it, and + Clodius with armed men besetting the senate-house, many of the senators + ran out, crying aloud and tearing their clothes. But this sight moved + neither shame nor pity; Cicero must either fly or determine it by the + sword with Clodius. He entreated Pompey to aid him, who on purpose had + gone out of the way, and was staying at his country-house in the Alban + hills; and first he sent his son-in-law Piso to intercede with him, and + afterwards set out to go himself. But Pompey being informed, would not + stay to see him, being ashamed at the remembrance of the many conflicts in + the commonwealth which Cicero had undergone in his behalf, and how much of + his policy he had directed for his advantage. But being now Caesar's + son-in-law, at his instance he had set aside all former kindness, and, + slipping out at another door, avoided the interview. Thus being forsaken + by Pompey, and left alone to himself, he fled to the consuls. Gabinius was + rough with him, as usual, but Piso spoke more courteously, desiring him to + yield for a while to the fury of Clodius, and to await a change of times, + and to be now, as before, his country's savior from the peril of these + troubles and commotions which Clodius was exciting. + </p> + <p> + Cicero, receiving this answer, consulted with his friends. Lucullus + advised him to stay, as being sure to prevail at last; others to fly, + because the people would soon desire him again, when they should have + enough of the rage and madness of Clodius. This last Cicero approved. But + first he took a statue of Minerva, which had been long set up and greatly + honored in his house, and carrying it to the capitol, there dedicated it, + with the inscription, "To Minerva, Patroness of Rome." And receiving an + escort from his friends, about the middle of the night he left the city, + and went by land through Lucania, intending to reach Sicily. + </p> + <p> + But as soon as it was publicly known that he was fled, Clodius proposed to + the people a decree of exile, and by his own order interdicted him fire + and water, prohibiting any within five hundred miles in Italy to receive + him into their houses. Most people, out of respect for Cicero, paid no + regard to this edict, offering him every attention, and escorting him on + his way. But at Hipponium, a city of Lucania, now called Vibo, one Vibius, + a Sicilian by birth, who, amongst may other instances of Cicero's + friendship, had been made head of the state engineers when he was consul, + would not receive him into his house, sending him word that he would + appoint a place in the country for his reception. Caius Vergilius, the + praetor of Sicily, who had been on the most intimate terms with him, wrote + to him to forbear coming into Sicily. Cicero, thoroughly disheartened at + these things, went to Brundusium, whence he put forth with a prosperous + wind, but a contrary gale blowing from the sea carried him back to Italy + the next day. He put again to sea, and having reached Dyrrachium, on his + coming to shore there, it is reported that an earthquake and a convulsion + in the sea happened at the same time, signs which the diviners said + intimated that his exile would not be long, for these were prognostics of + change. Although many visited him with respect, and the cities of Greece + contended with each other in honoring him, he yet continued disconsolate, + like an unfortunate lover, often casting his looks back upon Italy; and, + indeed, he had become more humiliated and dejected by his misfortunes than + any one could have expected in a man who had devoted so much of his life + to study and learning. And yet he often desired his friends not to call + him orator, but philosopher, because he had made philosophy his business, + and had only used rhetoric as an instrument for attaining his objects in + public life. + </p> + <p> + Clodius, having thus driven away Cicero, fell to burning his + farm-buildings and villas, and afterwards his city house, and built on the + site of it a temple to Liberty. The rest of his property he exposed for + sale by daily proclamation, but nobody came to buy. By this course he + became formidable to the noble citizens, and, being followed by the + commonalty, whom he had filled with insolence and licentiousness, he began + at last to try his strength against Pompey, some of whose arrangements in + the countries he conquered, he attacked. The disgrace of this made Pompey + begin to reproach himself for his cowardice in deserting Cicero, and, + changing his mind, he now wholly set himself with his friends to contrive + his return. And when Clodius opposed it, the senate made a vote that no + public measure should be ratified or passed by them till Cicero was + recalled. But when Lentulus was consul, the commotions grew so high upon + this matter, that the tribunes were wounded in the Forum, and Quintus, + Cicero's brother, was left as dead, lying unobserved amongst the slain. + The people began to change in their feelings; and Annius Milo, one of + their tribunes, was the first who had the courage to summon Clodius to + trial for acts of violence. Many of the common people in Rome and the + neighboring cities formed a party with Pompey, who headed them in person, + drove Clodius out of the Forum, and summoned the people to pass their + vote. And, it is said, the people never passed any suffrage more + unanimously than this. The senate, also, striving to outdo the people, + sent letters of thanks to those cities which had received Cicero with + respect in his exile, and decreed that his house and his country-places, + which Clodius had destroyed, should be rebuilt at the public charge. + </p> + <p> + Thus Cicero returned sixteen months after his exile, and the cities were + so glad, and the people so zealous to meet him, that his boast, that Italy + had brought him on her shoulders home to Rome, was rather less than the + truth. And Crassus himself, who had been his enemy before his exile, went + voluntarily to meet him, and was reconciled, as he said, to please his son + Publius, who was Cicero's affectionate admirer. + </p> + <p> + Cicero had not been long at Rome, when, taking the opportunity of + Clodius's absence, he went, with a great company, to the capitol, and + there tore and defaced the tribunician tables, in which were recorded the + acts done in the time of Clodius. And on Clodius calling him in question + for this, he answered, that he, being of the patrician order, had obtained + the office of tribune against the law, and, therefore, nothing done by him + was valid. Cato was displeased at this, and opposed Cicero, not that he + commended Clodius, but rather disapproved of his whole administration; + yet, he contended, that it was an irregular and violent course for the + senate to vote the illegality of so many decrees and acts, including those + of Cato's own government in Cyprus and at Byzantium. This occasioned a + breach between Cato and Cicero, which, though it did not come to open + enmity, made a more reserved friendship between them. + </p> + <p> + After this, Milo killed Clodius, and, being arraigned for the murder, he + procured Cicero for his advocate. The senate, fearing lest the questioning + of so eminent and high-spirited a citizen as Milo might disturb the peace + of the city, committed the superintendence of this and of the other trials + to Pompey, who should undertake to maintain the security alike of the city + and of the courts of justice. Pompey, therefore, went in the night, and + occupying the high grounds about it, surrounded the Forum with soldiers. + Milo, fearing lest Cicero, being disturbed by such an unusual sight, + should conduct his cause the less successfully, persuaded him to come in a + litter into the Forum, and there rest till the judges had taken their + seats, and the court was filled. For Cicero, it seems, not only wanted + courage in arms, but, in his speaking also, began with timidity, and in + many cases scarcely left off trembling and shaking when he had got + thoroughly into the current and the substance of his speech. Once when he + had to defend Licinius Murena against the prosecution of Cato, being eager + to outdo Hortensius, who had made his plea with great applause, he took so + little rest the night before, and was so disordered with thought and + over-watching, that he spoke much worse than usual. And so now, on + quitting his litter to commence the cause of Milo, at the sight of Pompey, + encamped, as it were, with his troops, and seeing arms shining round about + the Forum, he was so confounded that he could hardly begin his speech, for + the trembling of his body and hesitancy of his tongue; whereas Milo, + meantime, was so bold and intrepid in his demeanor, that he disdained + either to let his hair grow, or to put on the mourning habit. And this, + indeed, seems to have been the principal cause of his condemnation. And + Cicero was thought not so much to have shown timidity for himself, as + anxiety about his friend. + </p> + <p> + When the outbreak between Caesar and Pompey came, Cicero wavered painfully + between both, for he writes in his epistles, "To which side should I turn? + Pompey has the fair and honorable plea for war; and Caesar, on the other + hand, has managed his affairs better, and is more able to secure himself + and his friends. So that I know whom I should fly from, not whom I should + fly to." But when Trebatius, one of Caesar's friends, by letter signified + to him that Caesar thought it was his most desirable course to join his + side, but if he considered himself too old a man for this, he would do + better to retire into Greece, and stay quietly there, out of the way of + either party, Cicero, wondering that Caesar had not written himself, + replied angrily that he should do nothing unbecoming his past life. + </p> + <p> + But as soon as Caesar had marched into Spain, he immediately sailed away + to join Pompey. And he was welcomed by all but Cato; who, taking him + privately aside, chid him for coming to Pompey. As for himself, he said, + it would have been indecent to forsake that part in the commonwealth which + he had chosen from the beginning; but Cicero might have been more useful + to his country and friends, if, remaining neutral, he had attended and + used his influence to moderate the result, instead of coming hither to + make himself, without reason or necessity, an enemy to Caesar, and a + partner in such great dangers. By this language, Cicero's feelings were + altered, and partly, also, because Pompey made no great use of him. + Although he was himself really the cause of it, by his not denying that he + was sorry he had come, by his deprecating Pompey's resources, finding + fault underhand with his counsels, and continually indulging in jests and + sarcastic remarks on his fellow-soldiers. + </p> + <p> + After the battle of Pharsalia was over, at which he was not present for + want of health, and Pompey had fled, Cato, having considerable forces and + a great fleet at Dyrrachium, would have had Cicero commander-in-chief, + according to law, and the precedence of his consular dignity. But on his + refusing the command, and wholly declining to take part in their plans for + continuing the war, he was in the greatest danger of being killed, young + Pompey and his friends calling him traitor, and drawing their swords upon + him; only that Cato interposed, and with difficulty rescued and brought + him out of the camp. + </p> + <p> + Afterwards, arriving at Brundusium, he tarried there some time in + expectation of Caesar, who was delayed by his affairs in Asia and Egypt. + And when it was told him that he had arrived at Tarentum, and was coming + thence by land to Brundusium, he hastened towards him, not altogether + without hope, and yet in some fear of making experiment of the temper of + an enemy and conqueror in the presence of many witnesses. But there was no + necessity for him either to speak or do anything unworthy of himself; for + Caesar, as soon as he saw him coming a good way before the rest of the + company, went forward to meet him, saluted him, and, leading the way, + conversed with him alone for some furlongs. And from that time on he + continued to treat him with honor and respect, so that, when Cicero wrote + an oration in praise of Cato, Caesar, in writing an answer to it, took + occasion to commend Cicero's own life and eloquence, comparing him to + Pericles and Teramenes. Cicero's oration was called "Cato"; Caesar's, + "Anti-Cato." + </p> + <p> + So also, it is related that when Quintus Ligarius was prosecuted for + having been in arms against Caesar, and Cicero had undertaken his defence, + Caesar said to his friends, "Ligarius, without question, is a wicked man + and an enemy. But why might we not as well once more hear a speech from + Cicero?" yet when Cicero began to speak, he wonderfully moved him, and + proceeded in his speech with such varied pathos, and such a charm of + language, that the color of Caesar's countenance often changed, and it was + evident that all the passions of his soul were in commotion. And when at + length, the orator touched upon the Pharsalian battle, he was so affected + that his whole frame trembled and some of the papers he held dropped out + of his hands. And thus he was overpowered, and acquitted Ligarius. + </p> + <p> + Henceforth, the commonwealth being changed into a monarchy, Cicero + withdrew himself from public affairs, and employed his leisure in + instructing those young men that wished, in philosophy; and by the near + intercourse he thus had with some of the noblest and highest in rank, he + again began to possess great influence in the city. The work which he set + himself to do was to compose and translate philosophical dialogues and to + render logical and physical terms into the Roman idiom. For he it was, as + it is said, who first or principally gave Latin names to technical Greek + terms, which, either by metaphors or other means of accommodation, he + succeeded in making intelligible to the Romans. For his recreation, he + exercised his dexterity in poetry, and when he was set to it, would make + five hundred verses in a night. He spent the greatest part of his time at + his country-house near Tusculum. + </p> + <p> + He had a design, it is said, of writing the history of his country, + combining with it much of that of Greece, and incorporating in it all the + stories and legends of the past that he had collected. But his purposes + were interfered with by various public and various private unhappy + occurrences and misfortunes; for most of which he was himself in fault. + For first of all, he put away his wife, Terentia, by whom he had been + neglected in the time of the war, and sent away destitute of necessaries + for his journey; neither did he find her kind when he returned into Italy, + for she did not join him at Brundusium, where he staid a long time, and + would not allow her young daughter, who undertook so long a journey, + decent attendance, or the requisite expenses; besides, she left him a + naked and empty house, and yet had involved him in many and great debts. + These were alleged as the fairest reasons for the divorce. But Terentia, + who denied them all, had the most unmistakable defence furnished her by + her husband himself, who not long after married a young maiden for the + love of her beauty, as Terentia upbraided him; or as Tiro, his emancipated + slave, has written, for her riches, to discharge his debts. For the young + woman was very rich, and Cicero had the custody of her estate, being left + guardian in trust; and being in debt many myriads of money, he was + persuaded by his friends and relations to marry her, notwithstanding their + disparity of age, and to use her money to satisfy his creditors. Antony, + who mentions this marriage in his answer to the Phillippics, reproaches + him for putting away a wife with whom he had lived to old age; adding some + happy strokes of sarcasm on Cicero's domestic, inactive, unsoldier-like + habits. Not long after this marriage, his daughter died at Lentulus's + house, to whom she had been married after the death of Piso, her former + husband. The philosophers from all parts came to comfort Cicero; for his + grief was so excessive, that he put away his newly-married wife, because + she seemed to be pleased at the death of Tullia. + </p> + <p> + He had no concern in the design that was now forming to kill Caesar, + although, in general, he was Brutus's confidant. + </p> + <p> + But as soon as the act was committed by Brutus and Cassius, and the + friends of Caesar had assembled, so that there was danger of another civil + war, Antony, being consul, convened the senate, and made a short address + recommending concord. And Cicero, following with various remarks such as + the occasion called for, persuaded the senate to imitate the Athenians, + and decree an amnesty for what had been done in Caesar's case, and to + bestow provinces on Brutus and Cassius. But neither of these things took + effect. For as soon as the common people, who were naturally inclined to + pity, saw the dead body of Caesar borne through the market-place, and + Antony showing his clothes stained with blood, and pierced through in + every part with swords, they were enraged to such a degree of frenzy, that + they made a search for the murderers, and with firebrands in their hands + ran to their houses to burn them. + </p> + <p> + Antony at this was in exultation, and every one was alarmed at the + prospect that he would make himself sole ruler, and Cicero more than any + one else. For Antony, seeing his influence reviving in the commonwealth, + and knowing how closely he was connected with Brutus, was ill-pleased to + have him in the city. Besides, there had been some former jealousy between + them, occasioned by the difference of their manners. Cicero, fearing the + event, was inclined to go as lieutenant with Dolabella into Syria. But + Hirtius and Pansa, consuls-elect as successors of Antony, good men and + lovers of Cicero, entreated him not to leave them, undertaking to put down + Antony if he would stay in Rome. And he, neither distrusting wholly, nor + trusting them, let Dolabella go without him, promising Hirtius that he + would go and spend his summer at Athens, and return again when he entered + upon his office. So he set out on his journey; but some delay occurring in + his passage, new intelligence, as often happens, came suddenly from Rome, + that Antony had made an astonishing change, and was managing the public + affairs in harmony with the will of the senate, and that there wanted + nothing but his presence to bring things to a happy settlement. Therefore, + blaming himself for his cowardice, he returned to Rome, and was not + deceived in his hopes at the beginning. For such multitudes flocked out to + meet him, that the compliments and civilities which were paid him at the + gates, and at this entrance into the city, took up almost a whole day's + time. + </p> + <p> + On the morrow, Antony convened the senate, and summoned Cicero thither. + But he kept his bed, pretending to be ill from his journey; but the true + reason seemed to be the fear of some design against him, upon a suspicion + and intimation given him on his way to Rome. Antony, however, showed great + offence at the affront, and sent soldiers, commanding them to bring him or + burn his house; but many interceding and supplicating for him, he was + contented to accept sureties. Ever after when they met, they passed one + another in silence, and continued on their guard, till the younger Caesar + (Augustus), coming from Apollonia, entered on the first Caesar's + inheritance, and was engaged in a dispute with Antony about two thousand + five hundred myriads of money, which Antony detained from the estate. + </p> + <p> + Upon this, Philippus, who married the mother, and Marcellus, who married + the sister of young Caesar, came with the young man to Cicero, and agreed + with him that Cicero should give them the aid of his eloquence and + political influence with the senate and people, and Caesar give Cicero the + defence of his riches and arms. For the young man had already a great + party of the soldiers of Caesar about him. And Cicero's readiness to join + him was founded, it is said, on some yet stronger motives; for it seems, + while Pompey and Caesar were yet alive, Cicero, in his sleep, had fancied + himself engaged in calling some of the sons of the senators into the + capitol, Jupiter, according to the dream, being about to declare one of + them the chief ruler of Rome. The citizens, running up with curiosity, + stood about the temple, and the youths, sitting in their purple-bordered + robes, kept silence. On a sudden the doors opened, and the youths, arising + one by one in order, passed round the god, who reviewed them all, and, to + their sorrow, dismissed them; but when this one was passing by, the god + stretched forth his right hand and said, "O ye Romans, this young man, + when he shall be lord of Rome, shall put an end to all your civil wars." + It is said that Cicero formed from his dream a distinct image of the + youth, and retained it afterwards perfectly, but did not know who it was. + The next day, going down into the Campus Martius, he met the boys + returning from their gymnastic exercises, and the first was he, just as he + had appeared to him in his dream. Being astonished at it, he asked him who + were his parents. And it proved to be this young Caesar, whose father was + a man of no great eminence, Octavius, and his mother, Attia, Caesar's + sister's daughter; for which reason, Caesar, who had no children, made him + by will the heir of his house and property. From that time, it is said + that Cicero studiously noticed the youth whenever he met him, and he as + kindly received the civility; and by fortune he happened to be born when + Cicero was consul. + </p> + <p> + These were the reasons spoken of; but it was principally Cicero's hatred + of Antony, and a temper unable to resist honor, which fastened him to + Caesar, with the purpose of getting the support of Caesar's power for his + own public designs. For the young man went so far in his court to him, + that he called him Father; at which Brutus was so highly displeased, that, + in his epistles to Atticus he reflected on Cicero saying, it was manifest, + by his courting Caesar for fear of Antony, he did not intend liberty to + his country, but an indulgent master to himself. Notwithstanding, Brutus + took Cicero's son, then studying philosophy at Athens, gave him a command, + and employed him in various ways, with a good result. Cicero's own power + at this time was at the greatest height in the city, and he did whatsoever + he pleased; he completely overpowered and drove out Antony, and sent the + two consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, with an army, to reduce him; and, on the + other hand, persuaded the senate to allow Caesar the lictors and ensigns + of a praetor, as though he were his country's defender. But after Antony + was defeated in battle, and the two consuls slain, the armies united, and + ranged themselves with Caesar. And the senate, fearing the young man, and + his extraordinary fortune, endeavored by honors and gifts, to call off the + soldiers from him, and to lessen his power; professing there was no + further need of arms, now Antony was put to flight. + </p> + <p> + This gave Caesar a fright, and he privately sent friends to entreat Cicero + to procure the consular dignity for them both together; saying that he + should manage the affair as he pleased, should have the supreme power, and + govern the young man who was only desirous of name and glory. + </p> + <p> + And now, more than at any other time, Cicero let himself be carried away + and deceived, though an old man, by the persuasions of a boy. He joined + him in soliciting votes, and procured the good-will of the senate, not + without blame at the time on the part of his friends; and he, too, soon + enough after, saw that he had ruined himself, and betrayed the liberty of + his country. For the young man, once established, and possessed of the + office of consul, bade Cicero farewell; and reconciling himself with + Antony and Lepidus, joined his power with theirs, and divided the + government, like a piece of property, with them. Thus united, they made a + schedule of above two hundred persons who were to be put to death. But the + greatest contention in all their debates was on the question of Cicero's + case. Antony would come to no conditions, unless he should be the first + man to be killed. Lepidus held with Antony, and Caesar opposed them both. + They met secretly and by themselves, for three days together, near the + town of Bononia. The spot was not far from the camp, with a river + surrounding it. Caesar, it is said, contended earnestly for Cicero the + first two days; but on the third day he yielded, and gave him up. The + terms of their mutual concessions were these; that Caesar should desert + Cicero, Lepidus his brother Paulus, and Antony, Lucius Caesar, his uncle + by his mother's side. Thus they let their anger and fury take from them + the sense of humanity, and demonstrated that no beast is more savage than + man, when possessed with power proportioned to his rage. + </p> + <p> + While these things were contriving, Cicero was with his brother at his + country-house near Tusculum; whence, hearing of the proscriptions, they + determined to pass to Astura, a villa of Cicero's near the sea, and to + take shipping from there for Macedonia to Brutus, of whose strength in + that province news had already been heard. They traveled together in their + separate litters, overwhelmed with sorrow; and often stopping on the way + till their litters came together, condoled with one another. But Quintus + was the more disheartened, when he reflected on his want of means for his + journey; for, as he said, he had brought nothing with him from home. And + even Cicero himself had but a slender provision. It was judged therefore + most expedient that Cicero should make what haste he could to fly, and + Quintus return home to provide necessaries, and thus resolved, they + mutually embraced, and parted with many tears. + </p> + <p> + Quintus, within a few days after, was betrayed by his servants to those + who came to search for him, and slain, together with his young son. But + Cicero was carried to Astura, where, finding a vessel, he immediately went + on board of her, and sailed as far as Circaeum with a prosperous gale; but + when the pilots resolved immediately to set sail from there, whether he + feared the sea, or did not wholly lose faith in Caesar, he went on shore, + and passed by land a hundred furlongs, as if he was going to Rome. But + losing resolution and changing his mind, he again returned to the sea, and + there spent the night in fear and perplexity. Sometimes he resolved to go + into Caesar's house privately, and there kill himself upon the altar of + his household gods, to bring divine vengeance upon him; but the fear of + torture restrained him. And after passing through a variety of confused + and uncertain counsels, at last he let his servants carry him by sea to + Capitae, where he had a house, an agreeable place to retire to in the heat + of summer, when the Etesian winds are so pleasant. + </p> + <p> + There was at that place a chapel of Apollo, not far from the sea-side, + from which a flight of crows rose with a great noise, and made towards + Cicero's vessel as it rowed to land, and lighting on both sides of the + yard, some croaked, others pecked the ends of the ropes. This was looked + upon by all as an evil omen; and, therefore, Cicero went again ashore, and + entering his house, lay down upon his bed to compose himself at rest. Many + of the crows settled about the window, making a dismal cawing; but one of + them alighted upon the bed where Cicero lay covered up, and with its bill, + little by little pecked off the clothes from his face. His servants, + seeing this, blamed themselves that they should stay to be spectators of + their master's murder, and do nothing in his defence, while the brute + creatures came to assist and take care of him in his undeserved + affliction; and therefore, partly by entreaty, partly by force, they took + him up, and carried him in his litter toward the sea-side. + </p> + <p> + But in the meantime the assassins had come with a band of soldiers—Herennius, + a centurion, and Popillius, a tribune, whom Cicero had formerly defended + when prosecuted for the murder of his father. Finding the door shut, they + broke them open, and when Cicero did not appear and those within said they + did not know where he was, it is stated that a youth, who had been + educated by Cicero in the liberal arts and sciences, an emancipated slave + of his brother Quintus, Philologus by name, informed the tribune that the + litter was on its way to the sea through the close and shady walks. The + tribune, taking a few with him, ran to the place where he was to come out. + And Cicero, perceiving Herennius running in the walks, commanded his + servants to set down the litter; and stroking his chin, as he used to do, + with his left hand, he looked steadfastly upon his murderers, his person + covered with dust, his beard and hair untrimmed, and his face worn with + his troubles. So that the greatest part of those that stood by covered + their faces whilst Herennius slew him. And thus was he murdered, + stretching forth his neck out of the litter, being now in his sixty-fourth + year. Herennius cut off his head, and, by Antony's command, his hands + also, by which his Philippics were written; for so Cicero styled those + orations he wrote against Antony, and so they are called to this day. + </p> + <p> + When these members of Cicero were brought to Rome, Antony was holding an + assembly for the choice of public officers; and when he heard it, and saw + them, he cried out, "Now let there be an end of our proscriptions." He + commanded his head and hands to be fastened up over the Rostra, where the + orators spoke; a sight which the Roman people shuddered to behold, and + they believed they saw there not the face of Cicero, but the image of + Antony's own soul. + </p> + <p> + A long time after, Augustus, when visiting one of his daughter's sons, + found him with a book of Cicero's in his hand. The boy for fear endeavored + to hide it under his gown; but Caesar took it from him, and turning over a + great part of the book standing, gave it to him again, and said, "My + child, this was a learned man, and a lover of his country." And + immediately after he had vanquished Antony, being then consul, he made + Cicero's son his colleague in the office; and, under that consulship, the + senate took down all the statues of Antony, and abolished all the other + honors that had been given him, and decreed that none of that family + should thereafter bear the name of Marcus; and thus the final acts of the + punishment of Antony were, by the divine powers, devolved upon the family + of Cicero. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0011" id="link2H_4_0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + COMPARISON OF DEMOSTHENES AND CICERO + </h2> + <p> + These are the most memorable circumstances recorded in history of + Demosthenes and Cicero which have come to our knowledge. But, omitting an + exact comparison of their respective faculties in speaking, yet this seems + fit to be said: That Demosthenes, to make himself a master in rhetoric, + applied all the faculties he had, natural or acquired, wholly that way; + that he far surpassed in force and strength of eloquence in political and + judicial speaking all his contemporaries, in grandeur and majesty all the + panegyrical orators, and in accuracy and science all the logicians and + rhetoricians of his day; that Cicero was highly educated, and by his + diligent study became a most accomplished general scholar in all these + branches, having left behind him numerous philosophical treatises of his + own on Academic principles; as, indeed, even in his written speeches, both + political and judicial, we see him continually trying to show his learning + by the way. And one may discover the different temper of each of them in + their speeches. For Demosthenes's oratory was, without all embellishment + and jesting, wholly composed for real effect and seriousness; not smelling + of the lamp, as Pytheas scoffingly said, but of the temperance, + thoughtfulness, austerity, and grave earnestness of his temper. Whereas, + Cicero's love of mockery often ran him into scurrility; and in his love of + laughing away serious arguments in judicial cases by jests and facetious + remarks, with a view to the advantage of his clients, he paid too little + regard to what was decent. We are told that Cicero, being consul, + undertook the defence of Murena against Cato's prosecution; and, by way of + bantering Cato, made a long series of jokes upon the absurd paradoxes, as + they are called, of the Stoic sect. When loud laughter passed from the + crowd to the judges, Cato, with a quiet smile, said to those that sat next + to him, "My friends, what an amusing consul we have." + </p> + <p> + And, indeed, Cicero was by natural temper very much disposed to mirth and + pleasantry, and always appeared with a smiling and serene countenance. But + Demosthenes had constant care and thoughtfulness in his look, and a + serious anxiety which he seldom, if ever, laid aside; and, therefore, was + accounted by his enemies, as he himself confessed, morose and + ill-mannered. + </p> + <p> + Also, it is very evident, out of their several writings, that Demosthenes + never touched upon his own praises but decently and without offence when + there was need of it, and for some weightier end. But Cicero's + immeasurable boasting of himself in his orations argues him guilty of an + uncontrollable appetite for distinction, his cry being evermore that "Arms + should give place to the gown, and the soldier's laurel to the tongue." + And at last we find him extolling not only his deeds and actions, but his + orations, as well those that were only spoken, as those that were + published. + </p> + <p> + It is necessary for a political leader to be an able speaker; but it is an + ignoble thing for any man to admire the glory of his own eloquence. And, + in this matter, Demosthenes had a more than ordinary gravity and + magnificence of mind, for he considered his talent in speaking nothing + more than a mere accomplishment and matter of practice, the success of + which must depend greatly on the good-will and candor of his hearers, and + regarded those who pride themselves on such accounts to be men of a low + and petty disposition. + </p> + <p> + The power of persuading and governing the people did, indeed, equally + belong to both, so that those who had armies and camps at command stood in + need of their assistance; as Chares, Diopithes, and Leosthenes did that of + Demosthenes, and Pompey and young Caesar of Cicero's, as the latter + himself admits in his Memoirs addressed to Agrippa and Maecenas. But what + are thought and commonly said most to demonstrate and try the tempers of + men, namely, authority and place, by moving every passion, and discovering + every frailty, these are things which Demosthenes never received; nor was + he ever in a position to give such proof of himself, having never obtained + any eminent office, nor led any of those armies into the field against + Philip which he raised by his eloquence. Cicero, on the other hand, was + sent quaestor into Sicily, and proconsul into Cilicia and Cappadocia, at a + time when avarice was at the height, and the commanders and governors who + were employed abroad, as though they thought it a mean thing to steal, set + themselves to seize by open force; so that it seemed no heinous matter to + take bribes, but he that did it most moderately was in good esteem. And + yet he, at this time, gave the most abundant proofs alike of his contempt + of riches and of his humanity and good-nature. And at Rome, when he was + created consul in name, but indeed received sovereign and dictatorial + authority against Catiline and his conspirators, he attested the truth of + Plato's prediction, that then only would the miseries of states be at an + end, when by a happy fortune supreme power, wisdom, and justice should be + united in one. + </p> + <p> + It is said, to the reproach of Demosthenes, that his eloquence was + mercenary; that he privately made orations for Phormion and Apollodorus, + though adversaries in the same cause; that he was charged with moneys + received from the king of Persia, and condemned for bribes from Harpalus. + And should we grant that all those (and they are not few) who have made + these statements against him have spoken what is untrue, yet we cannot + assert that Demosthenes was not the character to look without desire on + the presents offered him out of respect and gratitude by royal persons. + But that Cicero refused, from the Sicilians when he was quaestor, from the + king of Cappadocia when he was proconsul, and from his friends at Rome + when he was in exile, many presents, though urged to receive them, has + been said already. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, Demosthenes's banishment was infamous, upon conviction for + bribery; Cicero's very honorable, for ridding his country of a set of + villains. Therefore, when Demosthenes fled from his country, no man + regarded it; for Cicero's sake the senate changed their habit, and put on + mourning, and would not be persuaded to make any act before Cicero's + return was decreed. Cicero, however, passed his exile idly in Macedonia. + But the very exile of Demosthenes made up a great part of the services he + did for his country; for he went through the cities of Greece, and + everywhere, as we have said, joined in the conflict on behalf of the + Greeks, driving out the Macedonian ambassadors, and approving himself a + much better citizen than Themistocles and Alcibiades did in a similar + fortune. And, after his return, he again devoted himself to the same + public service, and continued firm in his opposition to Antipater and the + Macedonians. Whereas Laelius reproached Cicero in the senate for sitting + silent when Caesar, a beardless youth, asked leave to come forward, + contrary to the law, as a candidate for the consulship; and Brutus, in his + epistles, charges him with nursing and rearing a greater and more heavy + tyranny than that they had removed. + </p> + <p> + Finally, Cicero's death excites our pity; for an old man to be miserably + carried up and down by his servants, flying and hiding himself from that + death which was, in the course of nature, so near at hand; and yet at last + to be murdered. Demosthenes, though he seemed to supplicate a little at + first, yet, by his preparing and keeping the poison by him, demands our + admiration; and still more admirable was his using it. When the temple of + the god no longer afforded him a sanctuary, he took refuge, as it were, at + a mightier altar, freeing himself from arms and soldiers, and laughing to + scorn the cruelty of Antipater. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0012" id="link2H_4_0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ALCIBAIDES + </h2> + <p> + Alcibiades, it is supposed, was descended from Ajax, by his father's side; + and by his mother's side from Alcmaeon. Dinomache, his mother, was the + daughter of Megacles. His father (Clinias) having fitted out a galley at + his own expense, gained great honor in the seafight at Artemisium, and was + afterwards slain in the battle of Coronea, fighting against the Boeotians. + The friendship which Socrates felt for him has much contributed to his + fame; and though we have no account from any writer concerning the mother + of Nicias or Demosthenes, of Lamachus or Phormion, of Thrasybulus or + Theramenes, notwithstanding these were all illustrious men of the same + period, yet we know even the nurse of Alcibiades, that her country was + Lacedaemon, and her name Amycla; and that Zopyrus was his teacher and + attendant; the one being recorded by Antisthenes, and the other by Plato. + </p> + <p> + It is not, perhaps, material to say anything of the beauty of Alcibiades, + only that it bloomed with him in all the ages of his life, in his infancy, + in his youth, and in his manhood; and, in the peculiar character becoming + to each of these periods, gave him, in every one of them a grace and a + charm. What Euripides says, that "Of all fair things the autumn, too, is + fair," is by no means universally true. But it happened so with + Alcibiades, amongst few others, by reason of his happy constitution and + natural vigor of body. It is said that his lisping, when he spoke, became + him well, and gave a grace and persuasiveness to his rapid speech. + Aristophanes takes notice of it in the verses in which he jests at + Theorus: "How like a colax he is," says Alcibiades, meaning a corax*; on + which it is remarked, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "How very happily he lisped the truth," + + (*This fashionable Attic lisp, or careless articulation, + turned the sound r into l. Colax, a flatterer; corax, a + crow.) +</pre> + <p> + His conduct displayed many inconsistencies, not unnaturally, in accordance + with the many wonderful vicissitudes of his fortunes; but, among the many + strong passions of his real character, the most powerful of all was his + ambition for superiority, which appears in several anecdotes told of him + while he was a child. Once being hard pressed in wrestling, and fearing to + be thrown, he got the hand of his antagonist to his mouth, and bit it with + all his force; and when the other loosed his hold presently, and said, + "You bite, Alcibiades, like a woman." "No," replied he, "like a lion." + Another time, when playing at dice in the street, being then only a child, + a loaded cart came that way, just as it was his turn to throw; at first he + called to the driver to stop, because he was about to throw in the way + over which the cart would pass; but when the man paid him no attention, + and was driving on, the rest of the boys divided and sprang away; but + Alcibiades threw himself on his face before the cart, and, stretching + himself out, bade the carter pass on now if we would. The man was so + startled that he put back his horses, while all that saw it were + terrified, and, crying out, ran to assist Alcibiades. When he began to + study, he obeyed all his other masters fairly well, but refused to learn + upon the flute, as a thing unbecoming a free citizen; saying that to play + upon the lute or the harp does not in any way disfigure a man's body or + face, but one is hardly to be known by his most intimate friends, when + playing on the flute. Besides, one who plays on the harp may speak or sing + at the same time; but the use of the flute stops the mouth, intercepts the + voice, and prevents all articulation. "Therefore," said he, "let the + Theban youths pipe, who do not know how to speak, but we Athenians, as our + ancestors have told us, have Athena for our patroness, and Apollo for our + protector, one of whom threw away the flute, and the other stripped the + Flute-player of his skin." Thus, between raillery and good earnest, + Alcibiades kept not only himself but others from learning, as it presently + became the talk of the young boys, how Alcibiades despised playing on the + flute, and ridiculed those who studied it. In consequence of which, it + ceased to be reckoned amongst the liberal accomplishments, and became + generally neglected. + </p> + <p> + It was manifest that the many well-born persons who were continually + seeking his company, and making court to him, were attracted and + captivated by his extraordinary beauty only. But the affection which + Socrates entertained for him is a great evidence of the natural noble + qualities and good disposition of the boy, which Socrates, detected under + his personal beauty; and fearing that his wealth and station, and the + great number both of strangers and Athenians who flattered and caressed + him, might at last corrupt him, resolved, if possible, to interpose, and + preserve so hopeful a plant from perishing in the flower, before its fruit + came to perfection. For never did fortune surround a man with so many of + those things which we vulgarly call goods, or so protect him from every + weapon of philosophy, and fence him from every access of free and + searching words, as she did Alcibiades; who, from the beginning, was + exposed to the flatteries of those who sought merely his gratification, + such as might well unnerve him, and indispose him to listen to any real + adviser or instructor. Yet such was the happiness of his genius, that he + selected Socrates from the rest, and admitted him, while he drove away the + wealthy and the noble who made court to him. In a little time, they grew + intimate and Alcibiades, listening now to language entirely free from + every thought of unmanly fondness and silly displays of affection, found + himself with one who sought to la open to him the deficiencies of his mind + and repress his vain and foolish arrogance, and "Dropped like the craven + cock his conquered wing." He esteemed these endeavors of Socrates as most + truly a means which the gods made use of for the care and preservation of + youth, and it was a matter of general wonder, when people saw him joining + Socrates in his meals and his exercises, living with him in the same tent, + while he was reserved and rough to all others who made their addresses to + him. + </p> + <p> + He behaved in the same manner to all others who courted him, except one + stranger, who, as the story is told, having but a small estate, sold it + all for about a hundred staters, which he presented to Alcibiades, and + besought him to accept. Alcibiades, smiling and well pleased at the thing, + invited him to supper, and, after a very kind entertainment, gave him his + gold again, requiring him, moreover, not to fail to be present the next + day, when the public revenue was offered to farm, and to outbid all + others. The man would have excused himself, because the contract was so + large, and would cost many talents; but Alcibiades, who at that time a + private pique against the existing farmers of the revenue threatened to + have him beaten if he refused. The next morning, the stranger, coming to + the market-place, offered a talent more that the existing rate; upon which + the farmers, enraged and consulting together, called upon him to name his + sureties, concluding that he could find none. The poor man, being startled + at the proposal, began to retire; but ALCIBAIDES, standing at a distance, + cried out to the magistrates, "Set my name down, he is a friend of mine; I + will be security for him." When the other bidders heard this, they + perceived that all their contrivance was defeated; for their way was, with + the profits for the second year to pay the rent for the year preceding; so + that, not seeing any other way to extricate themselves out of the + difficulty, they began to treat with the stranger, and offered him a sum + of money. Alcibiades would not suffer him to accept of less than a talent; + but when that was paid down, he commanded him to relinquish the bargain, + having by this device relieved his necessity. + </p> + <p> + Though Socrates had many power rivals, yet the natural good qualities of + Alcibiades gave his affection the mastery. His words overcame him so much, + as to draw tears from his eyes, and to disturb his very soul. Yet + sometimes he would abandon himself to flatteries, when they proposed to + him varieties of pleasure, and would desert Socrates; who, then, would + pursue him, as if he had been a fugitive slave. He despised every one + else, and had no reverence or awe for any but him. But as iron which is + softened by the fire grows hard with the cold, and all its parts are + closed again; so, as often as Socrates observed Alcibiades to be misled by + luxury or pride he reduced and corrected him by his addresses, and made + him humble and modest, by showing him in how many things he was deficient, + and how very far from perfection in virtue. + </p> + <p> + When he was past his childhood, he went once to a grammar-school, and + asked the master for one of Homer's books; and when he made answer that he + had nothing of Homer's, Alcibiades gave him a blow with his fist, and went + away. Another schoolmaster telling him that he had a copy of Homer + corrected by himself; "Why?" said Alcibiades, "do you employ your time in + teaching children to read? You, who are able to amend Homer, may well + undertake to instruct men." + </p> + <p> + When he was very young, he was a soldier in the expedition against + Potidaea, where Socrates lodged in the same tent with him, and stood next + to him in battle. Once there happened a sharp skirmish, in which they both + behaved with signal bravery; but Alcibiades receiving a wound, Socrates + threw himself before him to defend him, and beyond any question saved him + and his arms from the enemy, and so in all justice might have challenged + the prize of valor. But the generals appearing eager to adjudge the honor + to Alcibiades, because of his rank, Socrates, who desired to increase his + thirst after glory of a noble kind, was the first to give evidence for + him, and pressed them to crown, and to decree to him the complete suit of + armor. Afterwards, in the battle of Delium, when the Athenians were routed + and Socrates with a few others was retreating on foot, Alcibiades, who was + on horseback, observed it, and would not pass on, but stayed to shelter + him from the danger, and brought him safely off, though the enemy pressed + hard upon them, and cut off many. + </p> + <p> + He gave a box on the ear to Hipponicus, the father of Callias, whose birth + and wealth made him a person of great influence and repute. And this he + did unprovoked by any passion or quarrel between them, but only because, + in a frolic, he had agreed with his companions to do it. People were + justly offended at this insolence, when it became known through the city; + but early the next morning, Alcibiades went to his house and knocked at + the door, and, being admitted to him, took off his outer garment, and + presenting his naked body, desired him to scourge and chastise him as he + pleased. Upon this Hipponicus forgot all his resentment, and not only + pardoned him, but soon after gave him his daughter Hipparete in marriage. + </p> + <p> + Alcibiades had a dog which cost him seventy minas, and was very large and + handsome. His tail, which was his principal ornament, he caused to be cut + off, and an acquaintance exclaiming at him for it, and telling him that + all Athens was sorry for the dog, and cried out against him for this + action, he laughed and said, "Just what I wanted has happened, then, I + wished the Athenians to talk about this, that they might not say something + worse of me." + </p> + <p> + It is said that the first time he came into the assembly was upon occasion + of a largess of money which he made to the people. This was not done by + design, but as he passed along he heard a shout, and inquired the cause; + and having learned that there was a gift-making to the people, he went in + among them and gave money also. The multitude thereupon applauding him, + and shouting, he was so transported at it, that he forgot a quail which he + had under his robe, and the bird, being frightened at the noise, flew off; + upon which the people made louder acclamations than before, and many of + them started up to pursue the bird; and Antiochus, a pilot, caught it and + restored it to him, for which he was ever after a favorite with + Alcibiades. + </p> + <p> + He had great advantages for entering public life; his noble birth, his + riches, the personal courage he had shown in divers battles, and the + multitude of his friends and dependents, threw open, so to say, folding + doors for his admittance. But he did not consent to let his power with the + people rest on any thing, rather than on his own gift of eloquence. That + he was a master in the art of speaking, the comic poets bear him witness; + and the most eloquent of public speakers, in his oration against Midias, + allows that Alcibiades, among other perfections, was a most accomplished + orator. + </p> + <p> + His expenses in horses kept for the public games, and in the number of his + chariots, were matters of great observation; never did any one but he, + either private person king, send seven chariots to the Olympic games. And + to have carried away at once the first, the second, and the fourth prize, + as Thucydides says, or the third, as Euripides relates it, outdoes every + distinction that was ever thought of in that kind. + </p> + <p> + The emulation displayed by the deputations of various states, in the + presents which they made to him, rendered this success yet more + illustrious. The Ephesians erected a tent for him, adorned magnificently; + the city of Chios furnished him with provender for his horses and with + great numbers of beasts for sacrifice; and the Lesbians sent him wine and + other provisions for the many entertainments which he made. + </p> + <p> + As soon as he began to intermeddle in the government, which was when he + was very young, he quickly lessened the credit of all who aspired to the + confidence of the people, except Phaeax and Nicias, who alone could + contest with him. Nicias was arrived at a mature age, and was esteemed + their first general. Phaeax was but a rising statesman like Alcibiades; he + was descended from noble ancestors, but was his inferior in many other + things, but principally in eloquence. + </p> + <p> + Alcibiades was not less disturbed at the distinction which Nicias gained + among the enemies of Athens, than at the honors which the Athenians + themselves paid to him. It was commonly said in Greece, that the war in + the Peloponnesus was begun by Pericles, and that Nicias made an end of it, + and the peace was generally called the peace of Nicias. Alcibiades was + extremely annoyed at this, and being full of envy, set himself to break + the league. First, therefore observing that the Argives as well out of + fear as hatred to the Lacedaemonians, sought for protection against them, + he gave them a secret assurance of alliance with Athens. He exclaimed + fiercely against Nicias, and accused him of many things, which seemed + probable enough: as that, when he was general, he made no attempt himself + to capture their enemies that were shut up in the isle of Sphacteria, but, + when they were afterwards made prisoners by others, he procured their + release and sent them back to the Lacedaemonians, only to get favor with + them. + </p> + <p> + It happened, at the very time when Nicias was by these arts brought into + disgrace with the people, that ambassadors arrived from Lacedaemon, who, + at their first coming, said what seemed very satisfactory, declaring that + they had full powers to arrange all matters in dispute upon fair and equal + terms. The council received their propositions, and the people was to + assemble on the morrow to give them audience. Alcibiades grew very + apprehensive of this, and contrived to gain a secret conference with the + ambassadors. When they were met, he said: "What is it you intend, you men + of Sparta? If you expect to obtain equal terms from the Athenians, and + would not have things extorted from you contrary to your inclinations, + begin to treat with he people upon some reasonable articles, not avowing + yourselves plenipotentiaries; and I will be ready to assist you, out of + good-will to the Lacedaemonians." When he had said this, he gave them his + oath for the performance of what he promised, and by this way drew them + from Nicias to rely entirely upon himself, and left them full of + admiration of the discernment and sagacity they had seen in him. The next + day, when the people were assembled and the ambassadors introduced, + Alcibiades, with great apparent courtesy, demanded of them: With what + powers they had come? They made answer that they had not come as + plenipotentiaries. + </p> + <p> + Instantly upon that, Alcibiades, with a loud voice, as though he had + received and not done the wrong, began to call them dishonest + prevaricators, and to urge that such men could not possibly come with a + purpose to say or do anything that was sincere. The council was incensed, + the people were in a rage, and Nicias, who knew nothing of the deceit and + the imposture, was in the greatest confusion, equally surprised and + ashamed at such a change in the men. So thus the Lacedaemonian ambassadors + were utterly rejected, and Alcibiades was declared general, who presently + united the Argives, the Eleans, and the people of Mantinea, into a + confederacy with the Athenians. + </p> + <p> + No man commended the method by which Alcibiades effected all this, yet it + was a great political feat thus to divide and shake almost all + Peloponnesus, and to combine so many men in arms against the + Lacedaemonians in one day before Mantinea; and, moreover, to remove the + war and the danger so far from the frontier of the Athenians, that even + success would profit the enemy but little, should they be conquerors, + whereas, if they were defeated, Sparta itself was hardly safe. + </p> + <p> + But with all these words and deeds, and with all this sagacity and + eloquence, he intermingled exorbitant luxury and wantonness in his eating + and drinking and dissolute living; wore long purple robes like a woman, + which dragged after him as he went through the market-place; caused the + planks of his galley to be cut away, that so he might lie the softer, his + bed not being placed on the boards, but hanging upon girths. His shield, + again, which was richly gilded, had not the usual ensigns of the + Athenians, but a Cupid, holding a thunderbolt in his hand, was painted + upon it. The sight of all this made the people of good repute in the city + feel disgust and abhorrence and apprehension also, at his free-living, and + his contempt of law, as things monstrous in themselves, and indicating + designs of usurpation. Aristophanes has well expressed the people's + feeling towards him:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "They love, and hate, and cannot do without him." +</pre> + <p> + And still more strongly, under a figurative expression, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Best rear no lion in your state, 't is true; + But treat him like a lion if you do." +</pre> + <p> + The truth is, his liberalities, his public shows, and other munificence to + the people, which were such as nothing could exceed, the glory of his + ancestors, the force of his eloquence, the grace of his person, his + strength of body, joined with his great courage and knowledge in military + affairs, prevailed upon the Athenians to endure patiently his excesses, to + indulge him in many things, and, according to their habit, to give the + softest names to his faults, attributing them to youth and good nature. + As, for example, he kept Agatharcus, the painter, a prisoner till he had + painted his whole house, but then dismissed him with a reward. He publicly + struck Taureas, who exhibited certain shows in opposition to him, and + contended with him for the prize. When Aristophon, the artist, had drawn + Nemea sitting and holding Alcibiades in her arms, the multitude seemed + pleased with the piece, and thronged to see it, but elder people did not + relish it, but looked on these things as enormities, and movements toward + tyranny. So that it was not said amiss by Archestratus, that Greece could + not support a second Alcibiades. Once, when Alcibiades succeeded well in + an oration which he made, and the whole assembly attended upon him to do + him honor, Timon, the misanthrope, did not pass slightly by him, nor avoid + him, as he did others, but purposely met him, and, taking him by the hand, + said, "Go on boldly, my son, and increase in credit with the people, for + thou wilt one day bring them calamities enough." Some that were present + laughed at the saying, and some reviled Timon; but there were others upon + whom it made a deep impression. + </p> + <p> + The Athenians, even in the lifetime of Pericles, had already cast a + longing eye upon Sicily; but did not attempt any thing till after his + death. Then, under pretence of aiding their confederates, they sent succor + upon all occasions to those who were oppressed by the Syracusans, + preparing the way for sending over a greater force. But Alcibiades was the + person who inflamed this desire of theirs to the height, and prevailed + with them no longer to proceed secretly, and little by little, in their + design, but to sail out with a great fleet, and undertake at once to make + themselves masters of the island. He possessed the people with great + hopes, and he himself entertained yet greater; and the conquest of Sicily, + which was the utmost bound of their ambition, was but the mere outset of + his expectation. Nicias endeavored to divert the people from the + expedition, by representing to them that the taking of Syracuse would be a + work of great difficulty; but Alcibiades dreamed of nothing less than the + conquest of Carthage and Libya and by the accession of these conceiving + himself at once made master of Italy and of Peloponnesus, seemed to look + upon Sicily as little more than a magazine for the war. The young men were + soon elevated with these hopes, and listened gladly to those of riper + years, who talked wonders of the countries they were going to; so that you + might see great numbers sitting in the wrestling grounds and public + places, drawing on the ground the figure of the island and the situation + of Libya and Carthage. + </p> + <p> + Together with Alcibiades, Nicias, much against his will, was appointed + general: and he endeavored to avoid the command, not the less on account + of his colleague. But the Athenians thought the war would proceed more + prosperously, if they did not send Alcibiades free from all restraint, but + tempered his heat with the caution of Nicias. This they chose the rather + to do, because Lamachus, the third general, though he was of mature years, + yet in several battles had appeared no less hot and rash than Alcibiades + himself. When all things were fitted for the voyage, many unlucky omens + appeared. The mutilation of the images of Mercury, most of which, in one + night, had their faces all disfigured, terrified many persons who were + wont to despise most things of that nature. Alike enraged and terrified at + the thing, looking upon it to proceed from a conspiracy of persons who + designed some commotions in the state, the council, as well as the + assembly of the people, which was held frequently in a few days' space, + examined diligently every thing that might administer ground for + suspicion. During this examination, Androcles, one of the demagogues, + produced slaves and strangers before them, who accused Alcibiades and some + of his friends of defacing other images in the same manner, and of having + profanely acted the sacred mysteries at a drunken meeting. The people were + highly exasperated and incensed against Alcibiades upon this accusation. + But when they perceived that all the seamen designed for Sicily were for + him, and the soldiers declared that they had undertaken this distant + maritime expedition for the sake of Alcibiades, and that, if he was + ill-used, they would all go home; they let him set sail at once, and + decided that when the war should be at an end, he might then in person + make his defence according to the laws. + </p> + <p> + Alcibiades perceived the malice of this postponement, and, appearing in + the assembly, represented that it was monstrous for him to be sent with + the command of so large an army, when he lay under such accusations and + calumnies. But he could not prevail with the people, who commanded him to + sail immediately. So he departed, together with the other generals, having + with them near 140 galleys, 5,100 men at arms, and about 1,300 archers, + slingers, and light-armed men, and all the other provisions corresponding. + </p> + <p> + Arriving on the coast of Italy, he landed at Rhegium, and there stated his + views of the manner in which they ought to conduct the war. He was opposed + by Nicias; but Lamachus being of his opinion, they sailed for Sicily + forthwith, and took Catana. This was all that was done while he was there, + for he was soon after recalled by the Athenians to abide his trial. At + first, as we before said, there were only some slight suspicions advanced + against Alcibiades. But afterwards, in his absence, his enemies attacked + him more violently, and confounded together the breaking the images with + the profanation of the mysteries, as though both had been committed in + pursuance of the same conspiracy for changing the government. The truth + is, his accusers alleged nothing against him which could be positively + proved. One of them, being asked how he knew the men who defaced the + images, replied, that he saw them by the light of the moon, making a + palpable misstatement, for it was just new moon when the act was + committed. This made all men of understanding cry out upon the thing; but + the people were as eager as ever to receive further accusations. And, in + conclusion, they sent the galley named the Salaminian to recall + Alcibiades. But they expressly commanded those that were sent, to use no + violence, nor seize upon his person, but address themselves to him in the + mildest terms, requiring him to follow them to Athens in order to abide + his trial, and clear himself before the people. For they feared mutiny and + sedition in the army in an enemy's country, which indeed it would have + been easy for Alcibiades to effect, if he had wished it. For the soldiers + were dispirited upon his departure, expecting for the future tedious + delays, and that the war would be drawn out into a lazy length by Nicias, + when Alcibiades, who was the spur to action, was taken away. For though + Lamachus was a soldier, and a man of courage, poverty deprived him of + authority and respect in the army. Alcibiades, just upon his departure, + prevented Messena from falling into the hands of the Athenians. There were + some in that city who were upon the point of delivering it up, but he, + knowing the persons, gave information to some friends of the Syracusans, + and so defeated the whole contrivance. When he arrived at Thurii, he went + on shore, and concealing himself there, escaped those who searched after + him. But to one who knew him, and asked him if he durst not trust his own + native country, he made answer, "In every thing else, yes; but in a matter + that touches my life, I would not even my own mother, lest she might by + mistake throw in the black ball instead of the white." When, afterwards, + he was told that the assembly had pronounced judgment of death against + him, all he said was "I will make them feel that I am alive." + </p> + <p> + The information against him was framed in this form:—"Thessalus lays + information that Alcibiades has committed a crime against the goddesses + Ceres and Proserpine, by representing in derision the holy mysteries, and + showing them to his companions in his own house." + </p> + <p> + He was condemned as contumacious upon his not appearing, his property + confiscated, and it was decreed that all the priests and priestesses + should solemnly curse him. + </p> + <p> + Alcibiades, lying under these heavy decrees and sentences, when he fled + from Thurii, passed over into Peloponnesus, and remained some time at + Argos. But being there in fear of his enemies and seeing himself utterly + hopeless of return to his native country, he sent to Sparta, desiring safe + conduct, and assuring them that he would make them amends by his future + services for all the mischief he had done them while he was their enemy. + The Spartans giving him the security he desired, he went eagerly, was well + received, and, at his very first coming, succeeded in inducing them, + without any further caution or delay, to send aid to the Syracusans; and + so roused and excited them, that they forthwith despatched Gylippus into + Sicily, to crush the forces which the Athenians had in Sicily. A second + point was, to renew the war upon the Athenians at home. But the third + thing, and the most important of all, was to make them fortify Decelea, + which above everything reduced and wasted the resources of the Athenians. + </p> + <p> + The renown which he earned by these public services was equaled by the + admiration he attracted to his private life; he captivated and won over + everybody by his conformity to Spartan habits. People who saw him wearing + his hair close cut, bathing in cold water, eating coarse meal, and dining + on black broth, doubted, or rather could not believe, that he ever had a + cook in his house, or had ever seen a perfumer, or had worn a mantle of + Milesian purple. For he had, as it was observed, this peculiar talent for + gaining men's affections, that he could at once comply with and really + enter into their habits and ways of life, and change faster than the + chameleon. One color, indeed, they say the chameleon cannot assume; it + cannot make itself appear white; but Alcibiades, whether with good men or + with bad, could adapt himself to his company, and equally wear the + appearance of virtue or vice. At Sparta, he was devoted to athletic + exercises, was frugal and reserved; in Ionia, luxurious, gay, and + indolent; in Thrace, always drinking; in Thessaly, ever on horseback; and + when he lived with Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap, he exceeded the + Persians, themselves in magnificence and pomp. Not that his natural + disposition changed so easily, nor that his real character was so very + variable, but whenever he was sensible that by pursuing his own + inclinations he might give offence to those with whom he had occasion to + converse, he transformed himself into any shape and adopted any fashion, + that he observed to be most agreeable to them. So that to have seen him at + Lacedaemon, a man, judging by the outward appearance, would have said, "'T + is not Achilles' son, but he himself, the very man" that Lycurgus designed + to form. + </p> + <p> + After the defeat which the Athenians received in Sicily, ambassadors were + despatched to Sparta at once from Chios and Lesbos and Cyzicus, to signify + their purpose of revolting from the Athenians. But the Lacedaemonians, at + the persuasion of Alcibiades, chose to assist Chios before all others. He + himself, also, went instantly to sea, procured the immediate revolt of + almost all Ionia, and, co-operating with the Lacedaemonian generals, did + great mischief to the Athenians. But King Agis was his enemy, and + impatient of his glory, as almost every enterprise and every success was + ascribed to Alcibiades. Others, also, of the most powerful and ambitious + amongst the Spartans, were possessed with jealousy of him, and, at last, + prevailed with the magistrates in the city to send orders into Ionia that + he should be killed. Alcibiades, however, had secret intelligence of this, + and, in apprehension of the result, while he communicated all affairs to + the Lacedaemonians, yet took care not to put himself into their power. At + last he retired to Tissaphernes, the satrap of the king of Persia, for his + security, and immediately became the first and most influential person + about him. For this barbarian, not being himself sincere, but a lover of + guile and wickedness, admired his address and wonderful subtlety. And, + indeed, the charm of daily intercourse with him was more than any + character could resist or any disposition escape. Even those who feared + and envied him could not but have a sort of kindness for him, when they + saw him and were in his company. So that Tissaphernes, otherwise a cruel + character, and, above all other Persians, a hater of the Greeks, was yet + so won by the flatteries of Alcibiades, that he set himself even to exceed + him in responding to them. The most beautiful of his parks, containing + salubrious streams and meadows, where he had built pavilions, and places + of retirement royally and exquisitely adorned, received by his direction + the name of Alcibiades, and was always so called and so spoken of. + </p> + <p> + Thus Alcibiades, quitting the interests of the Spartans, whom he could no + longer trust, because he stood in fear of Agis, endeavored to do them ill + offices, and render them odious to Tissaphernes, who, by his means, was + hindered from assisting them vigorously, and from finally ruining the + Athenians. For his advice was to furnish them but sparingly with money, + and so wear them out, and consume them insensibly; when they had wasted + their strength upon one another, they would both become ready to submit to + the king. + </p> + <p> + At that time the whole strength of the Athenians was in Samos. Their fleet + maintained itself here, and issued from these head-quarters to reduce such + as had revolted, and protect the rest of their territories; in one way or + other still contriving to be a match for their enemies at sea. What they + stood in fear of, was Tissaphernes and the Phoenician fleet of one hundred + and fifty galleys, which was said to be already under sail; if those came, + there remained then no hopes for the commonwealth of Athens. Understanding + this, Alcibiades sent secretly to the chief men of the Athenians, who were + then at Samos, giving them hopes, that he would make Tissaphernes their + friend; he was willing, he implied, to do some favor, not to the people, + nor in reliance upon them, but to the better citizens, if only, like brave + men, they would make the attempt to put down the insolence of the people, + and, by taking upon them the government, would endeavor to save the city + from ruin. All of them gave a ready ear to the proposal made by + Alcibiades, except Phrynichus of the township of Dirades, despatched + Pisander to Athens to attempt a change of government, and to encourage the + aristocratical citizens to take upon themselves the government, and + overthrow the democracy, representing to them, that, upon these terms, + Alcibiades would procure them the friendship and alliance of Tissaphernes. + </p> + <p> + Those who were at Samos set sail for the Piraeus; and, sending for + Alcibiades declared him general. He, however, in that juncture did not, as + it might have been thought a man would, on being suddenly exalted by the + favor of a multitude, think himself under an obligation to gratify and + submit to all the wishes of those who, from a fugitive and an exile, had + created him general of so great an army and given him the command of such + a fleet. But, as became a great captain, he opposed himself to the + precipitate resolutions which their rage led them to, and, by restraining + them from the great error they were about to commit, unequivocally saved + the commonwealth. For if they had then sailed to Athens, all Ionia and the + islands and the Hellespont would have fallen into the enemies' hands + without opposition, while the Athenians, involved in civil war, would have + been fighting with one another within the circuit of their own walls. It + was Alcibiades alone, or, at least, principally, who prevented all this + mischief; for he not only used persuasion to the whole army, and showed + them the danger, but applied himself to them, one by one, entreating some, + and constraining others. He was much assisted, however, by Thrasybulus of + Stiria, who, having the loudest voice, as we are told, of all the + Athenians, went along with him and cried out to those who were ready to + go. A second great service which Alcibiades did for them was his + undertaking that the Phoenician fleet, which the Lacedaemonians expected + to be sent to them by the king of Persia, should either come in aid of the + Athenians, or otherwise should not come at all. And now the people in the + city not only desired, but commanded Alcibiades to return home from his + exile. He, however, desired not to owe his return to the mere grace and + commiseration of the people, and resolved to come back, not with empty + hands, but with glory and after some service done. To this end, he sailed + from Samos with a few ships, and cruised on the sea of Cnidos and about + the isle of Cos; but receiving intelligence there that Mindarus, the + Spartan admiral, had sailed with his whole army into the Hellespont, and + that the Athenians had followed him, he hurried back to succor the + Athenian commanders, and, by good fortune, arrived with eighteen galleys + at a critical time. For both the fleets having engaged near Abydos, the + fight between them had lasted till night, the one side having the + advantage on one quarter, and the other on another. Upon his first + appearance, both sides formed a false impression; the enemy was + encouraged, and the Athenians terrified. But Alcibiades suddenly raised + the Athenian ensign in the admiral ship, and fell upon those galleys of + the Peloponnesians which had the advantage and were in pursuit. He soon + put these to flight, and followed them so close that he forced them on + shore, and broke the ships in pieces, the sailors abandoning them and + swimming away, in spite of all the efforts of Pharnabazus, who had come + down to their assistance by land, and did what he could to protect them + from the shore. In fine, the Athenians, having taken thirty of the enemy's + ships, and recovered all their own, erected a trophy. After the gaining of + so glorious a victory his vanity made him eager to show himself to + Tissaphernes, and, having furnished himself with gifts and presents, and + an equipage suitable to his dignity, he set out to visit him. But the + thing did not succeed as he had imagined, for Tissaphernes had long been + suspected by the Lacedaemonians, and was afraid to fall into disgrace with + his king upon that account, therefore thinking that Alcibiades had arrived + very opportunely, he immediately caused him to be seized and sent away + prisoner to Sardis; fancying, by this act of injustice, to clear himself + from all former imputations. + </p> + <p> + But about thirty days after, Alcibiades escaped from his keepers, and, + having got a horse, fled to Clazomenae, where he procured Tissaphernes + additional disgrace by professing that he was a party to his escape. From + there he sailed to the Athenian camp, and, being informed that Mindarus + and Pharnabazus were together at Cyzicus, he made a speech to the + soldiers, telling them that sea-fighting, land-fighting, and, by the gods, + fighting against fortified cities too, must be all one for them, as, + unless they conquered everywhere, there was no money for them. As soon as + he got them on ship-board, he hastened to Proconnesus and gave command to + seize all the small vessels they met, and guard them safely in the + interior of the fleet, that the enemy might have no notice of his coming; + and a great storm of rain, accompanied with thunder and darkness, which + happened at the same time, contributed much to the concealment of his + enterprise. Indeed, it was not only undiscovered by the enemy, but the + Athenians themselves were ignorant of it, for he commanded them suddenly + on board, and set sail when they had abandoned all intention of it. As the + darkness presently passed away, the Peloponnesian fleet were seen riding + out at sea in front of the harbor of Cyzicus. Fearing, if they discovered + the number of his ships, they might endeavor to save themselves by land, + he commanded the rest of the captains to slacken, and follow him slowly, + whilst he, advancing with forty ships, showed himself to the enemy and + provoked them to fight. The enemy, being deceived as to their numbers, + despised them, and, supposing they were to contend with those only, made + ready and began the fight. But as soon as they were engaged, they + perceived the other part of the fleet coming down upon them, at which they + were so terrified that they fled immediately. Upon that, Alcibiades, + breaking through the midst of them with twenty of his best ships, hastened + to the shore, disembarked, and pursued those who abandoned their ships and + fled to land, and made a great slaughter of them. Mindarus and + Pharnabazus, coming to their succor were utterly defeated. Mindarus was + slain fighting valiantly; Pharnabazus saved himself by flight. The + Athenians slew great numbers of their enemies, won much spoil, and took + all their ships. They also made themselves masters of Cyzicus, which was + deserted by Pharnabazus, and destroyed its Peloponnesian garrison, and + thereby not only secured to themselves the Hellespont, but by force drove + the Lacedaemonians out of all the rest of the sea. They intercepted some + letters written to the ephors, which gave an account of this fatal + overthrow, after their short, Iaconic manner. "Our hopes are at an end. + Mindarus is slain. The men are starving. We know not what to do." + </p> + <p> + And now Alcibiades began to desire to see his native country again, or + rather to show his fellow-citizens a person who had gained so many + victories for them. He set sail for Athens, the ships that accompanied him + being adorned with great numbers of shields and other spoils, and towing + after them many galleys taken from the enemy, and the ensigns and + ornaments of many others which he had sunk and destroyed; all of them + together amounting to two hundred. Little credit, perhaps, can be given to + what Duris the Samian, who professed to be descended from Alcibiades, + adds, that Chrysogonus, who had gained a victory at the Pythian games, + played upon his flute for the galleys, whilst the oars kept time with the + music; and that Callippides, the tragedian, attired in his buskins, his + purple robes, and other ornaments used in the theatre, gave the word to + the rowers, and that the admiral's galley entered into the port with a + purple sail. It is not credible, that one who had returned from so long an + exile, and such a variety of misfortunes, should come to his countrymen in + the style of revelers breaking up from a drinking-party. On the contrary, + he entered the harbor full of fear, nor would he venture to go on shore, + till, standing on the deck, he saw Euryptolemus, his cousin, and others of + his friends and acquaintance, who were ready to receive him, and invited + him to land. As soon as he was landed, the multitude who came out to meet + him scarcely appeared to see any of the other captains, but came in + throngs about Alcibiades, and saluted him with loud acclamations, and + followed him; those who could press near him crowned him with garlands, + and they who could not come up so close yet stayed to behold him afar off, + and the old men pointed him out to the young ones. Nevertheless, this + public joy was mixed with some tears, and the present happiness was + diminished by the remembrance of the miseries they had endured. They made + reflections, that they could not have so unfortunately miscarried in + Sicily, if they had left the management of their affairs and the command + of their forces, to Alcibiades, since, upon his undertaking the + administration, when they were absolutely driven from the sea, and could + scarcely defend the suburbs of their city by land, and at the same time, + were miserably distracted with intestine factions, he had raised them up + from this low and deplorable condition, and had not only restored them to + their ancient dominion of the sea, but had also made them everywhere + victorious over their enemies on land. + </p> + <p> + The people being summoned to an assembly, Alcibiades came in among them, + and first bewailed and lamented his own sufferings, and, in general terms + complaining of the usage he had received, imputed all to his hard fortune, + and some ill genius that attended him: then he spoke at large of their + prospects, and exhorted them to courage and good hope. The people crowned + him with crowns of gold, and created him general, both at land and sea, + with absolute power. They also made a decree that his estate should be + restored to him, and that the Eumolpiadae and the holy heralds should + absolve him from the curses which they had solemnly pronounced against him + by the sentence of the people. All the rest obeyed, but Theodorus, the + high-priest, excused himself, "For," said he, "if he is innocent, I never + cursed him." + </p> + <p> + Certainly, if ever man was ruined by his own glory, it was Alcibiades. For + his continual success had produced such an idea of his courage and + conduct, that, if he failed in anything he undertook, it was imputed to + his neglect, and no one would believe it was through want of power. For + they thought nothing was too hard for him, if he went about it in good + earnest. Now, having departed with a fleet of one hundred ships for the + reduction of Chios, and of the rest of Ionia, the people grew impatient + that things were not effected as fast and as rapidly as they could wish + for them. They never considered how extremely money was wanting, and that, + having to carry on war with an enemy who had supplies of all things from a + great king, he was often forced to quit his armament, in order to procure + money and provisions for the subsistence of his soldiers. This very thing + gave occasion for the last accusation which was made against him. For + Lysander, being sent from Lacedaemon with a commission to be admiral of + their fleet, and being furnished by Cyrus with a great sum of money, gave + every sailor four obols a day, whereas before thy had but three. + Alcibiades could hardly allow his men three obols, and therefore was + obliged to go into Caria to furnish himself with money. He left the care + of the fleet, in his absence, to Antiochus, an experienced seaman, but + rash and inconsiderate, who had express orders from Alcibiades not to + engage, though the enemy provoked him. But he slighted and disregarded + these directions to such a degree that, having made ready his own galley + and another, he stood for Ephesus, where the enemy lay, and, as he sailed + before the heads of their galleys, used every provocation possible, both + in words and deeds. Lysander manned out a few ships and pursued him. But + all the Athenian ships coming in to his assistance, Lysander, also, + brought up his whole fleet, which gained an entire victory. He slew + Antiochus himself, took many men and ships, and erected a trophy. + </p> + <p> + As soon as Alcibiades heard this news, he returned to Samos, and loosing + from thence with his whole fleet, came and offered battle to Lysander. But + Lysander, content with the victory he had gained, would not stir. Amongst + others in the army who hated Alcibiades, Thrasybulus, the son of Thrason, + was his particular enemy, and went purposely to Athens to accuse him, and + to exasperate his enemies in the city against him. Addressing the people, + he represented that Alcibiades had ruined their affairs and lost their + ships by mere self-conceited neglect of his duties, committing the + government of the army, in his absence, to men who gained his favor by + drinking and scurrilous talking, whilst he wandered up and down at + pleasure to raise money, giving himself up to every sort of luxury in + Abydos and Ionia, at a time when the enemy's navy were on the watch close + at hand. It was also objected to him, that he had fortified a castle near + Bisanthe in Thrace, for a safe retreat for himself, as one that either + could not, or would not, live in his own country. The Athenians gave + credit to these informations, and showed the resentment and displeasure + which they had conceived against him, by choosing other generals. + </p> + <p> + As soon as Alcibiades heard of this, he immediately forsook the army, + afraid of what might follow; and, collecting a body of mercenary soldiers, + made war upon his own account against those Thracians who called + themselves free, and acknowledged no king. By this means he amassed for + himself considerable treasure, and, at the same time, secured the + bordering Greeks from the incursions of the barbarians. Tydeus, Menander, + and Adimantus, the newly made generals, were at that time posted at + Aegospotami, with all the ships which the Athenians had left. Whence they + used to go out every morning, offer battle to Lysander, who lay near + Lampsacus, and, returning back again, lie all the rest of the day, + carelessly and without order, in contempt of the enemy. Alcibiades, who + was not far off, did not think so lightly of their danger, nor neglect to + let them know it, but, mounting his horse, came to the generals, and + represented to them that they had chosen a very inconvenient station, + where there was no safe harbor, and where they were distant from any town; + so that they were constrained to send for their necessary provisions as + far as Sestos. He also pointed out to them their carelessness in suffering + the soldiers, when they went ashore, disperse and wander up and down at + their pleasure, while the enemy's fleet under the command of one general, + and strictly obedient to discipline, lay so very near them. He advised + them to remove the fleet to Sestos. But the admirals not only disregarded + what he said, but Tydeus, with insulting expressions, commanded him to be + gone saying, that now not he, but others, had the command of the forces. + The event, soon made it evident how rightly he had judged of the errors + which the Athenians were committing. For Lysander fell upon them on a + sudden, when they least suspected it, with such fury that Conon alone, + with eight galleys, escaped him; all the rest, about two hundred, he took + and carried away, together with three thousand prisoners, whom he put to + death. And within a short time after, he took Athens itself, burnt all the + ships which he found there, demolished their long walls, and established + the rule of the Thirty Tyrants. + </p> + <p> + After this, Alcibiades, standing in dread of the Lacedaemonians, who were + now masters both at sea and land, retired into Bithynia. He sent there + great treasure before him, took much with him, but left much more in the + castle where he had before resided. But he lost a great part of his wealth + in Bithynia, being robbed by some Thracians who lived in those parts, and + thereupon determined to go to the court of Artaxerxes, not doubting but + that the king, if he would make trial of his abilities, would find him not + inferior to Themistocles, besides being recommended by a more honorable + cause. For he went, not as Themistocles did, to offer his service against + his fellow-citizens, but against their enemies, and to implore the king's + aid for the defence of his country. The Athenians, in the meantime, + miserably afflicted at their loss of empire and liberty, acknowledged and + bewailed their former errors and follies, and judged this second ill-usage + of Alcibiades to be of all the most inexcusable. For he was rejected, + without any fault committed by himself; and only because they were + incensed against his subordinate for having shamefully lost a few ships, + they were much more shamefully deprived the commonwealth of its most + valiant and accomplished general. + </p> + <p> + Critias finally represented to Lysander that the Lacedaemonians could + never securely enjoy the dominion of Greece, till the Athenian democracy + was absolutely destroyed; and though now the people of Athens seemed + quietly and patiently to submit to so small a number of governors, yet so + long as Alcibiades lived, the knowledge of this fact would never suffer + them to acquiesce in their present circumstances. + </p> + <p> + Yet Lysander could not be prevailed upon by these representation, till at + last he received secret orders from the magistrates of Lacedaemon, + expressly requiring him to get Alcibiades despatched: whether it was that + they feared his energy and boldness in undertaking what was hazardous, or + that it was done to gratify king Agis. Upon receipt of this order, + Lysander sent a messenger away to Pharnabazus, desiring him to put it in + execution. Alcibiades resided at that time in a small village in Phrygia. + Those who were sent to assassinate him had not courage enough to enter the + house, but surrounded it first, and set it on fire. Alcibiades, as soon as + he perceived it, wrapped his cloak about his left arm, and holding his + naked sword in his right, cast himself into the middle of the fire, and + escaped securely through it, before his clothes were burnt. The + barbarians, as soon as they saw him, retreated, and none of them durst + engage with him, but standing at a distance, they slew him with their + darts and arrows. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0013" id="link2H_4_0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CORIOLANUS + </h2> + <p> + The patrician house of the Marcii in Rome produced many men of + distinction, and among the rest, Ancus Marcius, grandson to Numa by his + daughter, and king after Tulus Hostillus. Of the same family were also + Publius and Quintus Marcius, which two conveyed into the city the best and + most abundant supply of water they have at Rome. But Caius Marcius, of + whom I now write, being left an orphan, and brought up under the widowhood + of his mother, has shown us by experience, that, although the early loss + of a father may be attended with other disadvantages, yet it can hinder + none from being either virtuous or eminent in the world, and that it is no + obstacle to true goodness and excellence. Those who saw with admiration + how proof his nature was against pleasure, hardships, and the allurements + of gain, while allowing to that universal firmness of his the respective + names of temperance, fortitude, and justice, yet, in the life of the + citizen and the statesman, could not but be offended at the severity and + ruggedness of his deportment, and with his overbearing, haughty, and + imperious temper. + </p> + <p> + Those were times at Rome in which that kind of worth was most esteemed + which displayed itself in military achievements; one evidence of which we + find in the Latin word for virtue, which is properly equivalent to many + courage. But Marcius, having a more passionate inclination than any of + that age for feats of war, began from his very childhood to handle arms; + and feeling that adventitious implements and artificial arms would be of + small use to such as have not their natural weapons well prepared for + services, he so exercised and inured his body to all sorts of activity and + accouter, that, besides the lightness of a racer, he had a weight in close + seizures and wrestlings with an enemy, from which it was hard for anybody + to disengage himself; so that his competitors at home in displays of + bravery, loath to own themselves inferior in that respect, were wont to + ascribe their deficiencies to his strength of body, which they said no + resistance and no fatigue could exhaust. + </p> + <p> + The first time he went out to the wards, being yet a stripling, was when + Tarquinius Superbus, who had been king of Rome and was afterwards + expelled, after many unsuccessful attempts now entered upon his last + effort, and proceeded to hazard all as it were upon a single throw. A + great number of the Latins and other people of Italy joined their forces, + and were marching with him toward the city, to procure his restoration; + not, however, so much out of a desire to serve and oblige Tarquin, as to + gratify their own fear and envy at the increase of the Roman greatness, + which they were anxious to check. The armies met and engaged in a decisive + battle, in the vicissitudes of which, Marcius, while fighting bravely in + the dictator's presence, saw a Roman soldier struck down at a little + distance, and immediately stepped in before him, and slew his assailant. + The general, after having gained the victory, crowned him for this act + with a garland of oak branches; it being the Roman custom thus to adorn + those who had saved the life of a citizen; whether the law intended some + special honor to the oak, in memory of the Arcadians, a people the oracle + had made famous by the name of acorn-eaters; or, the oak wreath, being + sacred to Jupiter, the guardian of the city, might, therefore be thought a + proper ornament for one who preserved a citizen. And the oak, in truth, is + the tree which bears the most and the prettiest of any that grow wild, and + is the strongest of all that are under cultivation; its acorns were the + principal diet of the first mortals, and the honey found in it gave them + drink. + </p> + <p> + In this battle it is stated that Castor and Pollux appeared, and, + immediately after the battle, were seen at Rome just by the fountain where + their temple now stands, with their horses foaming with sweat, and told + the news of the victory of the people in the Forum. The fifteenth of July, + being the day of this conquest, became consequently a solemn holiday + sacred to the Twin Brothers. + </p> + <p> + It may be observed, in general, that when young men arrive early at fame + and repute, if they are of a nature but slightly touched with emulation, + this early attainment is apt to extinguish their thirst and satiate their + small appetite; whereas the first distinctions of more solid and weighty + characters only stimulate and quicken them, and take them away, like a + wind, in the pursuit of honor; they look upon these marks and testimonies + to their virtue not as a recompense received for what they have already + done, but as a pledge given by themselves of what they will perform + hereafter, ashamed now to forsake or underlive the credit they have won, + or, rather, not to exceed and obscure all that is gone before by the + lustre of their following actions. Marcius, having a spirit of this noble + make, was ambitious always to surpass himself, and did nothing, how + extraordinary soever, but he thought he was bound to outdo it at the next + occasion; and ever desiring to give continual fresh instances of his + prowess, he added one exploit to another, and heaped up trophies upon + trophies, so as to make it a matter of contest also among his commanders, + the latter still vying with the earlier, which should pay him the greatest + honor and speak highest in his commendation. Of all the numerous wars and + conflicts in those days, there was not one from which he returned without + laurels and rewards. And, whereas others made glory the end of their + daring, the end of his glory was his mother's gladness; the delight we + took to hear him praised and to see him crowned, and her weeping for joy + in his embraces, rendered him, in his own thoughts, the most honored and + most happy person in the world. Epaminondas is similarly said to have + acknowledged his feeling, that it was the greatest felicity of his whole + life that his father and mother survived to hear of his successful + generalship and his victory at Leuctra. And he had the advantage, indeed, + to have both his parents partake with him, and enjoy the pleasure of his + good fortune. But Marcius, believing himself bound to pay his mother + Volumnia all that gratitude and duty which would have belonged to his + father, had he also been alive, could never satiate himself in his + tenderness and respect to her. He took a wife, also, at her request and + wish, and continued, even after he had children, to live with his mother, + without parting families. + </p> + <p> + The repute of his integrity and courage had, by this time, gained him + considerable influence and authority in Rome, when the senate, favoring + the wealthier citizens, began to be at variance with the common people, + who made sad complaints of the rigorous and inhuman usage they received + from the money-lenders. + </p> + <p> + There had been frequent assemblies of the whole senate within a small + compass of time about this difficulty, but without any definite result; + the poor commonality, therefore, perceiving there was likely to be no + redress of their grievances, collected in a body, and, encouraging each + other in their resolution, forsook the city with one accord, and seizing + the hill which is now called the Holy Mount, sat down by the river Anio, + without committing any sort of violence or seditious outrage, but merely + exclaiming, as they went along, that they had this long time past been + expelled from the city by the cruelty of the rich; that Italy would + everywhere afford them the benefit of air and water and a place of burial, + which was all they could expect in the city, unless it were perhaps, the + privilege of being wounded and killed in time of war for the defence of + their creditors. The senate apprehending the consequences, sent the most + moderate and popular men of their own order to treat with them. + </p> + <p> + Menenius Agrippa, their chief spokesman, after much entreaty to the + people, concluded, at length, with this celebrated fable: "It once + happened, that all the other members of a man mutinied against the + stomach, which they accused as the only idle, uncontributing part in the + whole body, while the rest were put to hardships and the expense of much + labor to minister to its appetites. The stomach, however, merely ridiculed + the silliness of the members, who appeared not to be aware that the + stomach certainly does receive the general nourishment, but only to return + it again, and redistribute it amongst the rest. Such is the case," he + said, "citizens, between you and the senate. The counsels and plans that + are there duly digested, secure to all of you, your proper benefit and + support." + </p> + <p> + A reconciliation ensued, the senate acceding to the request of the people + for the annual election of five protectors for those in need of succor, + the same that are now called the tribunes of the people; and the first two + they pitched upon were Junius Brutus and Sicinnius Vellutus, their leaders + in the secession. + </p> + <p> + The city being thus united, the commons stood presently to their arms, and + followed their commanders. + </p> + <p> + The Romans were now at war with the Volscian nation, whose principal city + was Corioli; when, therefore, Cominius the consul had invested this + important place, the rest of the Volscians, fearing it would be taken, + mustered up whatever force they could from all parts, to relieve it, + designing to give the Romans battle before the city, and so attack them on + both sides. Cominius, to avoid this inconvenience, divided his army, + marching himself with one body to encounter the Volscians on their + approach from without, and leaving Titus Lartius, one of the bravest + Romans of his time, to command the other and continue the siege. Those + within Corioli, despising now the smallness of their number, made a sally + upon them, and prevailed at first, and pursued the Romans into their + trenches. Here it was that Marcius, flying out with a slender company, and + cutting those in pieces that first enraged him, obliged the other + assailants to slacken their speed; and then, with loud cries, called upon + the Romans to renew the battle. For he had, what Cato thought a great + point in a soldier, not only strength of hand and stroke, but also a voice + and look that of themselves were a terror to an enemy. Some of his own + party now rallying and making up to him, the enemies soon retreated; but + Marcius, not content to see them draw off and retire, pressed hard upon + the rear, and drove them, as they fled away in haste, to the very gates of + their city; where, perceiving the Romans to fall back from their pursuit, + beaten off by the multitude of darts poured in upon them from the walls, + and that none of his followers had the hardiness to think of falling in + pell-mell among the fugitives and so entering a city full of enemies in + arms, he, nevertheless, stood and urged them to the attempt, crying out, + that fortune had not opened Corioli, not so much to shelter the + vanquished, as to receive the conquerors. Seconded by a few that were + willing to venture with him, he bore along through the crowd, made good + his passage, and thrust himself into the gate through the midst of them, + nobody at first daring to resist him. But when the citizens, on looking + about, saw that a very small number had entered, they now took courage, + and came up and attacked them. A combat ensued of the most extraordinary + description, in which Marcius, by strength of hand, swiftness of foot, and + daring of soul, overpowered every one that he assailed, succeeded in + driving the enemy to seek refuge, for the most part, in the interior of + the town, while the remainder submitted, and threw down their arms; thus + affording Lartius abundant opportunity to bring in the rest of the Romans + with ease and safety. + </p> + <p> + Corioli being thus surprised and taken, the greater part of the soldiers + employed themselves in spoiling and pillaging it, while Marcius + indignantly reproached them, and exclaimed that it was a dishonorable and + unworthy thing, when the consul and their fellow-citizens had now perhaps + encountered the other Volscians, and were hazarding their lives in battle, + basely to mis-spend the time in running up and down for booty, and, under + a pretence of enriching themselves, keep out of danger. Few paid him any + attention, but, putting himself at the head of these, he took the road by + which the consul's army had marched before him, encouraging his + companions, and beseeching them, as they went along, not to give up, and + praying often to the gods, too, that he might be so happy as to arrive + before the fight was over, and come seasonably up to assist Cominius, and + partake in the peril of the action. + </p> + <p> + It was customary with the Romans of that age, when they were moving into + battle array, and were on the point of taking up their bucklers, and + girding their coats about them, to make at the same time an unwritten + will, or verbal testament, and to name who should be their heirs, in the + hearing of three or four witnesses. In this precise posture Marcius found + them at his arrival, the enemy having advanced within view. + </p> + <p> + They were not a little disturbed by his first appearance, seeing him + covered with blood and sweat, and attended with a small train; but when he + hastily made up to the consul with gladness in his looks, giving him his + hand, and recounting to him how the city had been taken, and when they saw + Cominius also embrace and salute him, every one took fresh heart; those + that were near enough hearing, and those that were at a distance guessing, + what had happened; and all cried out to be led to battle. First, however, + Marcius desired to know of him how the Volscians had arrayed their army, + and where they had placed their best men, and on his answering that he + took the troops of the Activates in the centre to be their prime warriors, + than would yield to none in bravery, "Let me then demand and obtain of + you," said Marcius, "that we may be posted against them." The consul + granted the request, with much admiration of his gallantry. And when the + conflict began by the soldiers darting at each other, and Marcius sallied + out before the rest the Volscians opposed to him were not able to make + head against him; wherever he fell in, he broke their ranks, and made a + lane through them; but the parties turning again, and enclosing him on + each side with their weapons, the consul, who observed the danger he was + in, despatched some of the choicest men he had for his rescue. The + conflict then growing warm and sharp about Marcius, and many falling dead + in a little space, the Romans bore so hard upon the enemies, and pressed + them with such violence, that they forced them at length to abandon their + ground, and to quit the field. And, going now to prosecute the victory, + they besought Marcius, tired out with his toils, and faint and heavy + through the loss of blood, that he would retire to the camp. He replied, + however, that weariness was not for conquerors, and joined with them in + the pursuit. The rest of the Volscian army was in like manner defeated, + great numbers killed, and no less taken captive. + </p> + <p> + The day after, when Marcius, with the rest of the army, presented + themselves at the consul's tent, Cominius rose, and having rendered all + due acknowledgment to the gods for the success of that enterprise, turned + next to Marcius, and first of all delivered the strongest encomium upon + his rare exploits, of which he had partly been an eye-witness himself, in + the late battle, and had partly learned from the testimony of Lartius. And + then he required him to choose a tenth part of all the treasure and horses + and captives that had fallen into their hands, before any division should + be made to others; besides which, he made him the special present of a + horse with trappings and ornaments, in honor of his actions. The whole + army applauded; Marcius, however, stepped forth, and declaring his + thankful acceptance of the horse and his gratification at the praises of + his general, said, that all other things which he could only regard rather + as mercenary advantages than any significations of honor, he must waive, + and should be content with the ordinary proportion of such rewards. "I + have only," said he "one special grace to beg, and this I hope you will + not deny me. There was a certain hospitable friend of mine among the + Volscians, a man of probity and virtue, who is become a prisoner, and from + former wealth and freedom is now reduced to servitude. Among his many + misfortunes let my intercession redeem him from the one of being sold as a + common slave." Such a refusal and such a request on the part of Marcius + were followed with yet louder acclamations; and he had many more admirers + of this generous superiority to avarice, than of the bravery he had shown + in battle. The very persons who conceived some envy and despite to see him + so specially honored, could not but acknowledge, that one who so nobly + could refuse reward, was beyond others worth to receive it; and were more + charmed with that virtue which made him despise advantage, than with any + of those former actions that had gained him his title to it. It is a + higher accomplishment to use money well than to use arms; but not to need + it is more noble than to use it. + </p> + <p> + When the noise of approbation and applause ceased, Cominius, resuming, + said, "It is idle, fellow-soldiers, to force those other gifts of ours on + one who is unwilling to accept them; let us, therefore, give him one of + such a kind that he cannot well reject it; let us pass a vote, I mean, + that he shall hereafter be called Coriolanus, unless you think that his + performance at Corioli has itself anticipated any such resolution." Hence, + therefore, he had his third name of Coriolanus, making it all the plainer + that Gaius was a personal proper name, and the second, or surname, + Marcius, one common to his house and family; the third being a subsequent + addition which used to be imposed either from particular act or fortune, + bodily characteristic, or good quality of the bearer. + </p> + <p> + Not long after Marcius stood for the consulship. It was usual for + candidates for office to solicit personally the citizens, presenting + themselves in the forum with the toga on alone, and no tunic under it; + either to promote their supplications by the humility of their dress, or + that such as had received wounds might more readily display those marks of + their fortitude. + </p> + <p> + Marcius, therefore, as the fashion of candidates was, showing the scars + and gashes that were still visible on his body, from the many conflicts in + which he had signalized himself during a service of seventeen years + together, the people were affected at this display of merit, and told one + another that they ought in common modesty to create him consul. But when + the day of election had come, and Marcius appeared in the forum with a + pompous train of senators attending him, and the patricians all seemed to + be exerting greater effort than they had ever done before on a similar + occasion, the commons then fell off again from the kindness they had + conceived for him, and in the place of their late benevolence, began to + feel something of indignation and envy; passions assisted by the fear they + entertained, that if a man of such aristocratic temper, and so influential + among the patricians, should be invested with the power which that office + would give him, he might employ it to deprive the people of all that + liberty which was yet left them. In conclusion, they rejected Marcius. Two + other names were announced, to the great mortification of the senators, + who felt as if the indignity reflected rather upon themselves than on + Marcius. He, for his part, could not bear the affront with any patience. + He had always indulged his temper, and had regarded the proud and + contentious element of human nature as a sort of nobleness and + magnanimity; reason and discipline had not imbued him with that solidity + and equanimity which enter so largely into the virtues for the statesman. + He had never learned how essential it is for any one who undertakes public + business, and desires to deal with mankind, to avoid above all things that + self-will, which, as Plato says, belongs to the family of solitude; and to + pursue, above all things, that capacity so generally ridiculed, of + submission to ill-treatment. Marcius, straightforward and direct, stand + together, and come in to their assistance. The assembly met, and soon + became tumultuous. The sum of what Marcius had spoken, having been + reported to the people, excited them to such fury, that they were ready to + break in upon the senate. The tribunes prevented this, by laying all the + blame on Coriolanus, and they accordingly cited him to come before them, + and defend himself. + </p> + <p> + He came, therefore, as it were, to make his apology, and clear himself; in + which belief the people kept silence, and gave him a quiet hearing. But + when instead of the submissive and deprecatory language expected from him, + he began to use not only an offensive kind of freedom, seeming rather to + accuse than apologize, but as well by the tone of his voice as the + expression of his countenance, displayed a security that was not far from + disdain and contempt of them, the whole multitude then became angry, and + gave evident signs of impatience and disgust; and Sicinnius, the most + violent of the tribunes, after a little private conference with his + colleagues, proceeded solemnly to pronounce before them all, that Marcius + was condemned to die by the tribunes of the people, and bid the Aediles + take him to the Tarpeian rock, and without delay throw him headlong from + the precipice. When they, however, in compliance with the order, came to + seize upon his body, many, even of the plebeian party, felt it to be a + horrible and extravagant act; the patricians, meantime, wholly beside + themselves with distress and horror, hurried with cries to the rescue; and + persuaded them not to despatch him by any sudden violence, but refer the + cause to the general suffrage of the people. But when the people met + together, the tribunes, contrary to all former practice, extorted first, + that votes should be taken, not by centuries, but tribes; a change, by + which the rabble, that had no respect for honesty and justice, would be + sure to carry it against those who were rich and well known, and + accustomed to serve the state in war. In the next place, whereas they had + engaged to prosecute Marcius upon no other head but that of tyranny, which + could never be made out against him, they relinquished this plea, and + urged instead, his language in the senate against an abatement of the + price of corn, and for the overthrow of the tribunician power; adding + further, as a new impeachment, the distribution that was made by him of + the spoil and booty he had taken from the Antiates, when he overran their + country, which he had divided among those that had followed him, whereas + it ought rather to have been brought into the public treasure; which last + accusation did, they say, more discompose Marcius than all the rest, as he + had not anticipated he should ever be questioned on that subject, and, + therefore, was less provided with any satisfactory answer to it on the + sudden. And when, by way of excuse, he began to magnify the merits of + those who had been partakers with him in the action, those that had stayed + at home, being more numerous than the other, interrupted him with the + outcries. In conclusion, when they came to vote, a majority of three + tribes condemned him; the penalty being perpetual banishment. + </p> + <p> + Marcius himself, was neither stunned nor humiliated. In mien, carriage, + and countenance, he bore the appearance of entire composure, and while all + his friends were full of distress, seemed the only man that was not + touched with his misfortune. On his return home, after saluting his mother + and his wife, who were in tears and full of loud lamentations, and + exhorting them to moderate the sense they had of his calamity, he + proceeded at once to the city gates, whither all the nobility came to + attend him; and not taking anything with him, or making any request to the + company, he departed from them, having only three or four clients with + him. He continued solitary for a few days in a place in the country, + distracted with a variety of counsels, such as rage and indignation + suggested to him; and proposing to himself no honorable or useful end, but + only how he might best satisfy his revenge on the Romans, he resolved at + length to arouse a heavy war against them from their nearest neighbors. He + determined, first to make trial of the Volscians, whom he knew to be still + vigorous and flourishing, both in men and treasure, and he imagined their + force and power was not so much abated, as their spite and anger + increased, by the late overthrows they had received from the Romans. + </p> + <p> + There was a man of Antium, called Tullus Aufidius, who, for his wealth and + bravery and the splendor of his family, had the respect and privilege of a + king among the Volscians, but whom Marcius knew to have a particular + hostility to himself, above all other Romans. Frequent menaces and + challenges had passed in battle between them, and those exchanges of + defiance to which their hot and eager emulation is apt to prompt young + soldiers had added private animosity to their national feelings of + opposition. Yet for all this, considering Tullus to have a certain + generosity of temper, and knowing that no Volscian, so much as he, desired + an occasion to requite upon the Romans the evils they had done, he put on + a dress which completely disguised him and thus, like Ulysses,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + He entered the town of his mortal foes. +</pre> + <p> + His arrival at Antium was about evening, and though several met him in the + streets, yet he passed along without recognition, and went directly to the + house of Tullus, and entering undiscovered, went up to the fire-hearth, + and seated himself there without speaking a work, covering up his head. + Those of the family could not but wonder, and yet they were afraid either + to raise or question him, for there was a certain air of majesty both in + his posture and silence, but they recounted to Tullus, then at supper, the + strangeness of this accident. He immediately rose from table and came in, + and asked him who he was, and for what business he came there; and then + Marcius, unmuffling himself, and pausing awhile said, "If you cannot yet + call me to mind, Tullus, or do not believe your eyes concerning me, I must + of necessity be my own accuser. I am Gaius Marcius, the author of so much + mischief to the Volscians; of which, were I seeking to deny it, the + surname of Coriolanus I now bear would be a sufficient evidence against + me. The one recompense I received for all the hardships and perils I have + gone through, was the title that proclaims my enmity to your nation, and + this is the only thing which is still left me. Of all other advantages, I + have been stripped and deprived by the envy of the Roman people, and the + cowardice and treachery of the magistrates and those of my own order. I am + driven out as an exile, and become an humble suppliant at your hearth, not + so much for safety and protection (should I have come hither, had I been + afraid to die?), as to seek vengeance against those that expelled me; + which, methinks, I have already obtained, by putting myself into your + hands. If, therefore, you have really a mind to attack your enemies, make + use of that affliction you see me in to assist the enterprise, and convert + my personal infelicity into a common blessing to the Volscians; as I am + likely to be more serviceable in fighting for than against you, with the + advantage, which I now possess, of knowing all the secrets of the enemy + that I am attacking." + </p> + <p> + Tullus, on hearing this, was extremely rejoiced, and giving him his right + hand, exclaimed, "rise, Marcius, and be of good courage; it is a great + happiness you bring to Antium, in the present you make us of yourself; + expect everything that is good from the Volscians." he then proceeded to + feast and entertain him with every display of kindness, and for several + days after they were in close deliberation together on the prospects of a + war. + </p> + <p> + Although the Volscians had sworn to a truce of arms for the space of two + years, the Romans themselves soon furnished them with a pretence, by + making proclamation, out of some jealousy or slanderous report, at an + exhibition of games, that all the Volscians who had come to see them + should depart from the city before sunset. Some affirm that this was a + contrivance of Marcius, who sent a man privately to the consuls, falsely + to accuse the Volscians of intending to fall upon the Romans during the + games, and to set the city on fire. This public affront aroused their + hostility to the Romans; and Tullus, perceiving it, took advantage of it, + aggravating the fact, and working on their indignation, till he persuaded + them, at last, to despatch ambassadors to Rome, requiring the Romans to + restore that part of their country and those towns which they had taken + from the Volscian in the late war. When the Romans heard the message, they + indignantly replied, that the Volscians were the first that took up arms, + but the Romans would be the last to lay them down. This answer being + brought back, Tullus called a general assembly of the Volscians; and the + voted passing for a war, he then proposed that they should call in + Marcius, laying aside the remembrance of former grudges, and assuring + themselves that the services they should now receive from him as friend + and associate, would abundantly outweigh any harm or damage he had done + them when he was their enemy. Marcius was accordingly summoned, and having + made his entrance, and spoken tot he people, won their good opinion of his + capacity, his skill, counsel, and boldness, not less by his present words + than by his past actions. They joined him in commission with Tullus, to + have full power as general of their forces in all that related to the war. + And he, fearing lest the time that would be requisite to bring all the + Volscians together in full preparation might be so long as to lose him the + opportunity of action, left order with the chief persons and magistrates + for the city to provide other things, while he himself, prevailing upon + the readiest to assemble and march out with him as volunteers without + staying to be enrolled, made a sudden inroad into the Roman confines, when + nobody expected him, and possessed himself of so much booty, that the + Volscians found they had more than they could either carry away or use in + the camp. The abundance of provision which he gained, and the waste and + havoc of the country which he made, were, however, the smallest results of + that invasion; the great mischief he intended, and his special object in + all, was to increase at Rome the suspicions entertained of the patricians, + and to make them upon worse terms with the people. With this view, while + despoiling all the fields and destroying the property of other men, he + took special care to preserve their farms and lands untouched, and would + not allow his soldiers to ravage there, or seize upon any thing which + belonged to them. Hence the quarrels broke out afresh, and rose to a + greater height than ever; the senators reproaching those of the commonalty + with their late injustice to Marcius; while the plebeians, on their side, + did not hesitate to accuse them of having, out of spite and revenge, + solicited him to this enterprise, and thus, when others were involved in + the miseries of a war by their means, they sat like unconcerned spectators + furnished with a guardian abroad of their fortunes, in the very person of + the public enemy. After this incursion and exploit, which was of great + advantage to the Volscians, since they learned by it to be more courageous + and to despise their enemy, Marcius drew them off, and returned in safety. + </p> + <p> + But when the whole strength of the Volscians was brought together into the + field, with great expedition, it appeared so considerable a body, that + they agreed to leave part in garrison, for the security of their towns, + and with the other part to march against the Romans. Marcius now desired + Tullus to choose which of the two charges would be most agreeable to him. + Tullus answered, that since he knew Marcius to be equally valiant with + himself, and far more fortunate, he would have him take the command of + those that were going out to the war, while he made it his care to defend + their cities at home, and provide all conveniences for the army abroad. + Marcius thus reinforced, and much stronger than before, moved first + towards the city called Circaeum, a Roman colony. He received its + surrender, and did the inhabitants no injury; passing thence, he entered + and laid waste the country of the Latins, where he expected the Romans + would meet him, as the Latins were their confederates and allies, and had + often sent to demand succor from them. the people, however, on their part, + showing little inclination for the service, and the consuls themselves + being unwilling to run the hazard of a battle, when the time of their + office was almost ready to expire, they dismissed the Latin ambassadors + without any effect; so that Marcius, finding no army to oppose him, + marched up to their cities, and, having taken by force Toleria, Lavici, + Peda, and Bols, all of which offered resistance, not only plundered their + houses, but made a prey likewise of their persons. Meantime, he showed + particular regard for all such as came over to his party, and, for fear + they might sustain any damage against his will, encamped them at the + greatest distance he could, and wholly abstained from their property. + </p> + <p> + After, however, he had made himself master of Bols, a town not above ten + miles from Rome, where he found great treasure, and put almost all the + adults to the sword; the other Volscians that were ordered to stay behind + and protect their cities, hearing of his achievements and success, had not + patience to remain any longer at home, but came hastening in their arms to + Marcius, saying that he alone was their general and the sole commander + they would own; with all this, his name and renown spread throughout all + Italy, and universal wonder prevailed at the sudden and mighty revolution + in the fortunes for two nations which the loss and the accession of a + single man had effected. + </p> + <p> + All at Rome was in great disorder; they were utterly averse from fighting, + and spent their whole time in cabals and disputes and reproaches against + each other; until news was brought that the enemy had laid close siege to + Lavinium, where were the images and sacred things of their tutelar gods, + and whence they derived the origin of their nations, that being the first + city which Aeneas built in Italy. These tidings produced a change as + universal as it was extraordinary in the thoughts and inclinations of the + people, but occasioned a yet stranger revulsion of feeling among the + patricians. The people now were for repealing the sentence against + Marcius, and calling him back into the city; whereas the senate, being + assembled to consider the decree, opposed and finally rejected the + proposal, either out of the mere humor of opposing the people in whatever + they should desire, or because they were unwilling, perhaps, that he + should owe his restoration to their kindness. When Marcius heard of this, + he was more exasperated than ever, and, quitting the siege of Lavinium, + marched furiously towards Rome, and encamped at a place called the + Cluilian ditches, about five miles from the city. The nearness of his + approach did, indeed, create much terror and disturbance, yet it also + ended their dissensions for the present; as nobody now, whether consul or + senator, durst any longer contradict the people in their design of + recalling Marcius. + </p> + <p> + It was therefore, unanimously agreed by all parties, that ambassadors + should be despatched, offering him return to his country, and desiring him + to free them from the terrors and distresses of the war. The persons sent + by the senate with this message were chosen out of his kindred and + acquaintance, who naturally expected a very kind reception at their first + interview; in which, however, they were much mistaken. Being led through + the enemy's camp, they found him sitting in state amid the chief men of + the Volscians, looking insupportably proud and arrogant. He bade them + declare the cause of their coming, which they did in the most gently + terms, and with a behavior suitable to their language. When they had made + an end of speaking, he returned them a sharp answer, full of bitterness + and angry resentment, as to what concerned himself, and the ill usage he + had received from them; but as general of the Volscians, he demanded + restitution of the cities and the lands which had been seized upon during + the late war, and that the same rights and franchises should be granted + them at Rome, which had been before accorded to the Latins; since there + could be no assurance that a peace would be firm and lasting without just + conditions on both sides. He allowed them thirty days to consider and + resolve. + </p> + <p> + The ambassadors having departed; he withdrew his forces from the Roman + territory. Those of the Volscians who had long envied his reputation, and + could not endure to see the influence he had with the people, laid hold of + this as a matter of complaint against him. Among them was Tullus himself, + not for any wrong done him personally by Marcius, but through the weakness + incident to human nature. He could not help feeling mortified to find his + own glory totally obscured, and himself overlooked and neglected now by + the Volscians, who had so great an opinion of their new leader. Yet + Marcius spent no part of the time idly, but attacked the confederates of + the enemy, ravaged their land, and took from them seven great and populous + cities in that interval. The Romans, in the meanwhile, durst not venture + out to their relief; but were utterly fearful, and showed no more + disposition or capacity for action, than if their bodies had been struck + with a palsy, and become destitute of sense and motion. But when the + thirty days were expired, and Marcius appeared again with his whole army, + they sent another embassy to beseech him that he would moderate his + displeasure, and would withdraw the Volscian army, and then make any + proposals he thought best for both parties, but if it were his opinion + that the Volscians ought to have any favor shown them, upon laying down + their arms they might obtain all they could in reason desire. + </p> + <p> + The reply of Marcius was, that he should make no answer to this as a + general of the Volscians, but in the quality still for a roman citizen, he + would advise them to return to him before three days were at an end, with + a ratification of his previous demands. + </p> + <p> + When the ambassadors came back, and acquainted the senate with the answer, + seeing the whole state now threatened as it were by a tempest, a decree + was made, that the whole order of their priests should go in full + procession to Marcius with their pontifical array, and the dress and habit + which they respectively used in their several functions, and should urge + him, as before, to withdraw his forces, and then treat with his countrymen + in favor of the Volscians. He granted nothing at all, nor so much as + expressed himself more mildly; but without capitulating or receding, bade + them once for all choose whether they would yield or fight, since the old + terms were the only terms of peace. In this great perplexity, the roman + women went, some to other temples, but the greater part, and the ladies of + highest rank, tot he altar of Jupiter Capitolinus. Among these suppliants + was Valeria, sister to the great Poplicola, who happily lighting, not + without divine guidance, on the right expedient, rose, and bade the others + rise, and went directly with them to the house of Volumnia, the mother of + Marcius. And coming in and finding her sitting with her daughter-in-law, + and with her little grandchildren on her lap, Valeria, then surrounded by + her companions, spoke in the name of them all:— + </p> + <p> + "We, O Volumnia, and Vergilia, are come as women to women, to request a + thing on which our own and the common safety depends, and which, if you + consent to it, will raise our glory above that of the daughters of the + Sabines, who won over their fathers and their husbands from mortal enmity + to peace and friendship. Arise and come with us to Marcius; join in our + supplication, for your country's sake." + </p> + <p> + The words of Valeria were seconded by the acclamations of the other women, + to which Volumnia made answer:—"I and Vergilia, my countrywomen, + have an equal share with you all in the common miseries, and we have the + additional sorrow, which is wholly ours, that we have lost the merit and + good fame of Marcius, and see his person confined, rather than protected + by the arms of the enemy. Make use, however, of our service; and lead us, + if you please, to him; we are able, if nothing more, at least to spend our + last breath in making suit to him for our country." + </p> + <p> + Having spoken thus, she took Vergilia by the hand, and the young children, + and so accompanied them to the Volscian camp. So lamentable a sight much + affected the enemies themselves, who viewed them in respectful silence. + Marcius, seeing the party of women advance, came down hastily to meet + them, saluting his mother first, and embracing her a long time, and then + his wife and children, sparing neither tears nor cares, but suffering + himself to be borne away and carried headlong, as it were, but the + impetuous violence of his passion. + </p> + <p> + when he had satisfied himself, and observed that his mother Volumnia was + desirous to say something, the Volscian council being first called in, he + heard her to the following effect: "Our dress and our very persons, my + son, might tell you, though we should say nothing ourselves, in how + forlorn a condition we have lived at home since your banishment and + absence from us; and now consider with yourself, whether we may not pass + for the most unfortunate of all women, to have that sight, which should be + the sweetest that we could see, converted, through I know not what + fatality, to one of all others the most formidable and dreadful,—Volumnia + to behold her son, and Vergilia her husband, in arms against the walls of + Rome. As for myself, if I cannot prevail with you to prefer amity and + concord to quarrel and hostility, and to be the benefactor to both + parties, rather than the destroyer of one of them, be assured of this, + that you shall not be able to reach your country, unless you trample first + upon the corpse of her that brought you into life. For it will be ill in + me to loiter in the world till the day com wherein I shall see a child of + mine, either led in triumph by his own countrymen, or triumphing over + them." + </p> + <p> + Marcius listened to his mother while she spoke, without answering her a + word; and Volumnia, seeing him stand mute also for a long time after she + had ceased, resumed: "O my son, what is the meaning of this silence? Is it + wrong to gratify a mother in a request like this? You have punished your + country already; you have not yet paid your debt to me." Having said this, + she threw herself down at his feet, as did also his wife and children; + upon which Marcius, crying out, "O mother! what is it you have done to + me?" raised her from the ground, and pressing her right hand with more + than ordinary vehemence said, "You have gained a victory, fortunate enough + for the Romans, but destructive to your son; whom you, though none else, + have defeated." And after a little private conference with his mother and + his wife, he went them back again to Rome, as they desired of him. + </p> + <p> + the next morning, he broke up his camp, and led the Volscians homeward, + variously affected with what he had done. None, however, opposed his + commands; they all obediently followed him, though rather from admiration + of his virtue, than any regard they now had to his authority. The Roman + people, meantime began to crown themselves with garlands and prepare for + sacrifice, as they were wont to do upon tidings brought of an signal + victory. But the joy and transport of the whole city was chiefly + remarkable in the honors and marks of affection paid to the women, as well + by the senate as the people in general; every one declaring that they + were, beyond all question, the instruments of the public safety. And the + senate having passed a decree that whatsoever they would ask in the way of + an a favor or honor should be allowed and done for them by the + magistrates, they demanded simply that a temple might be erected to the + Goddess Fortuna, the expense of which they offered to defray out of their + own contributions, if the city would be at the cost of sacrifices, and + other matters pertaining to the due honor of the gods, out of the common + treasury. The senate, much commending their public spirit, caused the + temple to be built and a statue set up in it at the public charge; they + however, made up a sum among themselves, for a second image of Fortune, + which the Romans say utter these words as they were putt it up "Blessed of + the gods, O women, is your gift." + </p> + <p> + When Marcius came back to Antium, Tullus, who thoroughly hated and greatly + feared him, proceeded at once to contrive how he might immediately + despatch him; as, if he escaped now, he was never likely to give him such + another advantage. Having, therefore, got together and suborned several + partisans against him, he required Marcius to resign his charge, and give + the Volscians an account of his administration. + </p> + <p> + An assembly was called, and popular speakers, as had been concerted, came + forward to exasperate and incense the multitude; but when Marcius stood up + to answer, even the most tumultuous part of the people became quiet on a + sudden, and out of reverence allowed him to speak without the least + disturbance; while all the better people, and such as were satisfied with + a peace, made it evident by their whole behavior, that they would give him + a favorable hearing, and judge and pronounce according to equity. + </p> + <p> + For these reasons, the conspirators judged it prudent not to test the + general feeling; but the boldest of their faction fell upon Marcius in a + body, and slew him there, none of those that were present offering to + defend him. But it quickly appeared that the action was in nowise approved + of by the majority of the Volscians, who hurried out of their several + cities to show respect to his corpse; to which they gave honorable + interment, adorning his sepulchre with arms and trophies, as the monument + of a noble hero and a famous general. When the Romans heard tidings of his + death, they gave no other signification either of honor or of anger toward + him, but simply granted the request of the women, that they might put + themselves into mourning and bewail him for ten months, as the usage was + upon the loss of a father or a son or a brother; that being the period + fixed for the longest lamentation by the laws of Numa Pompilius. + </p> + <p> + Marcius was no sooner deceased, than the Volscians felt the need of his + assistance. They quarreled first with the Aequians, their confederates and + friends, about the appointment of the general of their joint forces, and + carried their dispute to the length of bloodshed and slaughter; and were + then defeated by the Romans in a pitched battle, where not only Tullus + lost his life, but the flower of their whole army was cut to pieces; so + that they were forced to submit and accept of peace upon very dishonorable + terms, becoming subjects of Rome, and pledging themselves to submission. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0014" id="link2H_4_0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + COMPARISON OF ALCIBIADES AND CORIOLANUS + </h2> + <p> + Having described all their actions that seem to deserve commemoration, + their military ones, we may say, incline the balance very decidedly upon + neither side. They both, in pretty equal measure, displayed on numerous + occasions the daring and courage of the soldier, and the skill and + foresight of the general; unless, indeed, the fact that Alcibiades was + victorious and successful in many contests both by sea and land, ought to + gain him the title of a more complete commander. That so long as they + remained and held command in their respective countries, they eminently + sustained, and when they were driven into exile, yet more eminently + damaged the fortunes of those countries, is common to both. All the sober + citizens felt disgust at the petulance, the low flattery, and base + seductions which Alcibiades, in his public life, allowed himself to employ + with the view of winning the people's favor; and the ungraciousness, + pride, and oligarchical haughtiness which Marcius, on the other hand, + displayed in his, were the abhorrence of the Roman populace. + </p> + <p> + Marcius, according to our common conceptions of his character, was + undoubtedly simple and straightforward; Alcibiades, unscrupulous as a + public man, and false. He is more especially blamed for the dishonorable + and treacherous way in which, as Thucydides relates, he imposed upon the + Lacedaemonian ambassadors, and disturbed the continuance of the peace. yet + this policy, which engaged the city again in way, nevertheless placed it + in a powerful and formidable position, by the accession, which Alcibiades + obtained for it, of the alliance of Argos and Mantinea. And Coriolanus + also, Dionysius relates, used unfair means to excite war between the + Romans and the Volscians, in the false report which he spread about the + visitors at the Games; and the motive of this action seems to make it the + worse for the two; since it was not done, like the other, out of ordinary + political jealousy, strife and competition. simply to gratify anger, from + which as Ion says, no one ever yet got any return, he threw whole + districts of Italy into confusion, and sacrificed to his passion against + his country numerous innocent cities. It is true, indeed, that Alcibiades, + by his resentment, was the occasion of great disasters to his country, but + he relented as soon as he found their feelings to be changed; and after he + was driven out a second time, so far from taking pleasure in the errors + and inadvertencies of their commanders, or being indifferent to the danger + they were thus incurring, he did the very thing that Aristides is so + highly commended for doing to Themistocles: he came to the generals who + were his enemies, and pointed out to them what they ought to do. + Coriolanus, on the other hand, first all attacked the whole body of his + countrymen, though only one portion of them had done him any wrong, while + the other, the better and nobler portion, had actually suffered, as well + as sympathized, with him. And, secondly, by the obduracy with which he + resisted numerous embassies and supplications, addressed in propitiation + of his person anger, he showed that it had been to destroy and overthrow, + not to recover and regain his country, that he had excited bitter and + implacable hostilities against. There is, indeed, one distinction that may + be drawn. Alcibiades, it may be said, was not safe among the Spartans, and + had the inducements at once of fear and of hatred to lead him again to + Athens; whereas Marcius could not honorably have left the Volscians, when + they were behaving so well to him: he, in the command of their forces and + the enjoyment of their entire confidence, was in a very different position + from Alcibiades, whom the Lacedaemonians did not so much wish to adopt + into their service, as to use, and then abandon. Driven about from house + to house in the city, and from general to general in the camp, the latter + had no resort but to place himself in the hands of Tissaphernes; unless we + are to suppose that his object in courting favor with him was to avert the + entire destruction of his native city, whither he wished himself to + return. + </p> + <p> + As regards money, Alcibiades, we are told, was often guilty of procuring + it by accepting bribes, and spent it in luxury and dissipation. Coriolanus + declined to receive it, even when pressed upon him by his commanders as an + honor; and one great reason for the odium he incurred with the populace in + the discussions about their debts was, that he trampled upon the poor, not + for money's sake, but out of pride and insolence. + </p> + <p> + Antipater, in a letter written upon the death of Aristotle the + philosopher, observes, "Amongst his other gifts he had that of + persuasiveness," and the absence of this in the character of Marcius made + all his great actions and noble qualities unacceptable to those whom they + benefited: pride, and self-will, the consort, as Plato calls it, of + solitude, made him insufferable. With the skill which Alcibiades, on the + contrary, professed to treat every one in the way most agreeable to him, + we cannot wonder that all his successes were attended with the most + exuberant favor and honor; his very errors, at times, being accompanied by + something of grace and felicity. And so, in spite of great and frequent + hurt that he had done the city, he was repeatedly appointed to office and + command; while Coriolanus stood in vain for a place which his great + services had made his due. + </p> + <p> + Alcibiades never professed to deny that it was pleasant to him to be + honored and distasteful to him to be overlooked; and, accordingly, he + always tried to place himself upon good terms with all that he met; + Coriolanus' pride forbade him to pay attentions to those who could have + promoted his advancement, and yet his love of distinction made him feel + hurt and angry when he was disregarded. Such are the faulty parts of his + character, which in all other respects was a noble one. For his + temperance, continence, and probity, he might claim to be compared with + the best and purest of the Greeks; not in any sort of kind with + Alcibiades, the least scrupulous and most entirely careless of human + beings in all these points. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0015" id="link2H_4_0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ARISTIDES + </h2> + <p> + Aristides, the son of Lysimachus, was of the tribe Antiochis, and township + of Alopece. Being the friend and supporter of that Clisthenes, who settled + the government after the expulsion of the tyrants, and emulating and + admiring Lycurgus the Lacedaemonian above all politicians, he adhered to + the aristocratical principles of government; and had Themistocles, son to + Neocles, his adversary on the side of the populace. Some say that, when + boys together, they were always at variance in all their words and + actions, serious as well as playful. One was ready, venturesome, and + subtle, engaging readily and eagerly in everything; the other of a staid + and settled temper, intent on the exercise of justice, not admitting any + degree of falsity, indecorum, or trickery, even at his play. Ariston of + Ceos says that the first origin of enmity which rose to so great a height, + was a love affair; they were rivals for the affection of the beautiful + Stesilaus of Ceos, and were passionate beyond moderation, and did not lay + aside their animosity when the beauty that had excited it passed away; but + carried their heats and differences into public business. + </p> + <p> + Themistocles joined an association of partisans, and fortified himself + with considerable strength; so that when some one told him that if he were + impartial, he would make a good magistrate, "I wish," replied he, "I may + never sit on that tribunal where my friends shall not plead a greater + privilege than strangers." + </p> + <p> + But Aristides walked alone on his path in politics being unwilling to go + with associates in ill doing, or to cause them vexation by not gratifying + their wishes. + </p> + <p> + When he had once opposed Themistocles in some measures that were + expedient, and had got the better of him, he could not refrain from + saying, when he left the assembly, that unless they sent Themistocles and + himself to the barathrum,(a pit into which the dead bodies of malefactors + were thrown) there could be no safety for Athens. Another time, when + urging some proposal upon the people, although there was much opposition + to it, yet he was gaining the day; but just as the president of the + assembly was about to put it to the vote, perceiving by what had been said + in debate the inexpediency of his advice, he let it fall. He often brought + in his bills by other persons, lest Themistocles, thought party spirit + against him, should be any hindrance to the good of the public. + </p> + <p> + In all the vicissitudes of public affairs, the constancy he showed was + admirable, not being elated with honors, and demeaning himself sedately in + adversity. Once, at the recital of these verses of Aeshcylus in the + theatre, relating to Amphiaraus, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + For not at seeming just, but being so + He aims; and from his depth of soil below, + Harvest of wise and prudent counsels grow, +</pre> + <p> + the eyes of all the spectators were turned upon Aristides, as if this + virtue in an especial manner belonged to him. + </p> + <p> + He was a most determined champion of justice, not only against feelings of + friendship and favor, but wrath and malice. + </p> + <p> + Thus it is reported of him that prosecuting one who was his enemy, when + the judges after accusation refused to hear the criminal, and were + proceeding immediately to pass sentence upon him, he rose in haste from + his seat and joined in petition with him for a hearing, and that he might + enjoy the privilege of the law. Another time, judging between two private + persons, when the one declared his adversary had very much injured + Aristides; "Tell me rather, good friend," he said, "what wrong he has done + you: for it is your cause, not my own, which I now sit judge of." Being + chosen to the charge of the public revenue, he made it appear, that not + only those of his time, but the preceding officers, had alienated much + treasure, and especially Themistocles: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Well known he was an able man to be, + But with his fingers apt to be too free. +</pre> + <p> + Therefore, Themistocles associating several persons against Aristides, and + impeaching him when he gave in his accounts, caused him to be condemned of + robbing of the public; so Idomeneus states; but the best and chief men of + the city much resented it, so that he was not only exempted from the fine + imposed upon him, but again called to the same employment. Pretending now + to repent of his former practice, and carrying himself with more + remissness, he became acceptable to such as pillaged the treasury, by not + detecting or calling them to an exact account. So that those who had their + fill of the public money began highly to applaud Aristides, and sued to + the people, to have him once more chosen treasurer. But when they were + upon the point of election, he reproved the Athenians in these words: + "When I discharged my office well and faithfully, I was insulted and + abused; but now that I have countenanced the public thieves in a variety + of malpractices, I am considered an admirable patriot. I am more ashamed, + therefore, of this present honor than of the former sentence; and I pity + your condition, with whom is more praiseworthy to oblige bad men than to + preserve the revenue of public." + </p> + <p> + When Datis was sent by Darius under pretense of punishing the Athenians + for their burning of Sardis, but in reality to reduce the Greeks under his + dominion, and had landed at Marathon and laid waste the country, among the + ten commanders appointed by the Athenians for the war, Miltiades was of + the greatest name; but the second place, both for reputation and power, + was possessed by Aristides: and when his opinion to join battle was added + to that of Miltiades, it did much to incline the balance. Every leader by + his day having the command in chief, when it came to Aristides' turn, he + delivered it into the hands of Miltiades, showing his fellow officers, + that it is not dishonorable to obey and follow wise and able men, but, on + the contrary, noble and prudent. So appeasing their rivalry, and bringing + them to acquiesce in the best advice, he confirmed Miltiades in the + strength of undivided and unmolested authority. And now every one, + yielding his day of command, looked for orders only to him. During the + fight the main body of the Athenians being the hardest pressed, the + barbarians, for a long time, making opposition there against the tribes + Leontis and Antiochis, Themistocles and Aristides being ranged together, + fought valiantly; the one being of the tribe Leontis, the other of the + Antiochis. But, after they had beaten the barbarians back to their ships, + and perceived that they did sail for the isles, but were driven in by the + force of sea and wind towards the country of Attica, fearing lest they + should take the city, they hurried away thither with nine tribes, and + reached it the same day. + </p> + <p> + Of all the virtues of Aristides, the common people were most affected with + his justice, because of its continual and common use; and thus, although + of mean fortune and ordinary birth, he possessed himself of the most + kingly and divine appellation of Just; which kings, however, and tyrants + have never sought after; but have taken delight to be surnamed besiegers + of cities, thunderers, conquerors, eagles and hawks; affecting, it seems, + the reputation which proceeds from power and violence, rather than that of + virtue. + </p> + <p> + Aristides, therefore, had at first the fortune to be beloved for this + surname, but at length envied. Especially when Themistocles spread a rumor + amongst the people, that, by determining and judging all matters + privately, he had destroyed the courts of judicature, and was secretly + making way for a monarchy in his own person, without the assistance of + guards. Moreover, the spirit of the people, now grown high, and confident + with their late victory, naturally entertained feelings of dislike to all + of more than common fame and reputation. Coming together, therefore, from + all parts into the city, they banished Aristides by the ostracism, giving + their jealousy of his reputation the name of fear of tyranny. For + ostracism was not the punishment of any criminal act, but was speciously + said to be the mere depression and humiliation of excessive greatness and + power; and was in fact a gentle relief and mitigation of envious feeling, + which was thus allowed to vent itself in inflicting no intolerable injury, + only a ten years' banishment. But after it came be exercised upon base and + villainous fellows, they desisted from it; Hyperbolus, being the last whom + they banished by the ostracism. + </p> + <p> + The cause of Hyperbolus's banishment is said to have been this. Alcibiades + and Nicias, men that bore the greatest sway in the city, were of different + factions. As the people, therefore, were about to vote the ostracism, and + obviously to decree it against one of them, consulting together and + uniting their parties, they contrived the banishment of Hyperbolus. Upon + which the people, being offended, as if some contempt or affront was put + upon the thing, left off and quite abolished it. It was performed, to be + short, in this manner. Every one taking an ostracon, that is, a sherd, a + piece of earthenware, wrote upon it the citizen's he would have banished, + and carried it to a certain part of the market-place surrounded with + wooden rails. First, the magistrates numbered all the sherds in gross (for + if there were less than six thousand, the ostracism was imperfect); then, + laying every name by itself, they pronounced him whose name was written by + the largest number, banished for ten years, with the enjoyment of his + estate. As, therefore, they were writing the names on the sherds, it is + reported that an illiterate clownish fellow, giving Aristides his sherd, + supposing him a common citizen, begged him write Aristides upon it; and he + being surprised and asking if Aristides had ever done him any injury, + "None at all," said he, "neither know I the man; but I am tired of hearing + him everywhere called the Just." Aristides, hearing this, is said to have + made no reply, but returned the sherd with his own name inscribed. At his + departure from the city, lifting up his hands to heaven, he made a prayer + (the reverse, it would seem, of that of Achilles), that the Athenians + might never have any occasion which should constrain them to remember + Aristides. + </p> + <p> + But three years afterwards, when Xerxes was marching through Thessaly and + Boeotia into the country of Attica, they repealed the law, and decreed the + return of the banished: chiefly fearing lest Aristides might join himself + to the enemy, and bring over many of his fellow-citizens to the party of + the barbarians; much mistaking the man, who, already before the decree, + was exerting himself to excite and encourage the Greeks to the defense of + their liberty. + </p> + <p> + After the battle of Salamis, Xerxes, much terrified, immediately hastened + to the Hellespont. But Mardonius was left with the most serviceable part + of the army, about three hundred thousand men, and was a formidable enemy, + confident in his infantry, and writing messages of defiance to the Greeks: + "You have overcome by sea men accustomed to fight on land and unskilled at + the oar; but there lies now the open country of Thessaly; and the plains + of Boeotia offer a broad and worthy field for brave men, either horse or + foot, to contend in." + </p> + <p> + But he sent privately to the Athenians, both by letter and word of mouth + from the king, promising to rebuild their city, to give them a vast sum of + money, and constitute them lords of all Greece on condition they would not + engage in the war. The Lacedaemonians receiving news of this, and fearing, + dispatched an embassy to the Athenians, entreating that they would send + their wives and children to Sparta, and receive support from them for + their superannuated. For, being despoiled both of their city and country, + the people were suffering extreme distress. Having given audience to the + ambassadors, they returned an answer, upon the motion of Aristides, worthy + of the highest admiration; declaring, that they forgave their enemies if + they thought all things purchasable by wealth, than which they knew + nothing of greater value; but that they felt offended at the Lacaemonians, + for looking only to their present poverty, without any remembrance of + their valor and magnanimity, and offering them their victuals, to fight in + the cause of Greece. Aristides made this proposal, brought back the + ambassadors into the assembly, and charged them to tell the Lacaemonians + that all the treasure on earth or under it was of less value with the + people of Athens than the liberty of Greece. And, showing the sun to those + who came from Mardonius, "as long as that retains the same course, so + long," said he, "shall the citizens of Athens wage war with the Persians + for the country which has been wasted, and the temples that have been + profaned and burnt by them." Moreover, he proposed a decree, that the + priests should anathematize him who sent any herald to the Medes, or + deserted the alliance of Greece. + </p> + <p> + When Mardonius made a second incursion into the country of Attica, the + people passed over again into the isle of Salamis. Aristides himself went + to Lacedaemon, and reproved them for the delay and neglect in abandoning + Athens once more to the barbarians; and demanded their assistance for that + part of Greece which was not yet lost. The Ephori, hearing this, made show + of sporting all day, and of carelessly keeping holy day (for they were + then celebrating the Hyacinthian festival), but in the night, selecting + five thousand Spartans, each of whom was attended by seven Helots, they + sent them forth unknown to those from Athens. And when Aristides again + reprehended them, they told him in derision that he either doted or + dreamed, for the army was already at Oresteum, in their march towards the + strangers; as they called the Persians. Aristides answered that they + jested unreasonably, deluding their friends, instead of their enemies. + </p> + <p> + Being chosen general for the war, he repaired to Plataea, with eight + thousand Athenians, where Pausanias, generalissimo of all Greece, joined + him with the Spartans; and the forces of the other Greeks came in to them. + The encampment of the barbarians extended all along the bank of the river + Asopus, their numbers being so great, there was no enclosing them all, but + their baggage and most valuable things were surrounded with a square + bulwark, each side of which was the length of ten furlongs. + </p> + <p> + The Tegeatans, contesting the post of honor with the Athenians, demanded, + that according to custom, the Lacedaemonians being ranged on the right + wing of the battle, they might have the left, alleging several matters in + commendation of their ancestors. The Athenians being indignant at the + claim, Aristides came forward and said: "To contend with the Tegeatans for + noble descent and valor, the present time permits not: but this we say to + you, O you Spartans, and you the rest of the Greeks, that place neither + takes away nor contributes courage: we shall endeavor by maintaining the + post you assign us, to reflect no dishonor on our former performances. For + we are come, not to differ with our friends, but to fight our enemies; not + to extol our ancestors, but to behave as valiant men. This battle will + manifest how much each city, captain, and private soldier is worth to + Greece." The council of war, upon this address, decided for the Athenians, + and gave them the other wing of the battle. + </p> + <p> + At this juncture, Mardonius made trial of the Grecian courage, by sending + his whole number of horse, in which he thought himself much the stronger, + against them, while they were all, except the Megarians, encamped at the + foot of Mount Cithaeron, in strong and rocky places. They being three + thousand in number, had pitched their tents on the plain, where the + cavalry charged and made inroads upon them from all sides. They sent, + therefore, in haste to Pausanias, demanding relief, not being able alone + to sustain the great numbers of the barbarians. Pausanias, hearing this, + and perceiving the tents of the Megarians almost hidden by the multitude + of darts and arrows, and themselves driven together into a narrow space, + was at a loss how to aid them with his battalions of heavy-armed + Lacedaemonians. He asked, therefore, as a test of emulation and love of + distinction, to the commanders and captains who were around him, if any + would voluntarily take upon the defense and succor of the Megarians. + </p> + <p> + The rest being backward, Aristides undertook the enterprise for the + Athenians, and sent Olympiodorus, the most valiant of his inferior + officers, with three hundred chosen men and some archers under his + command. These were soon in readiness, and running upon the enemy, as soon + as it was perceived by Masistius, who commanded the cavalry of the + barbarians, a man of wonderful courage and of extraordinary bulk and + comeliness of person, he turned his steed and made towards them. They + sustained the shock and joined battle with him, as though by this + encounter they were to try the success of the whole war. But after + Masistius's horse received a wound, and flung him, and he falling, could + hardly raise himself through the weight of his armor, the Athenians + pressed upon him with blows, but could not easily get at his person, armed + as he was, breast, head, and limbs all over, with gold and brass and iron; + but one of them at last, running a javelin under the visor of his helmet, + slew him; and the rest of the Persians, leaving the body, fled. The + greatness of the Greek success was known, not by the multitude of the + slain, (for an inconsiderable number were killed), but by the sorrow the + barbarians expressed. For they shaved themselves, their horses, and mules + for the death of Masistius, and filled the plain with howling and + lamentation; having lost a person, who, next to Mardonius himself, was by + far the chief among them, both for valor and authority. + </p> + <p> + After this skirmish of the horse, they kept from fighting a long time; for + the soothsayers, by the sacrifices, foretold the victory both to Greeks + and Persians, if they stood upon the defensive part only, but if they + became aggressors, the contrary. At length Mardonious, when he had but a + few days' provision, and the Greek forces were increasing continually, + impatient of delay, determined to lie still no longer, but passing Asopus + by daybreak, to fall unexpectedly upon the Greeks. This he signified the + night before to the captains of his host. But about midnight, a certain + horseman stole into the Greek camp, and coming to the watch, desired them + to summon Aristides, the Athenian, to him. He came speedily, and the + stranger said: "I am Alexander, king of the Macedonians, and have come + here through the greatest danger in the world for the goodwill I bear you, + lest a sudden onset should dismay you, so as to behave in the fight worse + than usual. For to-morrow Mardonius will give you battle, urged, not by + any hope of success or courage, but by want of victuals: for the prophets + prohibit him from the battle, the sacrifices and oracles being + unfavorable; but the army is in despondency and consternation; and + necessity forces him to try his fortune, or sit still and endure the last + extremity of want." Alexander, thus saying, entreated Aristides to take + notice and remember him, but not tell any other. But he replied that it + was not fair conceal to the matter from Pausanias (because he was + general); as for any others he would keep it secret from them till the + battle was fought; but if the Greeks obtained the victory, that then no + one should be ignorant of Alexander's goodwill and kindness towards them. + After this, the king of the Macedonians rode back again, and Aristides + went to Pausanias's tent and told him; and they sent for the rest of the + captains and gave orders that the army should be in battle array. + </p> + <p> + Meantime, day came upon them; and Mardonious having his army in array, + fell upon the Lacedaemonians with great shouting and noise of barbarous + people, as if they were not about to join battle, but crush the Greeks in + their flight—a thing which very nearly came to pass. For Pausanius, + perceiving what was done, made a halt, and commanded every one to put + themselves in order for the battle; but through the disturbance he was in, + on account of the sudden approach of the enemy, he forgot to give the + signal to the Greeks in general. Whence it was, that they did not come + immediately, or in a body, to their assistance, but by small companies and + straggling, when the fight was already begun. Pausanias, offering + sacrifice, could not procure favorable omens, and so commanded the + Lacedaemonians to set down their shields at their feet and wait quietly + await for his directions, making no resistance to any of their enemies. At + this time, Callicrates, who, we are told, was the most comely man in the + army, being shot with an arrow and upon the point of expiring, said that + he did not lament his death (for he came from home to lay down his life in + defense of Greece) but that he died without action. While Pausanias was + thus in the act of supplication, the sacrifices appeared propitious, and + the soothsayers foretold victory. The word being given, the Lacedaemonian + battalion of foot seemed, on the sudden, like some fierce animal, setting + up his bristles, and betaking himself to the combat; and the barbarians + perceived that they encountered with men who would fight to the death. + Therefore, holding their wicker shields before them, they shot their + arrows amongst the Lacedaemonians. But they, keeping together in the order + of a phalanx, and falling upon their enemies forced their shields out of + their hands, and, striking with their pikes at the breasts and faces of + the Persians, overthrew many of them; they, however, fell neither + unrevenged nor without courage. For taking hold of the spears with their + bare hands, they broke many of them, and betook themselves with effect to + the sword; and making use of their falchions and scimitars, and wresting + the Lacedaemonians' shields from them, and grappling with them, for a long + time stood their ground. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, the Athenians were standing still, waiting for the + Lacedaemonians to come up. But when they heard a great noise as of men + engaged in fight, and a messenger came from Pausanias to inform them of + what was going on, they made haste to their assistance. And as they passed + through the plain to the place where the noise was, the recreant Greeks, + who took part with the enemy, came upon them. Aristides, as soon as he saw + them, going a considerable space before the rest, cried out to them, by + the guardian gods of Greece, not to enter the fight, and be no impediment + to those who were going to succor the defenders of Greece. But when he + perceived that they gave no attention to him, and had prepared themselves + for the battle, then turning from the present relief of the + Lacedaemonians, he engaged with them, being five thousand in number. But + the greatest part soon gave way and retreated, as the barbarians were also + put to flight. + </p> + <p> + The battle being thus divided, the Lacedaemonians first beat off the + Persians; and a Spartan, named Arimnestus, slew Mardonius by a blow on the + head with a stone, as the oracle in the temple of Amphiaraus had foretold + to him. For Mardonius sent a Lydian thither, and another person, a Carian, + to the cave of Trophonius. The latter, the priest of the oracle answered + in his own language. But to the Lydian sleeping in the temple of + Amphiaraus, it seemed that a minister of the divinity stood before him and + commanded him to be gone; and on his refusing to do it, flung a great + stone at his head, so that he thought himself slain with the blow. Such is + the story. + </p> + <p> + Of three hundred thousand of the enemy, forty thousand only are said to + have escaped with Artabazus; while on the Greeks' side there perished in + all thirteen hundred and sixty; of whom fifty-two were Athenians, all of + the tribe Aeantis, that fought, says Clidemus, with the greatest courage + of all; and for this reason the men of this tribe used to offer sacrifice + for the victory, as enjoined by the oracle, at the public expense; + ninety-one were Lacedaemonians, and sixteen Tegeatans. They engraved upon + the altar this inscription: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Greeks, when by their courage and their might, + They had repelled the Persian in the fight, + The common altar of freed Greece to be, + Reared this to Jupiter who guards the free. +</pre> + <p> + The battle of Plataea was fought on the fourth day of the month + Boedromion, on which day there is still a convention of the Greeks at + Plataea, and the Plateans still offer sacrifice for the victory to + "Jupiter of freedom." + </p> + <p> + After this, the Athenians, not yielding the honor of the day to the + Lacedaemonians, nor consenting that they should erect a trophy, peace was + well-nigh destroyed by a dissension among the armed Greeks; but Aristides, + by soothing and counseling the commanders, especially Leocrates and + Myronides, pacified and persuaded them to leave the thing to the decision + of the Greeks. Cleocritus of Corinth rising up, made people think he would + ask the palm for the Corinthians (for next to Sparta and Athens, Corinth + was in greatest estimation); but he delivered his opinion, to the general + admiration, in favor of the Plataeans; and counseled to take away all + contention by giving them the reward and the glory of the victory, whose + being honored could be distasteful to neither party. This being said, + first Aristides gave consent in the name of the Athenians, and Pausanias + then, for the Lacedaemonians. So, being reconciled, they set apart eighty + talents for the Plateans, with which they built the temple and dedicated + the image to Minerva, and adorned the temple with pictures, which even to + this very day retain their lustre. But the Lacedaemonians and Athenians + each erected a trophy apart by themselves. On their consulting the oracle + about offering sacrifice, Apollo answered that they should dedicate an + altar to Jupiter of freedom, but should not sacrifice till they had + extinguished the fires throughout the country, as having been defiled by + the barbarians, and had kindled unpolluted fire at the common altar at + Delphi. The magistrates of Greece, therefore, went forthwith and compelled + such as had fire to put it out; and Euchidas, a Plataean, promising to + fetch fire with all possible speed, from the altar of the god, ran to + Delphi, and having sprinkled and purified his body, crowned himself with + laurel; and taking the fire from the altar ran back to Plataea, arriving + before sunset, and performing in one day a journey of a thousand furlongs; + and saluting his fellow-citizens and delivering them the fire, he + immediately fell down and a short time after expired. Then the Plataeans, + taking him up, interred him in the temple of Diana Euclia, setting this + inscription over him: "Euchidas ran to Delphi and back again in one day." + </p> + <p> + A general assembly of all the Greeks being called, Aristides proposed a + decree, that the deputies and religious representatives of the Greek + states should assemble annually at Plataea, and every fifth year celebrate + the Eleutheria, or games of freedom. And that there should be a levy upon + all Greece, for the war against the barbarians, of ten thousand spearmen, + one thousand horse, and a hundred sail of ships; but the Plateans to be + exempt, and sacred to the service of the gods, offering sacrifice for the + welfare of Greece. These things being ratified, the Plateans undertook the + performance of annual sacrifice to such as were slain and buried in that + place; which they still perform in the following manner. On the sixteenth + day of Maemacterion they make their procession, which, beginning by break + of day, is led by a trumpeter sounding for onset; then follow chariots + loaded with myrrh and garlands; and then a black bull; then come the young + men of free birth carrying libations of wine and milk in large two-handed + vessels, and jars of oil and precious ointments, none of servile condition + being permitted to have any hand in this ministration, because the men + died in defense of freedom; after all comes the chief magistrate of + Plataea (for whom it is unlawful at other times for him either to touch + iron, or wear any other colored garment but white), at that time appareled + in a purple robe; and taking a water-pot out of the city record-office, he + proceeds, bearing a sword in his hand, through the middle of the town to + the sepulchres. Then drawing water out of a spring, he washes and anoints + the monuments, and sacrificing the bull upon a pile of wood, and making + supplication to Jupiter and Mercury of the earth, invites those valiant + men who perished in the defense of Greece, to the banquet and the + libations of blood. After this, mixing a bowl of wine, and pouring out for + himself, he says, "I drink to those who lost their lives for the liberty + of Greece." These solemnities the Plataeans observe to this day. + </p> + <p> + Theophrastus tells us that Aristides was, in his own private affairs, and + those of his own fellow-citizens, rigorously just, but that in public + matters he acted often in accordance with his country's policy, which + demanded, sometimes, not a little injustice. It is reported of him that he + said in a debate, upon the motion of the Samians for removing the treasure + from Delos to Athens, contrary to the league, that the thing indeed was + not just, but was expedient. + </p> + <p> + In fine, having established the dominion of his city over so many people, + he himself remained indigent; and always delighted as much in the glory of + being poor, as in that of his trophies; as is evident from the following + story. Callias, the torch-bearer was related to him: and was prosecuted by + his enemies in a capital cause, in which, after they had slightly argued + the matters on which they indicted him, they proceeded, beside the point, + to address the judges: "You know," said they, "Aristides, the son of + Lysimachus, who is the admiration of all Greece. In what a condition do + you think his family is at his house, when you see him appear in public in + such a threadbare cloak? Is it not probable that one, who, out of doors, + goes thus exposed to the cold, must want food and other necessaries at + home? Callias, the wealthiest of the Athenians, does nothing to relieve + either him or his wife and children in their poverty, though he is his own + cousin, and has made use of him in many cases, and often reaped advantage + by his interest with you." But Callias, perceiving that the judges were + particularly moved by this, and were exasperated against him, called in + Aristides, who testified that when Callias offered him divers presents, + and entreated him to accept them, he had refused, answering, that it + became him better to be proud of his poverty than Callias of his wealth. + On Aristides deposing these facts in favor of Callias, there was not one + who heard them that went way desirous rather to be poor like Aristides, + than rich as Callias. Thus Aeschines, the scholar of Socrates, writes. But + Plato declares, that of all the great and renowned men in the city of + Athens, he was the only one worthy of consideration; for while + Themistocles, Cimon, and Pericles filled the city with porticoes, + treasure, and many other vain things, Aristides guided his public life by + the rule of justice. He showed his moderation very plainly in his conduct + toward Themistocles himself. For though Themistocles had been his + adversary in all his undertakings, and was the cause of his banishment, + yet when he afforded a similar opportunity of revenge, being accused by + the city, Aristides bore him no malice; but while Alcmaeon, Cimon, and + many others were prosecuting and impeaching him, Aristides alone, neither + did, nor said any evil against him, and no more triumphed over his enemy + in his adversity, than he had envied him his prosperity. + </p> + <p> + Some say Aristides died in Pontus, during a voyage upon the affairs of the + public. Others say that he died of old age at Athens, being in great honor + and veneration among his fellow-citizens. + </p> + <p> + His monument is to be seen at Phalerum, which they say was built for him + by the city, he not having left enough even to defray funeral charges. And + it is stated, that his two daughters were publicly married out of the + prytaneum, or state-house, by the city, which decreed each of them three + thousand drachmas for her portion; and that upon his son Lysimachus, the + people bestowed a hundred minas of money, and as many acres of planted + land, and ordered him besides, upon the motion of Alcibiades, four + drachmas a day. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0016" id="link2H_4_0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CIMON + </h2> + <p> + Cimon was the son of Miltiades and Hegesipyle, who was by birth a + Thracian, and daughter to the king Olorus. By this means the historian + Thucydides was his kinsman by the mother's side; for his father's name + also, in remembrance of this common ancestor, was Olorus, and he was the + owner of the gold mines in Thrace, and met his death, it is said, by + violence, in Scapte Hyle, a district of Thrace. Cimon was left an orphan + very young, with his sister Elpinice, who was also young and unmarried. + And at first he had but an indifferent reputation, being looked upon as + disorderly in his habits, fond of drinking, and resembling his + grandfather, also called Cimon, in character, whose simplicity got him the + surname of Coalemus the simpleton. Stesimbrotus of Thasos, who lived about + the same time with Cimon, reports of him that he had little acquaintance + either with music, or any of the other liberal studies and + accomplishments, then common among the Greeks; that he had nothing + whatever of the quickness and the ready speech of his countrymen in + Attica; that he had great nobleness and candor in his disposition, and in + his character in general, resembled rather a native of Peloponnesus, than + of Athens; as Euripides describes Hercules:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ——Rude And unrefined, for great things, well-endued; +</pre> + <p> + for this may fairly be added to the character which Stesimbrotus has given + of him. + </p> + <p> + Almost all the points of Cimon's character were noble and good. He was as + daring as Miltiades, and not inferior to Themistocles in judgment, and was + incomparably more just and honest than either of them. Fully their equal + in all military virtues, in the ordinary duties of a citizen at home he + was immeasurably their superior. And this, too, when he was very young, + his years not strengthened by any experience. For when Themistocles, upon + the Median invasion, advised the Athenians to forsake their city and their + country, and to carry all their arms on shipboard, and fight the enemy by + sea, in the straits of Salamis; when all the people stood amazed at the + confidence and rashness of this advice, Cimon was seen, the first of all + men, passing with a cheerful countenance through the Ceramics, on his way + with his companions to the citadel, carrying a bridle in his hand to offer + to the goddess, intimating that there was no more need of horsemen now, + but of mariners. There, after he had paid his devotions to the goddess, + and offered up the bridle, he took down one of the bucklers that hung upon + the walls of the temple, and went down to the port; by this example giving + confidence to many of the citizens. He was also of a fairly handsome + person, according to the poet Ion, tall and large, and let his thick and + curly hair grow long. After he had acquitted himself gallantly in this + battle of Salamis, he obtained great repute among the Athenians, and was + regarded with affection, as well as admiration. He had many who followed + after him, and bade him aspire to actions not less famous than his + father's battle of Marathon. And when he came forward in political life, + the people welcomed him gladly, being now weary of Themistocles; in + opposition to whom, and because of the frankness and easiness of his + temper, which was agreeable to every one, they advanced Cimon to the + highest employments in the government. The man that contributed most to + his promotion was Aristides, who early discerned in his character his + natural capacity, and purposely raised him, that he might be a + counterpoise to the craft and boldness of Themistocles. After the Medes + had been driven out of Greece, Cimon was sent out as admiral, when the + Athenians had not yet attained their dominion by sea, but still followed + Pausanias and the Lacedaemonians; and his fellow-citizens under his + command were highly distinguished, both for the excellence of their + discipline, and for their extraordinary zeal and readiness. And further, + perceiving that Pausanias was carrying on secret communications with the + barbarians, and writing letters to the king of Persia to betray Greece, + and, puffed up with authority and success, was treating the allies + haughtily, and committing many wanton injustices, Cimon, taking advantage, + by acts of kindness to those who were suffering wrong, and by his general + humane bearing, robbed him of the command of the Greeks, before he was + aware, not by arms, but by his mere language and character. Cimon, + strengthened with the accession of the allies, went as general into + Thrace. For he was told that some great men among the Persians, of the + king's kindred, being in possession of Eion, a city situated upon the + river Strymon, infested the neighboring Greeks. First he defeated these + Persians in battle, and shut them up within the walls of their town. Then + he fell upon the Thracians of the country beyond the Strymon, because they + supplied Eion with victuals, and driving them entirely out of the country, + took possession of it as conqueror, by which means he reduced the besieged + to such straits, that Butes, who commanded there for the king, in + desperation set fire to the town, and burned himself, his goods, and all + his relations, in one common flame. By this means, Cimon got the town, but + no great booty; as the barbarians had not only consumed themselves in the + fire, but the richest of their effects. However, he put the country into + the hands of the Athenians, a most advantageous and desirable situation + for a settlement. For this action, the people permitted him to erect the + stone Mercuries, upon the first of which was this inscription:— + </p> + <p> + Of bold and patient spirit, too, were those Who, where the Strymon under + Eion flows, With famine and the sword, to utmost need Reduced at last the + children of the Mede. + </p> + <p> + Upon the second stood this:— + </p> + <p> + The Athenians to their leaders this reward For great and useful service + did accord; Others hereafter, shall, from their applause, Learn to be + valiant in their country's cause. + </p> + <p> + And upon the third, the following:— + </p> + <p> + With Atreus' sons, this city sent of yore Divine Menestheus to the Trojan + shore; Of all the Greeks, so Homer's verses say, The ablest man an army to + array; So old the title of her sons the name Of chiefs and champions in + the field to claim. + </p> + <p> + Though the name of Cimon is not mentioned in these inscriptions, yet his + contemporaries considered them to be the very highest honors to him; as + neither Miltiades nor Themistocles ever received the like. When Miltiades + claimed a garland, Sochares of Decelea stood up in the midst of the + assembly and opposed it, using words which, though ungracious, were + received with applause by the people. "When you have gained a victory by + yourself, Miltiades, then you may ask to triumph so too." + </p> + <p> + One mark of Cimon's great favor with the people, was the judgment, + afterwards so famous upon the tragic poets. Sophocles, still a young man, + had just brought forward his first plays; opinions were much divided, and + the spectators had taken sides with some heat. So, to determine the case, + Apsephion, who was at that time Archon, would not cast lots who should be + judges; but when Cimon, and his brother commanders with him, came into the + theatre, after they had performed the usual rites to the god of the + festival, he would not allow them to retire, but came forward and made + them swear, being ten in all, one from each tribe, the usual oath; and so + being sworn judges, he made them sit down to give sentence. The eagerness + for victory grew all the warmer, from the ambition to get the suffrages of + such honorable judges. And the victory was at last adjudged to Sophocles, + which Aeschylus is said to have taken so ill, that he left Athens shortly + after, and went in anger to Sicily, where he died, and was buried near the + city of Gela. + </p> + <p> + Ion relates that when he was a young man, and had recently come from Chios + to Athens, he chanced to sup with Cimon, at Laomedon's house. After + supper, when they had, according to custom, poured out wine to the honor + of the gods, Cimon was desired by the company to give them a song, which + he did with sufficient success, and received the commendations of the + company, who remarked on his superiority to Themistocles, who, on a like + occasion, had declared he had never learnt to sing, or to play, and only + knew how to make a city rich and powerful. After talking of things + incident to such entertainments, they entered upon the particulars of the + several actions for which Cimon had been famous. And when they were + mentioning the most signal, he told them they had omitted one, upon which + he valued himself most for address and good contrivance. He gave this + account of it. When the allies had taken a great number of the barbarians + prisoners in Sestos and Byzantium, they gave him the preference to divide + the booty; he accordingly put the prisoners in one lot, and the spoils of + their rich attire and jewels in the other. This the allies complained of + as an unequal division; but he gave them their choice to take which lot + they would, saying that the Athenians should be content with that which + they refused. Herophytus of Samos advised them to take the ornaments for + their share, and leave the slaves to the Athenians; and Cimon went away, + and was much laughed at for his ridiculous division. For the allies + carried away the golden bracelets, and armlets, and collars, and purple + robes, and the Athenians had only the naked bodies of the captives, which + they could make no advantage of, being unused to labor. But a little while + after, the friends and kinsmen of the prisoners coming from Lydia and + Phrygia, redeemed every one his relations at a high ransom; so that by + this means Cimon got so much treasure that he maintained his whole fleet + of galleys with the money for four months; and yet there was some left to + lay up in the treasury at Athens. + </p> + <p> + Cimon now grew rich, and what he gained from the barbarians with honor, he + spent yet more honorably upon the citizens. For he pulled down all the + enclosures of his gardens and grounds, that strangers, and the needy of + his fellow-citizens, might gather of its fruits freely. At home, he kept a + table, plain, but sufficient for a considerable number, to which any poor + townsman had free access, and so might support himself without labor, with + his whole time left free for public duties. Aristotle states, however, + that this reception did not extend to all the Athenians, but only to his + own fellow townsmen, the Laciadae.* Besides this, he always went attended + by two or three young companions, very well clad; and if he met with an + elderly citizen in a poor habit, one of these would change clothes with + the decayed citizen, which was looked upon as very nobly done. He enjoined + them, likewise, to carry a considerable quantity of coin about them, which + they were to convey silently into the hands of the better class of poor + men, as they stood by them in the market-place. This, Cratinus, the poet, + speaks of in one of his comedies, the Archilochi:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + For I, Metrobius too, the scrivener poor, + Of ease and comfort in my age secure, + By Greece's noblest son in life's decline, + Cimon, the generous-hearted, the divine, + Well-fed and feasted hoped till death to be, + Death which, alas! has taken him ere me. +</pre> + <p> + Gorgias the Leontine gives him this character, that he got riches that he + might use them, and used them that he might get honor by them. And + Critias, one of the thirty tyrants, makes it, in his elegies, his wish to + have + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Scopads' wealth, and Cimon's nobleness, + And king Agesilaus's success. +</pre> + <p> + Lichas, we know, became famous in Greece, only because on the days of the + sports, when the young boys ran naked, he used to entertain the strangers + that came to see these diversions. But Cimon's generosity outdid all the + old Athenian hospitality and good-nature. For though it is the city's just + boast that their forefathers taught the rest of Greece to sow corn, and + how to use springs of water, and to kindle fire, yet Cimon, by keeping + open house for his fellow-citizens, and giving travelers liberty to eat + the fruits which the several seasons produced in his land, seemed to + restore to the world that community of goods, which mythology says existed + in the reign of Saturn. Those who object to him that he did this to be + popular, and gain the applause of the vulgar, are confuted by the constant + tenor of the rest of his actions, which all ended to uphold the interests + of the nobility and the Spartan policy, of which he gave instances, when, + together with Aristides, he opposed Themistocles, who was advancing the + authority of the people beyond its just limits, and resisted Ephialtes, + who to please the multitude, was for abolishing the jurisdiction of the + court of Areopagus. And when all the men of his time, except Aristides and + Ephialtes, enriched themselves out of the public money, he still kept his + hands clean and untainted, and to his last day never acted or spoke for + his own private gain or emolument. They tell us that Rhoesaces, a Persian, + who had traitorously revolted from the king his master, fled to Athens, + and there, being harassed by sycophants who were still accusing him to the + people, he applied himself to Cimon for redress, and to gain his favor, + laid down in his doorway two cups, the one full of gold, and the other of + silver Darics. Cimon smiled and asked him whether he wished to have + Cimon's hired service or his friendship. He replied, his friendship. "If + so," said he, "take away these pieces, for being your friend, when I shall + have occasion for them, I will send and ask for them." + </p> + <p> + The allies of the Athenians began now to be weary of war and military + service, willing to have repose, and to look after their husbandry and + traffic. For they saw their enemies driven out of the country, and did not + fear any new vexations from them. They still paid the tax they were + assessed at, but did not send men and galleys, as they had done before. + This the other Athenian generals wished to constrain them to, and by + judicial proceedings against defaulters, and penalties which they + inflicted on them, made the government uneasy, and even odious. But Cimon + practiced a contrary method; he forced no man to go that was not willing, + but of those that desired to be excused from service he took money and + vessels unmanned, and let them yield to the temptation of staying at home, + to attend to their private business. Thus they lost their military habits, + and luxury and their own folly quickly changed them into unwarlike + husbandmen and traders; while Cimon, continually embarking large numbers + of Athenians on board his galleys, thoroughly disciplined them in his + expeditions, and ere long made them the lords of their own paymasters. The + allies, whose indolence maintained them, while they thus went sailing + about everywhere, and incessantly bearing arms and acquiring skill, began + to fear and flatter them, and found themselves after a while allies no + longer, but unwittingly become tributaries and slaves. + </p> + <p> + Nor did any man ever do more than Cimon did to humble the pride of the + Persian king. He was not content with ridding Greece of him; but following + close at his heels, before the barbarians could take breath and recover + themselves, what with his devastations, and his forcible reduction of some + places and the revolts and voluntary accession of others, in the end, from + Ionia to Pamphylia, all Asia was clear of Persian soldiers. Word being + brought him that the royal commanders were lying in wait upon the coast of + Pamphylia, with a numerous land army, and a large fleet, he determined to + make the whole sea on this side the Chelidonian islands so formidable to + them that they should never dare to show themselves in it; and setting off + from Cnidos and the Triopian headland, with two hundred galleys, which had + been originally built with particular care by Themistocles, for speed and + rapid evolutions, and to which he now gave greater width and roomier decks + along the sides to move to and fro upon, so as to allow a great number of + full-armed soldiers to take part in the engagements and fight from them, + he shaped his course first of all against the town of Phaselis, which, + though inhabited by Greeks, yet would not quit the interests of Persia, + but denied his galleys entrance into their port. Upon this he wasted the + country, and drew up his army to their very walls; but the soldiers of + Chios, who were then serving under him, being ancient friends to the + Phaselites, endeavoring to propitiate the general in their behalf, at the + same time shot arrows into the town, to which were fastened letters + conveying intelligence. At length he concluded peace with them, upon the + conditions that they should pay down ten talents, and follow him against + the barbarians. The Persian admiral lay waiting for him with the whole + fleet at the mouth of the river Eurymedon, with no design to fight, but + expecting a reinforcement of eighty Phoenician ships on their way from + Cyprus. Cimon, aware of this, put out to sea, resolved, if they would not + fight a battle willingly, to force them to it. The barbarians, seeing + this, retired within the mouth of the river to avoid being attacked; but + when they saw the Athenians come upon them, notwithstanding their retreat, + they met them with six hundred ships, as Phanodemus relates, but according + to Ephorus, with three hundred and fifty. However, they did nothing worthy + such mighty forces, but immediately turned the prows of their galleys + toward the shore, where those that came first threw themselves upon the + land, and fled to their army drawn up thereabout, while the rest perished + with their vessels, or were taken. By this, one may guess at their number, + for though a great many escaped out of the fight, and a great many others + were sunk, yet two hundred galleys were taken by the Athenians. + </p> + <p> + When their land army drew toward the seaside, Cimon was in suspense + whether he should venture to try and force his way on shore; as he should + thus expose his Greeks, wearied with slaughter in the first engagement, to + the swords of the barbarians, who were all fresh men, and many times their + number. But seeing his men resolute, and flushed with victory, he bade + them land, though they were not yet cool from their first battle. As soon + as they touched ground, they set up a shout and ran upon the enemy, who + stood firm and sustained the first shock with great courage, so that the + fight was a hard one, and some of the principal men of the Athenians in + rank and courage were slain. At length, though with much ado, they routed + the barbarians, and killing some, took others prisoners, and plundered all + their tents and pavilions, which were full of rich spoil. Cimon, liked a + skilled athlete at the games, having in one day carried off two victories, + wherein he surpassed that of Salamis by sea, and that of Plataea by land, + was encouraged to try for yet another success. News being brought that the + Phoenician succors, in number eighty sail, had come in sight at Hydrum, he + set off with all speed to find them, while they as yet had not received + any certain account of the larger fleet, and were in doubt what to think; + so that thus surprised, they lost all their vessels, and most of their men + with them. This success of Cimon so daunted the king of Persia, that he + presently made that celebrated peace, by which he engaged that his armies + should come no nearer the Grecian sea than the length of a horse's course; + and that none of his galleys or vessels of war should appear between the + Cyanean and Chelidonian isles. In the collection which Craterus made of + the public acts of the people, there is a draft of this treaty given. + </p> + <p> + The people of Athens raised so much money from the spoils of this war, + which were publicly sold, that, besides other expenses, and raising the + south wall of the citadel, they laid the foundation of the long walls, + not, indeed, finished till at a later time, which were called the Legs. + And the place where they built them being soft and marshy ground, they + were forced to sink great weights of stone and rubble to secure the + foundation, and did all this out of the money Cimon supplied them with. + </p> + <p> + It was he, likewise, who first embellished the upper city with those fine + and ornamental places of exercise and resort, which they afterward so much + frequented and delighted in. He set the market-place with plane trees; and + the Academy, which was before a bare, dry, and dirty spot, he converted + into a well-watered grove, with shady alleys to walk in, and open courses + for races. + </p> + <p> + When the Persians who had made themselves masters of the Chersonese, so + far from quitting it, called in the people of the interior of Thrace to + help them against Cimon, whom they despised for the smallness of his + forces, he set upon them with only four galleys, and took thirteen of + theirs; and having driven out the Persians, and subdued the Thracians, he + made the hole Chersonese the property of Athens. Next, he attacked the + people of Thasos, who had revolted from the Athenians; and, having + defeated them in a fight at sea, where he captured thirty-three of their + vessels, he took their own by siege, and acquired for the Athenians all + the mines of gold on the opposite coast, and the territory dependent on + Thasos. + </p> + <p> + This opened him a fair passage into Macedon, so that he might, it was + thought, have acquired a good portion of that country, and because he + neglected the opportunity, he was suspected of corruption, and of having + been bribed off by king Alexander. So, by the combination of his + adversaries, he was accused of being false to his country. In his defence + he told the judges, that he had always shown himself in his public life + the friend, not, like other men, of rich Ionians and Thessalonians, to be + courted, and to receive presents, but of the Lacedaemonians; for as he + admired, so he wished to imitate, the plainness of their habits, their + temperance, and simplicity of living, which he preferred to any sort of + riches; but that he always had been, and still was proud to enrich his + country with the spoils of her enemies. Pericles proved the mildest of his + prosecutors, and rose up but once all the while, almost as a matter of + form, to plead against him. Cimon was acquitted. + </p> + <p> + In his public life after this, he continued, while at home, to control the + common people, who would have trampled upon the nobility, and drawn all + the power and sovereignty to themselves. But when he afterwards was sent + out to war, the multitude broke loose, as it were, and overthrew all the + ancient laws and customs they had hitherto observed, and, chiefly at the + instigation of Ephialtes, withdrew the cognizance of almost all causes + from the Areopagus; so that all jurisdiction now being transferred to + them, the government was reduced to a perfect democracy, and this by the + help of Pericles, who was already powerful, and had pronounced in favor of + the common people. + </p> + <p> + He was indeed a favorer of the Lacedaemonians even from his youth, and + gave the names of Lacedaemonius and Eleus to his two sons, twins. + </p> + <p> + Cimon was countenanced by the Lacedaemonians in opposition to + Themistocles, whom they disliked; and while he was yet very young, they + endeavored to raise and increase his credit in Athens. This the Athenians + perceived at first with pleasure, and the favor the Lacedaemonians showed + him was in various ways advantageous to them and their affairs; as at that + time they were just rising to power, and were occupied in winning the + allies to their side. So they seemed not at all offended with the honor + and kindness showed to Cimon, who then had the chief management of all the + affairs of Greece, and was acceptable to the Lacedaemonians, and courteous + to the allies. But afterwards the Athenians, grown more powerful, when + they saw Cimon so entirely devoted to the Lacedaemonians, began to be + angry, for he would always in speeches prefer them to the Athenians, and + upon every occasion, when he would reprimand them for a fault, or incite + them to emulation, he would exclaim, "The Lacedaemonians would not do + thus." This raised the discontent, and got him in some degree the hatred + of the citizens; but that which ministered chiefly to the accusation + against him fell out upon the following occasion. + </p> + <p> + In the fourth year of the reign of Archidamus, the son of Zeuxidamus, king + of Sparta, there happened in the country of Lacedaemon, the greatest + earthquake that was known in the memory of ma; the earth opened into + chasms, and the mountain Taygetus was so shaken that some of the rocky + points of it fell down, and except five houses, all the town of Sparta was + shattered to pieces. They say that a little before any motion was + perceived, as the young men and the boys just grown up were exercising + themselves together in the middle of the portico, a hare, of a sudden, + started out just by them, which the young men, though all naked and daubed + with oil, ran after for sport. No sooner were they gone from the place, + than the gymnasium fell down upon the boys who had stayed behind, and + killed them all. Their tomb is to this day called Sismatias.* Archidamus, + by the present danger made apprehensive of what might follow, and seeing + the citizens intent upon removing the most valuable of their goods out of + their houses, commanded an alarm to be sounded, as if an enemy were coming + upon them, in order that they should collect about him in a body, with + arms. It was this alone that saved Sparta at that time, for the Helots had + come together from the country about, with design of surprising the + Spartans, and overpowering those whom the earthquake had spared. But + finding them armed and well prepared, they retired into the towns and + openly made war with them, gaining over a number of the Laconians of the + country districts; while at the same time the Messenians, also, made an + attack upon the Spartans, who therefore despatched Periclidas to Athens to + solicit succor, of whom Aristophanes says in mockery that he came and + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + In a red jacket, at the altars seated, + With a white face, for men and arms entreated. +</pre> + <p> + This Ephialtes opposed, protesting that they ought not to raise up or + assist a city that was a rival to Athens; but that being down, it were + best to keep her so, and let the pride and arrogance of Sparta be trodden + under. But Cimon, as Critias says, preferring the safety of Lacedaemon to + the aggrandizement of his own country, so persuaded the people, that he + soon marched out with a large army to their relief. Ion records, also, the + most successful expression which he used to move the Athenians. "They + ought not to suffer Greece to be lamed, nor their own city to be deprived + of her yoke fellow." + </p> + <p> + In his return from aiding the Lacedaemonians, he passed with his army + through the territory of Corinth; whereupon Lachartus reproached him for + bringing his army into the country, without first asking leave of the + people. For he that knocks at another man's door ought not to enter the + house till the master gives him leave. "But you, Corinthians, O + Lachartus," said Cimon, "did not knock at the gates of the Cleonaeans and + Megarians, but broke them down and entered by force, thinking that all + places should be open to the stronger." And having thus rallied the + Corinthian, he passed on with his army. Some time after this, the + Lacedaemonians sent a second time to desire succor of the Athenians + against the Messenians and Helots, who had seized upon Ithome. But when + they came, fearing their boldness and gallantry, of all that came to their + assistance, they sent them only back, alleging that they were designing + innovations. The Athenians returned home, enraged at this usage, and + vented their anger upon all those who were favorers of the Lacedaemonians; + and seizing some slight occasion, they banished Cimon for ten years, which + is the time prescribed to those that are banished by the ostracism. In the + mean time, the Lacedaemonians, on their return after freeing Delphi from + the Phocians, encamped their army at Tanagra, whither the Athenians + presently marched with design to fight them. + </p> + <p> + Cimon also, came thither armed and ranged himself among those of his own + tribe, which was the Oeneis, desirous of fighting with the rest against + the Spartans; but the council of five hundred being informed of this, and + frightened at it, his adversaries crying out that he would disorder the + army, and bring the Lacedaemonians to Athens, commanded the officers not + to receive him. Wherefore Cimon left the army, conjuring Euthippus, the + Anaphylstian, and the rest of his companions, who were most suspected as + favoring the Lacedaemonians, to behave themselves bravely against their + enemies, and by their actions make their innocence evident to their + countrymen. These, being in all a hundred, took the arms of Cimon, and + followed his advice; and making a body by themselves, fought so + desperately with the enemy, that they were all cut off, leaving the + Athenians deep regret for the loss of such brave men, and repentance for + having so unjustly suspected them. Accordingly, they did not long retain + their severity toward Cimon, partly upon remembrance of his former + services, and partly, perhaps, induced by the juncture of the times. For + being defeated at Tanagra in a great battle, and fearing the + Peloponnesians would come upon them at the opening of the spring, they + recalled Cimon by a decree, of which Pericles himself was author. So + reasonable were men's resentments in those times, and so moderate their + anger, that it always gave way to the public good. Even ambition, the + least governable of all human passions, could then yield to the + necessities of the State. + </p> + <p> + Cimon, as soon as he returned, put an end to the war, and reconciled the + two cities. Peace thus established, seeing the Athenians impatient of + being idle, and eager for the honor and aggrandizement of war, lest they + should set upon the Greeks themselves, or with so many ships cruising + about the isles and Peloponnesus, they should give occasions for intestine + wars, or complaints of their allies against them, he equipped two hundred + galleys, with design to make an attempt upon Egypt and Cyprus; purposing, + by this means, to accustom the Athenians to fight against the barbarians, + and enrich themselves honestly by despoiling those who were the natural + enemies to Greece. But when all things were prepared, and the army ready + to embark, Cimon had this dream. It seemed to him that there was a furious + female dog barking at him, and, mixed with the barking, a kind of human + voice uttered these words: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Come on, for thou shalt shortly be + A pleasure to my whelps and me. +</pre> + <p> + This dream was hard to interpret, yet Astyphilus of Posidonia, a man + skilled in divinations, and intimate with Cimon, told him that his death + was presaged by this vision, which he thus explained. A dog is enemy to + him he barks at; and one is always most a pleasure to one's enemies, when + one is dead; the mixture of human voice with barking signifies the Medes, + for the army of the Medes is mixed up of Greeks and barbarians. After this + dream, as he was sacrificing to Bacchus, and the priest cutting up the + victim, a number of ants, taking up the congealed particles of the blood, + laid them about Cimon's great toes. This was not observed for a good + while, but at the very time when Cimon spied it, the priest came and + showed him the liver of the sacrifice imperfect, wanting that part of it + called the head. But he could not then recede from the enterprise, so he + set sail. Sixty of his ships he sent toward Egypt; with the rest he went + and fought the king of Persia's fleet, composed of Phoenician and Cilician + galleys, recovered all the cities thereabout, and threatened Egypt; + designing no less than the entire ruin of the Persian empire. And the more + because he was informed that Themistocles was in great repute among the + barbarians, having promised the king to lead his army, whenever he should + make war upon Greece. But Themistocles, it is said, abandoning all hopes + of compassing his designs, very much out of the despair of overcoming the + valor and good-fortune of Cimon, died a voluntary death. Cimon, intent on + great designs, which he was now to enter upon, keeping his navy about the + isle of Cyprus, sent messengers to consult the oracle of Jupiter Ammon + upon some secret matter. For it is not known about what they were sent, + and the god would give them no answer, but commanded them to return again, + for Cimon was already with him. Hearing this, they returned to sea, and as + soon as they came to the Grecian army, which was then about Egypt, they + understood that Cimon was dead; and computing the time of the oracle, they + found that his death had been signified, he being then already with the + gods. + </p> + <p> + He died, some say, of sickness, while besieging Citium, in Cyprus; + according to others, of a wound he received in a skirmish with the + barbarians. When he perceived that he was going to die, he commanded those + under his charge to return, and by no means to let the news of his death + be known by the way; this they did with such secrecy that they all came + home safe, and neither their enemies nor the allies knew what had + happened. Thus, as Phanodemus relates, the Grecian army was, as it were, + conducted by Cimon thirty days after he was dead. But after his death + there was not one commander among the Greeks that did any thing + considerable against the barbarians, and instead of uniting against their + common enemies, the popular leaders and partisans of war animated them + against one another to such a degree, that none could interpose their good + offices to reconcile them. And while, by their mutual discord, they ruined + the power of Greece, they gave the Persians time to recover breath, and + repair all their losses. It is true, indeed, Agesilaus carried the arms of + Greece into Asia, but it was a long time afterwards; there were some brief + appearances of a war against the king's lieutenants in the maritime + provinces, but they all quickly vanished; before he could perform any + thing of moment, he was recalled by fresh civil dissensions and + disturbances at home. So that he was forced to leave the Persian king's + officers to impose what tribute they pleased on the Greek cities in Asia, + the confederates and allies of the Lacedaemonians. Whereas, in the time of + Cimon, not so much as a letter-carrier, or a single horseman, was ever + seen to come within four hundred furlongs of the sea. + </p> + <p> + The monuments, called Cimonian to this day, in Athens, show that his + remains were conveyed home, yet the inhabitants of the city Citium pay + particular honor to a certain tomb which they call the tomb of Cimon, + according to Nausicrates the rhetorician, who states that in a time of + famine, when the crops of their land all failed, they sent to the oracle, + which commanded them not to forget Cimon, but give him the honors of a + superior being. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0017" id="link2H_4_0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + POMPEY + </h2> + <p> + The people of Rome appear, from the first, to have been affected towards + Pompey, much in the same manner as Prometheus, in Aeschylus, was towards + Hercules, when after that hero had delivered him from his chains, he says— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The sire I hated, but the son I loved. +</pre> + <p> + For never did the Romans entertain a stronger and more rancorous hatred + for any general than for Strabo, the father of Pompey. While he lived, + indeed, they were afraid of his abilities as a soldier, for he had great + talents for war; but upon his death, which happened by a stroke of + lightning, they dragged his corpse from the bier, on the way to the + funeral pile, and treated it with the greatest indignity. On the other + hand, no man ever experienced from the same Romans an attachment more + early begun, more disinterested in all the stages of his prosperity, or + more constant and faithful in the decline of his fortune, than Pompey. + </p> + <p> + The sole cause of their aversion to the father was his insatiable avarice; + but there were many causes of their affection for the son; his temperate + way of living, his application to martial exercises, his eloquent and + persuasive address, his strict honor and fidelity, and the easiness of + access to him upon all occasions; for no man was ever less importunate in + asking favors, or more gracious in conferring them. When he gave, it was + without arrogance; and when he received, it was with dignity. + </p> + <p> + In his youth he had a very engaging countenance, which spoke for him + before he opened his lips. Yet that grace of aspect was not attended with + dignity, and amidst his youthful bloom there was a venerable and princely + air. His hair naturally curled a little before; which, together with the + shining moisture and quick turn of his eye, produced a stronger likeness + to Alexander the Great than that which appeared in the statues of that + prince. + </p> + <p> + As to the simplicity of his diet, there is a remarkable saying of his upon + record. In a great illness, when his appetite was almost gone, the + physician ordered him a thrush. His servants, upon inquiry, found there + was not one to be had for money, for the season was passed. They were + informed, however, that Lucullus had them all the year in his menageries. + This being reported to Pompey, he said, "Does Pompey's life depend upon + the luxury of Lucullus?" Then, without any regard to the physician, he ate + something that was easy to be had. + </p> + <p> + After the death of Cinna, Carbo, a tyrant still more savage, took the + reins of government. It was not long, however, before Sylla returned to + Italy, to the great satisfaction of most of the Romans, who, in their + present unhappy circumstances, thought the change of their master no small + advantage. + </p> + <p> + Pompey, at the age of twenty-three, without a commission from any superior + authority, erected himself into a general; and having placed his tribunal + in the most public part of the great city of Auximum, enlisted soldiers + and appointed tribunes, centurions, and other officers, according to the + established custom. He did the same in all the neighboring cities; for the + partisans of Carbo retired and gave place to him; and the rest were glad + to range themselves under his banners. So that in a little time he raised + three complete legions, and furnished himself with provisions, beasts of + burden, carriages; in short, with the whole apparatus of war. + </p> + <p> + In this form he moved towards Sylla, not by hasty marches, nor as if he + wanted to conceal himself; for he stopped by the way to harass the enemy; + and attempted to draw off from Carbo all the parts of Italy through which + he passed. At last, three generals of the opposite party, Carinna, + Caelius, and Brutus, came against him all at once, not in front, or in one + body, but they hemmed him in with their three armies, in hopes to demolish + him entirely. + </p> + <p> + Pompey, far from being terrified, assembled all his forces, and charged + the army of Brutus at the head of his cavalry. The Gaulish horse on the + enemy's side sustained the first shock; but Pompey attacked the foremost + of them, who was a man of prodigious strength, and brought him down with a + push of his spear. The rest immediately fled and threw the infantry into + such disorder that the whole was soon put to flight. This produced so + great a quarrel among the three generals, that they parted and took + separate routes. In consequence of which, the cities, concluding that the + fears of the enemy had made them part, adopted the interest of Pompey. + </p> + <p> + Not long after, Scipio the consul advanced to engage him. But before the + infantry were near enough to discharge their lances, Scipio's soldiers + saluted those of Pompey, and came over to them. Scipio, therefore, was + forced to fly. At last, Carbo sent a large body of cavalry against Pompey, + near the river Arsis. He gave them so warm a reception, that they were + soon broken, and in the pursuit drove them upon impracticable ground; so + that finding it impossible to escape, they surrendered themselves with + their arms and horses. + </p> + <p> + Sylla had not yet been informed of these transactions; but upon the first + news of Pompey's being engaged with so many adversaries, and such + respectable generals, he dreaded the consequence, and marched with all + expedition to his assistance. Pompey, having intelligence of his approach, + ordered his officers to see that the troops were armed and drawn up in + such a manner as to make the handsomest and most gallant appearance before + the commander-in-chief. For he expected great honours from him, and he + obtained greater. Sylla no sooner saw Pompey advancing to meet him, with + an army in excellent condition, both as to age and size of the men, and + the spirits which success had given them, than he alighted; and upon being + saluted of course by Pompey as Imperator, he returned his salutation with + the same title: though no one imagined that he would have honoured a young + man not yet admitted into the senate with a title for which he was + contending with the Scipios and the Marii. The rest of his behavior was as + respectable as that in the first interview. He used to rise up and uncover + his head, whenever Pompey came to him; which he was rarely observed to do + for any other, though he had a number of persons of distinction about him. + </p> + <p> + While Pompey was in Sicily, he received a decree of the senate, and + letters from Sylla, in which he was commanded to cross over to Africa and + to carry on the war with the utmost vigor against Domitius, who had + assembled a much more powerful army than that which Marius carried not + long before from Africa to Italy, when he made himself master of Rome, and + from a fugitive became a tyrant. Pompey soon finished his preparation for + this expedition; and leaving the command in Sicily to Memmius, his + sister's husband, he set sail with one hundred and twenty armed vessels, + and eight hundred store-ships, laden with provisions, arms, money, and + machines of war. Part of his fleet landed at Utica, and part at Carthage: + immediately after which seven thousand of the enemy came over to him; and + he had brought with him six legions complete. + </p> + <p> + On his arrival he met with a whimsical adventure. Some of his soldiers, it + seems, found a treasure, and rest of the troops concluded that the place + was full of money, which the Carthaginians had hid there in some time of + public distress. Pompey, therefore could make no use of them for several + days, as they were searching for treasures; and he had nothing to do but + walk about and amuse himself with the sight of so many thousands digging + and turning up the ground. At last, they gave up the point, and bade him + lead them wherever be pleased, for they were sufficiently punished for + their folly. + </p> + <p> + Domitius advanced to meet him, and put his troops in order of battle. + There happened to be a channel between them, craggy and difficult to pass. + Moreover, in the morning it began to rain, and the wind blew violently; + insomuch that Domitius, not imagining there would be any action that day, + ordered his army to retire. But Pompey looked upon this as his + opportunity, and he passed the defile with the utmost expedition. The + enemy stood upon their defence, but it was in a disorderly and tumultuous + manner, and the resistance they made was neither general nor uniform. + Besides the wind and rain beat in their faces. The storm incommoded the + Romans, too, for they could not well distinguish each other. Nay, Pompey + himself was in danger of being killed by a soldier, who asked him the + pass-word, and did not receive a speedy answer. At length, however, he + routed the enemy with great slaughter; not above three thousand of them + escaping out of twenty thousand. The soldiers then saluted Pompey, + Imperator, but he said he would not accept that title while the enemy's + camp stood untouched; therefore, if they chose to confer such an honor + upon him, they must first make themselves masters of the intrenchments. + </p> + <p> + At that instant they advanced with great fury against them. Pompey fought + without his helmet, for fear of such an accident as he had just escaped. + The camp was taken, and Domitius slain; in consequence of which most of + the cities immediately submitted, and rest were taken by assault. He took + Iarbas, one of the confederates of Domitius, prisoner, and bestowed his + crown on Hiempsal. Advancing with the same tide of fortune, and while his + army had all the spirits inspired by success, he entered Numidia, in which + he continued his march for several days, and subdued all that came in his + way. Thus he revived the terror of the Roman name, which the barbarians + had begun to disregard. Nay, he chose not to leave the savage beasts in + the deserts without giving them a specimen of the Roman valor and success. + Accordingly he spent a few days in hunting lions and elephants. The whole + time he passed in Africa, they tell us, was not above forty days; in which + he defeated the enemy, reduced the whole country, and brought the affairs + of its kings under proper regulations, though he was only in his + twenty-fourth year. + </p> + <p> + Upon his return to Utica, he received letters from Sylla, in which he was + ordered to send home the rest of his army, and to wait there with one + legion only for a successor. This gave him a great deal of uneasiness, + which he kept to himself, but the army expressed their indignation aloud; + insomuch that when he entreated them to return to Italy, they launched out + into abusive terms against Sylla, and declared they would never abandon + Pompey, or suffer him to trust a tyrant. At first, he endeavored to pacify + them with mild representations; and when he found those had no effect, he + descended from the tribunal, and retired to his tent in tears. However, + they went and took him thence, and paced him again upon the tribunal, + where they spent a great part of the day; they insisting that he should + stay and keep the command, and he in persuading them to obey Sylla's + orders, and to form no new faction. At last, seeing no end of their + clamors and importunity, he assured them, with an oath, that he would kill + himself, if they attempted to force him. And even this hardly brought them + to desist. + </p> + <p> + The first news that Sylla heard was, that Pompey had revolted; upon which + he said to his friends, "Then it is my fate to have to contend with boys + in my old age." This he said, because Marius, who was very young, had + brought him into so much trouble and danger. But when he received true + information of the affair, and observed that all the people flocked out to + receive Pompey to conduct him home with marks of great regard, he resolved + to exceed them in his regards, if possible. He, therefore, hastened to + meet him, and embracing him in the most affectionate manner, saluted him + aloud by the surname of Magnus, or The Great; at the same time he ordered + all about him to give him the same appellation. Others say, it was given + him by the whole army in Africa, but did not generally obtain till it was + authorized by Sylla. It is certain, he was the last to take it himself, + and he did not make use of it till a long time after, when he was sent + into Spain with the dignity of pro-consul against Sertorius. Then he began + to write himself in his letters in all his edicts, Pompey the Great; for + the world was accustomed to the name, and it was no longer invidious. In + this respect we may justly admire the wisdom of the ancient Romans, who + bestowed on their great men such honorable names and titles, not only for + military achievements, but for the great qualities and arts which adorn + civil life. + </p> + <p> + When Pompey arrived at Rome, he demanded a triumph, in which he was + opposed by Sylla. The latter alleged that the laws did not allow that + honor to any person who was not either consul or praetor. Hence it was + that the first Scipio, when he returned victorious from greater wars and + conflicts with the Carthaginians in Spain, did not demand a triumph; for + he was neither consul nor praetor. He added, that if Pompey, who was yet + little better than a beardless youth, and who was not of age to be + admitted into the senate, should enter the city in triumph, it would bring + an odium both upon the dictator's power, and those honors of his friend. + These arguments Sylla insisted on, to show him that he would not allow of + his triumph, and that, in case he persisted, he would chastise his + obstinacy. + </p> + <p> + Pompey, not in the least intimidated, bade him consider, that more + worshiped the rising than the setting sun; intimating that his power was + increasing, and Sylla's upon the decline. Sylla did not hear well what he + said, but perceiving by the looks and gestures of the company that they + were struck with the expression, he asked what it was. When he was told + it, he admired the spirit of Pompey and cried, "Let him triumph! Let him + triumph!" + </p> + <p> + There is no doubt that he might then have been easily admitted a senator, + if he had desired it; but his ambition was to pursue honor in a more + uncommon track. It would have been nothing strange, if Pompey had been a + senator before the age fixed for it; but it was a very extraordinary + instance of honor to lead up a triumph before he was a senator. And it + contributed not a little to gain him the affections of the multitude; the + people were delighted to see him, after his triumph, class with the + equestrian order. + </p> + <p> + The power of the pirates had its foundation in Cilicia. Their progress was + the more dangerous, because at first it was little taken notice of. In the + Mithridatic war they assumed new confidence and courage, on account of + some services they had rendered the king. After this, the Romans being + engaged in civil wars at the very gates of their capital, the sea was left + unguarded, and the pirates by degrees attempted higher things; they not + only attacked ships, but islands, and maritime towns. Many persons, + distinguished for their wealth, their birth, and their capacity, embarked + with them, and assisted in the depredations, as if their employment had + been worthy the ambition of men of honor. They had in various places + arsenals, ports, and watch-towers, all strongly fortified. Their fleets + were not only extremely well manned, supplied with skillful pilots, and + fitted for their business by their lightness and celerity; but there was a + parade of vanity about them more mortifying than their strength, in gilded + sterns, purpose canopies, and plated oars; as if they took a pride and + triumphed in their villainy. Music resounded, and drunken revels were + exhibited on every coast. Here generals were made prisoners; there the + cities the pirates had taken were paying their ransom; all to the great + disgrace of the Roman power. The number of their galleys amounted to one + thousand, and the cities they were masters of to four hundred. + </p> + <p> + Temples which had stood inviolably sacred till that time, they plundered. + They ruined the temple of Apollo at Claros, that of the Cabiri in + Samothrace, of Ceres at Hermione, of Aesculapius at Epidaurus, those of + Neptune in the Isthmus, at Taenarus and in Calauria, those of Apollo at + Actium and in the isle of Leucas, those of Juno at Samos, Argos, and the + promontory of Lacinium. + </p> + <p> + They likewise offered strange sacrifices; those of Olympus I mean; and + they celebrated certain secret mysteries, among which those of Mithra + continue to this day, being originally instituted by them. They not only + insulted the Romans at sea but infested the great roads, and plundered the + villas near the coast; they carried off Sextilius and Bellinus, two + praetors, in their purple robes, which all their servants and lictors. + They seized the daughter of Antony, a man who had been honored with a + triumph, as she was going to her country house, and he was forced to pay a + large ransom for her. + </p> + <p> + But the most contemptible circumstance of all was, that when they had + taken a prisoner, and he cried out that he was a Roman, and told them his + name, they pretended to be struck with terror, smote their thighs, and + fell upon their knees to ask him pardon. The poor man, seeing them thus + humble themselves before him, thought them in earnest, and said he would + forgive them; for some were so officious as to put on his shoes, and + others to help him on with his gown, that his quality might no more be + mistaken. When they had carried on this farce, and enjoyed it for some + time, they let a ladder down into the sea, and bade him go in peace; and + if he refused to do it, they pushed him off the deck, and drowned him. + </p> + <p> + Their power extended over the whole Tuscan sea, so that the Romans found + their trade and navigation entirely cut off. The consequence of which was, + that their markets were not supplied, and they had reason to apprehend a + famine. This at last led them to send Pompey to clear the sea of pirates. + Gabinius, one of Pompey's intimate friends, proposed the decree, which + created him not admiral, but monarch, and invested him with absolute + power. The decree gave him the empire of the sea as far as the Pillars of + Hercules, and of the land for 400 furlongs from the coasts. There were few + parts of the Roman empire which this commission did not take in; and the + most considerable of the barbarous nations, and most powerful kings, were + moreover comprehended in it. Besides this he was empowered to choose out + of the senators fifteen lieutenants, to act under him in such districts, + and with such authority as he should appoint. He was to take from the + quaestors, and other public receivers, what money he pleased, and equip a + fleet of two hundred sail. The number of marine forces, of mariners and + rowers, was left entirely to his discretion. + </p> + <p> + When this decree was read in the assembly, the people received it with + inconceivable pleasure. The most respectable part of the senate saw, + indeed, that such an absolute and unlimited power was above envy, but they + considered it as a real object of fear. They therefore all, except Caesar, + opposed its passing into a law. He was for it, not out of regard for + Pompey, but to insinuate himself into the good graces of the people, which + he had long been courting. The rest were very severe in the expressions + against Pompey; and one of the consuls venturing to say, "If he imitates + Romulus, he will not escape his fate," was in danger of being pulled in + pieces by the populace. + </p> + <p> + It is true, when Catulus rose up to speak against the law, out of + reverence for his person they listened to him with great attention. After + he had freely given Pompey the honor that was his due, and said much in + his praise, he advised them to spare him, and not to expose such a man to + so many dangers; "for where will you find another," said he, "if you lose + him?" They answered with one voice, "Yourself." Finding his arguments had + no effect, he retired. Then Roscius mounted the rostrum, but not a man + would give ear to him. However he made signs to them with his fingers, + that they should not appoint Pompey alone, but give him a colleague. + Incensed at the proposal, they set up such a shout, that a crow, which was + flying over the forum, was stunned with the force of it, and fell down + among the crowd. Hence we may conclude, that when birds fall on such + occasions, it is not because the air is so divided with the shock as to + leave a vacuum, but rather because the sound strikes them like a blow, + when it ascends with force, and produces so violent an agitation. + </p> + <p> + The assembly broke up that day without coming to any resolution. When the + day came that they were to give their suffrages, Pompey retired into the + country; and, on receiving information that the decree was passed, he + returned to the city by night, to prevent the envy which the multitudes of + people coming to meet him would have excited. Next morning at break of day + he made his appearance, and attended the sacrifice. After which, he + summoned an assembly, and obtained a grant of almost as much more as the + first decree had given him. He was empowered to fit out 500 galleys, and + to raise an army of 120,000 foot, and 5,000 horse. Twenty-four senators + were selected, who had all been generals or praetors, and were appointed + his lieutenants; and he had two quaestors given him. As the price of + provisions fell immediately, the people were greatly pleased, and it gave + them occasion to say that the very name of Pompey had terminated the war. + </p> + <p> + However, in pursuance of his charge, he divided the whole Mediterranean + into thirteen parts, appointing a lieutenant for each, and assigning him a + squadron. By thus stationing his fleet in all quarters, he enclosed the + pirates as it were in a net, took great numbers of them, and brought them + into harbor. Such of their vessels as had dispersed and made off in time, + or could escape the general chase, retired to Cilicia, like so many bees + into a hive. Against these he proposed to go himself, with sixty of his + best galleys; but first he resolved to clear the Tuscan sea, and the + coasts of Africa, Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily, of all piratical + adventurers; which he effected in forty days, by his own indefatigable + endeavors and those of his lieutenants. But, as the consul Piso was + indulging his malignity at home, in wasting his stores and discharging his + seamen, he sent his fleet round to Brundusium, and went himself by land + through Tuscany to Rome. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the people were informed of his approach, they went in crowds + to receive him, in the same manner as they had done a few days before, to + conduct him on his way. Their extraordinary joy was owing to the speed + with which he had executed his commission, so far beyond all expectation, + and to the superabundant plenty which reigned in the markets. For this + reason Piso was in danger of being deposed from the consulship, and + Gabinius had a decree ready drawn up for that purpose; but Pompey would + not suffer him to propose it. On the contrary, his speech to the people + was full of candor and moderation; and when he had provided such things as + he wanted, he went to Brundusium, and put to sea again. Though he was + straightened for time, and in his haste sailed by many cities without + calling, yet he stopped at Athens. He entered the town and sacrificed to + the gods; after which he addressed the people, and then prepared to + reembark immediately. As he went out of the gate he observed two + inscriptions, each comprised in one line. + </p> + <p> + That within the gate was: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + But know thyself a man, and be a god. +</pre> + <p> + That without: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + We wish'd, we saw; we loved, and we adored. +</pre> + <p> + Some of the pirates, who yet traversed the seas, made their submission; + and as he treated them in a humane manner, when he had them and their + ships in his power, others entertained hope of mercy, and avoiding the + other officers, surrendered themselves to Pompey, together with their + wives and children. He spared them all; and it was principally by their + means that he found out and took a number who were guilty of unpardonable + crimes, and therefore had concealed themselves. + </p> + <p> + Still, however, there remained a great number, and indeed the most + powerful part of these corsairs, who sent their families, treasures, and + all useless hands, into castles and fortified towns upon Mount Taurus. + Then they manned their ships, and waited for Pompey at Coracesium, in + Cilicia. A battle ensued, and the pirates were defeated; after which they + retired into the fort. But they had not been long besieged before they + capitulated, and surrendered themselves, together with the cities and + islands which they had conquered and fortified, and which by their works + as well as situation were almost impregnable. Thus the war was finished, + and whole force of the pirates destroyed, within three months at the + farthest. + </p> + <p> + Besides the other vessels, Pompey took ninety ships with beaks of brass; + and the prisoners amounted to 20,000. He did not choose to put them to + death, and at the same time he thought it wrong to suffer them to + disperse, because they were not only numerous, but warlike and + necessitous, and therefore would probably knit again and give future + trouble. He reflected, that man by nature is neither a savage nor an + unsocial creature; and when he becomes so, it is by vices contrary to + nature; yet even then he may be humanized by changing his place of abode, + and accustoming him to a new manner of life; as beasts that are naturally + wild put off their fierceness when they are kept in a domestic way. For + this reason he determined to remove the pirates to a great distance from + the sea, and bring them to taste the sweets of civil life, by living in + cities, and by the culture of the ground. He placed some of them in the + little towns of Cilicia, which were almost desolate, and which received + them with pleasure, because at the same time he gave them an additional + proportion of lands. He repaired the city of Soli, which had lately been + dismantled and deprived of its inhabitants by Tigranes, king of Armenia, + and peopled it with a number of these corsairs. The remainder, which was a + considerable body, he planted in Dyma, a city of Achaia, which, though it + had a large and fruitful territory, was in want of inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + Pompey, having secured the sea from Phoenicia to the Bosphorus, marched in + quest of Mithridates, who had an army of 30,000 foot and 2,000 horse, but + durst not stand an engagement. That prince was in possession of a strong + and secure post upon a mountain, which he quitted upon Pompey's approach, + because it was destitute of water. Pompey encamped in the same place; and + conjecturing, from the nature of the plants and the crevices in the + mountain, that springs might be found, he ordered a number of wells to be + dug, and the camp was in a short time plentifully supplied with water. He + was not a little surprised that this did not occur to Mithridates during + the whole time of his encampment there. + </p> + <p> + After this, Pompey followed him to his new camp, and drew a line of + circumvallation round him. Mithridates stood a siege of forty-five days, + after which he found means to steal off with his best troops, having first + killed all the sick, and such as could be of no service. Pompey overtook + him near the Euphrates, and encamped over against him; but fearing he + might pass the river unperceived, he drew out his troops at midnight. At + that time Mithridates is said to have had a dream prefigurative of what + was to befall him. He thought he was upon the Pontic Sea, sailing with a + favorable wind, and in sight of the Bosphorus; so that he felicitated his + friends in the ship, like a man perfectly safe, and already in harbor. But + suddenly he beheld himself in the most destitute condition, swimming upon + a piece of wreck. While he was in all the agitation which this dream + produced, his friends awaked him, and told him that Pompey was at hand. He + was now under a necessity of fighting for his camp, and his generals drew + up the forces with all possible expedition. + </p> + <p> + Pompey, seeing them prepared, was loth to risk a battle in the dark. He + thought it sufficient to surround them, so as to prevent their flight; and + what inclined him still more to wait for daylight, was the consideration + that his troops were much better than the enemy's. However, the oldest of + his officers entreated him to proceed immediately to the attack, and at + last prevailed. It was not indeed very dark; for the moon, though near her + setting, gave light enough to distinguish objects. But it was a great + disadvantage to the king's troops, that the moon was so low, and on the + backs of the Romans; because she projected their shadows so far before + them, that the enemy could form no just estimate of the distances, but + thinking them at hand, threw their javelins before they could do the least + execution. + </p> + <p> + The Romans, perceiving their mistake, advanced to the charge with all the + alarm of voices. The enemy were in such a consternation, that they made + not the least stand, and, in their flight, vast numbers were slain. They + lost above 10,000 men, and their camp was taken. As for Mithridates, he + broke through the Romans with 800 horses, in the beginning of the + engagement. That corps, however, did not follow him far before they + dispersed, and left him with only three of his people. + </p> + <p> + The pursuit of Mithridates was attended with great difficulties; for he + concealed himself among the nations settled about the Bosphorus and the + Palus Maeotis. Besides, news was brought to Pompey that the Albanians had + revolted, and taken up arms again. The desire of revenge determined him to + march back, and chastise them. But it was with infinite trouble and danger + that he passed the Cyrnus again, the barbarians having fenced it on their + side with palisades all along the banks. And when he was over, he had a + large country to traverse, which afforded no water. This last difficulty + he provided against by filling 10,000 bottles; and pursuing his march, he + found the enemy drawn up on the banks of the river Abas, to the number of + 60,000 foot and 12,000 horse, but many of them ill-armed, and provided + with nothing of the defensive kind but skins of beasts. + </p> + <p> + They were commanded by the king's brother, named Cosis; who, at the + beginning of the battle, singled out Pompey, and rushing in upon him, + struck his javelin into the joints of his breastplate. Pompey in return + run him through with his spear, and laid him dead on the spot. It is said + that the Amazons came to the assistance of the barbarians from the + mountains near the river Thermodon, and fought in this battle. The Romans, + among the plunder of the field, did, indeed, meet with bucklers in the + form of a half-moon, and such buskins as the Amazons wore; but there was + not the body of a woman found among the dead. They inhabit that part of + Mount Caucasus which stretches toward the Hyrcanian Sea, and are not next + neighbors to the Albanians; for Gelae and Leges lie between; but they meet + that people, and spend two months with them every year on the banks of the + Thermodon; after which they retire to their own country. + </p> + <p> + Pompey had advanced near to Petra, and encamped, and was taking some + exercise on horseback without the trenches, when messengers arrived from + Pontus; and it was plain they brought good news, because the points of + their spears were crowned with laurel. The soldiers seeing this, gathered + about Pompey, who was inclined to finish his exercise before he opened the + packet; but they were so earnest in their entreaties, that they prevailed + upon him to alight and take it. He entered the camp with it in his hand; + and as there was no tribunal ready, and the soldiers were too impatient to + raise one of turf, which the common method, they piled a number of + pack-saddles one upon the other, upon which Pompey mounted, and gave them + this information: "Mithridates is dead. He killed himself upon the revolt + of his son Pharnaces. And Pharnaces has seized all that belonged to his + father; which he declares he has done for himself and Romans." + </p> + <p> + At this news the army, as might be expected, gave a loose rein to their + joy, which they expressed in sacrifices to the gods, and in reciprocal + entertainments, as if 10,000 of their enemies had been slain in + Mithridates. Pompey having thus brought the campaign and the whole war to + a conclusion so happy, and so far beyond his hopes, immediately quitted + Arabia, traverses the provinces between that and Galatia with great + rapidity, and soon arrived at Amisus. There he found many presents from + Pharnaces, and several corpses of the royal family, among which was that + of Mithridates. As for Pompey, he would not see the body, but to + propitiate the avenging Nemesis, sent it to Sinope. However, he looked + upon and admired the magnificence of his habit, and the size and beauty of + his arms. The scabbard of his sword cost four hundred talents, and the + diadem was of most exquisite workmanship. + </p> + <p> + Pompey having thoroughly settled the affairs of Asia, hoped to return to + Italy the greatest and happiest of men. + </p> + <p> + People talked variously at Rome concerning his intentions. Many disturbed + themselves at the thought that he would march with his army immediately to + Rome and make himself sole and absolute master there. Crassus took his + children and money, and withdrew; whether it was that he had some real + apprehensions, or rather that he chose to countenance the calumny, and add + force to the sting of envy; the latter seems the more probable. But Pompey + had no sooner set foot in Italy, than he called an assembly of his + soldiers, and, after a kind and suitable address, ordered them to disperse + in their respective cities, and attend to their own affairs till his + triumph, on which occasion they were to repair to him again. + </p> + <p> + Pompey's triumph was so great, that though it was divided into two days, + the time was far from being sufficient for displaying what was prepared to + be carried in procession; there remained still enough to adorn another + triumph. At the head of the show appeared the titles of the conquered + nations: Pontus, Armenia, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, Media, Colchis, the + Iberians, the Albanians, Syria, Cilicia, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, + Palestine, Judaea, Arabia, the pirates subdued both by sea and land. In + these countries, it was mentioned that there were not less than 1,000 + castles and 900 cities captured, 800 galleys taken from the pirates, and + 39 desolate cities repeopled. On the face of the tablets it appeared + besides, that whereas the revenues of the Roman empire before these + conquests amounted but to 50,000,000 drachmas, by the new acquisitions + they were advanced to 85,000,000; and that Pompey had brought into the + public treasury in money, and in gold and silver vessels, the value of + 20,000 talents; besides what he had distributed among the soldiers, of + whom he that received least had 1,500 drachmas to his share. The captives + who walked in the procession (not the mention the chiefs of the pirates) + were the son of Tigranes, king of Armenia, together with his wife and + daughter; Zosima, the wife of Tigranes himself; Aristobulus, king of + Judaea; the sister of Mithridates, with her five sons, and some Scythian + women. The hostages of the Albanians and Iberians, and of the king of + Commagene also appeared in the train; and as many trophies were exhibited + as Pompey had gained victories, either in person or by his lieutenants, + the number of which was not small. + </p> + <p> + But the most honorable circumstance, and what no other Roman could boast, + was that his third triumph was over the third quarter of the world, after + his former triumphs had been over the other two. Others before him had + been honored with three triumphs; but his first triumph was over Africa, + his second over Europe, and his third over Asia; so that the three seemed + to declare him conqueror of the world. + </p> + <p> + Those who desire to make the parallel between him and Alexander agree in + all respects, tell us he was at this time not quite thirty-four, whereas, + in fact, he was entering upon his fortieth year. (It should be the + forty-sixth year. Pompey was born in the beginning of the month of August, + in the year of Rome 647, and his triumph was in the same month in the year + of Rome 692.) Happy it had been for him, if he had ended his days while he + was blessed with Alexander's good fortune! The rest of his life, every + instance of success brought its proportion of envy, and every misfortune + was irretrievable. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime the wars in Gaul lifted Caesar to the first sphere of + greatness. The scene of action was at a great distance from Rome, and he + seemed to be wholly engaged with the Belgae, the Suevi, and the Britons; + but his genius all the while was privately at work among the people of + Rome, and he was undermining Pompey in his most essential interests. His + war with the barbarians was not his principal object. He exercised his + army, indeed, in those expeditions, as he would have done his own body, in + hunting and other diversions of the field, by which he prepared them for + higher conflicts, and rendered them not only formidable but invincible. + </p> + <p> + The gold and silver, and other rich spoils which he took from the enemy in + great abundance, he sent to Rome; and by distributing them freely among + the aediles, praetors, consuls, and their wives, he gained a great party. + Consequently when he passed the Alps and wintered at Lucca, among the + crowd of men and women, who hastened to pay their respects to him, there + were two hundred senators, Pompey and Crassus of the number; and there + were no fewer than one hundred and twenty proconsuls and praetors, whose + faces were to be seen at the gates of Caesar. He made it his business in + general to give them hopes of great things, and his money was at their + devotion; but he entered into a treaty with Crassus and Pompey, by which + it was agreed that they should apply for the consulship, and that Caesar + should assist them, by sending a great number of his soldiers to vote at + the election. As soon as they were chosen, they were to share the + provinces, and take the command of armies, according to their pleasure, + only confirming Caesar in the possession of what he had for five years + more. + </p> + <p> + Crassus, upon the expiration of his consulship, repaired to his province. + Pompey remaining at Rome, opened his theatre; and to make the dedication + more magnificent, exhibited a variety of gymnastic games, entertainments + of music, and battles with wild beasts, in which were killed 500 lions; + but the battle of elephants afforded the most astonishing spectacle. (Dio + says the elephants fought with armed men. There were no less than eighteen + of them; and he adds, that some of them seemed to appeal, with piteous + cries to the people; who, in compassion, saved their lives. If we may + believe him, an oath had been taken before they left Africa, that no + injury should be done them.) These things gained him the love and + admiration of the public; but he incurred their displeasure again, by + leaving his provinces and armies entirely to his friends and lieutenants, + and roving about Italy with his wife from one villa to another. The strong + attachment of Julia appeared on the occasion of an election of aediles. + The people came to blows, and some were killed so near Pompey that he was + covered with blood, and forced to change his clothes. There was a great + crowd and tumult about his door, when his servants went home with a bloody + robe; and Julia, happening to see it, fainted away and was with difficulty + restored. Shortly after Julia died, and the alliance which had rather + covered than restrained the ambition of the two great competitors for + power was now no more. To add to the misfortune, news was brought soon + after that Crassus was slain by the Parthians; and in him another great + obstacle to a civil war was removed. Out of fear of him, they had both + kept some measures with each other. But when fortune had carried off the + champion who could take up the conqueror, we may say with the comic poet— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + High spirits of emprise + Elates each chief; they oil their brawny limbs, + and dip their hands in dust. +</pre> + <p> + So little able is fortune to fill the capacities of the human mind; when + such a weight of power, and extent of command, could not satisfy the + ambition of two men. They had heard and read that the gods had divided the + universe into three shares, + </p> + <p> + (Plutarch alludes here to a passage in the fifteenth book of the Iliad, + where Neptune says to Iris— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Assign'd by lot our triple rule we know; + Infernal Pluto sways the shades below; + O'er the wide clouds, and o'er the starry plain, + Ethereal Jove extends his high domain; + My court beneath the hoary waves I keep, + And hush the roarings of the sacred deep.) +</pre> + <p> + and each was content with that which fell to his lot, and yet these men + could not think the Roman empire sufficient for two of them. Such anarchy + and confusion took place that numbers began to talk boldly of setting up a + dictator. Cato, now fearing he should be overborne, was of opinion that it + were better to give Pompey some office whose authority was limited by law, + than to intrust him with absolute power. Bibulus, though Pompey's declared + enemy, moved in full senate, that he should be appointed sole consul. "For + by that means," said he, "the commonwealth will either recover from her + disorder, or, if she must serve, will serve a man of the greatest merit." + The whole house was surprised at the motion; and when Cato rose up, it was + expected he would oppose it. A profound silence ensued, and he said, he + should never have been the first to propose such an expedient, but as it + was proposed by another, he thought it advisable to embrace it; for he + thought any kind of government better than anarchy, and knew no man fitter + to rule than Pompey, in a time of so much trouble. The senate came into + his opinion, and a decree was issued, that Pompey should be appointed sole + consul, and that if he should have need of a colleague, he might choose + one himself, provided it were not before the expiration of two months. + </p> + <p> + Pompey being declared sole consul by the Interrex Sulpitius, made his + compliments to Cato, acknowledged himself much indebted to his support, + and desired his advice and assistance in the cabinet, as to the measures + to be pursued in his administration. Cato made answer, that Pompey was not + under the least obligation to him; for what he had said was not out of + regard to him, but to his country. "If you apply to me," continued he, "I + shall give you my advice in private; if not, I shall inform you of my + sentiments in public." Such was Cato, and the same on all occasions. + </p> + <p> + Pompey then went into the city, and married Cornelia, the daughter of + Metellus Scipio. She was a widow, having been married, when very young, to + Publius the son of Crassus, who was lately killed in the Parthian + expedition. This woman had many charms beside her beauty. She was well + versed in polite literature; she played upon the lyre, and understood + geometry; and she had made considerable improvements by the precepts of + philosophy. What is more, she had nothing of that petulance and + affectation which such studies are apt to produce in women of her age. And + her father's family and reputation were unexceptionable. + </p> + <p> + Pompey's confidence made him so extremely negligent, that he laughed at + those who seemed to fear the war. And when they said if Caesar should + advance in a hostile manner to Rome, they did not see what forces they had + to oppose him, he bade them, with an open and smiling countenance, give + themselves no pain: "For, if in Italy," said he, "I do but stamp upon the + ground, an army will appear." + </p> + <p> + Meantime Caesar was exerting himself greatly. He was now at no great + distance from Italy, and not only sent his soldiers to vote in the + elections, but by private pecuniary applications, corrupted many of the + magistrates. Paulus the consul was of the number, and he had one thousand + five hundred talents for changing sides. So also was Curio, one of the + tribunes of the people, for whom he paid off an immense debt, and Mark + Antony, who, out of friendship for Curio, had stood engaged with him for + the debt. + </p> + <p> + It is said, that when one of Caesar's officers, who stood before the + senate-house, waiting the issue of the debates, was informed that they + would not give Caesar a longer term in his command, he laid his hand on + his sword, and said, "But this shall give it." Indeed, all the + preparations of his general tended that way; though Curio's demands in + behalf of Caesar seemed more plausible. He proposed, that either Pompey + should likewise be obliged to dismiss his forces, or Caesar suffered to + keep his. "If they are both reduced to a private station," said he, "they + will agree upon reasonable terms; or, if each retains his respective + power, they will be satisfied. But he who weakens the one, without doing + the same by the other, must double that force which he fears will subvert + the government." + </p> + <p> + But now news was brought that Caesar was marching directly towards Rome + with all his forces. The last circumstance, indeed, was not true. He + advanced with only three hundred horse and five thousand foot; the rest of + his forces were on the other side of the Alps, and he would not wait for + them, choosing rather to put his adversaries in confusion by a sudden and + unexpected attack, than to fight them when better prepared. When he came + to the river Rubicon, which was the boundary of his province, he stood + silent a long time, weighing with himself the greatness of his enterprise. + At last, like one who plunges down from the top of a precipice into a gulf + of immense depth, he silenced his reason, and shut his eyes against the + danger; and crying out in the Greek language, "The die is cast," he + marched over with his army. + </p> + <p> + Upon the first report of this at Rome, the city was in greater disorder + and astonishment than had ever been known. + </p> + <p> + All Italy was in motion, with the stir of the coming storm. Those who + lived out of Rome fled to it from all quarters, and those who lived in it + abandoned it as fast. These saw, that in such a tempestuous and disorderly + state of affairs, the well disposed part of the city wanted strength, and + that the ill disposed were so refractory that they could not be managed by + the magistrates. The terrors of the people could not be removed, and no + one would suffer Pompey to lay a plan of action for himself. According to + the passion wherewith each was actuated, whether fear, sorrow, or doubt, + they endeavored to inspire him with the same; insomuch that he adopted + different measures the same day. He could gain no certain intelligence of + the enemy's motions, because every man brought him the report he happened + to take up, and was angry if it did not meet with credit. + </p> + <p> + Pompey at last caused it to be declared by a formal edict, that the + commonwealth was in danger, and no peace was to be expected. After which, + he signified that he should look upon those who remained in the city as + the partisans of Caesar; and then quitted it in the dusk of the evening. + The consuls also fled, without offering the sacrifices which their customs + required before a war. However, in this great extremity, Pompey could not + but be considered as happy in the affections of his countrymen. Though + many blamed the war, there was not a man who hated the general. Nay, the + number of those who followed him, out of attachment to his person, was + greater than that of the adventurers in the cause of liberty. + </p> + <p> + A few days after, Caesar arrived at Rome. When he was in possession of the + city, he behaved with great moderation in many respects, and composed in a + good measure the minds of its remaining inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + Pompey, who was the master of Brundusium, and had a sufficient number of + transports, desired the consuls to embark without loss of time, and sent + them before him with thirty cohorts to Dyrrhachium. But at the same time + he sent his father-in-law Scipio and his son Cnaeus into Syria, to provide + ships of war. He had well secured the gates of the city, and planted the + lightest of his slingers and archers upon the walls; and having now + ordered the Brundusians to keep within doors, he caused a number of + trenches to be cut, and sharp stakes to be driven into them, and then + covered with earth, in all the streets, except two which led down to the + sea. In three days all his other troops were embarked without + interruption; and then he suddenly gave the signal to those who guarded + the walls; in consequence of which, they ran swiftly down to the harbor, + and got on board. Thus having his whole complement, he set sail, and + crossed the sea to Dyrrhachium. + </p> + <p> + When Caesar came and saw the walls left destitute of defence, he concluded + that Pompey had taken to flight, and in his eagerness to pursue, would + certainly have fallen upon the sharp stakes in the trenches, had not the + Brundusians informed him of them. He then avoided the streets, and took a + circuit round the town, by which he discovered that all the vessels had + weighed anchor, except two that had not many soldiers aboard. + </p> + <p> + This manoeuvre of Pompey was commonly reckoned among the greatest act of + generalship. Caesar, however, could not help wondering, that his + adversary, who was in possession of a fortified town, and expected his + forces from Spain, and at the same time was master of them, should give up + Italy in such a manner. + </p> + <p> + Caesar thus made himself master of all Italy in sixty days without the + least bloodshed, and he would have been glad to have gone immediately in + pursuit of Pompey. But as he was in want of shipping, he gave up that + design for the present, and marched to Spain, with an intent to gain + Pompey's forces there. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime Pompey assembled a great army; and at sea he was + altogether invincible. For he had five hundred ships of war, and the + number of his lighter vessels was still greater. As for his land forces, + he had seven thousand horse, the flower of Rome and Italy, all men of + family, fortune, and courage. His infantry, though numerous, was a mixture + of raw, undisciplined soldiers; he therefore exercised them during his + stay at Beroea, where he was by no means idle, but went through the + exercises of a soldier, as if he had been in the flower of his age. It + inspired his troops with new courage, when they saw Pompey the Great, at + the age of fifty-eight, going through the whole military discipline, in + heavy armor, on foot; and then mounting his horse, drawing his sword with + ease when at full speed, and as dexterously sheathing it again. As to the + javelin, he threw it not only with great exactness, but with such force + that few of the young men could dart it to a greater distance. + </p> + <p> + Many kings and princes repaired to his camp; and the number of Roman + officers who had commanded armies was so great, that it was sufficient to + make up a complete senate. Labienus, who had been honored with Caesar's + friendship, and served under him in Gaul, now joined Pompey. + </p> + <p> + Caesar had now made himself master of Pompey's forces in Spain, and though + it was not without a battle, he dismissed the officers, and incorporated + the troops with his own. After this, he passed the Alps again, and marched + through Italy to Brundusium, where he arrived at the time of the winter + solstice. There he crossed the sea, and landed at Oricum; from whence he + dispatched Vibullius, one of Pompey's friends, whom he had brought + prisoner thither, with proposals of a conference between him and Pompey, + in which they should agree to disband their armies within three days, + renew their friendship, confirm it with solemn oath, and then both return + to Italy. Pompey took this overture for another snare, and therefore drew + down in haste to the sea, and secured all the forts and places of strength + for land forces, as well as all the ports and other commodious stations + for shipping; so that there was not a wind that blew, which did not bring + him either provisions, or troops, or money. On the other hand, Caesar was + reduced to such straits, both by sea and land, that he was under the + necessity of seeking a battle. Accordingly, he attacked Pompey's + intrenchments, and bade him defiance daily. In most of these attacks and + skirmishes he had the advantage; but one day was in danger of losing his + whole army. Pompey fought with so much valor, that he put Caesar's whole + detachment to flight, after having killed two thousand men upon the spot; + but was either unable or afraid to pursue his blow, and enter their camp + with them. Caesar said to his friends on this occasion, "This day the + victory had been the enemy's had their general known how to conquer." + </p> + <p> + Pompey's troops, elated with this success, were in great haste to come to + a decisive battle. Nay, Pompey himself seemed to give in to their opinions + by writing to the kings, the generals, and cities, in his interest, in the + style of a conqueror. Yet all this while he dreaded the issue of a general + action, believing it much better, by length of time, by famine and + fatigue, to tire out men who had been ever invincible in arms, and long + accustomed to conquer when they fought together. Besides, he knew the + infirmities of age had made them unfit for the other operations of war, + for long marches and countermarches, for digging trenches and building + forts, and that, therefore, they wished for nothing so much as a battle. + Pompey, with all these arguments, found it no easy matter to keep his army + quiet. + </p> + <p> + After this last engagement, Caesar was in such want of provisions, that he + was forced to decamp, and he took his way through Athamania into Thessaly. + This added so much to the high opinion Pompey's soldiers had of + themselves, that it was impossible to keep them within bounds. They cried + out with one voice, "Caesar is fled." Some called upon the general to + pursue; some to pass over into Italy. Others sent their friends and + servants to Rome, to engage homes near the forum, for the convenience of + soliciting the great offices of state. And not a few went of their own + accord to Cornelia, who had been privately lodged in Lesbos, to + congratulate her upon the conclusion of the war. + </p> + <p> + While he thus softly followed the enemy's steps, a complaint was raised + against him, and urged with much clamor, that he was not exercising his + generalship upon Caesar, but upon the Senate and the whole commonwealth, + in order that he might forever keep the command in his hands, and have + those for his guards and servants who had a right to govern the world. + Domitius Aenobarbus, to increase the odium, always called him Agamemnon, + or king of kings. Favonius piqued him no less with a jest, than others by + their unseasonable severity; he went about crying, "My friends, we shall + eat no figs in Tusculum this year." + </p> + <p> + These and many other like sallies of ridicule had such an effect upon + Pompey, who was ambitious of being spoken well of by the world, and had + too much deference for the opinions of his friends, that he gave up his + own better judgment, to follow them in the career of their false hopes and + prospects. A thing which would have been unpardonable in the pilot or + master of a ship, much more in the commander-in-chief of so many nations + and such numerous armies. He had often commended the physician who gives + no indulgence to the whimsical longings of his patients, and yet he + humored the sickly cravings of his army, and was afraid to give them pain, + though necessary for the preservation of their life and being. For who can + say that army was in a sound and healthy state, when some of the officers + went about the camp canvassing for the offices of consul and praetor; and + others, namely, Spinther, Domitius, and Scipio, were engaged in quarrels + and cabals about Caesar's high-priesthood, as if their adversary had been + only a Tigranes, a king of Armenia, or a prince of the Nabathaeans; and + not that Caesar and that army who had stormed one thousand cities, subdued + above three hundred nations, gained numberless battles of the Germans and + Gauls, taken one million prisoners, and killed as many fairly in the + field. Notwithstanding all this, they continued loud and tumultuous in + their demands of a battle; and when they came to the plains of Pharsalia, + forced Pompey to call a council of war. Lebienus, who had the command of + the cavalry, rose up first, and took an oath, that he would not return + from the battle, till he had put the enemy to flight. All the other + officers swore the same. + </p> + <p> + The night following, Pompey had this dream. He thought he entered his own + theatre, and was received with loud plaudits; after which, he adorned the + temple of Venus the Victorious with many spoils. This vision, on one side, + encouraged him, and on the other alarmed him. He was afraid that Caesar, + who was a descendant of Venus, would be aggrandized at his expense. + Besides, a panic (A Panic was so called, from the terror which the god Pan + is said to have struck the enemies of Greece with, at the battle of + Marathon.) fear ran through the camp, the noise of which awakened him. And + about the morning watch, over Caesar's camp, where everything was + perfectly quiet, there suddenly appeared a great light, from which a + stream of fire issued in the form of a torch, and fell upon that of + Pompey. Caesar himself says he saw it as he was going his rounds. + </p> + <p> + Caesar was preparing, at break of day, to march to Scotusa; his soldiers + were striking their tents, and the servants and beasts of burden were + already in motion, when his scouts brought intelligence that they had seen + arms handed about in the enemy's camp, and perceived a noise and bustle, + which indicated an approaching battle. After these, others came and + assured him that the first ranks were drawn up. + </p> + <p> + Upon this Caesar said: "The long-wished day is come, on which we shall + fight with men, and not with want and famine." Then he immediately ordered + the red mantle to be put up before his pavilion, which, among the Romans, + is the signal of a battle. The soldiers no sooner beheld it, than they + left their tents as they were, and ran to arms with loud shouts, and every + expression of joy. And when the officers began to put them in order of + battle, each man fell into his proper rank as quietly, and with as much + skill and ease, as a chorus in a tragedy. + </p> + <p> + Pompey placed himself in his right wing over against Antony, and his + father-in-law, Scipio, in the centre, opposite Domitius Calvinus. His left + wing was commanded by Lucius Domitius, and supported by the cavalry; for + they were almost all ranged on that side, in order to break in upon + Caesar, and cut off the tenth legion, which was accounted the bravest in + his army, and in which he used to fight in person. Caesar, seeing the + enemy's left wing so well guarded with horse, and fearing the excellence + of their armor, sent for a detachment of six cohorts from the body of the + reserve, and placed them behind the tenth legion, with orders not to stir + before the attack, lest they should be discovered by the enemy; but when + the enemy's cavalry had charged, to make up through the foremost ranks, + and then not to discharge their javelins at a distance, as brave men + generally do in their eagerness to come to sword in hand, but to reserve + them till they came to close fighting, and to push them forward into the + eyes and faces of the enemy. "For those fair young dancers," said he, + "will never stand the steel aimed at their eyes, but will fly to save + their handsome faces." + </p> + <p> + While Caesar was thus employed, Pompey took a view on horseback of the + order of both armies; and finding that they enemy kept their ranks with + the utmost exactness, and quietly waited for the signal of battle, while + his own men, for want of experience, were fluctuating and unsteady, he was + afraid they would be broken up on the first onset. He therefore commanded + the vanguard to stand firm in their ranks, and in that close order to + receive the enemy's charge. Caesar condemned this measure, as not only + tending to lessen the vigor of the blows, which is always greatest in the + assailants, but also to damp the fire and spirit of the men; whereas those + who advance with impetuosity, and animate each other with shouts, are + filled with an enthusiastic valor and superior ardor. + </p> + <p> + Caesar's army consisted of twenty-two thousand men, and Pompey's was + something more than twice that number. When the signal was given on both + sides, and the trumpets sounded a charge, each common man attended only to + his own concern. But some of the principal Romans and Greeks, who only + stood and looked on, when the dreadful moment of action approached, could + not help considering to what the avarice and ambition of two men had + brought the Roman Empire. The same arms on both sides, the troops + marshalled in the same manner, the same standards; in short, the strength + and flower of one and the same city turned upon itself! What could be a + stronger proof of the blindness and infatuation of human nature, when + carried away by its passions? Had they been willing to enjoy the fruits of + their labors in peace and tranquillity, the greatest and best part of the + world was their own. Or, if they must have indulged their thirst of + victories and triumphs, the Parthians and Germans were yet to be subdued. + Scythia and India yet remained; together with a very plausible color for + their lust of new acquisitions, the pretence of civilizing barbarians. And + what Scythian horse, what Parthian arrows, what Indian treasures, could + have resisted seventy thousand Romans, led on by Pompey and Caesar, with + whose names those nations had long been acquainted! Into such a variety of + wild and savage countries had these two generals carried their victorious + arms! Whereas now they stood threatening each other with destruction; not + sparing even their own glory, though to it they sacrificed their country, + but prepared, one of them, to lose the reputation of being invincible, + which hitherto they had both maintained. So that the alliance which they + had contracted by Pompey's marriage to Julia, was from the first only an + artful expedient; and her charms were to form a self-interested compact, + instead of being the pledge of a sincere friendship. + </p> + <p> + The plain of Pharsalia was now covered with men, and horses and arms; and + the signal of battle being given on both sides, the first on Caesar's side + who advanced to the charge was Caius Crastinus, who commanded a corps of + one hundred and twenty men, and was determined to make good his promise to + his general. He was the first man Caesar saw when he went out of the + trenches in the morning; and upon Caesar's asking him what he thought of + the battle, he stretched out his hand, and answered in a cheerful tone, + "You will gain a glorious victory, and I shall have your praise this day, + either alive or dead." In pursuance of this promise, he advanced the + foremost, and many following to support him, he charged into the midst of + the enemy. They soon took to their swords, and numbers were slain; but as + Crastinus was making his way forward, and cutting down all before him, one + of Pompey's men stood to receive him, and pushed his sword in at his mouth + with such force, that it went through the nape of his neck. Crastinus thus + killed, the fight was maintained with equal advantage on both sides. + </p> + <p> + Pompey did not immediately lead on his right wing, but often directed his + eyes to the left, and lost time in waiting to see what execution his + cavalry would do there. Meanwhile they had extended their squadrons to + surround Caesar, and prepared to drive the few horse he had placed in + front, back upon the foot. At that instant Caesar gave the signal; upon + which his cavalry retreated a little; and the six cohorts, which consisted + of 3000 men, and had been placed behind the tenth legion, advanced to + surround Pompey's cavalry; and coming close up to them, raised the points + of their javelins, as they had been taught, and aimed them at the face. + Their adversaries, who were not experienced in any kind of fighting, and + had not the least previous idea of this, could not parry or endure the + blows upon their faces, but turned their backs, or covered their eyes with + their hands, and soon fled with great dishonor. Caesar's men took no care + to pursue them, but turned their force upon the enemy's infantry, + particularly upon that wing, which, now stripped of its horse, lay open to + the attack on all sides. The six cohorts, therefore, took them in flank, + while the tenth legion charged them in front; and they, who had hoped to + surround the enemy, and now, instead of that, saw themselves surrounded, + made but a short resistance, and then took to a precipitate flight. + </p> + <p> + By the great dust that was raised, Pompey conjectured the fate of his + cavalry; and it is hard to say what passed in his mind at that moment. He + appeared like a man moonstruck and distracted; and without considering + that he was Pompey the Great, or speaking to any one, he quitted the + ranks, and retired step by step toward his camp—a scene which cannot + be better painted than in these verses of Homer: (In the eleventh book of + the Iliad, where he is speaking of the flight of Ajax before Hector.) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + But partial Jove, espousing Hector's part, + Shot heaven-bred horror through the Grecian's heart; + Confused, unnerv'd in Hector's presence grown, + Amazed he stood with terrors not his own. + O'er his broad back his moony shield he threw, + And, glaring round, by tardy steps withdrew. +</pre> + <p> + In this condition he entered his tent, where he sat down, and uttered not + a word, till at last, upon finding that some of the enemy entered the camp + with the fugitives, he said, "What! Into my camp, too!" After this short + exclamation, he rose up, and dressing himself in a manner suitable to his + fortune, privately withdrew. All the other legions fled; and a great + slaughter was made in the camp, of the servants and others who had the + care of the tents. But Asinius Pollio, who then fought on Caesar's side, + assures us, that of the regular troops there were not above six thousand + men killed. (Caesar says, that in all there were fifteen thousand killed, + and twenty-four thousand taken prisoners.) + </p> + <p> + Upon the taking of the camp, there was a spectacle which showed, in strong + colors, the vanity and folly of Pompey's troops. All the tents were + crowned with myrtle; the beds were strewn with flowers; the tables covered + with cups, and bowls of wine set out. In short, everything had the + appearance of preparations for feasts and sacrifices, rather than for men + going out to battle. To such a degree had their vain hopes corrupted them, + and with such a senseless confidence they took to the field! + </p> + <p> + When Pompey had got at a little distance from the camp, he quitted his + horse. He had very few people about him; and, as he saw he was not + pursued, he went softly on, wrapped up in such thoughts as we may suppose + a man to have, who had been used for thirty-four years to conquer and + carry all before him, and now in his old age first came to know what it + was to be defeated and to fly. We may easily conjecture what his thoughts + must be, when in one short hour he had lost the glory and the power which + had been growing up amidst so many wars and conflicts; and he who was + lately guarded with such armies of horse and foot, and such great and + powerful fleets, was reduced to so mean and contemptible an equipage, that + his enemies, who were in search of him, could not know him. + </p> + <p> + He passed by Larissa, and came to Tempe, where, burning with thirst, he + threw himself upon his face, and drank out of the river; after which, he + passed through the valley, and went down to the sea-coast. There he spent + the remainder of the night in a poor fisherman's cabin. Next morning, + about break of day, he went on board a small river-boat, taking with him + such of his company as were freemen. The slaves he dismissed, bidding them + go to Caesar, and fear nothing. + </p> + <p> + As he was coasting along, he saw a whip of burden just ready to sail; the + master of which was Peticius, a Roman citizen, who, though not acquainted + with Pompey, knew him by sight. Therefore, without waiting for any further + application, he took him up, and such of his companions as he thought + proper, and then hoisted sail. The persons Pompey took with him, were the + two Lentuli and Favonius; and a little after, they saw king Deiotarus + beckoning to them with great earnestness from the shore, and took him up + likewise. The master of the ship provided them with the best supper he + could, and when it was almost ready, Pompey, for want of a servant, was + going to wash himself, but Favonius, seeing it, stepped up, and both + washed and anointed him. All the time he was on board, he continued to + wait upon him in all the offices of a servant, even to the washing of his + feet and providing his supper; insomuch, that one who saw the unaffected + simplicity and sincere attachment with which Favonius performed these + offices, cried out— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The generous mind adds dignity + To every act, and nothing misbecomes it. +</pre> + <p> + Pompey, in the course of his voyage, sailed by Amphipolis, and from thence + steered for Mitylene, to take up Cornelia and his son. As soon as he + reached the island, he sent a messenger to the town with news far + different from what Cornelia expected. For, by the flattering accounts + which many officious persons had given her, she understood that the + dispute was decided at Dyrrhachium, and that nothing but the pursuit of + Caesar remained to be attended to. The messenger, finding her possessed + with such hopes, had not power to make the usual salutations; but + expressing the greatness of Pompey's misfortunes by his tears rather than + words, only told her she must make haste if she had a mind to see Pompey + with one ship only, and that not his own. + </p> + <p> + At this news Cornelia threw herself upon the ground, where she lay a long + time insensible and speechless. At last, coming to herself, she perceived + there was no time to be lost in tears and lamentations, and therefore + hastened through the town to the sea. Pompey ran to meet her, and received + her to his arms as she was just going to fall. While she hung upon his + neck, she thus addressed him: "I see, my dear husband, your present + unhappy condition is the effect of my ill fortune, and not yours. Alas! + how are you reduced to one poor vessel, who, before your marriage with + Cornelia, traversed the sea with 500 galleys! Why did you come to see me, + and not rather leave me to my evil destiny, who have loaded you, too, with + such a weight of calamities? How happy had it been for me to have died + before I heard that Publius, my first husband, was killed by the + Parthians! How wise, had I followed him to the grave, as I once intended! + What have I lived for since, but to bring misfortunes upon Pompey the + Great?" + </p> + <p> + Such, we are assured, was the speech of Cornelia; and Pompey answered: + "Till this moment, Cornelia, you have experienced nothing but the smiles + of fortune; and it was she who deceived you, because she stayed with me + longer than she commonly does with her favorites. But, fated as we are, we + must bear this reverse, and make another trial of her. For it is no more + improbable that we may emerge from this poor condition and rise to great + things again, than it was that we should fall from great things into this + poor condition." + </p> + <p> + Cornelia then sent to the city for her most valuable movables and her + servants. + </p> + <p> + As soon as his wife and his friends were embarked, he set sail, and + continued his course without touching at any port, except for water and + provisions, till he came to Attalia, a city of Pamphylia. There he was + joined by some Cilician galleys; and beside picking up a number of + soldiers, he found in a little time sixty senators about him. When he was + informed that his fleet was still entire, and that Cato was gone to Africa + with a considerable body of men which he had collected after their flight, + he lamented to his friends his great error, in suffering himself to be + forced into an engagement on land, and making no use of those forces, in + which he was confessedly stronger; nor even taking care to fight near his + fleet, that, in case of his meeting with a check on land, he might have + been supplied from the sea with another army, capable of making head + against the enemy. Indeed, we find no greater mistake in Pompey's whole + conduct, nor a more remarkable instance of Caesar's generalship, than in + removing the scene of action to such a distance from the naval force. + </p> + <p> + However, as it was necessary to undertake something with the small means + he had left, he sent to some cities, and sailed to others himself, to + raise money, and to get a supply of men for his ships. But knowing the + extraordinary celerity of the enemy's motions, he was afraid he might be + beforehand with him, and seize all that he was preparing. He, therefore, + began to think of retiring to some asylum, and proposed the matter in + council. They could not think of any province in the Roman empire that + would afford a safe retreat; and when they cast their eyes on the foreign + kingdoms, Pompey mentioned Parthia as the most likely to receive and + protect them in their present weak condition, and afterwards to send them + back with a force sufficient to retrieve their affairs. Others were of + opinion it was proper to apply to Africa, and to Juba in particular. But + Theophanes of Lesbos observed it was madness to leave Egypt, which was + distant but three days' sail. Besides, Ptolemy, who was growing towards + manhood, had particular obligations to Pompey on his father's account. As + so it was determined that they should seek for refuge in Egypt. Being + informed that Ptolemy was with his army at Pelusium, where he was engaged + in war with his sister, he proceeded thither, and sent a messenger before + him to announce his arrival, and to entreat the king's protection. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy was very young, fourteen years of age, and Photinus, his prime + minister, called a council of his ablest officers; though their advice had + no more weight than he was pleased to allow it. He ordered each, however, + to give his opinion. But who can, without indignation, consider that the + fate of Pompey the Great was to be determined by the wretch Photinus, by + Theodotus, a man of Chios, who was hired to teach the prince rhetoric, and + by Achillas, an Egyptian? For among the king's chamberlains and tutors + these had the greatest influence over him and were the persons he most + consulted. Pompey lay at anchor at some distance from the place waiting + the determination of this respectable board; while he thought it beneath + him to be indebted to Caesar for his safety. The council were divided in + their opinions, some advising the prince to give him an honorable + reception, and others to send him an order to depart. But Theodotus, to + display his eloquence, insisted that both were wrong. "If you receive + him," said he, "you will have Caesar for your enemy, and Pompey for your + master. If you order him off, Pompey may one day revenge the affront and + Caesar resent your not having put him in his hands: the best method, + therefore, is to send for him and put him to death. By this means you will + do Caesar a favor, and have nothing to fear from Pompey." He added with a + smile, "Dead men do not bite." + </p> + <p> + This advice being approved of, the execution of it was committed to + Achillas. In consequence of which he took with him Septimius, who had + formerly been one of Pompey's officers, and Salvius, who had also acted + under him as a centurion, with three or four assistants, and made up to + Pompey's ship, where his principal friends and officers had assembled to + see how the affair went on. When they perceived there was nothing + magnificent in their reception, nor suitable to the hopes which Theophanes + had conceived, but that a few men only in a fishing-boat came to wait upon + them, such want of respect appeared a suspicious circumstance, and they + advised Pompey, while he was out of the reach of missive weapons, to get + out to the main sea. + </p> + <p> + Meantime, the boat approaching, Septimius spoke first, addressing Pompey + in Latin by the title of Imperator. Then Achillas saluted him in Greek, + and desired him to come into the boat, because the water was very shallow + towards the shore, and a galley must strike upon the sands. At the same + time they saw several of the king's ships getting ready, and the shore + covered with troops, so that if they would have changed their minds it was + then too late; besides, their distrust would have furnished the assassins + with a pretence for their injustice. He therefore embraced Cornelia, who + lamented his sad exit before it happened; and ordered two centurions, one + of his enfranchised slaves, named Philip, and a servant called Scenes, to + get into the boat before him. When Achillas had hold of his hand, and he + was going to step in himself, he turned to his wife and son, and repeated + that verse of Sophocles— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Seek'st thou a tyrant's door? + Then farewell freedom! + Though FREE as air before. +</pre> + <p> + These were the last words he spoke to them. + </p> + <p> + As there was a considerable distance between the galley and the shore, and + he observed that not a man in the boat showed him the least civility, or + even spoke to him, he looked at Septimius, and said, "Methinks, I remember + you to have been my fellow-soldier;" but he answered only with a nod, + without testifying any regard or friendship. A profound silence again + taking place, Pompey took out a paper, in which he had written a speech in + Greek that he designed to make to Ptolemy, and amused himself with reading + it. + </p> + <p> + When they approached the shore, Cornelia, with her friends in the galley, + watched the event with great anxiety. She was a little encouraged, when + she saw a number of the king's great officers coming down to the strand, + in all appearance to receive her husband and do him honor. But the moment + Pompey was taking hold of Philip's hand, to raise him with more ease, + Septimius came behind, and ran him through the body; after which Salvius + and Achillas also drew their swords. Pompey took his robe in both hands + and covered his face, and without saying or doing the least thing unworthy + of him, submitted to his fate, only uttering a groan, while they + despatched him with many blows. He was then just fifty-nine years old, for + he was killed the day after his birthday. + </p> + <p> + Cornelia, and her friends in the galley, upon seeing him murdered, gave a + shriek that was heard to the shore, and weighed anchor immediately. Their + flight was assisted by a brisk gale, as they got out more to sea; so that + the Egyptians gave up their design of pursuing them. The murderers having + cut off Pompey's head, threw the body out of the boat naked, and left it + exposed to all who were desirous of such a sight. Philip stayed till their + curiosity was satisfied, and then washed the body with sea-water, and + wrapped it in one of his own garments, because he had nothing else at + hand. The next thing was to look out for wood for the funeral pile; and + casting his eyes over the shore, he spied the old remains of a + fishing-boat; which, though not large, would make a sufficient pile for a + poor naked body that was not quite entire. + </p> + <p> + While he was collecting the pieces of plank and putting them together, an + old Roman, who had made some of his first campaigns under Pompey, came up + and said to Philip, "Who are you that are preparing the funeral of Pompey + the Great?" Philip answered, "I am his freedman." "But you shall not," + said the old Roman, "have this honor entirely to yourself. As a work of + piety offers itself, let me have a share in it; that I may not absolutely + repent my having passed so many years in a foreign country; but, to + compensate many misfortunes, may have the consolation of doing some of the + last honors to the greatest general Rome ever produced." In this manner + was the funeral of Pompey conducted. + </p> + <p> + Such was the end of Pompey the Great. As for Caesar, he arrived not long + after in Egypt, which he found in great disorder. When they came to + present the head, he turned from it, and the person that brought it, as a + sight of horror. He received the seal, but it was with tears. The device + was a lion holding a sword. The two assassins, Achillas and Photinus, he + put to death; and the king, being defeated in battle, perished in the + river. Theodotus, the rhetorician, escaped the vengeance of Caesar, by + leaving Egypt; but he wandered about a miserable fugitive, and was hated + wherever he went. At last, Marcus Brutus, who killed Caesar, found the + wretch, in his province of Asia, and put him to death, after having made + him suffer the most exquisite tortures. The ashes of Pompey were carried + to Cornelia, who buried them in his lands near Alba. (Langhorne has well + remarked that Pompey has, in all appearance, and in all consideration of + his character, had less justice done him by historians than any other man + of his time. His popular humanity, his military and political skills, his + prudence (which he sometimes unfortunately gave up), his natural bravery + and generosity, his conjugal virtues, which (though sometimes impeached) + were both naturally and morally great; his cause, which was certainly, in + its original interests, the cause of Rome; all these circumstances + entitled him to a more distinguished and more respectable character than + any of his historians have thought proper to afford him.) + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0018" id="link2H_4_0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE ENGINES OF ARCHIMEDES FROM THE LIFE OF MARCELLUS + </h2> + <p> + Marcellus now moved with his whole army to Syracuse, and, camping near the + wall, proceeded to attack the city both by land and by sea. The land + forces were conducted by Appius: Marcellus, with sixty galleys, each with + five rows of oars, furnished with all sorts of arms and missiles, and a + huge bridge of planks laid upon eight ships chained together, upon which + was carried the engine to cast stones and darts, assaulted the walls, + relying on the abundance and magnificence of his preparations, and on his + own previous glory; all which, however, were, it would seem, but trifles + for Archimedes and his machines. + </p> + <p> + These machines he had designed and contrived, not as matters of any + importance, but as mere amusements in geometry; in compliance with King + Hiero's desire and request, some little time before, that he should reduce + to practice some part of his admirable speculations in science, and by + accommodating the theoretical truth to sensation and ordinary use, bring + it more within the appreciation of people in general. Eudoxus and Archytas + had been the originators of this far-famed and highly prized art of + mechanics, which they employed as an elegant illustration of geometrical + truths, and as a means of sustaining experimentally, to the satisfaction + of the senses, conclusions too intricate for proof by words and diagrams. + As, for example, to solve the problem, so often required in constructing + geometrical figures, given the two extreme, to find the two mean lines of + a proportion, both these mathematicians had recourse to the aid of + instruments, adapting to their purpose certain curves and sections of + lines. (The 'mesolabes or mesalabium, was the name by which this + instrument was commonly known.) But what with Plato's indignation at it, + and his invectives against it as the mere corruption and annihilation of + the one good of geometry,—which was thus shamefully turning its back + upon the unembodied objects of pure intelligence to recur to sensation, + and to ask help (not to be obtained without haste subservience and + depravation) from matter; so it was that mechanics came to be separated + from geometry, and, being repudiated and neglected by philosophers, took + its place as a military art. Archimedes, however, in writing to King + Hiero, whose friend and near relation he was, had stated, that given the + force, any weight might be moved, and even boasted, we are told, relying + on the strength of demonstration, that if there were another earth, by + going into it he could remove this. Hiero being struck with amazement at + this, and entreating him to make good this problem by actual experiment, + and show some great weight moved by a small engine, he fixed accordingly + upon a ship of burden out of the king's arsenal, which could not be drawn + out of the dock without great labor and many men; and, loading her with + many passengers and a full freight, sitting himself the while far off, + with no great endeavor, but only holding the head of the pulley in his + hand and drawing the cord by degrees, he drew the ship in a straight line, + as smoothly and evenly as if she had been in the sea. The king, astonished + at this, and convinced of the power of the art, prevailed upon Archimedes + to make him engines accommodated to all the purposes, offensive and + defensive, of a siege. These the king himself never made use of, because + he spent almost all his life in a profound quiet, and the highest + influence. But the apparatus was, in a most opportune time, ready at hand + for the Syracusans, and with it also the engineer himself. + </p> + <p> + When, therefore, the Romans assaulted the walls in two places at once, + fear and consternation stupefied the Syracusans, believing that nothing + was able to resist that violence and those forces. But when Archimedes + began to ply his engines, he at once shot against the land forces all + sorts of missile weapons, and immense masses of stone that came down with + incredible noise and violence, against which no man could stand; for they + knocked down those upon whom they fell, in heaps, breaking all their ranks + and files. In the mean time huge poles thrust out from the walls over the + ships, sunk some by the great weights which they let down from on high + upon them; others they lifted up into the air by an iron hand or beak like + a crane's beak, and, when they had drawn them up by the prow, and set them + on end upon the poop, they plunged them to the bottom of the sea; or else + the ships, drawn by engines within, and whirled about, were dashed against + steep rocks that stood jutting out under the walls, with great destruction + of the soldiers that were aboard them. A ship was frequently lifted up to + a great height in the air (a dreadful thing to behold), and was rolled to + and fro, and kept swinging, until the mariners were all thrown out, when + at length it was dashed against the rocks, or let fall. In the meantime, + Marcellus himself brought up his engine upon the bridge of ships, which + was called "Sambuca," from some resemblance it had to an instrument of + music, but while it was as yet approaching the wall, there was discharged + at it a piece of rock of ten talents' weight, then a second and a third, + which, striking upon it with immense force and with a noise like thunder, + broke all its foundations to pieces, shook out all its fastenings, and + completely dislodged it from the bridge. So Marcellus, doubtful what + counsel to pursue, drew off his ships to a safer distance, and sounded a + retreat to his forces on land. They then took a resolution of coming up + under the walls, if it were possible, in the night; thinking that as + Archimedes used ropes stretched at length in playing his engines, the + soldiers would now be under the shot, and the darts would, for want of + sufficient distance to throw them, fly over their heads without effect. + But he, it appeared, had long before framed for such occasion engines + accommodated to any distance, and shorter weapons; and had made numerous + small openings in the walls, through which, with engines of a shorter + range, unexpected blows were inflicted on the assailants. Thus, when they + who thought to deceive the defenders came close up to the walls, instantly + a shower of darts and other missile weapons was again cast upon them. And + when stones came tumbling down perpendicularly upon their heads, and, as + it were, the whole wall shot out arrows at them, they retired. And now, + again, as they were going off, arrows and darts of a longer range + inflicted a great slaughter among them, and their ships were driven one + against another; while they themselves were not able to retaliate in any + way; for Archimedes had fixed most of his engines immediately under the + wall. The Romans, seeing that infinite mischiefs overwhelmed them from no + visible means, began to think they were fighting with the gods. + </p> + <p> + Yet Marcellus escaped unhurt, and, deriding his own artificers and + engineers, exclaimed "What! Must we give up fighting with this geometrical + Briareus, who plays pitch and toss with our ships, and, with the multitude + of darts which he showers at a single moment upon us, really outdoes the + hundred-handed giants of mythology?" The rest of the Syracusans were but + the body of Archimedes' designs, one soul moving and governing all; for, + laying aside all other arms, with his alone they infested the Romans, and + protected themselves. In fine, when such terror had seized upon the + Romans, that, if they did but see a little rope or a piece of wood from + the wall, they instantly cried out, "There it is again! Archimedes is + about to let fly another engine at us," and turned their backs and fled, + Marcellus desisted from conflicts and assaults, putting all his hope in a + long siege. Yet Archimedes possessed so high a spirit, so profound a soul, + and such treasures of scientific knowledge, that though these inventions + had now obtained him the renown of more than human sagacity, he yet would + not deign to leave behind him any commentary or writing on such subjects; + but, repudiating as sordid and ignoble the whole trade of engineering, and + every sort of art that lends itself to mere use and profit, he placed his + whole affection and ambition in those purer speculations where there can + be no reference to the vulgar needs of life; studies, the superiority of + which to all others is unquestioned, and in which the only doubt can be, + whether the beauty and grandeur of the subjects examined, or the precision + and cogency of the methods and means of proof, most deserve our + admiration. It is not possible to find in all geometry more difficult and + intricate questions, or more simple and lucid explanations. Some ascribe + this to his natural genius; while others think that incredible effort and + toil produced these apparently easy and unlabored results. No amount of + investigation of yours would succeed in attaining the proof, and yet, once + seen, you immediately believe you would have discovered it; by so smooth + and so rapid a path he leads you to the conclusion required. And thus it + ceases to be incredible that (as is commonly told of him), the charm of + his familiar and domestic Siren made him forget his food and neglect his + person, to such a degree that when he was occasionally carried by absolute + violence to bathe, or have his body anointed, he used to trace geometrical + figures in the ashes of the fire, and diagrams in the oil on his body, + being in a state of entire preoccupation, and, in the truest sense, + divinely possessed with his love and delight in science. His discoveries + were numerous and admirable; and he is said to have requested his friends + and relations that when he was dead, they would place over his tomb a + cylinder containing a sphere, inscribing it with the ratio of three to two + which the containing solid bears to the contained. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0019" id="link2H_4_0019"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + DESCRIPTION OF CLEOPATRA FROM THE LIFE OF ANTONY + </h2> + <p> + When Antony was making preparation for the Parthian war, he sent to + command Cleopatra to make her personal appearance in Cilicia, to answer + the accusation, that she had given great assistance, in the late wars, to + Cassius. Dellius, who was sent on this message, had no sooner seen her + face, and remarked her adroitness and subtlety in speech, than he felt + convinced that Antony would not so much as think of giving any molestation + to a woman like this; on the contrary, she would be the first in favor + with him. So he set himself at once to pay his court to the Egyptia, and + gave her his advice, "to go," in the Homeric style, to Cilicia, "in her + best attire," and bade her fear nothing from Antony, the gentlest and the + kindest of soldiers. She had some faith in the words of Dellius, but more + in her own attractions, which, having formerly recommended her to Caesar + and the young Gnaeus Pompey, she did not doubt might prove yet more + successful with Antony. Their acquaintance was with her when a girl, + young, and ignorant of the world, but she was to meet Antony in the time + of life when women's beauty is most splendid, and their intellects are in + full maturity, for she was now about twenty-eight years of age. She made + great preparation for her journey, of money, gifts, and ornaments of + value, such as so wealthy a kingdom might afford, but she brought with her + her surest hopes in her own magic arts and charms. + </p> + <p> + She received several letters, both from Antony and from his friends, to + summon her, but she paid no attention to these orders; and at last, as if + in mockery of them, she came sailing up the river Cydnus, in a barge with + gilded stern and outspread sails of purple, while oars of silver beat time + to the music of flutes and fifes and harps. She herself lay stretched + along under a canopy of cloth of gold, dressed as Venus in a picture, and + beautiful young boys, like painted Cupids, stood on each side to fan her. + Her maids were dressed like Sea Nymphs and Graces, some steering at the + rudder, some working at the ropes. The perfumes diffused themselves from + the vessel to the shore, which was covered with multitudes, part following + the galley up the river on either bank, part running out of the city to + see the sight. The market-place was quite emptied, and Antony at last was + left alone sitting upon the tribunal; while the word went through all the + multitude, that Venus had come to feast with Bacchus, for the common good + of Asia. On her arrival, Antony sent to invite her to supper. She thought + it fitter he should come to her; so, willing to show his good-humor and + courtesy, he complied, and went. He found the preparations to receive him + magnificent beyond expression, but nothing so admirable as the great + number of lights; for on a sudden there were let down all together so + great numbers of branches with lights in them so ingeniously disposed, + some in squares, and some in circles, that the whole thing was a spectacle + that has seldom been equaled for beauty. + </p> + <p> + The next day, Antony invited her to supper, and was very desirous to outdo + her as well in magnificence as contrivance; but he found he was altogether + beaten in both, and was so well convinced of it, that he was himself the + first to jest and mock at his poverty of wit, and his rustic awkwardness. + She, perceiving that his raillery was broad and gross, and savored more of + the soldier than the courtier, rejoined in the same taste, and fell into + it at once, without any sort of reluctance or reserve. For her actual + beauty, it is said, was not in itself so remarkable that none could be + compared with her, or that no one could see her without being struck by + it, but the contact of her presence, if you lived with her, was + irresistible; the attraction of her person, joining with the charm of her + conversation, and the character that attended all she said or did, was + something bewitching. It was a pleasure merely to hear the sound of her + voice, with which, like an instrument of many strings, she could pass from + one language to another; so that there were few of the barbarian nations + that she answered by an interpreter; to most of them she spoke herself, as + to the Aethiopians, Troglodytes, Hebrews, Arabians, Syrians, Medes, + Parthians, and many others, whose language she had learnt; which was all + the more surprising, because most of the kings her predecessors scarcely + gave themselves the trouble to acquire the Egyptian tongue, and several of + them quite abandoned the Macedonian. + </p> + <p> + Antony was so captivated by her that, leaving his troops assembled in + Mesopotamia, and ready to enter Syria, he suffered himself to be carried + away by her to Alexandria, there to keep holiday, like a boy, in play and + diversion, squandering and fooling away in enjoyments that most costly, as + Antiphon says, of all valuable, time. They had a sort of company, to which + they gave a particular name, calling it that of the "Inimitable Livers." + The members entertained one another daily in turn, with an extravagance of + expenditure beyond measure or belief. Philotas, a physician of Amphissa, + who was at that time a student of medicine in Alexandria, used to tell my + grandfather, Lamprias, that, having some acquaintance with one of the + royal cooks, he was invited by him, being a young man, to come and see the + sumptuous preparations for supper. So he was taken into the kitchen, where + he admired the prodigious variety of all things; but particularly, seeing + eight wild boars roasting whole, he exclaimed, "Surely you have a great + number of guests." The cook laughed at his simplicity, and told him there + were not more than twelve to sup, but that every dish was to be served up + just roasted to a turn, and if anything was but one minute ill-timed, it + was spoiled; "And," said he, "maybe Antony will sup just now, maybe not + this hour, maybe he will call for wine, or begin to talk, and will put it + off. So that," he continued, "not one, but many suppers must be had in + readiness, as it impossible to guess at his hour." + </p> + <p> + Plato admits four sorts of flattery, but Cleopatra had a thousand. Were + Antony serious or disposed to mirth, she had at any moment some new + delight or charm to meet his wishes. She played at dice with him, drank + with him, hunted with him; and when he exercised in arms, she was there to + see. At night she would go rambling with him to disturb and torment people + at their doors and windows, dressed like a servant-woman, for Antony also + went in servant's disguise, and from these expeditions he often came home + very scurvily answered, and sometimes even beaten severely, though most + people guessed who it was. It would be trifling without end to be + particular in his follies, but his fishing must not be forgotten. He went + out one day to angle with Cleopatra, and, being so unfortunate as to catch + nothing in the presence of the queen, he gave secret orders to the + fishermen to dive under water, and put fishes that had been already taken + upon his hooks; and these he drew so fast that the Egyptian perceived it. + But, feigning great admiration, she told everybody how dexterous Antony + was, and invited them next day to come and see him again. So, when a + number of them had come on board the fishing boats, as soon as he had let + down his hook, one of her servants was beforehand with his divers, and + fixed upon his hook a salted fish from Pontus. Antony, feeling his line + give, drew up the prey, and when, as may be imagined, great laughter + ensued, Cleopatra said, "Leave the fishing-rod, general, to us poor + sovereigns of Pharos and Canopus; your game is cities, provinces, and + kingdoms." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0020" id="link2H_4_0020"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ANECDOTES FROM THE LIFE OF AGESILAUS, KING OF SPARTA + </h2> + <p> + Agesilaus is said to have been a little man, of a contemptible presence; + but the goodness of his humor, and his constant cheerfulness and + playfulness of temper, always free from anything of moroseness or + haughtiness, made him more attractive, even to his old age, than the most + beautiful and youthful men of the nation. Theophrastus writes, that the + Ephors laid a fine upon Archidamus for marrying a little wife, "For," said + they, "she will bring us a race of kinglets, instead of kings." + </p> + <p> + Agesilaus was excessively fond of his children; and it is to him the story + belongs, that when they were little ones, he used to make a horse of a + stick, and ride with them; and being caught at this sport by a friend, he + desired him not to mention it, till he himself should be the father of + children. + </p> + <p> + When the Mantineans revolted from Thebes to Sparta, and Epaminondas + understood that Agesilaus had come to their assistance with a powerful + army, he privately in the night quitted his quarters at Tegea, and unknown + to the Mantineans, passing by Agesilaus, marched toward Sparta, insomuch + that he failed very little of taking it empty and unarmed. Agesilaus had + intelligence sent him by Euthynus, the Thespian, as Callisthenes says, but + Xenophon says by a Cretan, and immediately despatched a horseman to + Lacedaemon, to apprise them of it, and to let them know that he was + hastening to them. Shortly after his arrival the Thebans crossed the + Eurotas. They made an assault upon the town, and were received by + Agesilaus with great courage, and with exertions beyond what was to be + expected at his years. For he did not now fight with that caution and + cunning which he formerly made use of, but put all upon a desperate push; + which, though not his usual method, succeeded so well, that he rescued the + city out of the very hands of Epaminondas, and forced him to retire, and, + at the erection of a trophy, was able, in the presence of their wives and + children, to declare that the Lacedaemonians had nobly paid their debt to + their country, and particularly his son Archidamus, who had that day made + himself illustrious, both by his courage and agility of body, rapidly + passing about by the short lanes to every endangered point, and everywhere + maintaining the town against the enemy with but few to help him. Isadas, + too, the son of Phoebidas, must have been, I think, the admiration of the + enemy as well as of his friends. He was a youth of remarkable beauty and + stature, in the very flower of the most attractive time of life, when the + boy is just rising into the man. He had no arms upon him, and scarcely + clothes; he had just anointed himself at home, when, upon the alarm, + without further waiting, in that undress, he snatched a spear in one hand, + and a sword in the other, and broke his way through the combatants to the + enemies, striking at all he met. He received no wound, whether it were + that a special divine care rewarded his valor with an extraordinary + protection, or whether his shape being so large and beautiful, and his + dress so unusual, they thought him more than a man. The Ephors gave him a + garland; but as soon as they had done so, they fined him a thousand + drachma, for going out to battle unarmed. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0021" id="link2H_4_0021"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE BROTHERS FROM THE LIFE OF TIMOLEON + </h2> + <p> + Timoleon had an older brother, whose name was Timophanes, who was every + way unlike him, being indiscreet and rash and infected by the suggestions + of some friends and foreign soldiers, whom he kept always about him, with + a passion for absolute power. He seemed to have a certain force and + vehemence in all military service, and even to delight in dangers, and + thus he took much with the people, and was advanced to the highest charges + as a vigorous and effective warrior; in the obtaining of which offices and + promotions Timoleon much assisted him, helping to conceal or at least to + extenuate his errors, embellishing by his praise whatever was commendable + in him, and setting off his good qualities to the best advantage. + </p> + <p> + It happened once in the battle fought by the Corinthians against the + forces of Argos and Cleonae, that Timoleon served among the infantry, when + Timophanes, commanding their cavalry, was brought into extreme danger; for + his horse being wounded fell forward, and threw him headlong amidst the + enemies, while part of his companions dispersed at once in a panic, and + the small number that remained, bearing up against a great multitude, had + much ado to maintain any resistance. As soon, therefore, as Timoleon was + aware of the accident, he ran hastily to his brother's rescue, and + covering the fallen Timophanes with his buckler, after having received an + abundance of darts and several strokes by the sword upon his body and his + armor, he at length with much difficulty obliged the enemies to retire, + and brought off his brother alive and safe. But when the Corinthians, for + fear of losing their city a second time, as they had once before, by + admitting their allies, made a decree to maintain four hundred mercenaries + for its security, and gave Timophanes the command over them, he, + abandoning all regard for honor and equity, at once proceeded to put into + execution his plans for making himself absolute, and bringing the place + under his own power; and having cut off many principal citizens, + uncondemned and without trial, who were most likely to hinder his design, + he declared himself tyrant of Corinth; a procedure that infinitely + afflicted Timoleon, to whom the wickedness of such a brother appeared to + be his own reproach and calamity. He undertook to persuade him by + reasoning to desist from that wild and unhappy ambition, and bethink + himself how he could make the Corinthians some amends, and find out an + expedient to remedy the evils he had done them. When his single admonition + was rejected and contemned by him, he made a second attempt, taking with + him Aeschylus his kinsman, brother to the wife of Timophanes, and a + certain diviner, that was his friend, whom Theopompus in his history calls + Satyrus. This company coming to his brother, all three of them surrounded + and earnestly importuned him upon the same subject, that now at length he + would listen to reason and be of another mind. But when Timophanes began + first to laugh at the men's simplicity, and presently broke out into rage + and indignation against them, Timoleon stepped aside from him and stood + weeping with his face covered, while the other two, drawing out their + swords, despatched him in a moment. + </p> + <p> + When the rumor of this act was spread about, the better and more generous + of the Corinthians highly applauded Timoleon for the hatred of wrong and + the greatness of soul that had made him, though of a gentle disposition + and full of love and kindness for his family, think the obligations to his + country stronger than the ties of consanguinity, and prefer that which is + good and just before gain and interest and his own particular advantage. + For the same brother, who with so much bravery had been saved by him when + he fought valiantly in the cause of Corinth, he had now as nobly + sacrificed for enslaving her afterward by a base and treacherous + usurpation. But when he came to understand how heavily his mother took it, + and that she likewise uttered the saddest complaints and most terrible + imprecations against him, he went to satisfy and comfort her, but he found + that she would not endure so much as to look upon him, but caused her + doors to be shut that he might have no admission into her presence, and + with grief at this he grew so disordered in mind and disconsolate, that he + determined to put an end to his perplexity with his life, by abstaining + from all manner of sustenance. But through the care and diligence of his + friends, who were very persistent with him, and added force to their + entreaties, he promised at last that he would endure living, provided it + might be in solitude, and remote from company; so that, quitting all civil + transactions and commerce with the world, for a long while after his first + retirement he never came into Corinth, but wandered up and down the + fields, full of anxious and tormenting thoughts, and for almost twenty + years did not offer to concern himself in any honorable or public action. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0022" id="link2H_4_0022"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE WOUND OF PHILOPOEMEN + </h2> + <p> + Cleomenes, king of the Lacedaemonians, surprised Megalopolis by night, + forced the guards, broke in, and seized the market-place. + </p> + <p> + Awhile after, king Antigonus coming down to succor the Achaeans, they + marched with their united forces against Cleomenes; who, having seized the + avenues, lay advantageously posted on the hills of Sellasia. Antigonus + drew up close by him, with a resolution to force him in his strength. + Philopoemen, with his citizens, was that day placed among the horse, next + to the Illyrian foot, a numerous body of bold fighters, who completed the + line of battle, forming, together with the Achaeans, the reserve. Their + orders were to keep their ground, and not engage till they should see a + red coat lifted up on the point of a spear from the other wing, where the + king fought in person. The Achaeans obeyed their order and stood fast; but + the Illyrians were led on by their commanders to the attack. Euclidas, the + brother of Cleomenes; seeing the foot thus severed from the horse, + detached the best of his light-armed men, commanding them to wheel about + and charge the unprotected Illyrians in the rear. This charge put things + into confusion, and Philopoemen, considering that those light-armed men + could be easily repelled, went first to the king's officers to make them + sensible of what the occasion required. But when they did not mind what he + said, slighting him as a hare-brained fellow (as indeed he was not yet of + any repute sufficient to give credit to a proposal of such importance). he + charged with his own citizens, and at the first encounter disordered, and + soon after put the troops to flight with great slaughter. Then, to + encourage the king's army further, to bring them all upon the enemy while + he was in confusion, he quitted his horse, and fighting with extreme + difficulty in his heavy horseman's dress, in rough, uneven ground, full of + water-courses and hollows, had both his thighs struck through with a + thonged javelin. It was thrown with great force, so that the head came out + on the other side, and made a severe though not a mortal wound. There he + stood awhile, as if he had been shackled, unable to move. The fastening + which joined the thong to the javelin made it difficult to get it drawn + out, nor would anybody about him venture to do it. But the fight being now + at the hottest, and likely to be quickly decided, he was transported with + the desire of partaking in it, and struggled and strained so violently, + setting one leg forward, the other back, that at last he broke the shaft + in two, and thus got the pieces pulled out. Being in this manner set at + liberty he caught up his sword, and running through the midst of those who + were fighting in the first ranks, animated his men, and set them afire + with emulation. Antigonus, after the victory, asked the Macedonians, to + try them, how it happened that the cavalry had charged without orders + before the signal? and when they answered that they were forced to it + against their wills by a young man of Megalopolis, who had fallen in + before it was time, Antigonus replied, smiling, "That young man acted like + an experienced commander." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0023" id="link2H_4_0023"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + A ROMAN TRIUMPH FROM THE LIFE OF PAULUS AEMILIUS + </h2> + <p> + Paulus Aemilius, advanced in years, being nearly threescore, yet vigorous + in his own person, and rich in valiant sons and sons-in-law, besides a + great number of influential relations and friends, all of whom joined in + urging him to yield to the desires of the people, who called him to the + consulship. He at first manifested some shyness of the people, and + withdrew himself from their importunity, professing reluctance to hold + office; but, when they daily came to his doors, urging him to come forth + to the place of election, and pressing him with noise and clamor, he + acceded to their request. When he appeared amongst the candidates, it did + not look as if it were to sue for the consulship, but to bring victory and + success, that he came down into the Campus; with such hopes and such + gladness did they all receive him there, unanimously choosing him a second + time consul; nor would they suffer the lots to be cast, as was usual, to + determine which province should fall to his share, but immediately decreed + him the command of the Macedonian war. It is told, that when he had been + proclaimed general against Perseus, and was honorably accompanied home by + great numbers of people, he found his daughter Tertia, a very little girl, + weeping, and taking her to him asked her why she was crying. She, catching + him about the neck and kissing him, said, "O father, do you not know that + Perseus is dead?" meaning a little dog of that name who had been brought + up in the house with her; to which Aemilius replied, "Good fortune, my + daughter; I embrace the omen." Thus Cicero, the orator, relates in his + book on divination. + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + The triumph of Aemilius over Perseus was performed in this manner. + </p> + <p> + The people erected scaffolds in the Forum, in the circuses, as they call + their buildings, for horse-races, and in all other parts of the city where + they could best behold the show. The spectators were clad in white + garments; all the temples were open, and full of garlands and perfumes; + the ways were cleared and kept open by numerous officers, who drove back + all who crowded into or ran across the main avenue. This triumph lasted + three days. On the first, which was scarcely long enough for the sight, + were to be seen the statues, pictures, and colossal images, which were + taken from the enemy, drawn upon two hundred and fifty chariots. On the + second, was carried in a great many wagons the finest and richest armor of + the Macedonians, both of brass and steel, all newly polished and + glittering; the pieces of which were piled up and arranged purposely with + the greatest art, so as to seem to be tumbled in heaps carelessly and by + chance; helmets were thrown upon shields, coats of mail upon greaves; + Cretan targets, and Thracian bucklers and quivers of arrows, lay huddled + amongst horses' bits, and through these there appeared the points of naked + swords, intermixed with long Macedonian sarissas. All these arms were + fastened together with just so much looseness that they struck against one + another as they were drawn along, and made a harsh and alarming noise, so + that, even as spoils of a conquered enemy, they could not be beheld + without dread. After these wagons loaded with armor, there followed three + thousand men who carried the silver that was coined, in seven hundred and + fifty vessels, each of which weighed three talents, and was carried by + four men. Others brought silver bowls and goblets and cups, all disposed + in such order as to make the best show, and all curious as well for their + size as the solidity of their embossed work. + </p> + <p> + On the third day, early in the morning, first came the trumpeters, who did + not sound as they were wont in a procession or solemn entry, but such a + charge as the Romans use when they encourage the soldiers to fight. Next + followed young men wearing frocks with ornamented borders, who led to the + sacrifice a hundred and twenty stalled oxen, with their horns gilded, and + their heads adorned with ribbons and garlands; and with these were boys + that carried basins for libation, of silver and gold. After this was + brought the gold coin, which was divided into vessels that weighed three + talents, like those that contained the silver; they were in number + seventy-seven. These were followed by those that brought the consecrated + bowl which Aemilius had caused to be made, that weighed ten talents, and + was set with precious stones. Then were exposed to view the cups of + Antigonus and Seleucus, and those of the Thericlean make (Thericles, + according to the more probable supposition, was a Corinthian potter: the + first maker of a particular kind of cup, which long continued to bear his + name.) and all the gold plate that was used at Perseus' table. Next to + these came Perseus' chariot, in which his armor was placed, and on that + his diadem. And, after a little intermission, the king's children were led + captives, and with them a train of their attendants, masters, and + teachers, all shedding tears, and stretching out their hands to the + spectators, and making the children themselves also beg and entreat their + compassion. There were two sons and a daughter whose tender age made them + but little sensible of the greatness of their misery, which very + insensibility of their condition rendered it the more deplorable; insomuch + that Perseus himself was scarcely regarded as he went along, whilst pity + fixed the eyes of the Romans upon the infants; many of them could not + forbear tears, and all beheld the sight with a mixture of sorrow and + pleasure, until the children had passed. + </p> + <p> + After his children and their attendants came Perseus himself, clad all in + black, and wearing the boots of his country; and looking like one + altogether stunned and deprived of reason, through the greatness of his + misfortunes. Next followed a great company of his friends and familiars, + whose countenances were disfigured with grief, and who let the spectators + see, by their tears and their continual looking upon Perseus, that it was + his fortune they so much lamented, and that they were regardless of their + own. Perseus sent to Aemilius to entreat that he might not be led in pomp, + but be left out of the triumph; who, deriding, as was but just, his + cowardice and fondness of life, sent him this answer, that as for that, it + had been before, and was now, in his own power; giving him to understand + that the disgrace could be avoided by death; which the faint-hearted man + not having the spirit for, and made effeminate by I know not what hopes, + allowed himself to appear as a part of his own spoils. After these were + carried four hundred crowns, all made of gold, sent from the cities by + their respective deputations to Aemilius, in honor of his victory. Then he + himself came, seated on a chariot magnificently adorned (a man well worthy + to be looked at, even without these ensigns of power), dressed in a robe + of purple, interwoven with gold, and holding a laurel branch in his right + hand. All the army, in like manner, with boughs of laurel in their hands, + divided into their bands and companies, followed the chariot of their + commander; some singing verses, according to the usual custom, mingled + with raillery; others, songs of triumph, and the praise of Aemilius's + deeds; who, indeed, was admired and accounted happy by all men, and + unenvied by every one that was good; except so far as it seems the + province of some god to lessen that happiness which is too great and + inordinate, and so to mingle the affairs of human life that no one should + be entirely free from calamities; but, as we read in Homer*, only those + should think themselves truly blessed to whom fortune has given an equal + share of good and evil. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "Grief is useless; cease to lament," Achilles to Priam, + his suppliant for the body of Hecor. "For thus have the gods + appointed for mortal men; that they should live in vexation, + while the gods themselves are untroubled. Two vessels are + set upon the threshold of Zeus, of the gifts that he + dispenses; one of evil things, the other of good; he who + receives from both at the hand of thundering Zeus, meets at + one time with evil, and at another with good; he who + receives from only one, is a miserable wretch." +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0024" id="link2H_4_0024"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE NOBLE CHARACTER OF CAIUS FABRICIUS FROM THE LIFE OF PYRRHUS + </h2> + <p> + Caius Fabricius, a man of highest consideration among the Romans as an + honest man and a good soldier, but extremely poor, went upon an embassy to + Pyrrhus to treat about prisoners that had been taken. Pyrrhus received him + with much kindness, and privately would have persuaded him to accept of + his gold, not for any evil purpose, but as a mark of respect and + hospitable kindness. Upon Fabricius's refusal, he pressed him no further, + but the next day, having a mind to discompose him, as he had never seen an + elephant before, he commanded one of the largest, completely armed, to be + placed behind the hangings, as they were talking together. This being + done, at a given signal the hanging was drawn aside, and the elephant, + raising his trunk over the head of Fabricius, made a horrid and ugly + noise. He gently turned about and, smiling, said to Pyrrhus, "neither your + money yesterday, nor this beast today make any impression upon me." At + supper, amongst all sorts of things that were discoursed of, but more + particularly Greece and the philosophers there, Cineas, by accident, had + occasion to speak of Epicurus, and explained the opinions his followers + hold about the gods and the commonwealth, and the object of life, who + place the chief happiness of man in pleasure, and decline public affairs + as an injury and disturbance of a happy life, and remove the gods afar off + both from kindness or anger, or any concern for us at all, to a life + wholly without business and flowing in pleasures. Before he had done + speaking, Fabricius cried out to Pyrrhus, "O Hercules! may Pyrrhus and the + Samnites entertain themselves with this sort of opinions as long as they + are at war with us." Pyrrhus, admiring the wisdom and gravity of the man, + was the more transported with desire to make friendship instead of war + with the city, and entreated him, personally, after the peace should be + concluded, to accept of living with him as the chief of his ministers and + generals. Fabricius answered quietly, "Sir, this will not be for your + advantage, for they who now honor and admire you, when they have had + experience of me, will rather choose to be governed by me, than by you." + And Pyrrhus received his answer without any resentment or tyrannic + passion; nay, among his friends he highly commended the great mind of + Fabricius, and intrusted the prisoners to him alone, on condition that if + the senate should not vote a peace, after they had conversed with their + friends and celebrated the festival of Saturn, they should be remanded. + And, accordingly, they were sent back after the holidays; death being + decreed for any that stayed behind. + </p> + <p> + After this, when Fabricius had taken the consulate, a person came with a + letter to the camp written by the king's principal physician, offering to + take Pyrrhus off by poison, and so end the war without further hazard to + the Romans, if he might have a reward proportional to his service. + Fabricius, despising the villany of the man, and disposing the other + consul to the same opinion, sent despatches immediately to Pyrrhus to + caution him against the treason. His letter was to this effect: "Caius + Fabricius and Quintus Aemilius, consuls of the Romans, to Pyrrhus the + king, health. You seem to have made a bad judgement both of your friends + and your enemies; you will understand by reading this letter sent to us, + that you are at war with honest men, and trust villains and knaves. Nor do + we disclose this out of any favor to you, but lest your ruin might bring a + reproach upon us, as if we had ended the war by treachery because not able + to do it by force." When Pyrrhus had read the letter, and made inquiry + into the treason, he punished the physician, and as an acknowledgement to + the Romans sent to Rome the prisoners without ransom. But they, regarding + it as at once too great a kindness from an enemy, and too great a reward + for not doing a mean act to accept their prisoners so, released in return + an equal number of the Tarentines and Samnites, but would admit of no + debate of alliance or peace until Pyrrhus had removed his arms and forces + out of Italy, and sailed back to Epirus with the same ships that brought + him over. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0025" id="link2H_4_0025"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + FROM THE LIFE OF QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS + </h2> + <p> + Hannibal was within five miles of Tarentum, when he was informed that the + town had been taken by Fabius. He said openly, "Rome, then, has also got a + Hannibal; as we won Tarentum, so have we lost it." And, in private with + some of his confidants, he told them, for the first time, that he always + thought it difficult, but now he held it impossible, with the forces he + then had, to master Italy. + </p> + <p> + Upon this success, Fabius had a triumph decreed him at Rome, much more + splendid than his first; they looked upon him now as a champion who had + learned to cope with his antagonist, and could now easily foil his arts + and prove his best skill ineffectual. And, indeed the army of Hannibal was + at this time partly worn out with continual action, and partly weakened + and become dissolute with over abundance and luxury. Marcus Livius, who + was governor of Tarentum when it was betrayed to Hannibal, and had then + retired into the citadel, which he kept till the town was retaken, was + annoyed at these honors and distinctions, and, on one occasion, openly + declared in the senate, that by his resistance, more than by any actions + of Fabius, Tarentum had been recovered; on which Fabius laughingly + replied: "What you say is very true, for if Marcus Livius had not lost + Tarentum, Fabius Maximus had never recovered it." The people, among other + marks of gratitude, gave his son the consulship of the next year; shortly + after whose entrance upon his office, there being some business on foot + about provision for the war, his father, either on account of age and + infirmity, or perhaps out of design to try his son, came up to him on + horseback. While he was still at a distance, the young consul observed it, + and bade one of his lictors command his father to alight, and tell him + that, if he had any business with the consul, he should come on foot. The + bystanders seemed offended at the imperiousness of the son towards a + father so venerable for his age and his authority, and turned their eyes + in silence towards Fabius. He, however, instantly alighted from his horse, + and with open arms came up, almost running, and embracing him said, "Yes, + my son, you do well, and understand what authority you have received, and + over whom you are to use it. This was the way by which we and our + forefathers advanced the dignity of Rome, preferring ever her honor and + service to our own fathers and children." + </p> + <p> + And, in fact, it is told that the great-grandfather of Fabius, who was + undoubtedly the greatest man of Rome in his time, both in reputation and + authority, who had been five times consul, and had been honored with + several triumphs for victories obtained by him, took pleasure in serving + as lieutenant under his own son, when he went as consul to his command. + And when afterwards his son had a triumph bestowed upon him for his good + service, the old man followed his triumphant chariot, on horseback, as one + of his attendants; and made it his glory, that while he really was, and + was acknowledged to be, the greatest man in Rome, and held a father's full + power over his son, he yet submitted himself to the law and the + magistrate. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0026" id="link2H_4_0026"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE CRUELTY OF LUCIUS CORNELIUS SYLLA + </h2> + <p> + Sylla's general personal appearance may be known by his statues; only his + blue eyes, of themselves extremely keen and glaring, were rendered all the + more forbidding and terrible by the complexion of his face, in which white + was mixed with rough blotches of fiery red. Hence, it is said, he was + surnamed Sylla, and in allusion to it one of the scurrilous jesters at + Athens made the verse upon him, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Sylla is a mulberry sprinkled o'er with meal. +</pre> + <p> + Sylla being wholly bent upon slaughter, filled the city with executions + without number or limit, many wholly uninterested persons falling a + sacrifice to private enmity, through his permission and indulgence to his + friends. At last Caius Metellus, one of the younger men, made bold in the + senate to ask him what end there was of these evils, and at what point he + might be expected to stop? "We do ask you," said he, "to pardon any whom + you have resolved to destroy, but to free from doubt those whom you are + pleased to save." Sylla answering, that he knew not as yet whom to spare, + he asked: "Will you then tell us whom you will punish?" This Sylla said he + would do. These last words, some authors say, were spoken not by Metellus, + but by Afidius, one of Sylla's fawning companions. Immediately upon this, + without communicating with any magistrates, Sylla proscribed eighty + persons, and notwithstanding the general indignation, after one day's + respite, he posted two hundred and twenty more, and on the third again, as + many. In an address to the people on this occasion, he told them he had + put up as many names as he could think of; those which had escaped his + memory, he would publish at a future time. He issued an edict likewise, + making death the punishment of humanity, proscribing any who should dare + to receive and cherish a proscribed person, without exception to brother, + son, or parents. And to him who should slay any one proscribed person, he + ordained two talents' reward, even were it a slave who had killed his + master, or a son his father. And what was thought most unjust of all, he + caused the attainder to pass upon their sons, and sons' sons, and made + open sale of all their property. Nor did the proscription prevail only at + Rome, but throughout all the cities of Italy the effusion of blood was + such that neither sanctuary of the gods nor hearth of hospitality nor + ancestral home escaped. Men were butchered in the embraces of their wives, + children in the arms of their mothers. Those who perished through public + animosity, or private enmity, were nothing in comparison to the numbers of + those who suffered for their riches. Even the murderers began to say, that + "his fine house killed this man, a garden that, a third, his hot baths." + Quintus Aurelius, a quiet, peaceable man, and one who thought all his part + in the common calamity consisted in condoling with the misfortunes of + others, coming into the forum to read the list, and finding himself among + the proscribed, cried out, "Woe is me, my Alban farm has informed against + me." He had not gone far, before he was despatched by a ruffian, sent on + that errand. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime, Marius, on the point of being taken, killed himself; and + Sylla, coming to Praeneste, at first proceeded judicially against each + particular person, till at last, finding it a work of too much time, he + cooped them up together in one place, to the number of twelve thousand + men, and gave order for the execution of them all, save his own host (The + friend, that is, with whom he always stayed when he happened to be at + Praeneste, his 'xenos;' a relationship much regarded to the Greek and + Roman world) alone excepted. But he, brave man, telling him he could not + accept the obligation of life from the hands of one who had been the ruin + of his country, went in among the rest, and submitted willingly to the + stroke. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0027" id="link2H_4_0027"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE LUXURY OF LUCULLUS + </h2> + <p> + Lucullus' life, like the Old comedy, presents us at the commencement with + acts of policy and of war, and at the end offers nothing but good eating + and drinking, feastings, and revelings, and mere play. For I give no + higher name to his sumptuous buildings, porticos and baths, still less to + his paintings and sculptures, and all his industry about these + curiosities, which he collected with vast expense, lavishly bestowing all + the wealth and treasure which he got in the war upon them, insomuch that + even now, with all the advance of luxury, the Lucullean gardens are + counted the noblest the emperor has. Tubero, the stoic, when he saw his + buildings at Naples, where he suspended the hills upon vast tunnels, + brought in the sea for moats and fish-ponds round his house, and + pleasure-houses in the waters, called him Xerxes in a gown. He had also + fine seats in Tusculum, belvederes, and large open balconies for men's + apartments, and porticos to walk in, where Pompey coming to see him, + blamed him for making a house which would be pleasant in summer, but + uninhabitable in winter; whom he answered with a smile, "You think me, + then, less provident than cranes and storks, not to change my home with + the season." When a praetor, with great expense and pains, was preparing a + spectacle for the people, and asked him to lend him some purple robes for + the performers in a chorus, he told him he would go home and see, and if + he had any, would let him take them; and the next day asking how many he + wanted, and being told that a hundred would suffice, bade him take twice + as many: on which the poet Horace observes, that a house is indeed a poor + one, where the valuables unseen and unthought of do not exceed all those + that meet the eye. + </p> + <p> + Lucullus' daily entertainments were ostentatiously extravagant, not only + in purple coverlets, and plate adorned with precious stones, and dancings, + and interludes, but with the greatest diversity of dishes and the most + elaborate cookery, for the vulgar to admire and envy. It was a happy + thought of Pompey in his sickness, when his physician prescribed a thrush + for his dinner, and his servants told him that in summer time thrushes + were not to be found anywhere but in Lucullus' fattening coops, that he + would not suffer them to fetch one thence, but observed to his physician, + "So if Lucullus had not been an epicure, Pompey had not lived," and + ordered something else that could easily be got to be prepared for him. + Cato was his friend and connection, but, nevertheless, so hated his life + and habits, that when a young man in the senate made a long and tedious + speech in praise of frugality and temperance, Cato got up and said, "How + long do you mean to go making money like Crassus, living like Lucullus, + and talking like Cato?" + </p> + <p> + It is plain from the anecdotes on record of him, that Lucullus was not + only pleased with, but even gloried in his way of living. For he is said + to have feasted several Greeks upon their coming to Rome day after day, + who, out of a true Grecian principle, being ashamed, and declining the + invitation, where so great an expense was every day incurred for them, he + with a smile said to them, "Some of this, indeed, my Grecian friends, is + for your sakes, but more for that of Lucullus." Once when he supped alone, + there being only one course, and that but moderately furnished, he called + his steward and reproved him, who, professing to have supposed that there + would be no need of any great entertainment, when nobody was invited, was + answered, "What, did you not know, then, that today Lucullus was to dine + with Lucullus?" This being much spoken of about the city, Cicero and + Pompey one day met him loitering in the forum, the former his intimate + friend and familiar, and, though there had been some ill-will between + Pompey and him about the command in the war, still they used to see each + other and converse on easy terms together. Cicero accordingly saluted him, + and asked him whether today was a good time for asking a favor of him, and + on his answering, "Very much so," and begging to hear what it was, Cicero + said, "then we should like to dine with you today, just on the dinner that + is prepared for yourself." Lucullus being surprised, and requesting a + day's time, they refused to grant it, and would not allow him to talk with + his servants, for fear he should give orders for more than was appointed + before. But this they consented to, that before their faces he might tell + his servant, that today he would sup in "the Apollo" (for so one of his + best dining-rooms was called), and by this evasion he outwitted his + guests. For every room, as it seems, had its own assessment of + expenditure, dinner at such a price, and all else in accordance; so that + the servants, on knowing where he would dine, knew also how much was to be + expended, and in what style and form dinner was to be served. The expense + for the Apollo was fifty thousand drachmas, and such a sum being that day + laid out, the greatness of the cost did not so much amaze Pompey and + Cicero, as the rapidity of the outlay. One might believe that Lucullus + thought his money really captive and barbarian, so wantonly and + contumeliously did he treat it. + </p> + <p> + His furnishing of a library, however, deserves praise and record, for he + collected very many choice manuscripts; and the use they were put to was + even more magnificent than the purchase, the library being always open, + and the walks and reading rooms about it free to all Greeks, whose delight + it was to leave their other occupations and hasten thither as to the + habitation of the Muses, there walking about, and diverting one another. + He himself often passed his hours there, disputing with the learned in the + walks, and giving his advice to statesmen who required it, insomuch that + his house was altogether a home, and in a manner, a Greek prytaneum for + those that visited Rome. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0028" id="link2H_4_0028"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + FROM THE LIFE OF SERTORIUS + </h2> + <p> + (The Roman who endeavored to establish a separate government for himself + in Spain.) + </p> + <p> + Sertorius was highly honored for his introducing discipline and good order + among the Spaniards, for he altered their furious and savage manner of + fighting, and brought them to make use of the Roman armor, taught them to + keep their ranks, and observe signals and watchwords; and out of a + confused horde of thieves and robbers, he constituted a regular, + well-disciplined army. He bestowed silver and gold upon them liberally to + gild and adorn their helmets, he had their shields worked with various + figures and designs, he brought them into the mode of wearing flowered and + embroidered cloaks and coats, and by supplying money for these purposes, + and joining with them in all improvements, he won the hearts of all. That, + however, which delighted them most, was the care that he took of their + children. He sent for all the boys of noblest parentage out of all their + tribes, and placed them in the great city of Osca, where he appointed + masters to instruct them in the Grecian and Roman learning, that when they + came to be men, they might, as he professed, be fitted to share with him + in authority, and in conducting the government, although under this + pretext he really made them hostages. However, their fathers were + wonderfully pleased to see their children going daily to the schools in + good order, handsomely dressed in gowns edged with purple, and that + Sertorius paid for their lessons, examined them often, distributed rewards + to the most deserving, and gave them the golden bosses to hang around + their necks, which the Romans called "bullae." + </p> + <p> + All the cities on this side of the river Ebro finally united their forces + under his command, and his army grew very great, for they flocked together + and flowed in upon him from all quarters. But when they continually cried + out to attack the enemy, and were impatient of delay, their inexperienced, + disorderly rashness caused Sertorius much trouble, who at first strove to + restrain them with reason and good counsel, but when he perceived them + refractory and unseasonably violent, he gave way to their impetuous + desires, and permitted them to engage with the enemy, in such a way that + they might be repulsed, yet not totally routed, and so become more + obedient to his commands for the future. This happening as he had + anticipated, he soon rescued them, and brought them safe into his camp. + And after a few days, being willing to encourage them again, when he had + called all his army together, he caused two horses to be brought into the + field, one an old, feeble, lean animal, the other a lusty, strong horse, + with a remarkably thick and long tail. Near the lean one he placed a tall, + strong man, and near the strong, young horse a weak, despicable-looking + fellow; and at a given signal the strong man took hold of the weak horse's + tail with both his hands, and drew it to him with his whole force, as if + he would pull it off; the other, the weak man, in the meantime, set to + work to pluck off hair by hair the great horse's tail. And when the strong + man had given trouble enough to himself in vain, and sufficient diversion + to the company, and had abandoned his attempt, whilst the weak, pitiful + fellow in a short time and with little pains had left not a hair on the + great horse's tail, Sertorius arose and said to his army, "You see, + fellow-soldiers, that perseverance is more prevailing than violence, and + that many things which cannot be overcome when they are together, yield + readily when taken little by little. Assiduity and persistence are + irresistible, and in time overthrow and destroy the greatest powers. Time + being the favorable friend and assistant of those who use their judgment + to await his occasions, and the destructive enemy of those who are + unseasonably urging and pressing forward." + </p> + <p> + Of all his remarkable exploits, none raised greater admiration than that + which he put in practice against the Characitanians. These are a people + beyond the river Tagus, who inhabit neither cities nor towns, but live in + a vast, high hill, within the deep dens and caves of the rocks, the mouths + of which all open towards the north. The country below is of a soil + resembling a light clay, so loose as easily to break into powder, and is + not firm enough to bear any one that treads upon it, and if you touch it + in the least, it flies about like ashes or unslaked lime. In any danger of + war, these people enter their caves, and carrying in their booty and prey + along with them, stay quietly within, secure from every attack. And when + Sertorius, leaving Metellus some distance off, had placed his camp near + this hill, they slighted and despised him, imagining that he retired into + these parts to escape being overthrown by the Romans. And whether out of + anger and resentment, or out of his unwillingness to be thought to fly + from his enemies, early in the morning he rode up to view the situation of + the place. But finding there was no way to come at it, as he rode about, + threatening them in vain and disconcerted, he took notice that the wind + raised the dust and carried it up towards the caves of the Characitanians, + and the northerly wind, which some call Caecias, prevailing most in those + parts, coming up out of moist plains or mountains covered with snow, at + this particular time, in the heat of summer, being further supplied and + increased by the melting of the ice in the northern regions, blew a + delightful, fresh gale, cooling and refreshing the Characitanians and + their cattle all the day long. Sertorius, considering well all + circumstances in which either the information of the inhabitants, or his + own experience had instructed him, commanded his soldiers to shovel up a + great quantity of this light, dusty earth, to heap it together, and make a + mound of it over against the hill in which these barbarous people lived, + who, imagining that all this preparation was for raising a mound to get at + them, only mocked and laughed at it. However, he continued the work till + the evening, and brought his soldiers back into their camp. The next + morning a gentle breeze at first arose, and moved the lightest parts of + the earth, and dispersed it about as the chaff before the wind; but when + the sun got higher, and the strong, northerly wind had covered the hills + with the dust, the soldiers came and turned this mound of earth over and + over, and broke the hard clods in pieces, whilst others on horseback rode + through it backward and forward, and raised a cloud of dust into the air; + then with the wind the whole of it was carried away and blown into the + dwellings of the Characitanians, all lying open to the north. And there + being no other vent or breathing-place than that through which the Caecias + rushed in upon them, it quickly blinded their eyes, and filled their + lungs, and all but choked them, whilst they strove to draw in the rough + air mingled with dust and powdered earth. Nor were they able, with all + they could do, to hold out more than two days, but surrendered on the + third, adding, by their defeat, not so much to the power of Sertorius, as + to his renown, in proving that he was able to conquer places by art, which + were impregnable by the force of arms. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0029" id="link2H_4_0029"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE SCROLL-FROM THE LIFE OF LYSANDER + </h2> + <p> + The scroll is made up thus: when the Ephors send an admiral or general on + his way, they take two round pieces of wood, both exactly of a length and + thickness, and cut even to one another; they keep one themselves, and the + other the give to the person they send forth; and these pieces of wood + they call Scytales. When, therefore, they have occasion to communicate any + secret or important matter, making a scroll of parchment long and narrow + like a leathern thong, they roll it about their own staff of wood, leaving + no space void between, but covering the surface of the staff with the + scroll all over. When they have done this, they write what they please on + the scroll, as it is wrapped about the staff; and when they have written, + they take off the scroll, and send it to the general without the wood. He, + when he has received it, can read nothing of the writing, because the + words and letters are not connected, but all broken up; but taking his own + staff, he winds the slip of the scroll about it, so that this folding, + restoring all the parts into the same order that they were in before, and + putting what comes first into connection with what follows, brings the + whole consecutive contents to view round the outside. And this scroll is + called a <i>staff</i>, after the name of the wood, as a thing measured is + by the name of the measure. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0030" id="link2H_4_0030"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE CHARACTER OF MARCUS CATO + </h2> + <p> + Marcus Cato grew so powerful by his eloquence that he was commonly called + the Roman Demosthenes; but his manner of life was yet more famous and + talked of. For oratorical skill was, as an accomplishment, commonly + studied and sought after by all young men; but he was a rare man who would + cultivate the old habits of bodily labor, or prefer a light supper, and a + breakfast which never saw the fire; or be in love with poor clothes and a + homely lodging, or could set his ambition rather on doing without luxuries + than on possessing them. For now the state, unable to keep its purity by + reason of its greatness, and having so many affairs, and people from all + parts under its government, was fain to admit many mixed customs, and new + examples of living. With reason, therefore, everybody admired Cato, when + they saw others sink under labors, and grow effeminate by pleasures, but + beheld him unconquered by either; and that, too, not only when he was + young and desirous of honor, but also when old and gray-headed, after a + consulship and triumph; like some famous victor in the games, persevering + in his exercise and maintaining his character to the very last. He himself + says, that he never wore a suit of clothes which cost more than a hundred + drachmas; and that, when he was general and consul, he drank the same wine + which his workmen did; and that the meat or fish which was bought in the + market for his dinner, did not cost above thirty 'asses.' All which was + for the sake of the commonwealth, that his body might be the hardier for + the war. Having a piece of embroidered Babylonian tapestry left him, he + sold it; because none of his farm-houses were so much as plastered. Nor + did he ever buy a slave for above fifteen hundred drachmas; as he did not + seek for effeminate and handsome ones, but able, sturdy workmen, + horse-keepers, and cow-herds; and these he thought ought to be sold again, + when they grew old, and no useless servants fed in a house. In short, he + reckoned nothing a good bargain, which was superfluous; but whatever it + was, though sold for a farthing, he would think it a great price, if you + had no need of it. + </p> + <p> + Yet, in my judgment, it marks an over-rigid temper for a man to take the + work out of his servants as out of brute beasts, turning them off and + selling them in their old age. A kind-natured man will keep even worn-out + horses and dogs, and not only take care of them when they are foals and + whelps, but also when they are grown old. The Athenians, when they built + their Hecatompedon,* (*The Parthenon; built on the site of an older temple + which had borne the name of Hecatompedon, or a "hundred feet long." The + name was retained for the new building.) turned those mules loose to feed + freely, which they had observed to have done the hardest labor. One of + these came once of itself to offer its service, and ran along with, nay, + went before, the teams which drew the wagons up to the Acropolis, as if it + would incite and encourage them to draw more stoutly; upon which a vote + was passed that the creature should be kept at the public charge till it + died. The graves of Cimon's horses, which thrice won the Olympian races, + are yet to be seen close by his own monument. Old Xanthippus, too, the + father of Pericles, entombed his dogs which swam after his galley to + Salamis, when the people fled from Athens, on the top of a cliff, which + they call the dogs' tomb to this day. + </p> + <p> + For his general temperance, however, and self-control, Cato really + deserves the highest admiration. For when he commanded the army, he never + took for himself, and those that belonged to him, more than three bushels + of wheat for a month, and somewhat less than a bushel and a half a day of + barley for his baggage-cattle. And when he entered upon the government of + Sardinia, where his predecessors had been used to require tents, bedding, + and clothes upon the public account, and to charge the state heavily with + the cost of provisions and entertainments for a great train of servants + and friends, the difference he showed in his economy was something + incredible. There was nothing of any sort for which he put the public to + expense; he would walk, instead of taking a carriage to visit the cities, + with only one of the common town officers, who carried his dress, and a + cup to offer libation with. Yet on the other hand, he showed most + inflexible severity and strictness, in what related to public justice, and + was rigorous, and precise in what concerned the ordinances of the + commonwealth; so that the Roman government never seemed more terrible, nor + yet more mild, than under his administration. + </p> + <p> + His very manner of speaking seemed to have such a kind of idea with it; + for it was courteous, and yet forcible; pleasant, yet overwhelming; + facetious, yet austere; sententious, and yet vehement: like Socrates, in + the description of Plato, who seemed outwardly to those about him to be + but a simple, talkative, blunt fellow; whilst at the bottom he was full of + such gravity and matter, as would even move tears, and touch the very + hearts of his auditors. Reproving on one occasion the sumptuous habits of + the Romans, he said: "It is hard to preserve a city, where a fish is sold + for more than an ox." He had a saying, also, that the Roman people were + like sheep; for they, when single, do not obey, but when altogether in a + flock, they follow their leaders: "So you," said he, "when you have got + together in a body let yourselves be guided by those whom singly you would + never think of being advised by." + </p> + <p> + The Romans having sent three ambassadors to Bithnia, of whom one was + gouty, another had his skull trepanned, and the other seemed little better + than a fool; Cato, laughing, gave out that the Romans had sent an embassy, + which had neither feet, head, nor heart.* (*Both the Romans and the Greeks + conceived of the region of the heart, the chest, as the seat not of + emotion, nor of will and courage merely, but more especially of judgment, + deliberation, and practical sense. Thus the Greeks derived their word for + moral wisdom from Phren, the diaphragm, and the Romans by 'egregie + cordatus homo' meant a wise statesman.) + </p> + <p> + Cato also said that in his whole life he most repented of three things; + one was, that he had trusted a secret to a woman; another that he went by + water when he might have gone by land; the third, that he had remained one + whole day without doing any business of moment. + </p> + <p> + He was a good father, an excellent husband to his wife, and an + extraordinary economist; and as he did not manage his affairs of this kind + carelessly, and as things of little moment, I think I ought to record a + little further whatever was commendable in him in these points. He married + a wife more noble than rich; being of opinion that the rich and the + high-born are equally haughty and proud; but that those of noble blood + would be more ashamed of base things, and consequently more obedient to + their husbands in all that was fit and right. A man who beat his wife or + child, laid violent hands, he said, on what was most sacred; and a good + husband he reckoned worthy of more praise than a great senator; and he + admired the ancient Socrates for nothing so much, as for having lived a + temperate and contented life with a wife who was a scold, and children who + were half-witted. + </p> + <p> + When his son began to come to years of discretion, Cato himself would + teach him to read, although he had a servant, a very good grammarian, + called Chilo, who taught many others; but he thought not fit, as he + himself said, to have his son reprimanded by a slave, or pulled, it may + be, by the ears when found tardy in his lesson: nor would he have him owe + to a servant the obligation of so great a thing as his learning; he + himself, therefore, taught him his grammar, his law, and his gymnastic + exercises. Nor did he only show him, too, how to throw a dart, to fight in + armor, and to ride, but to box also and to endure both heat and cold, and + to swim over the most rapid and rough rivers. He says, likewise, that he + wrote histories, in large characters, with his own hand, that so his son, + without stirring out of the house, might learn to know about his + countrymen and forefathers: nor did he less abstain from speaking any + thing improper before his son, than if it had been in the presence of the + sacred virgins, called vestals. Nor would he ever go into the bath with + him; which seems indeed to have been the common custom of the Romans. + </p> + <p> + Thus, like an excellent work, Cato formed and fashioned his son to virtue. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0031" id="link2H_4_0031"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE SACRED THEBAN BAND FROM THE LIFE OF PELOPIDAS. + </h2> + <p> + Gorgidas, according to some, first formed the Sacred Band of three hundred + chosen men, to whom, as being a guard for the citadel, the State allowed + provision, and all things necessary for exercise: and hence they were + called the city band, as citadels of old were usually called cities. + Others say that it was composed of young men attached to each other by + personal affection, and a pleasant saying of Pammenes is current, that + Homer's Nestor was not well skilled in ordering an army, when he advised + the Greeks to rank tribe and tribe, and family and family together, that + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "So tribe might tribe, and kinsmen kinsmen aid," +</pre> + <p> + but that he should have joined lovers and their beloved. For men of the + same tribe or family little value one another when dangers press; but a + band cemented by friendship grounded upon love, is never to be broken, and + invincible; since all, ashamed to be base in sight of their beloved, + willingly rush into danger for the relief of one another. Nor can that be + wondered at; since they have more regard for their absent loving friends + than for others present; as in the instance of the man who, when his enemy + was going to kill him, earnestly requested him to run him through the + breast, that his lover might not blush to see him wounded in the back. It + is a tradition likewise, that Iolaus, who assisted Hercules in his labors + and fought at his side, was beloved of him; and Aristotle observes, that + even in his time, lovers plighted their faith at Iolaus' tomb. It is + likely, therefore, that this band was called sacred on this account; as + Plato calls a lover a divine friend. It is stated that it was never beaten + till the battle at Chaeronea: and when Philip, after the fight, took a + view of the slain, and came to the place where the three hundred that + fought his phalanx lay dead together, he was filled with wonder, and + understanding that it was the band of lovers, he shed tears and said, + "Perish any man who suspects that these men either did or suffered any + thing that was base." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0032" id="link2H_4_0032"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + FROM THE LIFE OF TITUS FLAMININUS, THE CONQUEROR OF PHILIP + </h2> + <p> + Among the songs written after the battle of Cynos Cephalas (the + Dog-heads), was the following epigram, composed by Alcaeus in mockery of + Philip, exaggerating the number of the slain: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Naked and tombless see, O passer-by + The thirty thousand men of Thessaly, + Slain by the Aetolians and the Latin band, + That came with Titus from Italia's land: + Alas for mighty Macedon! that day, + Swift as a roe, king Philip fled away. +</pre> + <p> + Titus himself thought more highly of his liberation of Greece than of any + other of his actions, as appears by the inscription upon some silver + targets, dedicated together with his own shield, to Apollo at Delphi: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Ye Spartan Tyndarids, twin sons of Jove, + Who in swift horsemanship have placed your love, + Titus, of great Aeneas' race, leaves this + In honor of the liberty of Greece. +</pre> + <p> + And a golden crown, also offered to Apollo, bore this inscription: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + This golden crown upon thy locks divine, + O blest Latona's son, was set to shine + By the great captain of the Aenean name + O Phoebus, grant the noble Titus fame! +</pre> + <p> + When the ambassadors of Antiochus were recounting to those of Achaea, the + various multitudes composing their royal master's forces, and ran over a + long catalogue of hard names, "I supped once," said Titus, "with a friend, + and could not forbear expostulating with him at the number of dishes he + had provided, and said I wondered where he had furnished himself with such + a variety; 'Sir,' replied he, 'to confess the truth, it is all hog's flesh + differently cooked.' And so, men of Achaea, when you are told of + Antiochus' lancers, and pikemen, and foot-guards, I advise you not to be + surprised; since in fact they are all Syrians differently armed." + </p> + <p> + The Chalcidians, who owed their lives to Titus, dedicated to him all the + best and most magnificent of their sacred buildings, inscriptions upon + which, like the following, may be seen to this day: THE PEOPLE DEDICATE + THIS GYMNASIUM TO TITUS AND TO HERCULES; so again: THE PEOPLE CONSECRATE + THE DELPHINIUM TO TITUS AND TO HERCULES; and what is yet more remarkable, + even in our time, a priest of Titus was formally elected and declared; and + after sacrifice and libation, they sang a set song, of which these are the + closing verses:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Roman Faith, whose aid of yore, + Our vows were offered to implore, + We worship now and evermore. + To Rome, to Titus, and to Jove, + O maidens, in the dances move. + Dances and Io-Paeans too + Unto the Roman Faith are due + O Savior Titus, and to you. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0033" id="link2H_4_0033"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ALEXANDER THE GREAT + </h2> + <p> + It must be borne in mind that my design has been not to write histories, + but lives. And the most glorious exploits do not always furnish us with + the clearest discoveries of virtue or vice in men; sometimes a matter of + less moment, an expression or a jest, informs us better of their + characters and inclinations, than the most famous sieges, the greatest + armaments, or the bloodiest battles whatsoever. Therefore as + portrait-painters are more exact in the lines and features of the face, in + which the character is seen, than in the other parts of the body, so I + must be allowed to give my more particular attention to the marks and + indications of the souls of men, in my portrayal of their lives. + </p> + <p> + It is agreed on by all hands, that on the father's side, Alexander + descended from Hercules by Caranus, and from Aeacus by Neoptolemus on the + mother's side. His father Philip, being in Samothrace, when he was quite + young, fell in love there with Olympias, in company with whom he was + initiated in the religious ceremonies of the country, and her father and + mother being both dead, soon after, with the consent of her brother + Arymbas, he married her. + </p> + <p> + Alexander was born on the sixth of Hecatombaeon, the same day that the + temple of Diana at Ephesus was burnt. The statues that gave the best + representation of Alexander's person, were those of Lysippus, those + peculiarities which many of his successors afterwards and his friends used + to affect to imitate,—the inclination of his head a little on one + side towards his left shoulder, and his melting eye,—having been + expressed by this artist with great exactness. But Apelles, who drew him + with thunderbolts in his hand, made his complexion browner and darker than + it was naturally; for he was fair and of a light color, passing into + ruddiness in his face and upon his breast. His temperance, as to all + pleasures, was apparent in him in his very childhood, as he was with much + difficulty incited to them, and always used them with great moderation; + though in other things he was extremely eager and vehement, and in his + love of glory and the pursuit of it, he showed a solidity of high spirit + and magnanimity far above his age. For he neither sought nor valued it + upon every occasion, as his father Philip did (who affected to show his + eloquence almost to a degree of pedantry, and took care to have the + victories of his racing chariots at the Olympic games engraved on his + coin), but when he was asked by some about him, whether he would run a + race in the Olympic games, as he was very swift-footed, he answered, that + he would, if he might have kings to run with him. + </p> + <p> + While he was yet very young, he entertained the ambassadors from the king + of Persia, in the absence of his father, and entering much into + conversation with them, gained so much upon them by his affability, and + the questions he asked them, which were far from being childish or + trifling (for he inquired of them the length of the ways, the nature of + the road into inner Asia, the character of their king, how he carried + himself toward his enemies, and what forces he was able to bring into the + field), that they were struck with admiration of him, and looked upon the + ability so much famed of Philip, to be nothing in comparison with the + forwardness and high purpose that appeared thus early in his son. Whenever + he heard that Philip had taken any town of importance, or won any signal + victory, instead of rejoicing at it altogether, he would tell his + companions that his father would anticipate every thing, and leave him and + them no opportunities of performing great and illustrious actions. For + being more bent upon action and glory than upon either pleasure or riches, + he esteemed all that he should receive from his father as a diminution of + his own future achievements; and would have chosen rather to succeed to a + kingdom involved in troubles and wars, which would have afforded him + frequent exercise of his courage, and a large field of honor, than to one + already flourishing and settled, where his inheritance would be an + inactive life, and the mere enjoyment of wealth and luxury. + </p> + <p> + The care of his education, as it might be presumed, was committed to a + great many attendants, preceptors, and teachers, over the whole of whom + Leonidas, a near kinsman of Olympias, a man of an austere temper, + presided, who did not indeed himself decline the name of what in reality + is a noble and honorable office, but in general his dignity, and his near + relationship, obtained him from other people the title of Alexander's + fosterfather and governor. But he who took upon him the actual place and + style of his "pedagogue," was Lysimachus the Acarnanian. + </p> + <p> + Philonicus the Thessalian brought the horse Bucephalas to Philip, offering + to sell him for thirteen talents; but when they went into the field to try + him, they found him so very vicious and unmanageable, that he reared up + when they endeavored to mount him, and would not so much as endure the + voice of any of Philip's attendants. Upon which, as they were leading him + away as wholly useless and untractable, Alexander, who stood by, said, + "What a magnificent horse they lose, for want of address and boldness to + manage him!" Philip at first took no notice of what he said, but when he + heard him repeat the same thing several times, and perceived that he was + much vexed to see the horse sent away, he said to him, "Do you reproach + those who are older than yourself, as if you knew more, and were better + able to manage him than they?" "I could manage this horse," replied he, + "better than others do." "And if you fail," said Philip, "what will you + forfeit for your rashness?" "I will pay," answered Alexander, "the whole + price of the horse." At this the whole company fell to laughing; and as + soon as the wager was settled amongst them, he immediately ran to the + horse, and taking hold of the bridle, turned him directly towards the sun, + having, it seems, observed that he was disturbed at and afraid of the + motion of his own shadow; then letting him go forward a little, still + keeping the reins in his hand, and stroking him gently when he found him + beginning to grow eager and fiery, he let fall his upper garment softly, + and with one nimble leap securely mounted him, and when he was seated, + little by little drew in the bridle, and curbed him without either + striking or spurring him. Presently, when he found him free from all + rebelliousness, and only impatient for the course, he let him go at full + speed, inciting him now with a commanding voice, and urging him also with + his heel. Philip and his friends looked on at first in silence and anxiety + for the result, till seeing him turn at the end of his career, and come + back rejoicing and triumphing for what he had performed, they all burst + out into acclamations of applause; and his father, shedding tears, it is + said, for joy, kissed him as he came down from his horse, and in his + transport, said, "O my son, seek out a kingdom worthy of thyself, for + Macedonia is too little for thee." + </p> + <p> + After this, considering him to be of a temper easy to be led to his duty + by reason, but by no means to be compelled, he always endeavored to + persuade rather than to command or force him to any thing; and now looking + upon the instruction and tuition of his youth to be of greater difficulty + and importance, than to be wholly trusted to the ordinary masters in music + and poetry, and the common school subjects, and to require, as Sophocles + says, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The bridle and the rudder too, +</pre> + <p> + he sent for Aristotle, the most learned and most celebrated philosopher of + his time, and rewarded him with a munificence proportionable to and + becoming the care he took to instruct his son. For he repeopled his native + city Stagira, which he had caused to be demolished a little before, and + restored all the citizens who were in exile or slavery, to their + habitations. As a place for the pursuit of their studies and exercises, he + assigned the temple of the Nymphs, near Mieza, where, to this very day, + they show you Aristotle's stone seats, and the shady walks which he was + wont to frequent. It would appear that Alexander received from him not + only his doctrines of Morals, and of Politics, but also something of those + more abstruse and profound theories which these philosophers, by the very + names they gave them, professed to reserve for oral communication to the + initiated, and did not allow many to become acquainted with. For when he + was in Asia, and heard Aristotle had published some treatises of that + kind, he wrote to him, using very plain language to him in behalf of + philosophy, the following letter: "Alexander to Aristotle greeting. You + have not done well to publish your books of oral doctrine, for what is + there now that we excel others in, if those things which we have been + particularly instructed in be laid open to all? For my part, I assure you, + I had rather excel others in the knowledge of what is excellent, than in + the extent of my power and dominion. Farewell." And Aristotle, soothing + this passion for pre-eminence, speaks, in his excuse for himself, of these + doctrines, as in fact both published and not published. To tell the truth, + his books on metaphysics are written in a style which makes them useless + for ordinary teaching, and instructive only in the way of memoranda, for + those who have been already conversant with that sort of learning. + </p> + <p> + Doubtless also it was to Aristotle, that he owed the inclination he had, + not to the theory only, but also to the practice of the art of medicine. + For when any of his friends were sick, he would often prescribe for them + their course of diet, and medicines proper to their disease, as we may + find in his epistles. He was naturally a great lover of all kinds of + learning and reading; and Onesicritus informs us, that he constantly laid + Homer's Iliads, according to the copy corrected by Aristotle, called "The + casket copy," with his dagger under his pillow, declaring that he esteemed + it a perfect portable treasure of all military virtue and knowledge. When + he was in the upper Asia, being destitute of other books, he ordered + Harpalus to send him some; who furnished him with Philistus's History, a + great many of the plays of Euripides, Sophocles, and Aeschylus, and some + dithyrambic odes, composed by Telestes and Philoxenus. + </p> + <p> + While Philip went on his expedition against the Byzantines, he left + Alexander, then sixteen years old, his lieutenant in Macedonia, committing + the charge of his seal to him; who, not to sit idle, reduced the + rebellious Maedi, and having taken their chief town by storm, drove out + the barbarous inhabitants, and planting a colony of several nations in + their room, called the place after his own name, Alexandropolis. At the + battle of Chaeronea, which his father fought against the Greeks, he is + said to have been the first man that charged the Thebans' sacred band. And + even in my remembrance, there stood an old oak near the river Cephisus, + which people called Alexander's oak, because his tent was pitched under + it. And not far off are to be seen the graves of the Macedonians who fell + in that battle. This early bravery made Philip so fond of him, that + nothing pleased him more than to hear his subjects call himself their + general and Alexander their king. + </p> + <p> + But later on, through an unfortunate marriage of Philip with Cleopatra, + the niece of Attalus, an estrangement grew up between them. And not long + after the brother of Alexander, Pausanias, having had an insult done to + him at the instance of Attalus and Cleopatra, when he found he could get + no reparation for his disgrace at Philip's hands, watched his opportunity + and murdered him. + </p> + <p> + Alexander was but twenty years old when his father was murdered, and + succeeded to a kingdom beset on all sides with great dangers, and + rancorous enemies. Hearing the Thebans were in revolt, and the Athenians + in correspondence with them, he immediately marched through the pass of + Thermopylae, saying that to Demosthenes, who had called him a child while + he was in Illyria, and a youth when he was in Thessaly, he would appear a + man before the walls of Athens. + </p> + <p> + When he came to Thebes, to show how willing he was to accept of their + repentance for what was past, he only demanded of them Phoenix and + Prothytes, the authors of the rebellion, and proclaimed a general pardon + to those who would come over to him. But when the Thebans merely retorted + by demanding Philotas and Antipater to be delivered into their hands, he + applied himself to make them feel the last extremities of war. The Thebans + defended themselves with a zeal and courage beyond their strength, being + much outnumbered by their enemies. But when the Macedonian garrison + sallied out upon them from the citadel, they were so hemmed in on all + sides, that the greater part of them fell in the battle; the city itself + being taken by storm, was sacked and razed, Alexander's hope being that so + severe an example might terrify the rest of Greece into obedience. So + that, except the priests, and a few who had heretofore been the friends + and connections of the Macedonians, the family of the poet Pindar, and + those who were known to have opposed the public vote for the war, all the + rest, to the number of thirty thousand, were publicly sold for slaves; and + it is computed that upwards of six thousand were put to the sword. Among + the other calamities that befell the city, it happened that some Thracian + soldiers having broken into the house of a matron of high character and + repute named Timoclea, their captain, to satisfy his avarice, asked her if + she knew of any money concealed; to which she readily answered that she + did, and bade him follow her into a garden, where she showed him a well, + into which, she told him, upon the taking of the city she had thrown what + she had of most value. The greedy Thracian presently stooping down to view + the place where he thought the treasure lay, she came behind him, and + pushed him into the well, and then flung great stones in upon him, till + she had killed him. After which, when the soldiers led her away bound to + Alexander, her very mien and gait showed her to be a woman of dignity and + high mind, not betraying the least sign of fear or astonishment. And when + the king asked her who she was, she said, "I am the sister of Theagenes, + who fought at the battle of Chaeronea with your father, Philip, and fell + there in command for the liberty of Greece." Alexander was so surprised, + both at what she had done, and what she said, that he could not chose but + give her and her children their freedom to go whither they pleased. + </p> + <p> + After this he received the Athenians into favor. Whether it were, like the + lion, that his passion was now satisfied, or that after an example of + extreme cruelty, he had a mind to appear merciful, it happened well for + the Athenians. Certain it is, too, that in after-time he often repented of + his severity to the Thebans, and his remorse had such influence on his + temper as to make him ever after less rigorous to all others. And it was + observed that whatsoever any Theban, who had the good fortune to survive + this victory, asked of him, he was sure to grant without the least + difficulty. + </p> + <p> + Soon after, the Greeks being assembled at the Isthmus, declared their + resolution of joining with Alexander in the war against the Persians, and + proclaimed him their general. While he stayed here, many public ministers + and philosophers came from all parts to visit him, and congratulated him + on his election, but contrary to his expectation, Diogenes of Sinope, who + then was living at Corinth, thought so little of him, that instead of + coming to compliment him, he never so much as stirred out of the suburb + called the Cranium, where Alexander ran across him lying at full length in + the sun. When he saw so much company near him, he raised himself a little, + and vouchsafed to look upon Alexander; and when he kindly asked him + whether he wanted any thing, "Yes," said he, "I would have you stand from + between me and the sun." Alexander was so struck at this answer, and + surprised at the greatness of the man, who had taken so little notice of + him, that as he went away, he told his followers who were laughing at the + moroseness of the philosopher, that if he were not Alexander, he would + choose to be Diogenes. + </p> + <p> + His army consisted of about thirty thousand foot, and four thousand horse; + and Aristobulus says, he had not a fund of over seventy talents for their + pay, nor more than thirty days' provision, if we may believe Duris. + However narrow the beginnings of so vast an undertaking might seem to be, + yet he would not embark his army until he had informed himself + particularly what means his friends had to enable them to follow him, and + supplied what they wanted, by giving good farms to some, a village to one, + and the revenue of some hamlet or harbor town to another. So that at last + he had portioned out or engaged almost all the royal property; which + giving Perdiccas an occasion to ask him what he would leave himself, he + answered, "My hopes." "Your soldiers," replied Perdiccas, "will be your + partners in those," and refused to accept of the estate he had assigned + him. + </p> + <p> + With such vigorous resolutions, and his mind thus disposed, he passed the + Hellespont, and at Troy sacrificed to Minerva, and honored the memory of + the heroes who were buried there, with solemn libations; especially + Achilles, whose gravestone he anointed, and with his friends, as the + ancient custom is, ran naked about his sepulchre, and crowned it with + garlands, declaring how happy he esteemed him, in having, while he lived, + so faithful a friend, and when he was dead, so famous a poet to proclaim + his actions. While he was viewing the rest of the antiquities and + curiosities of the place, being told he might see Paris's harp, if he + pleased, he said, he thought it not worth looking at, but he should be + glad to see that of Achilles, to which he used to sing the glories and + great actions of brave men. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime Darius's captains having collected large forces, were + encamped on the further bank of the river Granicus, and it was necessary + to fight, as it were, in the gate of Asia for an entrance into it. And + when Parmenio advised him not to attempt anything that day, because it was + late, he told him that he should disgrace the Hellespont, should he fear + the Granicus. And so without saying more, he immediately took the river + with thirteen troops of horse, and advanced against whole showers of darts + thrown from the steep opposite side, which was covered with armed + multitudes of the enemy's horse and foot, notwithstanding the disadvantage + of the ground and the rapidity of the stream; so that the action seemed to + have more of frenzy and desperation in it, than of prudent conduct. + However, he persisted obstinately to gain the passage, and at last with + much ado making his way up the banks, which were extremely muddy and + slippery, he had instantly to join in a mere confused hand-to-hand combat + with the enemy, before he could draw up his men, who were still passing + over, into any order. For the enemy pressed upon him with loud and warlike + outcries; and charging horse against horse, with their lances, after they + had broken and spent these, they fell to it with their swords. And + Alexander, being easily known by his buckler, and a large plume of white + feathers on each side of his helmet, was attacked on all sides, yet + escaped without a wound, though his cuirass was pierced by a javelin in + one of the joinings. And Rhoesaces and Spithridates, two Persian + commanders, falling upon him at once, he avoided one of them, and struck + at Rhoesaces, who had a good cuirass on, with such force, that his spear + breaking in his hand, he was glad to betake himself to his dagger. While + they were thus engaged, Spithridates came up on the other side of him, and + raising himself upon his horse, gave him such a blow with his battle-axe + on the helmet, that he cut off the crest of it, with one of his plumes, + and the helmet was only just so far strong enough to save him, that the + edge of the weapon touched the hair of his head. But as he was about to + repeat his stroke, Clitus, called the black Clitus, prevented him, by + running him through the body with his spear. At the same time Alexander + despatched Rhoesaces with his sword. While the horse were thus dangerously + engaged, the Macedonian phalanx passed the river, and the foot on each + side advanced to fight. But the enemy hardly sustaining the first onset, + soon gave ground and fled, all but the mercenary Greeks, who, making a + stand upon a rising ground, desired quarter, which Alexander, guided + rather by passion than judgment, refused to grant, and charging them + himself first, had his horse (not Bucephalas, but another) killed under + him. And this obstinacy of his to cut off these experienced, desperate + men, cost him the lives of more of his own soldiers than all the battle + before, besides those who were wounded. The Persians lost in this battle + twenty thousand foot, and two thousand five hundred horse. On Alexander's + side, Aristobulus says there were not over four and thirty missing, of + whom nine were foot-soldiers; and in memory of them he caused as many + statues of brass, of Lysippus's making, to be erected. And that the Greeks + might participate in the honor of his victory, he sent a portion of the + spoils home to them, particularly to the Athenians three hundred bucklers, + and upon all the rest he ordered this inscription to be set: "Alexander + the son of Philip, and the Greeks, except the Lacedaemonians, won these + from the barbarians who inhabit Asia." All the plate and purple garments, + and other things of the same kind that he took from the Persians, except a + very small quantity which he reserved for himself, he sent as a present to + his mother. + </p> + <p> + This battle presently made a great change of affairs to Alexander's + advantage. For Sardis itself, the chief seat of the barbarians' power in + the maritime provinces, and many other considerable places, were + surrendered to him; only Halicarnassus and Miletus stood out, which he + took by force, together with the territory about them. After which he was + a little unsettled in his opinion how to proceed. Sometimes he thought it + best to find out Darius as soon as he could, and put all to the hazard of + a battle; at another time he looked upon it as a more prudent course to + make an entire reduction of the sea-coast, and not to seek the enemy till + he had first exercised his power here and made himself secure of the + resources of these provinces. While he was thus deliberating what to do, + it happened that a spring of water near the city of Xanthus in Lycia, of + its own accord swelled over its banks, and threw up a copper plate upon + the margin, in which was engraven in ancient characters, that the time + would come, when the Persian empire should be destroyed by the Greeks. + Encouraged by this incident, he proceeded to reduce the maritime parts of + Cilicia and Phoenicia, and passed his army along the sea-coasts of + Pamphylia with such expedition that many historians have described and + extolled it with a height of admiration, as if it were no less than a + miracle, and an extraordinary effect of divine favor, that the waves which + usually come rolling in violently from the main, and hardly ever leave so + much as a narrow beach under the steep, broken cliffs at any time + uncovered, should on a sudden retire to afford him passage. Menander, in + one of his comedies, alludes to this marvel when he says, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Was Alexander ever favored more? + Each man I wish for meets me at the door, + And should I ask for passage through the sea, + The sea, I doubt not, would retire for me. +</pre> + <p> + Then he subdued the Pisidians who made head against him, and conquered the + Phrygians, at whose chief city Gordium, which is said to be the seat of + the ancient Midas, he saw the famous chariot fastened with cords made of + the rind of the cornel-tree, about which the inhabitants had a tradition, + that for him who should untie it, was reserved the empire of the world. + Most authors tell the story of Alexander, finding himself unable to untie + the knot, the ends of which were secretly twisted round and folded up + within it, cut it asunder with his sword. But Aristobulus tells us it was + easy for him to undo it, by only pulling the pin out of the pole, to which + the yoke was tied, and afterwards drawing off the yoke itself from below. + </p> + <p> + Darius was by this time upon his march from Susa, very confident, in the + number of his men, which amounted to six hundred thousand. But Alexander + was detained in Cilicia by a sickness, which some say he contracted from + his fatigues, others from bathing in the river Cydnus, whose waters were + exceedingly cold. None of his physicians would venture to give him any + remedies, they thought his case so desperate, and were so afraid of the + suspicions and ill-will of the Macedonians if they should fail in the + cure; till Philip, the Acarnanian, seeing how critical his case was, but + relying on his own well-known friendship for him, resolved to try the last + efforts of his art, and rather hazard his own credit and life, than suffer + him to perish for want of physic, which he confidently administered to + him, encouraging him to take it boldly, if he desired a speedy recovery, + in order to prosecute the war. At this very time, Parmenio wrote to + Alexander from the camp, bidding him have a care of Philip, as one who was + bribed by Darius to kill him, with great sums of money, and a promise of + his daughter in marriage. When he had perused the letter, he put it under + his pillow, without so much as showing it to any of his most intimate + friends, and when Philip came in with the potion, he took it with great + cheerfulness and assurance, giving him meantime the letter to read. This + was a spectacle well worth being present at, to see Alexander take the + draught, and Philip read the letter at the same time, and then turn and + look upon one another, but with different sentiments; for Alexander's + looks were cheerful and open, to show his kindness to and confidence in + his physician, while the other was full of surprise and alarm at the + accusation, appealing to the gods to witness his innocence, sometimes + lifting up his hands to heaven, and then throwing himself down by the + bedside, and beseeching Alexander to lay aside all fear, and follow his + directions without apprehension. For the medicine at first worked so + strongly as to drive, as it were, the vital forces into the interior; he + lost his speech, and falling into a swoon, had scarcely any sense or pulse + left. However, in a very short time, by Philip's means, his health and + strength returned, and he showed himself in public to the Macedonians, who + were in continual fear and dejection until they saw him abroad again. + </p> + <p> + Darius, in the meantime marched into Cilicia, at the same time that + Alexander advanced into Syria to meet him; and missing one another in the + night, they both turned back again. Alexander, greatly pleased with the + event, made all the haste he could to fight in the defiles, and Darius to + recover his former ground, and draw his army out of so disadvantageous a + place. For now he began to see his error in engaging himself too far in a + country in which the sea, the mountains, and the river Pinarus running + through the midst of it, would force him to divide his forces, render his + horse almost unserviceable, and only cover and support the weakness of the + enemy. Fortune was not kinder to Alexander in the choice of the ground, + than he was careful to improve it to his advantage. For being much + inferior in numbers, so far from allowing himself to be outflanked, he + stretched his right wing much further out than the left wing of his + enemies, and fighting there himself in the very foremost ranks, put the + barbarians to flight. In this battle he was wounded in the thigh, Chares + says by Darius, with whom he fought hand to hand. But in the account which + he gave Antipater of the battle, though he owns he was wounded in the + thigh with a sword, though not dangerously, he does not mention who it was + that wounded him. + </p> + <p> + Nothing was wanting to complete this victory, in which he overthrew above + a hundred and ten thousand of his enemies, but the taking of the person of + Darius, who escaped very narrowly by flight. However, having captured his + chariot and his bow, he returned from pursuing him, and found his own men + busy in pillaging the barbarians' camp, which (though to disburden + themselves, they had left most of their baggage at Damascus) was + exceedingly rich. But Darius's tent, which was full of splendid furniture, + and quantities of gold and silver, they reserved for Alexander himself, + who after he had put off his arms, went to bathe himself, saying, "Let us + now cleanse ourselves from the toils of war in the bath of Darius." "Not + so," replied one of his followers, "but in Alexander's rather; for the + property of the conquered is, and should be called, the conqueror's." + Here, when he beheld the bathing vessels, the water-pots, the pans, and + the ointment boxes, all of gold, curiously wrought, and smelt the fragrant + odors with which the whole place was exquisitely perfumed, and from thence + passed into a pavilion of great size and height, where the couches and + tables and preparations for an entertainment were perfectly magnificent, + he turned to those about him and said, "This, it seems, is royalty." + </p> + <p> + But as he was going to supper, word was brought him that Darius's mother + and wife and two unmarried daughters, being taken among the rest of the + prisoners, were all in mourning and sorrow upon the sight of his chariot + and bow, imagining him to be dead. After a little he sent Leonnatus to + them, to let them know Darius was not dead, and that they need not fear + any harm from Alexander, who made war upon him only for dominion. But the + noblest and most royal part of their usage was, that he treated these + illustrious prisoners according to their virtue and character, not + suffering them to hear, or receive, or so much as to apprehend any thing + that was unbecoming. So that they seemed rather lodged in some temple, or + some holy chambers, where they enjoyed their privacy sacred and + uninterrupted, than in the camp of an enemy. Yet Darius's wife was + accounted the most beautiful princess then living, as her husband the + tallest and handsomest man of his time, and the daughters were not + unworthy of their parents. + </p> + <p> + In his diet Alexander was most temperate, as appears, omitting many other + circumstances, by what he said to Ada, whom he adopted, with the title of + mother, and afterwards created queen of Caria. For when she out of + kindness sent him every day many curious dishes, and sweetmeats, and would + have furnished him with some cooks and pastry-men, who were thought to + have great skill, he told her he wanted none of them, his preceptor, + Leonidas, having already given him the best, which were "a night march to + prepare for breakfast, and a moderate breakfast to create an appetite for + supper." Leonidas also, he added, used to open and search the furniture of + his chamber, and his wardrobe, to see if his mother had left him any thing + that was delicate or superfluous. He was much less addicted to wine than + was generally believed; that which gave people occasion to think so of him + was, that when he had nothing else to do, he loved to sit long and talk, + rather than drink, and over every cup hold a long conversation. For when + his affairs called upon him, he would not be detained, as other generals + often were, either by wine, or sleep, nuptial solemnities, spectacles, or + any other diversion whatsoever; a convincing argument of which is, that in + the short time he lived, he accomplished so many and so great actions. + When he was free from employment, after he was up, and had sacrificed to + the gods, he used to sit down to breakfast, and then spend the rest of the + day in hunting, or writing memoirs, giving decisions on some military + questions, or reading. In marches that required no great haste, he would + practice shooting as he went along, or to mount a chariot, and alight from + it in full speed. Sometimes, for sport's sake, as his journals tell us, he + would hunt foxes and go fowling. When he came in for the evening, after he + had bathed and was anointed, he would call for his bakers and chief cooks, + to know if they had his dinner ready. He never cared to dine till it was + pretty late and beginning to be dark, and as wonderfully circumspect at + meals that every one who sat with him should be served alike and with + proper attention; and his love of talking, as was said before, made him + delight to sit long at his wine. And no prince's conversation was ever so + agreeable, yet he would at times fall into a temper of ostentation and + soldierly boasting, which gave his flatterers a great advantage to ride + him, and made his better friends very uneasy. After such an entertainment, + he was wont to bathe, and then perhaps he would sleep till noon, and + sometimes all day long. He was so very temperate in his eating, that when + any rare fish or fruits were sent him, he would distribute them among his + friends, and often reserve nothing for himself. His table, however, was + always magnificent, the expense of it still increasing with his good + fortune, till it amounted to ten thousand drachmas a day, to which sum he + limited it, and beyond this he would suffer none to lay out in any + entertainment where he himself was the guest. + </p> + <p> + Among the treasures and other booty that was taken from Darius, there was + a very precious casket, which being brought to Alexander for a great + rarity, he asked those about him what they thought fittest to be laid up + in it; and when they had delivered their various opinions, he told them he + should keep Homer's Iliad in it. Nor did Homer prove an unprofitable + companion to him in his expeditions. For, after he had become master of + Egypt he determined to found a great and populous city, and give to it his + own name. And when he had measured and staked out the ground with the + advice of the best architects, he chanced one night in his sleep to see a + wonderful vision; a gray-headed old man, of a venerable aspect, appeared + to stand by him, and pronounce these verses: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + An island lies, where loud the billows roar, + Pharos they call it, on the Egyptian shore. +</pre> + <p> + Alexander upon this immediately rose up and went to Pharos, which, at that + time, was an island lying a little above the Canobic mouth of the river + Nile, though it has now been joined to the main land by a mole. As soon as + he saw the commodious situation of the place, it being a long neck of + land, stretching like an isthmus between large lagoons and shallow waters + on one side, and the sea on the other, the latter at the end of it making + a spacious harbor, he said, Homer, besides his other excellences, was a + very good architect, and ordered the plan of a city to be drawn out + answerable to the place. To do which, for want of chalk, the soil being + black, they laid out their lines with flour, taking in a pretty large + compass of ground in a semicircular figure, and drawing into the inside of + the circumference equal straight lines from each end, thus giving it + something of the form of a cloak or cape. While he was pleasing himself + with his design, on a sudden an infinite number of great birds of several + kinds, rising like a black cloud out of the river and the lake, came and + devoured every morsel of the flour that had been used in setting out the + lines; at which omen even Alexander himself was troubled, till the augurs + restored his confidence again by telling him it was a sign that the city + he was about to build would not only abound in all things within itself, + but also be the nurse and feeder of many nations. + </p> + <p> + The great battle of all that was fought with Darius, was not, as most + writers tell us, at Arbela, but at Gaugamela, which, in their language, + signifies the camel's house, forasmuch as one of their ancient kings + having escaped the pursuit of his enemies on a swift camel, in gratitude + to his beast settled him at this place, with an allowance of certain + villages and rents for his maintenance. It came to pass that in the month + Boedromion, about the beginning of the Feast of Mysteries at Athens, there + was an eclipse of the moon, the eleventh night after which, the two armies + being now in view of one another, Darius kept his men in arms, and by + torchlight took a general review of them. But Alexander, while his + soldiers slept, spent the night before his tent with his diviner + Aristander, performing certain mysterious ceremonies, and sacrificing to + the god Fear. + </p> + <p> + In the meanwhile the oldest of his commanders, and chiefly Parmenio, when + they beheld all the plain between Niphates and the Gordyaean mountains + shining with the lights and fires which were made by the barbarians, and + heard the uncertain and confused sound of voices out of their camp, like + the distant roaring of a vast ocean, were so amazed at the thoughts of + such a multitude, that after some conference among themselves, they + concluded it an enterprise too difficult and hazardous for them to engage + so numerous an enemy in the day, and therefore meeting the king as he came + from sacrificing, besought him to attack Darius by night, that the + darkness might conceal the danger of the ensuing battle. To this he gave + them the celebrated answer, "I will not steal a victory," which, though + some at the time thought it a boyish and inconsiderate speech, as if he + played with danger, others regarded as an evidence that the confided in + his present condition, and acted on a true judgment of the future, not + wishing to leave Darius, in case he were worsted, the pretext of trying + his fortune again, which he might suppose himself to have, if he could + impute his overthrow to the disadvantage of the night, as he did before to + the mountains, the narrow passages, and the sea. For while he had such + numerous forces and large dominions still remaining, it was not any want + of men or arms that could induce him to give up the war, but only the loss + of all courage and hope upon the conviction of an undeniable and manifest + defeat. + </p> + <p> + After they were gone from him with this answer, he laid himself down in + his tent and slept the rest of the night more soundly than was usual with + him, to the astonishment of the commanders. Not only before the battle, + but in the height of the danger, he showed himself great, and manifested + the self-possession of a just foresight and confidence. For the battle for + some time fluctuated and was dubious. The left wing, where Parmenio + commanded, was so impetuously charged by the Bactrian horse that it was + disordered and forced to give ground, at the same time that Mazaeus had + sent a detachment around to fall upon those who guarded the baggage, which + so disturbed Parmenio, that he sent messengers to acquaint Alexander that + the camp and baggage would be all lost unless he immediately relieved the + rear by a considerable reinforcement drawn out of the front. This message + being brought him just as he was giving the signal to those about him for + the onset, he bade them tell Parmenio that he must have surely lost the + use of his reason, and had forgotten, in his alarm, that soldiers, if + victorious, become masters of their enemies' baggage; and if defeated, + instead of taking care of their wealth or their slaves, have nothing more + to do but to fight gallantly and die with honor. When he had said this, he + put on his helmet, having the rest of his arms on before he came out of + his tent, which were a coat of the Sicilian make, girt close about him, + and over that a breastpiece of thickly quilted linen, which was taken + among other booty at the battle of Issus. The helmet, which was made by + Theophilus, though of iron, was so well wrought and polished, that it was + as bright as the most refined silver. To this was fitted a gorget of the + same metal, set with precious stones His sword, which was the weapon he + most used in fight, was given him by the king of the Citieans, and was of + an admirable temper and lightness. The belt which he also wore in all + engagements, was of much richer workmanship than the rest of his armor. It + was the work of the ancient Helicon, and had been presented to him by the + Rhodians, as a mark of their respect to him. So long as he was engaged in + drawing up his men, or riding about to give orders or directions, or to + view them, he spared Bucephalas, who was now growing old, and made use of + another horse; but when he was actually to fight, he sent for him again, + and as soon as he was mounted, commenced the attack. + </p> + <p> + He made the longest address that day to the Thessalians and other Greeks, + who answered him with loud shouts desiring him to lead them on against the + barbarians, upon which he shifted his javelin into his left hand, and with + his right lifted up towards heaven, besought the gods, as Callisthenes + tells us, that if he was of a truth the son of Jupiter, they would be + pleased to assist and strengthen the Grecians. At the same time the augur + Aristander, who had a white mantle about him, and a crown of gold on his + head, rode by and showed them an eagle that soared just over Alexander, + and directed his flight towards the enemy; which so animated the + beholders, that after mutual encouragements and exhortations, the cavalry + charged at full speed, and were followed in a mass by the whole phalanx of + the foot. But before they could well come to blows with the first ranks, + the barbarians shrunk back, and were hotly pursued by Alexander, who drove + those that fled before him into the middle of the battle, where Darius + himself was in person, whom he saw from a distance over the foremost + ranks, conspicuous in the midst of his lifeguard, a tall and fine-looking + man, drawn in a lofty chariot, defended by an abundance of the best + cavalry who stood close in order about it, ready to receive the enemy. But + Alexander's approach was so terrible, forcing those who gave back upon + those who yet maintained their ground, that he beat down and dispersed + them almost all. Only a few of the bravest and valiantest opposed the + pursuit, who were slain in their king's presence, falling in heaps upon + one another, and in the very pangs of death striving to catch hold of the + horses. Darius now seeing all was lost, that those who were placed in + front to defend him were broken and beaten back upon him, that he could + not turn or disengage his chariot without great difficulty, the wheels + being clogged and entangled among the dead bodies, which lay in such heaps + as not only stopped, but almost covered the horses, and made them rear and + grow so unruly, that the frighted charioteer could govern them no longer, + in this extremity was glad to quit his chariot and his arms, and mounting, + it is said, upon a mare that had been taken from her foal, betook himself + to flight. + </p> + <p> + This battle being thus over, seemed to put a period to the Persian empire; + and Alexander, who was now proclaimed king of Asia, returned thanks to the + gods in magnificent sacrifices, and rewarded his friends and followers + with great sums of money, and places, and governments of provinces. + </p> + <p> + From here he marched through the province of Babylon, which immediately + submitted to him, and was much surprised at the sight in one place where + fire issues in a continuous stream, like a spring of water, out of a cleft + in the earth, and the stream of naphtha, which, not far from this spot, + flows out so abundantly as to form a sort of lake. This naphtha, in other + respects resembling bitumen, is so subject to take fire, that before it + touches the flame, it will kindle at the very light that surrounds it, and + often inflame the intermediate air also. The barbarians, to show the power + and nature of it, sprinkled the street that led to the king's lodgings + with little drops of it, and when it was almost night, stood at the + further end with torches, which being applied to the moistened places, the + first at once taking fire, instantly, as quick as a man could think of it, + it caught from one end to another, in such a manner that the whole street + was one continuous flame. + </p> + <p> + Alexander, in his own letters, has given us an account of his war with + Porus. He says that two armies were separated by the river Hydaspes, on + whose opposite bank Porus continually kept his elephants in order of + battle, with their heads towards their enemies, to guard the passage; that + he, on the other hand, made every day a great noise and clamor in his + camp, to dissipate the apprehensions of the barbarians; that one stormy, + dark night he passed the river, at a distance from the place where the + enemy lay, into a little island, with part of his foot, and the best of + his horse. Here there fell a most violent storm of rain accompanied with + lightning and whirlwinds, and although he saw some of his men burnt and + dying with the lightning, he nevertheless quitted the island and made over + to the other side. Here, apprehending the multitude of the enemy, and to + avoid the shock of their elephants, he divided his forces, and attacked + their left wing himself, commanding Coenus to fall upon the right, which + was performed with good success. By this means both wings being broken, + the enemies fell back in their retreat upon the centre, and crowded in + upon their elephants. There rallying, they fought a hand to hand battle, + and it was the eighth hour of the day before they were entirely defeated. + </p> + <p> + Almost all the historians agree in relating that Porus was four cubits and + a span high, and that when he was upon his elephant, which was of the + largest size, his stature and bulk were so answerable, that he appeared to + be proportionably mounted, as a horseman on his horse. This elephant, + during the whole battle, gave many singular proofs of sagacity and of + particular care of the king, whom as long as he was strong and in a + condition to fight, he defended with great courage, repelling those who + set upon him; and as soon as he perceived him overpowered with his + numerous wounds and the multitude of darts that were thrown at him, to + prevent his falling off, he softly knelt down and began to draw out the + darts with his proboscis. When Porus was taken prisoner, and Alexander + asked him how he expected to be used, he answered, "As a king." And + Alexander, accordingly, not only suffered him to govern his own kingdom as + satrap under himself, but gave him also the additional territory of + various independent tribes whom he subdued. + </p> + <p> + Some little time after the battle with Porus, Bucephalas died, as most of + the authorities state, under cure of his wounds, or as Onesicritus says, + of fatigue and age, being thirty years old. Alexander was no less + concerned at his death, than if he had lost an old companion or an + intimate friend, and built a city, which he named Bucephalia, in memory of + him, on the bank of the river Hydaspes. + </p> + <p> + Aristobulus tells us that Alexander died of a raging fever, having, in a + violent thirst, taken a copious draught of wine, upon which he fell into + delirium, and died on the thirtieth day of the month Daesius. + </p> + <p> + But the journals give the following record. On the eighteenth of the + month, he slept in the bathing-room on account of his fever. The next day + he bathed and removed into his chamber, and spent his time in playing at + dice with Medius. In the evening he bathed and sacrificed, and ate freely, + and had the fever on him through the night. On the twenty-fourth he was + much worse, and was carried out of his bed to assist at the sacrifices, + and gave order that the general officers should wait within the court, + whilst the inferior officers kept watch without doors. On the twenty-fifth + he was removed to his palace on the other side the river, where he slept a + little, but his fever did not abate, and when the generals came into his + chamber, he was speechless, and continued so the following day. The + Macedonians, therefore, supposing he was dead, came with great clamors to + the gates, and menaced his friends so that they were forced to admit them, + and let them all pass through unarmed along by his bedside. The same day + Python and Seleucus were despatched to the temple of Serapis to inquire if + they should bring Alexander thither, and were answered by the god, that + they should not remove him. On the twenty-eighth, in the evening, he died. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0034" id="link2H_4_0034"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE DEATH OF CAESAR + </h2> + <p> + The place destined for the scene of this murder, in which the senate met + that day, was the same in which Pompey's statue stood, and was one of the + edifices which Pompey had raised and dedicated with his theatre to the use + of the public, plainly showing that there was something of a supernatural + influence which guided the action, and ordered it to that particular + place. Cassius, just before the act, is said to have looked towards + Pompey's statue, and silently implored his assistance, though he had been + inclined to the doctrines of Epicurus. But this occasion and the instant + danger, carried him away out of all his reasonings, and filled him for the + time with a sort of inspiration. As for Antony, who was firm to Caesar, + and a strong man, Brutus Albinus kept him outside the house, and delayed + him with a long conversation contrived on purpose. When Caesar entered, + the senate stood up to show their respect to him, and of Brutus's + confederates, some came about his chair and stood behind it, others met + him, pretending to add their petitions to those of Tillius Cimber, in + behalf of his brother, who was in exile; and they followed him with their + joint supplications till he came to his seat. When he had sat down, he + refused to comply with their requests, and upon their urging him further, + began to reproach them severally for their importunities, when Tillius, + laying hold of his robe with both his hands, pulled it down from his neck, + which was the signal for the assault. Casca gave him the first cut, in the + neck, which was not mortal nor dangerous, coming, as it did, from one who + at the beginning of such a bold action was probably very much disturbed. + Caesar immediately turned about, and laid his hand upon the dagger and + kept hold of it. And both of them at the same time cried out, he that + received the blow, in Latin, "Vile Casca, what does this mean?" and he + that gave it, in Greek, to his brother, "Brother, help!" Upon this first + onset, those who were not privy to the design were astounded, and their + horror and amazement at what they saw were so great, that they durst not + fly nor assist Caesar, nor so much as speak a word. But those who came + prepared for the business inclosed him on every side, with their naked + daggers in their hands. Which way soever he turned, he met with blows, and + saw their swords leveled at his face and eyes, and was encompassed, like a + wild beast in the toils, on every side. For it had been agreed that they + should each make a thrust at him, and flesh themselves with his blood; for + which reason Brutus also gave him one stab in the groin. Some say that he + fought and resisted all the rest, shifting his body to avoid the blows, + and calling out for help, but that when he saw Brutus's sword drawn, he + covered his face with his robe and submitted, letting himself fall, + whether it were by chance, or that he was pushed in that direction by his + murderers, at the foot of the pedestal on which Pompey's statue stood, and + which was thus wet with his blood. So that Pompey himself seemed to have + presided, as it were, over the revenge done upon his adversary, who lay + here at his feet, and breathed out his soul through his multitude of + wounds, for they say he received three and twenty. And the conspirators + themselves were many of them wounded by each other, whilst they all + leveled their blows at the same person. + </p> + <p> + When Caesar's will was opened, and it was found that he had left a + considerable legacy to each one of the Roman citizens, and when his body + was seen carried through the marketplace all mangled with wounds, the + multitude could no longer contain themselves within the bounds of + tranquility and order, but heaped together a pile of benches, bars, and + tables, upon which they placed the corpse, and setting fire to it, burnt + it on them. Then they took brands from the pile, and ran some to fire the + conspirators, others up and down the city, to find out the men and tear + them to pieces, but met, however, with none of them, they having taken + effectual care to secure themselves. + </p> + <p> + Caesar died in his fifty-sixth year, not having survived Pompey above four + years. That empire and power which he had pursued through the whole course + of his life with so much hazard, he did at last with much difficulty + compass, but reaped no other fruits from it than the empty name and + invidious glory. But the great genius which attended him through his + lifetime, even after his death remained as the avenger of his murder, + pursuing through every sea and land all those who were concerned in it, + and suffering none to escape, but reaching all who in any sort or kind + were either actually engaged in the fact, or by their counsels any way + promoted it. + </p> + <p> + The most remarkable of mere human coincidences was that which befell + Cassius, who, when he was defeated at Philippi, killed himself with the + same dagger which he had made use of against Caesar. The most signal + preternatural appearances were the great comet, which shone very bright + for seven nights after Caesar's death, and then disappeared, and the + dimness of the sun, whose orb continued pale and dull for the whole of + that year, never showing its ordinary radiance at its rising, and giving + but a feeble heat. The air consequently was damp and gross, for want of + stronger rays to open and rarefy it. The fruits, for that reason, never + properly ripened, and began to wither and fall off for want of heat, + before they were fully formed. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Boys' and Girls' Plutarch, by Plutarch + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' PLUTARCH *** + +***** This file should be named 2484-h.htm or 2484-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/8/2484/ + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer, and David Widger + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Boys' and Girls' Plutarch + Being Parts of The "Lives" of Plutarch + +Author: Plutarch + +Editor: John S. White + +Posting Date: January 4, 2009 [EBook #2484] +Release Date: January, 2001 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' PLUTARCH *** + + + + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer + + + + + +THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' PLUTARCH + +BEING PARTS OF THE "LIVES" OF PLUTARCH + +By Plutarch + +Edited for Boys and Girls With Introductions By John S. White + +Head-Master Berkeley School + + + + +Table of Contents + + + Life of Theseus + Life of Romulus + Comparison of Theseus and Romulus + Life of Lycurgus + Life of Solon + Life of Themistocles + Life of Camillus + Life of Pericles + Life of Demosthenes + Life of Cicero + Comparison of Demosthenes and Cicero + Life of Alcibiades + Life of Coriolanus + Comparison of Alcibiades and Coriolanus + Life of Aristides + Life of Cimon + Life of Pompey + The Engines of Archimedes; from the Life of Marcellus + Description of Cleopatra; from the Life of Antony + Anecdotes from the Life of Agesilaus + The Brothers; from the Life of Timoleon + The Wound of Philopoemen + A Roman Triumph; from the Life of Paulus Aemilius + The Noble Character of Caius Fabricius; from the Life of Pyrrhus + From the Life of Quintus Fabius Maximus + The Cruelty of Lucius Cornelius Sylla + The Luxury of Lucullus + From the Life of Sertorius the Roman, who endeavored to establish + a separate Government for himself in Spain + The Scroll; from the Life of Lysander + The Character of Marcus Cato + The Sacred Theban Band; from the Life of Pelopidas + From the Life of Titus Flamininus, Conqueror of Philip + Life of Alexander the Great + The Death of Caesar + + + + +THESEUS + +As geographers crowd into the edges of their maps parts of the world +which they do not know about, adding notes in the margin to the effect +that beyond this lies nothing but sandy deserts full of wild beasts, +unapproachable bogs, Seythian ice, or frozen sea, so, in this great work +of mine, in which I have compared the lives of the greatest men with one +another, after passing through those periods which probable reasoning +can reach to and real history find a footing in, I might very well +say of those that are farther off, Beyond this there is nothing but +prodigies and fictions; the only inhabitants are the poets and inventors +of fables; there is no credit, or certainty any farther. Yet, after +publishing an account of Lycurgus the lawgiver and Numa the king, I +thought I might, not without reason, ascend as high as to Romulus, being +brought by my history so near to his time. Considering therefore with +myself + + Whom shall I set so great a man face to face? + Or whom oppose? Who's equal to the place? + +(as Aeschylus expresses it), I found none so fit as he who peopled the +beautiful and far-famed city of Athens, to be set in opposition with +the father of the invincible and renowned city of Rome. Let us hope that +Fable may, in what shall follow, so submit to the purifying processes of +Reason as to take the character of exact history. We shall beg that we +may meet with candid readers, and such as will receive with indulgence +the stories of antiquity. + +Theseus seemed to me to resemble Romulus in many particulars. Both of +them had the repute of being sprung from the gods. + +Both warriors; that by all the world's allowed. + +Both of them united with strength of body an equal vigor of mind; and of +the two most famous cities of the world, the one built in Rome, and the +other made Athens be inhabited. Neither of them could avoid domestic +misfortunes nor jealousy at home; but toward the close of their +lives are both of them said to have incurred great odium with their +countrymen, if, that is, we may take the stories least like poetry as +our guide to truth. + +Theseus was the son of Aegeus and Aethra. His lineage, by his father's +side, ascends as high as to Erechtheus and the first inhabitants of +Attica. By his mother's side, he was descended of Pelops, who was the +most powerful of all the kings of Peloponnesus. + +When Aegeus went from the home of Aethra in Troezen to Athens, he left +a sword and a pair of shoes, hiding them under a great stone that had a +hollow in it exactly fitting them; and went away making her only privy +to it, and commanding her that, if, when their son came to man's estate, +he should be able to lift up the stone and take away what he had left +there, she should send him away to him with those things with all +secrecy, and with injunctions to him as much as possible to conceal his +journey from everyone; for he greatly feared the Pallantidae, who were +continually mutinying against him, and despised him for his want of +children, they themselves being fifty brothers, all sons of Pallas, the +brother of Aegeus. + +When Aethra's son was born, some say that he was immediately named +Theseus, from the tokens which his father had put under the stone; +others that he received his name afterwards at Athens, when Aegeus +acknowledged him for his son. He was brought up under his grandfather +Pittheus, and had a tutor and attendant set over him named Connidas, to +whom the Athenians, even to this time, the day before the feast that is +dedicated to Theseus, sacrifice a ram, giving this honor to his memory +upon much juster grounds than to Silanio and Parrhasius, for making +pictures and statues of Theseus. There being then a custom for the +Grecian youth, upon their first coming to a man's estate, to go to +Delphi and offer firstfruits of their hair to the god, Theseus also went +thither, and a place there to this day is yet named Thesea, as it is +said, from him. He clipped only the fore part of his head, as Homer says +the Abantes did. And this sort of tonsure was from him named Theseis. +The Abantes first used it, not in imitation of the Arabians, as some +imagine, nor of the Mysians, but because they were a warlike people, +and used to close fighting, and above all other nations, accustomed to +engage hand to hand; as Archilochus testifies in these verses: + + Slings shall not whirl, nor many arrows fly, + When on the plain the battle joins; but swords, + Man against man, the deadly conflict try, + As is the practice of Euboea's lords + Skilled with the spear.-- + +Therefore, that they might not give their enemies a hold by their hair, +they cut it in this manner. They write also that this was the reason +why Alexander gave command to his captains that all the beards of the +Macedonians should be shaved, as being the readiest hold for an enemy. + +Aethra for some time concealed the true parentage of Theseus, and a +report was given out by Pittheus that he was the son of Neptune; for the +Troezenians pay Neptune the highest veneration. He is their tutelar god, +to him they offer all their firstfruits, and in his honor stamp their +money with a trident. + +Theseus displaying not only great strength of body, but equal bravery, +and a quickness alike and force of understanding, his mother Aethra, +conducting him to the stone, and informing him who was his true father, +commanded him to take from thence the tokens that Aegeus had left, and +to sail to Athens. He without any difficulty set himself to the stone +and lifted it up; but refused to take his journey by sea, though it was +much the safer way, and though his mother and grandfather begged him to +do so. For it was at that time very dangerous to go by land on the road +to Athens, no part of it being free from robbers and murderers. That +age produced a sort of men, in force of hand, and swiftness of foot, and +strength of body, excelling the ordinary rate, and wholly incapable of +fatigue; making use, however, of these gifts of nature to no good or +profitable purpose for mankind, but rejoicing and priding themselves +in insolence, and taking the benefit of their superior strength in +the exercise of inhumanity and cruelty, and in seizing, forcing, and +committing all manner of outrages upon everything that fell into their +hands; all respect for others, all justice, they thought, all equity and +humanity, though naturally lauded by common people, either out of +want of courage to commit injuries or fear to receive them, yet no way +concerned those who were strong enough to win for themselves. Some +of these Hercules destroyed and cut off in his passage through these +countries, but some, escaping his notice, while he was passing by, fled +and hid themselves, or else were spared by him in contempt of their +abject submission; and after that Hercules fell into misfortune, and, +having slain Iphitus, retired to Lydia, and for a long time was there +slave to Omphale, a punishment which he had imposed upon himself for +the murder. Then, indeed, Lydia enjoyed high peace and security, but in +Greece and the countries about it the like villainies again revived +and broke out, there being none to repress or chastise them. It was +therefore a very hazardous journey to travel by land from Athens to +Peloponnesus; and Pittheus, giving him an exact account of each of these +robbers and villains, their strength, and the cruelty they used to all +strangers, tried to persuade Theseus to go by sea. But he, it seems, had +long since been secretly fired by the glory of Hercules, held him in the +highest estimation, and was never more satisfied than in listening to +any that gave an account of him; especially those that had seen him, +or had been present at any action or saying of his. So that he was +altogether in the same state of feeling as, in after ages, Themistocles +was, when he said that he could not sleep for the trophy of Miltiades; +entertaining such admiration for the virtues of Hercules that in his +dreams were all of that hero's actions, and in the day a continual +emulation stirred him up to perform the like. Besides, they were +related, being born of own cousins. For Aethra was daughter of Pittheus, +and Alcmena of Lysidice; and Lysidice and Pittheus were brother and +sister, children of Hippodamia and Pelpos. He thought it therefore a +dishonorable thing, and not to be endured, that Hercules should go out +everywhere, and purge both land and sea from the wicked men, and he +should fly from the like adventures that actually came his way; not +showing his true father as good evidence of the greatness of his birth +by noble and worthy actions, as by the tokens that he brought with him, +the shoes and the sword. + +With this mind and these thoughts, he set forward with a design to do +injury to nobody, but to repel and avenge himself of all those that +should offer any. And first of all, in a set combat he slew Periphtes, +in the neighborhood of Epidaurus, who used a club for his arms, and from +thence had the name of Corynetes, or the club-bearer; who seized upon +him, and forbade him to go forward in his journey. Being pleased with +the club, he took it, and made it his weapon, continuing to use it as +Hercules did the lion's skin, on whose shoulders that served to prove +how huge a beast he had killed; and to the same end Theseus carried +about him this club; overcome indeed by him, but now, in his hands, +invincible. + +Passing on further towards the Isthmus of Peloponnesus, he slew Sinnis, +often surnamed the Bender of Pines, after the same manner in which he +himself had destroyed many others before. And this he did without having +either practiced or ever learnt the art of bending these trees, to show +that natural strength is above all art. This Sinnis had a daughter of +remarkable beauty and stature, called Perigune, who, when her father +was killed, fled, and was sought after everywhere by Theseus; and coming +into a place overgrown with brushwood, shrubs, and asparagus-thorn, +there, in a childlike, innocent manner, prayed and begged them, as if +they understood her, to give shelter, with vows that if she escaped she +would never cut them down nor burn them. But Theseus calling upon her, +and giving her his promise that he would use her with respect, and +offer no injury, she came forth. Whence it is a family usage amongst the +people called Ioxids, from the name of her grandson, Ioxus, both male +and female, never to burn either shrubs or asparagus-thorn, but to +respect and honor them. + +The Crommyonian sow, which they called Phaea, was a savage and +formidable wild beast, by no means an enemy to be despised. Theseus +killed her, going out of his way on purpose to meet and engage her, so +that he might not seem to perform all his great exploits out of mere +necessity; being also of opinion that it was the part of a brave man to +chastise villainous and wicked men when attacked by them, but to seek +out and overcome the more noble wild beasts. Others relate that Phaea +was a woman, a robber full of cruelty, that lived in Crommyon, and had +the name of Sow given her from the foulness of her life and manners, and +afterwards was killed by Theseus. He slew also Sciron, upon the borders +of Megara, casting him down from the rocks, being, as most report, a +notorious robber of all passengers, and, as others add, accustomed out +of insolence and wantonness, to stretch forth his feet to strangers, +commanding them to wash them, and then while they did it, with a kick to +send them down the rock into the sea. + +In Eleusis he killed Cercyon, the Arcadian, in a wrestling match. And +going on a little farther, in Erineus, he slew Damastes, otherwise +called Procrustes, forcing his body to the size of his own bed, as he +himself was used to do with all strangers; this he did in imitation +of Hercules, who always returned upon his assailants the same sort of +violence that they offered to him; sacrificed Busiris, killed Antaeus +in wrestling, and Cycnus in single combat, and Termerus by breaking his +skull in pieces (whence, they say, comes the proverb of "a Termerian +mischief"), for it seems Termerus killed passengers that he met by +running with his head against them. And so also Theseus proceeded with +the same violence from which they had inflicted upon others, justly +suffering after the same manner of their own injustice. + +As he went forward on his journey, and was come as far as the River +Cephisus, some of the race of the Phytalidae met him and saluted him, +and upon his desire to use the purifications, then in custom, they +performed them with all the usual ceremonies, and having offered +propitiatory sacrifices to the gods, invited him and entertained him at +their house, a kindness which, in all his journey hitherto, he had not +met. + +On the eighth day of Cronius, now called Hecatombaeon, he arrived at +Athens, where he found the public affairs full of all confusion, and +divided into parties and factions. Aegeus also, and his whole private +family, laboring under the same distemper; for Medea, having fled from +Corinth, was living with him. She was first aware of Theseus, whom as +yet Aegeus did not know, and he being in years, full of jealousies and +suspicions, and fearing everything by reason of the faction that was +then in the city, she easily persuaded him to kill him by poison at a +banquet, to which he was to be invited as a stranger. He, coming to +the entertainment, thought it not fit to discover himself at once, but, +willing to give his father the occasion of first finding him out, the +meat being on the table, he drew his sword as if he designed to cut with +it; Aegeus, at once recognizing the token, threw down the cup of poison, +and, questioning his son, embraced him, and, having gathered together +all his citizens, owned him publicly before them, who, on their part, +received him gladly for the fame of his greatness and bravery. + +The sons of Pallas, who were quiet, upon expectation of recovering the +kingdom after Aegeus's death, who was without issue, as soon as Theseus +appeared and was acknowledged the successor, highly resenting that +Aegeus first, as adopted son only of Pandion, and not at all related to +the family of Erechtheus, should be holding the kingdom, and that after +him, Theseus, a visitor and stranger, should be destined to succeed +to it, broke out into open war. And, dividing themselves into two +companies, one part of them marched openly from Sphettus, with their +father, against the city; the other, hiding themselves in the village +of Gargettus, lay in ambush, with a design to set upon the enemy on both +sides. They had with them a crier of the township of Agnus, named +Leos, who discovered to Theseus all the designs of the Pallentidae. He +immediately fell upon those that lay in amuscade, and cut them all off; +upon tidings of which Pallas and his company fled and were dispersed. + +From hence they say is derived the custom among the people of the +township of Pallene to have no marriages or any alliance with the people +of Agnus, nor to suffer the criers to pronounce in their proclamations +the words used in all other parts of the country, Acouete Leoi (Hear ye +people), hating the very sound of Leo, because of the treason of Leos. + +Theseus, longing to be in action, and desirous also to make himself +popular, left Athens to fight with the bull of Marathon, which did no +small mischief to the inhabitants of Tetrapolis. And, having overcome +it, he brought it alive in triumph through the city, and afterwards +sacrificed it to the Delphian Apollo. The story of Hecale, also, of her +receiving and entertaining Theseus in this expedition, seems to be not +altogether void of truth; for the townships round about, meeting upon a +certain day, used to offer a sacrifice, which they called Hecalesia, +to Jupiter Hecaleius, and to pay honor to Hecale, whom, by a diminutive +name, they called Hecalene, because she, while entertaining Theseus, +who was quite a youth, addressed him, as old people do, with similar +endearing diminutives; and having made a vow to Jupiter that he was +going to the fight, that, if he returned in safety, she would offer +sacrifices in thanks of it, and dying before he came back, she had these +honors given her by way of return for her hospitality, by the command of +Theseus, as Philochorus tells us. + +Not long afterwards came the third time from Crete the collectors of +the tribute which the Athenians paid them upon the following occasion. +Androgeus having been treacherously murdered in the confines of Attica, +not only Minos, his father, put the Athenians to extreme distress by a +perpetual war, but the gods also laid waste their country; both famine +and pestilence lay heavy upon them, and even their rivers were dried up. +Being told by the oracle that if they appeased and reconciled Minos, +the anger of the gods would cease and they should enjoy rest from +the miseries they labored under, they sent heralds, and with much +supplication were at last reconciled, entering into an agreement to +send to Crete every nine years a tribute of seven young men and as many +virgins, as most writers agree in stating; and the most poetical +story adds that the Minotaur destroyed them, or that, wandering in the +Labyrinth, and finding no possible means of getting out, they miserably +ended their lives there, and that this Minotaur was (as Euripides hath +it) + + A mingled form, where two strange shapes combined, + And different natures, bull and man, were joined. + +Now when the time of the third tribute was come, and the fathers who +had any young men for their sons were to proceed by lot to the choice +of those that were to be sent, there arose fresh discontents and +accusations against Aegeus among the people, who were full of grief and +indignation that he, who was the cause of all their miseries, was the +only person exempt from the punishment; adopting and setting his kingdom +upon a foreign son, he took no thought, they said, of their destitution +and loss of their lawful children. These things sensibly affected +Theseus, who, thinking it but just not to disregard, but rather partake +of, the sufferings of his fellow citizens, offered himself for one +without any lot. All else were struck with admiration for the nobleness, +and with love for the goodness, of the act; and Aegeus, after prayers +and entreaties, finding him inflexible and not to be persuaded, +proceeded to the choosing of the rest by lot. Hellanicus, however, tells +us that the Athenians did not send the young men and virgins by lot, +but that Minos himself used to come and make his own choice, and pitched +upon Theseus before all others; according to the conditions agreed upon +between, namely, that the Athenians should furnish them with a ship, and +that the young men who were to sail with him should carry no weapon of +war; but that if the Minotaur was destroyed the tribute should cease. + +On the two former occasions of the payment of the tribute, entertaining +no hopes of safety or return, they sent out the ship with a black sail, +as to unavoidable destruction; but now, Theseus encouraging his father +and speaking greatly of himself, as confident that he should kill the +Minotaur, he gave the pilot another sail, which was white, commanding +him, as he returned, if Theseus were safe, to make use of that; but +if not, to sail with the black one, and to hang out that sign of his +misfortune. Simonides says that the sail which Aegeus delivered to the +pilot was not white, but + + Scarlet, in the juicy bloom + Of the living oak-tree steeped. + +The lot being cast, and Theseus having received out of the Prytaneum +those upon whom it fell, he went to the Delphinium, and made an offering +for them to Apollo of his suppliant's badge, which was a bough of a +consecrated olive tree, with white wool tied about it. + +Having thus performed his devotion, he went to sea, the sixth day of +Munychion, on which day even to this time the Athenians send their +virgins to the same temple to make supplication to the gods. It is +farther reported that he was commanded by the oracle at Delphi to make +Venus his guide, and to invoke her as the companion and conductress of +his voyage, and that, as he was sacrificing a she goat to her by the +seaside, it was suddenly changed into a he, and for this cause that +goddess had the name of Epitragia. + +When he arrived at Crete, as most of the ancient historians as well as +poets tell us, having a clue of thread given him by Ariadne, who had +fallen in love with him, and being instructed by her now to use it so as +to conduct him through the windings of the Labyrinth, he escaped out of +it and slew the Minotaur, and sailed back, taking along with him Ariadne +and the young Athenian captives. Pherecydes adds that he bored holes +in the bottom of the Cretan ships to hinder their pursuit. Demon writes +that Taurus, the chief captain of Minos, was slain by Theseus at the +mouth of the port, in a naval combat, as he was sailing out for Athens. +But Philochorus gives us the story thus: That at the setting forth of +the yearly games by King Minos, Taurus was expected to carry away +the prize, as he had done before; and was much grudged the honor. +His character and manners made his power hateful, and he was accused, +moreover, of too near familiarity with Pasiphae, for which reason, when +Theseus desired the combat, Minos readily complied. And as it was a +custom in Crete that the women also should be admitted to the sight of +these games, Ariadne, being present, was struck with admiration of the +manly beauty of Theseus, and the vigor and address which he showed in +combat, overcoming all that encountered with him. Minos, too, being +extremely pleased with him, especially because he had overthrown and +disgraced Taurus, voluntarily gave up the young captives to Theseus, and +remitted the tribute to the Athenians. + +There are yet many traditions about these things, and as many concerning +Ariadne, all inconsistent with each other. Some relate that she hung +herself, being deserted by Theseus. Others that she was carried away +by his sailors to the isle of Naxos, and married to Oenarus, priest of +Bacchus; and that Theseus left her because he fell in love with another, + + "For Aegle's love was burning in his breast." + +Now Theseus, in his return from Crete, put in at Delos, and, having +sacrificed to the god of the island, dedicated to the temple the +image of Venus which Ariadne had given him, and danced with the young +Athenians a dance that, in memory of him, they say is still preserved +among the inhabitants of Delos, consisting in certain measured +turnings and returnings, imitative of the windings and twistings of the +Labyrinth. And this dance, as Dicaearchus writes, is called among the +Delians, the Crane. This he danced round the Ceratonian Altar, so called +from its consisting of horns taken from the left side of the head. They +also say that he instituted games in Delos, where he was the first that +began the of giving a palm to the victors. + +When they were come near the coast of Attica, so great was the joy for +the happy success of their voyage, that neither Theseus himself nor the +pilot remembered to hang out the sail which should have been the token +of their safety to Aegeus, who, in despair at the sight, threw himself +headlong from a rock, and perished in the sea. But Theseus, being +arrived at the port of Phalerum, paid there the sacrifices which he had +vowed to the gods at his setting out to sea, and sent a herald to the +city to carry the news of his safe return. At his entrance, the herald +found the people for the most part full of grief for the loss of their +king, others, as may well be believed, as full of joy for the tidings +that he brought, and eager to welcome him and crown him with garlands +for his good news, which he indeed accepted of, but hung them upon his +herald's staff; and thus returning to the seaside before Theseus +had finished his libation to the gods, he stayed apart for fear of +disturbing the holy rites, but, as soon as the libation was ended, went +up and related the king's death, upon the hearing of which, with great +lamentations and a confused tumult of grief, they ran with all haste to +the city. And from hence, they say, it comes that at this day, in the +feast of Oschoporia, the herald is not crowned, but his staff, and all +who are present at the libation cry out "eleleu, iou, iou," the first of +which confused sounds is commonly used by men in haste, or at a triumph, +the other is proper to people in consternation or disorder of mind. + +Theseus, after the funeral of his father, paid his vows to Apollo the +seventh day of Pyanepsion; for on that day the youth that returned with +him safe from Crete made their entry into the city. They say, also, that +the custom of boiling pulse at this feast is derived from hence; because +the young men that escaped put all that was left of their provision +together, and, boiling it in one common pot, feasted themselves with +it, and ate it all up together. Hence, also, they carry in procession +an olive branch bound about with wool (such as they then made use of in +their supplications), which they call Eiresione, crowned with all sorts +of fruits, to signify that scarcity and barrenness was ceased, singing +in their procession this song: + + Eiresione brings figs, and Eiresione brings loaves; + Bring us honey in pints, and oil to rub on our bodies, + And a strong flagon of wine, for all to go mellow to bed on. + +The ship wherein Theseus and the youth of Athens returned had thirty +oars, and was preserved by the Athenians down even to the time of +Demetrius Phalereus, for they took away the old planks as they decayed, +putting in new and stronger timber in their place, insomuch that this +ship became a standing example among the philosophers, for the logical +question as to things that grow; one side holding that the ship remained +the same, and the other contending that it was not the same. + +Now, after the death of his father Aegeus, forming in his mind a great +and wonderful design, he gathered together all the inhabitants of Attica +into one town, and made them one people of one city, whereas before they +lived dispersed, and were not easy to assemble upon any affair, for +the common interest. Nay, the differences and even wars often occurred +between them, which he by his persuasions appeased, going form township +to township, and from tribe to tribe. And those of a more private and +mean condition readily embracing such good advice, to those of greater +power he promised a commonwealth without monarchy, a democracy, or +people's government, in which he should only be continued as their +commander in war and the protector of their laws, all things else being +equally distributed among them;--and by this means brought a part +of them over to his proposal. The rest, fearing his power, which was +already grown very formidable, and knowing his courage and resolution, +chose rather to be persuaded than forced into a compliance. He then +dissolved all the distant state-houses, council halls, and magistracies, +and built one common state-house (the Prytaneum) and council hall on the +site of the present upper town, and gave the name of Athens to the +whole state, ordaining a common feast and sacrifice, which he called +Panathenaea, or the sacrifice of all the united Athenians. He instituted +also another sacrifice, called Metoecia, or Feast of Migration, which +is yet celebrated on the sixteenth day of Hecatombaeon. Then, as he +had promised, he laid down his regal power and proceeded to order a +commonwealth, entering upon this great work not without advice from the +gods. For having sent to consult the oracle of Delphi concerning the +fortune of his new government and city, he received this answer: + + Son of the Pitthean maid, + To your town the terms and fates + My father gives of many states. + Be not anxious or afraid: + The bladder will not fail to swim + On the waves that compass him. + +Which oracle, they say, one of the sibyls long after did in a manner +repeat to the Athenians, in this verse: + +The bladder may be dipt, but not be drowned. + +Farther yet designing to enlarge his city, he invited all strangers to +come and enjoy equal privileges with the natives, and it is said that +the common form, "Come hither all ye people," was the words that Theseus +proclaimed when he thus set up a commonwealth, in a manner, for all +nations. Yet he did not suffer his state, by the promiscuous multitude +that flowed in, to be turned into confusion and be left without any +order or degree, but was the first that divided the commonwealth into +three distinct ranks, the noblemen, the husbandmen, and artificers. +To the nobility he committed the care of religion, the choice of +magistrates, the teaching and dispensing of the laws, and interpretation +and direction in all sacred matters; the whole city being, as it were, +reduced to an exact equality, the nobles excelling the rest in honor, +the husbandmen in profit, and the artifices in number. And that Theseus +was the first, who, as Aristotle says, out of an inclination to popular +government, parted with the regal power, Homer also seems to testify, +in his catalogue of ships, where he gives the name of "People" to the +Athenians only. + +He also coined money, and stamped it with the image of an ox, either +in memory of the Marathonian bull, or of Taurus, whom he vanquished, or +else to put his people in mind to follow husbandry; and from this coin +came the expression so frequent among the Greeks, as a thing being +worth ten or a hundred oxen. After this he joined Megara to Attica, and +erected that famous pillar on the isthmus, which bears an inscription of +two lines, showing the bounds of the two countries that meet there. On +the east side the inscription is,-"Peloponnesus there, Ionia here," And +on the west side,-"Peloponnesus here, Ionia there." + +He also instituted the games, in emulation of Hercules, being ambitious +that as the Greeks, by that hero's appointment, celebrated the Olympian +games to the honor of Jupiter, so, by his institution, they should +celebrate the Isthmian to the honor of Neptune. At the same time he made +an agreement with the Corinthians, that they should allow those that +came from Athens to the celebration of the Isthmian games as much space +of honor before the rest to behold the spectacle in as the sail of the +ship that brought them thither, stretched to its full extent, could +cover; so Hellenicus and Andro of Halicarnassus have established. + +Concerning his voyage into the Euxine Sea, Philochorus and some others +write that he made it with Hercules, offering him his service in the +war against the Amazons, and had Antiope given him for the reward of his +valor; but the greater number, of whom are Pherecides, Hellanicus, +and Herodorus, with a navy under his own command, and took the Amazon +prisoner,--the more probable story, for we do not read that any other, +of all those that accompanied him in this action, took any Amazon +prisoner. Bion adds, that, to take her, he had to use deceit and fly +away; for the Amazons, he says, being naturally lovers of men, were so +far from avoiding Theseus when he touched upon their coasts, that they +sent him presents to his ship; but he, having invited Antiope, who +brought them, to come aboard, immediately set sail and carried her +away. An author named Menecrates, that wrote the History of Nicaea in +Bithynia, adds, that Theseus, having Antiope aboard his vessel, cruised +for some time about those coasts, and that there were in the same ship +three young men of Athens, that accompanied him in his voyage, all +brothers, whose names were Euneos, Thoas, and Soloon. The last of these +fell desperately in love with Antiope; and escaping the notice of the +rest, revealed the secret only to one of his most intimate acquaintance, +and employed him to disclose his passion to Antiope. She rejected his +pretences with a very positive denial, yet treated the matter with much +gentleness and discretion, and made no complaint to Theseus of anything +that had happened; but Soloon, the thing being desperate, leaped into +a river near the seaside and drowned himself. As soon as Theseus was +aquainted with his death, and his unhappy love that was the cause of it, +he was extremely distressed, and, in the height of his grief, an oracle +which he had formerly received at Delphi came into his mind; for he had +been commanded by the priestess of Apollo Pythius, that, wherever in a +strange land he was most sorrowful and under the greatest affliction, +he should build a city there, and leave some of his followers to be +governors of the place. For this cause he there founded a city, which +he called, from the name of Apollo, Pythopolis, and, in honor of the +unfortunate youth, he named the river that runs by it Soloon, and left +the two surviving brothers intrusted with the care of the government and +laws, joining with them Hermus, one of the nobility of Athens, from whom +a place in the city is called the House of Hermus; though by an error +in the accent it has been taken for the House of Hermes, or Mercury, and +the honor that was designed to the hero, transferred to the god. + +This was the origin and cause of the Amazonian invasion of Attica, which +would seem to have been no slight or womanish enterprise. For it is +impossible that they should have placed their camp in the very city, +and joined battle close by the Pnyx and the hill called Museum, unless, +having first conquered the country round about, they had thus with +impunity advanced to the city. That they made so long a journey by land, +and passed the Cimmerian Bosphorus when frozen, as Hellanicus writes, +is difficult to be believed. That they encamped all but in the city is +certain, and may be sufficiently confirmed by the names that the places +thereabout yet retain, and the graves and the monuments of those that +fell the battle. Both armies being in sight, there was a long pause and +doubt on each side which should give the first onset; at last Theseus, +having sacrificed to Fear, in obedience to the command of an oracle he +had received, gave them battle, in which action a great number of the +Amazons were slain. At length, after four months, a peace was concluded +between them by the mediation of Hippolyta (for so this historian calls +the Amazon whom Theseus married, and not Antiope), though others write +that she was slain with a dart by Molpadia, while fighting by Theseus's +side, and that the pillar which stands by the temple of Olympian Earth +was erected to her honor. Nor is it to be wondered at, that in events +of such antiquity, history should be in disorder. This is as much as is +worth telling concerning the Amazons. + +The celebrated friendship between Theseus and Pirithous is said to have +been begun as follows: The fame of the strength and valor of Theseus +being spread through Greece, Pirithous was desirous to make a trial +and proof of it himself, and to this end seized a herd of oxen which +belonged to Theseus, and was driving them away from Marathon, and, when +news was brought that Theseus pursued him in arms, he did not fly, but +turned back and went to meet him. But as soon as they had viewed one +another, each so admired the gracefulness and beauty, and was seized +with such a respect for the courage of the other, that they forgot all +thoughts of fighting; and Pirithous, first stretching out his hand to +Theseus, bade him be judge in this case himself, and promised to submit +willingly to any penalty he should impose. But Theseus not only forgave +him all, but entreated him to be his friend and brother in arms; and +they ratified their friendship by oaths. After this Pirithous married +Deidamia, and invited Theseus to the wedding, entreating him to come and +see his country, and make acquaintance with the Lapithae; he had at the +same time invited the Centaurs to the feast, who, growing hot with +wine and beginning to be insolent and wild, the Lapithae took immediate +revenge upon them, slaying many of them upon the place, and afterwards, +having overcome them in battle, drove the whole race of them out of +their country, Theseus all along taking the part of the Lapithae, and +fighting on their side. + +Theseus was now fifty years old, as Hellanicus states, when he carried +off Helen, who was yet too young to be married. Some writers, to take +away this accusation of one of the greatest crimes laid to his charge, +say that he did not steal away Helen himself, but that Idas and +Lynceus brought her to him, and committed her to his charge, and that, +therefore, he refused to restore her at the demand of Castor and Pollux; +or, indeed, they say her own father, Tyndarus, had sent her to be kept +by him, for fear of Enarophorus, the son of Hippocoon, who would +have carried her away by force when she was yet a child. But the most +probable account, and that which has witnesses on its side, is this: +Theseus and Pirithous went both together to Sparta, and, having seized +the young lady as she was dancing in the temple of Diana Orthia, fled +away with her. There were presently men in arms sent to pursue, but they +followed no farther than to Tegea; and Theseus and Pirithous being now +out of danger, having passed through Peloponnesus, made an agreement +between themselves, that he to whom the lot should fall should have +Helen to his wife, but should be obliged to assist in procuring another +for his friend. The lot fell upon Theseus, who conveyed her to Aphidnae, +not being yet marriageable, and delivered her to one of his allies, +called Aphidnus, and having sent his mother, Aethra, after to take care +of her, desired him to keep them so secretly that none might know +where they were; which done, to return the same service to his friend +Pirithous, he accompanied him in his journey to Epirus, in order to +steal away the king of the Molossians' daughter. The king, his own name +being Aidoneus, or Pluto, called his wife Proserpina, and his daughter +Cora, and a great dog which he kept Cerberus, with whom he ordered all +that came as suitors to his daughter to fight, and promised her to him +that should overcome the beast. But having been informed that the design +of Pirithous and his companion was not to court his daughter, but to +force her away, he caused them both to be seized, and threw Pirithous to +be torn to pieces by the dog, and put Theseus into prison, and kept him. + +About this time Menetheus, the son of Peteus, grandson of Orneus, and +great-grandson to Erechtheus, the first man that is recorded to have +affected popularity and ingratiated himself with the multitude, stirred +up and exasperated the most eminent men of the city, who had long borne +a secret grudge to Theseus, conceiving that he had robbed them of their +several little kingdoms and lordships, and, having pent them all up in +one city, was using them as his subjects and slaves. He put also the +meaner people into commotion, telling them, that, deluded with a mere +dream of liberty, though indeed they were deprived both of that and +their proper homes and religious usages, instead of many good and +gracious kings of their own, they had given themselves up to be +lorded over by a newcomer and a stranger. Whilst he was thus busied +in infecting the minds of the citizens, the war that Castor and Pollux +brought against Athens came very opportunity to farther the sedition he +had been promoting, and some say that he by his persuasions was wholly +the cause of their invading the city. At their first approach they +committed no acts of hostility, but peaceably demanded their sister +Helen; but the Athenians returning answer that they neither had her nor +knew where she was disposed of, they prepared to assault the city, when +Academus, having, by whatever means, found it out, disclosed to them +that she was secretly kept at Aphidnea. For which reason he was +both highly honored during his life by Castor and Pollux, and the +Lacedaemonians, when often in after times they made excursions into +Attica, and destroyed all the country round about, spared the Academy +for the sake of Academus. + +Hercules, passing by the Molossians, was entertained in his way by +Aidoneus the king, who, in conversation, accidentally spoke of the +journey of Theseus and Pirithous into his country, of what they had +designed to do, and what they were forced to suffer. Hercules was much +grieved for the inglorious death of the one and the miserable condition +of the other. As for Pirithous, he thought it useless to complain; but +begged to have Theseus released for his sake, and obtained that favor +from the king. Theseus, being thus set at liberty, returned to Athens, +where his friends were not wholly suppressed, and dedicated to Hercules +all the sacred places which the city had set apart for himself, changing +their names from Thesea to Herculea, four only excepted, as Philochorus +writes. And wishing immediately to resume the first place in the +commonwealth, and manage the state as before, he soon found himself +involved in factions and troubles; those who long had hated him had +now added to their hatred contempt; and the minds of the people were +so generally corrupted, that, instead of obeying commands with silence, +they expected to be flattered into their duty. He had some thoughts +to have reduced them by force, but was overpowered by demagogues and +factions. And at last, despairing of any good success of his affairs in +Athens, he sent away his children privately to Euboea, commending them +to the care of Elephenor, the son of Chalcodon; and he himself, having +solemnly cursed the people of Athens in the village of Gargettus, in +which there yet remains the place called Araterion, or the place of +cursing, sailed to Scyros, where he had lands left him by his father, +and friendship, as he thought, with those of the island. Lycomedes was +then king of Scyros. Theseus, therefore, addressed himself to him, +and desired to have his lands put into his possession, as designing +to settle and dwell there, though others say that he came to beg his +assistance against the Athenians. But Lycomedes, either jealous of the +glory of so great a man, or to gratify Menestheus, having led him up to +the highest cliff of the island, on pretense of showing him from thence +the lands that he desired, threw him headlong down from the rock and +killed him. Others say he fell down of himself by a slip of his foot, +as he was walking there, according to his custom, after supper. At that +time there was no notice taken, nor were any concerned for his death, +but Menestheus quietly possessed the kingdom of Athens. His sons were +brought up in a private condition, and accompanied Elephenor to the +Trojan war, but, after the decease of Menestheus in that expedition, +returned to Athens, and recovered the government. But in succeeding +ages, beside several other circumstances that moved the Athenians to +honor Theseus as a demigod, in the battle which was fought at Marathon +against the Medes, many of the soldiers believed they saw an apparition +of Theseus in arms, rushing on at the head of them against the +barbarians. And after the Median war, Phaedo being archon of Athens, +the Athenians, consulting the oracle at Delphi, were commanded to gather +together the bones of Theseus, and, laying them in some honorable place, +keep them as sacred in the city. But it was very difficult to recover +these relics, or so much as to find out the place where they lay, on +account of the inhospitable and savage temper of the barbarous people +that inhabited the island. Nevertheless, afterwards, when Cimon took the +island (as is related in his life), and had a great ambition to find +the place where Theseus was buried, he, by chance, spied an eagle upon +a rising ground pecking with her beak and tearing up the earth with her +talons, when on the sudden it came into his mind, as it were by some +divine inspiration, to dig there, and search for the bones of Theseus. +There were found in that place a coffin of a man of more than ordinary +size, and a brazen spear-head, and a sword lying by it, all which he +took aboard his galley and brought with him to Athens. Upon which the +Athenians, greatly delighted, went out to meet and receive the relics +with splendid procession and with sacrifices, as if it were Theseus +himself returning alive to the city. He lies interred in the middle of +the city, near the present gymnasium. His tomb is a sanctuary and +refuge for slaves, and all those of mean condition that fly from the +persecution of men in power, in memory that Theseus while he lived +was an assister and protector of the distressed, and never refused the +petitions of the afflicted that fled to him. The chief and most solemn +sacrifice which they celebrate to him is kept on the eighth day of +Pyanepsion, on which he returned with the Athenian young men from Crete. +Besides which, they sacrifice to him on the eighth day of every month, +either because he returned from Troezen the eighth day of Hecatombaeon, +as Diodorus the geographer writes, or else thinking that number to be +proper to him, because he was reputed to be born of Neptune, because +they sacrifice to Neptune on the eighth day of every month. The number +eight being the first cube of an even number, and the double of the +first square, seemed to be am emblem of the steadfast and immovable +power of this god, who from thence has the names of Asphalius and +Gaeiochus, that is, the establisher and stayer of the earth. + + + + +ROMULUS + +From whom, and for what reason, the city of Rome, a name so great in +glory, and famous in the mouths of all men, was so first called, authors +do not agree. + +But the story which is most believed and has the greatest number of +vouchers in general outline runs thus: the kings of Alba reigned in +lineal descent from Aeneas, and the succession devolved at length upon +two brothers, Numitor and Amulius. Amulius proposed to divide things +into two equal shares, and set as equivalent to the kingdom the treasure +and gold that were brought from Troy. Numitor chose the kingdom; but +Amulius, having the money, and being able to do more with that than +Numitor, took his kingdom from with great ease, and, fearing lest his +daughter might have children who would supplant him, made her a Vestal, +bound in that condition forever to live a single and maiden life. This +lady some call Ilia, others Rhea, and others Silvia; however, not long +after, contrary to the established laws of the Vestals, she had two +sons of more than human size and beauty, whom Amulius, becoming yet more +alarmed, commanded a servant to take and cast away; this man some call +Faustulus, others say Faustulus was the man who brought them up. He put +the children, however, in a small trough, and went towards the river +with a design to cast them in; but seeing the waters much swollen +and coming violently down, was afraid to go nearer, and, dropping the +children near the bank, went away. The river overflowing, the flood at +last bore up the trough, and, gently wafting it, landed them on a +smooth piece of ground, which they now call Cermanus, formerly Germanus, +perhaps from "Germani," which signifies brothers. + +While the infants lay here, history tells us, a she-wolf nursed them, +and a woodpecker constantly fed and watched them. These creatures +are esteemed holy to the god Mars; the woodpecker the Latins still +especially worship and honor. Which things, as much as any, gave credit +to what the mother of the children said, that their father was the god +Mars. + +Meantime Faustulus, Amulius's swineherd, brought up the children +without any man's knowledge; or, as those say who wish to keep closer to +probabilities, with the knowledge and secret assistance of Numitor; for +it is said, they went to school at Gabii, and were well instructed in +letters, and other accomplishments befitting their birth. And they were +called Romulus and Remus (from "ruma", the dug), because they were found +suckling the wolf. In their very infancy, the size and beauty of their +bodies intimated their natural superiority; and when they grew up, they +both proved brave and manly, attempting all enterprises that seemed +hazardous, and showing in them a courage altogether undaunted. But +Romulus seemed rather to act by counsel, and to show the sagacity of +a statesman, and in all his dealings with their neighbors, whether +relating to feeding of flocks or to hunting, gave the idea of being born +rather to rule than to obey. To their comrades and inferiors they were +therefore dear; but the king's servants, his bailiffs and overseers, as +being in nothing better men than themselves, they despised and slighted, +nor were the least concerned at their commands and menaces. They used +honest pastimes and liberal studies, not esteeming sloth and idleness +honest and liberal, but rather such exercises as hunting and running, +repelling robbers, taking of thieves, and delivering the wronged and +oppressed from injury. For doing such things, they became famous. + +A quarrel occurring betwixt Numitor's and Amulius's cowherds, the +latter, not enduring the driving away of their cattle by the others, +fell upon them and put them to flight, and rescued the greatest part of +the prey. At which Numitor being highly incensed, they little regarded +it, but collected and took into their company a number of needy men and +runaway slaves,--acts which looked like the first stages of rebellion. +It so happened, that when Romulus was attending a sacrifice, being fond +of sacred rites and divination, Numitor's herdsmen, meeting with +Remus on a journey with few companions, fell upon him, and, after some +fighting, took him prisoner, carried him before Numitor, and there +accused him. Numitor would not punish him himself, fearing his brother's +anger, but went to Amulius and desired justice, as he was Amulius's +brother and was affronted by Amulius's servants. The men of Alba +likewise resenting the thing, and thinking he had been dishonorably +used, Amulius was induced to deliver Remus up into Numitor's hands, to +use him as he thought fit. He therefore took and carried him home, +and, being struck with admiration of the youth's person, in stature +and strength of body exceeding all men, and perceiving in his very +countenance the courage and force of his mind, which stood unsubdued and +unmoved by his present circumstances, and hearing further that all the +enterprises and actions of his life were answerable to what he saw of +him, but chiefly, as it seemed, a divine influence aiding and directing +the first steps that were to lead to great results, out of the mere +thought of his mind, and casually, as it were, he put his hand upon the +fact, and, in gentler terms and with a kind aspect, to inspire him with +confidence and hope, asked him who he was, and whence he was derived. +He, taking heart, spoke thus: "I will hide nothing from you, for you +seem to be of a more princely temper than Amulius, in that you give +a hearing and examine before you punish, while he condemns before the +cause is heard. Formerly, then, we (for we are twins) thought ourselves +the sons of Faustulus and Larentia, the king's servants; but since we +have been accused and aspersed with calumnies, and brought in peril of +our lives here before you, we hear great things of ourselves, the truth +of which my present danger is likely to bring to the test. Our birth is +said to have been secret, our fostering and nurture in our infancy still +more strange; by birds and beasts, to whom we were cast out, we were +fed--by the milk of a wolf, and the morsels of a woodpecker, as we lay +in a little trough by the side of the river. The trough is still in +being, and is preserved, with brass plates round it, and an inscription +in letters almost effaced, which may prove hereafter unavailing tokens +to our parents when we are dead and gone." Numitor, upon these words, +and computing the dates by the young man's looks, slighted not the hope +that flattered him, but considered how to come at his daughter privately +(for she was still kept under restraint), to talk with her concerning +these matters. + +Faustulus, hearing Remus was taken and delivered up, called on Romulus +to assist in his rescue, informing him then plainly of the particulars +of his birth--not but he had before given hints of it--and told as much +as an attentive man might make no small conclusions from; he himself, +full of concern and fear of not coming in time, took the trough, and +ran instantly to Numitor; but giving a suspicion to some of the king's +sentry at his gate, and being gazed upon by them and perplexed with +their questions, he let it be seen that he was hiding the trough under +his cloak. By chance there was one among them who was at the exposing of +the children, and was one employed in the office; he, seeing the trough +and knowing it by its make and inscription, guessed at the business, +and, without further delay, telling the king of it, brought in the man +to be examined. Faustulus, hard beset, did not show himself altogether +proof against terror; nor yet was he wholly forced out of all: confessed +indeed the children were alive, but lived, he said, as shepherds, a +great way from Alba; he himself was going to carry the trough to Ilia, +who had often greatly desired and handle it, for a confirmation of her +hopes of her children. As men generally do who are troubled in mind and +act either in fear or passion, it so fell out Amulius now did; for he +sent in haste as a messenger, a man, otherwise honest and friendly to +Numitor, with commands to learn from Numitor whether any tidings were +come to him of the children's being alive. He, coming and seeing how +little Remus wanted of being received into the arms and embraces of +Numitor, both gave him surer confidence in his hope, and advised them, +with all expedition, to proceed to action; himself too joining and +assisting them, and indeed, had they wished it, the time would not have +let them demur. For Romulus was now come very near, and many of the +citizens, out of fear and hatred of Amulius, were running out to join +him; besides, he brought great forces with him, dividing into companies, +each of an hundred men, every captain carrying a small bundle of grass +and shrubs tied to a pole. The Latins call such bundles "manipuli," and +from hence it is that in their armies still they call their captains +"manipulares." Remus rousing the citizens within to revolt, and Romulus +making attacks from without, the tyrant, not knowing either what to do, +or what expedient to think of for his security, in this perplexity and +confusion was taken and put to death. This narrative, for the most part +given by Fabius and Diocles of Peparethos, who seem to be the earliest +historians of the foundation of Rome, is suspected by some because +of its dramatic and fictitious appearance; but it would not wholly be +disbelieved, if men would remember what a poet Fortune sometimes shows +herself, and consider that the Roman power would hardly have reached so +high a pitch without a divinely ordered origin, attended with great and +extraordinary circumstances. + +Amulius now being dead and matters quietly disposed, the two brothers +would neither dwell in Alba without governing there, nor take the +government into their own hands during the life of their grandfather. +Having therefore delivered the dominion up into his hands, and paid +their mother befitting honor, they resolved to live by themselves, and +build a city in the same place where they were in their infancy brought +up. This seems the most honorable reason for their departure; though +perhaps it was necessary, having such a body of slaves and fugitives +collected about them, either to come to nothing by dispersing them, or +if not so, then to live with them elsewhere. For that the inhabitants of +Alba did not think fugitives worthy of being received and incorporated +as citizens among them plainly appears from the matter of the women, an +attempt made not wantonly, but of necessity, because they could not get +wives by good-will. For they certainly paid unusual respect and honor to +those whom they thus forcibly seized. + +Not long after the first foundation of the city, they opened a sanctuary +of refuge for all fugitives, which they called the temple of the god +Asylaeus, where they received and protected all, delivering none back, +neither the servant to his master, the debtor to his creditor, nor the +murderer into the hands of the magistrate, saying it was a privileged +place, and they could so maintain it by an order of the holy oracle; +insomuch that the city grew presently very populous, for, they say, +it consisted at first of no more than a thousand houses. But of that +hereafter. + +Their minds being fully bent upon building, there arose presently a +difference about the place where. Romulus chose what was called Roma +Quadrata, or the Square Rome, and would have the city there. Remus laid +out a piece of ground on the Aventine Mount, well fortified by nature, +which was from him called Remonium, but now Rignarium. Concluding at +last to decide the contest by a divination from a flight of birds, and +placing themselves apart at some distance, Remus, they say, saw six +vultures, and Romulus double the number; others say Remus did truly see +his number, and that Romulus feigned his, but, when Remus came to him, +that then he did, indeed, see twelve. Hence it is that the Romans, +in their divinations from birds, chiefly regard the vulture, though +Herodorus Ponticus relates that Hercules was always very joyful when +a vulture appeared to him upon any occasion. For it is a creature +the least hurtful of any, pernicious neither to corn, fruit-tree, nor +cattle; it preys only on carrion, and never kills or hurts any living +thing; and as for birds, it touches not them, though they are dead, as +being of its own species, whereas eagles, owls, and hawks mangle and +kill their own fellow-creatures; yet, as Aeschylus says,-- + +What bird is clean that preys on fellow bird? + +Besides, all other birds are, so to say, never out of our eyes; they +let themselves be seen of us continually; but a vulture is a very rare +sight, and you can seldom meet with a man that has seen their young; +their rarity and infrequency has raised a strange opinion in some, that +they come to us from some other world; as soothsayers ascribe a +divine origination to all things not produced either of nature or of +themselves. + +When Remus knew the cheat, he was much displeased; and as Romulus was +casting up a ditch, where he designed the foundation of the city wall, +he turned some pieces of the work to ridicule, and obstructed others: +at last, as he was in contempt leaping over it, some say Romulus himself +struck him, others Celer, one of his companions; he fell, however, +and in the scuffle Faustulus also was slain, and Plistinus, who, being +Faustulus's brother, story tells us, helped to bring up Romulus. Celer +upon this fled instantly into Tuscany, and from him the Romans call all +men that are swift of foot Celeres; and because Quintus Metellus, at +his father's funeral, in a few days' time gave the people a show of +gladiators, admiring his expedition in getting it ready, they gave him +the name of Celer. + +Romulus, having buried his brother Remus, together with his two +foster-fathers, on the mount Remonia, set to building his city; and sent +for men out of Tuscany, who directed him by sacred usages and written +rules in all the ceremonies to be observed, as in a religious rite. +First, they dug a round trench about that which is now the Comitium, +or Court of Assembly and into it solemnly threw the first-fruits of all +things either good by custom or necessary by nature; lastly, every man +taking a small piece of earth of the country from whence he came, they +all threw them in promiscuously together. This trench they call, as they +do the heavens, Mundus; making which their centre, they described the +city in a circle round it. Then the founder fitted to a plough, a bronze +ploughshare, and, yoking together a bull and a cow, drove himself a +deep line or furrow round the bounds; while the business of those that +followed after was to see that whatever earth was thrown up should +be turned all inwards towards the city, and not to let any clod lie +outside. With this line they described the wall, and called it, by a +contradiction, Pomoerium, that is, "post murum," after or beside the +wall; and where they designed to make a gate, there they took out the +share, carried the plough over, and left a space; for which reason they +consider the whole wall as holy, except where the gates are; for had +they adjudged them also sacred, they could not, without offence to +religion, have given free ingress and egress for the necessaries of +human life, some of which are in themselves unclean. + +As for the day they began to build the city, it is universally agreed +to have been the twenty-first of April, and that day the Romans annually +keep holy, calling it their country's birthday. At first, they say, they +sacrificed no living creatures on this day, thinking it fit to preserve +the feast of their country's birthday pure and without stain of blood. +Yet before ever the city was built, there was a feast of herdsmen and +shepherds kept on this day, which went by the name of Palilia. The Roman +and Greek months have now little or no agreement; they say, however, the +day on which Romulus began to build was quite certainly the thirtieth +of the month, at which time there was an eclipse of the sun which they +conceive to be that seen by Antimachus, the Teian poet, in the third +year of the sixth Olympiad. In the times of Varro the philosopher, a +man deeply read in Roman history, lived one Tarrutius, his familiar +acquaintance, a good philosopher and mathematician, and one, too, that +out of curiosity had studied the way of drawing schemes and tables, and +was thought to be a proficient in the art; to him Varro propounded to +cast Romulus's nativity, even to the first day and hour, making his +deductions from the several events of the man's life which he should be +informed of, exactly as in working back a geometrical problem; for it +belonged, he said, to the same science both to foretell a man's life +by knowing the time of his birth, and also to find out his birth by the +knowledge of his life. This task Tarrutius undertook, and first looking +into the actions and casualties of the man, together with the time of +his life and manner of his death, and then comparing all these remarks +together, he very confidently and positively pronounced that Romulus was +born the twenty-first day of the month Thoth, about sun-rising; and +that the first stone of Rome was laid by him the ninth day of the month +Pharmuthi, between the second and third hour. For the fortunes of +cities as well as of men, they think, have their certain periods of time +prefixed, which may be collected and foreknown from the position of the +stars at their first foundation. But these and the like relations may +perhaps not so much take and delight the reader with their novelty and +curiosity as offend him by their extravagance. + +The city now being built, Romulus enlisted all that were of age to bear +arms into military companies, each company consisting of three thousand +footmen and three hundred horse. These companies were called legions, +because they were the choicest and most select of the people for +fighting men. The rest of the multitude he called the people; an hundred +of the most eminent he chose for counselors; these he styled patricians, +and their assembly the senate, which signifies a council of elders. + +In the fourth month after the city was built, as Fabius writes, the +adventure of stealing the women was attempted. It would seem that, +observing his city to be filled by a confluence of foreigners, few +of whom had wives, and that the multitude in general, consisting of a +mixture of mean and obscure men, fell under contempt, and seemed to be +of no long continuance together, and hoping farther, after the women +were appeased, to make this injury in some measure an occasion of +confederacy and mutual commerce with the Sabines, Romulus took in his +hand this exploit after this manner. First, he gave it out that he had +found an altar of a certain god hid under ground, perhaps the equestrian +Neptune, for the altar is kept covered in the Circus Maximus at all +other times, and only at horse-races is exposed to public view. Upon +discovery of this altar, Romulus, by proclamation, appointed a day for +a splendid sacrifice, and for public games and shows, to entertain all +sorts of people; many flocked thither, and he himself sat in front, +amidst his nobles, clad in purple. Now the signal for their falling on +was to be whenever he rose and gathered up his robe and threw it over +his body; his men stood all ready armed, with their eyes intent upon +him, and when the sign was given, drawing their swords and falling on +with a great shout, they stole away the daughters of the Sabines, the +men themselves flying without any let or hindrance. Some say there +were but thirty taken, and from Curiae or Fraternities were named; but +Valerius Antias says five hundred and twenty seven, Juba, six hundred +and eighty-three. + +It continues a custom at this very day for the bride not of herself to +pass her husband's threshold, but to be lifted over, in memory that the +Sabine virgins were carried in by violence, and did not go in of their +own free will. Some say, too, the custom of parting the bride's hair +with the head of a spear was in token their marriages began at first by +war and acts of hostility. + +The Sabines were a numerous and martial people, but lived in small, +unfortified villages, as it befitted, they thought, a colony of the +Lacedaemonians to be bold and fearless; nevertheless, seeing themselves +bound by such hostages to their good behavior, and being solicitous +for their daughters, they sent ambassadors to Romulus with fair and +equitable requests, that he would return their young women and recall +that act of violence, and afterwards, by persuasion and lawful means, +seek friendly correspondence between both nations. Romulus would not +part with the young women, yet proposed to the Sabines to enter into an +alliance with them; upon which point some consulted and demurred long, +but Acron, king of the Ceninenses, a man of high spirit and a good +warrior, who had all along a jealousy of Romulus's bold attempts, and +considering particularly from this exploit upon the women that he was +growing formidable to all people, and indeed insufferable, were he not +chastised, first rose up in arms, and with a powerful army advanced +against him. Romulus likewise prepared to receive him; but when they +came within sight and viewed each other, they made a challenge to fight +a single duel, the armies standing by under arms, without participation. +And Romulus, making a vow to Jupiter, if he should conquer, to carry +himself, and dedicate his adversary's armor to his honor, overcame him +in combat, and, a battle ensuing, routed his army also, and then took +his city; but did those he found in it no injury, only commanded them to +demolish the place and attend him to Rome, there to be admitted to +all the privileges of citizens. And indeed there was nothing did more +advance the greatness of Rome, than that she did always unite and +incorporate those whom she conquered into herself. Romulus, that he +might perform his vow in the most acceptable manner to Jupiter, and +withal make the pomp of it delightful to the eye of the city, cut down a +tall oak which he saw growing in the camp, which he trimmed to the shape +of a trophy, and fastened on it Acron's whole suit of armor disposed +in proper form; then he himself, girding his clothes about him, and +crowning his head with a laurel-garland, his hair gracefully flowing, +carried the trophy resting erect upon his right shoulder, and so marched +on, singing songs of triumph, and his whole army following after, the +citizens all receiving him with acclamations of joy and wonder. The +procession of this day was the origin and model of all after triumphs. +But the statues of Romulus in triumph are, as may be seen in Rome, all +on foot. + +After the overthrow of the Ceninensians, the other Sabines still +protracting the time in preparations, the people of Fidenae, +Crustumerium, and Antemna, joined their forces against the Romans; they +in like manner were defeated in battle, and surrendered up to Romulus +their cities to be seized, their lands and territories to be divided, +and themselves to be transplanted to Rome. All the lands which Romulus +acquired he distributed among the citizens, except only what the parents +of the stolen virgins had; these he suffered to possess their own. The +rest of the Sabines, enraged thereat, choosing Tatius their captain, +marched straight against Rome. The city was almost inaccessible, having +for its fortress that which is now the Capitol, where a strong guard +was placed, and Tarpeius their captain. But Tarpeia, daughter to the +captain, coveting the golden bracelets she saw them wear, betrayed the +fort into the Sabines' hands, and asked, in reward of her treachery, the +things they wore on their left arms. Tatius conditioning thus with her, +in the night she opened one of the gates and received the Sabines in. +And truly Antigonus, it would seem, was not solitary in saying he +loved betrayers, but hated those who had betrayed; nor Caesar, who +told Rhymitalces the Thracian that he loved the treason, but hated the +traitor; but it is the general feeling of all who have occasion for +wicked men's services, as people have for the poison of venomous beasts; +they are glad of them while they are of use, and abhor their baseness +when it is over. And so did Tatius behave towards Tarpeia, for he +commanded the Sabines, in regard to their contract, not to refuse her +the least part of what they wore on their left arms; and he himself +first took his bracelet off his arm, and threw that, together with his +buckler, at her; and all the rest following, she, being borne down and +quite buried with the multitude of gold and their shields, died under +the weight and pressure of them; Tarpeius also himself, being prosecuted +by Romulus, was found guilty of treason, and that part of the Capitol +they still call the Tarpeian Rock, from which they used to cast down +malefactors. + +The Sabines being possessed of the hill, Romulus, in great fury, bade +them battle, and Tatius was confident to accept it. There were many +brief conflicts, we may suppose, but the most memorable was the last, in +which Romulus having received a wound on his head by a stone, and being +almost felled to the ground by it, and disabled, the Romans gave way, +and, being driven out of the level ground, fled towards the Palatium. +Romulus, by this time recovering from his wound a little, turned +about to renew the battle, and, facing the fliers, with a loud voice +encouraged them to stand and fight. But being overborne with numbers, +and nobody daring to face about, stretching out his hands to heaven, he +prayed to Jupiter to stop the army, and not to neglect but maintain the +Roman cause, now in extreme danger. The prayer was no sooner made +than shame and respect for their king checked many; the fears of the +fugitives changed suddenly into confidence. The place they first +stood at was where now is the temple of Jupiter Stator (which may +be translated the Stayer); there they rallied again into ranks, and +repulsed the Sabines to the place called now Regia, and to the temple +of Vesta; where both parties, preparing to begin a second battle, were +prevented by a spectacle, strange to behold, and defying description. +For the daughters of the Sabines, who had been carried off, came +running, in great confusion, some on this side, some on that, with +miserable cries and lamentations, like creatures possessed, in the midst +of the army, and among the dead bodies, to come at their husbands and +their fathers, some with their young babes in their arms, others their +hair loose about their ears, but all calling, now upon the Sabines, now +upon the Romans, in the most tender and endearing words. Hereupon both +melted into compassion, and fell back, to make room for them betwixt +the armies. The sight of the women carried sorrow and commiseration upon +both sides into the hearts of all, but still more their words, which +began with expostulation and upbraiding, and ended with entreaty and +supplication. + +"Wherein," say they, "have we injured or offended you, as to deserve +such sufferings, past and present? We were ravished away unjustly and +violently by those whose now we are; that being done, we were so long +neglected by our fathers, our brothers, and countrymen, that time, +having now by the strictest bonds united us to those we once mortally +hated, has made it impossible for us not to tremble at the danger and +weep at the death of the very men who once used violence to us. You +did not come to vindicate our honor, while we were virgins, against our +assailants; but do come now to force away wives from their husbands +and mothers from their children, a succor more grievous to its wretched +objects than the former betrayal and neglect of them. Which shall we +call the worst, their love-making or your compassion? If you were making +war upon any other occasion, for our sakes you ought to withhold your +hands from those to whom we have made you fathers-in-law and grandsires. +If it be for our own cause, then take us, and with us your sons-in-law +and grandchildren. Restore to us our parents and kindred, but do not +rob us of our children and husbands. Make us not, we entreat you, +twice captives." Having spoken many such words as these, and earnestly +praying, a truce was made, and the chief officers came to a parley; +the women, in the meantime, brought and presented their husbands and +children to their fathers and brothers; gave those that wanted, meat +and drink, and carried the wounded home to be cured, and showed also how +much they governed within doors, and how indulgent their husbands were +to them, in demeaning themselves towards them with all kindness and +respect imaginable. Upon this, conditions were agreed upon, that what +women pleased might stay where they were, exempt from all drudgery and +labor but spinning; that the Romans and Sabines should inhabit the city +together; that the city should be called Rome, from Romulus; but the +Romans, Quirites, from the country of Tatius; and that they both should +govern and command in common. The place of the ratification is still +called Comitium, from "coire," to meet. + +The city thus being doubled in number, an hundred of the Sabines were +elected senators, and the legions were increased to six thousand foot +and six hundred horse; then they divided the people into three tribes: +the first, from Romulus, named Ramnenses; the second, from Tatius, +Tatienses; the third, Luceres, from the "lucus," or grove, where the +Asylum stood, whither many fled for sanctuary, and were received into +the city. And that they were just three, the very name of "tribe" and +"tribune" seems to show. Then they constituted many things in honor to +the women, such as to give them the way wherever they met them; to +speak no ill word in their presence; that their children should wear +an ornament about their necks called the "bulla" (because it was like a +bubble), and the "praetexta," a gown edged with purple. + +The princes did not immediately join in council together, but at first +each met with his own hundred; afterwards all assembled together. Tatius +dwelt where now the temple of Moneta stands, and Romulus, close by the +steps, as they call them, of the Fair Shore, near the descent from the +Mount Palatine to the Circus Maximus. There, they say, grew the +holy cornel tree, of which they report that Romulus once, to try his +strength, threw a dart from the Aventine Mount, the staff of which was +made of cornel, which struck so deep into the ground that no one of +many that tried could pluck it up; and the soil, being fertile, gave +nourishment to the wood, which sent forth branches, and produced a +cornel-stock of considerable bigness. This did posterity preserve and +worship as one of the most sacred things; and therefore, walled it +about; and if to any one it appeared not green nor flourishing, but +inclining to pine and wither, he immediately made outcry to all he met, +and they, like people hearing of a house on fire, with one accord would +cry for water, and run from all parts with bucketfuls to the place. But +when Gaius Caesar they say, was repairing the steps about it, some of +the laborers digging too close, the roots were destroyed, and the tree +withered. + +The Sabines adopted the Roman months, of which whatever is remarkable is +mentioned in the Life of Numa. Romulus, on the other hand, adopted their +long shields, and changed his own armor and that of all the Romans, who +before wore round targets of the Argive pattern. Feasts and sacrifices +they partook of in common, not abolishing any which either nation +observed before, and instituting several new ones. This, too, is +observable as a singular thing in Romulus, that he appointed no +punishment for real parricide, but called all murder so, thinking the +one an accursed thing, but the other a thing impossible; and for a long +time, his judgement seemed to have been right; for in almost six hundred +years together, nobody committed the like in Rome; Lucius Hostius, after +the wars of Hannibal, is recorded to have been the first parricide. Let +thus much suffice concerning these matters. + +In the fifth year of the reign of Tatius, some of his friends and +kinsmen, meeting ambassadors coming from Laurentum to Rome, attempted on +the road to take away their money by force, and, upon their resistance, +killed them. So great a villany having been committed, Romulus thought +the malefactors ought at once to be punished, but Tatius shuffled off +and deferred the execution of it; and this one thing was the beginning +of an open quarrel betwixt them; in all other respects they were very +careful of their conduct, and administered affairs together with +great unanimity. The relations of the slain, being debarred of lawful +satisfaction by reason of Tatius, fell upon him as he was sacrificing +with Romulus at Lavinium, and slew him; but escorted Romulus home, +commending and extolling him for just a prince. Romulus took the body of +Tatius, and buried it very splendidly in the Aventine Mount. + +The Roman cause daily gathering strength, their weaker neighbors shrunk +away, and were thankful to be left untouched; but the stronger, out of +fear or envy, thought they ought not to give away to Romulus, but +to curb and put a stop to his growing greatness. The first were the +Veientes, a people of Tuscany, who had large possessions, and dwelt in a +spacious city; they took occasion to commence a war, by claiming Fidenae +as belonging to them. But being scornfully retorted upon by Romulus +in his answers, they divided themselves into two bodies; with one they +attacked the garrison of Fidenae, the other marched against Romulus; +that which went against Fidenae got the victory, and slew two thousand +Romans; the other was worsted by Romulus, with the loss of eight +thousand men. A fresh battle was fought near Fidenae, and here all men +acknowledge the day's success to have been chiefly the work of Romulus +himself, who showed the highest skill as well as courage, and seemed to +manifest a strength and swiftness more than human. But what some write, +that, of fourteen thousand that fell that day, above half were slain +by Romulus's own hand, verges too near to fable, and is, indeed, simply +incredible: since even the Messenians are thought to go too far in +saying that Aristomenes three times offered sacrifices for the death of +a hundred enemies, Lacedaemonians, slain by himself. The army being thus +routed, Romulus, suffering those that were left to make their escape, +led his forces against the city; they, having suffered such great +losses, did not venture to oppose, but, humbly suing him, made a league +and friendship for an hundred years; surrendering also a large district +of land called Septempagium, that is, the seven parts, as also their +salt-works upon the river, and fifty noblemen for hostages. He made his +triumph for this on the Ides of October, leading, among the rest of his +many captives, the general of the Veientes, an elderly man, but who +had not, it seemed, acted with the prudence of age; whence even now, in +sacrifices for victories, they led an old man through the market-place +to the Capitol, appareled in purple, with a bulla, or child's toy, tied +to it, and the crier cries, "Sardians to be sold;" for the Tuscans are +said to be a colony of the Sardians, and the Veientes are a city of +Tuscany. + +This was the last battle Romulus ever fought; afterwards he, as +most, nay all men, very few excepted, do, who are raised by great and +miraculous good-haps of fortune to power and greatness, so, I say, did +he: relying upon his own great actions and growing of a haughtier mind, +he forsook his popular behavior for kingly arrogance, odious to the +people; to whom in particular the state which he assumed was hateful. +For he dressed in scarlet, with the purple-bordered robe over it; he +gave audience on a couch of slate, having always about him some young +men called "Celeres," from their swiftness in doing commissions. He +suddenly disappeared on the Nones of July, as they call the month which +was then Quintilis, leaving nothing of certainty to be related of +his death; the senators suffered the people not to search, or busy +themselves about the matter, but commanded them to honor and worship +Romulus as one taken up to the gods, and about to be to them, in the +place of a good prince, now a propitious god. The multitude, hearing +this, went away believing and rejoicing in hopes of good things from +him; but there were some, who, canvassing the matter in a hostile +temper, accused the patricians, as men that persuaded the people to +believe ridiculous tales, when they were the murderers of the king. + +Things being in this disorder, one, they say, of the patricians, of +noble family and approved good character, and a faithful and familiar +friend of Romulus himself, having come with him from Alba, Julius +Proculus by name, presented himself in the forum; and taking a most +sacred oath, protested before them all, that, as he was travelling on +the road, he had seen Romulus coming to meet him, looking taller and +comelier than ever, dressed in shining and flaming armor; and he, being +affrighted at the apparition, said, "Why, O king, or for what purpose, +have you abandoned us to unjust and wicked surmises, and the whole city +to bereavement and endless sorrow?" and that he made answer, "It pleased +the gods, O Proculus, that we, who came from them, should remain so +long a time amongst men as we did; and, having built a city to be the +greatest in the world for empire and glory, should again return to +heaven. But farewell; and tell the Romans, that, by the exercise of +temperance and fortitude, they shall attain the height of human power; +we will be to you the propitious god Quirinus." This seemed credible to +the Romans, upon the honesty and oath of the relator, and laying aside +all jealousies and detractions, they prayed to Quirinus and saluted him +as a god. + +This is like some of the Greek fables of Aristeas the Proconnesian, +and Cleomedes the Astypalaean; for they say Aristeas died in a fuller's +workshop, and his friends, coming to look for him, found his body +vanished; and that some presently after, coming from abroad, said +they met him travelling towards Croton. And that Cleomedes, being +an extraordinarily strong and gigantic man, but also wild and mad, +committed many desperate freaks; and at last, in a schoolhouse, striking +a pillar that sustained the roof with his fist, broke it in the middle, +so that the house fell and destroyed the children in it; and being +pursued, he fled into a great chest, and, shutting to the lid, held it +so fast that many men, with their united strength, could not force it +open; afterwards, breaking the chest to pieces, they found no man in it +alive or dead. + +And many such improbabilities do your fabulous writers relate, deifying +creatures naturally mortal; for though altogether to disown a divine +nature in human virtue were impious and base, so again to mix heaven +with earth is ridiculous. Let us believe with Pindar, that + + All human bodies yield to Death's decree: + The soul survives to all eternity. + +For that alone is derived from the gods, thence comes, and thither +returns. + +It was in the fifty-fourth year of his age and the thirty-eighth of his +reign that Romulus, they tell us, left the world. + + + + +COMPARISON OF THESEUS AND ROMULUS + +Both Theseus and Romulus were by nature meant for governors; yet neither +lived up to the true character of a king, but fell off, and ran, the +one into popularity, the other into tyranny, falling both into the same +fault out of different passions. For a ruler's first end is to maintain +his office, which is done no less by avoiding what is unfit than by +observing what is suitable. Whoever is either too remiss or too strict +is no more a king or a governor, but either a demagogue or a despot, +and so becomes either odious or contemptible to his subjects. Though +certainly the one seems to be the fault of easiness and good-nature, the +other of pride and severity. + +But Romulus has, first of all, one great plea, that his performances +proceeded from very small beginnings; for both the brothers, being +thought servants and the sons of swineherds, before becoming freemen +themselves gave liberty to almost all the Latins, obtaining at once all +the most honorable titles, as, destroyers of their country's enemies, +preservers of their friends and kindred, princes of the people, founders +of cities; not removers, like Theseus, who raised and compiled only one +house out of many, demolishing many cities bearing the names of ancient +kings and heroes. Romulus, indeed, did the same afterwards, forcing +his enemies to deface and ruin their own dwellings, and to sojourn +with their conquerors; but at first, not by removal, or increase of +an existing city, but by foundation of a new one, he obtained himself +lands, a country, a kingdom, wives, children, and relations. And, in so +doing, he killed or destroyed nobody, but benefited those that wanted +houses and homes, and were willing to be of a society and become +citizens. Robbers and malefactors he slew not; but he subdued nations, +he overthrew cities, he triumphed over kings and commanders. As to +Remus, it is doubtful by whose hand he fell; it is generally imputed +to others. His mother he clearly retrieved from death, and placed his +grandfather, who was brought under base and dishonorable vassalage, +on the ancient throne of Aeneas, to whom he did voluntarily many good +offices, but never did him harm even inadvertently. But Theseus, in +his forgetfulness and neglect of the command concerning the flag, can +scarcely, methinks, by any excuses, or before the most indulgent +judges, avoid the imputation of parricide. And, indeed, one of the +Attic writers, perceiving it to be very hard to make an excuse for this, +feigns that Aegeus, at the approach of the ship, running hastily to the +Acropolis to see what news there was, slipped and fell down; as if he +had no servants, or none would attend him on his way to the shore. + + + + +LYCURGUS + +Those authors who are most worthy of credit deduce the genealogy of +Lycurgus, the lawgiver of Sparta, as follows: + + Aristodemus. + | + Patrocles. + | + Sous. + | + Eurypon. + | + Eunomus. + | + _________________________________________________ + Polydectes by his first wife. Lycurgus by Dionassa his second. + +Sous certainly was the most renowned of all his ancestors, under whose +conduct the Spartans made slaves of the Helots, and added to their +dominions, by conquest, a good part of Arcadia. There goes a story of +this king Sous, that, being besieged by the Clitorians in a dry +and stony place so that he could come at no water, he was at last +constrained to agree with them upon these terms, that he would restore +to them all his conquests, provided that himself and all his men should +drink of the nearest spring. After the usual oaths and ratifications, +he called his soldiers together, and offered to him that would forbear +drinking, his kingdom for a reward; and when not a man of them was able +to forbear, in short, when they had all drunk their fill, at last comes +king Sous himself to the spring, and, having sprinkled his face only, +without swallowing one drop, marches off in the face of his enemies, +refusing to yield up his conquests, because himself and all his men had +not, according to the articles, drunk of their water. + +Although he was justly had in admiration on this account, yet his family +was not surnamed from him, but from his son Eurypon (of whom they were +called Eurypontids); the reason of which was that Eurypon relaxed the +rigor of the monarchy, seeking favor and popularity with the many. They, +after this first step, grew bolder; and the succeeding kings partly +incurred hatred with their people by trying to use force, or, for +popularity's sake and through weakness, gave way; and anarchy and +confusion long prevailed in Sparta, causing, moreover, the death of the +father of Lycurgus. For as he was endeavoring to quell a riot, he was +stabbed with a butcher's knife, and left the title of king to his eldest +son Polydectes. + +He, too, dying soon after, the right of succession (as every one +thought) rested in Lycurgus; and reign he did for a time, but declared +that the kingdom belonged to the child of his sister-in-law the queen, +and that he himself should exercise the regal jurisdiction only as his +guardian; the Spartan name for which office is prodicus. Soon after, an +overture was made to him by the queen, that she would herself in some +way destroy the infant, upon condition that he would marry her when he +came to the crown. Abhorring the woman's wickedness, he nevertheless +did not reject her proposal, but, making show of closing with her, +despatched the messenger with thanks and expressions of joy, with orders +that they should bring the boy baby to him, wheresoever he were, and +whatsoever doing. It so fell out that when he was at supper with the +principal magistrates, the queen's child was presented to him, and he, +taking him into his arms, said to those about him, "Men of Sparta, +here is a king born unto us;" this said, he laid him down in the king's +place, and named him Charilaus, that is, the joy of the people; because +that all were transported with joy and with wonder at his noble and just +spirit. His reign had lasted only eight months, but he was honored +on other accounts by the citizens, and there were more who obeyed him +because of his eminent virtues, than because he was regent to the king +and had the royal power in his hands. Some, however, envied and sought +to impede his growing influence while he was still young; chiefly the +kindred and friends of the queen-mother, who pretended to have been +dealt with injuriously. Her brother Leonidas, in a warm debate which +fell out betwixt him and Lycurgus, went so far as to tell him to his +face that he was well assured that ere long he should see him king; +suggesting suspicions and preparing the way for an accusation of him, as +though he had made away with his nephew, if the child should chance +to fail, though by a natural death. Words of the like import were +designedly cast abroad by the queen-mother and her adherents. + +Troubled at this, and not knowing what it might come to, he thought +it his wisest course to avoid their envy by a voluntary exile, and to +travel from place to place until his nephew came to marriageable +years, and, by having a son, had secured the succession. Setting sail, +therefore, with this resolution, he first arrived at Crete, where, +having considered their several forms of government, and got an +acquaintance with the principal men amongst them, some of their laws +he very much approved of, and resolved to make use of them in his own +country; a good part he rejected as useless. Amongst the persons there +the most renowned for their learning and their wisdom in state matters +was one Thales, whom Lycurgus, by importunities and assurances of +friendship, persuaded to go over to Lacedaemon; where, though by his +outward appearance and his own profession he seemed to be no other than +a lyric poet, in reality he performed the part of one of the ablest +lawgivers in the world. The very songs which he composed were +exhortations to obedience and concord, and the very measure and cadence +of the verse, conveying impressions of order and tranquillity, had +so great an influence on the minds of the listeners that they were +insensibly softened and civilized, insomuch that they renounced their +private feuds and animosities, and were reunited in a common admiration +of virtue. So that it may truly be said that Thales prepared the way for +the discipline introduced by Lycurgus. + +From Crete he sailed to Asia, with design, as is said, to examine the +difference betwixt the manners and rules of life of the Cretans, which +were very sober and temperate, and those of the Ionians, a people +of sumptuous and delicate habits, and so to form a judgment; just as +physicians do by comparing healthy and diseased bodies. Here he had +the first sight of Homer's works, in the hands, we may suppose, of +the posterity of Creophylus; and, having observed that the few loose +expressions and actions of ill example which are to be found in his +poems were much outweighed by serious lessons of state and rules of +morality, he set himself eagerly to transcribe and digest them into +order, as thinking they would be of good use in his own country. They +had, indeed, already obtained some slight repute amongst the Greeks, +and scattered portions, as chance conveyed them, were in the hands of +individuals; but Lycurgus first made them really known. + +The Egyptians say that he took a voyage into Egypt, and that, being much +taken with their way of separating the soldiery from the rest of the +nation, he transferred it from them to Sparta; a removal from contact +with those employed in low and mechanical occupations giving high +refinement and beauty to the state. Some Greek writers also record +this. But as for his voyages into Spain, Africa, and the Indies, and his +conferences there with the Gymnosophists, the whole relation, as far as +I can find, rests on the single credit of the Spartan Aristocrates, the +son of Hipparchus. + +Lycurgus was much missed at Sparta, and often sent for, "For kings +indeed we have," they said, "who wear the marks and assume the titles of +royalty, but as for the qualities of their minds, they have nothing by +which they are to be distinguished from their subjects;" adding that in +him alone was the true foundation of sovereignty to be seen, a nature +made to rule, and a genius to gain obedience. Nor were the kings +themselves averse to see him back, for they looked upon his presence as +a bulwark against the insolencies of the people. + +Things being in this posture at his return, he applied himself, without +loss of time, to a thorough reformation, and resolved to change the +whole face of the commonwealth; for what could a few particular laws and +a partial alteration avail? He must act as wise physicians do, in the +case of one who labors under a complication of diseases,--by force of +medicines reduce and exhaust him, change his whole temperament, and +then set him upon a totally new regimen of diet. Having thus projected +things, away he goes to Delphi to consult Apollo there; which having +done, and offered his sacrifice, he returned with that renowned oracle, +in which he is called beloved of God, and rather God than man: that +his prayers were heard, that his laws should be the best, and the +commonwealth which observed them the most famous in the world. +Encouraged by these things, he set himself to bring over to his side the +leading men of Sparta, exhorting them to give him a helping hand in his +great undertaking: he broke it first to his particular friends, and then +by degrees gained others, and animated them all to put his design in +execution. When things were ripe for action, he gave order to thirty +of the principal men of Sparta to be ready armed at the market-place at +break of day, to the end that he might strike a terror into the opposite +party. Hermippus hath set down the names of twenty of the most eminent +of them: but the name of him whom Lycurgus most confided in, and who +was of most use to him both in making his laws and putting them in +execution, was Arthmiadas. Things growing to a tumult, king Charilaus, +apprehending that it was a conspiracy against his person, took sanctuary +in the temple of Athena of the Brazen House; but, being soon after +undeceived, and having taken an oath of them that they had no designs +against him, he quitted his refuge, and himself also entered into the +confederacy with them; of so gentle and flexible a disposition he +was, to which Archelaus, his brother-king, alluded, when, hearing him +extolled for his goodness, he said: "Who can say he is anything but +good? he is so even to the bad." + +Amongst the many changes and alterations which Lycurgus made, the first +and of greatest importance was the establishment of the senate, which, +having a power equal to the kings' in matters of great consequence, and, +as Plato expresses it, allaying and qualifying the fiery genius of the +royal office, gave steadiness and safety to the commonwealth. For the +state, which before had no firm basis to stand upon, but leaned one +while towards an absolute monarchy, when the kings had the upper hand, +and another while towards a pure democracy, when the people had the +better, found in this establishment of the senate a central weight, like +ballast in a ship, which always kept things in a just equilibrium; the +twenty-eight always adhering to the kings so far as to resist democracy, +and, on the other hand, supporting the people against the establishment +of absolute monarchy. As for the determinate number of twenty-eight, +Aristotle states that it so fell out because two of the original +associates, for want of courage, fell off from the enterprise; but +Sphaerus assures us that there were but twenty-eight of the confederates +at first; perhaps there is some mystery in the number, which consists of +seven multiplied by four, and is the first of perfect numbers after +six, being, as that is, equal to all its parts. For my part, I believe +Lycurgus fixed upon the number of twenty-eight, that, the two kings +being reckoned amongst them, they might be thirty in all. So eagerly set +was he upon this establishment, that he took the trouble to obtain an +oracle about it from Delphi; and the Rhetra (or sacred ordinance) runs +thus: "After that you have built a temple to Jupiter Hellanius, and +to Minerva Hellania, and after that you have phyle'd the people into +phyles, and obe'd them into obes, you shall establish a council of +thirty elders, the leaders included, and shall, from time to time, +assemble the people betwixt Babyca and Cnacion, there propound and put +to the vote. The commons have the final voice and decision." By phyles +and obes are meant the divisions of the people; by the leaders, the two +kings; Aristotle says Cnacion is a river, and Babyca a bridge. Betwixt +this Babyca and Cnacion, their assemblies were held, for they had no +council-house or building to meet in. Lycurgus was of opinion that +ornaments were so far from advantaging them in their councils, that they +were rather an hindrance, by diverting their attention from the business +before them to statues and pictures, and roofs curiously fretted, the +usual embellishments of such places amongst the other Greeks. The people +then being thus assembled in the open air, it was not allowed to any one +of their order to give his advice, but only either to ratify or reject +what should be propounded to them by the king or senate. + +After the creation of the thirty senators, his next task, and, indeed, +the most hazardous he ever undertook, was the making of a new division +of their lands. For there was an extreme inequality amongst them, and +their state was overloaded with a multitude of indigent and necessitous +persons, while its whole wealth had centred upon a very few. To the end, +therefore, that he might expel from the state arrogance and envy, +luxury and crime, and those yet more inveterate diseases of want and +superfluity, he obtained of them to renounce their properties, and to +consent to a new division of the land, and that they should live all +together on an equal footing; merit to be their only road to eminence, +and the disgrace of evil, and credit of worthy acts, their one measure +of difference between man and man. + +Upon their consent to these proposals, proceeding at once to put them +into execution, he divided the country of Laconia in general into thirty +thousand equal shares, and the part attached to the city of Sparta into +nine thousand; these he distributed among the Spartans, as he did the +others to the country citizens. A lot was so much as to yield, one +year with another, about seventy bushels of grain for the master of the +family, and twelve for his wife, with a suitable proportion of oil and +wine. And this he thought sufficient to keep their bodies in good health +and strength; superfluities they were better without. It is reported, +that, as he returned from a journey shortly after the division of the +lands, in harvest time, the ground being newly reaped, seeing the stacks +all standing equal and alike, he smiled, and said to those about him, +"Methinks all Laconia looks like one family estate just divided among a +number of brothers." + +Not contented with this, he resolved to make a division of their +movables too, that there might be no odious distinction or inequality +left amongst them; but finding that it would be very dangerous to go +about it openly, he took another course, and defeated their avarice +by the following stratagem: he commanded that all gold and silver coin +should be called in, and that only a sort of money made of iron should +be current, a great weight and quantity of which was worth but very +little; so that to lay up a hundred or two dollars there was required +a pretty large closet, and, to remove it, nothing less than a yoke of +oxen. With the diffusion of this money, at once a number of vices were +banished from Lacedaemon; for who would rob another of such a coin? Who +would unjustly detain or take by force, or accept as a bribe, a thing +which it was not easy to hide, nor a credit to have, nor indeed of any +use to cut in pieces? For when it was just red-hot, they quenched it in +vinegar, and by that means spoilt it, and made it almost incapable of +being worked. + +In the next place, he declared an outlawry of all needless and +superfluous arts; but here he might almost have spared his proclamation; +for they of themselves would have gone with the gold and silver, the +money which remained being not so proper payment for curious work; for, +being of iron, it was scarcely portable, neither, if they should take +the pains to export it, would it pass amongst the other Greeks, who +ridiculed it so there was now no more means of purchasing foreign goods +and small wares; merchants sent no shiploads into Laconian ports; no +rhetoric-master, no itinerant fortune-teller, or gold or silversmith, +engraver, or jeweler, set foot in a country which had no money; so that +luxury, deprived little by little of that which fed and fomented +it, wasted to nothing, and died away of itself. For the rich had no +advantage here over the poor, as their wealth and abundance had no road +to come abroad by, but were shut up at home doing nothing. And in this +way they became excellent artists in common necessary things; bedsteads, +chairs, and tables, and such like staple utensils in a family, were +admirably well made there; their cup, particularly, was very much in +fashion, and eagerly sought for by soldiers, as Critias reports; for +its color was such as to prevent water, drunk upon necessity and +disagreeable to look at, from being noticed; and the shape of it was +such that the mud stuck to the sides, so that only the purer part +came to the drinker's mouth. For this, also, they had to thank their +lawgiver, who, by relieving the artisans of the trouble of making +useless things, set them to show their skill in giving beauty to those +of daily and indispensable use. + +The third and most masterly stroke of this great lawgiver, by which +he struck a yet more effectual blow against luxury and the desire of +riches, was the ordinance he made that they should all eat in common, +of the same bread and same meat, and of kinds that were specified, and +should not spend their lives at home, laid on costly couches at splendid +tables, delivering themselves up into the hands of their tradesmen and +cooks, to fatten them in corners, like greedy brutes, and to ruin not +their minds only but their very bodies, which, enfeebled by indulgence +and excess, would stand in need of long sleep, warm bathing, freedom +from work, and, in a word, of as much care and attendance as if they +were continually sick. It was certainly an extraordinary thing to have +brought about such a result as this, but a greater yet to have taken +away from wealth, as Theophrastus observes, not merely the property of +being coveted, but its very nature of being wealth. For the rich, being +obliged to go to the same table with the poor, could not make use of or +enjoy their abundance, nor so much as please their vanity by looking at +or displaying it. So that the common proverb, that Plutus, the god of +riches, is blind, was nowhere in all the world literally verified but +in Sparta. There, indeed, he was not only blind, but, like a picture, +without either life or motion. Nor were they allowed to take food at +home first, and then attend the public tables, for everyone had an eye +upon those who did not eat and drink like the rest, and reproached them +with being dainty and effeminate. + +This last ordinance in particular exasperated the wealthier men. +They collected in a body against Lycurgus, and from ill words came +to throwing stones, so that at length he was forced to run out of the +market-place, and make to sanctuary to save his life; by good-hap +he outran all excepting one Alcander, a young man otherwise not ill +accomplished, but hasty and violent, who came up so close to him, that, +when he turned to see who was near him, he struck him upon the face +with his stick, and put out one of his eyes. Lycurgus, so far from being +daunted and discouraged by this accident, stopped short and showed his +disfigured face and eye beat out to his countrymen; they, dismayed and +ashamed at the sight, delivered Alcander into his hands to be punished, +and escorted him home, with expressions of great concern for his ill +usage. Lycurgus, having thanked them for their care of his person, +dismissed them all, excepting only Alcander; and, taking him with +him into his house, neither did nor said anything severe to him, but +dismissing those whose place it was, bade Alcander to wait upon him +at table. The young man, who was of an ingenuous temper, did without +murmuring as he was commanded; and, being thus admitted to live with +Lycurgus, he had an opportunity to observe in him, beside his gentleness +and calmness of temper, an extraordinary sobriety and an indefatigable +industry, and so, from an enemy, became one of his most zealous +admirers, and told his friends and relations that Lycurgus was not that +morose and ill-natured man they had formerly taken him for, but the +one mild and gentle character of the world. And thus did Lycurgus, for +chastisement of his fault, make of a wild and passionate young man one +of the discreetest citizens of Sparta. + +In memory of this accident, Lycurgus built a temple to Minerva. Some +authors, however, say that he was wounded, indeed, but did not lose his +eye from the blow; and that he built the temple in gratitude for the +cure. Be this as it will, certain it is, that, after this misadventure, +the Lacedaemonians made it a rule never to carry so much as a staff into +their public assemblies. + +But to return to their public repasts. They met by companies of fifteen, +more or less, and each of them stood bound to bring in monthly a bushel +of meal, eight gallons of wine, five pounds of cheese, two pounds and +a half of figs, and some very small sum of money to buy flesh or fish +with. Besides this, when any of them made sacrifice to the gods, they +always sent a dole to the common hall; and, likewise, when any of them +had been a-hunting, he sent thither a part of the venison he had killed; +for these two occasions were the only excuses allowed for supping at +home. The custom of eating together was observed strictly for a +great while afterwards; insomuch that king Agis himself, after having +vanquished the Athenians, sending for his commons at his return home, +because he desired to eat privately with his queen, was refused them +by the polemarchs; and when he resented this refusal so much as to omit +next day the sacrifice due for a war happily ended, they made him pay a +fine. + +They used to send their children to these tables as to schools of +temperance; here they were instructed in state affairs by listening to +experienced statesmen; here they learnt to converse with pleasantry, to +make jests without scurrility, and take them without ill humor. In this +point of good breeding, the Lacedaemonians excelled particularly, but +if any man were uneasy under it, upon the least hint given there was no +more to be said to him. It was customary also for the eldest man in +the company to say to each of them, as they came in, "Through this" +(pointing to the door), "no words go out." When any one had a desire to +be admitted into any of these little societies, he was to go through the +following probation: each man in the company took a little ball of soft +bread, which they were to throw into a deep basin, that a waiter carried +round upon his head; those that liked the person to be chosen dropped +their ball into the basin without altering its figure, and those who +disliked him pressed it betwixt their fingers, and made it flat; and +this signified as much as a negative voice. And if there were but one +of these flattened pieces in the basin, the suitor was rejected, +so desirous were they that all the members of the company should +be agreeable to each other. The basin was called caddichus, and the +rejected candidate had a name thence derived. Their most famous dish was +the black broth, which was so much valued that the elderly men fed only +upon that, leaving what flesh there was to the younger. + +They say that a certain king of Pontus, having heard much of this black +broth of theirs, sent for a Lacedaemonian cook on purpose to make him +some, but had no sooner tasted it than he found it extremely bad, which +the cook observing, told him, "Sir, to make this broth relish, you +should have bathed yourself first in the river Eurotas." + +After drinking moderately, every man went to his home without lights, +for the use of them was, on all occasions, forbid, to the end that they +might accustom themselves to march boldly in the dark. Such was the +common fashion of their meals. + +Lycurgus would never reduce his laws into writing; nay, there is a +Rhetra expressly to forbid it. For he thought that the most material +points, and such as most directly tended to the public welfare, being +imprinted on the hearts of their youth by a good discipline, would be +sure to remain, and would find a stronger security, than any compulsion +would be, in the principles of action formed in them by their best +lawgiver, education. + +One, then, of the Rhetras was, that their laws should not be written; +another is particularly leveled against luxury and expensiveness, for +by it it was ordained that the ceilings of their houses should only be +wrought by the axe, and their gates and doors smoothed only the saw. +Epaminondas's famous dictum about his own table, that "Treason and a +dinner like this do not keep company together," may be said to have been +anticipated by Lycurgus. Luxury and a house of this kind could not well +be companions. For a man must have a less than ordinary share of sense +that would furnish such plain and common rooms with silver-footed +couches and purple coverlets and gold and silver plate. Doubtless he +had good reason to think that they would proportion their beds to their +houses, and their coverlets to their beds, and the rest of their goods +and furniture to these. It is reported that King Leotychides, the first +of that name, was so little used to the sight of any other kind of +work, that, being entertained at Corinth in a stately room, he was much +surprised to see the timber and ceilings so finely carved and paneled, +and asked his host whether the trees grew so in his country. + +A third ordinance or Rhetra was that they should not make war often, or +long, with the same enemy, lest they should train and instruct them +in war, by habituating them to defend themselves. And this is what +Agesilaus was much blamed for a long time after; it being thought that, +by his continual incursions into Boeotia, he made the Thebans a match +for the Lacedaemonians; and therefore Antalcidas, seeing him wounded +one day, said to him that he was very well paid for taking such pains +to make the Thebans good soldiers, whether they would or no. These laws +were called the Rhetras, to intimate that they were divine sanctions and +revelations. + +In order to the good education of their youth (which, as I said before, +he thought the most important and noblest work of a lawgiver), he took +in their case all the care that was possible; he ordered the maidens +to exercise themselves with wrestling, running, throwing the quoit, and +casting the dart, to the end that they might have strong and healthy +bodies. + +It was not in the power of the father to dispose of his child as he +thought fit; he was obliged to carry it before certain "triers" at a +place called Lesche; these were some of the elders of the tribe to which +the child belonged; their business it was carefully to view the infant, +and, if they found it stout and well made, they gave order for its +rearing, and allotted to it one of the nine thousand shares of land +above mentioned for its maintenance; but if they found it puny and +ill-shaped, ordered it to be taken to what was called the Apothetae, a +sort of chasm under Taygetus; as thinking it neither for the good of the +child itself, nor for the public interest, that it should be brought +up, if it did not, from the very outset, appear made to be healthy and +vigorous. Upon the same account, the women did not bathe the new-born +children with water, as is the custom in all other countries, but with +wine, to prove the temper and complexion of their bodies; from a notion +they had that epileptic and weakly children faint and waste away upon +their being thus bathed, while, on the contrary, those of a strong and +vigorous habit acquire firmness and get a temper by it like steel. There +was much care and art, too, used by the nurses; they had no swaddling +bands; the children grew up free and unconstrained in limb and form, and +not dainty and fanciful about their food; nor afraid in the dark, or of +being left alone; without any peevishness or ill humor or crying. Upon +this account, Spartan nurses were often bought up, or hired by people of +other countries. + +Lycurgus was of another mind; he would not have masters bought out of +the market for his young Spartans, nor such as should sell their pains; +nor was it lawful, indeed, for the father himself to raise his children +after his own fancy; but as soon as they were seven years old they were +to be enrolled in certain companies and classes, where they all lived +under the same order and discipline, doing their exercises and taking +their play together. Of these he who showed the most conduct and courage +was made captain; they had their eyes always upon him, obeyed his +orders, and underwent patiently whatsoever punishment he inflicted; so +that the whole course of their education was one continued exercise of a +ready and perfect obedience. The old men, too, were spectators of their +performances, and often raised quarrels and disputes among them, to have +a good opportunity of finding out their different characters, and of +seeing which would be valiant, which a coward, when they should come +to more dangerous encounters. Reading and writing they gave them, just +enough to serve their turn; their chief care was to make them good +subjects, and to teach them to endure pain and conquer in battle. To +this end, as they grew in years, their discipline was proportionally +increased; their heads were close-clipped; they were accustomed to go +barefoot, and for the most part to play naked. + +After they were twelve years old they were no longer allowed to wear any +under-garment; they had one coat to serve them a year; their bodies were +hard and dry, with but little acquaintance of baths and unguents; these +human indulgences they were allowed only on some few particular days +in the year. They lodged together in little bands upon beds made of the +rushes which grew by the banks of the river Eurotas, which they were +to break off with their hands without a knife; if it were winter, they +mingled some thistledown with their rushes, which it was thought had the +property of giving warmth. + +Besides all this, there was always one of the best and most honest men +in the city appointed to undertake the charge and governance of them; he +again arranged them into their several bands, and set over each of +them for their captain the most temperate and bold of those they called +Irens, who were usually twenty years old, two years out of boyhood; and +the eldest of the boys, again, were Mell-Irens, as much as to say, "who +would shortly be men." This young man, therefore, was their captain when +they fought, and their master at home, using them for the offices of his +house; sending the oldest of them to fetch wood, and the weaker and less +able, to gather salads and herbs, and these they must either go without +or steal; which they did by creeping into the gardens, or conveying +themselves cunningly and closely into the eating-houses; if they were +taken in the act, they were whipped without mercy, for thieving so ill +and awkwardly. They stole, too, all other meat they could lay their +hands on, looking out and watching all opportunities, when people were +asleep or more careless than usual. If they were caught, they were not +only punished with whipping, but hunger, too, being reduced to their +ordinary allowance, which was but very slender, and so contrived on +purpose, that they might set about to help themselves, and be forced to +exercise their energy and address. + +So seriously did the Lacedaemonian children go about their stealing, +that a youth, having stolen a young fox and hid it under his coat, +suffered it to tear out his very bowels with its teeth and claws, and +died upon the place, rather than let it be seen. What is practised to +this very day in Lacedaemon is enough to gain credit to this story, for +I myself have seen several of the youths endure whipping to death at the +foot of the altar of Diana surnamed Orthia. + +The Iren, or under-master, used to stay a little with them after supper, +and one of them he bade to sing a song, to another he put a question +which required an advised and deliberate answer; for example, Who was +the best man in the city? What he thought of such an action of such +a man? They accustomed them thus early to pass a right judgment upon +persons and things, and to inform themselves of the abilities or defects +of their countrymen. If they had not an answer ready to the question, +Who was a good or who an ill-reputed citizen? they were looked upon as +of a dull and careless disposition, and to have little or no sense of +virtue and honor; besides this, they were to give a good reason for what +they said, and in as few words and as comprehensive as might be; he that +failed of this, or answered not to the purpose, had his thumb bit by his +master. + +They taught them, also, to speak with a natural and graceful raillery, +and to comprehend much matter of thought in few words. For Lycurgus, +who ordered, as we saw, that a great piece of money should be but of +an inconsiderable value, on the contrary would allow no discourse to be +current which did not contain in few words a great deal of useful and +curious sense; children in Sparta, by a habit of long silence, came to +give just and sententious answers; for, indeed, loose talkers seldom +originate many sensible words. King Agis, when some Athenian laughed at +their short swords, and said that the jugglers on the stage swallowed +them with ease, answered him, "We find them long enough to reach our +enemies with;" and as their swords were short and sharp, so, it seems to +me, were their sayings. They reach the point and arrest the attention of +the hearers better than any others. Lycurgus himself seems to have been +short and sententious, if we may trust the anecdotes of him; as +appears by his answer to one who by all means would set up democracy in +Lacedaemon. "Begin, friend," said he, "and set it up in your family." +Another asked him why he allowed of such mean and trivial sacrifices +to the gods. He replied, "That we may always have something to offer to +them." Being asked what sort of martial exercises or combats he approved +of, he answered, "All sorts, except that in which you stretch out your +hands." + +Of their dislike to talkativeness, the following apophthegms are +evidence. King Leonidas said to one who held him in discourse upon some +useful matter, but not in due time and place, "Much to the purpose, sir, +elsewhere." King Charilaus, the nephew of Lycurgus, being asked why his +uncle had made so few laws, answered, "Men of few words require but few +laws." When one blamed Hecataeus the sophist because that, being +invited to the public table, he had not spoken one word all supper-time, +Archidamidas answered in his vindication, "He who knows how to speak, +knows also when." + +The sharp, and yet not ungraceful, retorts which I mentioned may be +instanced as follows. Demaratus, being asked in a troublesome manner by +an importunate fellow, Who was the best man in Lacedaemon? answered at +last, "He, sir, that is the least like you." Some, in company where Agis +was, much extolled the Eleans for their just and honorable management of +the Olympic games; "Indeed," said Agis, "they are highly to be commended +if they can do justice one day in five years." + +We may see their character, too, in their very jests. For they did not +throw them out at random, but the very wit of them was grounded upon +something or other worth thinking about. For instance, one, being asked +to go hear a man who exactly counterfeited the voice of a nightingale, +answered, "Sir, I have heard the nightingale itself." Another, having +read the following inscription upon a tomb,-- + + Seeking to quench a cruel tyranny, + They, at Selinus, did in battle die, + +said, it served them right; for instead of trying to quench the tyranny +they should have let it burn out. A lad, being offered some game-cocks +that would die upon the spot, said he cared not for cocks that would +die, but for such as would live and kill others. In short, their answers +were so sententious and pertinent, that one said well that intellectual, +much more truly than athletic, exercise was the Spartan characteristic. + +Nor was their instruction in music and verse less carefully attended to +than their habits of grace and good breeding in conversation. And their +very songs had a life and spirit in them that inflamed and possessed +men's minds with an enthusiasm and ardor for action; the style of them +was plain and without affectation; the subject always serious and moral; +most usually it was in praise of such men as had died in defence of +their country, or in derision of those that had been cowards; the former +they declared happy and glorified; the life of the latter they described +as most miserable and abject. There were also vaunts of what they would +do, and boasts of what they had done, varying with the various ages, as, +for example, they had three choirs in their solemn festivals, the +first of the old men, the second of the young men, and the last of the +children; the old men began thus: + + We once were young, and brave and strong; + +the young men answered them, singing, + + And we're so now, come on and try; + +the children came last and said, + + But we'll be strongest by and by. + +Before they engaged in battle, the Lacedaemonians abated a little the +severity of their manners in favor of their young men, suffering them +to curl and adorn their hair, and to have costly arms, and fine clothes; +and were well pleased to see them, like proud horses, neighing and +pressing to the course. And therefore, as soon as they came to be well +grown, they took a great deal of care of their hair, to have it parted +and trimmed, especially against a day of battle, pursuant to a saying +recorded of their lawgiver, that a large head of hair added beauty to a +good face, and terror to an ugly one. + +The senate, as I said before, consisted of those who were Lycurgus's +chief aiders and assistants in his plan. The vacancies he ordered to be +supplied out of the best and most deserving men past sixty years old. +The manner of their election was as follows: the people being called +together, some selected persons were locked up in a room near the place +of election, so contrived that they could neither see nor be seen, but +could only hear the noise of the assembly without; for they decided +this, as most other affairs of moment, by the shouts of the people. This +done, the competitors were not brought in and presented all together, +but one after another by lot, and passed in order through the assembly +without speaking a word. Those who were locked up had writing-tables +with them, in which they recorded and marked each shout by its loudness, +without knowing in favor of which candidate each of them was made, but +merely that they came first, second, third, and so forth. He who was +found to have the most and loudest acclamations was declared senator +duly elected. + +When he perceived that his more important institutions had taken root in +the minds of his countrymen, that custom had rendered them familiar and +easy, that his commonwealth was now grown up and able to go alone, then, +as Plato somewhere tells us the Maker of the world, when first he saw it +existing and beginning its motion, felt joy, even so Lycurgus, viewing +with joy and satisfaction the greatness and beauty of his political +structure, now fairly at work and in motion, conceived the thought +to make it immortal too, and as far as human forecast could reach, to +deliver it down unchangeable to posterity. He called an extraordinary +assembly of all the people, and told them that he now thought everything +reasonably well established, both for the happiness and the virtue of +the state; but that there was one thing still behind, of the greatest +importance, which he thought not fit to impart until he had consulted +the oracle; in the meantime, his desire was that they would observe the +laws without even the least alteration until his return, and then he +would do as the god should direct him. They all consented readily, and +bade him hasten his journey; but, before he departed, he administered +an oath to the two kings, the senate, and the whole commons, to abide by +and maintain the established form of polity until Lycurgus should +come back. This done, he set out for Delphi, and, having sacrificed +to Apollo, asked him whether the laws he had established were good and +sufficient for a people's happiness and virtue. The oracle answered that +the laws were excellent, and that the people, while it observed them, +should live in the height of renown. Lycurgus took the oracle in +writing, and sent it over to Sparta, and, having sacrificed a second +time to Apollo, and taken leave of his friends and his son, he resolved +that the Spartans should not be released from the oath they had taken, +and that he would, of his own act, close his life where he was. He was +now about that age in which life was still tolerable, and yet might +be quitted without regret. Everything, moreover, about him was in a +sufficiently prosperous condition. He, therefore, made an end of himself +by a total abstinence from food; thinking it a statesman's duty to make +his very death, if possible, an act of service to the state, and even +in the end of his life to give some example of virtue and effect some +useful purpose. Nor was he deceived in his expectations, for the city of +Lacedaemon continued the chief city of all Greece for the space of five +hundred years, in strict observance of Lycurgus's laws; in all which +time there was no manner of alteration made, during the reign of +fourteen kings, down to the time of Agis, the son of Archidamus. + +King Theopompus, when one said that Sparta held up so long because their +kings could command so well, replied, "Nay, rather because the people +know so well how to obey." For people do not obey, unless rulers know +how to command; obedience is a lesson taught by commanders. A true +leader himself creates the obedience of his own followers; as it is +the greatest attainment in the art of riding to make a horse gentle and +tractable, so is it of the science of government to inspire men with a +willingness to obey. + +It is reported that when the bones were brought home to Sparta his tomb +was struck with lightning, an accident which befell no eminent person +but himself and Euripides. But Aristocrates, the son of Hipparchus, says +that he died in Crete, and that his Cretan friends, in accordance with +his own request, when they had burned his body, scattered the ashes +into the sea, for fear lest, if his relics should be transported to +Lacedaemon, the people might pretend to be released from their oaths, +and make innovations in the government. + + + + +SOLON + +SOLON, as Hermippus writes, when his father had ruined his estate in +doing benefits and kindnesses to other men, though he had friends enough +that were willing to contribute to his relief, yet was ashamed to +be beholden to others, since he was descended from a family who were +accustomed to do kindnesses rather than receive them; and therefore +applied himself to merchandise in his youth; though others assure us +that he traveled rather to get learning and experience than to make +money. It is certain that he was a lover of knowledge, for when he was +old he would say that he + +Each day grew older, and learnt something new. + +But that he accounted himself rather poor than rich is evident from the +lines, + + Some wicked men are rich, some good are poor, + We will not change our virtue for their store; + Virtue's a thing that none can take away, + But money changes owners all the day. + +It is stated that Anacharsis and Solon and Thales were familiarly +acquainted, and some have quoted parts of their discourse; for, they +say, Anacharsis, coming to Athens, knocked at Solon's door and told +him that he, being a stranger, was come to be his guest, and contract a +friendship with him; and Solon replying; "It is better to make friends +at home," Anacharsis replied, "Then you that are at home make friendship +with me." Solon, somewhat surprised at the readiness of the repartee, +received him kindly, and kept him some time with him, being already +engaged in public business and the compilation of his laws; which when +Anacharsis understood, he laughed at him for imagining the dishonesty +and covetousness of his countrymen could be restrained by written laws, +which were like spiders' webs, and would catch, it is true, the weak +and poor, but easily be broken by the mighty and rich. To this Solon +rejoined that men keep their promises when neither side can get anything +by the breaking of them; and he would so fit his laws to the citizens, +that all should understand it was more eligible to be just than to break +the laws. But the event rather agreed with the conjecture of Anacharsis +than Solon's hope. Anacharsis, being once at the assembly, expressed his +wonder that in Greece wise men spoke and fools decided. + +Now, when the Athenians were tired with a tedious and difficult war that +they conducted against the Megarians for the island Salamis, and made +a law that is should be death for any man, by writing or speaking, to +assert that the city ought to endeavor to recover it, Solon, vexed at +the disgrace, and perceiving thousands of the youth wished for +somebody to begin, but did not dare to stir first for fear of the law, +counterfeited a distraction, and by his own family it was spread about +the city that he was mad. He then secretly composed some elegiac verses, +and getting them by heart, that it might seem extempore, ran out into +the market-place with a cap upon his head, and, the people gathering +about him, got upon the herald's stand, and sang that elegy which begins +thus:-- + + I am a herald come from Salamis the fair, + My news from thence my verses shall declare. + +The poem is called "Salamis"; it contains a hundred verses, very +elegantly written. When it had been sung, his friends commended it, and +especially Pisistratus exhorted the citizens to obey his directions; +insomuch that they recalled the law, and renewed the war under Solon's +conduct. The popular take is, that with Pisistratus he sailed to Colias, +and, finding the women, according to the custom of the country there, +sacrificing to Ceres, he sent a trusty friend to Salamis, who should +pretend himself a renegade, and advise them, if they desired to seize +the chief Athenian women, to come with him at once to Colias; the +Megarians presently sent off men in the vessel with him, and Solon, +seeing it put off from the island, commanded the women to be gone, and +some beardless youths, dressed in their clothes, their shoes, and caps, +and privately armed with daggers, to dance and play near the shore till +the enemies had landed and the vessel was in their power. Things being +thus ordered, the Megarians were allured with the appearance, and, +coming to the shore, jumped out, eager who should first seize a prize, +so that not one of them escaped; and the Athenians set sail for the +island and took it. + +For this Solon grew famed and powerful; but his advice in favor of +defending the oracle at Delphi, to give aid, and not to suffer the +Cirrhaeans to profane it, but to maintain the honor of the god, got him +most repute among the Greeks: for upon his persuasion the Amphictyons +undertook the war. + +Now the Cylonian pollution had a long time disturbed the commonwealth, +ever since the time when Megacles the archon persuaded the conspirators +with Cylon that took sanctuary in Athena's temple to come down and stand +to a fair trial. And they, tying a thread to the image, and holding one +end of it, went down to the tribunal; but when they came to the temple +of the Furies, the thread broke of its own accord, upon which, as if the +goddess had refused them protection, they were seized by Megacles and +the other magistrates; as many as were without the temples were stoned, +those that fled for sanctuary were butchered at the altar, and only +those escaped who made supplication to the wives of the magistrates. + +The Athenians, now the Cylonian sedition was over and the polluted gone +into banishment, fell into their old quarrels about the government, +there being as many different parties as there were diversities in the +country. The Hill quarter favored democracy; the Plain, oligarchy; and +those that lived by the Sea-side stood for a mixed sort of government, +and so hindered either of the parties from prevailing. And the disparity +of fortune between the rich and the poor at that time also reached its +height; so that the city seemed to be in a truly dangerous condition, +and no other means for freeing it from disturbances and settling it to +be possible but a despotic power. + +Then the wisest of the Athenians, perceiving Solon was of all men the +only one not implicated in the troubles, that he had not joined in the +exactions of the rich, and was not involved in the necessities of +the poor, pressed him to succor the commonwealth and compose the +differences. Solon, reluctantly at first, engaged in state affairs, +being afraid of the pride of one party and the greediness of the other; +he was chosen archon, however, after Philombrotus, and empowered to be +an arbitrator and lawgiver; the rich consenting because he was wealthy, +the poor because he was honest. There was a saying of his current before +the election, that when things are even there never can be war, and this +pleased both parties, the wealthy and the poor; the one conceiving him +to mean, when all have their fair proportion; the other, when all are +absolutely equal. Thus, there being great hopes on both sides, the chief +men pressed Solon to take the government into his own hands, and, when +he was once settled, manage the business freely and according to his +pleasure; and many of the commons, perceiving it would be a difficult +change to be effected by law and reason, were willing to have one wise +and just man set over the affairs; and some say that Solon had this +oracle from Apollo: + + Take the mid-seat, and be the vessel's guide; + Many in Athens are upon your side. + +From which it is manifest that he was a man of great reputation before +he gave his laws. The several mocks that were put upon him for refusing +the power, he records in these words: + +Solon surely was a dreamer, and a man of simple mind; When the gods +would give him fortune, he of his own will declined; When the new was +full of fishes, over-heavy thinking it, He declined to haul it up, +through want of heart and want of wit. Had but I that chance of riches +and of kingship for one day, I would give my skin for flaying, and my +house to die away. + +Thus he makes the many and the low people speak of him. Yet, though he +refused the government, he did not show himself mean and submissive to +the powerful, nor make his laws to pleasure those that chose him. For +the first thing which he settled was, that what debts remained should +be forgiven, and no man, for the future, should engage the body of his +debtor for security. Though some, as Androtion, affirm that the debts +were not canceled, but the interest only lessened, which sufficiently +pleased the people; so that they named this benefit the Seisacthea, +together with the enlarging of their measures, and raising the value of +their money; for he made a pound, which before passed for seventy-three +drachmas, go for a hundred; so that, though the number of pieces in +the payment was equal, the value was less; which proved a considerable +benefit to those that were to discharge great debts, and no loss to the +creditors. + +While he was designing this, a most vexatious thing happened; for when +he had resolved to take off the debts, and was considering the proper +form and fit beginning for it, he told some of his friends, Conon, +Clinias, and Hipponicus, in whom he had a great deal of confidence, that +he would not meddle with the lands, but only free the people from their +debts; upon which, they, using their advantage, made haste and borrowed +some considerable sums of money, and purchased some large farms; and +when the law was enacted, they kept the possessions, and would not +return the money; which brought Solon into great suspicion and +dislike, as if he himself had not been abused, but was concerned in the +contrivance. But he presently stopped this suspicion, by releasing his +own debtors of five talents (for he had lent so much), according to the +law; others, as Polyzelus the Rhodian, say fifteen. + +Soon becoming sensible of the good that was done, the people laid by +their grudges, made a public sacrifice, and chose Solon to new-model +and make laws for the commonwealth, giving him the entire power over +everything, their magistracies, their assemblies, courts, and councils; +that he should appoint the number, times of meeting, and what estate +they must have that could be capable of these, and dissolve or continue +any of the present constitutions, according to his pleasure. + +First, then, he repealed all Draco's laws, except those concerning +homicide, because they were too severe and the punishments too great; +for death was appointed for almost all offences, insomuch that those +that were convicted of idleness were to die, and those that stole a +cabbage or an apple to suffer even as villains that committed sacrilege +or murder. So that Demades, in after time, was thought to have said very +happily, that Draco's laws were written not with ink, but blood; and +he himself, being once asked why he made death the punishment of most +offences, replied: "Small ones deserve that, and I have no higher for +the greater crimes." + +Next, Solon, being willing to continue the magistracies in the hands +of the rich men, and yet receive the people into the other part of the +government, took an account of the citizens' estates, and those that +were worth five hundred measures of fruits, dry and liquid, he placed +in the first rank; those that could keep a horse, or were worth three +hundred measures, were made the second class; those that had two hundred +measures, were in the third; and all the other were called Thetes, who +were not admitted to any office, but could come to the assembly, and +act as jurors; which at first seemed nothing, but afterward was found an +enormous privilege, as almost every matter of dispute came before them +in this latter capacity. Besides, it is said that he was obscure and +ambiguous in the wording of his laws, on purpose to increase the honor +of his courts; for since their differences could not be adjusted by the +letter, they would have to bring all their causes to the judges, who +thus were in a manner masters of the laws. Of this equalization he +himself makes mention in this manner: + + Such power I gave the people as might do, + Abridged not what they had, now lavished new. + Those that were great in wealth and high in place, + My counsel likewise kept from all disgrace. + Before them both I held my shield of might, + And let not either touch the other's right. + +When he had constituted the Areopagus of those who had been yearly +archons, of which he himself was a member therefore, observing that +the people, now free from their debts, were unsettled and imperious, +he formed another council of four hundred, a hundred out of each of +the four tribes, which was to inspect all matters before they were +propounded to the people, and to take care that nothing but what had +been first examined should be brought before the general assembly. The +upper council, or Areopagus, he made inspectors and keepers of the +laws, conceiving that the commonwealth, held by these two councils like +anchors, would be less liable to be tossed by tumults, and the people be +more at quiet. Such is the general statement that Solon instituted the +Areopagus. + +Amongst his other laws, one is very peculiar and surprising, which +disfranchises all who stand neuter in a sedition; for it seems he would +not have any one remain insensible and regardless of the public good, +but at once join with the good party and those that have the right upon +their side, assist and venture with them, rather than keep out of harm's +way and watch who would get the better. + +Another commendable law of Solon's is that which forbids men to speak +evil of the dead. + +Since the country has but few rivers, lakes, or large springs, and many +used wells which they had dug, there was a law made, that, where there +was a public well within a hippicon, that is, four furlongs, all should +draw at that; but then it was farther off, they should try and procure a +well of their own; and, if they had dug ten fathoms deep and could find +no water, they had liberty to fetch a pitcherful of four gallons and a +half in a day from their neighbors'; for he thought it prudent to make +provision against want, but not to supply laziness. He showed skill in +his orders about planting, for any one that would plant another tree was +not to set it within five feet of his neighbor's field; but if a fig or +an olive, not within nine, for their roots spread farther, nor can they +be planted near all sorts of trees without damage, for they draw away +the nourishment, and in some cases are noxious by their effluvia. He +that would dig a pit or a ditch was to dig it at the distance of its own +depth from his neighbor's ground; and he that would raise stocks of bees +was not to place them within three hundred feet of those which another +had already raised. + +He permitted only oil to be exported, and those that exported any other +fruit, the archon was solemnly to curse, or else pay an hundred drachmas +(a drachma was about twenty cents.) himself; and this law was written in +his first table, and, therefore, let none think it incredible, as some +affirm, that the exportation of figs was once unlawful. He made a law +also, concerning hurts and injuries from beasts, in which he commands +the master of any dog that bit a man to deliver him up with a log about +his neck four and a half feet long-a happy device for men's security. + +All his laws he established for an hundred years, and wrote them on +wooden tables or rollers, named axones, which might be turned round in +oblong cases; some of their relics were in my time still to be seen in +the Prytaneum, or common hall, at Athens. These, as Aristotle states, +were called cyrbes, and there is a passage of Cratinus the comedian, + + By Solon, and by Draco, if you please, + Whose Cyrbes make the fires that parch our peas. + +But some say those are properly cyrbes, which contain laws concerning +sacrifices and the rites of religion, and all the other axones. The +council all jointly swore to confirm the laws, and every one of the +Thesmothetae vowed for himself at the stone in the market-place, that, +if he broke any of the statutes, he would dedicate a golden statue, as +big as himself, at Delphi. + +Now when these laws were enacted, and some came to Solon every day, to +commend or dispraise them, and to advise, if possible, to leave out, or +put in something, and many criticised, and desired him to explain, +and tell the meaning of such and such a passage, he, to escape all +displeasure, it being a hard thing, as he himself says, + + In great affairs to satisfy all sides, + +As an excuse for traveling, bought a trading vessel and, having obtained +leave for ten years' absence, departed, hoping that by that time his +laws would have become familiar. + +His first voyage was for Egypt, and he lived, as he himself says, + + Near Nilus' mouth, by fair Canopus' shore, + +And spent some time in study with Psenophis of Heliopolis, and Sonchis +the Saite, the most learned of all the priests; from whom, as Plato +says, getting knowledge of the Atlantic story, he put it into a poem, +and proposed to bring it to the knowledge of the Greeks. From thence he +sailed to Cyprus, where he was made much of by Philocyprus, one of the +kings there, who had a small city built by Demophon, Theseus's son, near +the river Clarius, in a strong situation, but incommodious and uneasy +of access. Solon persuaded him, since there lay a fair plain below, +to remove, and build there a pleasanter and more spacious city. And he +stayed himself, and assisted in gathering inhabitants, and in fitting it +both for defence and convenience of living; insomuch that many flocked +to Philocyprus, and the other kings imitated the design; and, therefore, +to honor Solon, he called the city Soli. + +That Solon should discourse with Croesus, some think not agreeable with +chronology; but I cannot reject so famous and well-attested a narrative, +and, what is more, so agreeable to Solon's temper, and so worthy his +wisdom and greatness of mind, because, forsooth, it does not agree with +some chronological canons, which thousands have endeavored to regulate, +and yet, to this day, could never bring their differing opinions to any +agreement. They say, therefore, that Solon, coming to Croesus at his +request, was in the same condition as an inland man when first he goes +to see the sea; for as he fancies every river he meets with to be the +ocean, so Solon, as he passed through the court, and saw a great many +nobles richly dressed, and proudly attended with a multitude of guards +and footboys, thought every one to be the king, till he was brought to +Croesus, who was decked with every possible rarity and curiosity, in +ornaments of jewels, purple, and gold, that could make a grand and +gorgeous spectacle of him. Now when Solon came before him, and seemed +not at all surprised, nor gave Croesus those compliments he expected, +but showed himself to all discerning eyes to be a man that despised the +gaudiness and petty ostentation of it, he commanded them to open all +his treasure houses, and carry him to see his sumptuous furniture and +luxuries, though Solon did not wish it; he could judge of him well +enough by the first sight of him; and, when he returned from viewing +all, Croesus asked him if ever he had known a happier man than he. And +when Solon answered that he had known one Tellus, a fellow-citizen of +his own, and told him that this Tellus had been an honest man, had had +good children, a competent estate, and died bravely in battle for his +country, Croesus took him for an ill-bred fellow and a fool, for not +measuring happiness by the abundance of gold and silver, and preferring +the life and death of a private and mean man before so much power and +empire. He asked him however, again, if, besides Tellus, he knew any +other man more happy. And Solon replying, Yes, Cleobis and Biton, who +were loving brothers, and extremely dutiful sons to their mother, and, +when the oxen delayed her, harnessed themselves to the wagon, and drew +her to Juno's temple, her neighbors all calling her happy, and she +herself rejoicing; then, after sacrificing and feasting, they went +to rest, and never rose again, but died in the midst of their honor a +painless and tranquil death. "What," said Croesus, angrily, "and dost +not thou reckon us amongst the happy men at all?" Solon, unwilling +either to flatter or exasperate him more, replied, "The gods, O king, +have given the Greeks all other gifts in moderate degree; and so our +wisdom, too, is a cheerful and a homely, not a noble and kingly, wisdom; +and this, observing the numerous misfortunes that attend all conditions, +forbids us to grow insolent upon our present enjoyments, or to admire +any man's happiness that may yet, in course of time, suffer change. For +the uncertain future has yet to come, with every possible variety of +fortune; and him only to whom the divinity has continued happiness unto +the end, we call happy; to salute as happy one that is still in the +midst of life and hazard, we think as little safe, and conclusive as to +crown and proclaim as victorious the wrestler that is yet in the ring." +After this, he was dismissed, having given Croesus some pain, but no +instruction. + +Aesop, who wrote the fables, being then at Sardis upon Croesus's +invitation, and very much esteemed, was concerned that Solon was so +ill-received, and gave him this advice: "Solon, let your converse with +kings be either short or seasonable." "Nay, rather," replied Solon, +"either short or reasonable." So at this time Croesus despised Solon; +but when he was overcome by Cyrus, had lost his city, was taken alive, +condemned to be burnt, and laid bound upon the pile before all the +Persians and Cyrus himself, he cried out as loud as he possibly could +three times, "O Solon!" and Cyrus being surprised, and sending some to +inquire what man or god this Solon was, whom alone he invoked in this +extremity, Croesus told him the whole story, saying, "He was one of the +wise men of Greece, whom I sent for, not to be instructed, or to learn +anything that I wanted, but that he should see and be a witness of my +happiness; the loss of which was, it seems, to be a greater evil than +the enjoyment was a good; for when I had them they were goods only in +opinion, but now the loss of them has brought upon me intolerable and +real evils. And he, conjecturing from what then was, this that now is, +bade me look to the end of my life, and not rely and grow proud upon +uncertainties." When this was told Cyrus, who was a wiser man than +Croesus, and saw in the present example Solon's maxim confirmed, he not +only freed Croesus from punishment, but honored him as long as he +lived; and Solon had the glory, by the same saying, to save one king and +instruct another. + +When Solon was gone, the citizens began to quarrel; Lycurgus headed +the Plain; Megacles, the son of Alcmaeon, those of the Sea-side; and +Pisistratus the Hill-party, in which were the poorest people, the +Thetes, and greatest enemies to the rich; insomuch that, though the +city still used the new laws, yet all looked for and desired a change of +government, hoping severally that the change would be better for them, +and put them above the contrary faction. Affairs standing thus, Solon +returned, and was reverenced by all, and honored; but his old age would +not permit him to be as active, and to speak in public, as formerly; +yet, by privately conferring with the heads of the factions, he +endeavored to compose the differences, Pisistratus appearing the most +tractable; for he was extremely smooth and engaging in his language, +a great friend to the poor, and moderate in his resentments; and what +nature had not given him, he had the skill to imitate; so that he was +trusted more than the others, being accounted a prudent and orderly man, +one that loved equality, and would be an enemy to any that moved against +the present settlement. Thus he deceived the majority of people; but +Solon quickly discovered his character, and found out his design before +any one else; yet did not hate him upon this, but endeavored to humble +him, and bring him off from his ambition, and often told him and others, +that if any one could banish the passion for preeminence from his mind, +and cure him of his desire of absolute power, none would make a more +virtuous man or a more excellent citizen. Thespis, at this time, +beginning to act tragedies, and the thing, because it was new, taking +very much with the multitude, though it was not yet made a matter +of competition, Solon, being by nature fond of hearing and learning +something new, and now, in his old age, living idly, and enjoying +himself, indeed, with music and with wine, went to see Thespis himself, +as the ancient custom was, act; and after the play was done, he +addressed him, and asked him if he was not ashamed to tell so many lies +before such a number of people; and Thespis replying that it was no harm +to say or do so in play, Solon vehemently struck his staff against the +ground: "Ay," said he, "if we honor and commend such play as this, we +shall find it some day in our business." + +Now when Pisistratus, having wounded himself, was brought into the +market-place in a chariot, and stirred up the people, as if he had been +thus treated by his opponents because of his political conduct, and a +great many were enraged and cried out, Solon, coming close to him, said, +"This, O son of Hippocrates, is a bad copy of Homer's Ulysses; you do, +to trick your countrymen, what he did to deceive his enemies." After +this, the people were eager to protect Pisistratus, and met in an +assembly, where one Ariston made a motion that they should allow +Pisistratus fifty clubmen for a guard to his person. Now, the people, +having passed the law, were not nice with Pisistratus about the number +of his clubmen, but took no notice of it, though he enlisted and kept as +many as he would, until he seized the Acropolis. When that was done, and +the city in an uproar, Megacles, with all his family, at once fled; But +Solon, though he was now very old, and had none to back him, yet came +into the market-place and made a speech to the citizens, partly blaming +their inadvertency and meanness of spirit, and in part urging and +exhorting them not thus tamely to lose their liberty; and likewise then +spoke that memorable saying, that, before, it was an easier task to +stop the rising tyranny, but now the greater and more glorious action +to destroy it, when it was begun already, and had gathered strength. +But all being afraid to side with him, he returned home, and, taking his +arms, he brought them out and laid them in the porch before his door, +with these words: "I have done my part to maintain my country and my +laws," and then be busied himself no more. + +But Pisistratus, having got the command, so extremely courted Solon, so +honored him, obliged him, and sent to see him, that Solon gave him +his advice, and approved many of his actions; for he retained most of +Solon's laws, observed them himself, and compelled his friends to obey. +And he added other laws, one of which is that the maimed in the wars +should be maintained at the public charge, following Solon's example in +this, who had decreed it in the case of one Thersippus, that was maimed. + +Solon lived after Pisistratus seized the government a long time. But +the story that his ashes were scattered about the island Salamis is too +strange to be easily believed, or be thought anything but a mere +fable; and yet it is given, among other good authors, by Aristotle the +philosopher. + + + + +THEMISTOCLES + +The birth of Themistocles was somewhat too obscure to do him honor. His +father, Neocles, was not of the distinguished people of Athens, but of +the township of Phrearrhi; and by his mother's side, as it is reported, +he was low-born. + + "I am not of the noble Grecian race, + I'm poor Abrotonon, and born in Trace; + Let the Greek women scorn me, if they please, + I was the mother of Themistocles." + +From his youth he was of a vehement and impetuous nature, of a quick +apprehension, and a strong and aspiring bent for action and great +affairs, the holidays and intervals in his studies he did not spend in +play or idleness, as other children, but would be always inventing or +arranging some oration or declamation to himself, the subject of which +was generally the excusing of accusing of his companions, so that his +master would often say to him, "You, my boy, will be nothing small, +but great one way or other, for good and else for bad." he received +reluctantly and carelessly instructions given him to improve his manners +and behavior, or to teach him any pleasing or graceful accomplishment, +but whatever was said to improve him in sagacity, or in management of +affairs, he would give attention to beyond one of years, from confidence +in his natural capacities for such things. + +In the first essays of his youth he was not regular nor happily +balanced; he allowed himself to follow mere natural character, which, +without the control of reason and instruction, is apt to hurry, upon +either side, into sudden and violent courses, and very often to break +away and determine upon the worst; as he afterwards owned himself, +saying that the wildest colts make the best horses, if they only get +properly trained and broken in. + +Yet it is evident that his mind was early imbued with the keenest +interest in public affairs, and the most passionate ambition for +distinction. It is said that Themistocles was so transported with the +thoughts of glory, and so inflamed with the passion for great actions, +that, though he was still young when the battle of Marathon was +fought against the Persian, upon the skillful conduct of the general, +Miltiades, being everywhere talked about, he was observed to be +thoughtful and reserved; he passed the nights without sleep, and avoided +all his usual places of recreation, and to those how wondered at the +change, and inquired the reason of it, he gave the answer that "the +trophy of Miltiades would not let him sleep." And when others were +of opinion that the battle of Marathon would be an end to the war, +Themistocles thought that it was but the beginning of far greater +conflict, and for these, to the benefit of Greece, he kept himself in +continual readiness, and his city also in proper training, foreseeing +from far before what would happen. + +And, first of all, the Athenians being accustomed to divide amongst +themselves the revenue proceeding from the silver mines at Laurium, he +was the only man that durst propose to the people that this distribution +should cease, and that with the money, ships should be built to make +war against the Aeginetans, who were the most flourishing people in all +Greece, and by the number of their ships held the sovereignty of the +sea; and Themistocles thus, little by little, turned and drew the city +down towards the sea, in the belief that, whereas by land they were not +a match for their next neighbors, with their ships they might be able to +repel the Persian and command Greece; thus, as Plato says, from steady +soldiers he turned them into mariners and seamen tossed about the sea, +and gave occasion for the reproach against him, that he took away from +the Athenians the spear and the shield, and bound them to the bench +and the oar. He was well liked by the common people, would salute every +particular citizen by his own name, and always showed himself a +just judge in questions of business between private men; he said to +Simonides, the poet of Ceos, who desired something of him when he was +commander of the army that was no reasonable, "Simonides, you would +be no good poet if you wrote false measure, nor should I be a good +magistrate if for favor I made false law." + +Gradually growing to be great, and winning the favor of the people, +he at last gained the day with his faction over that of Aristides, and +procured his banishment by ostracism. When the kind of Persia was now +advancing against Greece, and sent messengers into Greece, with an +interpreter, to demand earth and water, as an acknowledgement of +subjection, Themistocles, by the consent of the people, seized upon +the interpreter, and put him to death, for presuming to publish the +barbarian orders and decrees in the Greek language; and having taken +upon himself the command of the Athenian forces, he immediately +endeavored to persuade the citizens to leave the city, and to embark +upon their galleys, and meet with the Persians at a great distance from +Greece. + +When the contingents met at the straits of Artemisium, the Greeks would +have the Lacedaemonians to command, and Eurybiades to be their admiral; +but the Athenians, who surpassed all the rest together in number of +vessels, would not submit to come after any other, till Themistocles, +perceiving the danger of this contest, yielded his own command to +Eurybiades, and got the Athenians to submit, persuading them that if in +this war they behaved themselves like men, he would answer for it after +that, that the Greeks, of their own will, would submit to their command. + +Though the fights between the Greeks and Persians in the straits of +Euboea were not so important as to make any final decision of the +war, yet the experience which the Greeks obtained in them was of great +advantage; for thus, by actual trial and in real danger, they found +out, that neither number of ships, or riches and ornaments, nor boasting +shouts, nor barbarous songs of victory, were any way terrible to men +that knew how to fight, and were resolved to come hand to hand with +their enemies. This, Pindar appears to have seen, and says justly enough +of the fight at Artemisium, that + + There the sons of Athens set + The stone that freedom stands on yet. + +For the first step towards victory undoubtedly is to gain courage. +Artemisium is in Euboea, beyond the city of Histiaea, a sea-beach open +to the north; there is small temple there, dedicated to Diana, surnamed +of the Dawn, and trees about it, around which again stand pillars of +white marble; and if rub them with your hand, they send forth both the +smell and color of saffron. + +But when news came from Thermopylae to Artemisium, informing that that +king Leonidas was slain, and that Xerxes had made himself master of +all the passages by land, they returned back to the interior of Greece. +Xerxes had already passed through Doris and invaded the country of +Phocis, and was burning and destroying the cities of the Phocians, yet +the Greeks sent them no relief; and, though the Athenians earnestly +desired them to meet the Persians in Boeotia, before they could come +into Attica, as they themselves had come forward by sea at Artemisium, +they gave no ear to their request, being wholly intent upon +Peloponnesus, and resolved to gather all their forces together within +the Isthmus, and to build a wall from sea to sea in that narrow neck of +land; so that the Athenians were enraged to see themselves betrayed, and +at the same time afflicted and dejected at their own destitution. For to +fight alone against such a numerous army was to no purpose, and the +only expedient now left them was to leave their city and cling to their +ships; which the people were very unwilling to submit to, imagining that +it would signify little now to gain a victory, and not understanding how +there could be deliverance any longer after they had once forsaken +the temples of their gods and exposed the tombs and monuments of their +ancestors to the fury of their enemies. + +Themistocles, being at a loss, and not able to draw the people over +to his opinion by any human reason, set his machines to work, as in a +theatre, and employed prodigies and oracles. The serpent of Athena, kept +in the inner part of her temple, disappeared; the priests gave it out +to the people and declared, by the suggestion of Themistocles, that the +goddess had left the city, and taken her flight before them towards the +sea. And he often urged them with the oracle which bade them "trust to +walls of wood," showing them that walls of wood could signify nothing +else but ships; and that the island of Salamis was termed in it not +miserable or unhappy, but had the epithet of divine, for that it should +one day be associated with a great good fortune of the Greeks. At length +his opinion prevailed, and he obtained a decree that the city should be +committed to the protection of Athena, "queen of Athens"; that they +who were of age to bear arms should embark, and that each should see to +sending away his children, women, and slaves where he could. This decree +being confirmed, most of the Athenians removed their parents, wives, and +children to Troezen, where they were received with eager good-will by +the Troezenians, who passed a vote that they should be maintained at the +public charge. + +Among the great actions of Themistocles at this crisis, the recall of +Aristides was not the least, for, before the war, he had been ostracized +by the party which Themistocles headed, and was in banishment; but now, +perceiving that the people regretted his absence, and were fearful that +he might go over to the Persians to revenge himself, and thereby ruin +the affairs of Greece, Themistocles proposed a decree that those who +were banished for a time might return again, to give assistance by word +and deed to the cause of Greece with the rest of their fellow citizens. + +Eurybiades, by reason of the greatness of Sparta, was admiral of the +Greek fleet, but yet was faint-hearted in time of danger, and willing +to weigh anchor and set sail for the Isthmus of Corinth, near which the +land army lay encamped; which Themistocles, resisted; and this was +the occasion of the well-known words, when Eurybiades, to check his +impatience, told him that at the Olympic games they that start up before +the rest are lashed. "And they," replied Themistocles, "that are left +behind are not crowned." Some say that while Themistocles was thus +speaking things upon the deck, an owl was seen flying to the right hand +of the fleet, which came and sat upon the top of the mast; and this +happy omen so far disposed the Greeks to follow his advice, that they +presently prepared to fight. Yet, when the enemy's fleet was arrived at +the haven of Phalerum, upon the coast of Attica, and with the number of +their ships concealed all the shore, and when they saw the king himself +in person come down with his land army to the sea-side, with all his +forces united, then the good counsel of Themistocles was soon forgotten, +and the Peloponnesians cast their eyes again towards the Isthmus, and +took it very ill if any one spoke against their returning home; and, +resolving to depart that night, the pilots had order what course to +steer. + +Themistocles, in great distress that the Greeks should return, and lost +the advantage of the narrow seas and strait passage, and slip home +very one to his own city, considered with himself, and contrived that +stratagem which was carried out by Sicinnus. This Sicinnus was a Persian +captive, but a great lover of Themistocles, and the attendant of his +children. Upon this occasion he sent him privately to Xerxes, commanding +him to tell the king that Themistocles, the admiral of the Athenians, +having espoused his interest, wished to be the first to inform him that +the Greeks were ready to make their escape, and that he counseled him to +hinder their flight, to set upon them while they were in this confusion +and at a distance from their land army, and thereby destroy all their +forces by sea. Xerxes was very joyful at this message, and received it +as from one who wished him all that was good, and immediately issued +instructions to the commanders of his ships that they should instantly +set out with two hundred galleys to encompass all the islands, and +enclose all the straits and passages, that none of the Greeks might +escape, and that they should afterward follow with the rest of their +fleet at leisure. This being done, Aristides, the son of Lysimachus, was +the first man that perceived it, and went to the test of Themistocles, +not out of any friendship, for he had been formerly banished by his +means, as has been related, but to inform him how they were encompassed +by their enemies. Themistocles, knowing the generosity of Aristides, and +much struck by his visit at that time, imparted to him all that he had +transacted by Sicinnus, and entreated him that, as he would be more +readily believed among the Greeks, he would make use of his credit to +help to induce them to stay and fight their enemies in the narrow seas. +Aristides applauded Themistocles, and went to the other commanders and +captains of the galleys and encouraged them to engage; yet they did not +perfectly assent to him till a galley of Tenos, which deserted from the +Persians, of which Panaetius was commander, came in, while they were +still doubting, and confirmed the news that all the straits and passages +were beset; and then their rage and fury, as well as their necessity, +provoked them all to fight. + +As soon as it was day, Xerxes placed himself high up, to view his fleet, +as Acestodorus writes, in the confines of Megara, upon those hills +which are called the Horns, where he sat in a chair of gold, with many +secretaries about him to write down all that was done in the fight. + +The number of the enemy's ships the poet Aeschylus gives in his tragedy +called the Persians, as on his certain knowledge, in the following +words: + + Xerxes, I know, did into battle lead + One thousand ships; of more than usual speed + Seven and two hundred. So is it agreed. + +The Athenians had a hundred and eighty; in every ship eighteen +men fought upon the deck, four of whom were archers and the rest +men-at-arms. + +As Themistocles had fixed upon the most advantageous place, so, with no +less sagacity, he chose the best time of fighting; for he would not run +the prows of his galleys against the Persians, nor begin the fight till +the time of day was come when there regularly blows in a fresh breeze +from the open sea, and brings in with it a strong swell into the +channel; this was no inconvenience to the Greek ships, which were +low-built, and little above the water, but did much hurt to the +Persians, which had high sterns and lofty decks, and were heavy and +cumbrous in their movements, as it presented them broadside to the +quick charges of the Greeks, who kept their eyes upon the motions of +Themistocles, as their best example, and more particularly because, +opposed to his ship, Ariamenes, admiral to Xerxes, a brave man, and by +far the best and worthiest of the king's brothers, was seen throwing +darts and shooting arrows from his huge galley, as from the walls of a +castle. Aminias the Decelean and Sosicles the Pedian, who sailed in the +same vessel, upon the ships meeting stem to stem, and transfixing each +the other with their brazen prows, so that they were fastened together, +when Ariamenes attempted to board theirs, ran at them with their pikes, +and thrust him into the sea; his body, as it floated amongst other +shipwrecks, was discovered by Artemisia, and carried to Xerxes. + +The first man that took a ship was Lycomedes the Athenian, captain of +a galley, who cut down its ensign, and dedicated it to Apollo the +Laurel-crowned. And as the Persians fought in a narrow sea, and could +bring but part of their fleet to fight, and fell foul of one another, +the Greeks thus equaled them in strength, and fought with them till the +evening, forced them back, and obtained, as says Simonides, that noble +and famous victory, than which neither amongst the Greeks nor barbarians +was ever known more glorious exploit on the seas; by the joint valor, +indeed, and zeal of all who fought, but most by the wisdom and sagacity +of Themistocles. + +After this sea-fight, Xerxes, enraged at his ill-fortune, attempted, +by casting great heaps of earth and stones into the sea, to stop up the +channel and to make a dam, upon which he might lead his land forces over +into the island of Salamis. + +Themistocles, being desirous to try the opinion of Aristides, told him +that he proposed to set sail for the Hellespont, to break the bridge +of ships, so as to shut up, he said, Aisa a prisoner within Europe; but +Aristides, disliking the design, said: "We have hitherto fought with an +enemy who has regarded little else but his pleasure and luxury; but if +we shut him up within Greece, and drive him to necessity, he that is +master of such great forces will no longer sit quietly with an umbrella +of gold over his head, looking upon the fight for his pleasure; but he +will be resolute, and attempt all things. Therefore, it is noways our +interest, Themistocles," he said, "to take away the bridge that is +already made, but rather to build another, if it were possible, that he +might make his retreat with the more expedition." To which Themistocles +answered: "If this be requisite, we must immediately use all diligence, +art, and industry, to rid ourselves of him as soon as may be;" and to +this purpose he found out among the captives one named Arnaces, whom he +sent to the king, to inform him that the Greeks, being now victorious +by sea, had decreed to sail to the Hellespont, where the boasts were +fastened together, and destroy the bridge; but that Themistocles, being +concerned for the king, revealed this to him, that he might hasten +toward the Asiatic seas, and pass over into his own dominions; and +in the meantime would cause delays, and hinder the confederates +from pursuing him. Xerxes no sooner heard this than, being very much +terrified, he proceeded to retreat out of Greece with all speed. The +prudence of Themistocles and Aristides in this was afterward more fully +understood at the battle of Plataea, where Mardonius, with a very small +fraction of the forces of Xerxes, put the Greeks in danger of losing +all. + +Herodotus writes that, of all the cities of Greece, Aegina was held to +have performed the best service in the war; while all single men +yielded to Themistocles, though, out of envy, unwillingly; and when they +returned to the entrance of Peloponnesus, where the several commanders +delivered their suffrages at the altar, to determine who was most +worthy, every one gave the first vote for himself and the second for +Themistocles. The Lacedaemonians carried him with them to Sparta, where, +giving the rewards of valor to Eurybiades, and of wisdom and conduct to +Themistocles, they crowned him with olive, presented him with the best +chariot in the city, and sent three hundred young men to accompany him +to the confines of their country. And at the next Olympic games, when +Themistocles entered the course, the spectators took no further notice +of those who were competing for the prizes, but spent the whole day +in looking upon him, showing him to the strangers, admiring him, and +applauding him by clapping their hands, and other expressions of joy, so +that he himself, much gratified, confessed to his friends that he then +reaped the fruit of all his labors for the Greeks. + +He was, indeed, by nature, a great lover of honor, as is evident from +the anecdotes recorded of him. When chosen admiral by the Athenians, he +would not quite conclude any single matter of business, either public or +private, but deferred all till the day they were to set sail, that, by +dispatching a great quantity of business all at once, and having to met +a great variety of people, he might make an appearance of greatness +and power. Viewing the dead bodies cast up by the sea, he perceived +bracelets and necklaces of gold about them, yet passed on, only showing +them to a friend that followed him, saying, "Take you these things, for +you are not Themistocles." He aid to Antiphates, a handsome young +man, "Time, young man, has taught us both a lesson." He said that the +Athenians did not honor him or admire him, but made, as it were, a sort +of plane-tree of him; sheltered themselves under him in bad weather, and +as soon as it was fine, plucked his leaves and cut his branches. When a +Seriphian told him that he had not obtained this honor by himself, but +by the greatness of his city, he replied: "You speak truth; I should +never have been famous if I had been of Seriphus; nor you, had you been +of Athens." Laughing at his own son, who got his mother, and by his +mother's means, his father also to indulge him, he told him that he had +the most power of any one is Greece: "For the Athenians command the rest +of Greece, I command the Athenians, your mother commands me, and you +command your mother." Of the two who made love to his daughter, he +preferred the man of worth to the one who was rich, saying he desired a +man without riches, rather than riches without a man. + +When the citizens of Athens began to listen willingly to those who +traduced and reproached him, he was forced, with somewhat obnoxious +frequency, to put them in mind of the great services he had performed. +And he yet more provoked the people by building a temple to Diana with +the epithet of Aristobule, or Diana of Best Counsel; intimating thereby +that he had given the best counsel, not only to the Athenians, but to +all Greece. At length the Athenians banished him, making use of the +ostracism to humble his eminence and authority, as they ordinarily +did with all whom they thought too powerful, or, by their greatness, +disproportionate to the equality thought requisite in a popular +government. For the ostracism was instituted, not so much to punish +the offender as to mitigate and pacify the violence of the envious, who +delighted to humble eminent men, and who, by fixing this disgrace upon +them, might vent some part of their rancor. + +Themistocles being banished from Athens, while he stayed at Argos the +detection of Pausanias happened. And after Pausanias was put to death, +letters and writings were found which rendered Themistocles suspected, +and his enemies among the Athenians accused him. In answer to the +malicious detractions of his enemies, he merely wrote to the citizens +urging that he who was always ambitious to govern, and not of a +character or a disposition to serve, would never sell himself and his +country into slavery to a barbarous and hostile nation. + +Notwithstanding this, the people, being persuaded by his accuser, set +officers to take him and bring him away to be tried before a council +of the Greeks; but, having timely notice of it, he passed over into the +island of Corcyra, where the state was under obligations to him; +for, being chosen as arbitrator in a difference between them and the +Corinthians, he decided the controversy by ordering the Corinthians to +pay down twenty talents, and declaring the town and island of Leucas a +joint colony from both cities. From thence he fled into Epirus, and, the +Athenians and Lacedaemonians still pursuing him, he threw himself upon +chances of safety that seemed all but desperate. For he fled fro refuge +to Admetus, kind of the Molossians, who had formerly made some request +to the Athenians when Themistocles was in the height of his authority, +and had been disdainfully used and insulted by him, and had let it +appear plain enough that could he lay hold of him he would take his +revenge. Yet in this misfortune, Themistocles, fearing the recent hatred +of his neighbors and fellow-citizens more than the old displeasure of +the king, put himself at his mercy, and became an humble suppliant to +Admetus, after a peculiar manner, different from the custom of other +countries. For taking the king's son, who was then a child, in his arms, +he laid himself down at his hearth, this being the most sacred and +only manner of supplication, among the Molossians, which was not to be +refused. + +Thucydides says, that, passing over land to the Aegean Sea, he took shop +at Pydna in the bay of Thermae, not being known to any one in the ship, +till, being terrified to see the vessel driven by the winds near to +Naxos, which was then besieged by the Athenians, he made himself +known to the master and pilot, and, partly entreating them, partly +threatening, he compelled them to bear off and stand out to sea, and +sail forward toward the coast of Aisa. + +When he arrived at Cyme, and understood that all along the coast many +laid in wait for him (the king of Persia having offered by public +proclamation two hundred talents to him that should take him), he fled +to Aegae, a small city of the Aeolians, where no one knew him but only +his host Nicogenes, who was the richest man in Aeolia, and well known to +the great men of Inner Asia. There Themistocles, going to bed, dreamed +that he saw a snake coil itself up upon his belly, and so creep to his +neck; then, as soon as it touched his face, it turned into an eagle, +which spread its wings over him, and took him up and flew away with him +a great distance; then there appeared a herald's golden wand, and +upon this at last it set him down securely, after infinite terror and +disturbance. + +His departure was effected by Nicogenes by the following artifice: the +barbarous nations, and among them the Persians especially, are extremely +jealous, severe, and suspicious about their wives, whom they keep so +strictly that no one ever sees them abroad; they spend their lives shut +up within doors, and, when they take a journey, are carried in close +tenets, curtained in on all sides, and set upon a wagon. Such a +traveling carriage being prepared for Themistocles, they hid him in it, +and carried him on his journey, and told those whom they met or spoke +with upon the road that they were conveying a young Greek woman out of +Ionia to a nobleman at court. + +When he was introduced to the king, and had paid his reverence to him, +he stood silent, till the king commanding the interpreter to ask him who +he was, he replied: "O king, I am Themistocles the Athenian, driven +into banishment by the Greeks. The evils I have done to the Persians are +numerous; but my benefits to them yet greater, in withholding the Greeks +from pursuit, so soon as the deliverance of my own country allowed me +to show kindness also to you. I come with a mind suited to my present +calamities; prepared alike for favors and for anger; to welcome your +gracious reconciliation, and to deprecate your wrath. Take my own +countrymen for witnesses of the services I have done for Persia, and +make use of this occasion to show the world your virtue, rather than to +satisfy your indignation. If you save me, you will save your suppliant; +if otherwise, you will destroy an enemy of the Greeks." + +In the morning, calling together the chief of his court, he had +Themistocles brought before him, who expected no good of it. Yet, when +he came into the presence, and again fell down, the king saluted him, +and spake to him kindly, telling him he was now indebted to him two +hundred talents; for it was just and reasonable that he should receive +the reward which was proposed to whosoever should bring Themistocles; +and promising much more, and encouraging him, he commanded him to speak +freely what he would concerning the affairs of Greece. Themistocles +replied, that a man's discourse was like to a rich Persians carpet, the +beautiful figures and patterns of which can only be shown by spreading +and extending it out; when it is contracted and folded up, they are +obscured and lost; and, therefore, he desired time. The king being +pleased with the comparison, and bidding him take what time he would, +he desired a year; in which time, having learnt the Persian language +sufficiently, he spoke with the king by himself without the help of an +interpreter; the king invited him to partake of his own pastimes and +recreations both at home and abroad, carrying him with him a-hunting, +and made him his intimate so far that he permitted him to see the +queen-mother, and converse frequently with her. By the king's command, +he also was made acquainted with the Magian learning. + +They relate, also, how Themistocles, when he was in great prosperity, +and courted by many, seeing himself splendidly served at his table, +turned to his children and said: "Children, we had been undone if we +had not been undone." Most writers say that he had three cities given +him--Magnesia, Myus and Lampsacus--to maintain him in bread, meat and +wine; and some add two more, the city of Palaescepsis, to provide him +with clothes, and Percote, with bedding and furniture for his house. + +He lived quietly in his own house in Magnesia, where for a long time he +passed his days in great security, being courted by all, and enjoying +rich presents, and honored equally with the greatest persons in the +Persian empire; the king, at that time, not minding his concerns with +Greece, being taken up with the affairs of Inner Aisa. + +But when Egypt revolted, being assisted by the Athenians, and the Greek +galleys roved about as far as Cyprus and Cilicia, and Cimon had made +himself master of the seas, the king turned his thoughts thither, and, +bending his mind chiefly to resist the Greeks, and to cheek the +growth of their power against him, began to raise forces, and send out +commanders, and to dispatch messengers to Themistocles at Magnesia, to +put him in mind of his promise, and to summon him to act against the +Greeks. Yet this did not increase his hatred nor exasperate him against +the Athenians, but, being ashamed to sully the glory of his former great +actions, and of his many victories and trophies, he determined to put a +conclusion to his life, agreeable to its previous course. He sacrificed +to the gods, and invited his friends; and having entertained them and +shaken hands with them, drank bull's blood, as is the usual story; as +others state, a poison, producing instant death; and ended his days in +the city of Magnesia, having lived sixty-five years, most of which he +had spent in politics and in the wars, in government and command. The +king, being informed of the cause and manner of his death, admired him +the more than ever, and continued to show kindness to his friends and +relations. + +The Magnesians possess a splendid sepulchre of Themistocles, placed in +the middle of their market-place. And various honors and privileges were +granted to the kindred of Themistocles at Magnesia, which were observed +down to our times, and were enjoyed by another Themistocles of Athens, +with whom I had an intimate acquaintance and friendship in the house of +Ammonius the philosopher. + + + + +CAMILLUS + +Among the many remarkable things that are related of Furius Camillus, it +seems singular that he, who continually was in the highest commands, +and obtained the greatest successes, was five times chosen dictator, +triumphed four times, and was styled a second founder of Rome, yet never +was so much as once consul. The reason of which was the state and temper +of the commonwealth at that time; for the people, being at dissension +with the senate, refused to return consuls, but they instead elected +other magistrates, called military tribunes, who acted, indeed, with +full consular power, but were thought to exercise a less obnoxious +amount of authority, because it was divided among a larger number. + +The house of the Furii was not, at that time, of any considerable +distinction; he, by his own acts, first raised himself to honor, serving +under Postumius Tubertus, dictator, in the great battle against the +Aequians and Volscians. For, riding out from the rest of the army, and +in the charge receiving a would in his thigh, he for all that did not +quit the fight, but, letting the dart drag in the would, and engaging +with the bravest of the enemy, put them to flight; for which action, +among other rewards bestowed on him, he was created censor, an office in +those days of great repute and authority. During his censorship one +very good act of his is recorded, that, whereas the wars had made many +widows, he obliged such as had no wives, some by fair persuasion, others +by threatening to set fines on their heads, to take them in marriage; +another necessary one, in causing orphans to be rated, who before were +exempted from taxes, the frequent wars requiring more than ordinary +expenses to maintain them. What, however, pressed them most was the +siege of Veii. Some call this people Veientani. This was the head city +of Tuscany, not inferior to Rome either in number of arms or multitude +of soldiers, insomuch that, presuming on her wealth and luxury, and +priding herself upon her refinement and sumptuousness, she engaged in +many honorable contests with the Romans for glory and empire. But now +they had abandoned their former ambitious hopes, having been weakened by +great defeats, so that, having fortified themselves with high and strong +walls, and furnished the city with all sorts of weapons offensive and +defensive, as likewise with corn and all manner of provisions, they +cheerfully endured a siege, which, though tedious to them, was no less +troublesome and distressing to the besiegers. For the Romans, having +never been accustomed to stay away from home except in summer, and for +no great length of time, and constantly to winter at home, were then +first compelled by the tribunes to build forts in the enemy's country, +and, raising strong works about their camp, to join winter and summer +together. And now the seventh year of the war drawing to an end, the +commanders began to be suspected as too slow and remiss in driving on +the siege, insomuch that they were discharged and others chosen for the +war, among whom was Camillus, then second time tribune. But at present +he had no hand in the siege, the duties that fell by lot to him being to +make war upon the Faliscans and Capenates, who, taking advantage of +the Romans being occupied on all hands, had carried ravages into their +country, and through all the Tuscan war, given them much annoyance, but +were now reduced by Camillus, and with great loss shut up within their +walls. + +And now, in the very heat of the war, a strange phenomenon in the +Alban lake, which, in the absence of any known cause and explanation by +natural reasons, seemed as great a prodigy as the most incredible that +are reported, occasioned great alarm. It was the beginning of autumn, +and the summer now ending had, to all observation, been neither rainy +nor much troubled with southern winds; and of the many lakes, brooks, +and springs of all sorts with which Italy abounds, some were wholly +dried up, others had very little water in them; all the rivers, as is +usual in summer, ran in a very low and hollow channel. But the Alban +lake, which is fed by no other waters but its own, and is on all sides +encircled with fruitful mountains, without any cause, unless it were +divine, began visibly to rise and swell, increasing to the feet of the +mountains, and by degrees reaching the level of the very tops of some of +them, and all this without any waves or agitation. At first it was the +wonder of shepherds and herdsmen; but when the earth, which, like a +great dam, held up the lake from falling into the lower grounds, through +the quantity and weight of water was broken down, and in a violent +stream it ran through the ploughed fields and plantations to discharge +itself in the sea, it not only struck terror into the Romans, but was +thought by all the inhabitants of Italy to portend some extraordinary +event. But the greatest talk of it was in the camp that besieged Veii, +so that in the town itself, also, the occurrence became known. + +As in long sieges it commonly happens that both parties on both sides +meet often and converse with one another, so it chanced that a Roman had +gained much confidence and familiarity with one of the besieged, a man +versed in ancient prophecies, and of repute for more than ordinary skill +in divination. The Roman, observing him to be overjoyed at the story of +the lake, and to mock at the siege, told him that this was not the only +prodigy that of late had happened to the Romans; others more wonderful +yet than this had befallen them, which he was willing to communicate to +him, that he might the better provide for his private interests in these +public distempers. The man greedily embraced the proposal, expecting to +hear some wonderful secrets; but when, little by little, he had led him +on in conversation, and insensibly drawn him a good way from the gates +of the city, he snatched him up the middle, being stronger than he, and, +by the assistance of others who came running from the camp, seized and +delivered him to the commanders. The man, reduced to this necessity, and +sensible now that destiny was not to be avoided, discovered to them the +secret oracle of Veii, that it was not possible the city should be +taken until the Alban lake, which now broke forth and had found out new +passages, was drawn back from that course, and so diverted that it +could not mingle with the sea. The senate, having heard and satisfied +themselves about the matter, decreed to send to Delphi, to ask counsel +of the god. The messengers returned with the answer that the Alban +water, if possible, they should keep from the sea, and shut it up in its +ancient bounds; but if that was not to be done, then they should carry +it off by ditches and trenches into the lower grounds, and so dry it up; +which message being delivered, the priests performed what related to the +sacrifices, and the people went to work and turned the water. + +And now the senate, in the tenth year of the war, taking away all other +commands, created Camillus dictator, who chose Cornelius Scipio for his +general of horse, and, having made vows, marched into the country of the +Faliscans, and in a great battle overthrew them and the Capenates, their +confederates; afterwards he turned to the siege of Veii, and finding +that to take it by assault would prove a difficult and hazardous +attempt, proceeded to cut mines under ground, the earth about the city +being easy to break up, and allowing such depth for the works as would +prevent their being discovered by the enemy. This design going on in a +hopeful way, he openly gave assaults to the enemy, to keep them to the +walls, until they that worked underground in the mines might, without +being perceived, arrive within the citadel, close to the temple of Juno, +which was the greatest and most honored in all the city. It is said that +the prince of the Tuscans was at that very time at sacrifice, and that +the priest, after he had looked into the entrails of the beast, cried +out with a loud voice that the gods would give the victory to those that +should complete those offerings; and that the Romans who were in the +mines, hearing the words, immediately pulled down the floor, and, +ascending with noise, and clashing of weapons, frightened away the +enemy, and, snatching up the entrails, carried them to Camillus. But +this may look like a fable. The city, however, being taken by storm, and +the soldiers busied in pillaging and gathering an infinite quantity of +riches and spoil, Camillus, from the high tower viewing what was done, +at first wept for pity; and when the bystanders congratulated him upon +his success, he lifted up his hands to heaven, and broke out into this +prayer: "O most mighty Jupiter, and ye gods that are judges of good and +evil actions, ye know that not without just cause, but constrained by +necessity, we have been forced to revenge ourselves on the city of our +unrighteous and wicked enemies. But if, the the vicissitude of things, +there by any calamity due, to counter-balance this great felicity, I beg +that it may be diverted from the city and army of the Romans, and fall, +with as little hurt as may be, upon my own head." Having said these +words, and just turning about (as the custom of the Romans is to turn +to the right after adoration or prayer), he stumbled and fell, to the +astonishment of all that were present. But, recovering himself presently +from the fall, he told them that he had received what he had prayed for, +a small mischance, in compensation for the greatest good fortune. + +Camillus, however, whether puffed up with the greatness of his +achievement in conquering a city that was the rival of Rome, and held +out a ten years' siege, or exalted with the felicitations of those that +were about him, assumed to himself more than became a civil and legal +magistrate; among other things, in the pride and haughtiness of triumph, +driving through Rome in a chariot drawn with four white horses, which no +general either before or since ever did; for the Romans consider such a +mode of conveyance to be sacred and specially set apart to the king and +father of the gods. This alienated the hearts of his fellow-citizens, +who were not accustomed to such pomp and display. + +The second pique they had against him was his opposing the law by which +the city was to be divided; for the tribunes of the people brought +forward a motion that the people and senate should be divided into two +parts, one of which should remain at home, the other, as the lot should +decide, remove to the new-taken city. By which means they should +not only have much more room, but, by the advantage of two great and +magnificent cities, be better able to maintain their territories and +their fortunes in general. The people, therefore, who were numerous and +indigent, greedily embraced it, and crowded continually to the forum, +with tumultuous demands to have it put to the vote. But the senate and +the noblest citizens, judging the proceedings of the tribunes to tend +rather to a destruction than a division of Rome, greatly averse to it, +went to Camillus for assistance, who, fearing the result if it came to a +direct contest, contrived to occupy the people with other business, and +so staved it off. He thus became unpopular. + +And now the tribunes of the people again resuming their motion for the +division of the city, the war against the Faliscans luckily broke out, +giving liberty to the chief citizens to choose what magistrates they +pleased, and to appoint Camillus military tribune, with five colleagues; +affairs then requiring a commander of authority and reputation, as well +as experience. And when the people had ratified the election, he marched +with his forces into the territories of the Faliscans, and laid siege +to Falerii, a well-fortified city, and plentifully stored with all +necessaries of war. And although he perceived it would be so small work +to take it, and no little time would be required for it, yet he was +willing to exercise the citizens and keep them abroad, that they might +have no leisure, idling at home, to follow the tribunes in factions +and seditions: a very common remedy, indeed, with the Romans, who thus +carried off, like good physicians, the ill humors of their commonwealth. +The Falerians (The Falerians, in this narrative, are the people of the +town; the Faliscans, the nation in general.), trusting in the strength +of their city, which was well fortified on all sides, made so little +account of the siege, that all, with the exception of those that guarded +the walls, as in times of peace, walked about the streets in their +common dress; the boys went to school, and were led by their master +to play and exercise about the town walls; for the Falerians, like the +Greeks, used to have a single teacher for many pupils, wishing their +children to live and be brought up from the beginning in each others +company. + +This schoolmaster, designing to betray the Falerians by their children, +led them out every day under the town wall, at first but a little way, +and, when they had exercised, brought them home again. Afterwards by +degrees he drew them farther and farther, till by practice he had made +them bold and fearless, as if no danger was about them; and at last, +having got them all together, he brought them to the outposts of the +Romans, and delivered them up, demanding to be led to Camillus. Where +being come, and standing in the middle, he said that he was the master +and teacher of these children, but, preferring his favor before all +other obligations, he had come to deliver up his charge to him, and, in +that, the whole city. When Camillus had heard him out, he was astounded +at the treachery of the act, and, turning to the standers-by observed +that, "War, indeed, is of necessity attended with much injustice and +violence! Certain laws, however, all good men observe even in war +itself, nor is victory so great an object as to induce us to incur for +its sake obligations for base and impious acts. A great general should +rely on his own virtue, and not other men's vices." Which said, he +commanded the officers to tear off the man's clothes, and bind his hands +behind him and give the boys rods and scourges, to punish the traitor +and drive him back to the city. By this time the Falerians had +discovered the treachery of the schoolmaster, and the city, as was +likely, was full of lamentations and cries for their calamity, men and +women of worth running in distraction about the walls and gates; when, +behold, the boys came whipping their master on, naked and bound, calling +Camillus their preserver and god and father; so that it struck not only +the parents, but the rest of the citizens, with such admiration and love +of Camillus's justice, that, immediately meeting in assembly, they +sent ambassadors to him, to resign whatever they had to his disposal. +Camillus sent them to Rome, where, being brought into the senate, +they spoke to this purpose: that the Romans, preferring justice before +victory, had taught them rather to embrace submission than liberty; they +did not so much confess themselves to be inferior in strength as they +must acknowledge them to be superior in virtue. The senate remitted the +whole matter to Camillus, to judge and order as he thought fit; who, +taking a sum of money of the Falerians, and making a peace with the +whole nation of Faliscans, returned home. + +But the soldiers, who had expected to have the pillage of the city, +when they came to Rome empty-handed railed against Camillus among their +fellow-citizens, as a hater of the people, and one that grudged +all advantage to the poor. The People were exasperated against him. +Gathering, therefore, together his friends and fellow-soldiers, and such +as had borne command with him, a considerable number in all, he besought +them that they would not suffer him to be unjustly overborne by shameful +accusations, and left the mock and scorn of his enemies. His friends, +having advised and consulted among themselves, made answer, that, as to +the sentence, they did not see how they could help him, but that they +would contribute to whatsoever fine should be set upon him. Not able to +endure so great an indignity, he resolved in his anger to leave the city +and go into exile; and so, having taken leave of his wife and son, he +went silently to the gate of the city, and, there stopping and turning +round, stretched out his hands to the Capitol, and prayed to the gods, +that if, without any fault of his own, but merely through the malice and +violence of the people, he was driven out into banishment, the Romans +might quickly repent of it; and that all mankind might witness their +need for the assistance, and desire for the return, of Camillus. + +And there is not a Roman but believes that immediately upon the prayers +of Camillus a sudden judgment followed, and that he received a revenge +for the injustice done unto him, which was very remarkable, and noised +over the whole world: such a punishment visited the city of Rome, an era +of such loss and danger and disgrace so quickly succeeded; whether it +thus fell out by fortune, or it be the office of god not to see injured +virtue go unavenged. + +The first token that seemed to threaten some mischief to ensure was the +death of the censor Julius; for the Romans have a religious reverence +for the office of a censor, and esteem it sacred. The second was, that, +just before Camillus went into exile, Marcus Caedicius, a person of no +great distinction, nor of the rank of senator, but esteemed a good and +respectable man, reported to the military tribunes a thing worthy their +consideration: that, going along the night before in the street called +the New Way, and being called by somebody in a loud voice, he turned +about, but could see no one, but heard a voice greater than human, which +said these words, "Go, Marcus Caedicius, and early in the morning tell +the military tribunes that they are shortly to expect the Gauls." But +the tribunes made a mock and sport with the story, and a little after +came Camillus's banishment. + +The Gauls are of the Celtic race, and are reported to have been +compelled by their numbers to leave their country, which was +insufficient to sustain them all, and to have gone in search of other +homes. And being, many thousands of them, young men able to bear +arms, and carrying with them a still greater number of women and young +children, some of them, passing the Riphaean mountains, fell upon +the Northern Ocean, and possessed themselves of the farthest parts of +Europe; others, seating themselves between the Pyrenean mountains and +the Alps, lived there a considerable time, near to the Senones and +Celtorii; but, afterwards tasting wine, which was then first brought +them out of Italy, they were all so much taken with the liquor, and +transported with the hitherto unknown delight, that, snatching up their +arms and taking their families along with them, they marched directly to +the Alps, to find out the country which yielded such fruit, pronouncing +all others barren and useless. He that first brought wine among them and +was the chief instigator of their coming into Italy is said to have been +one Aruns, A Tuscan, a man of noble extraction. + +At their first coming they at once possessed themselves of all that +country which anciently the Tuscans inhabited, reaching from the Alps +to both the seas, as the names themselves testify; for the North of +Adriatic Sea is named from the Tuscan city Adria, and that to the south +the Tuscan Sea simply. The whole country is rich in fruit trees, has +excellent pasture, and is well watered with river. It had eighteen large +and beautiful cities, well provided with all the means for industry and +wealth, and all the enjoyments and pleasures of life. The Gauls cast out +the Tuscans, and seated themselves in them. + +The Gauls at this time were besieging Clusium, a Tuscan city. The +Clusinians sent to the Romans for succor, desiring them to interpose +with the barbarians by letters and ambassadors. The Romans, perceiving +that Brennus, the leader of the Gauls, was not to be treated with, went +into Clusium and encouraged the inhabitants to make a sally with them +upon the barbarians, which they did either to try their strength or to +show their own. The sally being made, and the fight growing hot about +the walls, one of the Fabii, Quintus Ambustus, who had come as an +ambassador, being well mounted, and setting spurs to his horse, made +full against a Gaul, a man of huge bulk and stature, whom he saw riding +out at a distance from the rest. At the first he was not recognized, +through the quickness of the conflict and the glittering of the armor, +that precluded any view of him; but when he had overthrown the Gaul, and +was going to gather the spoils, Brennus knew him; and invoking the gods +to be witnesses that, contrary to the known and common law of nations, +which is holily observed by all mankind, he who had come as an +ambassador had now engaged in hostility against him, he drew off his +men, and, bidding Clusium farewell, led his army directly against Rome. + +Whilst the barbarians were hastening with all speed, the military +tribunes brought the Romans into the field to be ready to engage them, +being not inferior to the Gauls in number (for they were no less than +forty thousand foot), but most of them raw soldiers, and such as had +never handled a weapon before. Besides, they had wholly neglected +all religious usages, had not obtained favorable sacrifices, nor made +inquiries of the prophets, natural in danger and before battle. No less +did the multitude of commanders distract and confound their proceedings; +frequently before, upon less occasions, they had chosen a single leader, +with the title of dictator, being sensible of what great importance it +is in critical times to have the solders united under one general with +the entire and absolute control placed in his hands. Add to all, the +remembrance of Camillus's treatment, which made it now seem a dangerous +thing for officers to command without humoring their solders. In this +condition they left the city, and encamped by the river Allia, about +ten miles from Rome, and not far from the place where it falls into +the Tiber; and here the Gauls came upon them, and, after a disgraceful +resistance, devoid of order and discipline, they were miserably +defeated. The left wing was immediately driven into the river, and there +destroyed; the right had less damage by declining the shock, and from +the low ground getting to the tops of the hills, from whence most of +them afterwards dropped into the city; the rest, as many as escaped, the +enemy being weary of the slaughter, stole by night to Veii, giving up +Rome and all that was in it for lost. + +This battle was fought about the summer solstice, the moon being at +full, the very same day in which the sad disaster of the Fabii had +happened, when three hundred of that name were at one time cut off by +the Tuscans. + +And now, after the battle, had the Gauls immediately pursued those that +fled, there had been no remedy but Rome must have wholly been ruined, +and all those who remained in it utterly destroyed; such was the terror +that those who escaped the battle brought with them into the city, +and with such distraction and confusion were they themselves in +turn infected. But the Gauls, not imagining their victory to be so +considerable, and overtaken with the present joy, fell to feasting and +dividing the spoil, by which means they gave leisure to those who were +for leaving the city to make their escape, and to those that remained, +to anticipate and prepare for their coming. + +On the third day after the battle, Brennus appeared with his army at +the city, and, finding the gates wide open and no guards upon the walls, +first began to suspect it was some design or stratagem, never dreaming +that the Romans were in so desperate a condition. But when he found it +to be so indeed, he entered at the Colline gate, and took Rome, in the +three hundred and sixtieth year, or a little more, after it was built. + +Brennus having taken possession of Rome, set a strong guard about the +Capitol, and, going himself down into the forum, was there struck with +amazement at the sight of so many men sitting in such order and silence, +observing that they neither rose at his coming, nor so much as changed +color or countenance, but remained without fear or concern, leaning upon +their staves, and sitting quietly, looking at each other. The Gauls, +for a great while, stood wondering at the strangeness of the sight, +not daring to approach or touch them, taking them for an assembly of +superior beings. But when one, bolder than the rest, drew near to Marcus +Papirius, and, putting forth his hand, gently touched his chin and +stroked his long beard, Papirius with his staff struck him a severe blow +on the head; upon which the barbarian drew his sword and slew him. +This was the introduction to the slaughter; for the rest, following his +example, set upon them all and killed them, and dispatched all others +that came in their way; and so went on to the sacking and pillaging of +the houses, which they continued for many days ensuing. + +Camillus then sojourned in the city of Ardea, having, ever since his +leaving Rome, sequestered himself from all business, and taken to a +private life; but now he began to rouse up himself, and consider not +how to avoid or escape the enemy, but to find out an opportunity to be +revenged upon them. And perceiving that the Ardeatians wanted not men, +but rather enterprise, through the inexperience and timidity of their +officers, he began to speak with the young men, first to the effect that +they ought not to ascribe the misfortune of the Romans to the courage of +their enemy, nor attribute the losses they sustained by rash counsel to +the conduct of men who had no title to victory: the event had been +only an evidence of the power of fortune. When he found the young men +embraced the thing, he went to the magistrates and council of the city, +and, having persuaded them also, he mustered all that could bear arms, +and drew them up within the the walls, that they might not be perceived +by the enemy, who was near; who, having scoured the country, and +now returned heavy laden with booty, lay encamped in the plains in a +careless and negligent posture, so that, with the night ensuing upon +debauch and drunkenness, silence prevailed through all the camp. When +Camillus learned this from his scouts, he drew out the Ardeatians, and +in the dead of the night, passing in silence over the ground that lay +between, came up to their works, and, commanding his trumpets to sound +and his men to shout and halloo, he struck terror into them from all +quarters; while drunkenness impeded and sleep retarded their movements. +A few whom fear had sobered, getting into some order, for awhile +resisted; and so died with their weapons in their hands. But the +greatest part of them, buried in wine and sleep, were surprised without +their arms, and dispatched; and as many of them as by the advantage of +the night got out of the camp were the next day found scattered abroad +and wandering in the fields, and were picked up by the horse that +pursued them. + +The fame of this action soon flew through the neighboring cities, +and stirred up the young men from various quarters to come and join +themselves with him. But none were so much concerned as those Romans +who escaped in the battle of Allia, and were now at Veii, thus lamenting +with themselves, "O heavens, what a commander has Providence bereaved +Rome of, to honor Ardea with his actions! And that city, which brought +forth and nursed so great a man, is lost and gone, and we, destitute +of a leader and shut up within strange walls, sit idle, and see Italy +ruined before our eyes. Come, let us send to the Ardeatians to have back +our general, or else, with weapons in our hands, let us go thither to +him." To this they all agreed, and sent to Camillus to desire him to +take the command; but he answered that he would not until they that +were in the Capitol should legally appoint him. When this answer was +returned, they admired the modesty and tempter of Camillus; but they +could not tell how to find a messenger to carry the intelligence to the +Capitol, or rather, indeed, it seemed altogether impossible for any one +to get to the citadel whilst the enemy was in full possession of +the city. But among the young men there was one Pontius Cominius, of +ordinary birth, but ambitious of honor, who proffered himself to run the +hazard, and took no letters with him to those in the Capitol, lest, if +he were intercepted, the enemy might learn the intentions of Camillus; +but, putting on a poor dress and carrying corks under, he boldly +traveled the greatest part of the way by day, and came to the city when +it was dark; the bridge he could not pass, as it was guarded by the +barbarians; so that taking his clothes, which were neither many nor +heavy, and binding them about his head, he laid his body upon the +corks, and, swimming with them, got over to the city. And avoiding those +quarters where he perceived the enemy was awake, which he guessed at +by the lights and noise, he went to the Carmental gate, where there was +greatest silence, and where the hill of the Capitol is steepest, and +rises with craggy and broken rock. By this way he got up, though with +much difficulty, by the hollow of the cliff, and presented himself to +the guards, saluting them, and telling them his name; he was taken in, +and carried to the commanders. And a senate being immediately called, +he related to them in order the victory of Camillus, which they had not +heard of before, and the proceedings of the soldiers, urging them +to confirm Camillus in the command, as on him alone all their +fellow-countrymen outside the city would rely. Having heard and +consulted of the matter, the senate declared Camillus dictator, and sent +back Pontius the same way that he came, who, with the same success as +before, got through the enemy without being discovered, and delivered to +the Romans outside the decision of the senate, who joyfully received it. +Camillus, on his arrival, found twenty thousand of them ready in arms; +with which forces, and those confederates he brought along with him, he +prepared to set upon the enemy. + +But at Rome some of the barbarians passing by chance near the place at +which Pontius by night had got into the Capitol, spied in several places +marks of feet and hands, where he had laid hold and clambered, and +places where the plants that grew to the rock had been rubbed off, and +the earth had slipped, and went accordingly and reported it to the king, +who, coming in person, and viewing it, for the present said nothing, but +in the evening, picking out such of the Gauls as were nimblest of body, +and by living in the mountains were accustomed to climb, he said to +them, "The enemy themselves have shown us a way how to come at them; +where it was easy for one man to get up, it will not be hard for many, +one after another; nay, when many shall undertake it, they will be aid +and strength to each other. Rewards and honors shall be bestowed on +every man as he shall acquit himself." + +When the king had thus spoken, the Gauls cheerfully undertook to perform +it, and in the dead of night a good party of them together, with great +silence, began to climb the rock, clinging to the precipitous and +difficult ascent, which yet upon trial offered a way to them, and proved +less difficult than they had expected. So that the foremost of them +having gained the top of all, and put themselves into order, they +all but surprised the outworks, and mastered the watch, who were fast +asleep; for neither man nor dog perceived their coming. But there were +sacred geese kept near the temple of Juno, which at other times were +plentifully fed, but now, by reason that corn and all other provisions +were grown scarce for all, were in but a poor condition. The creature is +by nature of quick sense, and apprehensive of the least noise, so that +these, being moreover watchful through hunger, and restless, immediately +discovered the coming of the Gauls, and, running up and down with the +noise and cackling, they raised the whole camp; while the barbarians, on +the other side, perceiving themselves discovered, no longer endeavored +to conceal their attempt, but with shouting and violence advanced to the +assault. The Romans, every one in haste snatching up the first weapon +that came to hand, did what they could on the sudden occasion. Manlius, +a man of consular dignity, of strong body and great spirit, was the +first that made head against them, and, engaging with two of the enemy +at once, with his sword cut off the right arm of one just as he was +lifting up his blade to strike, and, running his target full in the face +of the other, tumbled him headlong down the steep rock; then mounting +the rampart, and there standing with others that came running to his +assistance, drove down the rest of them, who, indeed, to begin with, had +not been many, and did nothing worthy of so bold an attempt. The Romans, +having thus escaped this danger, early in the morning took the captain +of the watch and flung him down the rock upon the heads of their +enemies, and to Manlius for his victory voted a reward, intended more +for honor than advantage, bringing him, each man of them, as much as he +received for his daily allowance, which was half a pound of bread and +one eighth of a pint of wine. + +Henceforward, the affairs of the Gauls were daily in a worse and worse +condition; they wanted provisions, being withheld from foraging through +fear of Camillus, and sickness also was amongst them, occasioned by the +number of carcasses that lay in heaps unburied. Neither, indeed, +were things on that account any better with the besieged, for famine +increased upon them, and despondency with not hearing anything of +Camillus, it being impossible to send any one to him, the city was so +guarded by the barbarians. Things being in this sad condition on both +sides, a motion of treaty was made at first by some of the outposts, +as they happened to speak with one another; which being embraced by the +leading men, Sulpicius, tribune of the Romans, came to a parley with +Brennus, in which it was agreed that the Romans laying down a thousand +weight of gold, the Gauls upon the receipt of it should immediately quit +the city and territories. The agreement being confirmed by oath on both +sides, and the gold brought forth, the Gauls used false dealing in +the weights, secretly at first, but afterwards openly pulled back and +disturbed the balance; at which the Romans indignantly complaining, +Brennus in a scoffing and insulting manner pulled off his sword and +belt, and threw them both into the scales; and when Sulpicius asked what +that meant, "What should it mean," says he, "but woe to the conquered?" +which afterwards became a proverbial saying. + +Whilst this difference remained still unsettled, both amongst themselves +and with the Gauls, Camillus was at the gates with his army; and, having +learned what was going on, commanded the main body of his forces to +follow slowly after him in good order, and himself with the choicest of +his men hastening on, went at once to the Romans; where all giving +way to him, and receiving him as their sole magistrate, with profound +silence and order, he took the gold out of the scales, and delivered +it to his officers, and commanded the Gauls to take their weights and +scales and depart; saying that is was customary with the Romans to +deliver their country with iron, not with gold. And when Brennus began +to rage, and say that he was unjustly dealt with in such a breach of +contract, Camillus answered that it was never legally made, and the +agreement of no force or obligation; for that himself being declared +dictator, and there being no other magistrate by law, the engagement had +been made with men who had no power to enter into it; but now they might +say anything they had to urge, for he had come with full power by law +to grant pardon to such as should ask it, or inflict punishment on the +guilty, if they did not repent. At this, Brennus broke into violent +anger, and an immediate quarrel ensued; both sides drew their swords and +attacked, but in confusion, as could not otherwise be amongst houses, +and in narrow lanes and places where it was impossible to form any +order. But Brennus, presently recollecting himself, called off his +men, and, with the loss of a few only, brought them to their camp; and, +rising in the night with all his forces, left the city, and advancing +about eight miles, encamped upon the way to Gabii. As soon as day +appeared, Camillus came up with him, splendidly armed himself, and his +soldier full o courage and confidence; and there engaging with him in a +sharp conflict, which lasted a long while, overthrew his army with great +slaughter, and took their camp. Of those that fled, some were presently +cut off by the pursuers; other, and these were the greatest number, +dispersed hither and thither, and were despatched by the people that +came sallying out from the neighboring towns and villages. + +Thus Rome was strangely taken, and more strangely recovered, having been +seven whole months in the possession of the barbarians, who entered her +a little after the Ides of July, and were driven out about the Ides of +February following. Camillus triumphed, as he deserved, having saved +his country that was lost, and brought the city so to say, back again +to itself. For those that had fled abroad, together with their wives and +children, accompanied him as he rode in; and those who had been shut up +in the capitol, and were reduced almost to the point of perishing with +hunger, went out to meet him, embracing each other as they met, and +weeping for joy, and, though the excess of the present pleasure, +scarcely believing in its truth. + +It was a hard task, amidst so much rubbish, to discover and re-determine +the consecrated places; but by the zeal of Camillus, and the incessant +labor of the priest, it was at last accomplished. But when it came also +to rebuilding the city, which was wholly demolished, despondency seized +the multitude, and a backwardness to engage in a work for which they +had no materials. The senate, therefore, fearing a sedition, would not +suffer Camillus, though desirous, to lay down his authority within the +year, though no other dictator had ever held it above six months. + +Camillus thought good to refer the matter of rebuilding to general +deliberation, and himself spoke largely and earnestly in behalf of his +country, as also may others. At last, calling to Lucius Lucretius, whose +place it was to speak first, he commanded him to give his sentence, and +the rest as they followed, in order. Silence being made, and Lucretius +just about to begin, by chance a centurion, passing by outside with +his company of the day-guard, called out with a loud voice to the +ensign-bearer to halt and fix his standard, for this was the best place +to stay in. This voice, coming in that moment of time, and that crisis +of uncertainty and anxiety for the future, was taken as a direction what +was to be done; so that Lucretius, assuming an attitude of devotion, +gave sentence in concurrence with the gods, as he said, as likewise did +all that followed. Even among the common people it created a wonderful +change of feeling: every one now cheered and encouraged his neighbor, +and set himself to the work, proceeding in it, however, not by any +regular lines or divisions, but every one pitching upon that plot of +ground which came next to hand, or best pleased his fancy; by which +haste and hurry in building they constructed their city in narrow and +ill-designed lanes, and with houses huddled together one upon another; +for it is said that within the compass of the year the whole city was +raised up anew, both in its public walls and private buildings. + +And now they had scarcely got a breathing time from their trouble when +a new war came upon them; and the Aequians, and the Tuscans besieged +Sutrium, their confederate city. Camillus, being the third time chosen +dictator, armed not only those under, but also those over, the age +of service; and taking a large circuit around the mountain Maecius, +undiscovered by the enemy, lodged his army on their rear, and then by +many fires gave notice of his arrival. The besieged, encouraged by this, +prepared to sally forth and join battle; but the Latins and Volscians, +fearing this exposure to any enemy on both sides, drew themselves within +their works, and fortified their camp with a strong palisade of trees +on every side, resolving to wait for more supplies from home, and +expecting, also, the assistance of the Tuscans, their confederate. +Camillus, detecting their object, and fearing to be reduced to the same +position to which he had brought them, namely, to be besieged himself, +resolved to lose no time; and finding their rampart was all of timber, +and observing that a strong wind constantly at sun-rising blew off from +the mountains, after having prepared a quantity of combustibles, about +break of day he drew forth his forces, commanding a part with their +missiles to assault the enemy with noise and shouting on the other +quarter, whilst he, with those that were to fling in the fire, went to +that side of the enemy's camp to which the wind usually blew, and there +waited his opportunity. When the skirmish was begun, and the sun risen, +and a strong wind set in from the mountains, he gave the signal of +onset; and, heaping in an immense quantity of fiery matter, filled all +their rampart with it, so that the flame being fed by the close timber +and wooden palisades, went on and spread into all quarters. The Latins, +having nothing ready to keep it off or extinguish it, when the camp was +now almost full of fire, were driven back within a very small compass, +and at last forced by necessity to come into their enemy's hands, who +stood before the works ready armed and prepared to receive them; of +these very few escaped, while those that stayed in the camp were all a +prey to the fire, until the Romans, to gain the pillage, extinguished +it. + +These things performed, Camillus, leaving his son Lucius in the camp +to guard the prisoners and secure the booty, passed into the enemy's +country, where, having taken the city of the Aequians and reduced the +Volscians to obedience, he then immediately led his army to Sutrium, not +having heard what had befallen the Sutrians, but making haste to assist +them, as if they were still in danger and besieged by the Tuscans. +They, however, had already surrendered their city to their enemies, +and destitute of all things, with nothing left but their clothes, and +bewailing their misfortune. Camillus himself was struck with compassion, +and perceiving the soldiers weeping, and commiserating their case, +while the Sutrians hung about and clung to them, resolved not to defer +revenge, but that very day to lead his army to Sutrium; conjecturing +that the enemy, having just taken a rich and plentiful city, without +an enemy left within it, nor any from without to be expected, would be +found abandoned to enjoyment, and unguarded. Neither did his opinion +fail him: he not only passed through their country without discovery, +but came up to their very gates and possessed himself of the walls, not +a man being left to guard them, but their whole army scattered about +in the houses, drinking and making merry. Nay, when at last they did +perceive that the enemy had seized the city, they were so overloaded +with meat and wine that few were able so much as to endeavor to +escape, but either waited shamefully for their death within doors,or +surrendered themselves to the conqueror. Thus the city of the Sutrians +was twice taken in one day; and they who were in possession lost it, and +they who had lost regained it, alike by the means of Camillus. For all +which actions he received a triumph which brought him no less honor and +reputation than the two former ones; for those citizens who before most +regarded him with an evil eye, and ascribed his successes to a certain +luck rather than real merit, were compelled by these last acts of his to +allow the whole honor to his great abilities and energy. + +Of all he adversaries and enviers of his glory, Marcus Manlius was the +most distinguished, he who first drove back the Gauls when they made +their night attack upon the Capitol, and who for that reason had +been named Capitolinus. This man, affecting the first place in the +commonwealth, and not able by noble ways to outdo Camillus's reputation, +took that ordinary course toward usurpation of absolute power, namely, +to gain the multitude, those of them especially that were in debt; +defending some by pleading their causes against their creditors, +rescuing others by force, and not suffering the law to proceed against +them; insomuch that in a short time he got great numbers of indigent +people about him, whose tumults and uproars in the forum struck terror +into the principal citizens. After that Quintius Capitolinus, who was +made dictator to suppress these disorders, had committed Manlius to +prison, the people immediately changed their apparel, a thing never done +but in great and public calamities, and the senate, fearing some tumult, +ordered him to be released. He, however, when set at liberty, changed not +his course, but was rather the more insolent in his proceedings,filling +the whole city with faction and sedition. They chose, therefore, +Camillus again military tribune; and a day being appointed for Manlius +to answer to his charge, the prospect from the place where his trial was +held proved a great impediment to his accusers; for the very spot where +Manlius by night fought with the Gauls overlooked the forum from the +Capitol, so that, stretching forth his hands that way, and weeping, he +called to their remembrance his past actions, raising compassion in all +that beheld him. Insomuch that the judges were at a loss what to do, and +several times adjourned the trial, unwilling to acquit him of the crime, +which was sufficiently proved, and yet unable to execute the law while +his noble action remained, as it were, before their eyes. Camillus, +considering this, transferred the court outside the gates to the +Peteline Grove, from whence there is no prospect of the Capitol Here +his accuser went on with his charge, and his judges were capable of +remembering the duly resenting his guilty deeds. He was convicted, +carried to the Capitol, and flung headlong from the rock; so that one +and same spot was thus the witness of his greatest glory, and monument +of his most unfortunate end. The Romans, besides, razed his house, and +built there a temple to the goddess they call Moneta, ordaining for +the future that none of the patrician order should ever dwell on the +Capitoline. + +And now Camillus, being called to his sixth tribuneship, desired to +be excused, as being aged, and perhaps not unfearful of the malice of +fortune, and those reverses which seem to ensue upon great prosperity. +But the most apparent pretence was the weakness of his body, for he +happened at that time to be sick; the people, however, would admit of no +excuses, but, crying that they wanted not his strength for horse or +for foot service, but only his counsel and conduct, constrained him to +undertake the command, and with one of his fellow-tribunes to lead the +army immediately against the enemy. These were the Praenestines and +Volscians, who, with large forces, were laying waste the territory of +the Roman confederates. Having marched out with his army, he sat down +and encamped near the enemy, meaning himself to protract the war, or if +there should come any necessity or occasion of fighting, in the meantime +to regain his strength, but Lucius Furius, his colleague, carried away +with the desire of glory, was not to e held in, but, impatient to +give battle, inflamed the inferior officers of the army with the same +eagerness; so that Camillus, fearing he might seem out of envy to be +wishing to rob the young man of the glory of a noble exploit, consented, +though unwillingly, that he should draw out the forces, whilst himself, +by reason of weakness, stayed behind with a few in the camp. Lucius, +engaging rashly, was discomfited, when Camillus, perceiving the Romans +to give ground and fly, could not contain himself, but, leaping from his +bed, with those he had about him ran to meet them at the gates of the +camp, making his way through the flyers to oppose the pursuers; so that +those who had got within the camp turned back at once and followed him, +and those that came flying from without made head again and gathered +about him, exhorting one another not to forsake their general. Thus the +enemy, for that time, was stopped in his pursuit. The next day Camillus, +drawing out his forces and joining battle with them, overthrew them by +main force, and, following close upon them, entered pell-mell with +them into their camp, and took it, slaying the greatest part of them. +Afterwards, having heard that the city of Satricum was taken by the +Tuscans, and the inhabitants, all Romans, put to the sword, he sent home +to Rome the main body of his forces and heaviest-armed, and, taking +with him the lightest and most vigorous soldiers, set suddenly upon +the Tuscans, who were in the possession of the city, and mastered them, +slaying some and expelling the rest; and so, returning to Rome with +great spoils, gave signal evidence of their superior wisdom, who, not +mistrusting the weakness and age of a commander endowed with courage +and conduct, had rather chosen him who was sickly and desirous to be +excused, than young men who were forward and ambitious to command. + +When, therefore, the revolt of the Tusculans was reported, they +gave Camillus the charge of reducing them, choosing one of his five +colleagues to go with him. And when every one was eager for the place, +contrary to the expectation of all, he passed by the rest and chose +Lucius Furius, the very same man who lately, against the judgment of +Camillus, had rashly hazarded and nearly lost a battle; willing, at it +should seem, to dissemble that miscarriage, and free him from the shame +of it. The Tusculans, hearing of Camillus's coming against them, made +a cunning attempt at revoking their act of revolt; their fields, as +in times of highest peace, were full of ploughmen and shepherds; their +gates stood wide open, and their children were being taught in the +schools; of the people, such as were tradesmen, he found in their +workshops, busied about their several employments, and the better sort +of citizens walking in the public places in their ordinary dress; the +magistrates hurried about to provide quarters for the Romans, as if they +stood in fear of no danger and were conscious of no fault. Which arts, +though they could not dispossess Camillus of the conviction he had of +their treason, yet induced some compassion for their repentance; he +commanded them to go to the senate and deprecate their anger, and +joined himself as an intercessor in their behalf, so that their city was +acquitted of all guilt and admitted to Roman citizenship. These were the +most memorable actions of his sixth tribuneship. + +After these things, Licinius Stolo raised a great sedition in the city, +and brought the people to dissension with the senate, contending, that +of two consuls one should be chosen out of the commons, and not both out +of the patricians. Tribunes of the people were chosen, but the election +of consuls was interrupted and prevented by the people. And as this +absence of any supreme magistrate was leading to yet further confusion, +Camillus was the fourth time created dictator by the senate, sorely +against the people's will, and not altogether in accordance with his +own; he had little desire for a conflict with men whose past services +entitles them to tell him that he had achieved far greater actions in +war along with them than in politics with the patricians, who, indeed, +had only put him forward now out of envy; that, if successful, he might +crush the people, or, failing, be crushed himself. However, to provide +as good a remedy as he could for the present, knowing the day on which +the tribunes of the people intended to prefer the law, he appointed it +by proclamation for a general muster, and called the people from the +forum into the Campus, threatening to set heavy fines upon such as +should not obey. On the other side, the tribunes of the people met +his threats by solemnly protesting they would fine him fifty thousand +drachmas of silver, if he persisted in obstructing the people from +giving their suffrages for the law. Whether it were, then, that he +feared another banishment or condemnation, which would ill become his +age and past great actions, or found himself unable to stem the current +of the multitude, which ran strong and violent, he betook himself, +for the present, to his house, and afterwards, for some days together, +professing sickness, finally laid down his dictatorship. The senate +created another dictator; who, choosing Stolo, leader of the sedition, +to be his general of horse, suffered that law to be enacted and +ratified, which was most grievous to the patricians, namely that no +person whatsoever should possess above five hundred acres of land. Stolo +was much distinguished by the victory he had gained; but, not long after +was found himself to possess more than he had allowed to others, and +suffered the penalties of his own law. + +And now the contention about election of consuls coming on (which was +the main point and original cause of the dissension, and had throughout +furnished most matter of division between the senate and the people), +certain intelligence arrived, that the Gauls again, proceeding from the +Adriatic Sea, were marching in vast number upon Rome. On the very heels +of the report followed manifest acts also of hostility; the country +through which they marched was all wasted, and such as by flight could +not make their escape to Rome were dispersing and scattering among +the mountains. The terror of this war quieted the sedition; nobles and +commons, senate and people together, unanimously chose Camillus +the fifth time dictator; who, though very aged, not wanting much of +fourscore years, yet, considering the danger and necessity of his +country, did not, as before, pretend sickness, or depreciate his own +capacity, but at once undertook the charge, and enrolled soldiers. And, +knowing that the great force of the barbarians lay chiefly in their +swords, with which they laid about them in a rude and inartificial +manner, hacking and hewing the head and shoulders, he caused head-pieces +entire of iron to be made for most of his men, smoothing and polishing +the outside, that the enemy's swords, lighting upon them, might either +slide off or be broken; and fitted also their shields with a little rim +of brass, the wood itself not being sufficient to bear off the blows. +Besides, he taught his soldiers to use their long javelins in close +encounter, and, by bringing them under their enemy's swords, to receive +their strokes upon them. + +When the Gauls drew near, about the river Anio, dragging a heavy camp +after them, and loaded with infinite spoil, Camillus drew forth his +forces, and planted himself upon a hill of easy ascent, and which had +many dips in it, with the object that the greatest part of his army +might lie concealed, and those who appeared might be thought to have +betaken themselves, through fear, to those upper grounds. And the +more to increase this opinion in them, he suffered them, without any +disturbance, to spoil and pillage even to his very trenches, keeping +himself quiet within his works, which were well fortified; till, at +last, perceiving that part of the enemy were scattered about the country +foraging, and that those that were in the camp did nothing day and night +but drink and revel, in the night time he drew up his lightest-armed +men, and sent them out before to impede the enemy while forming into +order, and to harass them when they should first issue out of the their +camp; and early in the morning brought down his main body, and set them +in battle array in the lower round, numerous and courageous army, not, +as the barbarians had supposed, an inconsiderable and fearful division. +The first thing that shook the courage of the Gauls was, that their +enemies had, contrary to their expectation, the honor of being +aggressors. In the next place, the light-armed men, falling upon them +before they could get into their usual order or range themselves in +their proper squadrons, so disturbed and pressed upon them, that they +were obliged to fight at random, without any order at all. But at last, +when Camillus brought on his heavy-armed legions, the barbarians, with +their swords drawn, went vigorously to engage them; the Romans, however, +opposing their javelins, and receiving the force of their blows on those +parts of the defences which were well guarded with steel, turned the +edge of their weapons, beingmade of a soft and ill-tempered metal, so +that their swords bent and doubled up in their hands; and their shields +were pierced through and through, and grew heavy with the javelins +that stuck upon them. And thus forced to quit their own weapons, they +endeavored to take advantage of those of their enemies, laid hold of the +javelins with their hands, and tried to pluck them away. But the Romans, +perceiving them now naked and defenceless, betook themselves to their +swords, which they so well used, that in a little time great slaughter +was made in the foremost ranks, while the rest fled over all parts of +the level country; the hills and upper grounds Camillus had secured +beforehand, and their camp they knew it would not be difficult for +the enemy to take, as, through confidence of victory, they had left +it unguarded. This fight, it is stated, was thirteen years after the +sacking of Rome; and from henceforward the Romans took courage, and +surmounted the apprehensions they had hitherto entertained of the +barbarians, whose previous defeat they had attributed rather to +pestilence and a concurrence of mischances than to their own superior +valor. And, indeed, this fear had been formerly so great, that they made +a law, that priests should be excused from service in war, unless in an +invasion from the Gauls. + +This was the last military action that Camillus ever performed; for +the voluntary surrender of the city of the Velitrani was but a mere +accessory to it. But the greatest of all civil contests, and the hardest +to be managed, was still to be fought out against the people; who, +returning home full of victory and success, insisted, contrary to +established law, to have one of the consuls chosen out of their own +body. The senate strongly opposed it, and would not suffer Camillus +to lay down his dictatorship, thinking, that, under the shelter of his +great name and authority, they should be better able to contend for +the power of the aristocracy. But when Camillus was sitting upon the +tribunal, dispatching public affairs, an officer, sent by the tribunes +of the people, commanded him to rise and follow him, laying his and upon +him, as ready to seize and carry him away; upon which, such a noise and +tumult as was never heard before, filled the whole forum; some that were +about Camillus thrusting the officer from the bench, and the multitude +below calling out to him to bring Camillus down. Being at a loss what +to do in these difficulties, he yet laid not down his authority, but, +taking the senators along with him, he went to the senate-house; +but before he entered, besought the gods that they would bring these +troubles to a happy conclusion, solemnly vowing, when the tumult was +ended, to build a temple to Concord. A great conflict of opposite +opinions arose in the senate; but, at last, the most moderate and most +acceptable to the people prevailed, and consent was given, that of two +consuls, one should be chosen from the commonalty. When the dictator +proclaimed this determination of the senate to the people, at the moment +pleased and reconciled with the senate, as they could not well otherwise +be, they accompanied Camillus home with all expressions and acclamations +of joy; and the next day, assembling together, they voted a temple of +Concord to be built, according to Camillus's vow, facing the assembly +and the forum; and to the feasts, called the Latin holidays, they added +one day more, making four in all; and ordained that, on the present +occasion the whole people of Rome should sacrifice with garlands on +their heads. + +In the election of consuls held by Camillus, Marcus Aemilius was chosen +of the patricians, and Lucius Sextius the first of the commonalty; and +this was the last of all Camillus's actions. In the year following, a +pestilential sickness infected Rome, which, besides an infinite number +of the common people, swept away most of the magistrates, among whom +was Camillus; whose death cannot be called premature, if we consider +his great age, or greater actions, yet was he more lamented than all the +rest put together that then died of that distemper. + + + + +PERICLES + +We are inspired by acts of virtue with an emulation and eagerness that +may lead on to imitation. In other things there does not immediately +follow upon the admiration and liking of the thing done, any strong +desire of doing the like. Nay, many times, on the very contrary, when +we are pleased with the work, we slight and set little by the workman +or artist himself, as, for instance, in perfumes and purple dyes, we are +taken with the things themselves well enough, but do not think dyers and +perfumers otherwise than low and sordid people. It was not said amiss +by Antisthenes, when people told him that one Ismenias was an excellent +piper, "It may be so, but he is a wretched human being, otherwise he +would not have been an excellent piper." And King Philip, to the same +purpose, told his son Alexander, who once at a merry meeting played a +piece of music charmingly and skillfully, "Are you not ashamed, my son, +to play so well?" For it is enough for a king or prince to find leisure +sometimes to hear others sing, and he does the muses quite honor enough +when he pleases to be but present, while others engage in such exercises +and trials of skill. + +He who busies himself in mean occupations produces, in the very pains he +takes about things of little or no use, an evidence against himself of +his negligence and indisposition to what is really good. Nor did any +generous and ingenuous young man, at the sight of the statue of Jupiter +at Pisa, ever desire to be a Phidias, or, on seeing that of Juno at +Argos, long to be a Polycletus, or feel induced by his pleasure in their +poems to wish to be an Anacreon or Pliletas or Archilochus. But virtue, +by the bare statement of its actions, can so affect men's minds as to +create at once both admiration of the things done and desire to imitate +the doers of them. The goods of fortune we would possess and would +enjoy; those of virtue we long to practice and exercise; we are +content to receive the former from others, the latter we wish others to +experience from us. + +And so we have thought fit to spend our time and pains in writing of +the lives of famous persons; and have composed this tenth book upon that +subject, containing the life of Pericles, and that of Fabius Maximus, +who carried on the war against Hannibal, men alike, as in their other +virtues and good parts, so especially in their mild and upright temper +and demeanor, and in that capacity to bear the cross-grained humors of +their fellow-citizens and colleagues in office which made them both most +useful and serviceable to the interests of their countries. Whether we +take a right aim at our intended purpose, it is left to the reader to +judge by what he shall find here. + +Pericles was of the tribe of Acamantis, and the township Cholargus, of +the noblest birth both on his father's and mother's side. Xanthippus, +his father, who defeated the king of Persia's generals in the battle at +Mycale, took to Wife Agariste, the grandchild of Clisthenes, who drove +out the sons of Pisistratus, and nobly put and end to their tyrannical +usurpation, and moreover made a body of laws, and settled a model of +government admirably tempered and suited for the harmony and safety of +the people. + +Pericles in other respects was perfectly formed physically, only his +head was somewhat longish and out of proportion. For which reason almost +all the images and statues that were made of him have the head covered +with a helmet, the workmen not apparently being willing to expose him. +The poets of Athens called him "Schinocephalos," or squill-head, from +"schinos," a squill, or sea-onion. + +Pericles was a hearer of Zeno, the Eliatic, who treated of natural +philosophy in the same manner as Parmenides did, but had also perfected +himself in an art of his own for refuting and silencing opponents in +argument; as Timon of Phlius describes it,-- + + Also the two-edged tongue of mighty Zeno, who, + Say what one would, could argue it untrue. + +But he saw most of Pericles, and furnished him most especially with a +weight and grandeur of sense, superior to all arts of popularity, and +in general gave him his elevation and sublimity of purpose and of +character, was Anaxagoras of Clazomenae; whom the men of those times +called by the name of Nous, that is mind, or intelligence, whether in +admiration of the great and extraordinary gift he displayed for the +science of nature, or because he was the first of the philosophers who +did not refer the first ordering of the world to fortune or chance, nor +to necessity or compulsion, but to a pure, unadulterated intelligence, +which in all other existing mixed and compound things acts as a +principle of discrimination, and of combination of like with like. + +For this man, Pericles entertained an extraordinary esteem and +admiration, and, filling himself with this lofty and, as they call it, +up-in-the-air sort of thought, derived hence not merely, as was natural, +elevation of purpose and dignity of language, raised far above the +base and dishonest buffooneries of mob-eloquence, but, besides this, +a composure of countenance, and a serenity and calmness in all his +movements, which no occurrence whilst he was speaking could disturb, +a sustained and even tone of voice, and various other advantages of a +similar kind, which produced the greatest effect on his hearers. Once, +after being reviled and ill-spoken of all day long in his own hearing by +some abandoned fellow in the open market-place where he was engaged in +the despatch of some urgent affair, he continued his business in perfect +silence, and in the evening returned home composedly, the man still +dogging him at the heels, and pelting him all the way with abuse and +foul language; and stopping into his house, it being by this time dark, +he ordered one of hi servants to take a light and to go along with the +man and see him safe home. + +Nor were these the only advantages which Pericles derived from +Anaxagoras's acquaintance; he seems also to have become, by his +instructions, superior to that superstition with which an ignorant +wonder at appearances, for example, in the heavens, possesses the minds +of people unacquainted with their causes, eager for the supernatural, +and excitable through an inexperience which the knowledge of natural +causes removes, replacing wild and timid superstition by the good hope +and assurance of an intelligent piety. + +There is a story that once Pericles had brought to him from a country +farm of his, a ram's head with one horn, and that Lampon, the diviner, +upon seeing the horn grow strong and solid out of the midst of the +forehead, gave it as his judgement that, there being at that time +two potent factions, parties, or interests in the city, the one of +Thucydides and the other of Pericles, the government would come about to +that one of them in whose ground or estate this token or indication +of fate had shown itself. But that Anaxagoras, cleaving the skull in +sunder, showed to the bystanders that the brain had not filled up its +natural place, but being oblong, like an egg, had collected from all +parts of the vessel which contained it, in a point to that place from +whence the root of the horn took its rise. And that, for the time, +Anaxagoras was much admired for his explanation by those that were +present; and Lampon no less a little while after, when Thucydides was +overpowered, and the whole affairs of the state and government came into +the hands of Pericles. + +Pericles, while yet but a young man, stood in considerable apprehension +of the people, as he was thought in face and figure to be very like the +tyrant Pisitratus, and those of great age remarked upon the sweetness of +his voice, and his volubility and rapidity in speaking, and were struck +with amazement at the resemblance. But when Aristides was now dead, and +Themosticles driven out, and Cimon was for the most part kept abroad by +the expeditions he made in parts out of Greece, Pericles, seeing things +in this posture, now advanced and took his side, not with the rich and +few, but with the many and poor, contrary to his natural bent, which +was far from democratical; but, most likely, fearing he might fall under +suspicion of aiming at arbitrary power, and seeing Cimon on the side of +the aristocracy, and much beloved by the better and more distinguished +people, he joined the party of the people, with a view at once both to +secure himself and procure means against Cimon. + +He immediately entered, also, on quite a new course of life and +management of his time. For he was never seen to walk in any street but +that which led to the market-place and the council-hall, and he +avoided invitations of friends to supper, and all friendly visits and +intercourse whatever; in all the time he had to do with the public, +which was not a little, he was never known to have gone to any of his +friends to a supper, except that once when his near kinsman Euryptolemus +married, he remained present till the ceremony of the drink-offering, +and then immediately rose from the table and went his way. For these +friendly meetings are very quick to defeat any assumed superiority, and +in intimate familiarity an exterior of gravity is hard to maintain. Real +excellence, indeed, is best recognized when most openly looked into; and +in really good men, nothing which meets the eyes of external observers +so truly deserves their admiration, as their daily common life does +that of their nearer friends. Pericles, however, to avoid any feeling of +commonness, or any satiety on the part of the people, presented himself +at intervals only, not speaking on every business, nor at all times +coming into the assembly, but, as Critoaus says, reserving himself, +like the Salaminian galley, for great occasions, while matters of +lesser importance were despatched by friends or other speakers under his +direction. And of this number we are told Ephialtes made one, who broke +the power of the council of Areopagus, giving the people, according to +Plato's expression, so copious and so strong a draught of liberty, that, +growing wild and unruly, like an unmanageable horse, it, as the comic +poets say,-- + + "--got beyond all keeping in, + Champing at Euboea, and among the islands leaping in." + +The style of speaking most consonant to his form of life and the dignity +of his views he found, so to say, in the tones of that instrument with +which Anaxagoras had furnished him; of his teaching he continually +availed himself, and deepened the colors of rhetoric with the dye of +natural science. + +A saying of Thucydides, the son of Melesias, stands on record, spoken by +him by way of pleasantry upon Pericles's dexterity. Thucydides was +one of the noble and distinguished citizens, and had been his greatest +opponent; and, when Archidamus, the king of the Lacedaemonians, asked +him whether he or Pericles were the better wrestler, he made this +answer: "When I," said he, "have thrown him and given him a fair fall, +he by persisting that he had no fall, gets the better of me, and makes +the bystanders, in spite of their own eyes, believe him." + +The rule of Pericles has been described as an aristocratical government, +that went by the name of a democracy, but was, indeed, the supremacy of +a single great man; while many say, that by him the common people were +first encouraged and led on to such evils as appropriations of subject +territory, allowances for attending theatres, payments for performing +public duties, and by these bad habits were, under the influence of his +public measures, changed from a sober, thrifty people, that maintained +themselves by their own labors, to lovers of expense, intemperance, and +license. + +At the first, as has been said, when he set himself against Cimon's +great authority, he did caress the people. Finding himself come short +of his competitor in wealth and money, by which advantages the other was +enabled to take care of the poor, inviting every day some one or other +of the citizens that was in want to supper, and bestowing clothes on the +aged people, and breaking down the hedges and enclosures of his grounds, +that all that would might freely gather what fruit they pleased. +Pericles, thus outdone in popular arts, turned to the distribution of +the public moneys; and in a short time having bought the people over, +what with moneys allowed for shows and for service on juries, and what +with the other forms of pay and largess, he made use of them against the +council of Areopagus, and directed the exertions of his party against +this council with such success, that most of those causes and matters +which had been formerly tried there, were removed from its +cognizance; Cimon, also, was banished by ostracism as a favorer of the +Lacedaemonians and a hater of the people, though in wealth and noble +birth he was among the first, and had won several most glorious +victories over the barbarians, and had filled the city with money and +spoils of war. So vast an authority had Pericles obtained among the +people. + +The ostracism was limited by law to ten years; but the Lacedaemonians, +in the meantime, entering with a great army into the territory of +Tanagra, and the Athenians going out against the Cimon, coming from his +banishment before his time was out, put himself in arms and array with +those of his fellow-citizens that were of his own tribe, and desired by +his deeds to wipe off the suspicion of his favoring the Lacedaemonians, +by venturing his own person along with his countrymen. But Pericles's +friends, gathering in a body, forced him to retire as a banished man. +For which cause also Pericles seems to have exerted himself more than +in any other battle, and to have been conspicuous above all for his +exposure of himself to danger. All Cimon's friends, also, to a man, fell +together side by side, whom Pericles had accused with him of taking part +with the Lacedaemonians. Defeated in this battle on their own frontiers, +and expecting a new and perilous attack with return of spring, the +Athenians now felt regret and sorrow for the loss of Cimon, and +repentance for their expulsion of him. Pericles, being sensible of their +feelings, did not hesitate or delay to gratify it, and himself made the +motion for recalling him home. He, upon his return, concluded a peace +betwixt the two cities; for the Lacedaemonians entertained as kindly +feelings towards him as they did the reverse towards Pericles and the +other popular leaders. + +Cimon, while he was admiral, ended his days in the Isle of Cyprus. And +the aristocratical party, seeing that Pericles was already before +this grown to be the greatest and foremost man of all the city, but +nevertheless wishing there should be somebody set up against him, to +blunt and turn the edge of his power, that it might not altogether prove +a monarchy, put forward Thucydides of Alopece, a discreet person, and a +near kinsman of Cimon's, to conduct the opposition against him. And so +Pericles, at that time more than at any other, let loose the reins +to the people, and made his policy subservient to their pleasure, +contriving continually to have some great public show or solemnity, some +banquet, or some procession or other in the town to please them, coaxing +his countrymen like children, with such delights and pleasures as +were not, however, unedifying. Besides that, every year he sent +out threescore galleys, on board of which there went numbers of the +citizens, who were in pay eight months, at the same time learning and +practicing the art of seamanship. + +He sent, moreover, a thousand of them into the Chersonese as planters, +to share the land among them by lot, and five hundred more into the +isle of Naxos, and half that number to Andros, a thousand into Thrace to +dwell among the Bisaltae, and others into Italy, when the city Sybaris, +which now was called Thurii, was to be repeopled. And this he did +to ease and discharge the city of an idle, and, by reason of their +idleness, a busy, meddling crowd of people; and at the same time to meet +the necessities and restore the fortunes of the poor townsmen, and to +intimidate, also, and check their allies from attempting any change, by +posting such garrisons, as it were, in the midst of them. + +That which gave most pleasure and ornament to the city of Athens, and +the greatest admiration and even astonishment to all strangers, and that +which now is Greece's only evidence that the power she boasts of and her +ancient wealth are no romance or idle story, was his construction of the +public and sacred buildings. + +The materials were stone, brass, ivory, gold, ebony, and cypress-wood; +the artisans that wrought and fashioned them were smiths and carpenters, +moulders, founders and braziers, stone-cutters, dyers, goldsmiths, +ivory-workers, painters, embroiderers, turners; those again that +conveyed them to the town for use, merchants and mariners and +ship-masters by sea; and by land, cartwrights, cattle-breeders, +wagoners, rope-makers, flax-workers, shoe-makers and leather-dressers, +road-makers, miners. And every trade in the same nature, as a captain +in an army has his particular company of soldiers under him, had its own +hired company of journeymen and laborers belonging to it banded +together as in array, to be as it were the instrument and body for the +performance of the service of these public works distributed plenty +through every age and condition. + +As then grew the works up, no less stately in size than exquisite in +form, the workmen striving to outvie the material and the design with +the beauty of their workmanship, yet the most wonderful thing of all was +the rapidity of their execution. Undertakings, any one of which singly +might have required, they thought, for their completion, several +successions and ages of men, were every one of them accomplished in the +height and prime of one man's political service. Although they say, +too, that Zeuxis once, having heard Agatharchus, the painter, boast of +despatching his work with speed and ease, replied, "I take a long +time." For ease and speed in doing a thing do not give the work lasting +solidity or exactness of beauty; the expenditure of time allowed to a +man's pains beforehand for the production of a thing is repaid by way of +interest with a vital force for its preservation when once produced. +For which reason Pericles's works are especially admired, as having been +made quickly, to last long. For every particular piece of his work was +immediately, even at that time, for its beauty and elegance, antique; +and yet in its vigor and freshness looks to this day as if it were just +executed. There is a sort of bloom of newness upon those works of his, +preserving them from the touch of time, as if they had some perennial +spirit and undying vitality mingled in the composition of them. + +Phidias had the oversight of all the works, and was surveyor-general, +though upon the various portions other great masters and workmen were +employed. For Callicrates and Ictinus built the Parthenon; the chapel at +Eleusis, where the mysteries were celebrated, was begun by Coroebus, who +erected the pillars that stand upon the floor or pavement, and joined +them to the architraves; and after his death Metagenes of Xypete added +the frieze and the upper line of columns; Xenocles of Cholargus roofed +or arched the lantern on the top of the temple of Castor and Pollux; and +the long wall, which Socrates says he himself heard Pericles propose to +the people, was undertaken by Callicrates. + +The Odeum, or music-room, which in its interior was full of seats and +ranges of pillars, and outside had its roof made to slope and descend +from one single point at the top, was constructed, we are told, in +imitation of the king of Persia's Pavilion; this likewise by Pericles's +order; which Cratinus again, in his comedy called The Thracian Women, +made an occasion of raillery,-- + + So, we see here, + Jupiter Long-pate Pericles appear, + Since ostracism time he's laid aside his head, + And wears the new Odeum in its stead. + +Perils, also eager for distinction, then first obtained the decree for +a contest in musical skill to be held yearly at the Panathenaea, and he +himself, being chosen judge, arranged the order and method in which the +competitors should sing and play on the flute and the harp. And both at +that time, and at other times also, they sat in this music-room to see +and hear all such trials of skill. + +The propylaea, or entrances to the Acropolis, were finished in five +years' time, Mnesicles being the principal architect. A strange accident +happened in the course of building, which showed that the goddess was +not averse to the work, but was aiding and co-operating to bring it to +perfection. One of the artificers, the quickest and the handiest workmen +among them all, with a slip of his foot, fell down from a great height, +and lay in a miserable condition, the physician having no hopes of his +recovery. When Pericles was in distress about this, Athenia appeared +to him at night in a dream, and ordered a course of treatment which he +applied, and in a short time, and with great ease, cured the man. And +upon this occasion it was that he set up a brass statue of Athena, +surnamed Health, in the citadel near the altar, which they say was there +before. But it was Phidias who wrought the goddess's image in gold, +and he has his name inscribed on the pedestal as the workman of it; and +indeed the whole work in a manner was under his charge, and he had, as +we have said already, the oversight over all the artists and workmen, +through Pericles's friendship for him. + +When the orators, who sided with Thucydides and his party, were at +one time crying out, as their custom was, against Pericles, as one who +squandered away public money and made havoc of the state revenues, he +rose in the open assembly and put the question to the people, whether +they thought that he had laid out much; and saying, "Too much, a great +deal," "Then," said he, "since it is so, let the cost not go to your +account, but to mine; and let the inscription upon the buildings stand +in my name." When they heard him say thus, whether it were out of a +surprise to see the greatness of his spirit, or out of emulation of the +glory of the works, they cried aloud, bidding him to spend on, and lay +out what he thought fit from the public purse, and to spare no cost, +till all were finished. + +At length, coming to a final contest with Thucydides, which of the two +should ostracize the other out of the country, and, having gone through +this peril, he threw his antagonist out, and broke up the confederacy +that had been organized against him. So that now all schism and division +being at an end, and the city brought to evenness and unity, he got +all Athens and all affairs that pertained to the Athenians into his own +hands, their tributes, their armies and their galleys, the islands, the +sea, and their wide-extended power, partly over other Greeks and partly +over barbarians, and all that empire which they possessed, founded and +fortified upon subject nations and royal friendships and alliances. + +After this he was no longer the same man he had been before, nor as tame +and gentle and familiar as formerly with the populace, so as readily +to yield to their pleasures and to comply with the desires of the +multitude, as a steersman shifts with the winds. Quitting that loose, +remiss, and, in some cases, licentious court of the popular will, +he turned those soft and flowery modulations to the austerity of +aristocratical and regal rule; but, employing this uprightly and +undeviatingly for the country's best interests, he was able generally +to lead the people along, with their own will and consent, by persuading +and showing them what was to be done. + +The source of this predominance was not barely his power of language, +but, as Thucydides the historian assures us, the reputation of his life, +and the confidence felt in his character; his manifest freedom from +every kind of corruption, and superiority to all considerations of +money. Notwithstanding he had made the city of Athens, which was great +of itself, as great and rich as can be imagined, and though he were +himself in power and interest more than equal to many kings and absolute +rulers, who some of them also bequeathed by will their power to their +children, he for his part, did not make the patrimony his father left +him greater than it was by one drachma. + +Teleclides says the Athenians had surrendered to him-- + + The tributes of the cities, and, with them, the cities, too, to do + with them as he pleases, and undo; + To build up, if he likes, stone walls around a town; and again, if + so he likes, to pull them down; + Their treaties and alliances, power, empire, peace, and war, their + wealth and their success forevermore. + +Nor was all this the luck of some happy occasion; nor was it the mere +bloom and grace of a policy that flourished for a season; but having for +fifty-five years together maintained the first place among statesmen, in +the exercise of one continuous unintermitted command in the office, to +which he was annually reelected, of General, he preserved his integrity +unspotted; though otherwise he was not altogether idle or careless in +looking after his pecuniary advantage; his paternal estate, which of +right belonged to him, he so ordered that it might neither through +negligence be wasted or lessened, nor yet, being so full of business as +he was, cost him any great trouble or time with taking care of it; and +put it into such a way of management as he thought to be most easy for +himself, and the most exact. All his yearly products and profits he sold +together in a lump, and supplied his household needs afterward by buying +everything that he or his family wanted out of the market. Upon which +account, his children, when they grew to age, were not well pleased with +his management; since there was not there, as is usual in a great family +and a plentiful estate, anything to spare, or over and above; but all +that went out or came in, all disbursements and all receipts, proceeded +as it were by number and measure. His manager in all this was a single +servant, Evangelus by name, a man either naturally gifted or instructed +by Pericles so as to excel every one in this art of domestic economy. + +The Lacedaemonians beginning to show themselves troubled at the growth +of the Athenian power, Pericles, on the other hand, to elevate the +people's spirit yet more, and to raise them to the thought of great +actions, proposed a decree to summon all the Greeks in what part soever, +whether of Europe or Asia, every city, little as well as great, to send +their deputies to Athens to a general assembly or convention, there to +consult and advise concerning the Greek temples which the barbarians +had burnt down; and also concerning the navigation of the sea, that they +might henceforward all of them pass to and fro and trade securely, and +be at peace among themselves. + +Nothing was effected, nor did the cities meet by their deputies, as +was desired; the Lacedaemonians, as it is said, crossing the design +underhand, and the attempt being disappointed and baffled first in +Peloponnesus. I thought fit, however, to introduce the mention of it, to +show the spirit of the man and the greatness of his thoughts. + +In his military conduct he gained a great reputation for wariness; +he would not by his good-will engage in any fight which had much +uncertainty or hazard; he did not envy the glory of generals whose rash +adventures fortune favored with brilliant success, however they were +admired by others; nor did he think them worthy his imitation, but +always used to say to his citizens that, so far as lay in his power, +they should continue immortal, and live forever. Seeing Tolmides, +the son of Tolmaeus, upon the confidence of his former successes, and +flushed with the honor his military actions had procured him, making +preparation to attack the Boeotians in their own country, when there was +no likely opportunity, and that he had prevailed with the bravest and +most enterprising of the youth to enlist themselves as volunteers in the +service, who besides his other force made up a thousand, he endeavored +to withhold him, and advised him against it in the public assembly, +telling him in a memorable saying of which still goes about, that, if he +would not take Pericles's advice, yet he would not do amiss to wait +and be ruled by time, the wisest counselor of all. This saying, at that +time, was but slightly commended; but, within a few days after, when +news was brought that Tolmides himself had been defeated and slain in +battle near Coronea, and that many brave citizens had fallen with him, +it gained him great repute as well as good-will among the people, for +wisdom and for love of his countrymen. + +But of all his expeditions, that to the Chersonese gave most +satisfaction and pleasure, having proved the safety of the Greeks who +inhabited there. For not only by carrying along with him a thousand +fresh citizens of Athens he gave new strength and vigor to the cities, +but also by belting the neck of land, which joins the peninsula to the +continent, with bulwarks and forts from sea to sea, he put a stop to the +inroads of the Thracians, who lay all about the Chersonese, and closed +the door against a continual and grievous war, with which that country +had been long harassed, lying exposed to the encroachments and influx +of barbarous neighbors, and groaning under the evils of a predatory +population both upon and within its borders. + +Entering also the Euxine Sea with a large and finely equipped fleet, +he obtained for the Greek cities any new arrangements they wanted, and +entered into friendly relations with them; and to the barbarous nations, +and kings and chiefs round about them, displayed the greatness of the +power of the Athenians, their perfect ability and confidence to sail +wherever they had a mind, and to bring the whole sea under his control. +He left the Sinopians thirteen ships of war, with soldiers under the +command of Lamachus, to assist them against Timesileus the tyrant; and, +when he and his accomplices had been thrown out, obtained a decree that +six hundred of the Athenians that were willing should sail to Sinope and +plant themselves there with the Sinopians, sharing among them the houses +and land which the tyrant and his party had previously held. + +But in other things he did not comply with the giddy impulses of the +citizens, nor quit his own resolutions to follow their fancies, when, +carried away with the thought of their strength and great success, +they were eager to interfere again in Egypt, and to disturb the king of +Persia's maritime dominions. Nay, there were a good many who were, even +then, possessed with that unblest and unauspicious passion for Sicily, +which afterward the orators of Alciabes's party blew up into a flame. +There were some also who dreamt of Tuscany and of Carthage, and not +without plausible reason in their present large dominion and the +prosperous course of their affairs. + +But Pericles curbed this passion for foreign conquest, and unsparingly +pruned and cut down their ever-busy fancies for a multitude of +undertakings, and directed their power for the most part to securing +and consolidating what they had already got, supposing it would be quite +enough for them to do, if they could keep the Lacedaemonians in check; +to whom he entertained all along a sense of opposition; which, as upon +many other occasions, he particularly showed by what he did in the time +of the holy war. The Lacedaemonians, having gone with an army to +Delphi, restored Apollo's temple, which the Phocians had got into +their possession, to the Delphians; immediately after their departure, +Pericles, with another army, came and restored it to the Phocians. And +the Lacedaemonians having engraven the record of their privilege of +consulting the oracle before others, which the Delphians gave them, upon +the forehead of the brazen wolf which stands there, he, also, having +received from the Phocians the like privilege for the Athenians, had it +cut upon the same wolf of brass, on his right side. + +When Pericles, in giving up his accounts, stated a disbursement of +ten talents, as laid out upon fit occasion, the people, without any +question, nor troubling themselves to investigate the mystery, freely +allowed it. And some historians, in which number is Theophtastus the +philosopher, have given it as a truth that Pericles every year used +to send privately the sum of ten talents to Sparta, with which he +complimented those in office, to keep off the war; not to purchase peace +either, but time, that he might prepare at leisure, and be the better +able to carry on war hereafter. + +After this, having made a truce between the Athenians and Lacedaemonians +for thirty years, he ordered, by public decree, the expedition against +the Isle of Samos, on the ground, that, when they were bid to leave off +their war with the Milesians, they had not complied. For the two states +were at war for the possession of Priene; and the Samians, getting +the better, refused to lay down their arms and to have the controversy +betwixt them decided by arbitration before the Athenians. Pericles, +therefore, fitting out a fleet, went and broke up the oligarchal +government at Samos, and, taking fifty of the principal men of the town +as hostages, and as many of their children, sent them to the Isle of +Lemnos, there to be kept, though he had offers, as some relate, of a +talent apiece for himself from each one of the hostages, and of many +other presents from those who were anxious not to have a democracy. +Moreover, Pissuthnes the Persian, one of the king's lieutenants, bearing +some good-will to the Samians, sent him ten thousand pieces of gold to +excuse the city. Pericles, however, would receive none of all this; but +after he had taken that course with the Samians which he thought fit, +and set up a democracy among them, sailed back to Athens. + +But they, however, immediately revolted, Pissuthnes having privily got +away their hostages for them, and provided them with means for war. +Whereupon Pericles came out with a fleet a second time against them, and +found them not idle nor slinking away, but manfully resolved to try for +the dominion of the sea. The issue was, that, after a sharp sea-fight +about the island called Tragia, Pericles obtained a decisive victory, +having with forty-four ships routed seventy of the enemy's, twenty of +which were carrying soldiers. + +Together with his victory and pursuit, having made himself master of the +port, he laid siege to the Samians, and blocked them up, who yet, one +way or other, still ventured to make sallies, and fight under the city +walls. But after another greater fleet from Athens had arrived, and the +Samians were now shut up with a close leaguer on every side, Pericles, +taking with him sixty galleys, sailed out into the main sea, with the +intention, as most authors give the account, to meet a squadron of +Phoenician ships that were coming for the Samians' relief, and to +fight them at as great a distance as could be from the island; but, as +Stesimbrotus says, with a design of putting over to Cyprus; which does +not seem to be probable. But whichever of the two was his intent, it +seems to have been a miscalculation. For on his departure, Melissus, the +son of Ithagenes, a philosopher, being at that time general in Samos, +despising either the small number of ships that were left or the +inexperience of the commanders, prevailed with the citizens to attack +the Athenians. And the Samians having won the battle and taken several +of the men prisoners, and disabled several of the ships, were masters of +the sea, and brought into port all necessities they wanted for the war, +which they had not before. Aristotle says, too, that Pericles himself +had been once before this worsted by the Milissus in a sea-fight. + +The Samians, that they might requite an affront which had before been +put upon them, branded the Athenians whom they took prisoners, in their +foreheads, with the figure of an owl. For so the Athenians had marked +them before with a Samaena, which is a sort of ship, low and flat in the +prow, so as to look snub-nosed, but wide and large and well-spread in +the hold, by which it both carries a large cargo and sails well. And so +it was called, because the first of that kind was seen at Samos, having +been built by order of Polycrates the tyrant. These brands upon the +Samians' foreheads, they say, are the allusion in the passage of +Aristophanes, where he says,-- + + For, oh, the Samians are a lettered people. + +Pericles, as soon as news was brought to him of the disaster that had +befallen his army, made all the haste he could to come in to their +relief, and having defeated Melissus, who bore up against him, and put +the enemy to flight, he immediately proceeded to hem them in with a +wall, resolving to master them and take the town, rather with some cost +and time than with the wounds and hazards of his citizens. But as it was +a hard matter to keep back the Athenians, who were vexed at the delay, +and were eagerly bent to fight, he divided the whole multitude into +eight parts, and arranged by lot that that part which had the white bean +should have leave to feast and take their ease, while the other seven +were fighting. And this is the reason, they say, that people, when at +any time they have been merry, and enjoyed themselves, call it white +day, in allusion to this white bean. + +Ephorus, the historian, tells us besides, that Pericles made use of +engines of battery in this siege, being much taken with the curiousness +of the invention, with the aid and presence of Artemon himself, the +engineer, who, being lame, used to be carried about in a litter, where +the works required his attendance, and for that reason was called +Periphoretus. But Heraclides Ponticus disproves this out of Anacreon's +poems, where mention is made of this Artemon Periphoretus several ages +before the Samian war, or any of these occurrences. And he says that +Artemon, being a man who loved his ease, and had a great apprehension +of danger, for the most part kept close within doors, having two of his +servants to hold a brazen shield over his head, that nothing might fall +upon him from above; and if he were at any time forced upon necessity to +go abroad, that he was carried about in a little hanging-bed, close to +the very ground, and that for this reason he was called Periphoretus. + +In the ninth month, the Samians surrendering themselves and delivering +up the town, Pericles pulled down their walls, and seized their +shipping, and set a fine of a large sum upon them, part of which they +paid down at once, and they agreed to bring in the rest by a certain +time, and gave hostages for security. Pericles, however, after the +reduction of Samos, returning back to Athens, took care that those who +died in the war should be honorably buried, and made a funeral harangue, +as the custom is, in their commendation at their graves, for which he +gained great admiration. As he came down from the stage on which he +spoke, all the women except Elpinice, the aged sister of Cimon, came +out and complimented him, taking him by the hand, and crowning him with +garlands and ribbons, like a victorious athlete in the games. + +After this was over, the Peloponnesian war beginning to break out in +full tide, he advised the people to send help to the Corcyraeans, who +were attacked by the Corinthians, and to secure to themselves an island +possessed of great naval resources, since the Peloponnesians were +already all but in actual hostilities against them. Archidamus, the +king of the Lacedaemonians, endeavoring to bring the greater part of the +complaints and matters in dispute to a fair determination, and to pacify +and allay the heats of the allies, it is very likely that the war would +not upon any other grounds of quarrel have fallen upon the Athenians, +could they have been prevailed upon to be reconciled with the +inhabitants of Megara. + +The true occasion of the quarrel is not easy to find out. The worst +motive of all, which is confirmed by most witnesses, is to the following +effect. Phidias the Moulder had, as has before been said, undertaken +to make the statue of Athena. Now he, being admitted to friendship +with Pericles, and a great favorite of his, had many enemies upon this +account, who envied and maligned him; and they, to make trial in a case +of his what kind of judges the commons would prove, should there be +occasion to bring Pericles himself before them, having tampered with +Menon, one who had been a workman with Phidias, stationed him in the +marketplace, with a petition desiring public security upon his discovery +and impeachment of Phidias. The people admitting the man to tell his +story, and, the prosecution proceeding in the assembly, there was +nothing of theft or cheat proved against him; for Phidias, from the very +first beginning, by the advice of Pericles, had so wrought and wrapt the +gold that was used in the work about the statue, that they might take it +all off and make out the just weight of it, which Pericles at that time +bade the accusers do. But the repudiation of his works was what brought +envy upon Phidias, especially that where he represents the fight of +the Amazons upon the goddesses' shield, he had introduced a likeness of +himself as a bald old man holding up a great stone with both hands, +and had put in a very fine representation of Pericles fighting with an +Amazon. And the position of the hand, which holds out the spear in front +of the face, was ingeniously contrived to conceal in some degree the +likeness, which, meantime, showed itself on either side. + +Phidias then was carried away to Prison, and there died of a disease; +but, as some say, of poison administered by the enemies of Pericles, to +raise a slander, or a suspicion at least, as though he had procured it. +The informer Menon, upon Glycon's proposal, the people made free from +payment of taxes and customs, and ordered the generals to take care that +nobody should do him any hurt. And Pericles, finding that in Phidias's +case he had miscarried with the people, being afraid of impeachment, +kindled the war, which hitherto had lingered and smothered, and blew it +up into a flame; hoping, by that means, to disperse and scatter these +complaints and charges, and to allay their jealousy; the city usually +throwing herself upon him alone, and trusting to his sole conduct, +upon the urgency of great affairs and public dangers, by reason of his +authority and the sway he bore. + +These are given out to have been the reasons which induced Pericles +not to suffer the people of Athens to yield to the proposals of the +Lacedaemonians; but their truth is uncertain. + +The Lacedaemonians, therefore, and their allies, with a great army, +invaded the Athenian territories, under the conduct of king Archidamus, +and laying waste the country, marched on as far as Acharnae, and there +pitched their camp, presuming that the Athenians would never endure +that, but would come out and fight them for their country's and their +honor's sake. But Pericles looked upon it as dangerous to engage +in battle, to the risk of the city itself, against sixty thousand +men-at-arms of Peloponnesians and Boeotians; for so many they were in +number that made the inroad at first; and he endeavored to appease those +who were desirous to fight, and were grieved and discontented to see how +things went, and gave them good words, saying, that "trees, when they +are lopped and cut, grow up again in a short time, but men, being once +lost, cannot easily be recovered." He did not convene the people into +an assembly, for fear lest they should force him to act against his +judgement; and many of his enemies threatened and accursed him for doing +as he did, and many made songs and lampoons upon him, which were sung +about the town to his disgrace, reproaching him with the cowardly +exercise of his office of general, and the tame abandonment of +everything to the enemy's hands. + +Cleon, also, already was among his assailants, making use of the feeling +against him as a step to the leadership of the people, as appears in the +anapaestic verses of Hermippus. + + Satyr-king, instead of swords, + Will you always handle words? + Very brave indeed we find them, + But a Teles lurks behind them. + +(Teles was apparently some notorious coward.) + + Yet to gnash your teeth you're seen, + When the little dagger keen, + Whetted every day anew, + Of sharp Cleon touches you. + +Pericles, however, was not at all moved by any attacks, but took all +patiently, and submitted in silence to the disgrace they threw upon him +and the ill-will they bore him; and, sending out a fleet of a hundred +galleys to Peloponnesus, he did not go along with it in person, but +stayed behind, that he might watch at home and keep the city under his +own control, till the Peloponnesians broke up their camp and were gone. +Yet to soothe the common people, jaded and distressed with the war, +he relieved them with distributions of public moneys, and ordained +new divisions of subject land. For having turned out all the people of +Aegina, he parted the island among the Athenians, according to lot. Some +comfort, also, and ease in their miseries, they might receive from what +their enemies endured. For the fleet, sailing round the Peloponnesus, +ravaged a great deal of the country, and pillaged and plundered the +towns and smaller cities; and by land he himself entered with an army +the Megarian country, and made havoc of it all. Whence it is clear that +the Peloponnesians, though they did the Athenians much mischief by +land, yet suffering as much themselves from them by sea, would not have +protracted the war to such a length, but would quickly have given it +over, as Pericles at first foretold they would, had not some divine +power crossed human purposes. + +In the first place, the pestilential disease, or plague, seized upon the +city, and ate up all the flour and prime of their youth and strength. +Upon occasion of which the people, distempered and afflicted in their +souls, as well as in their bodies, were utterly enraged like madmen +against Pericles, and, like patients grown delirious, sought to lay +violent hands on their physician, or, as it were, their father. + +Finding the Athenians ill affected and highly displeased with him, he +tried and endeavored what he could to appease and re-encourage them. But +he could not pacify or allay their anger nor persuade or prevail with +them anyway, til they freely passed their votes upon him, resumed their +power, took away his command from him, and fined him in a sum of money. + +After this, public troubles were soon to leave him unmolested; the +people, so to say, discharged their passion in their stroke, and lost +their stings in the wound. But his domestic concerns were in an unhappy +condition, many of his friends and acquaintance having died in the +plague time, and those of his family having long since been in disorder +and in a kind of mutiny against him. For the eldest of his sons, +Xanthippus by name, being naturally prodigal, and marrying a young and +expensive wife, was highly offended at his father's economy in making +him but a scanty allowance, by little and little at a time. He sent +therefore, to a friend one day, and borrowed some money of him in his +father Pericles's name, pretending it was by his order. The man coming +afterward to demand the debt, Pericles was so far from yielding to pay +it, that he entered an action against him. Upon which the young man, +Xanthippus, thought himself so ill used and disobliged, that he openly +reviled his father; telling first, by way of ridicule, stories about his +conversations at home, and the discourses he had with the sophists and +scholars that came to his house. As for instance, how one who was a +practicer of the five games of skill, * having with a dart or javelin +unawares against his will struck and killed Epitimus the Pharsalian, his +father spent a whole day with Protagoras in a serious dispute, whether +the javelin, or the man that threw it, or the masters of the games +who appointed these sports, were, according to the strictest and best +reason, to be accounted the cause of this mischance. And in general, +this difference of the young man's with his father, in the breach +betwixt them, continued never to be healed or made up til his death. +For Xanthippus died in the plague time of the sickness. At which time +Pericles also lost his sister, and the greatest part of his relations +and friends, and those who had been most useful and serviceable to him +in managing the affairs of state. However, he did not shrink or give +in on these occasions, nor betray or lower his high spirit and even the +greatness of his mind under all his misfortunes; he was not even so much +as seen to weep or to mourn, or even attend the burial of his friends or +relations, till at last he lost his only remaining son. Subdued by this +blow, yet striving still, as far as he could, to maintain his principle, +and yet to preserve and keep up the greatness of his soul, when he came, +however, to perform the ceremony of putting a garland of flowers on the +head of the corpse, he was vanquished by his passion at the sight, so +that he burst into exclamations, and shed copious tears, having never +done any such thing in all his life before. + +The city having made trial of other generals for the conduct of war, and +orators for business of state, when they found there was no one who was +of weight enough for such a charge, or of authority sufficient to be +trusted with so great a command, regretted the loss of him, and invited +him again to address and advise them, and to resume the office of +general. He, however, lay at home in dejection and mourning; but was +persuaded by Alcibiades and others of his friends to come abroad and +show himself to the people; who having, upon his appearance, made their +acknowledgements, and apologized for their untowardly treatment of him, +he undertook the public affairs once more. + +About this time, it seems, the plague seized Pericles, not with sharp +and violent fits, as it did others that had it, but with a dull and +lingering distemper, attended with various changes and alterations, +leisurely, by little and little, wasting the strength of his body, and +undermining the noble faculties of his soul. + +When he was now near his end, the best of citizens and those of his +friends who were left alive, sitting about him, were speaking of the +greatness of his merit, and his power, and reckoning up his famous +actions and the number of his victories; there were no less than nine +trophies which, as their chief commander and conqueror of their enemies, +he had set up, for the honor of the city. They talked thus among +themselves, as though he were unable to understand or mind what they +said, but had now lost his consciousness. He had listened, however, all +the while, and attended to all, and speaking out among them, said, that +he wondered they should commend and take notice of things which were +as much owing to fortune as to anything else, and had happened to +many other commanders, and, at the same time, should not speak or make +mention of that which was the most excellent and greatest thing of all. +"For," said he, "no Athenian through my means, ever wore mourning." + +He was indeed a character deserving our high admiration, not only for +his equable and mild temper, which all along, in the many affairs of +his life, and the great animosities which he incurred, he constantly +maintained; but also for the high spirit and feeling which made him +regarded the noblest of all his honors, that, in the exercise of such +immense power, he never had gratified his envy or his passion, nor ever +had treated any enemy as irreconcilably opposed to him. And to me it +appears that this one thing gives an otherwise childish and arrogant +title a fitting and becoming significance; so dispassionate a temper, +a life so pure and unblemished, in the height of power and place, might +well be called "Olympian," in accordance with our conceptions of divine +beings, to whom, as the natural of all good and of nothing evil, we +ascribe the rule and government of the world. + +The course of public affairs after his death produced a quick and speedy +sense of the loss of Pericles. Those who, while they live, resented +his great authority, as that which eclipsed themselves, presently +after quitting the stage, making trial of other orators and demagogues, +readily acknowledged that there never had been in nature such a +disposition as his was, more moderate and reasonable in the height +of that state he took upon him, or more grave and impressive in the +mildness which he used. + + + + +DEMOSTHENES + +Whoever it was, Sosius, that wrote the poem in honor of Alcibiades, +upon his winning the chariot-race at the Olympian Games, whether it was +Euripedes, as is most commonly thought, or some other person he tells +us, that to a man's being happy it is pre-eminently requisite that he +should be born in "some famous city." + +But if anybody undertakes to write a history, that has to be collected +from materials gathered by observation and the reading of works not easy +to be got in all places, nor written always in his own language, but +many of them foreign and dispersed in other hands, for him, undoubtedly, +it is above all things most necessary, to reside in some city of good +note, devoted to liberal arts, and populous; where he may have plenty of +all sorts of books, and upon inquiry may hear and inform himself of such +particulars as, having escaped the pens of writers, are more faithfully +preserved in the memories of men. + +But for me, I live in a little town, where I am willing to continue, +lest it should grow less; and having had no leisure, while I was in Rome +and other parts of Italy, to practice myself in the Roman language, on +account of public business and of those who came to be instructed by me +in philosophy, it was very late, and in the decline of my age, before +I applied myself to the reading of Latin authors. But to appreciate the +graceful and ready pronunciation of the Roman tongue, to understand the +various figures and connection of words, and such other ornaments, in +which the beauty of speaking consists, is, I doubt not, an admirable +and delightful accomplishment; but it requires a degree of practice +and study which is not easy, and will better suit those who have more +leisure, and time enough yet before them for the occupation. + +And so in this book of my Parallel Lives, in giving an account of +Demosthenes and Cicero, my comparison of their natural dispositions and +their characters will be formed upon their actions and their lives +as statesmen, and I shall not pretend to criticise their orations one +against the other, to show which of the two was the more charming or the +more powerful speaker. For there, as Ion says, + + We are but like a fish upon dry land. + +The divine power seems originally to have designed Demosthenes and +Cicero upon the same plan, giving them many similarities in their +natural characters, as their passion for distinction and their love of +liberty in civil life, and their want of courage in dangers and war, +and at the same time also to have added many accidental resemblances. I +think there can hardly be found two other orators, who, from small and +obscure beginnings, became so great and mighty; who both contested with +kings and tyrants; both lost their daughters, were driven out of their +country, and returned with honor; who, flying from thence again, were +both seized upon by their enemies, and at last ended their lives with +the liberty of their countrymen. So that if we were to suppose that +there had been a trial of skill between nature and fortune, as there +is sometimes between artists, it would be hard to judge, whether that +succeeded best in making them alike in their dispositions and manners, +or this, in the coincidences of their lives. We will speak of the eldest +first. + +Demosthenes, the father of Demosthenes, was a citizen of good rank and +quality, as Theopompus informs us, surnamed the Sword-maker, because he +had a large workhouse, and kept servants skilful in that art at work. +Demosthenes, when only seven years old, was left by his father in +affluent circumstances, the whole value of his estate being little +short of fifteen talents, but was wronged by his guardians, part of his +fortune being embezzled by them, and the rest neglected; insomuch that +even his teachers were defrauded of their salaries. This was the reason +that he did not obtain the liberal education that he should have had; +besides that on account of weakness and delicate health, his mother +would not let him exert himself, and his teachers forebore to urge him. +He was meagre and sickly from the first, and hence had the nickname +of Batalus, given him, it is said, by the boys, in derision of his +appearance; Batalus being a certain enervated flute-player, in ridicule +of whom Antiphanes wrote a play. + +The first occasion of his eager inclination to oratory, they say, was +this. Callistratus, the orator, was to plead in open court for Oropus, +and the expectation of the issue of that cause was very great, as +well for the ability of the orator, who was then at the height of +his reputation, as also for the fame of the action itself. Therefore, +Demosthenes, having heard the tutors and schoolmasters agreeing among +themselves to be present at this trial, with much importunity persuades +his tutor to take him along with him to the hearing; who, having some +acquaintance with the doorkeepers, procured a place where the boy might +sit unseen, and hear what was said. Callistratus having got the day, and +being much admired, the boy began to look upon his glory with emulation, +observing how he was courted on all hands, and attended on his way by +the multitude; but his wonder was more than all excited by the power of +his eloquence, which seemed able to subdue and win over any thing. From +this time, therefore, bidding farewell to other sorts of learning +and study, he now began to exercise himself, and to take pains in +declaiming, as one that meant to be himself also an orator. He made use +of Isaeus as his guide to the art of speaking, though Isocrates at that +time was giving lessons; whether, as some say, because he was an orphan, +and was not able to pay Isocrates his appointed fee of ten minae, or +because he preferred Isaeus's speaking, as being more business-like and +effective in actual use. + +As soon, therefore, as he was grown up to man's estate, he began to go +to law with his guardians, and to write orations against them; who, +in the meantime, had recourse to various subterfuges and pleas for new +trials, and Demosthenes, though he was thus, as Thucydides says, taught +his business in dangers, and by his own exertions was successful in his +suit, was yet unable for all this to recover so much as a small +fraction of his patrimony. He only attained some degree of confidence in +speaking, and some competent experience in it. And having got a taste of +the honor and power which are acquired by pleadings, he now ventured +to come forth, and to undertake public business. And, as it is said of +Laomedon, the Orchomenian, that by advice of his physician, he used to +run long distances to keep off some disease of his spleen, and by that +means having, through labor and exercise, framed the habit of his body, +he betook himself to the great garland games, and became one of the +best runners at the long race; so it happened to Demosthenes, who, first +venturing upon oratory for the recovery of his own private property, by +this acquired ability in speaking, and at length, in public business, +as it were in the great games, came to have the pre-eminence of all +competitors in the assembly. But when he first addressed himself to +the people, he met with great discouragements, and was derided for his +strange and uncouth style, which was cumbered with long sentences and +tortured with formal arguments to a most harsh and disagreeable excess. +Besides, he had, it seems, a weakness in his voice, a perplexed and +indistinct utterance and a shortness of breath, which, by breaking and +disjointing his sentences, much obscured the sense and meaning of what +he spoke. So that in the end, being quite disheartened, he foresook +the assembly; and as he was walking carelessly and sauntering about +the Piraeus, Eunomus, the Thriasian, then a very old man, seeing him, +upbraided him, saying that his diction was very much like that of +Pericles, and that he was wanting to himself through cowardice and +meanness of spirit, neither bearing up with courage against popular +outcry, nor fitting his body for action, but suffering it to languish +through mere sloth and negligence. + +Another time, when the assembly had refused to hear him, and he was +going home with his head muffled up, taking it very heavily, they +relate that Satyrus, the actor followed him, and being his familiar +acquaintance, entered into conversation with him. To whom Demosthenes +bemoaned, that although he had been the most industrious of all the +pleaders, and had spent almost the whole strength and vigor of his +body in that employment, he could not yet find any acceptance with the +people, while drunken sots, mariners, and illiterate fellows were heard, +and had the hustings for their own. "You say true, Demosthenes," replied +Satyrus, "but I will quickly remedy the cause of all this, if you +will repeat to me some passage out of Euripides or Sophocles." When +Demosthenes had pronounced one, Satyrus presently taking it up after +him, gave the same passage, in his rendering of it, such a new form, by +accompanying it with the proper mien and gesture, that to Demosthenes it +seemed quite another thing. By this being convinced how much grace and +ornament language acquires from action, he began to esteem it a +small matter, and as good as nothing for a man to exercise himself in +declaiming, if he neglected enunciation and delivery. Hereupon he built +himself a place under ground to study in (which was still remaining in +our time), and hither he would come constantly every day to form +his action, and to exercise his voice; and here he would continue, +oftentimes without intermission, two or three months together, shaving +one half of his head, so that for shame he might not go abroad, though +he desired it never so much. + +Nor was this all, but he also made his conversation with people abroad, +his common speech, and his business, subservient to his studies, taking +from hence occasions and arguments as matter to work upon. For as soon +as he was parted from his company, down he would go at once into his +study, and run over everything in order that had passed, and the reasons +that might be alleged for and against it. Any speeches, also, that he +was present at, he would go over again with himself, and reduce into +periods; and whatever others spoke to him, or he to them, he would +correct, transform, and vary in several ways. Hence it was, that he was +looked upon as a person of no great natural genius, but one who owed all +the power and ability he had in speaking to labor and industry. He +was very rarely heard to speak off-hand, but though he were by name +frequently called upon by the people, as he sat in the assembly, yet he +would not rise unless he had previously considered the subject, and come +prepared for it. So that many of the popular pleaders used to make it +a jest against him; and Pytheas once, scoffing at him, said that his +arguments smelt of the lamp. To which Demosthenes gave the sharp answer, +"It is true, indeed, Pytheas, that your lamp and mine are not conscious +of the same things." To others, however, he would not deny it, but +would admit frankly enough, that he neither entirely wrote his speeches +beforehand, nor yet spoke wholly extempore. And he would affirm, that +it was the more truly popular act to use premeditation, such preparation +being a kind of respect to the people. + +How then, some may say, was it, that Aeschines speaks of him as a person +much to be wondered at for his boldness in speaking? And, when Lamachus, +the Myrinaean, had written a panegyric upon king Philip and Alexander, +in which he uttered many things in reproach of the Thebans and +Olynthians, and at the Olympic Games recited it publicly, Demosthenes, +then rising up, and recounting historically and demonstratively what +benefits and advantages all Greece had received from the Thebans and +Chalcidians, and on the contrary, what mischiefs the flatterers of the +Macedonians had brought upon it, so turned the minds of all that were +present that the sophist, in alarm at the outcry against him, secretly +made his way out of the assembly. But Demosthenes, it would seem, +regarded the reserve and sustained manner of Pericles, and his +forbearing to speak on the sudden, or upon every occasion, as being the +things to which he principally owed his greatness, and this he followed, +and endeavored to imitate, neither wholly neglecting the glory which +present occasion offered, nor yet willing too often to expose his +faculty to the mercy of chance. For, in fact, the orations which were +spoken by him had much more of boldness and confidence in them than +those that he wrote. Eratosthenes says that often in his speaking he +would be transported into a kind of ecstasy, and Demetrius, that he +uttered the famous metrical adjuration to the people, + + By the earth, the springs, the rivers, and the streams, + +as a man inspired, and beside himself. One of the comedians calls him +a rhopoperperethras--a loud declaimer about petty matters; from rhopos, +small wares, and perperos, a loud talker; and another scoffs at him for +the use of antithesis:-- + + And what he took, took back; a phrase to please + The very fancy of Demosthenes. + +Unless, indeed, this also is meant by Antiphanes for a jest upon the +speech on Halonesus, which Demosthenes advised the Athenians not to take +at Philip's hands, but to take back. + +All, however, used to consider Demades, in the mere use of his natural +gifts, an orator impossible to surpass, and that in what he spoke on the +sudden, he excelled all the study and preparation of Demosthenes. And +Ariston, the Chian, has recorded a judgment which Theophrastus passed +upon the orators; for being asked what kind of orator he accounted +Demosthenes, he answered, "Worthy of the city of Athens;" and then, what +he thought of Demades, he answered, "Above it." And the same philosopher +reports, that Polyeuctus, the Sphettian, one of the Athenian politicians +about that time, was wont to say that Demosthenes was the greatest +orator, but Phocion the ablest, as he expressed the most sense in the +fewest words. And, indeed, it is related, that Demosthenes himself, +as often as Phocion stood up to plead against him, would say to his +acquaintance, "Here comes the knife to my speech." Yet it does not +appear whether he had this feeling for his powers of speaking, or for +his life and character, and meant to say that one word or nod from a man +who was really trusted, would go further than a thousand lengthy periods +from others. + +Demetrius, the Phalerian, tells us, that he was informed by Demosthenes +himself, when old, that the ways he made use of to remedy his natural +bodily infirmities and defects were such as these: his inarticulate +and stammering pronunciation he overcame and rendered more distinct +by speaking with pebbles in his mouth; his voice he disciplined by +declaiming and reciting speeches or verses when he was out of breath, +while running or going up steep places; and that in his house he had +a large looking-glass, before which he would stand and go through his +exercises. It is told that some one once came to request his assistance +as a pleader, and related how he had been assaulted and beaten. "I am +sure," said Demosthenes, "nothing of the kind can have happened to +you." Upon which the other, raising his voice, exclaimed loudly, "What, +Demosthenes, nothing has been done to me?" "Ah," replied Demosthenes, +"now I hear the voice of one that has been injured and beaten." Of so +great consequence towards the gaining of belief did he esteem the tone +and action of the speaker. When a thief, who had the nickname of the +Brazen, was attempting to upbraid him for sitting up late, and writing +by candlelight, "I know very well," said he, "that you had rather +have all lights out; and wonder not, O ye men of Athens, at the many +robberies which are committed, since we have thieves of brass and walls +of clay." + +His first entering into public business was about the time of +the Phocian war. But the object which he chose for himself in the +commonwealth was noble and just, the defence of the Greek against +Philip; and in this he behaved himself so worthily that he soon grew +famous, and excited attention everywhere for his eloquence and courage +in speaking. He was admired through all Greece, the king of Persia +courted him, and by Philip himself he was more esteemed than all the +other orators. His very enemies were forced to confess that they had to +do with a man of mark; for such a character even Aeschines and Hyperides +give him, where they accuse and speak against him. + +Demosthenes would never turn aside or prevaricate, either in word or +deed. Panaetius, the philosopher, said, that most of his orations were +written, as if they were to prove this one conclusion: that only what is +honest and virtuous is to be chosen; as that of the Crown, that against +Aristocrates, that for the Immunities, and the Philippics; in all which +he persuades his fellow-citizens to pursue not that which seems most +pleasant, easy, or profitable; but declares over and over again, +that they ought in the first place to prefer that which is just and +honorable, before their own safety and preservation. + +Excepting only Phocion, he far surpassed, even in his life and manners, +the other orators of his time. None of them addressed the people so +boldly; he attacked the faults, and opposed himself to the unreasonable +desires of the multitude, as may be seen in his orations. Theopompus +writes, that the Athenians having by name selected Demosthenes, and +called upon him to accuse a certain person, he refused to do it; upon +which the assembly being all in an uproar, he rose up and said, "Your +counselor, whether you will or no, O ye men of Athens, you shall always +have me; but a sycophant or false accuser, I shall never be." And his +conduct in the case of Antiphon was perfectly aristocratical; whom, +after he had been acquitted in the assembly, he took and brought before +the court of Areopagus, and, setting at naught the displeasure of +the people, convicted him there of having promised Philip to burn the +arsenal; whereupon the man was condemned by that court, and suffered for +it. He accused, also, Theoris, the priestess, among other misdemeanors, +of having instructed and taught the slaves to deceive and cheat their +masters, for which the sentence of death was passed upon her, and she +was executed. + +It was evident, even in time of peace, what course Demosthenes would +steer in the commonwealth; for whatever was done by the Macedonian, he +criticised and found fault with, and upon all occasions was stirring up +the people of Athens, and inflaming them against him. Therefore, in the +court of Philip, no man was so much talked of, or of so great account as +he; and when he came thither, as one of the ten ambassadors who was sent +into Macedonia, his speech was answered with most care and exactness. +But in other respects, Philip entertained him not so honorably as the +rest, neither did he show him the same kindness and civility with which +he applied himself to the party of Aeschines and Philocrates. So that, +when the others commended Philip for his able speaking, his beautiful +person, nay, and also for his good companionship in drinking, +Demosthenes could not refrain from cavilling at these praises; +the first, he said, was a quality which might well enough become a +rhetorician, the second a woman, and the last was only the property of a +sponge; no one of them was the proper commendation of a prince. + +Not long after, he undertook an embassy through the States of Greece, +which he solicited and so far incensed against Philip, that a few only +excepted, he brought them all into a general league. So that, besides +the forces composed of the citizens themselves, there was an army +consisting of fifteen + +thousand foot and two thousand horse, and the money to pay these +strangers was levied and brought in with great cheerfulness. On which +occasion it was, says Theophrastus, on the allies requesting that their +contributions for the war might be ascertained and stated, Crobylus, the +orator, made use of the saying, "War can't be fed at so much a day." Now +was all Greece up in arms, and in great expectation what would be the +event. The Euboeans, the Achaeans, the Corinthians, the Megarians, the +Leucadians, and Corcyraeans, their people and their cities, were all +joined together in a league. But the hardest task was yet behind, left +for Demosthenes, to draw the Thebans into this confederacy with the +rest. Their country bordered next upon Attica, they had great forces for +the war, and at that time they were accounted the best soldiers of all +Greece, but it was no easy matter to make them break with Philip, who +by many good offices, had so lately obliged them in the Phocian war; +especially considering how the subjects of dispute and variance between +the two cities were continually renewed and exasperated by petty +quarrels, arising out of the proximity of their frontiers. + +But after Philip, puffed up with his good success at Amphissa, on a +sudden surprised Elatea and possessed himself of Phocis, the Athenians +were in a great consternation, none durst venture to rise up to +speak, all were at a loss, and the whole assembly was in silence and +perplexity. In this extremity of affairs, Demosthenes was the only man +who appeared, his counsel to them being alliance with the Thebans. And +having in other ways encouraged the people, and, as his manner was, +raised their spirits up with hopes, he, with some others was sent +ambassador to Thebes. To oppose him, as Marsyas says, Philip also sent +thither his envoys. Now the Thebans, in their consultations, were well +enough aware what suited best with their own interest, but every one +had before his eye the terrors of war, and their losses in the Phocian +troubles were still recent: but such was the force and power of the +orator, fanning up their courage, and firing their emulation, that, +casting away every thought of prudence, fear, or obligation, in a sort +of divine possession, they chose the path of honor, to which his words +invited them. And this success, thus accomplished by an orator, +was thought to be so glorious and of such consequence, that Philip +immediately sent heralds to treat and petition for a peace: all Greece +was aroused, and up in arms to help. And the commanders-in-chief, not +only of Attica, but of Boeotia, applied themselves to Demosthenes, and +observed his directions. He managed all the assemblies of the Thebans, +no less than those of the Athenians; he was beloved both by the one and +by the other, and exercised the same supreme authority with both; and +that not by unfair means, or without just cause, but it was no more than +was due to his merit. + +But there was, it should seem, some divinely-ordered fortune, +commissioned, in the revolution of things, to put a period at this time +to the liberty of Greece, which opposed and thwarted all their actions, +and by many signs foretold what should happen. Such were the sad +predictions uttered by the Pythian priestess, and this old oracle cited +out of the Sibyl's verses: + + The battle on Thermodon that shall be + Safe at a distance I desire to see, + Far, like an eagle, watching in the air. + Conquered shall weep, and conqueror perish there. + +This Thermodon, they say, is a little rivulet here in our country in +Chaeronea, running into the Cephisus. But we know of none that is so +called at the present time; and can only conjecture that the streamlet +which is now called Haemon, and runs by the Temple of Hercules, +where the Greeks were encamped, might perhaps in those days be called +Thermodon. + +But of Demosthenes it is said, that he had such great confidence in +the Greek forces, and was so excited by the sight of the courage and +resolution of so many brave men ready to engage the enemy, that he would +by no means endure they should give any heed to oracles, or hearken to +prophecies, but gave out that he suspected even the prophetess herself, +as if she had been tampered with to speak in favor of Philip. He put the +Thebans in mind of Epaminondas, the Athenians of Pericles, who always +took their own measures and governed their actions by reason, looking +upon things of this kind as mere pretexts for cowardice. Thus far, +therefore, Demosthenes acquitted himself like a brave man. But in the +fight he did nothing honorable, nor was his performance answerable +to his speeches. For he fled, deserting his place disgracefully, and +throwing away his arms, not ashamed, as Pytheas observed, to belie +the inscription written on his shield, in letters of gold, "With good +fortune." + +In the meantime Philip, in the first moment of victory, was so +transported with joy, that he grew extravagant, and going out, after he +had drunk largely, to visit the dead bodies, he chanted the first words +of the decree that had been passed on the motion of Demosthenes, + + The motion of Demosthenes, Demosthenes's son, + + dividing it metrically into feet, and marking the beats. + +But when he came to himself, and had well considered the danger he was +lately under, he could not forbear from shuddering at the wonderful +ability and power of an orator who had made him hazard his life and +empire on the issue of a few brief hours. The fame of it also +reached even to the court of Persia, and the king sent letters to his +lieutenants, commanding them to supply Demosthenes with money, and to +pay every attention to him, as the only man of all the Greeks who was +able to give Philip occupation and find employment for his forces near +home, in the troubles of Greece. + +At this time, however, upon the ill success which now happened to the +Greeks, those of the contrary faction in the commonwealth turned upon +Demosthenes, and took the opportunity to frame several informations and +indictments against him. But the people not only acquitted him of these +accusations, but continued towards him their former respect, and when +the bones of those who had been slain at Chaeronea were brought home +to be solemnly interred, Demosthenes was the man they chose to make the +funeral oration. The speech, therefore, was spoken by Demosthenes. But +the subsequent decrees he would not allow to be passed in his own name, +but made use of those of his friends, one after another, looking upon +his own as unfortunate and inauspicious; till at length he took courage +again after the death of Philip, who did not long outlive his victory at +Chaeronea. And this, it seems, was that which was foretold in the last +verse of the oracle, + + Conquered shall weep, and conqueror perish there. + +Demosthenes had secret intelligence of the death of Philip, and laying +hold of this opportunity to prepossess the people with courage and +better hopes for the future, he came into the assembly with a cheerful +countenance, pretending to have had a dream that presaged some great +good fortune for Athens; and, not long after, arrived the messengers who +brought the news of Philip's death. No sooner had the people received +it, but immediately they offered sacrifice to the gods, and decreed +that Pausanias should be presented with a crown. Demosthenes appeared +publicly in a rich dress, with a chaplet on his head, though it were +but the seventh day since the death of his daughter, as is said by +Aeschines, who upbraids him upon this account, and rails at him as +one void of natural affection towards his children. Whereas, Aeschines +rather betrays himself to be of a poor spirit, if he really means +to make wailings and lamentation the only signs of a gentle and +affectionate nature. I must commend the behavior of Demosthenes, who +leaving tears and lamentations and domestic sorrows to the women, made +it his business to attend to the interests of the commonwealth. + +But now to return to my narrative. The cities of Greece were inspirited +once more by the efforts of Demosthenes to form a league together. The +Thebans, whom he had provided with arms, set upon their garrison, and +slew many of them; the Athenians made preparations to join their forces +with them; Demosthenes ruled supreme in the popular assembly, and wrote +letters to the Persian officers who commanded under the king in Asia, +inciting them to make war upon the Macedonian, calling him child and +simpleton. But as soon as Alexander had settled matters in his own +country, and come in person with his army into Boeotia, down fell the +courage of the Athenians, and Demosthenes was hushed; the Thebans, +deserted by them, fought by themselves, and lost their city. After +which, the people of Athens, all in distress and great perplexity, +resolved to send ambassadors to Alexander, and amongst others, made +choice of Demosthenes for one; but his heart failing him for fear of the +king's anger, he returned back from Cithaeron, and left the embassy. In +the mean time, Alexander sent to Athens, requiring eight of the +orators to be delivered up to him,--Demosthenes, Polyeuctus, Ephialtes, +Lycurgus, Moerocles, Demon, Callisthenes, and Charidemus. It was upon +this occasion that Demosthenes related to them the fable in which the +sheep are said to deliver up their dogs to the wolves; himself and +those who with him contended for the people's safety, being, in his +comparison, the dogs that defended the flock, and Alexander "the +Macedonian arch wolf." He further told them, "As we see corn-dealers +sell their whole stock by a few grains of wheat which they carry about +with them in a dish, as a sample of the rest, so you, by delivering +up us, who are but a few, do at the same time unawares surrender up +yourselves all together with us." The Athenians were deliberating, and +at a loss what to do, when Demades, having agreed with the persons whom +Alexander had demanded, for five talents, undertook to go ambassador, +and to intercede with the king for them; and, whether it was that he +relied on his friendship and kindness, or that he hoped to find him +satiated, as a lion glutted with slaughter, he certainly went, and +prevailed with him both to pardon the men, and to be reconciled to the +city. + +So he and his friends, when Alexander went away, were great men, and +Demosthenes was quite put aside. Yet when Agis, the Spartan, made his +insurrection, he also for a short time attempted a movement in his +favor; but he soon shrunk back again, as the Athenians would not +take any part in it, and, Agis being slain, the Lacedaemonians were +vanquished. During this time it was that the indictment against +Ctesiphon, concerning the Crown, was brought to trial. The action was +commenced a little before the battle in Chaeronea, when Chaerondas +was archon, but it was not proceeded with till about ten years after, +Aristophon being then archon. Never was any public cause more celebrated +than this, alike for the fame of the orators, and for the generous +courage of the judges, who, though at that time the accusers of +Demosthenes, were in the height of power, and supported by all the +favor of the Macedonians, yet would not give judgment against him, but +acquitted him so honorably, that Aeschines did not obtain the fifth part +of their suffrages on his side, so that, immediately after, he left +the city, and spent the rest of his life in teaching rhetoric about the +island of Rhodes, and upon the continent in Ionia. + +It was not long after that Harpalus fled from Alexander, and came to +Athens out of Asia; knowing himself guilty of many misdeeds into which +his love of luxury had led him, and fearing the king, who was now grown +terrible even to his best friends. Yet this man had no sooner addressed +himself to the people, and delivered up his goods, his ships, and +himself to their disposal, but the other orators of the town had their +eyes quickly fixed upon his money, and came in to his assistance, +persuading the Athenians to receive and protect their suppliant. +Demosthenes at first gave advice to chase him out of the country, and +to beware lest they involved their city in a war upon an unnecessary and +unjust occasion. But some few days after, as they were taking an account +of the treasure, Harpalus, perceiving how much he was pleased with a cup +of Persian manufacture, and how curiously he surveyed the sculpture and +fashion of it, desired him to poise it in his hand, and consider the +weight of the gold. Demosthenes, being amazed to feel how heavy it was +asked him what weight it came to. "To you," said Harpalus, smiling, "it +shall come with twenty talents." And presently after, when night drew +on, he sent him the cup with so many talents. Harpalus, it seems, was a +person of singular skill to discern a man's covetousness by the air of +his countenance, and the look and movement of his eyes. For Demosthenes +could not resist the temptation, but admitting the present, like an +armed garrison, into the citadel of his house, he surrendered himself up +to the interest of Harpalus. The next day he came into the assembly with +his neck swathed about with wool and rollers, and when they called on +him to rise up and speak, he made signs as if he had lost his voice. But +the wits, turning the matter to ridicule, said that certainly the orator +had been seized that night with no other than a silver quinsy. And soon +after, the people, becoming aware of the bribery, grew angry, and would +not suffer him to speak, or make any apology for himself, but ran him +down with noise; and one man stood up and cried out, "What, ye men of +Athens, will you not hear the cup-bearer?" So at length they banished +Harpalus out of the city; and fearing lest they should be called to +account for the treasures which the orators had purloined, they made a +strict inquiry, going from house to house. + +Demosthenes resisted the inquisition, and proposed a decree to refer the +business to the court of Areopagus, and to punish those whom that court +should find guilty. But being himself one of the first whom the court +condemned, when he came to the bar, he was fined fifty talents, and +committed to prison; where, out of shame of the crime for which he was +condemned, and through the weakness of his body, growing incapable of +supporting the confinement, he made his escape, by the carelessness of +some and by the connivance of others of the citizens. He did not show +much fortitude in his banishment, spending his time for the most part +in Aegina and Troezen, and, with tears in his eyes, looking towards the +country of Attica. The young men that came to visit and converse with +him, he deterred from meddling with state affairs, telling them, that +if at first two ways had been proposed to him, the one leading to the +speaker's stand and the assembly, the other going direct to destruction, +and he could have foreseen the many evils which attend those who deal in +public business, such as fears, envies, calumnies, and contentions, he +would certainly have taken that which led straight on to his death. + +But now happened the death of Alexander, while Demosthenes was in this +banishment which we have been speaking of. And the Greeks were once +again up in arms, encouraged by the brave attempts of Leosthenes, who +was then drawing a circumvallation about Antipater, whom he held close +besieged in Lamia. Pytheas, therefore, the orator, and Callimedon, +called the Crab, fled from Athens, and taking sides with Antipater, went +about with his friends and ambassadors to keep the Greeks from revolting +and taking part with the Athenians. But, on the other side, Demosthenes, +associating himself with the ambassadors that came from Athens, used +his utmost endeavors and gave them his best assistance in persuading the +cities to fall unanimously upon the Macedonians, and to drive them out +of Greece. With this conduct the people of Athens were so well pleased, +that they decreed the recall of Demosthenes from banishment. The decree +was brought in by Demon the Paeanian, cousin to Demosthenes. So they +sent him a ship to Aegina, and he landed at the port of Piraeus, where +he was met and joyfully received by all the citizens, not so much as an +Archon or a priest staying behind. And Demetrius, the Magnesian, says, +that he lifted up his hands towards heaven, and blessed this day of his +happy return, as far more honorable than that of Alcibiades; since he +was recalled by his countrymen, not through any force or constraint +put upon them, but by their own good-will and free inclinations. There +remained only his pecuniary fine, which, according to law, could not be +remitted by the people. But they found out a way to elude the law. It +was a custom with them to allow a certain quantity of silver to those +who were to furnish and adorn the altar for the sacrifice of Jupiter +Soter. This office, for that turn, they bestowed on Demosthenes, and for +the performance of it ordered him fifty talents, the very sum in which +he was condemned. + +Yet it was no long time that he enjoyed his country after his return, +the attempts of the Greeks being soon all utterly defeated. And in the +month of Pyanepsion following Demosthenes died after this manner. + +Upon the report that Antipater was coming to Athens, Demosthenes with +his party took their opportunity to escape privily out of the city; but +sentence of death was, upon the motion of Demades, passed upon them by +the people. They dispersed themselves, flying some to one place, some +to another; and Antipater sent about his soldiers into all quarters to +apprehend them. Archias, formerly an actor, was their captain, and +was thence called the exile-hunter. This Archias finding Hyperides the +orator, Aristonicus and Himeraeus in Aegina, took them by force out of +the temple of Aeacus, whither they had fled for safety, and sent them to +Antipater, and put them all to death; and Hyperides, they say, had his +tongue cut out. + +Demosthenes, he heard, had taken sanctuary at the temple of Neptune at +Calauria, and, crossing over thither in some light vessels, as soon as +he had landed himself, and the Thracian spear-men that came with him, he +endeavored to persuade Demosthenes to accompany him to Antipater, as +if he should meet with no hard usage from him. But Demosthenes, in his +sleep the night before, had a strange dream. It seemed to him that he +was acting a tragedy, and contended with Archias for the victory; and +though he acquitted himself well, and gave good satisfaction to the +spectators, yet for want of better furniture and provision for the +stage, he lost the day. And so, while Archias was discoursing to him +with many expressions of kindness, he sat still in the same posture, +and looking up steadfastly upon him, said: "O Archias, I am as little +affected by your promises now as I used formerly to be by your acting." +Archias at this beginning to grow angry and to threaten him, "Now," said +Demosthenes, "you speak like the genuine Macedonian oracle; before you +were but acting a part. Therefore forebear only a little, while I write +a word or two home to my family." Having thus spoken, he withdrew into +the temple, and taking a scroll, as if he meant to write, he put the +reed into his mouth, and biting it, as he was wont to do when he was +thoughtful or writing, he held it there for some time. Then he bowed +down his head and covered it. The soldiers that stood at the door, +supposing all this to proceed from want of courage and fear of death, +in derision called him effeminate, and faint-hearted, and coward. And +Archias, drawing near, desired him to rise up, and repeating the same +kind things he had spoken before, he once more promised him to make his +peace with Antipater. But Demosthenes, perceiving that now the poison +had pierced and seized his vitals, uncovered his head, and fixing +his eyes upon Archias, "Now," said he, "as soon as you please you may +commence the part of Creon in the tragedy, and cast out this body of +mine unburied. But, O gracious Neptune, I, for my part, while I am yet +alive, arise up and depart out of this sacred place; though Antipater +and the Macedonians have not left so much as thy temple unpolluted." +After he had thus spoken and desired to be held up, because already he +began to tremble and stagger, as he was going forward, and passing by +the altar, he fell down, and with a groan gave up the ghost. + +Ariston says that he took the poison out of a reed, as we have shown +before. And Eratosthenes also says that he kept the poison in a hollow +ring, which he wore about his arm. There are various other statements +made by the many authors who have related the story, but there is no +need to enter into their discrepancies; yet I must not omit what is said +by Demochares, the relation of Demosthenes, who is of opinion, it was +not by the help of poison that he met with no sudden and so easy a +death, but that by the singular favor and providence of the gods he +was thus rescued from the cruelty of the Macedonians. He died on +the sixteenth of Pyanepsion, the most sad and solemn day of the +Thesmophoria, which the women observe by fasting in the temple of the +goddess. + +Soon after his death, the people of Athens bestowed on him such honors +as he had deserved. They erected his statue of brass; they decreed that +the eldest of his family should be maintained in the Prytaneum; and on +the base of his statue was engraven the famous inscription,-- + + Had you for Greece been strong, as wise you were, + The Macedonian had not conquered her. + +A little before we went to Athens, the following incident was said to +have happened. A soldier, being summoned to appear before his superior +officer, and answer to an accusation brought against him, put a little +gold which he had into the hands of Demosthenes's statue. The fingers +of this statue were folded one within another, and near it grew a small +plane-tree, from which many leaves, either accidentally blown thither by +the wind, or placed so on purpose by the man himself, falling together, +and lying round about the gold, concealed it for a long time. In the +end, the soldier returned, and found his treasure entire, and the fame +of this incident was spread abroad. And many ingenious persons of +the city competed with each other, on this occasion, to vindicate the +integrity of Demosthenes, in several epigrams which they made on the +subject. + +As for Demades, he did not long enjoy the new honors he now came in +for, divine vengeance for the death of Demosthenes pursuing him into +Macedonia, where he was justly put to death by those whom he had basely +flattered. + + + + +CICERO + +It is generally said that Helvia, the mother of Cicero, was well born; +but of his father nothing is reported but in extremes. For whilst some +would have him the son of a fuller, and educated in that trade, others +carry back the origin of his family to Tullus Attius, an illustrious +king of the Volscians, who waged war not without honor against the +Romans. However, he who first of that house was surnamed Cicero seems +to have been a person worthy to be remembered; since those who succeeded +him not only did not reject, but were fond of that name, though vulgarly +made a matter of reproach. For the Latins call a vetch Cicer, and a nick +or dent at the tip of his nose, which resembled the opening in a vetch, +gave him the surname of Cicero. + +Cicero, whose story I am writing, is said to have replied with spirit to +some of his friends, who recommended him to lay aside or change the name +when he first stood for office and engaged in politics, that he would +make it his endeavor to render the name of Cicero more glorious than +that of the Scauri and Catuli. And when he was quaestor in Sicily, and +was making an offering of silver plate to the gods, and had inscribed +his two names, Marcus and Tullius, instead of the third, he jestingly +told the artificer to engrave the figure of a vetch by them. + +Cicero was born on the third of January, the same day on which now the +magistrates of Rome pray and sacrifice for the emperor. As soon as he +was of an age to begin to have lessons, he became so distinguished for +his talent, and got such a name and reputation amongst the boys, that +their fathers would often visit the school, that they might see young +Cicero, and might be able to say that they themselves had witnessed the +quickness and readiness in learning for which he was renowned. And the +more rude among them used to be angry with their children, to see them, +as they walked together, receiving Cicero with respect into the middle +place. And being, as Plato would have the scholar-like and philosophical +temper, eager for every kind of learning, and indisposed to no +description of knowledge or instruction, he showed, however, a more +peculiar propensity to poetry; and there is a poem now extant, made +by him when a boy, in tetrameter verse, called Pontius Glaucus. +And afterwards, when he applied himself more curiously to these +accomplishments, he had the name of being not only the best orator, but +also the best poet of Rome. And the glory of his rhetoric still remains, +notwithstanding the many new modes in speaking since his time; but his +verses are forgotten and out of all repute, so many ingenious poets have +followed him. + +Leaving his juvenile studies, he became an auditor of Philo the +Academic, whom the Romans, above all the other scholars of Clitomachus, +admired for his eloquence and loved for his character. He also sought +the company of the Mucii, who were eminent statesmen and leaders in the +senate, and acquired from them a knowledge of the laws. For some short +time he served in arms under Sylla, in the Marsian war. But perceiving +the commonwealth running into factions, and from faction all things +tending to an absolute monarchy, he betook himself to a retired and +contemplative life, and conversing with the learned Greeks, devoted +himself to study, till Sylla had obtained the government. + +At this time, Chrysogonus, Sylla's emancipated slave, having laid an +information about an estate belonging to one who was said to have been +put to death by proscription, had bought it himself for two thousand +drachmas. And when Roscius, the son and heir of the dead, complained, +and demonstrated the estate to be worth two hundred and fifty talents, +Sylla took it angrily to have his actions questioned, and preferred +a process against Roscius for the murder of his father, Chrysogonus +managing the evidence. None of the advocates durst assist him, but +fearing the cruelty of Sylla, avoided the cause. The young man, being +thus deserted, came for refuge to Cicero. Cicero's friends encouraged +him, saying he was not likely ever to have a fairer and more honorable +introduction to public life; he therefore undertook the defence, carried +the cause, and got much renown for it. + +But fearing Sylla, he traveled into Greece, and gave it out that he did +so for the benefit of his health. And indeed he was lean and meagre, +and had such a weakness in his stomach that he could take nothing but +a spare and thin diet, and that not till late in the evening. His voice +was loud and good, but so harsh and ill-managed that in vehemence and +heat of speaking he always raised it to so high a tone, that there +seemed to be reason to fear for his health. + +At Athens, he became a hearer of Antiochus of Ascalon, with whose +fluency and elegance of diction he was much taken, although he did not +approve of his innovations in doctrine. And Cicero made up his mind that +if he should be disappointed of any employment in the commonwealth, +to retire from pleading and politics, and pass his life quietly in the +study of philosophy. + +But after he had received the news of Sylla's death, and his body, +strengthened again by exercise, had grown vigorous, and his voice +was rendered sweet and full to the ear, his friends at Rome earnestly +solicited him by letters to return to public affairs. He, therefore, +again prepared for use his orator's instrument of rhetoric, and summoned +into action his political faculties, diligently exercising himself in +declamations, and attending the most celebrated rhetoricians of the +time. He sailed from Athens for Asia and Rhodes. Among the Asian +masters, he conversed with Xenocles of Adramyttium, Dionysius of +Magnesia, and Menippus of Caria; at Rhodes, he studied oratory +with Apollonius, the son of Molon, and philosophy with Posidonius. +Apollonius, we are told, not understanding Latin, requested Cicero to +declaim in Greek. He complied willingly, thinking that his faults would +thus be better pointed out to him. After he finished, all his other +hearers were astonished, and vied with each other in praising him, but +Apollonius showed no signs of excitement while he was hearing him, and +now, when he had finished, sat musing for some time, without any remark. +And when Cicero was discomposed at this, he said, "You have my praise +and admiration, Cicero, and Greece my pity and commiseration, since +those arts and that eloquence which are the only glories that remain to +her, will now be transferred by you to Rome." + +And now when Cicero, full of expectation, was again bent upon political +affairs, a certain oracle blunted the edge of his inclination; for +consulting the god of Delphi how he should attain most glory, the +Pythoness answered, "By making your own genius and not the opinion of +the people the guide of your life;" and therefore at first he passed his +time in Rome cautiously, and was very backward in pretending to public +offices, so that he was at that time in little esteem, and had got the +names, so readily given by low and ignorant people in Rome, of Greek and +Scholar. But when his own desire of fame and the eagerness of his father +and relations had made him take in earnest to pleading, he made no slow +or gentle advance to the first place, but shone out in full lustre at +once, and far surpassed all the advocates at the bar. At first, it is +said, he as well as Demosthenes, was defective in his delivery, and +on that account paid much attention to the instructions, sometimes of +Roscius, the comedian, and sometimes of Aesop, the tragedian. They +tell of this Aesop, that while representing in the theatre Atreus +deliberating the revenge of Thyestes, he was so transported beyond +himself in the heat of action, that he struck with his sceptre one of +the servants, who was running across the stage, so violently, that he +laid him dead upon the place. And such afterwards was Cicero's delivery, +that it did not a little contribute to render his eloquence persuasive. +He used to ridicule loud speakers, saying that they shouted because they +could not speak, like lame men who get on horseback because they cannot +walk. And his readiness and address in wit and sarcasm were thought to +suit a pleader well. + +He was appointed quaestor in a great scarcity of corn, and had Sicily +for his province, where, at first, he displeased many, by compelling +them to send in their provisions to Rome, yet after they had had +experience of his care, justice, and clemency, they honored him more +than ever they did any of their governors before. It happened, also, +that some young Romans of good and noble families, charged with neglect +of discipline and misconduct in military service, were brought before +the praetor in Sicily. Cicero undertook their defence, which he +conducted admirably, and got them acquitted. So returning to Rome with +a great opinion of himself for these things, a ludicrous incident befell +him, as he tells us himself. Meeting an eminent citizen in Campania, +whom he accounted his friend, he asked him what the Romans said and +thought of his actions, as if the whole city had been filled with the +glory of what he had done. His friend asked him in reply, "Where is it +you have been, Cicero?" Utterly mortified and cast down, he perceived +that the report of his actions had sunk into the city of Rome as into an +immense ocean, without any visible effect or result in reputation. + +On beginning to apply himself more resolutely to public business, +he remarked it as unreasonable that artificers, using vessels and +instruments inanimate, should know the name, place, and use of every +one of them, and yet the statesman, whose instruments for carrying +out public measures are men, should be negligent and careless in the +knowledge of persons. And so he not only acquainted himself with the +names, but also knew the very place where every one of the more eminent +citizens dwelt, what lands he possessed, his friends and his neighbors, +and when he traveled on any road in Italy, he could readily name +and show the estates and seats of his acquaintances. Having a small +competency for his own expenses, it was much wondered at that he took +neither fees nor gifts from his clients, and especially, that he did not +do so when he undertook the prosecution of Verres. This Verres, who had +been praetor of Sicily, and stood charged by the Sicilians with many +evil practices during his government there, Cicero succeeded in getting +condemned, not by speaking, but, as it were, by holding his tongue. +For the praetors, favoring Verres, had deferred the trial by several +adjournments to the last day, in which it was evident there could not be +sufficient time for the advocates to be heard, and the cause brought to +an issue. Cicero, therefore, came forward, and said there was no need of +speeches; and after producing and examining witnesses, he required the +judges to proceed to sentence. Many witty sayings are on record, as +having been used by Cicero on the occasion. When a man named Caecilius, +one of the freed slaves, who was said to be given to Jewish practices, +would have put by the Sicilians, and undertaken the prosecution of +Verres himself, Cicero asked, "What has a Jew to do with swine?" verres +being the Roman word for a boar. And when Verres began to reproach +Cicero with effeminate living, "You ought," replied he, "to use this +language at home, to your sons;" Verres having a son who had fallen +into disgraceful courses. Hortensius, the orator, not daring directly to +undertake the defence of Verres, was yet persuaded to appear for him at +the laying on of the fine, and received an ivory sphinx for his reward; +and when Cicero, in some passage of his speech, obliquely reflected +on him, and Hortensius told him he was not skilful in solving riddles, +"No," said Cicero, "and yet you have the Sphinx in your house!" + +Verres was thus convicted; though Cicero, who set the fine at +seventy-five myriads, lay under the suspicion of being corrupted by +bribery to lessen the sum. But the Sicilians, in testimony of their +gratitude, came and brought him all sorts of presents from the island, +when he was aedile; of which he made no private profit himself, but used +their generosity only to reduce the public price of provisions. + +He had a very pleasant seat at Arpi, he had also a farm near Naples, and +another near Pompeii, but none were of any great value. The portion of +his wife, Terentia, amounted to ten myriads, and he had a bequest +valued at nine myriads of denarii: upon these he lived in a liberal +but temperate style, with the learned Greeks and Romans that were his +familiars. He rarely, if at any time, sat down to meat till sunset, +and that not so much on account of business as for his health and the +weakness of his stomach. He was otherwise in the care of his body nice +and delicate, appointing himself, for example, a set number of walks +and rubbings. And after this manner managing the habit of his body, he +brought it in time to be healthful, and capable of supporting many great +fatigues and trials. His father's house he made over to his brother, +living himself near the Palatine Hill, that he might not give the +trouble of long journeys to those that made suit to him. And, indeed, +there were not fewer daily appearing at his door, to do their court to +him, than there were that came to Crassus for his riches, or to Pompey +for his power among the soldiers, these being at that time the two men +of the greatest repute and influence in Rome. Nay, even Pompey himself +used to pay court to Cicero, and Cicero's public actions did much to +establish Pompey's authority and reputation in the state. + +Numerous distinguished competitors stood with him for the praetor's +office; but he was chosen before them all, and managed the decision of +causes with justice and integrity. It is related that Licinius Macer, +a man himself of great power in the city, and supported also by the +assistance of Crassus, was accused before him of extortion, and that, in +confidence on his own interest and the diligence of his friends, whilst +the judges were debating about the sentence, he went to his house, +where hastily trimming his hair and putting on a clean gown, as already +acquitted, he was setting off again to go to the Forum; but at his hall +door meeting Crassus, who told him that he was condemned by all +the votes, he went in again, threw himself upon his bed, and died +immediately. This verdict was considered very creditable to Cicero, as +showing his careful management of the courts of justice. + +Yet he was preferred to the consulship no less by the nobles than +the common people for the good of the city; and both parties jointly +assisted his promotion, for the following reasons. The change of +government made by Sylla, which at first seemed a senseless one, by time +and usage had now come to be considered by the people no unsatisfactory +settlement. But there were some that endeavored to alter and subvert the +whole present state of affairs, not from any good motives, but for their +own private gain; and Pompey being at this time employed in the wars +with the kings of Pontus and Armenia, there was no sufficient force +at Rome to suppress any attempts at a revolution. These people had +for their head a man of bold, daring, and restless character, Lucius +Catiline, who was accused, besides other great offences, of killing his +own brother; and fearing to be prosecuted at law, he persuaded Sylla to +set his brother down, as though he were yet alive, amongst those +that were to be put to death by proscription. This man the profligate +citizens choosing for their captain, gave faith to one another, amongst +other pledges, by sacrificing a man and eating of his flesh; and a great +part of the young men of the city were corrupted by him, he providing +for every one pleasures and drink, and profusely supplying the expense +of their debauches. Etruria, moreover, had all been excited to revolt, +as well as a great part of Gaul within the Alps. But Rome itself was +in the most dangerous inclination to change on account of the unequal +distribution of wealth and property, those of highest rank and greatest +spirit having impoverished themselves by shows, entertainments, running +for office, and sumptuous buildings, and the riches of the city had thus +fallen into the hands of mean and low-born persons. So that it required +but a slight impetus to set all in motion, it being in the power of any +daring man to overturn a sickly commonwealth. + +Catiline, however, being desirous of procuring a strong position to +carry out his designs, stood for the consulship, and had great hopes +of success, thinking he should be appointed, with Caius Antonius as his +colleague, who was a man fit to lead neither in a good cause nor in +a bad one, but might be a valuable accession to another's power. The +greater part of the good and honest citizens apprehending these things, +put Cicero upon standing for the consulship; whom the people readily +receiving, Catiline was put by, so that he and Caius Antonius were +chosen, although amongst the competitors he was the only man descended +from the father of the equestrian, and not of the senatorial, order. + +Though the designs of Catiline were not yet publicly known, yet +considerable trouble immediately followed Cicero's entrance upon the +consulship. For, on the one side, those who were disqualified by +the laws of Sylla from holding any public offices, being neither +inconsiderable in power nor in number, came forward as candidates and +entreated the people; on the other hand, the tribunes of the people +proposed laws to the same purpose, constituting a commission of ten +persons, with unlimited powers, in whom as supreme governors should be +vested the right of selling the public lands of all Italy and Syria and +Pompey's new conquests, of judging and banishing whom they pleased, of +planting colonies, of taking money out of the treasury, and of levying +and paying what soldiers should be though needful. And several of the +nobility favored this law, but especially Caius Antonius, Cicero's +colleague, in hopes of being one of the ten. But what gave the greatest +fear to the nobles was, that he was thought privy to the conspiracy of +Catiline, and not to dislike it because of his great debts. + +Cicero, endeavoring in the first place to provide a remedy against +this danger, procured a decree assigning to Antonius the province of +Macedonia, he himself declining that of Gaul, which was offered to him. +And this piece of favor so completely won over Antonius, that he was +ready to second, like a hired player, whatever Cicero said for the good +of the country. And now, having made his colleague tame and tractable, +he could with greater courage attack the conspirators. Therefore, in the +senate, making an oration against the law of the ten commissioners, he +so confounded those who proposed it, that they had nothing to reply. + +For Cicero, it may be said, was the one man, above all others, who made +the Romans feel how great a charm eloquence lends to what is good, and +how invincible justice is if it be well presented. An incident occurred +in the theatre, during his consulship, which showed what his speaking +could do. Formerly the knights of Rome were mingled in the theatre +with the common people, and took their places amongst them just as it +happened; but when Marcus Otho became praetor he distinguished them from +the other citizens, and appointed them special seats, which they still +enjoy as their place in the theatre. This the common people took as +an indignity done to them, and, therefore, when Otho appeared in the +theatre they hissed him; the knights, on the contrary, received him +with loud clapping. The people repeated and increased their hissing; the +knights continued their clapping. Upon this, turning upon one another, +they broke out into insulting words, so that the theatre was in great +disorder. Cicero, being informed of it, came himself to the theatre, and +summoning the people into the temple of Bellona, he so effectually chid +and chastised them for it, that, again returning into the theatre, they +received Otho with loud applause, contending with the knights as to who +should give him the greatest demonstrations of honor and respect. + +The conspirators with Catiline, at first cowed and disheartened, began +presently to take courage again. And assembling together, they exhorted +one another boldly to undertake the design before Pompey's return. But +the old soldiers of Sylla were Catiline's chief stimulus to action. +They had been disbanded all about Italy, but the greatest number and the +fiercest of them lay scattered among the cities of Etruria entertaining +themselves with dreams of new plunder and rapine among the hoarded +riches of Italy. These, having for their leader Manlius, who had served +with distinction in the wars under Sylla, joined themselves to Catiline, +and came to Rome to assist him with their suffrages at the election. For +he again aspired for the consulship, having resolved to kill Cicero in a +tumult at the elections. The divine powers seemed to give intimation +of the coming troubles, by earthquakes, thunderbolts and strange +appearances. Nor was human evidence wanting, certain enough in itself, +though not sufficient to convict the noble and powerful Catiline. +Therefore Cicero, deferring the day of election, summoned Catiline +into the senate, and questioned him as to the charges made against him. +Catiline, believing there were many in the senate desirous of change, +and to give a specimen of himself to the conspirators present, returned +an audacious answer. "What harm," said he, "when I see two bodies, the +one lean and consumptive with a head, the other one great and strong +without one, if I put a head to that body which wants one?" This +covert representation of the senate and the people excited yet greater +apprehensions in Cicero. He put on armor, and was attended from his +house by the noble citizens in a body; and a number of the young men +went with him into the Plain. Here, designedly letting his tunic slip +partly off from his shoulders, he showed his armor underneath, and +discovered his danger to the spectators, who, being much moved at it, +gathered around about him for his defence. At length, Catiline was by +general suffrage again put by, and Silanus and Murena chosen consuls. + +Not long after this, Catiline's soldiers got together in a body in +Etruria, and began to form themselves into companies, the day appointed +for the design being near at hand. About midnight, some of the principal +and most powerful citizens of Rome, Marcus, Crassus, Marcus Marcellus, +and Scipio Metellus went to Cicero's house, where, knocking at the gate, +and calling up the porter, they commanded him to awake Cicero, and +tell him they were there. The business was this: Crassus's porter after +supper had delivered to him letters brought by an unknown person. Some +of them were directed to others, but one to Crassus, without a name; +this only Crassus read, which informed him that there was a great +slaughter intended by Catiline, and advised him to leave the city. The +others he did not open, but went with them immediately to Cicero, being +affrighted at the danger, and to free himself of the suspicion he lay +under for his familiarity with Catiline. Cicero, considering the matter, +summoned the senate at break of day. The letters he brought with him, +and delivered them to those to whom they were directed, commanding +them to read them publicly; they all alike contained an account of +the conspiracy. And when Quintus Arrius, a man of praetorian dignity, +recounted to them, how soldiers were collecting in companies in Etruria, +and Manlius was stated to be in motion with a large force, hovering +about those cities, in expectation of intelligence from Rome, the senate +made a decree to place all in the hands of the consuls, who should +undertake the conduct of everything, and do their best to save the +state. This was not a common thing, but only done by the senate in cases +of imminent danger. + +After Cicero had received this power, he committed all affairs outside +to Quintus Metellus; but the management of the city he kept in his own +hands. Such a numerous attendance guarded him every day when he went +abroad that the greater part of the forum was filled with his train when +he entered it. Catiline, impatient of further delay, resolved himself to +break forth and go to Manlius; but he commanded Marcius and Cethegus to +take their swords and go early in the morning to Cicero's gates, as if +only intending to salute him, and then to fall upon him and slay him. A +noble lady, Fulvia, coming by night, discovered this to Cicero, bidding +him beware of Cethegus and Marcius. They came by break of day, and being +denied entrance, made an outcry and disturbance at the gates, which +excited all the more suspicion. But Cicero, going forth, summoned the +senate into the temple of Jupiter Stator, which stands at the end of the +Sacred Street, going up to the Palatine. And when Catiline with others +of his party also came, as though intending to make his defence, none of +the senators would sit by him, but all of them left the bench where he +had placed himself. And when he began to speak, they interrupted him +with outcries. At length, Cicero, standing up, commanded him to leave +the city; for, since one governed the commonwealth with words, the other +with arms, it was necessary that there should be a wall betwixt them. +Catiline, therefore, immediately left the town, with three hundred +armed men; and assuming, like a magistrate, the rods, axes, and military +ensigns, he went to Manlius, and having got together a body of near +twenty thousand men, with these he marched to the several cities, +endeavoring to persuade or force them to revolt. It being now come to +open war, Antonius was sent forth to fight him. + +The remainder of those in the city whom he had corrupted, Cornelius +Lentulus kept together and encouraged. He had the surname Sura, and was +a man of a noble family, but a dissolute liver, who for his debauchery +was formerly turned out of the senate, and was now holding the office of +praetor for the second time, as the custom is with those who desire to +regain the dignity of senator. It is said that he got the surname Sura +upon this occasion; being quaestor in the time of Sylla, he had lavished +away and consumed a great quantity of the public moneys, at which Sylla, +being provoked, called him to give an account in the senate. He appeared +with great coolness and contempt, and said he had no account to give, +but they might take this, holding up the calf of his leg, as boys do at +ball, when they have missed. Upon which he was surnamed Sura, sura being +the Roman word for the calf of the leg. Being at another time prosecuted +at law, and having bribed some of the judges, he escaped by only two +votes, and complained of the needless expense he had gone to in paying +for a second, as one would have sufficed to acquit him. This man, such +in his own nature, and now inflamed by Catiline, false prophets and +fortune-tellers had also corrupted with vain hopes, quoting to him +fictitious verses and oracles, and proving from the Sibylline prophecies +that there were three of the name Cornelius designed by fate to be +monarchs of Rome; two of whom, Cinna and Sylla, had already fulfilled +the decree, and that divine fortune was now advancing with the gift of +monarchy for the remaining third Cornelius; and that therefore he +ought by all means to accept it, and not lose opportunity by delay, as +Catiline had done. + +Lentulus, therefore, designed no mean or trivial matter, for he had +resolved to kill the whole senate, and as many other citizens as he +could, to fire the city, and spare nobody, except Pompey's children, +intending to seize and keep them as pledges of his reconciliation with +Pompey. For there was then a common report that Pompey was on his way +homeward from his great expedition. The night appointed for the design +was one of the Saturnalia; swords, flax, and sulphur they carried +and hid in the house of Cethegus; and providing one hundred men, and +dividing the city into as many parts, they had allotted to every one +singly his proper place, so that in a moment, many kindling the fire, +the city might be in a flame all together. Others were appointed to stop +up the aqueducts, and to kill those who should endeavor to carry water +to put it out. While these plans were preparing, it happened that there +were two ambassadors from the Allobroges staying in Rome; a nation at +that time in a distressed condition, and very uneasy under the Roman +government. These Lentulus and his party, judging useful instruments to +move Gaul to revolt, admitted into the conspiracy, and they gave them +letters to their own magistrates, and letters to Catiline; in those +they promised liberty, in these they exhorted Catiline to set all +slaves free, and to bring them along with him to Rome. They sent also +to accompany them to Catiline, one Titus, a native of Croton, who was to +carry those letters to him. + +These counsels of inconsidering men, who conversed together over their +wine, Cicero watched with sober industry and forethought, and with most +admirable sagacity, having several emissaries abroad, who observed +and traced with him all that was done, and keeping also a secret +correspondence with many who pretended to join in the conspiracy. He +thus knew all the discourse which passed between them and the strangers; +and lying in wait for them by night, he took the Crotonian with his +letters, the ambassadors of the Allobroges acting secretly in concert +with him. + +By break of day, he summoned the senate into the temple of Concord, +where he read the letters and examined the informers. Junius Silanus +further stated that several persons had heard Cethegus say that three +consuls and four praetors were to be slain; Piso, also, a person of +consular dignity, testified other matters of like nature; and Caius +Sulpicius, one of the praetors, being sent to Cethegus's house, found +there a quantity of darts and of armor, and a still greater number +of swords and daggers, all recently whetted. At length, the senate, +decreeing indemnity to the Crotonian upon his confession of the whole +matter, Lentulus was convicted, abjured his office (for he was then +praetor), and put off his robe edged with purple in the senate, changing +it for another garment more agreeable to his present circumstances. He, +thereupon, with the rest of his confederates present, was committed to +the charge of the praetors in free custody. + +It being evening, and the common people in crowds expecting without, +Cicero went forth to them, and told them what was done, and then, +attended by them, went to the house of a friend and near neighbor; for +his own was taken up by the women, who were celebrating with secret +rites the feast of the goddess whom the Romans call the Good, and the +Greeks, the Women's goddess. For a sacrifice is annually performed to +her in the consul's house, either by his wife or mother, in the presence +of the vestal virgins. And having got into his friend's house privately, +a few only being present, he began to deliberate how he should treat +these men. The severest and the only punishment fit for such heinous +crimes, he was somewhat shy and fearful of inflicting, as well from the +clemency of his nature, as also lest he should be thought to exercise +his authority too insolently, and to treat too harshly men of the +noblest birth and most powerful friendships in the city; and yet, if he +should use them more mildly, he had a dreadful prospect of danger from +them. For there was no likelihood that, if they suffered less than +death, they would be reconciled, but, rather, adding new rage to their +former wickedness, they would rush into every kind of audacity, while +he himself, whose character for courage already did not stand very high +with the multitude, would be thought guilty of the greatest cowardice +and want of manliness. + +While Cicero was in doubt what course to take, a portent happened to +the women in their sacrificing. For on the altar, where the fire seemed +wholly extinguished, a great and bright flame issued forth from the +ashes of the burnt wood; at which others were affrighted, but the holy +virgins called to Terentia, Cicero's wife, and bade her hasten to her +husband, and command him to execute what he had resolved for the good of +his country, for the goddess had sent a great light to the increase of +his safety and glory. Terentia, therefore, as she was otherwise in her +own nature neither tender-hearted nor timorous, but a woman eager for +distinction (who, as Cicero himself says, would rather thrust herself +into his public affairs than communicate her domestic matters to him), +told him these things, and excited him against the conspirators. So also +did Quintus his brother, and Publius Nigidius, one of his philosophical +friends, whom he often made use of in his most weighty affairs of state. + +The next day, a debate arising in the senate about the punishment of the +men, Silanus, being the first who was asked his opinion, said, it was +fit that they should be all sent to prison, and there suffer the utmost +penalty. With him all agreed in order till it came to Caius Caesar, who +was afterwards dictator. He was then but a young man, and only at the +outset of his career, but had already directed his hopes and policy +to that course by which he afterwards changed the Roman state into a +monarchy. + +When it came Caesar's turn to give his opinion, he stood up and proposed +that the conspirators should not be put to death, but their estates +confiscated, and their persons confined in such cities in Italy as +Cicero should approve, there to be kept in custody till Catiline was +conquered. To this sentence, as it was the most moderate, and he that +delivered it a most powerful speaker, Cicero himself gave no small +weight, for he stood up and, turning the scale on either side, spoke +in favor partly of the former, partly of Caesar's sentence. And all +Cicero's friends, judging Caesar's sentence most expedient for Cicero, +because he would incur the less blame if the conspirators were not put +to death, chose rather the latter; so that Silanus, also, changing his +mind, retracted his opinion, and said he had not declared for +capital, but only the utmost punishment, which to a Roman senator +is imprisonment. The first man who spoke against Caesar's motion was +Catulus Lutatius. Cato followed, and so vehemently urged in his speech +the strong suspicion about Caesar himself, and so filled the senate with +anger and resolution, that a decree was passed for the execution of the +conspirators. But Caesar opposed the confiscation of their goods, not +thinking it fair that those who had rejected the mildest part of his +sentence should avail themselves of the severest. And when many insisted +upon it, he appealed to the tribunes, but they would do nothing; till +Cicero himself yielding, remitted that part of the sentence. + +After this, Cicero went out with the senate to the conspirators; they +were not all together in one place, but the several praetors had them, +some one, some another, in custody. And first he took Lentulus from the +Palatine, and brought him by the Sacred Street, through the middle of +the market-place, a circle of the most eminent citizens encompassing and +protecting him. The people, affrighted at what was doing, passed along +in silence, especially the young men; as if, with fear and trembling, +they were undergoing a rite of initiation into some ancient, sacred +mysteries of aristocratic power. Thus passing from the market-place, and +coming to the gaol, he delivered Lentulus to the officer, and commanded +him to execute him; and after him Cethegus, and so all the rest in +order, he brought and delivered up to execution. And when he saw many +of the conspirators in the market-place, still standing together +in companies, ignorant of what was done, and waiting for the night, +supposing the men were still alive and in a possibility of being +rescued, he called out in a loud voice, and said, "They did live"; for +so the Romans, to avoid inauspicious language, name those that are dead. + +It was now evening, when he returned from the market-place to his own +house, the citizens no longer attending him with silence, nor in order, +but receiving him, as he passed, with acclamations and applauses, and +saluting him as the savior and founder of his country. A bright light +shone through the streets from the lamps and torches set up at the +doors, and the women showed lights from the tops of the houses, to honor +Cicero, and to behold him returning home with a splendid train of the +principal citizens; amongst whom were many who had conducted great wars, +celebrated triumphs, and added to the possessions of the Roman empire, +both by sea and land. These, as they passed along with him, acknowledged +to one another, that though the Roman people were indebted to several +officers and commanders of that age for riches, spoils, and power, yet +to Cicero alone they owed the safety and security of all these, for +delivering them from so great and imminent a danger. For though it +might seem no wonderful thing to prevent the design, and punish the +conspirators, yet to defeat the greatest of all conspiracies with so +little disturbance, trouble, and commotion, was very extraordinary. For +the greater part of those who had flocked in to Catiline, as soon as +they heard of the fate of Lentulus and Cethegus, forsook him, and he +himself, with his remaining forces, joining battle with Antonius, was +destroyed with his army. + +And yet there were some who were very ready both to speak ill of Cicero, +and to do him hurt for these actions; and they had for their leaders +some of the magistrates of the ensuing year, as Caesar, who was one of +the praetors, and Metellus and Bestia, the tribunes. These, entering +upon their office some few days before Cicero's consulate expired, would +not permit him to make any address to the people, but, throwing the +benches before the Rostra, hindered his speaking, telling him he might, +if he pleased, make the oath of withdrawal from office, and then come +down again. Cicero, accordingly, accepting the conditions, came forward +to make his withdrawal; and silence being made, he recited his oath, not +in the usual, but in a new and peculiar form, namely, that he had saved +his country, and preserved the empire; the truth of which oath all the +people confirmed with theirs. Caesar and the tribunes, all the more +exasperated by this, endeavored to create him further trouble, and for +this purpose proposed a law for calling Pompey home with his army, to +put an end to Cicero's usurpation. But it was a very great advantage for +Cicero and the whole commonwealth that Cato was at that time one of the +tribunes. For he, being of equal power with the rest, and of greater +reputation, could oppose their designs. He easily defeated their other +projects, and, in an oration to the people, so highly extolled Cicero's +consulate, that the greatest honors were decreed him, and he was +publicly declared the Father of his Country, which title he seems to +have obtained, the first man who did so, when Cato applied it to him in +this address to the people. + +At this time, therefore, his authority was very great in the city; but +he created himself much envy, and offended very many, not by any evil +action, but because he was always lauding and magnifying himself. For +neither senate, nor assembly of the people, nor court of judicature +could meet, in which he was not heard to talk of Catiline and Lentulus. +Indeed, he filled his books and writings with his own praises, to such +an excess as to render a style, in itself most pleasant and delightful, +nauseous and irksome to his hearers. This ungrateful humor, like a +disease, always clove to him. Still, though fond of his own glory, +he was very free from envying others, but was, on the contrary, +most liberally profuse in commending both the ancients and his +contemporaries, as any one may see in his writings. He called Aristotle +a river of flowing gold, and said of Plato's Dialogues, that if Jupiter +were to speak, it would be in language like theirs. He used to call +Theophrastus his special luxury. And being asked which of Demosthenes's +orations he liked best, he answered, "The longest." And as for the +eminent men of his own time, either in eloquence or philosophy, there +was not one of them whom he did not, by writing or speaking favorably of +him, render more illustrious. + +An example of his love of praise is the way in which sometimes, to +make his orations more striking, he neglected decorum and dignity. +When Munatius, who had escaped conviction by his advocacy, immediately +prosecuted his friend Sabinus, he said in the warmth of his resentment, +"Do you suppose you were acquitted for your own merits, Munatius, or was +it not that I so darkened the case, that the court could not see your +guilt?" When from the Rostra he had made a eulogy on Marcus Crassus, +with much applause, and within a few days after again as publicly +reproached him, Crassus called to him, and said, "Did not you yourself +two days ago, in this same place, commend me?" "Yes," said Cicero, "I +exercised my eloquence in declaiming upon a bad subject." At another +time, Crassus had said that no one of his family had ever lived beyond +sixty years of age, and afterwards denied it, and asked, "What should +put it into my head to say so?" "It was to gain the people's favor," +answered Cicero; "you knew how glad they would be to hear it." When +Vatinius, who had swellings in his neck, was pleading a cause, he called +him the tumid orator; and having been told by some one that Vatinius was +dead, on hearing soon after that he was alive, he said, "may the rascal +perish, for his news not being true." + +Upon Caesar's bringing forward a law for the division of the lands in +Campania amongst the soldiers, many in the senate opposed it; amongst +the rest, Lucius Gellius, one of the oldest men in the house, said it +should never pass whilst he lived. "Let us postpone it," said Cicero, +"Gellius does not ask us to wait long." There was a man of the name of +Octavius, suspected to be of African descent. He once said, when Cicero +was pleading, that he could not hear him; "yet there are holes," said +Cicero, "in your ears." When Metellus Nepos told him that he had ruined +more as a witness than he had saved as an advocate, "I admit," said +Cicero, "that I have more truth than eloquence." To a young man who was +suspected of having given a poisoned cake to his father, and who talked +largely of the invectives he meant to deliver against Cicero, "Better +these," replied he, "than your cakes." Publius Sextius, having amongst +others retained Cicero as his advocate in a certain cause, was yet +desirous to say all for himself, and would not allow anybody to speak +for him; when he was about to receive his acquittal from the judges, and +the ballots were passing, Cicero called to him, "make haste, Sextius, +and use your time; to-morrow you will be nobody." He cited Publius Cotta +to bear testimony in a certain cause, one who affected to be thought a +lawyer, though ignorant and unlearned; but when Cotta had said, "I know +nothing at all about the matter," Cicero answered: "You think, perhaps, +we are asking you about a point of law." When Marcus Appius, in the +opening of some speech in a court of justice, said that his friend had +desired him to employ industry, eloquence, and fidelity in that cause, +Cicero asked, "And how have you had the heart not to accede to any one +of his requests?" + +One Clodius, whom Cicero had vehemently opposed in an important trial, +having got himself chosen one of the tribunes, immediately attacked +Cicero, endeavoring to incite everybody against him. The common people +he gained over with popular laws; to each of the consuls he decreed +large provinces, to Piso, Macedonia, and to Gabinius, Syria. Of the +three men then in greatest power, Crassus was Cicero's open enemy, +Pompey indifferently made advances to both, and Caesar was going with +an army into Gaul. To him, though not his friend, Cicero applied, +requesting an appointment as one of his lieutenants in the province. +Caesar accepted him, and Clodius, perceiving that Cicero would thus +escape his tribunician authority, professed to be inclinable to a +reconciliation, made always a favorable mention of him, and addressed +him with kind expressions, as one who felt no hatred or ill-will, but +who merely wished to urge his complaints in a moderate and friendly +way. By these artifices, he so freed Cicero of all his fears, that +he resigned his appointment to Caesar, and betook himself again to +political affairs. At which Caesar being exasperated, joined the party +of Clodius against him, and wholly alienated Pompey from him; he also +himself declared in a public assembly of the people, that he did not +think Lentulus and Cethegus, with their accomplices, were fairly and +legally put to death without being brought to trial. And this, indeed, +was the crime charged upon Cicero, and this impeachment he was summoned +to answer. And so, as an accused man, and in danger for the result, he +changed his dress, and went round with his hair untrimmed, in the attire +of a suppliant, to beg the people's grace. But Clodius met him in every +corner, having a band of abusive and daring fellows about him, who +derided Cicero for his change of dress and his humiliation, and often, +by throwing dirt and stones at him, interrupted his supplication to the +people. + +However, first of all, almost the whole equestrian order changed +their dress with him, and no less than twenty thousand young gentlemen +followed him with their hair untrimmed, and supplicating with him to the +people. And then the senate met, to pass a decree that the people should +change their dress as in time of public sorrow. But the consuls opposing +it, and Clodius with armed men besetting the senate-house, many of the +senators ran out, crying aloud and tearing their clothes. But this sight +moved neither shame nor pity; Cicero must either fly or determine it by +the sword with Clodius. He entreated Pompey to aid him, who on purpose +had gone out of the way, and was staying at his country-house in the +Alban hills; and first he sent his son-in-law Piso to intercede with +him, and afterwards set out to go himself. But Pompey being informed, +would not stay to see him, being ashamed at the remembrance of the many +conflicts in the commonwealth which Cicero had undergone in his behalf, +and how much of his policy he had directed for his advantage. But being +now Caesar's son-in-law, at his instance he had set aside all former +kindness, and, slipping out at another door, avoided the interview. +Thus being forsaken by Pompey, and left alone to himself, he fled to +the consuls. Gabinius was rough with him, as usual, but Piso spoke more +courteously, desiring him to yield for a while to the fury of Clodius, +and to await a change of times, and to be now, as before, his country's +savior from the peril of these troubles and commotions which Clodius was +exciting. + +Cicero, receiving this answer, consulted with his friends. Lucullus +advised him to stay, as being sure to prevail at last; others to fly, +because the people would soon desire him again, when they should have +enough of the rage and madness of Clodius. This last Cicero approved. +But first he took a statue of Minerva, which had been long set up and +greatly honored in his house, and carrying it to the capitol, there +dedicated it, with the inscription, "To Minerva, Patroness of Rome." And +receiving an escort from his friends, about the middle of the night +he left the city, and went by land through Lucania, intending to reach +Sicily. + +But as soon as it was publicly known that he was fled, Clodius proposed +to the people a decree of exile, and by his own order interdicted him +fire and water, prohibiting any within five hundred miles in Italy to +receive him into their houses. Most people, out of respect for Cicero, +paid no regard to this edict, offering him every attention, and +escorting him on his way. But at Hipponium, a city of Lucania, now +called Vibo, one Vibius, a Sicilian by birth, who, amongst may other +instances of Cicero's friendship, had been made head of the state +engineers when he was consul, would not receive him into his house, +sending him word that he would appoint a place in the country for his +reception. Caius Vergilius, the praetor of Sicily, who had been on +the most intimate terms with him, wrote to him to forbear coming +into Sicily. Cicero, thoroughly disheartened at these things, went to +Brundusium, whence he put forth with a prosperous wind, but a contrary +gale blowing from the sea carried him back to Italy the next day. He +put again to sea, and having reached Dyrrachium, on his coming to shore +there, it is reported that an earthquake and a convulsion in the sea +happened at the same time, signs which the diviners said intimated +that his exile would not be long, for these were prognostics of change. +Although many visited him with respect, and the cities of Greece +contended with each other in honoring him, he yet continued +disconsolate, like an unfortunate lover, often casting his looks back +upon Italy; and, indeed, he had become more humiliated and dejected +by his misfortunes than any one could have expected in a man who had +devoted so much of his life to study and learning. And yet he often +desired his friends not to call him orator, but philosopher, because +he had made philosophy his business, and had only used rhetoric as an +instrument for attaining his objects in public life. + +Clodius, having thus driven away Cicero, fell to burning his +farm-buildings and villas, and afterwards his city house, and built on +the site of it a temple to Liberty. The rest of his property he exposed +for sale by daily proclamation, but nobody came to buy. By this course +he became formidable to the noble citizens, and, being followed by the +commonalty, whom he had filled with insolence and licentiousness, +he began at last to try his strength against Pompey, some of whose +arrangements in the countries he conquered, he attacked. The disgrace +of this made Pompey begin to reproach himself for his cowardice in +deserting Cicero, and, changing his mind, he now wholly set himself with +his friends to contrive his return. And when Clodius opposed it, the +senate made a vote that no public measure should be ratified or passed +by them till Cicero was recalled. But when Lentulus was consul, the +commotions grew so high upon this matter, that the tribunes were wounded +in the Forum, and Quintus, Cicero's brother, was left as dead, lying +unobserved amongst the slain. The people began to change in their +feelings; and Annius Milo, one of their tribunes, was the first who had +the courage to summon Clodius to trial for acts of violence. Many of +the common people in Rome and the neighboring cities formed a party with +Pompey, who headed them in person, drove Clodius out of the Forum, and +summoned the people to pass their vote. And, it is said, the people +never passed any suffrage more unanimously than this. The senate, also, +striving to outdo the people, sent letters of thanks to those cities +which had received Cicero with respect in his exile, and decreed that +his house and his country-places, which Clodius had destroyed, should be +rebuilt at the public charge. + +Thus Cicero returned sixteen months after his exile, and the cities were +so glad, and the people so zealous to meet him, that his boast, that +Italy had brought him on her shoulders home to Rome, was rather less +than the truth. And Crassus himself, who had been his enemy before his +exile, went voluntarily to meet him, and was reconciled, as he said, to +please his son Publius, who was Cicero's affectionate admirer. + +Cicero had not been long at Rome, when, taking the opportunity of +Clodius's absence, he went, with a great company, to the capitol, and +there tore and defaced the tribunician tables, in which were recorded +the acts done in the time of Clodius. And on Clodius calling him in +question for this, he answered, that he, being of the patrician order, +had obtained the office of tribune against the law, and, therefore, +nothing done by him was valid. Cato was displeased at this, and opposed +Cicero, not that he commended Clodius, but rather disapproved of his +whole administration; yet, he contended, that it was an irregular and +violent course for the senate to vote the illegality of so many decrees +and acts, including those of Cato's own government in Cyprus and at +Byzantium. This occasioned a breach between Cato and Cicero, which, +though it did not come to open enmity, made a more reserved friendship +between them. + +After this, Milo killed Clodius, and, being arraigned for the murder, +he procured Cicero for his advocate. The senate, fearing lest the +questioning of so eminent and high-spirited a citizen as Milo might +disturb the peace of the city, committed the superintendence of this +and of the other trials to Pompey, who should undertake to maintain +the security alike of the city and of the courts of justice. Pompey, +therefore, went in the night, and occupying the high grounds about it, +surrounded the Forum with soldiers. Milo, fearing lest Cicero, being +disturbed by such an unusual sight, should conduct his cause the less +successfully, persuaded him to come in a litter into the Forum, and +there rest till the judges had taken their seats, and the court was +filled. For Cicero, it seems, not only wanted courage in arms, but, in +his speaking also, began with timidity, and in many cases scarcely left +off trembling and shaking when he had got thoroughly into the current +and the substance of his speech. Once when he had to defend Licinius +Murena against the prosecution of Cato, being eager to outdo Hortensius, +who had made his plea with great applause, he took so little rest the +night before, and was so disordered with thought and over-watching, that +he spoke much worse than usual. And so now, on quitting his litter to +commence the cause of Milo, at the sight of Pompey, encamped, as it +were, with his troops, and seeing arms shining round about the Forum, +he was so confounded that he could hardly begin his speech, for the +trembling of his body and hesitancy of his tongue; whereas Milo, +meantime, was so bold and intrepid in his demeanor, that he disdained +either to let his hair grow, or to put on the mourning habit. And this, +indeed, seems to have been the principal cause of his condemnation. And +Cicero was thought not so much to have shown timidity for himself, as +anxiety about his friend. + +When the outbreak between Caesar and Pompey came, Cicero wavered +painfully between both, for he writes in his epistles, "To which side +should I turn? Pompey has the fair and honorable plea for war; and +Caesar, on the other hand, has managed his affairs better, and is more +able to secure himself and his friends. So that I know whom I should +fly from, not whom I should fly to." But when Trebatius, one of Caesar's +friends, by letter signified to him that Caesar thought it was his most +desirable course to join his side, but if he considered himself too +old a man for this, he would do better to retire into Greece, and stay +quietly there, out of the way of either party, Cicero, wondering that +Caesar had not written himself, replied angrily that he should do +nothing unbecoming his past life. + +But as soon as Caesar had marched into Spain, he immediately sailed away +to join Pompey. And he was welcomed by all but Cato; who, taking him +privately aside, chid him for coming to Pompey. As for himself, he said, +it would have been indecent to forsake that part in the commonwealth +which he had chosen from the beginning; but Cicero might have been +more useful to his country and friends, if, remaining neutral, he had +attended and used his influence to moderate the result, instead of +coming hither to make himself, without reason or necessity, an enemy to +Caesar, and a partner in such great dangers. By this language, Cicero's +feelings were altered, and partly, also, because Pompey made no great +use of him. Although he was himself really the cause of it, by his +not denying that he was sorry he had come, by his deprecating Pompey's +resources, finding fault underhand with his counsels, and continually +indulging in jests and sarcastic remarks on his fellow-soldiers. + +After the battle of Pharsalia was over, at which he was not present for +want of health, and Pompey had fled, Cato, having considerable +forces and a great fleet at Dyrrachium, would have had Cicero +commander-in-chief, according to law, and the precedence of his consular +dignity. But on his refusing the command, and wholly declining to take +part in their plans for continuing the war, he was in the greatest +danger of being killed, young Pompey and his friends calling him +traitor, and drawing their swords upon him; only that Cato interposed, +and with difficulty rescued and brought him out of the camp. + +Afterwards, arriving at Brundusium, he tarried there some time in +expectation of Caesar, who was delayed by his affairs in Asia and Egypt. +And when it was told him that he had arrived at Tarentum, and was coming +thence by land to Brundusium, he hastened towards him, not altogether +without hope, and yet in some fear of making experiment of the temper of +an enemy and conqueror in the presence of many witnesses. But there was +no necessity for him either to speak or do anything unworthy of himself; +for Caesar, as soon as he saw him coming a good way before the rest of +the company, went forward to meet him, saluted him, and, leading the +way, conversed with him alone for some furlongs. And from that time on +he continued to treat him with honor and respect, so that, when Cicero +wrote an oration in praise of Cato, Caesar, in writing an answer to it, +took occasion to commend Cicero's own life and eloquence, comparing him +to Pericles and Teramenes. Cicero's oration was called "Cato"; Caesar's, +"Anti-Cato." + +So also, it is related that when Quintus Ligarius was prosecuted for +having been in arms against Caesar, and Cicero had undertaken his +defence, Caesar said to his friends, "Ligarius, without question, is a +wicked man and an enemy. But why might we not as well once more hear +a speech from Cicero?" yet when Cicero began to speak, he wonderfully +moved him, and proceeded in his speech with such varied pathos, and +such a charm of language, that the color of Caesar's countenance often +changed, and it was evident that all the passions of his soul were in +commotion. And when at length, the orator touched upon the Pharsalian +battle, he was so affected that his whole frame trembled and some of the +papers he held dropped out of his hands. And thus he was overpowered, +and acquitted Ligarius. + +Henceforth, the commonwealth being changed into a monarchy, Cicero +withdrew himself from public affairs, and employed his leisure in +instructing those young men that wished, in philosophy; and by the near +intercourse he thus had with some of the noblest and highest in rank, +he again began to possess great influence in the city. The work which he +set himself to do was to compose and translate philosophical dialogues +and to render logical and physical terms into the Roman idiom. For he +it was, as it is said, who first or principally gave Latin names to +technical Greek terms, which, either by metaphors or other means of +accommodation, he succeeded in making intelligible to the Romans. For +his recreation, he exercised his dexterity in poetry, and when he was +set to it, would make five hundred verses in a night. He spent the +greatest part of his time at his country-house near Tusculum. + +He had a design, it is said, of writing the history of his country, +combining with it much of that of Greece, and incorporating in it all +the stories and legends of the past that he had collected. But his +purposes were interfered with by various public and various private +unhappy occurrences and misfortunes; for most of which he was himself in +fault. For first of all, he put away his wife, Terentia, by whom he +had been neglected in the time of the war, and sent away destitute +of necessaries for his journey; neither did he find her kind when he +returned into Italy, for she did not join him at Brundusium, where he +staid a long time, and would not allow her young daughter, who undertook +so long a journey, decent attendance, or the requisite expenses; +besides, she left him a naked and empty house, and yet had involved him +in many and great debts. These were alleged as the fairest reasons +for the divorce. But Terentia, who denied them all, had the most +unmistakable defence furnished her by her husband himself, who not long +after married a young maiden for the love of her beauty, as Terentia +upbraided him; or as Tiro, his emancipated slave, has written, for her +riches, to discharge his debts. For the young woman was very rich, and +Cicero had the custody of her estate, being left guardian in trust; and +being in debt many myriads of money, he was persuaded by his friends and +relations to marry her, notwithstanding their disparity of age, and +to use her money to satisfy his creditors. Antony, who mentions this +marriage in his answer to the Phillippics, reproaches him for putting +away a wife with whom he had lived to old age; adding some happy strokes +of sarcasm on Cicero's domestic, inactive, unsoldier-like habits. Not +long after this marriage, his daughter died at Lentulus's house, to whom +she had been married after the death of Piso, her former husband. The +philosophers from all parts came to comfort Cicero; for his grief was so +excessive, that he put away his newly-married wife, because she seemed +to be pleased at the death of Tullia. + +He had no concern in the design that was now forming to kill Caesar, +although, in general, he was Brutus's confidant. + +But as soon as the act was committed by Brutus and Cassius, and the +friends of Caesar had assembled, so that there was danger of another +civil war, Antony, being consul, convened the senate, and made a short +address recommending concord. And Cicero, following with various remarks +such as the occasion called for, persuaded the senate to imitate the +Athenians, and decree an amnesty for what had been done in Caesar's +case, and to bestow provinces on Brutus and Cassius. But neither of +these things took effect. For as soon as the common people, who were +naturally inclined to pity, saw the dead body of Caesar borne through +the market-place, and Antony showing his clothes stained with blood, and +pierced through in every part with swords, they were enraged to such a +degree of frenzy, that they made a search for the murderers, and with +firebrands in their hands ran to their houses to burn them. + +Antony at this was in exultation, and every one was alarmed at the +prospect that he would make himself sole ruler, and Cicero more than any +one else. For Antony, seeing his influence reviving in the commonwealth, +and knowing how closely he was connected with Brutus, was ill-pleased +to have him in the city. Besides, there had been some former jealousy +between them, occasioned by the difference of their manners. Cicero, +fearing the event, was inclined to go as lieutenant with Dolabella into +Syria. But Hirtius and Pansa, consuls-elect as successors of Antony, +good men and lovers of Cicero, entreated him not to leave them, +undertaking to put down Antony if he would stay in Rome. And he, neither +distrusting wholly, nor trusting them, let Dolabella go without him, +promising Hirtius that he would go and spend his summer at Athens, +and return again when he entered upon his office. So he set out on his +journey; but some delay occurring in his passage, new intelligence, +as often happens, came suddenly from Rome, that Antony had made an +astonishing change, and was managing the public affairs in harmony with +the will of the senate, and that there wanted nothing but his presence +to bring things to a happy settlement. Therefore, blaming himself for +his cowardice, he returned to Rome, and was not deceived in his hopes +at the beginning. For such multitudes flocked out to meet him, that the +compliments and civilities which were paid him at the gates, and at this +entrance into the city, took up almost a whole day's time. + +On the morrow, Antony convened the senate, and summoned Cicero thither. +But he kept his bed, pretending to be ill from his journey; but the +true reason seemed to be the fear of some design against him, upon a +suspicion and intimation given him on his way to Rome. Antony, however, +showed great offence at the affront, and sent soldiers, commanding them +to bring him or burn his house; but many interceding and supplicating +for him, he was contented to accept sureties. Ever after when they met, +they passed one another in silence, and continued on their guard, till +the younger Caesar (Augustus), coming from Apollonia, entered on the +first Caesar's inheritance, and was engaged in a dispute with Antony +about two thousand five hundred myriads of money, which Antony detained +from the estate. + +Upon this, Philippus, who married the mother, and Marcellus, who married +the sister of young Caesar, came with the young man to Cicero, and +agreed with him that Cicero should give them the aid of his eloquence +and political influence with the senate and people, and Caesar give +Cicero the defence of his riches and arms. For the young man had +already a great party of the soldiers of Caesar about him. And Cicero's +readiness to join him was founded, it is said, on some yet stronger +motives; for it seems, while Pompey and Caesar were yet alive, Cicero, +in his sleep, had fancied himself engaged in calling some of the sons +of the senators into the capitol, Jupiter, according to the dream, being +about to declare one of them the chief ruler of Rome. The citizens, +running up with curiosity, stood about the temple, and the youths, +sitting in their purple-bordered robes, kept silence. On a sudden the +doors opened, and the youths, arising one by one in order, passed round +the god, who reviewed them all, and, to their sorrow, dismissed them; +but when this one was passing by, the god stretched forth his right hand +and said, "O ye Romans, this young man, when he shall be lord of Rome, +shall put an end to all your civil wars." It is said that Cicero formed +from his dream a distinct image of the youth, and retained it afterwards +perfectly, but did not know who it was. The next day, going down into +the Campus Martius, he met the boys returning from their gymnastic +exercises, and the first was he, just as he had appeared to him in his +dream. Being astonished at it, he asked him who were his parents. And +it proved to be this young Caesar, whose father was a man of no great +eminence, Octavius, and his mother, Attia, Caesar's sister's daughter; +for which reason, Caesar, who had no children, made him by will the +heir of his house and property. From that time, it is said that Cicero +studiously noticed the youth whenever he met him, and he as kindly +received the civility; and by fortune he happened to be born when Cicero +was consul. + +These were the reasons spoken of; but it was principally Cicero's hatred +of Antony, and a temper unable to resist honor, which fastened him to +Caesar, with the purpose of getting the support of Caesar's power for +his own public designs. For the young man went so far in his court +to him, that he called him Father; at which Brutus was so highly +displeased, that, in his epistles to Atticus he reflected on Cicero +saying, it was manifest, by his courting Caesar for fear of Antony, +he did not intend liberty to his country, but an indulgent master +to himself. Notwithstanding, Brutus took Cicero's son, then studying +philosophy at Athens, gave him a command, and employed him in various +ways, with a good result. Cicero's own power at this time was at the +greatest height in the city, and he did whatsoever he pleased; he +completely overpowered and drove out Antony, and sent the two consuls, +Hirtius and Pansa, with an army, to reduce him; and, on the other +hand, persuaded the senate to allow Caesar the lictors and ensigns of a +praetor, as though he were his country's defender. But after Antony was +defeated in battle, and the two consuls slain, the armies united, and +ranged themselves with Caesar. And the senate, fearing the young man, +and his extraordinary fortune, endeavored by honors and gifts, to call +off the soldiers from him, and to lessen his power; professing there was +no further need of arms, now Antony was put to flight. + +This gave Caesar a fright, and he privately sent friends to entreat +Cicero to procure the consular dignity for them both together; saying +that he should manage the affair as he pleased, should have the supreme +power, and govern the young man who was only desirous of name and glory. + +And now, more than at any other time, Cicero let himself be carried away +and deceived, though an old man, by the persuasions of a boy. He joined +him in soliciting votes, and procured the good-will of the senate, not +without blame at the time on the part of his friends; and he, too, soon +enough after, saw that he had ruined himself, and betrayed the liberty +of his country. For the young man, once established, and possessed of +the office of consul, bade Cicero farewell; and reconciling himself +with Antony and Lepidus, joined his power with theirs, and divided the +government, like a piece of property, with them. Thus united, they made +a schedule of above two hundred persons who were to be put to death. +But the greatest contention in all their debates was on the question of +Cicero's case. Antony would come to no conditions, unless he should be +the first man to be killed. Lepidus held with Antony, and Caesar opposed +them both. They met secretly and by themselves, for three days together, +near the town of Bononia. The spot was not far from the camp, with a +river surrounding it. Caesar, it is said, contended earnestly for Cicero +the first two days; but on the third day he yielded, and gave him up. +The terms of their mutual concessions were these; that Caesar should +desert Cicero, Lepidus his brother Paulus, and Antony, Lucius Caesar, +his uncle by his mother's side. Thus they let their anger and fury take +from them the sense of humanity, and demonstrated that no beast is more +savage than man, when possessed with power proportioned to his rage. + +While these things were contriving, Cicero was with his brother at his +country-house near Tusculum; whence, hearing of the proscriptions, they +determined to pass to Astura, a villa of Cicero's near the sea, and to +take shipping from there for Macedonia to Brutus, of whose strength in +that province news had already been heard. They traveled together in +their separate litters, overwhelmed with sorrow; and often stopping on +the way till their litters came together, condoled with one another. +But Quintus was the more disheartened, when he reflected on his want of +means for his journey; for, as he said, he had brought nothing with him +from home. And even Cicero himself had but a slender provision. It was +judged therefore most expedient that Cicero should make what haste he +could to fly, and Quintus return home to provide necessaries, and thus +resolved, they mutually embraced, and parted with many tears. + +Quintus, within a few days after, was betrayed by his servants to those +who came to search for him, and slain, together with his young son. But +Cicero was carried to Astura, where, finding a vessel, he immediately +went on board of her, and sailed as far as Circaeum with a prosperous +gale; but when the pilots resolved immediately to set sail from there, +whether he feared the sea, or did not wholly lose faith in Caesar, he +went on shore, and passed by land a hundred furlongs, as if he was going +to Rome. But losing resolution and changing his mind, he again returned +to the sea, and there spent the night in fear and perplexity. Sometimes +he resolved to go into Caesar's house privately, and there kill himself +upon the altar of his household gods, to bring divine vengeance upon +him; but the fear of torture restrained him. And after passing through a +variety of confused and uncertain counsels, at last he let his servants +carry him by sea to Capitae, where he had a house, an agreeable place to +retire to in the heat of summer, when the Etesian winds are so pleasant. + +There was at that place a chapel of Apollo, not far from the sea-side, +from which a flight of crows rose with a great noise, and made towards +Cicero's vessel as it rowed to land, and lighting on both sides of the +yard, some croaked, others pecked the ends of the ropes. This was looked +upon by all as an evil omen; and, therefore, Cicero went again ashore, +and entering his house, lay down upon his bed to compose himself at +rest. Many of the crows settled about the window, making a dismal +cawing; but one of them alighted upon the bed where Cicero lay covered +up, and with its bill, little by little pecked off the clothes from his +face. His servants, seeing this, blamed themselves that they should +stay to be spectators of their master's murder, and do nothing in his +defence, while the brute creatures came to assist and take care of him +in his undeserved affliction; and therefore, partly by entreaty, partly +by force, they took him up, and carried him in his litter toward the +sea-side. + +But in the meantime the assassins had come with a band of +soldiers--Herennius, a centurion, and Popillius, a tribune, whom Cicero +had formerly defended when prosecuted for the murder of his father. +Finding the door shut, they broke them open, and when Cicero did not +appear and those within said they did not know where he was, it is +stated that a youth, who had been educated by Cicero in the liberal arts +and sciences, an emancipated slave of his brother Quintus, Philologus +by name, informed the tribune that the litter was on its way to the sea +through the close and shady walks. The tribune, taking a few with +him, ran to the place where he was to come out. And Cicero, perceiving +Herennius running in the walks, commanded his servants to set down the +litter; and stroking his chin, as he used to do, with his left hand, he +looked steadfastly upon his murderers, his person covered with dust, his +beard and hair untrimmed, and his face worn with his troubles. So that +the greatest part of those that stood by covered their faces whilst +Herennius slew him. And thus was he murdered, stretching forth his neck +out of the litter, being now in his sixty-fourth year. Herennius cut +off his head, and, by Antony's command, his hands also, by which his +Philippics were written; for so Cicero styled those orations he wrote +against Antony, and so they are called to this day. + +When these members of Cicero were brought to Rome, Antony was holding +an assembly for the choice of public officers; and when he heard it, and +saw them, he cried out, "Now let there be an end of our proscriptions." +He commanded his head and hands to be fastened up over the Rostra, where +the orators spoke; a sight which the Roman people shuddered to behold, +and they believed they saw there not the face of Cicero, but the image +of Antony's own soul. + +A long time after, Augustus, when visiting one of his daughter's +sons, found him with a book of Cicero's in his hand. The boy for fear +endeavored to hide it under his gown; but Caesar took it from him, and +turning over a great part of the book standing, gave it to him again, +and said, "My child, this was a learned man, and a lover of his +country." And immediately after he had vanquished Antony, being then +consul, he made Cicero's son his colleague in the office; and, under +that consulship, the senate took down all the statues of Antony, and +abolished all the other honors that had been given him, and decreed that +none of that family should thereafter bear the name of Marcus; and thus +the final acts of the punishment of Antony were, by the divine powers, +devolved upon the family of Cicero. + + + + +COMPARISON OF DEMOSTHENES AND CICERO + +These are the most memorable circumstances recorded in history of +Demosthenes and Cicero which have come to our knowledge. But, omitting +an exact comparison of their respective faculties in speaking, yet this +seems fit to be said: That Demosthenes, to make himself a master in +rhetoric, applied all the faculties he had, natural or acquired, wholly +that way; that he far surpassed in force and strength of eloquence in +political and judicial speaking all his contemporaries, in grandeur and +majesty all the panegyrical orators, and in accuracy and science all the +logicians and rhetoricians of his day; that Cicero was highly educated, +and by his diligent study became a most accomplished general scholar +in all these branches, having left behind him numerous philosophical +treatises of his own on Academic principles; as, indeed, even in his +written speeches, both political and judicial, we see him continually +trying to show his learning by the way. And one may discover the +different temper of each of them in their speeches. For Demosthenes's +oratory was, without all embellishment and jesting, wholly composed +for real effect and seriousness; not smelling of the lamp, as Pytheas +scoffingly said, but of the temperance, thoughtfulness, austerity, and +grave earnestness of his temper. Whereas, Cicero's love of mockery +often ran him into scurrility; and in his love of laughing away serious +arguments in judicial cases by jests and facetious remarks, with a view +to the advantage of his clients, he paid too little regard to what was +decent. We are told that Cicero, being consul, undertook the defence of +Murena against Cato's prosecution; and, by way of bantering Cato, made +a long series of jokes upon the absurd paradoxes, as they are called, of +the Stoic sect. When loud laughter passed from the crowd to the judges, +Cato, with a quiet smile, said to those that sat next to him, "My +friends, what an amusing consul we have." + +And, indeed, Cicero was by natural temper very much disposed to +mirth and pleasantry, and always appeared with a smiling and serene +countenance. But Demosthenes had constant care and thoughtfulness in his +look, and a serious anxiety which he seldom, if ever, laid aside; and, +therefore, was accounted by his enemies, as he himself confessed, morose +and ill-mannered. + +Also, it is very evident, out of their several writings, that +Demosthenes never touched upon his own praises but decently and without +offence when there was need of it, and for some weightier end. But +Cicero's immeasurable boasting of himself in his orations argues him +guilty of an uncontrollable appetite for distinction, his cry being +evermore that "Arms should give place to the gown, and the soldier's +laurel to the tongue." And at last we find him extolling not only +his deeds and actions, but his orations, as well those that were only +spoken, as those that were published. + +It is necessary for a political leader to be an able speaker; but it is +an ignoble thing for any man to admire the glory of his own eloquence. +And, in this matter, Demosthenes had a more than ordinary gravity and +magnificence of mind, for he considered his talent in speaking nothing +more than a mere accomplishment and matter of practice, the success of +which must depend greatly on the good-will and candor of his hearers, +and regarded those who pride themselves on such accounts to be men of a +low and petty disposition. + +The power of persuading and governing the people did, indeed, equally +belong to both, so that those who had armies and camps at command stood +in need of their assistance; as Chares, Diopithes, and Leosthenes did +that of Demosthenes, and Pompey and young Caesar of Cicero's, as the +latter himself admits in his Memoirs addressed to Agrippa and Maecenas. +But what are thought and commonly said most to demonstrate and try the +tempers of men, namely, authority and place, by moving every passion, +and discovering every frailty, these are things which Demosthenes never +received; nor was he ever in a position to give such proof of himself, +having never obtained any eminent office, nor led any of those armies +into the field against Philip which he raised by his eloquence. Cicero, +on the other hand, was sent quaestor into Sicily, and proconsul into +Cilicia and Cappadocia, at a time when avarice was at the height, and +the commanders and governors who were employed abroad, as though they +thought it a mean thing to steal, set themselves to seize by open force; +so that it seemed no heinous matter to take bribes, but he that did it +most moderately was in good esteem. And yet he, at this time, gave the +most abundant proofs alike of his contempt of riches and of his humanity +and good-nature. And at Rome, when he was created consul in name, but +indeed received sovereign and dictatorial authority against Catiline and +his conspirators, he attested the truth of Plato's prediction, that then +only would the miseries of states be at an end, when by a happy fortune +supreme power, wisdom, and justice should be united in one. + +It is said, to the reproach of Demosthenes, that his eloquence was +mercenary; that he privately made orations for Phormion and Apollodorus, +though adversaries in the same cause; that he was charged with moneys +received from the king of Persia, and condemned for bribes from +Harpalus. And should we grant that all those (and they are not few) who +have made these statements against him have spoken what is untrue, yet +we cannot assert that Demosthenes was not the character to look without +desire on the presents offered him out of respect and gratitude by +royal persons. But that Cicero refused, from the Sicilians when he was +quaestor, from the king of Cappadocia when he was proconsul, and from +his friends at Rome when he was in exile, many presents, though urged to +receive them, has been said already. + +Moreover, Demosthenes's banishment was infamous, upon conviction for +bribery; Cicero's very honorable, for ridding his country of a set of +villains. Therefore, when Demosthenes fled from his country, no man +regarded it; for Cicero's sake the senate changed their habit, and put +on mourning, and would not be persuaded to make any act before Cicero's +return was decreed. Cicero, however, passed his exile idly in Macedonia. +But the very exile of Demosthenes made up a great part of the services +he did for his country; for he went through the cities of Greece, and +everywhere, as we have said, joined in the conflict on behalf of the +Greeks, driving out the Macedonian ambassadors, and approving himself +a much better citizen than Themistocles and Alcibiades did in a similar +fortune. And, after his return, he again devoted himself to the same +public service, and continued firm in his opposition to Antipater and +the Macedonians. Whereas Laelius reproached Cicero in the senate for +sitting silent when Caesar, a beardless youth, asked leave to come +forward, contrary to the law, as a candidate for the consulship; and +Brutus, in his epistles, charges him with nursing and rearing a greater +and more heavy tyranny than that they had removed. + +Finally, Cicero's death excites our pity; for an old man to be miserably +carried up and down by his servants, flying and hiding himself from that +death which was, in the course of nature, so near at hand; and yet +at last to be murdered. Demosthenes, though he seemed to supplicate a +little at first, yet, by his preparing and keeping the poison by him, +demands our admiration; and still more admirable was his using it. +When the temple of the god no longer afforded him a sanctuary, he took +refuge, as it were, at a mightier altar, freeing himself from arms and +soldiers, and laughing to scorn the cruelty of Antipater. + + + + +ALCIBAIDES + +Alcibiades, it is supposed, was descended from Ajax, by his father's +side; and by his mother's side from Alcmaeon. Dinomache, his mother, +was the daughter of Megacles. His father (Clinias) having fitted out +a galley at his own expense, gained great honor in the seafight at +Artemisium, and was afterwards slain in the battle of Coronea, fighting +against the Boeotians. The friendship which Socrates felt for him has +much contributed to his fame; and though we have no account from any +writer concerning the mother of Nicias or Demosthenes, of Lamachus or +Phormion, of Thrasybulus or Theramenes, notwithstanding these were +all illustrious men of the same period, yet we know even the nurse of +Alcibiades, that her country was Lacedaemon, and her name Amycla; and +that Zopyrus was his teacher and attendant; the one being recorded by +Antisthenes, and the other by Plato. + +It is not, perhaps, material to say anything of the beauty of +Alcibiades, only that it bloomed with him in all the ages of his life, +in his infancy, in his youth, and in his manhood; and, in the peculiar +character becoming to each of these periods, gave him, in every one of +them a grace and a charm. What Euripides says, that "Of all fair things +the autumn, too, is fair," is by no means universally true. But it +happened so with Alcibiades, amongst few others, by reason of his happy +constitution and natural vigor of body. It is said that his lisping, +when he spoke, became him well, and gave a grace and persuasiveness to +his rapid speech. Aristophanes takes notice of it in the verses in which +he jests at Theorus: "How like a colax he is," says Alcibiades, meaning +a corax*; on which it is remarked, + + "How very happily he lisped the truth," + + (*This fashionable Attic lisp, or careless articulation, + turned the sound r into l. Colax, a flatterer; corax, a + crow.) + +His conduct displayed many inconsistencies, not unnaturally, in +accordance with the many wonderful vicissitudes of his fortunes; but, +among the many strong passions of his real character, the most powerful +of all was his ambition for superiority, which appears in several +anecdotes told of him while he was a child. Once being hard pressed in +wrestling, and fearing to be thrown, he got the hand of his antagonist +to his mouth, and bit it with all his force; and when the other loosed +his hold presently, and said, "You bite, Alcibiades, like a woman." +"No," replied he, "like a lion." Another time, when playing at dice in +the street, being then only a child, a loaded cart came that way, just +as it was his turn to throw; at first he called to the driver to stop, +because he was about to throw in the way over which the cart would pass; +but when the man paid him no attention, and was driving on, the rest of +the boys divided and sprang away; but Alcibiades threw himself on his +face before the cart, and, stretching himself out, bade the carter pass +on now if we would. The man was so startled that he put back his horses, +while all that saw it were terrified, and, crying out, ran to assist +Alcibiades. When he began to study, he obeyed all his other masters +fairly well, but refused to learn upon the flute, as a thing unbecoming +a free citizen; saying that to play upon the lute or the harp does not +in any way disfigure a man's body or face, but one is hardly to be known +by his most intimate friends, when playing on the flute. Besides, one +who plays on the harp may speak or sing at the same time; but the use +of the flute stops the mouth, intercepts the voice, and prevents all +articulation. "Therefore," said he, "let the Theban youths pipe, who do +not know how to speak, but we Athenians, as our ancestors have told us, +have Athena for our patroness, and Apollo for our protector, one of whom +threw away the flute, and the other stripped the Flute-player of his +skin." Thus, between raillery and good earnest, Alcibiades kept not only +himself but others from learning, as it presently became the talk of the +young boys, how Alcibiades despised playing on the flute, and ridiculed +those who studied it. In consequence of which, it ceased to be reckoned +amongst the liberal accomplishments, and became generally neglected. + +It was manifest that the many well-born persons who were continually +seeking his company, and making court to him, were attracted and +captivated by his extraordinary beauty only. But the affection which +Socrates entertained for him is a great evidence of the natural noble +qualities and good disposition of the boy, which Socrates, detected +under his personal beauty; and fearing that his wealth and station, +and the great number both of strangers and Athenians who flattered +and caressed him, might at last corrupt him, resolved, if possible, to +interpose, and preserve so hopeful a plant from perishing in the flower, +before its fruit came to perfection. For never did fortune surround a +man with so many of those things which we vulgarly call goods, or so +protect him from every weapon of philosophy, and fence him from every +access of free and searching words, as she did Alcibiades; who, from the +beginning, was exposed to the flatteries of those who sought merely +his gratification, such as might well unnerve him, and indispose him to +listen to any real adviser or instructor. Yet such was the happiness of +his genius, that he selected Socrates from the rest, and admitted him, +while he drove away the wealthy and the noble who made court to him. +In a little time, they grew intimate and Alcibiades, listening now to +language entirely free from every thought of unmanly fondness and silly +displays of affection, found himself with one who sought to la open +to him the deficiencies of his mind and repress his vain and foolish +arrogance, and "Dropped like the craven cock his conquered wing." He +esteemed these endeavors of Socrates as most truly a means which the +gods made use of for the care and preservation of youth, and it was a +matter of general wonder, when people saw him joining Socrates in his +meals and his exercises, living with him in the same tent, while he was +reserved and rough to all others who made their addresses to him. + +He behaved in the same manner to all others who courted him, except one +stranger, who, as the story is told, having but a small estate, sold it +all for about a hundred staters, which he presented to Alcibiades, and +besought him to accept. Alcibiades, smiling and well pleased at the +thing, invited him to supper, and, after a very kind entertainment, gave +him his gold again, requiring him, moreover, not to fail to be present +the next day, when the public revenue was offered to farm, and to outbid +all others. The man would have excused himself, because the contract was +so large, and would cost many talents; but Alcibiades, who at that time +a private pique against the existing farmers of the revenue threatened +to have him beaten if he refused. The next morning, the stranger, coming +to the market-place, offered a talent more that the existing rate; upon +which the farmers, enraged and consulting together, called upon him to +name his sureties, concluding that he could find none. The poor man, +being startled at the proposal, began to retire; but ALCIBAIDES, +standing at a distance, cried out to the magistrates, "Set my name down, +he is a friend of mine; I will be security for him." When the other +bidders heard this, they perceived that all their contrivance was +defeated; for their way was, with the profits for the second year to pay +the rent for the year preceding; so that, not seeing any other way to +extricate themselves out of the difficulty, they began to treat with the +stranger, and offered him a sum of money. Alcibiades would not suffer +him to accept of less than a talent; but when that was paid down, he +commanded him to relinquish the bargain, having by this device relieved +his necessity. + +Though Socrates had many power rivals, yet the natural good qualities +of Alcibiades gave his affection the mastery. His words overcame him so +much, as to draw tears from his eyes, and to disturb his very soul. Yet +sometimes he would abandon himself to flatteries, when they proposed to +him varieties of pleasure, and would desert Socrates; who, then, would +pursue him, as if he had been a fugitive slave. He despised every one +else, and had no reverence or awe for any but him. But as iron which +is softened by the fire grows hard with the cold, and all its parts are +closed again; so, as often as Socrates observed Alcibiades to be misled +by luxury or pride he reduced and corrected him by his addresses, and +made him humble and modest, by showing him in how many things he was +deficient, and how very far from perfection in virtue. + +When he was past his childhood, he went once to a grammar-school, and +asked the master for one of Homer's books; and when he made answer that +he had nothing of Homer's, Alcibiades gave him a blow with his fist, and +went away. Another schoolmaster telling him that he had a copy of Homer +corrected by himself; "Why?" said Alcibiades, "do you employ your time +in teaching children to read? You, who are able to amend Homer, may well +undertake to instruct men." + +When he was very young, he was a soldier in the expedition against +Potidaea, where Socrates lodged in the same tent with him, and stood +next to him in battle. Once there happened a sharp skirmish, in which +they both behaved with signal bravery; but Alcibiades receiving a wound, +Socrates threw himself before him to defend him, and beyond any question +saved him and his arms from the enemy, and so in all justice might +have challenged the prize of valor. But the generals appearing eager +to adjudge the honor to Alcibiades, because of his rank, Socrates, who +desired to increase his thirst after glory of a noble kind, was the +first to give evidence for him, and pressed them to crown, and to decree +to him the complete suit of armor. Afterwards, in the battle of Delium, +when the Athenians were routed and Socrates with a few others was +retreating on foot, Alcibiades, who was on horseback, observed it, +and would not pass on, but stayed to shelter him from the danger, and +brought him safely off, though the enemy pressed hard upon them, and cut +off many. + +He gave a box on the ear to Hipponicus, the father of Callias, whose +birth and wealth made him a person of great influence and repute. And +this he did unprovoked by any passion or quarrel between them, but only +because, in a frolic, he had agreed with his companions to do it. People +were justly offended at this insolence, when it became known through +the city; but early the next morning, Alcibiades went to his house and +knocked at the door, and, being admitted to him, took off his outer +garment, and presenting his naked body, desired him to scourge and +chastise him as he pleased. Upon this Hipponicus forgot all his +resentment, and not only pardoned him, but soon after gave him his +daughter Hipparete in marriage. + +Alcibiades had a dog which cost him seventy minas, and was very large +and handsome. His tail, which was his principal ornament, he caused to +be cut off, and an acquaintance exclaiming at him for it, and telling +him that all Athens was sorry for the dog, and cried out against him +for this action, he laughed and said, "Just what I wanted has happened, +then, I wished the Athenians to talk about this, that they might not say +something worse of me." + +It is said that the first time he came into the assembly was upon +occasion of a largess of money which he made to the people. This was not +done by design, but as he passed along he heard a shout, and inquired +the cause; and having learned that there was a gift-making to the +people, he went in among them and gave money also. The multitude +thereupon applauding him, and shouting, he was so transported at it, +that he forgot a quail which he had under his robe, and the bird, being +frightened at the noise, flew off; upon which the people made louder +acclamations than before, and many of them started up to pursue the +bird; and Antiochus, a pilot, caught it and restored it to him, for +which he was ever after a favorite with Alcibiades. + +He had great advantages for entering public life; his noble birth, his +riches, the personal courage he had shown in divers battles, and the +multitude of his friends and dependents, threw open, so to say, folding +doors for his admittance. But he did not consent to let his power with +the people rest on any thing, rather than on his own gift of eloquence. +That he was a master in the art of speaking, the comic poets bear +him witness; and the most eloquent of public speakers, in his oration +against Midias, allows that Alcibiades, among other perfections, was a +most accomplished orator. + +His expenses in horses kept for the public games, and in the number of +his chariots, were matters of great observation; never did any one +but he, either private person king, send seven chariots to the Olympic +games. And to have carried away at once the first, the second, and the +fourth prize, as Thucydides says, or the third, as Euripides relates it, +outdoes every distinction that was ever thought of in that kind. + +The emulation displayed by the deputations of various states, in +the presents which they made to him, rendered this success yet +more illustrious. The Ephesians erected a tent for him, adorned +magnificently; the city of Chios furnished him with provender for his +horses and with great numbers of beasts for sacrifice; and the Lesbians +sent him wine and other provisions for the many entertainments which he +made. + +As soon as he began to intermeddle in the government, which was when he +was very young, he quickly lessened the credit of all who aspired to +the confidence of the people, except Phaeax and Nicias, who alone could +contest with him. Nicias was arrived at a mature age, and was esteemed +their first general. Phaeax was but a rising statesman like Alcibiades; +he was descended from noble ancestors, but was his inferior in many +other things, but principally in eloquence. + +Alcibiades was not less disturbed at the distinction which Nicias gained +among the enemies of Athens, than at the honors which the Athenians +themselves paid to him. It was commonly said in Greece, that the war in +the Peloponnesus was begun by Pericles, and that Nicias made an end of +it, and the peace was generally called the peace of Nicias. Alcibiades +was extremely annoyed at this, and being full of envy, set himself to +break the league. First, therefore observing that the Argives as well +out of fear as hatred to the Lacedaemonians, sought for protection +against them, he gave them a secret assurance of alliance with Athens. +He exclaimed fiercely against Nicias, and accused him of many things, +which seemed probable enough: as that, when he was general, he made no +attempt himself to capture their enemies that were shut up in the isle +of Sphacteria, but, when they were afterwards made prisoners by others, +he procured their release and sent them back to the Lacedaemonians, only +to get favor with them. + +It happened, at the very time when Nicias was by these arts brought into +disgrace with the people, that ambassadors arrived from Lacedaemon, who, +at their first coming, said what seemed very satisfactory, declaring +that they had full powers to arrange all matters in dispute upon fair +and equal terms. The council received their propositions, and the people +was to assemble on the morrow to give them audience. Alcibiades grew +very apprehensive of this, and contrived to gain a secret conference +with the ambassadors. When they were met, he said: "What is it you +intend, you men of Sparta? If you expect to obtain equal terms from the +Athenians, and would not have things extorted from you contrary to +your inclinations, begin to treat with he people upon some reasonable +articles, not avowing yourselves plenipotentiaries; and I will be ready +to assist you, out of good-will to the Lacedaemonians." When he had said +this, he gave them his oath for the performance of what he promised, +and by this way drew them from Nicias to rely entirely upon himself, and +left them full of admiration of the discernment and sagacity they +had seen in him. The next day, when the people were assembled and +the ambassadors introduced, Alcibiades, with great apparent courtesy, +demanded of them: With what powers they had come? They made answer that +they had not come as plenipotentiaries. + +Instantly upon that, Alcibiades, with a loud voice, as though he +had received and not done the wrong, began to call them dishonest +prevaricators, and to urge that such men could not possibly come with +a purpose to say or do anything that was sincere. The council was +incensed, the people were in a rage, and Nicias, who knew nothing of +the deceit and the imposture, was in the greatest confusion, equally +surprised and ashamed at such a change in the men. So thus the +Lacedaemonian ambassadors were utterly rejected, and Alcibiades was +declared general, who presently united the Argives, the Eleans, and the +people of Mantinea, into a confederacy with the Athenians. + +No man commended the method by which Alcibiades effected all this, +yet it was a great political feat thus to divide and shake almost +all Peloponnesus, and to combine so many men in arms against the +Lacedaemonians in one day before Mantinea; and, moreover, to remove the +war and the danger so far from the frontier of the Athenians, that even +success would profit the enemy but little, should they be conquerors, +whereas, if they were defeated, Sparta itself was hardly safe. + +But with all these words and deeds, and with all this sagacity and +eloquence, he intermingled exorbitant luxury and wantonness in his +eating and drinking and dissolute living; wore long purple robes like +a woman, which dragged after him as he went through the market-place; +caused the planks of his galley to be cut away, that so he might lie the +softer, his bed not being placed on the boards, but hanging upon girths. +His shield, again, which was richly gilded, had not the usual ensigns +of the Athenians, but a Cupid, holding a thunderbolt in his hand, was +painted upon it. The sight of all this made the people of good repute +in the city feel disgust and abhorrence and apprehension also, at his +free-living, and his contempt of law, as things monstrous in themselves, +and indicating designs of usurpation. Aristophanes has well expressed +the people's feeling towards him:-- + + "They love, and hate, and cannot do without him." + +And still more strongly, under a figurative expression, + + "Best rear no lion in your state, 't is true; + But treat him like a lion if you do." + +The truth is, his liberalities, his public shows, and other munificence +to the people, which were such as nothing could exceed, the glory of +his ancestors, the force of his eloquence, the grace of his person, +his strength of body, joined with his great courage and knowledge in +military affairs, prevailed upon the Athenians to endure patiently his +excesses, to indulge him in many things, and, according to their habit, +to give the softest names to his faults, attributing them to youth +and good nature. As, for example, he kept Agatharcus, the painter, a +prisoner till he had painted his whole house, but then dismissed him +with a reward. He publicly struck Taureas, who exhibited certain +shows in opposition to him, and contended with him for the prize. When +Aristophon, the artist, had drawn Nemea sitting and holding Alcibiades +in her arms, the multitude seemed pleased with the piece, and thronged +to see it, but elder people did not relish it, but looked on these +things as enormities, and movements toward tyranny. So that it was +not said amiss by Archestratus, that Greece could not support a second +Alcibiades. Once, when Alcibiades succeeded well in an oration which he +made, and the whole assembly attended upon him to do him honor, Timon, +the misanthrope, did not pass slightly by him, nor avoid him, as he did +others, but purposely met him, and, taking him by the hand, said, "Go +on boldly, my son, and increase in credit with the people, for thou wilt +one day bring them calamities enough." Some that were present laughed at +the saying, and some reviled Timon; but there were others upon whom it +made a deep impression. + +The Athenians, even in the lifetime of Pericles, had already cast a +longing eye upon Sicily; but did not attempt any thing till after his +death. Then, under pretence of aiding their confederates, they sent +succor upon all occasions to those who were oppressed by the Syracusans, +preparing the way for sending over a greater force. But Alcibiades +was the person who inflamed this desire of theirs to the height, and +prevailed with them no longer to proceed secretly, and little by little, +in their design, but to sail out with a great fleet, and undertake at +once to make themselves masters of the island. He possessed the people +with great hopes, and he himself entertained yet greater; and the +conquest of Sicily, which was the utmost bound of their ambition, was +but the mere outset of his expectation. Nicias endeavored to divert the +people from the expedition, by representing to them that the taking of +Syracuse would be a work of great difficulty; but Alcibiades dreamed +of nothing less than the conquest of Carthage and Libya and by the +accession of these conceiving himself at once made master of Italy +and of Peloponnesus, seemed to look upon Sicily as little more than a +magazine for the war. The young men were soon elevated with these hopes, +and listened gladly to those of riper years, who talked wonders of +the countries they were going to; so that you might see great numbers +sitting in the wrestling grounds and public places, drawing on the +ground the figure of the island and the situation of Libya and Carthage. + +Together with Alcibiades, Nicias, much against his will, was appointed +general: and he endeavored to avoid the command, not the less on account +of his colleague. But the Athenians thought the war would proceed more +prosperously, if they did not send Alcibiades free from all restraint, +but tempered his heat with the caution of Nicias. This they chose the +rather to do, because Lamachus, the third general, though he was of +mature years, yet in several battles had appeared no less hot and rash +than Alcibiades himself. When all things were fitted for the voyage, +many unlucky omens appeared. The mutilation of the images of Mercury, +most of which, in one night, had their faces all disfigured, terrified +many persons who were wont to despise most things of that nature. Alike +enraged and terrified at the thing, looking upon it to proceed from a +conspiracy of persons who designed some commotions in the state, +the council, as well as the assembly of the people, which was held +frequently in a few days' space, examined diligently every thing +that might administer ground for suspicion. During this examination, +Androcles, one of the demagogues, produced slaves and strangers before +them, who accused Alcibiades and some of his friends of defacing other +images in the same manner, and of having profanely acted the sacred +mysteries at a drunken meeting. The people were highly exasperated +and incensed against Alcibiades upon this accusation. But when they +perceived that all the seamen designed for Sicily were for him, and +the soldiers declared that they had undertaken this distant maritime +expedition for the sake of Alcibiades, and that, if he was ill-used, +they would all go home; they let him set sail at once, and decided +that when the war should be at an end, he might then in person make his +defence according to the laws. + +Alcibiades perceived the malice of this postponement, and, appearing in +the assembly, represented that it was monstrous for him to be sent with +the command of so large an army, when he lay under such accusations and +calumnies. But he could not prevail with the people, who commanded him +to sail immediately. So he departed, together with the other generals, +having with them near 140 galleys, 5,100 men at arms, and about 1,300 +archers, slingers, and light-armed men, and all the other provisions +corresponding. + +Arriving on the coast of Italy, he landed at Rhegium, and there stated +his views of the manner in which they ought to conduct the war. He was +opposed by Nicias; but Lamachus being of his opinion, they sailed for +Sicily forthwith, and took Catana. This was all that was done while he +was there, for he was soon after recalled by the Athenians to abide +his trial. At first, as we before said, there were only some slight +suspicions advanced against Alcibiades. But afterwards, in his absence, +his enemies attacked him more violently, and confounded together the +breaking the images with the profanation of the mysteries, as though +both had been committed in pursuance of the same conspiracy for changing +the government. The truth is, his accusers alleged nothing against him +which could be positively proved. One of them, being asked how he knew +the men who defaced the images, replied, that he saw them by the light +of the moon, making a palpable misstatement, for it was just new moon +when the act was committed. This made all men of understanding cry out +upon the thing; but the people were as eager as ever to receive +further accusations. And, in conclusion, they sent the galley named the +Salaminian to recall Alcibiades. But they expressly commanded those that +were sent, to use no violence, nor seize upon his person, but address +themselves to him in the mildest terms, requiring him to follow them to +Athens in order to abide his trial, and clear himself before the people. +For they feared mutiny and sedition in the army in an enemy's country, +which indeed it would have been easy for Alcibiades to effect, if he +had wished it. For the soldiers were dispirited upon his departure, +expecting for the future tedious delays, and that the war would be drawn +out into a lazy length by Nicias, when Alcibiades, who was the spur to +action, was taken away. For though Lamachus was a soldier, and a man +of courage, poverty deprived him of authority and respect in the army. +Alcibiades, just upon his departure, prevented Messena from falling into +the hands of the Athenians. There were some in that city who were +upon the point of delivering it up, but he, knowing the persons, gave +information to some friends of the Syracusans, and so defeated the whole +contrivance. When he arrived at Thurii, he went on shore, and concealing +himself there, escaped those who searched after him. But to one who knew +him, and asked him if he durst not trust his own native country, he made +answer, "In every thing else, yes; but in a matter that touches my life, +I would not even my own mother, lest she might by mistake throw in the +black ball instead of the white." When, afterwards, he was told that the +assembly had pronounced judgment of death against him, all he said was +"I will make them feel that I am alive." + +The information against him was framed in this form:--"Thessalus lays +information that Alcibiades has committed a crime against the goddesses +Ceres and Proserpine, by representing in derision the holy mysteries, +and showing them to his companions in his own house." + +He was condemned as contumacious upon his not appearing, his property +confiscated, and it was decreed that all the priests and priestesses +should solemnly curse him. + +Alcibiades, lying under these heavy decrees and sentences, when he fled +from Thurii, passed over into Peloponnesus, and remained some time at +Argos. But being there in fear of his enemies and seeing himself utterly +hopeless of return to his native country, he sent to Sparta, desiring +safe conduct, and assuring them that he would make them amends by his +future services for all the mischief he had done them while he was their +enemy. The Spartans giving him the security he desired, he went eagerly, +was well received, and, at his very first coming, succeeded in +inducing them, without any further caution or delay, to send aid to +the Syracusans; and so roused and excited them, that they forthwith +despatched Gylippus into Sicily, to crush the forces which the Athenians +had in Sicily. A second point was, to renew the war upon the Athenians +at home. But the third thing, and the most important of all, was to +make them fortify Decelea, which above everything reduced and wasted the +resources of the Athenians. + +The renown which he earned by these public services was equaled by the +admiration he attracted to his private life; he captivated and won +over everybody by his conformity to Spartan habits. People who saw him +wearing his hair close cut, bathing in cold water, eating coarse meal, +and dining on black broth, doubted, or rather could not believe, that he +ever had a cook in his house, or had ever seen a perfumer, or had worn a +mantle of Milesian purple. For he had, as it was observed, this peculiar +talent for gaining men's affections, that he could at once comply with +and really enter into their habits and ways of life, and change faster +than the chameleon. One color, indeed, they say the chameleon cannot +assume; it cannot make itself appear white; but Alcibiades, whether with +good men or with bad, could adapt himself to his company, and equally +wear the appearance of virtue or vice. At Sparta, he was devoted to +athletic exercises, was frugal and reserved; in Ionia, luxurious, +gay, and indolent; in Thrace, always drinking; in Thessaly, ever on +horseback; and when he lived with Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap, he +exceeded the Persians, themselves in magnificence and pomp. Not that his +natural disposition changed so easily, nor that his real character was +so very variable, but whenever he was sensible that by pursuing his own +inclinations he might give offence to those with whom he had occasion to +converse, he transformed himself into any shape and adopted any fashion, +that he observed to be most agreeable to them. So that to have seen +him at Lacedaemon, a man, judging by the outward appearance, would +have said, "'T is not Achilles' son, but he himself, the very man" that +Lycurgus designed to form. + +After the defeat which the Athenians received in Sicily, ambassadors +were despatched to Sparta at once from Chios and Lesbos and Cyzicus, +to signify their purpose of revolting from the Athenians. But the +Lacedaemonians, at the persuasion of Alcibiades, chose to assist Chios +before all others. He himself, also, went instantly to sea, procured +the immediate revolt of almost all Ionia, and, co-operating with the +Lacedaemonian generals, did great mischief to the Athenians. But +King Agis was his enemy, and impatient of his glory, as almost every +enterprise and every success was ascribed to Alcibiades. Others, also, +of the most powerful and ambitious amongst the Spartans, were possessed +with jealousy of him, and, at last, prevailed with the magistrates in +the city to send orders into Ionia that he should be killed. Alcibiades, +however, had secret intelligence of this, and, in apprehension of the +result, while he communicated all affairs to the Lacedaemonians, yet +took care not to put himself into their power. At last he retired to +Tissaphernes, the satrap of the king of Persia, for his security, and +immediately became the first and most influential person about him. +For this barbarian, not being himself sincere, but a lover of guile and +wickedness, admired his address and wonderful subtlety. And, indeed, the +charm of daily intercourse with him was more than any character could +resist or any disposition escape. Even those who feared and envied him +could not but have a sort of kindness for him, when they saw him and +were in his company. So that Tissaphernes, otherwise a cruel character, +and, above all other Persians, a hater of the Greeks, was yet so won by +the flatteries of Alcibiades, that he set himself even to exceed him +in responding to them. The most beautiful of his parks, containing +salubrious streams and meadows, where he had built pavilions, and places +of retirement royally and exquisitely adorned, received by his direction +the name of Alcibiades, and was always so called and so spoken of. + +Thus Alcibiades, quitting the interests of the Spartans, whom he could +no longer trust, because he stood in fear of Agis, endeavored to do them +ill offices, and render them odious to Tissaphernes, who, by his means, +was hindered from assisting them vigorously, and from finally ruining +the Athenians. For his advice was to furnish them but sparingly with +money, and so wear them out, and consume them insensibly; when they had +wasted their strength upon one another, they would both become ready to +submit to the king. + +At that time the whole strength of the Athenians was in Samos. Their +fleet maintained itself here, and issued from these head-quarters to +reduce such as had revolted, and protect the rest of their territories; +in one way or other still contriving to be a match for their enemies +at sea. What they stood in fear of, was Tissaphernes and the Phoenician +fleet of one hundred and fifty galleys, which was said to be already +under sail; if those came, there remained then no hopes for the +commonwealth of Athens. Understanding this, Alcibiades sent secretly +to the chief men of the Athenians, who were then at Samos, giving them +hopes, that he would make Tissaphernes their friend; he was willing, he +implied, to do some favor, not to the people, nor in reliance upon them, +but to the better citizens, if only, like brave men, they would make +the attempt to put down the insolence of the people, and, by taking upon +them the government, would endeavor to save the city from ruin. All +of them gave a ready ear to the proposal made by Alcibiades, except +Phrynichus of the township of Dirades, despatched Pisander to Athens +to attempt a change of government, and to encourage the aristocratical +citizens to take upon themselves the government, and overthrow the +democracy, representing to them, that, upon these terms, Alcibiades +would procure them the friendship and alliance of Tissaphernes. + +Those who were at Samos set sail for the Piraeus; and, sending for +Alcibiades declared him general. He, however, in that juncture did not, +as it might have been thought a man would, on being suddenly exalted by +the favor of a multitude, think himself under an obligation to gratify +and submit to all the wishes of those who, from a fugitive and an exile, +had created him general of so great an army and given him the command of +such a fleet. But, as became a great captain, he opposed himself to +the precipitate resolutions which their rage led them to, and, by +restraining them from the great error they were about to commit, +unequivocally saved the commonwealth. For if they had then sailed to +Athens, all Ionia and the islands and the Hellespont would have fallen +into the enemies' hands without opposition, while the Athenians, +involved in civil war, would have been fighting with one another within +the circuit of their own walls. It was Alcibiades alone, or, at least, +principally, who prevented all this mischief; for he not only used +persuasion to the whole army, and showed them the danger, but applied +himself to them, one by one, entreating some, and constraining others. +He was much assisted, however, by Thrasybulus of Stiria, who, having the +loudest voice, as we are told, of all the Athenians, went along with +him and cried out to those who were ready to go. A second great service +which Alcibiades did for them was his undertaking that the Phoenician +fleet, which the Lacedaemonians expected to be sent to them by the king +of Persia, should either come in aid of the Athenians, or otherwise +should not come at all. And now the people in the city not only desired, +but commanded Alcibiades to return home from his exile. He, however, +desired not to owe his return to the mere grace and commiseration of the +people, and resolved to come back, not with empty hands, but with glory +and after some service done. To this end, he sailed from Samos with a +few ships, and cruised on the sea of Cnidos and about the isle of Cos; +but receiving intelligence there that Mindarus, the Spartan admiral, had +sailed with his whole army into the Hellespont, and that the Athenians +had followed him, he hurried back to succor the Athenian commanders, +and, by good fortune, arrived with eighteen galleys at a critical time. +For both the fleets having engaged near Abydos, the fight between them +had lasted till night, the one side having the advantage on one quarter, +and the other on another. Upon his first appearance, both sides formed a +false impression; the enemy was encouraged, and the Athenians terrified. +But Alcibiades suddenly raised the Athenian ensign in the admiral +ship, and fell upon those galleys of the Peloponnesians which had the +advantage and were in pursuit. He soon put these to flight, and followed +them so close that he forced them on shore, and broke the ships in +pieces, the sailors abandoning them and swimming away, in spite of all +the efforts of Pharnabazus, who had come down to their assistance by +land, and did what he could to protect them from the shore. In fine, the +Athenians, having taken thirty of the enemy's ships, and recovered all +their own, erected a trophy. After the gaining of so glorious a victory +his vanity made him eager to show himself to Tissaphernes, and, having +furnished himself with gifts and presents, and an equipage suitable to +his dignity, he set out to visit him. But the thing did not succeed +as he had imagined, for Tissaphernes had long been suspected by the +Lacedaemonians, and was afraid to fall into disgrace with his king +upon that account, therefore thinking that Alcibiades had arrived +very opportunely, he immediately caused him to be seized and sent away +prisoner to Sardis; fancying, by this act of injustice, to clear himself +from all former imputations. + +But about thirty days after, Alcibiades escaped from his keepers, and, +having got a horse, fled to Clazomenae, where he procured Tissaphernes +additional disgrace by professing that he was a party to his escape. +From there he sailed to the Athenian camp, and, being informed that +Mindarus and Pharnabazus were together at Cyzicus, he made a speech to +the soldiers, telling them that sea-fighting, land-fighting, and, by the +gods, fighting against fortified cities too, must be all one for them, +as, unless they conquered everywhere, there was no money for them. As +soon as he got them on ship-board, he hastened to Proconnesus and gave +command to seize all the small vessels they met, and guard them safely +in the interior of the fleet, that the enemy might have no notice of +his coming; and a great storm of rain, accompanied with thunder and +darkness, which happened at the same time, contributed much to the +concealment of his enterprise. Indeed, it was not only undiscovered +by the enemy, but the Athenians themselves were ignorant of it, for he +commanded them suddenly on board, and set sail when they had abandoned +all intention of it. As the darkness presently passed away, the +Peloponnesian fleet were seen riding out at sea in front of the harbor +of Cyzicus. Fearing, if they discovered the number of his ships, they +might endeavor to save themselves by land, he commanded the rest of the +captains to slacken, and follow him slowly, whilst he, advancing with +forty ships, showed himself to the enemy and provoked them to fight. The +enemy, being deceived as to their numbers, despised them, and, supposing +they were to contend with those only, made ready and began the fight. +But as soon as they were engaged, they perceived the other part of the +fleet coming down upon them, at which they were so terrified that they +fled immediately. Upon that, Alcibiades, breaking through the midst of +them with twenty of his best ships, hastened to the shore, disembarked, +and pursued those who abandoned their ships and fled to land, and made +a great slaughter of them. Mindarus and Pharnabazus, coming to their +succor were utterly defeated. Mindarus was slain fighting valiantly; +Pharnabazus saved himself by flight. The Athenians slew great numbers of +their enemies, won much spoil, and took all their ships. They also made +themselves masters of Cyzicus, which was deserted by Pharnabazus, and +destroyed its Peloponnesian garrison, and thereby not only secured to +themselves the Hellespont, but by force drove the Lacedaemonians out of +all the rest of the sea. They intercepted some letters written to the +ephors, which gave an account of this fatal overthrow, after their +short, Iaconic manner. "Our hopes are at an end. Mindarus is slain. The +men are starving. We know not what to do." + +And now Alcibiades began to desire to see his native country again, +or rather to show his fellow-citizens a person who had gained so many +victories for them. He set sail for Athens, the ships that accompanied +him being adorned with great numbers of shields and other spoils, and +towing after them many galleys taken from the enemy, and the ensigns and +ornaments of many others which he had sunk and destroyed; all of them +together amounting to two hundred. Little credit, perhaps, can be given +to what Duris the Samian, who professed to be descended from Alcibiades, +adds, that Chrysogonus, who had gained a victory at the Pythian games, +played upon his flute for the galleys, whilst the oars kept time with +the music; and that Callippides, the tragedian, attired in his buskins, +his purple robes, and other ornaments used in the theatre, gave the word +to the rowers, and that the admiral's galley entered into the port with +a purple sail. It is not credible, that one who had returned from so +long an exile, and such a variety of misfortunes, should come to his +countrymen in the style of revelers breaking up from a drinking-party. +On the contrary, he entered the harbor full of fear, nor would he +venture to go on shore, till, standing on the deck, he saw Euryptolemus, +his cousin, and others of his friends and acquaintance, who were ready +to receive him, and invited him to land. As soon as he was landed, the +multitude who came out to meet him scarcely appeared to see any of the +other captains, but came in throngs about Alcibiades, and saluted him +with loud acclamations, and followed him; those who could press near him +crowned him with garlands, and they who could not come up so close yet +stayed to behold him afar off, and the old men pointed him out to the +young ones. Nevertheless, this public joy was mixed with some tears, and +the present happiness was diminished by the remembrance of the miseries +they had endured. They made reflections, that they could not have so +unfortunately miscarried in Sicily, if they had left the management of +their affairs and the command of their forces, to Alcibiades, since, +upon his undertaking the administration, when they were absolutely +driven from the sea, and could scarcely defend the suburbs of their city +by land, and at the same time, were miserably distracted with intestine +factions, he had raised them up from this low and deplorable condition, +and had not only restored them to their ancient dominion of the sea, but +had also made them everywhere victorious over their enemies on land. + +The people being summoned to an assembly, Alcibiades came in among them, +and first bewailed and lamented his own sufferings, and, in general +terms complaining of the usage he had received, imputed all to his hard +fortune, and some ill genius that attended him: then he spoke at large +of their prospects, and exhorted them to courage and good hope. The +people crowned him with crowns of gold, and created him general, both +at land and sea, with absolute power. They also made a decree that his +estate should be restored to him, and that the Eumolpiadae and the +holy heralds should absolve him from the curses which they had solemnly +pronounced against him by the sentence of the people. All the rest +obeyed, but Theodorus, the high-priest, excused himself, "For," said he, +"if he is innocent, I never cursed him." + +Certainly, if ever man was ruined by his own glory, it was Alcibiades. +For his continual success had produced such an idea of his courage and +conduct, that, if he failed in anything he undertook, it was imputed to +his neglect, and no one would believe it was through want of power. For +they thought nothing was too hard for him, if he went about it in good +earnest. Now, having departed with a fleet of one hundred ships for the +reduction of Chios, and of the rest of Ionia, the people grew impatient +that things were not effected as fast and as rapidly as they could wish +for them. They never considered how extremely money was wanting, and +that, having to carry on war with an enemy who had supplies of all +things from a great king, he was often forced to quit his armament, +in order to procure money and provisions for the subsistence of his +soldiers. This very thing gave occasion for the last accusation which +was made against him. For Lysander, being sent from Lacedaemon with a +commission to be admiral of their fleet, and being furnished by Cyrus +with a great sum of money, gave every sailor four obols a day, whereas +before thy had but three. Alcibiades could hardly allow his men three +obols, and therefore was obliged to go into Caria to furnish himself +with money. He left the care of the fleet, in his absence, to Antiochus, +an experienced seaman, but rash and inconsiderate, who had express +orders from Alcibiades not to engage, though the enemy provoked him. +But he slighted and disregarded these directions to such a degree that, +having made ready his own galley and another, he stood for Ephesus, +where the enemy lay, and, as he sailed before the heads of their +galleys, used every provocation possible, both in words and deeds. +Lysander manned out a few ships and pursued him. But all the Athenian +ships coming in to his assistance, Lysander, also, brought up his whole +fleet, which gained an entire victory. He slew Antiochus himself, took +many men and ships, and erected a trophy. + +As soon as Alcibiades heard this news, he returned to Samos, and loosing +from thence with his whole fleet, came and offered battle to Lysander. +But Lysander, content with the victory he had gained, would not stir. +Amongst others in the army who hated Alcibiades, Thrasybulus, the son +of Thrason, was his particular enemy, and went purposely to Athens +to accuse him, and to exasperate his enemies in the city against him. +Addressing the people, he represented that Alcibiades had ruined their +affairs and lost their ships by mere self-conceited neglect of his +duties, committing the government of the army, in his absence, to men +who gained his favor by drinking and scurrilous talking, whilst he +wandered up and down at pleasure to raise money, giving himself up to +every sort of luxury in Abydos and Ionia, at a time when the enemy's +navy were on the watch close at hand. It was also objected to him, that +he had fortified a castle near Bisanthe in Thrace, for a safe retreat +for himself, as one that either could not, or would not, live in his own +country. The Athenians gave credit to these informations, and showed +the resentment and displeasure which they had conceived against him, by +choosing other generals. + +As soon as Alcibiades heard of this, he immediately forsook the army, +afraid of what might follow; and, collecting a body of mercenary +soldiers, made war upon his own account against those Thracians who +called themselves free, and acknowledged no king. By this means he +amassed for himself considerable treasure, and, at the same time, +secured the bordering Greeks from the incursions of the barbarians. +Tydeus, Menander, and Adimantus, the newly made generals, were at that +time posted at Aegospotami, with all the ships which the Athenians +had left. Whence they used to go out every morning, offer battle to +Lysander, who lay near Lampsacus, and, returning back again, lie all the +rest of the day, carelessly and without order, in contempt of the enemy. +Alcibiades, who was not far off, did not think so lightly of their +danger, nor neglect to let them know it, but, mounting his horse, came +to the generals, and represented to them that they had chosen a very +inconvenient station, where there was no safe harbor, and where they +were distant from any town; so that they were constrained to send for +their necessary provisions as far as Sestos. He also pointed out to them +their carelessness in suffering the soldiers, when they went ashore, +disperse and wander up and down at their pleasure, while the enemy's +fleet under the command of one general, and strictly obedient to +discipline, lay so very near them. He advised them to remove the fleet +to Sestos. But the admirals not only disregarded what he said, but +Tydeus, with insulting expressions, commanded him to be gone saying, +that now not he, but others, had the command of the forces. The event, +soon made it evident how rightly he had judged of the errors which the +Athenians were committing. For Lysander fell upon them on a sudden, when +they least suspected it, with such fury that Conon alone, with eight +galleys, escaped him; all the rest, about two hundred, he took and +carried away, together with three thousand prisoners, whom he put to +death. And within a short time after, he took Athens itself, burnt +all the ships which he found there, demolished their long walls, and +established the rule of the Thirty Tyrants. + +After this, Alcibiades, standing in dread of the Lacedaemonians, who +were now masters both at sea and land, retired into Bithynia. He sent +there great treasure before him, took much with him, but left much more +in the castle where he had before resided. But he lost a great part +of his wealth in Bithynia, being robbed by some Thracians who lived in +those parts, and thereupon determined to go to the court of Artaxerxes, +not doubting but that the king, if he would make trial of his abilities, +would find him not inferior to Themistocles, besides being recommended +by a more honorable cause. For he went, not as Themistocles did, +to offer his service against his fellow-citizens, but against their +enemies, and to implore the king's aid for the defence of his country. +The Athenians, in the meantime, miserably afflicted at their loss of +empire and liberty, acknowledged and bewailed their former errors and +follies, and judged this second ill-usage of Alcibiades to be of all the +most inexcusable. For he was rejected, without any fault committed by +himself; and only because they were incensed against his subordinate +for having shamefully lost a few ships, they were much more shamefully +deprived the commonwealth of its most valiant and accomplished general. + +Critias finally represented to Lysander that the Lacedaemonians could +never securely enjoy the dominion of Greece, till the Athenian democracy +was absolutely destroyed; and though now the people of Athens seemed +quietly and patiently to submit to so small a number of governors, yet +so long as Alcibiades lived, the knowledge of this fact would never +suffer them to acquiesce in their present circumstances. + +Yet Lysander could not be prevailed upon by these representation, till +at last he received secret orders from the magistrates of Lacedaemon, +expressly requiring him to get Alcibiades despatched: whether it +was that they feared his energy and boldness in undertaking what was +hazardous, or that it was done to gratify king Agis. Upon receipt of +this order, Lysander sent a messenger away to Pharnabazus, desiring +him to put it in execution. Alcibiades resided at that time in a small +village in Phrygia. Those who were sent to assassinate him had not +courage enough to enter the house, but surrounded it first, and set it +on fire. Alcibiades, as soon as he perceived it, wrapped his cloak about +his left arm, and holding his naked sword in his right, cast himself +into the middle of the fire, and escaped securely through it, before his +clothes were burnt. The barbarians, as soon as they saw him, retreated, +and none of them durst engage with him, but standing at a distance, they +slew him with their darts and arrows. + + + + +CORIOLANUS + +The patrician house of the Marcii in Rome produced many men of +distinction, and among the rest, Ancus Marcius, grandson to Numa by his +daughter, and king after Tulus Hostillus. Of the same family were also +Publius and Quintus Marcius, which two conveyed into the city the best +and most abundant supply of water they have at Rome. But Caius Marcius, +of whom I now write, being left an orphan, and brought up under the +widowhood of his mother, has shown us by experience, that, although the +early loss of a father may be attended with other disadvantages, yet it +can hinder none from being either virtuous or eminent in the world, and +that it is no obstacle to true goodness and excellence. Those who saw +with admiration how proof his nature was against pleasure, hardships, +and the allurements of gain, while allowing to that universal firmness +of his the respective names of temperance, fortitude, and justice, yet, +in the life of the citizen and the statesman, could not but be +offended at the severity and ruggedness of his deportment, and with his +overbearing, haughty, and imperious temper. + +Those were times at Rome in which that kind of worth was most esteemed +which displayed itself in military achievements; one evidence of which +we find in the Latin word for virtue, which is properly equivalent to +many courage. But Marcius, having a more passionate inclination than any +of that age for feats of war, began from his very childhood to handle +arms; and feeling that adventitious implements and artificial arms would +be of small use to such as have not their natural weapons well prepared +for services, he so exercised and inured his body to all sorts of +activity and accouter, that, besides the lightness of a racer, he had a +weight in close seizures and wrestlings with an enemy, from which it was +hard for anybody to disengage himself; so that his competitors at +home in displays of bravery, loath to own themselves inferior in that +respect, were wont to ascribe their deficiencies to his strength of +body, which they said no resistance and no fatigue could exhaust. + +The first time he went out to the wards, being yet a stripling, was +when Tarquinius Superbus, who had been king of Rome and was afterwards +expelled, after many unsuccessful attempts now entered upon his last +effort, and proceeded to hazard all as it were upon a single throw. +A great number of the Latins and other people of Italy joined their +forces, and were marching with him toward the city, to procure his +restoration; not, however, so much out of a desire to serve and oblige +Tarquin, as to gratify their own fear and envy at the increase of the +Roman greatness, which they were anxious to check. The armies met and +engaged in a decisive battle, in the vicissitudes of which, Marcius, +while fighting bravely in the dictator's presence, saw a Roman soldier +struck down at a little distance, and immediately stepped in before him, +and slew his assailant. The general, after having gained the victory, +crowned him for this act with a garland of oak branches; it being the +Roman custom thus to adorn those who had saved the life of a citizen; +whether the law intended some special honor to the oak, in memory of +the Arcadians, a people the oracle had made famous by the name of +acorn-eaters; or, the oak wreath, being sacred to Jupiter, the guardian +of the city, might, therefore be thought a proper ornament for one who +preserved a citizen. And the oak, in truth, is the tree which bears the +most and the prettiest of any that grow wild, and is the strongest of +all that are under cultivation; its acorns were the principal diet of +the first mortals, and the honey found in it gave them drink. + +In this battle it is stated that Castor and Pollux appeared, and, +immediately after the battle, were seen at Rome just by the fountain +where their temple now stands, with their horses foaming with sweat, and +told the news of the victory of the people in the Forum. The fifteenth +of July, being the day of this conquest, became consequently a solemn +holiday sacred to the Twin Brothers. + +It may be observed, in general, that when young men arrive early at fame +and repute, if they are of a nature but slightly touched with emulation, +this early attainment is apt to extinguish their thirst and satiate +their small appetite; whereas the first distinctions of more solid and +weighty characters only stimulate and quicken them, and take them away, +like a wind, in the pursuit of honor; they look upon these marks and +testimonies to their virtue not as a recompense received for what they +have already done, but as a pledge given by themselves of what they will +perform hereafter, ashamed now to forsake or underlive the credit they +have won, or, rather, not to exceed and obscure all that is gone before +by the lustre of their following actions. Marcius, having a spirit +of this noble make, was ambitious always to surpass himself, and did +nothing, how extraordinary soever, but he thought he was bound to outdo +it at the next occasion; and ever desiring to give continual fresh +instances of his prowess, he added one exploit to another, and heaped up +trophies upon trophies, so as to make it a matter of contest also among +his commanders, the latter still vying with the earlier, which should +pay him the greatest honor and speak highest in his commendation. Of all +the numerous wars and conflicts in those days, there was not one from +which he returned without laurels and rewards. And, whereas others made +glory the end of their daring, the end of his glory was his mother's +gladness; the delight we took to hear him praised and to see him +crowned, and her weeping for joy in his embraces, rendered him, in +his own thoughts, the most honored and most happy person in the world. +Epaminondas is similarly said to have acknowledged his feeling, that it +was the greatest felicity of his whole life that his father and mother +survived to hear of his successful generalship and his victory at +Leuctra. And he had the advantage, indeed, to have both his parents +partake with him, and enjoy the pleasure of his good fortune. But +Marcius, believing himself bound to pay his mother Volumnia all that +gratitude and duty which would have belonged to his father, had he also +been alive, could never satiate himself in his tenderness and respect to +her. He took a wife, also, at her request and wish, and continued, +even after he had children, to live with his mother, without parting +families. + +The repute of his integrity and courage had, by this time, gained him +considerable influence and authority in Rome, when the senate, favoring +the wealthier citizens, began to be at variance with the common people, +who made sad complaints of the rigorous and inhuman usage they received +from the money-lenders. + +There had been frequent assemblies of the whole senate within a small +compass of time about this difficulty, but without any definite result; +the poor commonality, therefore, perceiving there was likely to be no +redress of their grievances, collected in a body, and, encouraging each +other in their resolution, forsook the city with one accord, and seizing +the hill which is now called the Holy Mount, sat down by the river Anio, +without committing any sort of violence or seditious outrage, but merely +exclaiming, as they went along, that they had this long time past been +expelled from the city by the cruelty of the rich; that Italy would +everywhere afford them the benefit of air and water and a place of +burial, which was all they could expect in the city, unless it were +perhaps, the privilege of being wounded and killed in time of war +for the defence of their creditors. The senate apprehending the +consequences, sent the most moderate and popular men of their own order +to treat with them. + +Menenius Agrippa, their chief spokesman, after much entreaty to the +people, concluded, at length, with this celebrated fable: "It once +happened, that all the other members of a man mutinied against the +stomach, which they accused as the only idle, uncontributing part in the +whole body, while the rest were put to hardships and the expense of +much labor to minister to its appetites. The stomach, however, merely +ridiculed the silliness of the members, who appeared not to be aware +that the stomach certainly does receive the general nourishment, but +only to return it again, and redistribute it amongst the rest. Such is +the case," he said, "citizens, between you and the senate. The counsels +and plans that are there duly digested, secure to all of you, your +proper benefit and support." + +A reconciliation ensued, the senate acceding to the request of the +people for the annual election of five protectors for those in need of +succor, the same that are now called the tribunes of the people; and the +first two they pitched upon were Junius Brutus and Sicinnius Vellutus, +their leaders in the secession. + +The city being thus united, the commons stood presently to their arms, +and followed their commanders. + +The Romans were now at war with the Volscian nation, whose principal +city was Corioli; when, therefore, Cominius the consul had invested this +important place, the rest of the Volscians, fearing it would be taken, +mustered up whatever force they could from all parts, to relieve it, +designing to give the Romans battle before the city, and so attack them +on both sides. Cominius, to avoid this inconvenience, divided his army, +marching himself with one body to encounter the Volscians on their +approach from without, and leaving Titus Lartius, one of the bravest +Romans of his time, to command the other and continue the siege. Those +within Corioli, despising now the smallness of their number, made a +sally upon them, and prevailed at first, and pursued the Romans into +their trenches. Here it was that Marcius, flying out with a slender +company, and cutting those in pieces that first enraged him, obliged +the other assailants to slacken their speed; and then, with loud cries, +called upon the Romans to renew the battle. For he had, what Cato +thought a great point in a soldier, not only strength of hand and +stroke, but also a voice and look that of themselves were a terror to +an enemy. Some of his own party now rallying and making up to him, the +enemies soon retreated; but Marcius, not content to see them draw off +and retire, pressed hard upon the rear, and drove them, as they fled +away in haste, to the very gates of their city; where, perceiving the +Romans to fall back from their pursuit, beaten off by the multitude of +darts poured in upon them from the walls, and that none of his followers +had the hardiness to think of falling in pell-mell among the fugitives +and so entering a city full of enemies in arms, he, nevertheless, stood +and urged them to the attempt, crying out, that fortune had not opened +Corioli, not so much to shelter the vanquished, as to receive the +conquerors. Seconded by a few that were willing to venture with him, he +bore along through the crowd, made good his passage, and thrust himself +into the gate through the midst of them, nobody at first daring to +resist him. But when the citizens, on looking about, saw that a very +small number had entered, they now took courage, and came up and +attacked them. A combat ensued of the most extraordinary description, +in which Marcius, by strength of hand, swiftness of foot, and daring of +soul, overpowered every one that he assailed, succeeded in driving the +enemy to seek refuge, for the most part, in the interior of the town, +while the remainder submitted, and threw down their arms; thus affording +Lartius abundant opportunity to bring in the rest of the Romans with +ease and safety. + +Corioli being thus surprised and taken, the greater part of the +soldiers employed themselves in spoiling and pillaging it, while Marcius +indignantly reproached them, and exclaimed that it was a dishonorable +and unworthy thing, when the consul and their fellow-citizens had now +perhaps encountered the other Volscians, and were hazarding their lives +in battle, basely to mis-spend the time in running up and down for +booty, and, under a pretence of enriching themselves, keep out of +danger. Few paid him any attention, but, putting himself at the head of +these, he took the road by which the consul's army had marched before +him, encouraging his companions, and beseeching them, as they went +along, not to give up, and praying often to the gods, too, that he might +be so happy as to arrive before the fight was over, and come seasonably +up to assist Cominius, and partake in the peril of the action. + +It was customary with the Romans of that age, when they were moving into +battle array, and were on the point of taking up their bucklers, and +girding their coats about them, to make at the same time an unwritten +will, or verbal testament, and to name who should be their heirs, in +the hearing of three or four witnesses. In this precise posture Marcius +found them at his arrival, the enemy having advanced within view. + +They were not a little disturbed by his first appearance, seeing him +covered with blood and sweat, and attended with a small train; but when +he hastily made up to the consul with gladness in his looks, giving him +his hand, and recounting to him how the city had been taken, and when +they saw Cominius also embrace and salute him, every one took fresh +heart; those that were near enough hearing, and those that were at a +distance guessing, what had happened; and all cried out to be led to +battle. First, however, Marcius desired to know of him how the Volscians +had arrayed their army, and where they had placed their best men, and on +his answering that he took the troops of the Activates in the centre to +be their prime warriors, than would yield to none in bravery, "Let me +then demand and obtain of you," said Marcius, "that we may be posted +against them." The consul granted the request, with much admiration of +his gallantry. And when the conflict began by the soldiers darting +at each other, and Marcius sallied out before the rest the Volscians +opposed to him were not able to make head against him; wherever he fell +in, he broke their ranks, and made a lane through them; but the parties +turning again, and enclosing him on each side with their weapons, +the consul, who observed the danger he was in, despatched some of the +choicest men he had for his rescue. The conflict then growing warm and +sharp about Marcius, and many falling dead in a little space, the Romans +bore so hard upon the enemies, and pressed them with such violence, +that they forced them at length to abandon their ground, and to quit the +field. And, going now to prosecute the victory, they besought Marcius, +tired out with his toils, and faint and heavy through the loss of blood, +that he would retire to the camp. He replied, however, that weariness +was not for conquerors, and joined with them in the pursuit. The rest of +the Volscian army was in like manner defeated, great numbers killed, and +no less taken captive. + +The day after, when Marcius, with the rest of the army, presented +themselves at the consul's tent, Cominius rose, and having rendered +all due acknowledgment to the gods for the success of that enterprise, +turned next to Marcius, and first of all delivered the strongest +encomium upon his rare exploits, of which he had partly been an +eye-witness himself, in the late battle, and had partly learned from the +testimony of Lartius. And then he required him to choose a tenth part +of all the treasure and horses and captives that had fallen into their +hands, before any division should be made to others; besides which, he +made him the special present of a horse with trappings and ornaments, +in honor of his actions. The whole army applauded; Marcius, however, +stepped forth, and declaring his thankful acceptance of the horse and +his gratification at the praises of his general, said, that all other +things which he could only regard rather as mercenary advantages than +any significations of honor, he must waive, and should be content with +the ordinary proportion of such rewards. "I have only," said he "one +special grace to beg, and this I hope you will not deny me. There was a +certain hospitable friend of mine among the Volscians, a man of probity +and virtue, who is become a prisoner, and from former wealth and +freedom is now reduced to servitude. Among his many misfortunes let my +intercession redeem him from the one of being sold as a common slave." +Such a refusal and such a request on the part of Marcius were followed +with yet louder acclamations; and he had many more admirers of this +generous superiority to avarice, than of the bravery he had shown in +battle. The very persons who conceived some envy and despite to see him +so specially honored, could not but acknowledge, that one who so nobly +could refuse reward, was beyond others worth to receive it; and were +more charmed with that virtue which made him despise advantage, than +with any of those former actions that had gained him his title to it. It +is a higher accomplishment to use money well than to use arms; but not +to need it is more noble than to use it. + +When the noise of approbation and applause ceased, Cominius, resuming, +said, "It is idle, fellow-soldiers, to force those other gifts of ours +on one who is unwilling to accept them; let us, therefore, give him +one of such a kind that he cannot well reject it; let us pass a vote, +I mean, that he shall hereafter be called Coriolanus, unless you +think that his performance at Corioli has itself anticipated any such +resolution." Hence, therefore, he had his third name of Coriolanus, +making it all the plainer that Gaius was a personal proper name, and +the second, or surname, Marcius, one common to his house and family; the +third being a subsequent addition which used to be imposed either from +particular act or fortune, bodily characteristic, or good quality of the +bearer. + +Not long after Marcius stood for the consulship. It was usual for +candidates for office to solicit personally the citizens, presenting +themselves in the forum with the toga on alone, and no tunic under it; +either to promote their supplications by the humility of their dress, or +that such as had received wounds might more readily display those marks +of their fortitude. + +Marcius, therefore, as the fashion of candidates was, showing the scars +and gashes that were still visible on his body, from the many conflicts +in which he had signalized himself during a service of seventeen years +together, the people were affected at this display of merit, and told +one another that they ought in common modesty to create him consul. But +when the day of election had come, and Marcius appeared in the forum +with a pompous train of senators attending him, and the patricians all +seemed to be exerting greater effort than they had ever done before on a +similar occasion, the commons then fell off again from the kindness they +had conceived for him, and in the place of their late benevolence, began +to feel something of indignation and envy; passions assisted by the +fear they entertained, that if a man of such aristocratic temper, and +so influential among the patricians, should be invested with the power +which that office would give him, he might employ it to deprive the +people of all that liberty which was yet left them. In conclusion, +they rejected Marcius. Two other names were announced, to the great +mortification of the senators, who felt as if the indignity reflected +rather upon themselves than on Marcius. He, for his part, could not bear +the affront with any patience. He had always indulged his temper, and +had regarded the proud and contentious element of human nature as a sort +of nobleness and magnanimity; reason and discipline had not imbued +him with that solidity and equanimity which enter so largely into the +virtues for the statesman. He had never learned how essential it is +for any one who undertakes public business, and desires to deal with +mankind, to avoid above all things that self-will, which, as Plato says, +belongs to the family of solitude; and to pursue, above all things, +that capacity so generally ridiculed, of submission to ill-treatment. +Marcius, straightforward and direct, stand together, and come in to +their assistance. The assembly met, and soon became tumultuous. The sum +of what Marcius had spoken, having been reported to the people, excited +them to such fury, that they were ready to break in upon the senate. The +tribunes prevented this, by laying all the blame on Coriolanus, and they +accordingly cited him to come before them, and defend himself. + +He came, therefore, as it were, to make his apology, and clear himself; +in which belief the people kept silence, and gave him a quiet hearing. +But when instead of the submissive and deprecatory language expected +from him, he began to use not only an offensive kind of freedom, seeming +rather to accuse than apologize, but as well by the tone of his voice as +the expression of his countenance, displayed a security that was not +far from disdain and contempt of them, the whole multitude then became +angry, and gave evident signs of impatience and disgust; and Sicinnius, +the most violent of the tribunes, after a little private conference with +his colleagues, proceeded solemnly to pronounce before them all, that +Marcius was condemned to die by the tribunes of the people, and bid +the Aediles take him to the Tarpeian rock, and without delay throw him +headlong from the precipice. When they, however, in compliance with the +order, came to seize upon his body, many, even of the plebeian party, +felt it to be a horrible and extravagant act; the patricians, meantime, +wholly beside themselves with distress and horror, hurried with cries +to the rescue; and persuaded them not to despatch him by any sudden +violence, but refer the cause to the general suffrage of the people. +But when the people met together, the tribunes, contrary to all former +practice, extorted first, that votes should be taken, not by centuries, +but tribes; a change, by which the rabble, that had no respect for +honesty and justice, would be sure to carry it against those who were +rich and well known, and accustomed to serve the state in war. In the +next place, whereas they had engaged to prosecute Marcius upon no other +head but that of tyranny, which could never be made out against him, +they relinquished this plea, and urged instead, his language in the +senate against an abatement of the price of corn, and for the overthrow +of the tribunician power; adding further, as a new impeachment, the +distribution that was made by him of the spoil and booty he had taken +from the Antiates, when he overran their country, which he had divided +among those that had followed him, whereas it ought rather to have been +brought into the public treasure; which last accusation did, they say, +more discompose Marcius than all the rest, as he had not anticipated +he should ever be questioned on that subject, and, therefore, was less +provided with any satisfactory answer to it on the sudden. And when, +by way of excuse, he began to magnify the merits of those who had been +partakers with him in the action, those that had stayed at home, being +more numerous than the other, interrupted him with the outcries. In +conclusion, when they came to vote, a majority of three tribes condemned +him; the penalty being perpetual banishment. + +Marcius himself, was neither stunned nor humiliated. In mien, carriage, +and countenance, he bore the appearance of entire composure, and while +all his friends were full of distress, seemed the only man that was +not touched with his misfortune. On his return home, after saluting his +mother and his wife, who were in tears and full of loud lamentations, +and exhorting them to moderate the sense they had of his calamity, he +proceeded at once to the city gates, whither all the nobility came to +attend him; and not taking anything with him, or making any request to +the company, he departed from them, having only three or four clients +with him. He continued solitary for a few days in a place in the +country, distracted with a variety of counsels, such as rage and +indignation suggested to him; and proposing to himself no honorable +or useful end, but only how he might best satisfy his revenge on the +Romans, he resolved at length to arouse a heavy war against them from +their nearest neighbors. He determined, first to make trial of the +Volscians, whom he knew to be still vigorous and flourishing, both in +men and treasure, and he imagined their force and power was not so much +abated, as their spite and anger increased, by the late overthrows they +had received from the Romans. + +There was a man of Antium, called Tullus Aufidius, who, for his +wealth and bravery and the splendor of his family, had the respect and +privilege of a king among the Volscians, but whom Marcius knew to have +a particular hostility to himself, above all other Romans. Frequent +menaces and challenges had passed in battle between them, and those +exchanges of defiance to which their hot and eager emulation is apt +to prompt young soldiers had added private animosity to their national +feelings of opposition. Yet for all this, considering Tullus to have a +certain generosity of temper, and knowing that no Volscian, so much as +he, desired an occasion to requite upon the Romans the evils they had +done, he put on a dress which completely disguised him and thus, like +Ulysses,-- + + He entered the town of his mortal foes. + +His arrival at Antium was about evening, and though several met him in +the streets, yet he passed along without recognition, and went directly +to the house of Tullus, and entering undiscovered, went up to the +fire-hearth, and seated himself there without speaking a work, covering +up his head. Those of the family could not but wonder, and yet they were +afraid either to raise or question him, for there was a certain air of +majesty both in his posture and silence, but they recounted to Tullus, +then at supper, the strangeness of this accident. He immediately rose +from table and came in, and asked him who he was, and for what business +he came there; and then Marcius, unmuffling himself, and pausing awhile +said, "If you cannot yet call me to mind, Tullus, or do not believe your +eyes concerning me, I must of necessity be my own accuser. I am Gaius +Marcius, the author of so much mischief to the Volscians; of which, were +I seeking to deny it, the surname of Coriolanus I now bear would be a +sufficient evidence against me. The one recompense I received for +all the hardships and perils I have gone through, was the title that +proclaims my enmity to your nation, and this is the only thing which +is still left me. Of all other advantages, I have been stripped +and deprived by the envy of the Roman people, and the cowardice and +treachery of the magistrates and those of my own order. I am driven out +as an exile, and become an humble suppliant at your hearth, not so much +for safety and protection (should I have come hither, had I been afraid +to die?), as to seek vengeance against those that expelled me; which, +methinks, I have already obtained, by putting myself into your hands. +If, therefore, you have really a mind to attack your enemies, make use +of that affliction you see me in to assist the enterprise, and convert +my personal infelicity into a common blessing to the Volscians; as I am +likely to be more serviceable in fighting for than against you, with the +advantage, which I now possess, of knowing all the secrets of the enemy +that I am attacking." + +Tullus, on hearing this, was extremely rejoiced, and giving him his +right hand, exclaimed, "rise, Marcius, and be of good courage; it is +a great happiness you bring to Antium, in the present you make us of +yourself; expect everything that is good from the Volscians." he then +proceeded to feast and entertain him with every display of kindness, and +for several days after they were in close deliberation together on the +prospects of a war. + +Although the Volscians had sworn to a truce of arms for the space of +two years, the Romans themselves soon furnished them with a pretence, +by making proclamation, out of some jealousy or slanderous report, at +an exhibition of games, that all the Volscians who had come to see them +should depart from the city before sunset. Some affirm that this was a +contrivance of Marcius, who sent a man privately to the consuls, falsely +to accuse the Volscians of intending to fall upon the Romans during the +games, and to set the city on fire. This public affront aroused their +hostility to the Romans; and Tullus, perceiving it, took advantage of +it, aggravating the fact, and working on their indignation, till he +persuaded them, at last, to despatch ambassadors to Rome, requiring the +Romans to restore that part of their country and those towns which they +had taken from the Volscian in the late war. When the Romans heard the +message, they indignantly replied, that the Volscians were the first +that took up arms, but the Romans would be the last to lay them down. +This answer being brought back, Tullus called a general assembly of the +Volscians; and the voted passing for a war, he then proposed that they +should call in Marcius, laying aside the remembrance of former grudges, +and assuring themselves that the services they should now receive from +him as friend and associate, would abundantly outweigh any harm or +damage he had done them when he was their enemy. Marcius was accordingly +summoned, and having made his entrance, and spoken tot he people, won +their good opinion of his capacity, his skill, counsel, and boldness, +not less by his present words than by his past actions. They joined him +in commission with Tullus, to have full power as general of their forces +in all that related to the war. And he, fearing lest the time that would +be requisite to bring all the Volscians together in full preparation +might be so long as to lose him the opportunity of action, left order +with the chief persons and magistrates for the city to provide other +things, while he himself, prevailing upon the readiest to assemble and +march out with him as volunteers without staying to be enrolled, made +a sudden inroad into the Roman confines, when nobody expected him, and +possessed himself of so much booty, that the Volscians found they had +more than they could either carry away or use in the camp. The abundance +of provision which he gained, and the waste and havoc of the country +which he made, were, however, the smallest results of that invasion; +the great mischief he intended, and his special object in all, was to +increase at Rome the suspicions entertained of the patricians, and +to make them upon worse terms with the people. With this view, while +despoiling all the fields and destroying the property of other men, he +took special care to preserve their farms and lands untouched, and would +not allow his soldiers to ravage there, or seize upon any thing which +belonged to them. Hence the quarrels broke out afresh, and rose to +a greater height than ever; the senators reproaching those of the +commonalty with their late injustice to Marcius; while the plebeians, on +their side, did not hesitate to accuse them of having, out of spite and +revenge, solicited him to this enterprise, and thus, when others +were involved in the miseries of a war by their means, they sat like +unconcerned spectators furnished with a guardian abroad of their +fortunes, in the very person of the public enemy. After this incursion +and exploit, which was of great advantage to the Volscians, since they +learned by it to be more courageous and to despise their enemy, Marcius +drew them off, and returned in safety. + +But when the whole strength of the Volscians was brought together into +the field, with great expedition, it appeared so considerable a body, +that they agreed to leave part in garrison, for the security of their +towns, and with the other part to march against the Romans. Marcius +now desired Tullus to choose which of the two charges would be most +agreeable to him. Tullus answered, that since he knew Marcius to be +equally valiant with himself, and far more fortunate, he would have him +take the command of those that were going out to the war, while he made +it his care to defend their cities at home, and provide all conveniences +for the army abroad. Marcius thus reinforced, and much stronger than +before, moved first towards the city called Circaeum, a Roman colony. +He received its surrender, and did the inhabitants no injury; passing +thence, he entered and laid waste the country of the Latins, where +he expected the Romans would meet him, as the Latins were their +confederates and allies, and had often sent to demand succor from them. +the people, however, on their part, showing little inclination for the +service, and the consuls themselves being unwilling to run the hazard of +a battle, when the time of their office was almost ready to expire, they +dismissed the Latin ambassadors without any effect; so that Marcius, +finding no army to oppose him, marched up to their cities, and, having +taken by force Toleria, Lavici, Peda, and Bols, all of which offered +resistance, not only plundered their houses, but made a prey likewise +of their persons. Meantime, he showed particular regard for all such +as came over to his party, and, for fear they might sustain any damage +against his will, encamped them at the greatest distance he could, and +wholly abstained from their property. + +After, however, he had made himself master of Bols, a town not above ten +miles from Rome, where he found great treasure, and put almost all +the adults to the sword; the other Volscians that were ordered to +stay behind and protect their cities, hearing of his achievements +and success, had not patience to remain any longer at home, but came +hastening in their arms to Marcius, saying that he alone was their +general and the sole commander they would own; with all this, his name +and renown spread throughout all Italy, and universal wonder prevailed +at the sudden and mighty revolution in the fortunes for two nations +which the loss and the accession of a single man had effected. + +All at Rome was in great disorder; they were utterly averse from +fighting, and spent their whole time in cabals and disputes and +reproaches against each other; until news was brought that the enemy had +laid close siege to Lavinium, where were the images and sacred things of +their tutelar gods, and whence they derived the origin of their nations, +that being the first city which Aeneas built in Italy. These tidings +produced a change as universal as it was extraordinary in the thoughts +and inclinations of the people, but occasioned a yet stranger revulsion +of feeling among the patricians. The people now were for repealing the +sentence against Marcius, and calling him back into the city; whereas +the senate, being assembled to consider the decree, opposed and finally +rejected the proposal, either out of the mere humor of opposing the +people in whatever they should desire, or because they were unwilling, +perhaps, that he should owe his restoration to their kindness. When +Marcius heard of this, he was more exasperated than ever, and, quitting +the siege of Lavinium, marched furiously towards Rome, and encamped at +a place called the Cluilian ditches, about five miles from the city. +The nearness of his approach did, indeed, create much terror and +disturbance, yet it also ended their dissensions for the present; as +nobody now, whether consul or senator, durst any longer contradict the +people in their design of recalling Marcius. + +It was therefore, unanimously agreed by all parties, that ambassadors +should be despatched, offering him return to his country, and desiring +him to free them from the terrors and distresses of the war. The persons +sent by the senate with this message were chosen out of his kindred +and acquaintance, who naturally expected a very kind reception at their +first interview; in which, however, they were much mistaken. Being led +through the enemy's camp, they found him sitting in state amid the chief +men of the Volscians, looking insupportably proud and arrogant. He +bade them declare the cause of their coming, which they did in the most +gently terms, and with a behavior suitable to their language. When they +had made an end of speaking, he returned them a sharp answer, full of +bitterness and angry resentment, as to what concerned himself, and the +ill usage he had received from them; but as general of the Volscians, he +demanded restitution of the cities and the lands which had been seized +upon during the late war, and that the same rights and franchises should +be granted them at Rome, which had been before accorded to the Latins; +since there could be no assurance that a peace would be firm and lasting +without just conditions on both sides. He allowed them thirty days to +consider and resolve. + +The ambassadors having departed; he withdrew his forces from the Roman +territory. Those of the Volscians who had long envied his reputation, +and could not endure to see the influence he had with the people, laid +hold of this as a matter of complaint against him. Among them was Tullus +himself, not for any wrong done him personally by Marcius, but through +the weakness incident to human nature. He could not help feeling +mortified to find his own glory totally obscured, and himself overlooked +and neglected now by the Volscians, who had so great an opinion of their +new leader. Yet Marcius spent no part of the time idly, but attacked the +confederates of the enemy, ravaged their land, and took from them +seven great and populous cities in that interval. The Romans, in the +meanwhile, durst not venture out to their relief; but were utterly +fearful, and showed no more disposition or capacity for action, than if +their bodies had been struck with a palsy, and become destitute of sense +and motion. But when the thirty days were expired, and Marcius appeared +again with his whole army, they sent another embassy to beseech him that +he would moderate his displeasure, and would withdraw the Volscian army, +and then make any proposals he thought best for both parties, but if it +were his opinion that the Volscians ought to have any favor shown them, +upon laying down their arms they might obtain all they could in reason +desire. + +The reply of Marcius was, that he should make no answer to this as a +general of the Volscians, but in the quality still for a roman citizen, +he would advise them to return to him before three days were at an end, +with a ratification of his previous demands. + +When the ambassadors came back, and acquainted the senate with the +answer, seeing the whole state now threatened as it were by a tempest, a +decree was made, that the whole order of their priests should go in full +procession to Marcius with their pontifical array, and the dress and +habit which they respectively used in their several functions, and +should urge him, as before, to withdraw his forces, and then treat with +his countrymen in favor of the Volscians. He granted nothing at all, nor +so much as expressed himself more mildly; but without capitulating or +receding, bade them once for all choose whether they would yield or +fight, since the old terms were the only terms of peace. In this great +perplexity, the roman women went, some to other temples, but the +greater part, and the ladies of highest rank, tot he altar of Jupiter +Capitolinus. Among these suppliants was Valeria, sister to the great +Poplicola, who happily lighting, not without divine guidance, on the +right expedient, rose, and bade the others rise, and went directly with +them to the house of Volumnia, the mother of Marcius. And coming in +and finding her sitting with her daughter-in-law, and with her little +grandchildren on her lap, Valeria, then surrounded by her companions, +spoke in the name of them all:-- + +"We, O Volumnia, and Vergilia, are come as women to women, to request a +thing on which our own and the common safety depends, and which, if you +consent to it, will raise our glory above that of the daughters of +the Sabines, who won over their fathers and their husbands from mortal +enmity to peace and friendship. Arise and come with us to Marcius; join +in our supplication, for your country's sake." + +The words of Valeria were seconded by the acclamations of the other +women, to which Volumnia made answer:--"I and Vergilia, my countrywomen, +have an equal share with you all in the common miseries, and we have the +additional sorrow, which is wholly ours, that we have lost the merit and +good fame of Marcius, and see his person confined, rather than protected +by the arms of the enemy. Make use, however, of our service; and lead +us, if you please, to him; we are able, if nothing more, at least to +spend our last breath in making suit to him for our country." + +Having spoken thus, she took Vergilia by the hand, and the young +children, and so accompanied them to the Volscian camp. So lamentable +a sight much affected the enemies themselves, who viewed them in +respectful silence. Marcius, seeing the party of women advance, came +down hastily to meet them, saluting his mother first, and embracing her +a long time, and then his wife and children, sparing neither tears nor +cares, but suffering himself to be borne away and carried headlong, as +it were, but the impetuous violence of his passion. + +when he had satisfied himself, and observed that his mother Volumnia was +desirous to say something, the Volscian council being first called in, +he heard her to the following effect: "Our dress and our very persons, +my son, might tell you, though we should say nothing ourselves, in how +forlorn a condition we have lived at home since your banishment and +absence from us; and now consider with yourself, whether we may not pass +for the most unfortunate of all women, to have that sight, which should +be the sweetest that we could see, converted, through I know not +what fatality, to one of all others the most formidable and +dreadful,--Volumnia to behold her son, and Vergilia her husband, in arms +against the walls of Rome. As for myself, if I cannot prevail with you +to prefer amity and concord to quarrel and hostility, and to be the +benefactor to both parties, rather than the destroyer of one of them, +be assured of this, that you shall not be able to reach your country, +unless you trample first upon the corpse of her that brought you into +life. For it will be ill in me to loiter in the world till the day com +wherein I shall see a child of mine, either led in triumph by his own +countrymen, or triumphing over them." + +Marcius listened to his mother while she spoke, without answering her a +word; and Volumnia, seeing him stand mute also for a long time after she +had ceased, resumed: "O my son, what is the meaning of this silence? Is +it wrong to gratify a mother in a request like this? You have punished +your country already; you have not yet paid your debt to me." Having +said this, she threw herself down at his feet, as did also his wife and +children; upon which Marcius, crying out, "O mother! what is it you have +done to me?" raised her from the ground, and pressing her right hand +with more than ordinary vehemence said, "You have gained a victory, +fortunate enough for the Romans, but destructive to your son; whom you, +though none else, have defeated." And after a little private conference +with his mother and his wife, he went them back again to Rome, as they +desired of him. + +the next morning, he broke up his camp, and led the Volscians homeward, +variously affected with what he had done. None, however, opposed +his commands; they all obediently followed him, though rather from +admiration of his virtue, than any regard they now had to his authority. +The Roman people, meantime began to crown themselves with garlands and +prepare for sacrifice, as they were wont to do upon tidings brought +of an signal victory. But the joy and transport of the whole city was +chiefly remarkable in the honors and marks of affection paid to the +women, as well by the senate as the people in general; every one +declaring that they were, beyond all question, the instruments of the +public safety. And the senate having passed a decree that whatsoever +they would ask in the way of an a favor or honor should be allowed and +done for them by the magistrates, they demanded simply that a temple +might be erected to the Goddess Fortuna, the expense of which they +offered to defray out of their own contributions, if the city would be +at the cost of sacrifices, and other matters pertaining to the due honor +of the gods, out of the common treasury. The senate, much commending +their public spirit, caused the temple to be built and a statue set +up in it at the public charge; they however, made up a sum among +themselves, for a second image of Fortune, which the Romans say utter +these words as they were putt it up "Blessed of the gods, O women, is +your gift." + +When Marcius came back to Antium, Tullus, who thoroughly hated +and greatly feared him, proceeded at once to contrive how he might +immediately despatch him; as, if he escaped now, he was never likely +to give him such another advantage. Having, therefore, got together and +suborned several partisans against him, he required Marcius to resign +his charge, and give the Volscians an account of his administration. + +An assembly was called, and popular speakers, as had been concerted, +came forward to exasperate and incense the multitude; but when Marcius +stood up to answer, even the most tumultuous part of the people became +quiet on a sudden, and out of reverence allowed him to speak without +the least disturbance; while all the better people, and such as were +satisfied with a peace, made it evident by their whole behavior, +that they would give him a favorable hearing, and judge and pronounce +according to equity. + +For these reasons, the conspirators judged it prudent not to test the +general feeling; but the boldest of their faction fell upon Marcius in +a body, and slew him there, none of those that were present offering +to defend him. But it quickly appeared that the action was in nowise +approved of by the majority of the Volscians, who hurried out of +their several cities to show respect to his corpse; to which they gave +honorable interment, adorning his sepulchre with arms and trophies, as +the monument of a noble hero and a famous general. When the Romans heard +tidings of his death, they gave no other signification either of honor +or of anger toward him, but simply granted the request of the women, +that they might put themselves into mourning and bewail him for ten +months, as the usage was upon the loss of a father or a son or a +brother; that being the period fixed for the longest lamentation by the +laws of Numa Pompilius. + +Marcius was no sooner deceased, than the Volscians felt the need of his +assistance. They quarreled first with the Aequians, their confederates +and friends, about the appointment of the general of their joint forces, +and carried their dispute to the length of bloodshed and slaughter; and +were then defeated by the Romans in a pitched battle, where not only +Tullus lost his life, but the flower of their whole army was cut to +pieces; so that they were forced to submit and accept of peace upon very +dishonorable terms, becoming subjects of Rome, and pledging themselves +to submission. + + + + +COMPARISON OF ALCIBIADES AND CORIOLANUS + +Having described all their actions that seem to deserve commemoration, +their military ones, we may say, incline the balance very decidedly upon +neither side. They both, in pretty equal measure, displayed on numerous +occasions the daring and courage of the soldier, and the skill and +foresight of the general; unless, indeed, the fact that Alcibiades was +victorious and successful in many contests both by sea and land, ought +to gain him the title of a more complete commander. That so long as they +remained and held command in their respective countries, they eminently +sustained, and when they were driven into exile, yet more eminently +damaged the fortunes of those countries, is common to both. All the +sober citizens felt disgust at the petulance, the low flattery, and +base seductions which Alcibiades, in his public life, allowed himself +to employ with the view of winning the people's favor; and the +ungraciousness, pride, and oligarchical haughtiness which Marcius, +on the other hand, displayed in his, were the abhorrence of the Roman +populace. + +Marcius, according to our common conceptions of his character, was +undoubtedly simple and straightforward; Alcibiades, unscrupulous as a +public man, and false. He is more especially blamed for the dishonorable +and treacherous way in which, as Thucydides relates, he imposed upon the +Lacedaemonian ambassadors, and disturbed the continuance of the peace. +yet this policy, which engaged the city again in way, nevertheless +placed it in a powerful and formidable position, by the accession, which +Alcibiades obtained for it, of the alliance of Argos and Mantinea. And +Coriolanus also, Dionysius relates, used unfair means to excite war +between the Romans and the Volscians, in the false report which he +spread about the visitors at the Games; and the motive of this action +seems to make it the worse for the two; since it was not done, like +the other, out of ordinary political jealousy, strife and competition. +simply to gratify anger, from which as Ion says, no one ever yet got any +return, he threw whole districts of Italy into confusion, and sacrificed +to his passion against his country numerous innocent cities. It is true, +indeed, that Alcibiades, by his resentment, was the occasion of great +disasters to his country, but he relented as soon as he found their +feelings to be changed; and after he was driven out a second time, +so far from taking pleasure in the errors and inadvertencies of their +commanders, or being indifferent to the danger they were thus incurring, +he did the very thing that Aristides is so highly commended for doing to +Themistocles: he came to the generals who were his enemies, and pointed +out to them what they ought to do. Coriolanus, on the other hand, first +all attacked the whole body of his countrymen, though only one portion +of them had done him any wrong, while the other, the better and nobler +portion, had actually suffered, as well as sympathized, with him. And, +secondly, by the obduracy with which he resisted numerous embassies and +supplications, addressed in propitiation of his person anger, he showed +that it had been to destroy and overthrow, not to recover and regain his +country, that he had excited bitter and implacable hostilities against. +There is, indeed, one distinction that may be drawn. Alcibiades, it may +be said, was not safe among the Spartans, and had the inducements at +once of fear and of hatred to lead him again to Athens; whereas Marcius +could not honorably have left the Volscians, when they were behaving +so well to him: he, in the command of their forces and the enjoyment +of their entire confidence, was in a very different position from +Alcibiades, whom the Lacedaemonians did not so much wish to adopt into +their service, as to use, and then abandon. Driven about from house to +house in the city, and from general to general in the camp, the latter +had no resort but to place himself in the hands of Tissaphernes; unless +we are to suppose that his object in courting favor with him was to +avert the entire destruction of his native city, whither he wished +himself to return. + +As regards money, Alcibiades, we are told, was often guilty of procuring +it by accepting bribes, and spent it in luxury and dissipation. +Coriolanus declined to receive it, even when pressed upon him by his +commanders as an honor; and one great reason for the odium he incurred +with the populace in the discussions about their debts was, that he +trampled upon the poor, not for money's sake, but out of pride and +insolence. + +Antipater, in a letter written upon the death of Aristotle the +philosopher, observes, "Amongst his other gifts he had that of +persuasiveness," and the absence of this in the character of Marcius +made all his great actions and noble qualities unacceptable to those +whom they benefited: pride, and self-will, the consort, as Plato calls +it, of solitude, made him insufferable. With the skill which Alcibiades, +on the contrary, professed to treat every one in the way most agreeable +to him, we cannot wonder that all his successes were attended with +the most exuberant favor and honor; his very errors, at times, being +accompanied by something of grace and felicity. And so, in spite of +great and frequent hurt that he had done the city, he was repeatedly +appointed to office and command; while Coriolanus stood in vain for a +place which his great services had made his due. + +Alcibiades never professed to deny that it was pleasant to him to be +honored and distasteful to him to be overlooked; and, accordingly, he +always tried to place himself upon good terms with all that he met; +Coriolanus' pride forbade him to pay attentions to those who could have +promoted his advancement, and yet his love of distinction made him feel +hurt and angry when he was disregarded. Such are the faulty parts of +his character, which in all other respects was a noble one. For his +temperance, continence, and probity, he might claim to be compared +with the best and purest of the Greeks; not in any sort of kind with +Alcibiades, the least scrupulous and most entirely careless of human +beings in all these points. + + + + +ARISTIDES + +Aristides, the son of Lysimachus, was of the tribe Antiochis, and +township of Alopece. Being the friend and supporter of that Clisthenes, +who settled the government after the expulsion of the tyrants, and +emulating and admiring Lycurgus the Lacedaemonian above all politicians, +he adhered to the aristocratical principles of government; and had +Themistocles, son to Neocles, his adversary on the side of the populace. +Some say that, when boys together, they were always at variance in all +their words and actions, serious as well as playful. One was ready, +venturesome, and subtle, engaging readily and eagerly in everything; the +other of a staid and settled temper, intent on the exercise of justice, +not admitting any degree of falsity, indecorum, or trickery, even at his +play. Ariston of Ceos says that the first origin of enmity which rose to +so great a height, was a love affair; they were rivals for the +affection of the beautiful Stesilaus of Ceos, and were passionate beyond +moderation, and did not lay aside their animosity when the beauty that +had excited it passed away; but carried their heats and differences into +public business. + +Themistocles joined an association of partisans, and fortified himself +with considerable strength; so that when some one told him that if he +were impartial, he would make a good magistrate, "I wish," replied he, +"I may never sit on that tribunal where my friends shall not plead a +greater privilege than strangers." + +But Aristides walked alone on his path in politics being unwilling to +go with associates in ill doing, or to cause them vexation by not +gratifying their wishes. + +When he had once opposed Themistocles in some measures that were +expedient, and had got the better of him, he could not refrain from +saying, when he left the assembly, that unless they sent Themistocles +and himself to the barathrum,(a pit into which the dead bodies of +malefactors were thrown) there could be no safety for Athens. Another +time, when urging some proposal upon the people, although there was much +opposition to it, yet he was gaining the day; but just as the president +of the assembly was about to put it to the vote, perceiving by what had +been said in debate the inexpediency of his advice, he let it fall. He +often brought in his bills by other persons, lest Themistocles, thought +party spirit against him, should be any hindrance to the good of the +public. + +In all the vicissitudes of public affairs, the constancy he showed was +admirable, not being elated with honors, and demeaning himself sedately +in adversity. Once, at the recital of these verses of Aeshcylus in the +theatre, relating to Amphiaraus, + + For not at seeming just, but being so + He aims; and from his depth of soil below, + Harvest of wise and prudent counsels grow, + +the eyes of all the spectators were turned upon Aristides, as if this +virtue in an especial manner belonged to him. + +He was a most determined champion of justice, not only against feelings +of friendship and favor, but wrath and malice. + +Thus it is reported of him that prosecuting one who was his enemy, +when the judges after accusation refused to hear the criminal, and were +proceeding immediately to pass sentence upon him, he rose in haste from +his seat and joined in petition with him for a hearing, and that he +might enjoy the privilege of the law. Another time, judging between +two private persons, when the one declared his adversary had very much +injured Aristides; "Tell me rather, good friend," he said, "what wrong +he has done you: for it is your cause, not my own, which I now sit +judge of." Being chosen to the charge of the public revenue, he made it +appear, that not only those of his time, but the preceding officers, had +alienated much treasure, and especially Themistocles: + + Well known he was an able man to be, + But with his fingers apt to be too free. + +Therefore, Themistocles associating several persons against Aristides, +and impeaching him when he gave in his accounts, caused him to be +condemned of robbing of the public; so Idomeneus states; but the best +and chief men of the city much resented it, so that he was not only +exempted from the fine imposed upon him, but again called to the +same employment. Pretending now to repent of his former practice, and +carrying himself with more remissness, he became acceptable to such +as pillaged the treasury, by not detecting or calling them to an exact +account. So that those who had their fill of the public money began +highly to applaud Aristides, and sued to the people, to have him once +more chosen treasurer. But when they were upon the point of election, he +reproved the Athenians in these words: "When I discharged my office +well and faithfully, I was insulted and abused; but now that I have +countenanced the public thieves in a variety of malpractices, I am +considered an admirable patriot. I am more ashamed, therefore, of this +present honor than of the former sentence; and I pity your condition, +with whom is more praiseworthy to oblige bad men than to preserve the +revenue of public." + +When Datis was sent by Darius under pretense of punishing the Athenians +for their burning of Sardis, but in reality to reduce the Greeks under +his dominion, and had landed at Marathon and laid waste the country, +among the ten commanders appointed by the Athenians for the war, +Miltiades was of the greatest name; but the second place, both for +reputation and power, was possessed by Aristides: and when his opinion +to join battle was added to that of Miltiades, it did much to incline +the balance. Every leader by his day having the command in chief, when +it came to Aristides' turn, he delivered it into the hands of Miltiades, +showing his fellow officers, that it is not dishonorable to obey and +follow wise and able men, but, on the contrary, noble and prudent. So +appeasing their rivalry, and bringing them to acquiesce in the best +advice, he confirmed Miltiades in the strength of undivided and +unmolested authority. And now every one, yielding his day of command, +looked for orders only to him. During the fight the main body of the +Athenians being the hardest pressed, the barbarians, for a long time, +making opposition there against the tribes Leontis and Antiochis, +Themistocles and Aristides being ranged together, fought valiantly; the +one being of the tribe Leontis, the other of the Antiochis. But, after +they had beaten the barbarians back to their ships, and perceived that +they did sail for the isles, but were driven in by the force of sea and +wind towards the country of Attica, fearing lest they should take the +city, they hurried away thither with nine tribes, and reached it the +same day. + +Of all the virtues of Aristides, the common people were most affected +with his justice, because of its continual and common use; and thus, +although of mean fortune and ordinary birth, he possessed himself of the +most kingly and divine appellation of Just; which kings, however, and +tyrants have never sought after; but have taken delight to be surnamed +besiegers of cities, thunderers, conquerors, eagles and hawks; +affecting, it seems, the reputation which proceeds from power and +violence, rather than that of virtue. + +Aristides, therefore, had at first the fortune to be beloved for this +surname, but at length envied. Especially when Themistocles spread a +rumor amongst the people, that, by determining and judging all matters +privately, he had destroyed the courts of judicature, and was secretly +making way for a monarchy in his own person, without the assistance +of guards. Moreover, the spirit of the people, now grown high, and +confident with their late victory, naturally entertained feelings of +dislike to all of more than common fame and reputation. Coming together, +therefore, from all parts into the city, they banished Aristides by the +ostracism, giving their jealousy of his reputation the name of fear of +tyranny. For ostracism was not the punishment of any criminal act, +but was speciously said to be the mere depression and humiliation of +excessive greatness and power; and was in fact a gentle relief and +mitigation of envious feeling, which was thus allowed to vent itself +in inflicting no intolerable injury, only a ten years' banishment. +But after it came be exercised upon base and villainous fellows, they +desisted from it; Hyperbolus, being the last whom they banished by the +ostracism. + +The cause of Hyperbolus's banishment is said to have been this. +Alcibiades and Nicias, men that bore the greatest sway in the city, were +of different factions. As the people, therefore, were about to vote the +ostracism, and obviously to decree it against one of them, consulting +together and uniting their parties, they contrived the banishment of +Hyperbolus. Upon which the people, being offended, as if some contempt +or affront was put upon the thing, left off and quite abolished it. +It was performed, to be short, in this manner. Every one taking an +ostracon, that is, a sherd, a piece of earthenware, wrote upon it the +citizen's he would have banished, and carried it to a certain part of +the market-place surrounded with wooden rails. First, the magistrates +numbered all the sherds in gross (for if there were less than six +thousand, the ostracism was imperfect); then, laying every name by +itself, they pronounced him whose name was written by the largest +number, banished for ten years, with the enjoyment of his estate. As, +therefore, they were writing the names on the sherds, it is reported +that an illiterate clownish fellow, giving Aristides his sherd, +supposing him a common citizen, begged him write Aristides upon it; and +he being surprised and asking if Aristides had ever done him any injury, +"None at all," said he, "neither know I the man; but I am tired of +hearing him everywhere called the Just." Aristides, hearing this, is +said to have made no reply, but returned the sherd with his own name +inscribed. At his departure from the city, lifting up his hands to +heaven, he made a prayer (the reverse, it would seem, of that of +Achilles), that the Athenians might never have any occasion which should +constrain them to remember Aristides. + +But three years afterwards, when Xerxes was marching through Thessaly +and Boeotia into the country of Attica, they repealed the law, and +decreed the return of the banished: chiefly fearing lest Aristides might +join himself to the enemy, and bring over many of his fellow-citizens to +the party of the barbarians; much mistaking the man, who, already before +the decree, was exerting himself to excite and encourage the Greeks to +the defense of their liberty. + +After the battle of Salamis, Xerxes, much terrified, immediately +hastened to the Hellespont. But Mardonius was left with the most +serviceable part of the army, about three hundred thousand men, and was +a formidable enemy, confident in his infantry, and writing messages +of defiance to the Greeks: "You have overcome by sea men accustomed +to fight on land and unskilled at the oar; but there lies now the open +country of Thessaly; and the plains of Boeotia offer a broad and worthy +field for brave men, either horse or foot, to contend in." + +But he sent privately to the Athenians, both by letter and word of mouth +from the king, promising to rebuild their city, to give them a vast +sum of money, and constitute them lords of all Greece on condition they +would not engage in the war. The Lacedaemonians receiving news of this, +and fearing, dispatched an embassy to the Athenians, entreating that +they would send their wives and children to Sparta, and receive support +from them for their superannuated. For, being despoiled both of their +city and country, the people were suffering extreme distress. Having +given audience to the ambassadors, they returned an answer, upon the +motion of Aristides, worthy of the highest admiration; declaring, that +they forgave their enemies if they thought all things purchasable by +wealth, than which they knew nothing of greater value; but that they +felt offended at the Lacaemonians, for looking only to their present +poverty, without any remembrance of their valor and magnanimity, and +offering them their victuals, to fight in the cause of Greece. Aristides +made this proposal, brought back the ambassadors into the assembly, and +charged them to tell the Lacaemonians that all the treasure on earth or +under it was of less value with the people of Athens than the liberty of +Greece. And, showing the sun to those who came from Mardonius, "as long +as that retains the same course, so long," said he, "shall the citizens +of Athens wage war with the Persians for the country which has been +wasted, and the temples that have been profaned and burnt by them." +Moreover, he proposed a decree, that the priests should anathematize him +who sent any herald to the Medes, or deserted the alliance of Greece. + +When Mardonius made a second incursion into the country of Attica, the +people passed over again into the isle of Salamis. Aristides himself +went to Lacedaemon, and reproved them for the delay and neglect in +abandoning Athens once more to the barbarians; and demanded their +assistance for that part of Greece which was not yet lost. The Ephori, +hearing this, made show of sporting all day, and of carelessly keeping +holy day (for they were then celebrating the Hyacinthian festival), +but in the night, selecting five thousand Spartans, each of whom was +attended by seven Helots, they sent them forth unknown to those from +Athens. And when Aristides again reprehended them, they told him in +derision that he either doted or dreamed, for the army was already +at Oresteum, in their march towards the strangers; as they called the +Persians. Aristides answered that they jested unreasonably, deluding +their friends, instead of their enemies. + +Being chosen general for the war, he repaired to Plataea, with eight +thousand Athenians, where Pausanias, generalissimo of all Greece, +joined him with the Spartans; and the forces of the other Greeks came in +to them. The encampment of the barbarians extended all along the bank of +the river Asopus, their numbers being so great, there was no enclosing +them all, but their baggage and most valuable things were surrounded +with a square bulwark, each side of which was the length of ten +furlongs. + +The Tegeatans, contesting the post of honor with the Athenians, +demanded, that according to custom, the Lacedaemonians being ranged on +the right wing of the battle, they might have the left, alleging +several matters in commendation of their ancestors. The Athenians being +indignant at the claim, Aristides came forward and said: "To contend +with the Tegeatans for noble descent and valor, the present time permits +not: but this we say to you, O you Spartans, and you the rest of the +Greeks, that place neither takes away nor contributes courage: we shall +endeavor by maintaining the post you assign us, to reflect no dishonor +on our former performances. For we are come, not to differ with our +friends, but to fight our enemies; not to extol our ancestors, but to +behave as valiant men. This battle will manifest how much each city, +captain, and private soldier is worth to Greece." The council of war, +upon this address, decided for the Athenians, and gave them the other +wing of the battle. + +At this juncture, Mardonius made trial of the Grecian courage, by +sending his whole number of horse, in which he thought himself much +the stronger, against them, while they were all, except the Megarians, +encamped at the foot of Mount Cithaeron, in strong and rocky places. +They being three thousand in number, had pitched their tents on the +plain, where the cavalry charged and made inroads upon them from all +sides. They sent, therefore, in haste to Pausanias, demanding relief, +not being able alone to sustain the great numbers of the barbarians. +Pausanias, hearing this, and perceiving the tents of the Megarians +almost hidden by the multitude of darts and arrows, and themselves +driven together into a narrow space, was at a loss how to aid them with +his battalions of heavy-armed Lacedaemonians. He asked, therefore, as +a test of emulation and love of distinction, to the commanders and +captains who were around him, if any would voluntarily take upon the +defense and succor of the Megarians. + +The rest being backward, Aristides undertook the enterprise for the +Athenians, and sent Olympiodorus, the most valiant of his inferior +officers, with three hundred chosen men and some archers under his +command. These were soon in readiness, and running upon the enemy, as +soon as it was perceived by Masistius, who commanded the cavalry of the +barbarians, a man of wonderful courage and of extraordinary bulk and +comeliness of person, he turned his steed and made towards them. They +sustained the shock and joined battle with him, as though by this +encounter they were to try the success of the whole war. But after +Masistius's horse received a wound, and flung him, and he falling, could +hardly raise himself through the weight of his armor, the Athenians +pressed upon him with blows, but could not easily get at his person, +armed as he was, breast, head, and limbs all over, with gold and brass +and iron; but one of them at last, running a javelin under the visor of +his helmet, slew him; and the rest of the Persians, leaving the body, +fled. The greatness of the Greek success was known, not by the multitude +of the slain, (for an inconsiderable number were killed), but by the +sorrow the barbarians expressed. For they shaved themselves, their +horses, and mules for the death of Masistius, and filled the plain with +howling and lamentation; having lost a person, who, next to Mardonius +himself, was by far the chief among them, both for valor and authority. + +After this skirmish of the horse, they kept from fighting a long time; +for the soothsayers, by the sacrifices, foretold the victory both to +Greeks and Persians, if they stood upon the defensive part only, but if +they became aggressors, the contrary. At length Mardonious, when he +had but a few days' provision, and the Greek forces were increasing +continually, impatient of delay, determined to lie still no longer, but +passing Asopus by daybreak, to fall unexpectedly upon the Greeks. This +he signified the night before to the captains of his host. But about +midnight, a certain horseman stole into the Greek camp, and coming to +the watch, desired them to summon Aristides, the Athenian, to him. +He came speedily, and the stranger said: "I am Alexander, king of the +Macedonians, and have come here through the greatest danger in the world +for the goodwill I bear you, lest a sudden onset should dismay you, so +as to behave in the fight worse than usual. For to-morrow Mardonius will +give you battle, urged, not by any hope of success or courage, but by +want of victuals: for the prophets prohibit him from the battle, the +sacrifices and oracles being unfavorable; but the army is in despondency +and consternation; and necessity forces him to try his fortune, or sit +still and endure the last extremity of want." Alexander, thus saying, +entreated Aristides to take notice and remember him, but not tell any +other. But he replied that it was not fair conceal to the matter from +Pausanias (because he was general); as for any others he would keep it +secret from them till the battle was fought; but if the Greeks obtained +the victory, that then no one should be ignorant of Alexander's goodwill +and kindness towards them. After this, the king of the Macedonians rode +back again, and Aristides went to Pausanias's tent and told him; and +they sent for the rest of the captains and gave orders that the army +should be in battle array. + +Meantime, day came upon them; and Mardonious having his army in array, +fell upon the Lacedaemonians with great shouting and noise of barbarous +people, as if they were not about to join battle, but crush the Greeks +in their flight--a thing which very nearly came to pass. For Pausanius, +perceiving what was done, made a halt, and commanded every one to put +themselves in order for the battle; but through the disturbance he was +in, on account of the sudden approach of the enemy, he forgot to give +the signal to the Greeks in general. Whence it was, that they did +not come immediately, or in a body, to their assistance, but by small +companies and straggling, when the fight was already begun. Pausanias, +offering sacrifice, could not procure favorable omens, and so commanded +the Lacedaemonians to set down their shields at their feet and wait +quietly await for his directions, making no resistance to any of their +enemies. At this time, Callicrates, who, we are told, was the most +comely man in the army, being shot with an arrow and upon the point of +expiring, said that he did not lament his death (for he came from home +to lay down his life in defense of Greece) but that he died without +action. While Pausanias was thus in the act of supplication, the +sacrifices appeared propitious, and the soothsayers foretold victory. +The word being given, the Lacedaemonian battalion of foot seemed, on the +sudden, like some fierce animal, setting up his bristles, and +betaking himself to the combat; and the barbarians perceived that they +encountered with men who would fight to the death. Therefore, holding +their wicker shields before them, they shot their arrows amongst the +Lacedaemonians. But they, keeping together in the order of a phalanx, +and falling upon their enemies forced their shields out of their hands, +and, striking with their pikes at the breasts and faces of the Persians, +overthrew many of them; they, however, fell neither unrevenged nor +without courage. For taking hold of the spears with their bare hands, +they broke many of them, and betook themselves with effect to the +sword; and making use of their falchions and scimitars, and wresting the +Lacedaemonians' shields from them, and grappling with them, for a long +time stood their ground. + +Meanwhile, the Athenians were standing still, waiting for the +Lacedaemonians to come up. But when they heard a great noise as of men +engaged in fight, and a messenger came from Pausanias to inform them +of what was going on, they made haste to their assistance. And as they +passed through the plain to the place where the noise was, the recreant +Greeks, who took part with the enemy, came upon them. Aristides, as soon +as he saw them, going a considerable space before the rest, cried out to +them, by the guardian gods of Greece, not to enter the fight, and be no +impediment to those who were going to succor the defenders of Greece. +But when he perceived that they gave no attention to him, and had +prepared themselves for the battle, then turning from the present relief +of the Lacedaemonians, he engaged with them, being five thousand in +number. But the greatest part soon gave way and retreated, as the +barbarians were also put to flight. + +The battle being thus divided, the Lacedaemonians first beat off the +Persians; and a Spartan, named Arimnestus, slew Mardonius by a blow on +the head with a stone, as the oracle in the temple of Amphiaraus had +foretold to him. For Mardonius sent a Lydian thither, and another +person, a Carian, to the cave of Trophonius. The latter, the priest of +the oracle answered in his own language. But to the Lydian sleeping +in the temple of Amphiaraus, it seemed that a minister of the divinity +stood before him and commanded him to be gone; and on his refusing to +do it, flung a great stone at his head, so that he thought himself slain +with the blow. Such is the story. + +Of three hundred thousand of the enemy, forty thousand only are said to +have escaped with Artabazus; while on the Greeks' side there perished in +all thirteen hundred and sixty; of whom fifty-two were Athenians, all of +the tribe Aeantis, that fought, says Clidemus, with the greatest +courage of all; and for this reason the men of this tribe used to offer +sacrifice for the victory, as enjoined by the oracle, at the public +expense; ninety-one were Lacedaemonians, and sixteen Tegeatans. They +engraved upon the altar this inscription: + + The Greeks, when by their courage and their might, + They had repelled the Persian in the fight, + The common altar of freed Greece to be, + Reared this to Jupiter who guards the free. + +The battle of Plataea was fought on the fourth day of the month +Boedromion, on which day there is still a convention of the Greeks +at Plataea, and the Plateans still offer sacrifice for the victory to +"Jupiter of freedom." + +After this, the Athenians, not yielding the honor of the day to the +Lacedaemonians, nor consenting that they should erect a trophy, peace +was well-nigh destroyed by a dissension among the armed Greeks; but +Aristides, by soothing and counseling the commanders, especially +Leocrates and Myronides, pacified and persuaded them to leave the thing +to the decision of the Greeks. Cleocritus of Corinth rising up, made +people think he would ask the palm for the Corinthians (for next to +Sparta and Athens, Corinth was in greatest estimation); but he delivered +his opinion, to the general admiration, in favor of the Plataeans; and +counseled to take away all contention by giving them the reward and +the glory of the victory, whose being honored could be distasteful to +neither party. This being said, first Aristides gave consent in the name +of the Athenians, and Pausanias then, for the Lacedaemonians. So, being +reconciled, they set apart eighty talents for the Plateans, with which +they built the temple and dedicated the image to Minerva, and adorned +the temple with pictures, which even to this very day retain their +lustre. But the Lacedaemonians and Athenians each erected a trophy apart +by themselves. On their consulting the oracle about offering sacrifice, +Apollo answered that they should dedicate an altar to Jupiter of +freedom, but should not sacrifice till they had extinguished the fires +throughout the country, as having been defiled by the barbarians, +and had kindled unpolluted fire at the common altar at Delphi. The +magistrates of Greece, therefore, went forthwith and compelled such as +had fire to put it out; and Euchidas, a Plataean, promising to fetch +fire with all possible speed, from the altar of the god, ran to Delphi, +and having sprinkled and purified his body, crowned himself with laurel; +and taking the fire from the altar ran back to Plataea, arriving before +sunset, and performing in one day a journey of a thousand furlongs; +and saluting his fellow-citizens and delivering them the fire, +he immediately fell down and a short time after expired. Then the +Plataeans, taking him up, interred him in the temple of Diana Euclia, +setting this inscription over him: "Euchidas ran to Delphi and back +again in one day." + +A general assembly of all the Greeks being called, Aristides proposed +a decree, that the deputies and religious representatives of the +Greek states should assemble annually at Plataea, and every fifth year +celebrate the Eleutheria, or games of freedom. And that there should +be a levy upon all Greece, for the war against the barbarians, of ten +thousand spearmen, one thousand horse, and a hundred sail of ships; +but the Plateans to be exempt, and sacred to the service of the gods, +offering sacrifice for the welfare of Greece. These things being +ratified, the Plateans undertook the performance of annual sacrifice to +such as were slain and buried in that place; which they still perform +in the following manner. On the sixteenth day of Maemacterion they +make their procession, which, beginning by break of day, is led by a +trumpeter sounding for onset; then follow chariots loaded with myrrh and +garlands; and then a black bull; then come the young men of free birth +carrying libations of wine and milk in large two-handed vessels, and +jars of oil and precious ointments, none of servile condition being +permitted to have any hand in this ministration, because the men died in +defense of freedom; after all comes the chief magistrate of Plataea (for +whom it is unlawful at other times for him either to touch iron, or wear +any other colored garment but white), at that time appareled in a purple +robe; and taking a water-pot out of the city record-office, he proceeds, +bearing a sword in his hand, through the middle of the town to the +sepulchres. Then drawing water out of a spring, he washes and anoints +the monuments, and sacrificing the bull upon a pile of wood, and making +supplication to Jupiter and Mercury of the earth, invites those valiant +men who perished in the defense of Greece, to the banquet and the +libations of blood. After this, mixing a bowl of wine, and pouring out +for himself, he says, "I drink to those who lost their lives for the +liberty of Greece." These solemnities the Plataeans observe to this day. + +Theophrastus tells us that Aristides was, in his own private affairs, +and those of his own fellow-citizens, rigorously just, but that in +public matters he acted often in accordance with his country's policy, +which demanded, sometimes, not a little injustice. It is reported of him +that he said in a debate, upon the motion of the Samians for removing +the treasure from Delos to Athens, contrary to the league, that the +thing indeed was not just, but was expedient. + +In fine, having established the dominion of his city over so many +people, he himself remained indigent; and always delighted as much in +the glory of being poor, as in that of his trophies; as is evident from +the following story. Callias, the torch-bearer was related to him: and +was prosecuted by his enemies in a capital cause, in which, after +they had slightly argued the matters on which they indicted him, they +proceeded, beside the point, to address the judges: "You know," said +they, "Aristides, the son of Lysimachus, who is the admiration of all +Greece. In what a condition do you think his family is at his house, +when you see him appear in public in such a threadbare cloak? Is it not +probable that one, who, out of doors, goes thus exposed to the cold, +must want food and other necessaries at home? Callias, the wealthiest +of the Athenians, does nothing to relieve either him or his wife and +children in their poverty, though he is his own cousin, and has made use +of him in many cases, and often reaped advantage by his interest with +you." But Callias, perceiving that the judges were particularly moved +by this, and were exasperated against him, called in Aristides, who +testified that when Callias offered him divers presents, and entreated +him to accept them, he had refused, answering, that it became him better +to be proud of his poverty than Callias of his wealth. On Aristides +deposing these facts in favor of Callias, there was not one who heard +them that went way desirous rather to be poor like Aristides, than rich +as Callias. Thus Aeschines, the scholar of Socrates, writes. But Plato +declares, that of all the great and renowned men in the city of Athens, +he was the only one worthy of consideration; for while Themistocles, +Cimon, and Pericles filled the city with porticoes, treasure, and many +other vain things, Aristides guided his public life by the rule of +justice. He showed his moderation very plainly in his conduct toward +Themistocles himself. For though Themistocles had been his adversary in +all his undertakings, and was the cause of his banishment, yet when he +afforded a similar opportunity of revenge, being accused by the city, +Aristides bore him no malice; but while Alcmaeon, Cimon, and many others +were prosecuting and impeaching him, Aristides alone, neither did, nor +said any evil against him, and no more triumphed over his enemy in his +adversity, than he had envied him his prosperity. + +Some say Aristides died in Pontus, during a voyage upon the affairs of +the public. Others say that he died of old age at Athens, being in great +honor and veneration among his fellow-citizens. + +His monument is to be seen at Phalerum, which they say was built for him +by the city, he not having left enough even to defray funeral charges. +And it is stated, that his two daughters were publicly married out of +the prytaneum, or state-house, by the city, which decreed each of +them three thousand drachmas for her portion; and that upon his son +Lysimachus, the people bestowed a hundred minas of money, and as many +acres of planted land, and ordered him besides, upon the motion of +Alcibiades, four drachmas a day. + + + + +CIMON + +Cimon was the son of Miltiades and Hegesipyle, who was by birth a +Thracian, and daughter to the king Olorus. By this means the historian +Thucydides was his kinsman by the mother's side; for his father's name +also, in remembrance of this common ancestor, was Olorus, and he was +the owner of the gold mines in Thrace, and met his death, it is said, by +violence, in Scapte Hyle, a district of Thrace. Cimon was left an orphan +very young, with his sister Elpinice, who was also young and unmarried. +And at first he had but an indifferent reputation, being looked upon +as disorderly in his habits, fond of drinking, and resembling his +grandfather, also called Cimon, in character, whose simplicity got him +the surname of Coalemus the simpleton. Stesimbrotus of Thasos, who +lived about the same time with Cimon, reports of him that he had little +acquaintance either with music, or any of the other liberal studies +and accomplishments, then common among the Greeks; that he had nothing +whatever of the quickness and the ready speech of his countrymen in +Attica; that he had great nobleness and candor in his disposition, and +in his character in general, resembled rather a native of Peloponnesus, +than of Athens; as Euripides describes Hercules:-- + + ----Rude And unrefined, for great things, well-endued; + +for this may fairly be added to the character which Stesimbrotus has +given of him. + +Almost all the points of Cimon's character were noble and good. He was +as daring as Miltiades, and not inferior to Themistocles in judgment, +and was incomparably more just and honest than either of them. Fully +their equal in all military virtues, in the ordinary duties of a citizen +at home he was immeasurably their superior. And this, too, when he +was very young, his years not strengthened by any experience. For when +Themistocles, upon the Median invasion, advised the Athenians to forsake +their city and their country, and to carry all their arms on shipboard, +and fight the enemy by sea, in the straits of Salamis; when all the +people stood amazed at the confidence and rashness of this advice, Cimon +was seen, the first of all men, passing with a cheerful countenance +through the Ceramics, on his way with his companions to the citadel, +carrying a bridle in his hand to offer to the goddess, intimating that +there was no more need of horsemen now, but of mariners. There, after +he had paid his devotions to the goddess, and offered up the bridle, he +took down one of the bucklers that hung upon the walls of the temple, +and went down to the port; by this example giving confidence to many of +the citizens. He was also of a fairly handsome person, according to the +poet Ion, tall and large, and let his thick and curly hair grow long. +After he had acquitted himself gallantly in this battle of Salamis, +he obtained great repute among the Athenians, and was regarded with +affection, as well as admiration. He had many who followed after him, +and bade him aspire to actions not less famous than his father's battle +of Marathon. And when he came forward in political life, the people +welcomed him gladly, being now weary of Themistocles; in opposition to +whom, and because of the frankness and easiness of his temper, which was +agreeable to every one, they advanced Cimon to the highest employments +in the government. The man that contributed most to his promotion was +Aristides, who early discerned in his character his natural capacity, +and purposely raised him, that he might be a counterpoise to the craft +and boldness of Themistocles. After the Medes had been driven out of +Greece, Cimon was sent out as admiral, when the Athenians had not yet +attained their dominion by sea, but still followed Pausanias and the +Lacedaemonians; and his fellow-citizens under his command were highly +distinguished, both for the excellence of their discipline, and for +their extraordinary zeal and readiness. And further, perceiving that +Pausanias was carrying on secret communications with the barbarians, and +writing letters to the king of Persia to betray Greece, and, puffed +up with authority and success, was treating the allies haughtily, and +committing many wanton injustices, Cimon, taking advantage, by acts of +kindness to those who were suffering wrong, and by his general humane +bearing, robbed him of the command of the Greeks, before he was aware, +not by arms, but by his mere language and character. Cimon, strengthened +with the accession of the allies, went as general into Thrace. For he +was told that some great men among the Persians, of the king's kindred, +being in possession of Eion, a city situated upon the river Strymon, +infested the neighboring Greeks. First he defeated these Persians in +battle, and shut them up within the walls of their town. Then he fell +upon the Thracians of the country beyond the Strymon, because they +supplied Eion with victuals, and driving them entirely out of the +country, took possession of it as conqueror, by which means he reduced +the besieged to such straits, that Butes, who commanded there for the +king, in desperation set fire to the town, and burned himself, his +goods, and all his relations, in one common flame. By this means, +Cimon got the town, but no great booty; as the barbarians had not only +consumed themselves in the fire, but the richest of their effects. +However, he put the country into the hands of the Athenians, a most +advantageous and desirable situation for a settlement. For this action, +the people permitted him to erect the stone Mercuries, upon the first of +which was this inscription:-- + +Of bold and patient spirit, too, were those Who, where the Strymon under +Eion flows, With famine and the sword, to utmost need Reduced at last +the children of the Mede. + +Upon the second stood this:-- + +The Athenians to their leaders this reward For great and useful service +did accord; Others hereafter, shall, from their applause, Learn to be +valiant in their country's cause. + +And upon the third, the following:-- + +With Atreus' sons, this city sent of yore Divine Menestheus to the +Trojan shore; Of all the Greeks, so Homer's verses say, The ablest man +an army to array; So old the title of her sons the name Of chiefs and +champions in the field to claim. + +Though the name of Cimon is not mentioned in these inscriptions, yet his +contemporaries considered them to be the very highest honors to him; +as neither Miltiades nor Themistocles ever received the like. When +Miltiades claimed a garland, Sochares of Decelea stood up in the midst +of the assembly and opposed it, using words which, though ungracious, +were received with applause by the people. "When you have gained a +victory by yourself, Miltiades, then you may ask to triumph so too." + +One mark of Cimon's great favor with the people, was the judgment, +afterwards so famous upon the tragic poets. Sophocles, still a young +man, had just brought forward his first plays; opinions were much +divided, and the spectators had taken sides with some heat. So, to +determine the case, Apsephion, who was at that time Archon, would +not cast lots who should be judges; but when Cimon, and his brother +commanders with him, came into the theatre, after they had performed +the usual rites to the god of the festival, he would not allow them to +retire, but came forward and made them swear, being ten in all, one from +each tribe, the usual oath; and so being sworn judges, he made them sit +down to give sentence. The eagerness for victory grew all the warmer, +from the ambition to get the suffrages of such honorable judges. And the +victory was at last adjudged to Sophocles, which Aeschylus is said to +have taken so ill, that he left Athens shortly after, and went in anger +to Sicily, where he died, and was buried near the city of Gela. + +Ion relates that when he was a young man, and had recently come from +Chios to Athens, he chanced to sup with Cimon, at Laomedon's house. +After supper, when they had, according to custom, poured out wine to the +honor of the gods, Cimon was desired by the company to give them a song, +which he did with sufficient success, and received the commendations of +the company, who remarked on his superiority to Themistocles, who, on a +like occasion, had declared he had never learnt to sing, or to play, and +only knew how to make a city rich and powerful. After talking of things +incident to such entertainments, they entered upon the particulars of +the several actions for which Cimon had been famous. And when they were +mentioning the most signal, he told them they had omitted one, upon +which he valued himself most for address and good contrivance. He gave +this account of it. When the allies had taken a great number of +the barbarians prisoners in Sestos and Byzantium, they gave him the +preference to divide the booty; he accordingly put the prisoners in one +lot, and the spoils of their rich attire and jewels in the other. This +the allies complained of as an unequal division; but he gave them their +choice to take which lot they would, saying that the Athenians should be +content with that which they refused. Herophytus of Samos advised them +to take the ornaments for their share, and leave the slaves to the +Athenians; and Cimon went away, and was much laughed at for his +ridiculous division. For the allies carried away the golden bracelets, +and armlets, and collars, and purple robes, and the Athenians had only +the naked bodies of the captives, which they could make no advantage of, +being unused to labor. But a little while after, the friends and kinsmen +of the prisoners coming from Lydia and Phrygia, redeemed every one his +relations at a high ransom; so that by this means Cimon got so much +treasure that he maintained his whole fleet of galleys with the money +for four months; and yet there was some left to lay up in the treasury +at Athens. + +Cimon now grew rich, and what he gained from the barbarians with honor, +he spent yet more honorably upon the citizens. For he pulled down all +the enclosures of his gardens and grounds, that strangers, and the needy +of his fellow-citizens, might gather of its fruits freely. At home, he +kept a table, plain, but sufficient for a considerable number, to which +any poor townsman had free access, and so might support himself without +labor, with his whole time left free for public duties. Aristotle +states, however, that this reception did not extend to all the +Athenians, but only to his own fellow townsmen, the Laciadae.* Besides +this, he always went attended by two or three young companions, very +well clad; and if he met with an elderly citizen in a poor habit, one +of these would change clothes with the decayed citizen, which was +looked upon as very nobly done. He enjoined them, likewise, to carry +a considerable quantity of coin about them, which they were to convey +silently into the hands of the better class of poor men, as they stood +by them in the market-place. This, Cratinus, the poet, speaks of in one +of his comedies, the Archilochi:-- + + For I, Metrobius too, the scrivener poor, + Of ease and comfort in my age secure, + By Greece's noblest son in life's decline, + Cimon, the generous-hearted, the divine, + Well-fed and feasted hoped till death to be, + Death which, alas! has taken him ere me. + +Gorgias the Leontine gives him this character, that he got riches that +he might use them, and used them that he might get honor by them. And +Critias, one of the thirty tyrants, makes it, in his elegies, his wish +to have + + The Scopads' wealth, and Cimon's nobleness, + And king Agesilaus's success. + +Lichas, we know, became famous in Greece, only because on the days of +the sports, when the young boys ran naked, he used to entertain the +strangers that came to see these diversions. But Cimon's generosity +outdid all the old Athenian hospitality and good-nature. For though +it is the city's just boast that their forefathers taught the rest of +Greece to sow corn, and how to use springs of water, and to kindle fire, +yet Cimon, by keeping open house for his fellow-citizens, and giving +travelers liberty to eat the fruits which the several seasons produced +in his land, seemed to restore to the world that community of goods, +which mythology says existed in the reign of Saturn. Those who object to +him that he did this to be popular, and gain the applause of the vulgar, +are confuted by the constant tenor of the rest of his actions, which all +ended to uphold the interests of the nobility and the Spartan policy, +of which he gave instances, when, together with Aristides, he opposed +Themistocles, who was advancing the authority of the people beyond its +just limits, and resisted Ephialtes, who to please the multitude, was +for abolishing the jurisdiction of the court of Areopagus. And when all +the men of his time, except Aristides and Ephialtes, enriched themselves +out of the public money, he still kept his hands clean and untainted, +and to his last day never acted or spoke for his own private gain or +emolument. They tell us that Rhoesaces, a Persian, who had traitorously +revolted from the king his master, fled to Athens, and there, being +harassed by sycophants who were still accusing him to the people, he +applied himself to Cimon for redress, and to gain his favor, laid down +in his doorway two cups, the one full of gold, and the other of silver +Darics. Cimon smiled and asked him whether he wished to have Cimon's +hired service or his friendship. He replied, his friendship. "If so," +said he, "take away these pieces, for being your friend, when I shall +have occasion for them, I will send and ask for them." + +The allies of the Athenians began now to be weary of war and military +service, willing to have repose, and to look after their husbandry and +traffic. For they saw their enemies driven out of the country, and did +not fear any new vexations from them. They still paid the tax they were +assessed at, but did not send men and galleys, as they had done before. +This the other Athenian generals wished to constrain them to, and +by judicial proceedings against defaulters, and penalties which they +inflicted on them, made the government uneasy, and even odious. But +Cimon practiced a contrary method; he forced no man to go that was not +willing, but of those that desired to be excused from service he took +money and vessels unmanned, and let them yield to the temptation of +staying at home, to attend to their private business. Thus they lost +their military habits, and luxury and their own folly quickly changed +them into unwarlike husbandmen and traders; while Cimon, continually +embarking large numbers of Athenians on board his galleys, thoroughly +disciplined them in his expeditions, and ere long made them the lords of +their own paymasters. The allies, whose indolence maintained them, while +they thus went sailing about everywhere, and incessantly bearing +arms and acquiring skill, began to fear and flatter them, and found +themselves after a while allies no longer, but unwittingly become +tributaries and slaves. + +Nor did any man ever do more than Cimon did to humble the pride of +the Persian king. He was not content with ridding Greece of him; but +following close at his heels, before the barbarians could take breath +and recover themselves, what with his devastations, and his forcible +reduction of some places and the revolts and voluntary accession of +others, in the end, from Ionia to Pamphylia, all Asia was clear of +Persian soldiers. Word being brought him that the royal commanders were +lying in wait upon the coast of Pamphylia, with a numerous land army, +and a large fleet, he determined to make the whole sea on this side the +Chelidonian islands so formidable to them that they should never dare +to show themselves in it; and setting off from Cnidos and the Triopian +headland, with two hundred galleys, which had been originally built with +particular care by Themistocles, for speed and rapid evolutions, and +to which he now gave greater width and roomier decks along the sides +to move to and fro upon, so as to allow a great number of full-armed +soldiers to take part in the engagements and fight from them, he shaped +his course first of all against the town of Phaselis, which, though +inhabited by Greeks, yet would not quit the interests of Persia, but +denied his galleys entrance into their port. Upon this he wasted the +country, and drew up his army to their very walls; but the soldiers of +Chios, who were then serving under him, being ancient friends to the +Phaselites, endeavoring to propitiate the general in their behalf, at +the same time shot arrows into the town, to which were fastened letters +conveying intelligence. At length he concluded peace with them, upon the +conditions that they should pay down ten talents, and follow him against +the barbarians. The Persian admiral lay waiting for him with the whole +fleet at the mouth of the river Eurymedon, with no design to fight, but +expecting a reinforcement of eighty Phoenician ships on their way from +Cyprus. Cimon, aware of this, put out to sea, resolved, if they would +not fight a battle willingly, to force them to it. The barbarians, +seeing this, retired within the mouth of the river to avoid +being attacked; but when they saw the Athenians come upon them, +notwithstanding their retreat, they met them with six hundred ships, +as Phanodemus relates, but according to Ephorus, with three hundred +and fifty. However, they did nothing worthy such mighty forces, but +immediately turned the prows of their galleys toward the shore, where +those that came first threw themselves upon the land, and fled to their +army drawn up thereabout, while the rest perished with their vessels, or +were taken. By this, one may guess at their number, for though a great +many escaped out of the fight, and a great many others were sunk, yet +two hundred galleys were taken by the Athenians. + +When their land army drew toward the seaside, Cimon was in suspense +whether he should venture to try and force his way on shore; as he +should thus expose his Greeks, wearied with slaughter in the first +engagement, to the swords of the barbarians, who were all fresh men, and +many times their number. But seeing his men resolute, and flushed with +victory, he bade them land, though they were not yet cool from their +first battle. As soon as they touched ground, they set up a shout and +ran upon the enemy, who stood firm and sustained the first shock +with great courage, so that the fight was a hard one, and some of +the principal men of the Athenians in rank and courage were slain. At +length, though with much ado, they routed the barbarians, and killing +some, took others prisoners, and plundered all their tents and +pavilions, which were full of rich spoil. Cimon, liked a skilled athlete +at the games, having in one day carried off two victories, wherein +he surpassed that of Salamis by sea, and that of Plataea by land, was +encouraged to try for yet another success. News being brought that the +Phoenician succors, in number eighty sail, had come in sight at Hydrum, +he set off with all speed to find them, while they as yet had not +received any certain account of the larger fleet, and were in doubt what +to think; so that thus surprised, they lost all their vessels, and most +of their men with them. This success of Cimon so daunted the king +of Persia, that he presently made that celebrated peace, by which he +engaged that his armies should come no nearer the Grecian sea than the +length of a horse's course; and that none of his galleys or vessels +of war should appear between the Cyanean and Chelidonian isles. In the +collection which Craterus made of the public acts of the people, there +is a draft of this treaty given. + +The people of Athens raised so much money from the spoils of this war, +which were publicly sold, that, besides other expenses, and raising the +south wall of the citadel, they laid the foundation of the long walls, +not, indeed, finished till at a later time, which were called the Legs. +And the place where they built them being soft and marshy ground, they +were forced to sink great weights of stone and rubble to secure the +foundation, and did all this out of the money Cimon supplied them with. + +It was he, likewise, who first embellished the upper city with those +fine and ornamental places of exercise and resort, which they afterward +so much frequented and delighted in. He set the market-place with plane +trees; and the Academy, which was before a bare, dry, and dirty spot, he +converted into a well-watered grove, with shady alleys to walk in, and +open courses for races. + +When the Persians who had made themselves masters of the Chersonese, so +far from quitting it, called in the people of the interior of Thrace +to help them against Cimon, whom they despised for the smallness of his +forces, he set upon them with only four galleys, and took thirteen of +theirs; and having driven out the Persians, and subdued the Thracians, +he made the hole Chersonese the property of Athens. Next, he attacked +the people of Thasos, who had revolted from the Athenians; and, having +defeated them in a fight at sea, where he captured thirty-three of their +vessels, he took their own by siege, and acquired for the Athenians all +the mines of gold on the opposite coast, and the territory dependent on +Thasos. + +This opened him a fair passage into Macedon, so that he might, it was +thought, have acquired a good portion of that country, and because he +neglected the opportunity, he was suspected of corruption, and of +having been bribed off by king Alexander. So, by the combination of +his adversaries, he was accused of being false to his country. In his +defence he told the judges, that he had always shown himself in his +public life the friend, not, like other men, of rich Ionians and +Thessalonians, to be courted, and to receive presents, but of the +Lacedaemonians; for as he admired, so he wished to imitate, the +plainness of their habits, their temperance, and simplicity of living, +which he preferred to any sort of riches; but that he always had +been, and still was proud to enrich his country with the spoils of her +enemies. Pericles proved the mildest of his prosecutors, and rose up but +once all the while, almost as a matter of form, to plead against him. +Cimon was acquitted. + +In his public life after this, he continued, while at home, to control +the common people, who would have trampled upon the nobility, and drawn +all the power and sovereignty to themselves. But when he afterwards was +sent out to war, the multitude broke loose, as it were, and overthrew +all the ancient laws and customs they had hitherto observed, and, +chiefly at the instigation of Ephialtes, withdrew the cognizance of +almost all causes from the Areopagus; so that all jurisdiction now being +transferred to them, the government was reduced to a perfect democracy, +and this by the help of Pericles, who was already powerful, and had +pronounced in favor of the common people. + +He was indeed a favorer of the Lacedaemonians even from his youth, and +gave the names of Lacedaemonius and Eleus to his two sons, twins. + +Cimon was countenanced by the Lacedaemonians in opposition to +Themistocles, whom they disliked; and while he was yet very young, +they endeavored to raise and increase his credit in Athens. This +the Athenians perceived at first with pleasure, and the favor the +Lacedaemonians showed him was in various ways advantageous to them and +their affairs; as at that time they were just rising to power, and were +occupied in winning the allies to their side. So they seemed not at all +offended with the honor and kindness showed to Cimon, who then had the +chief management of all the affairs of Greece, and was acceptable to +the Lacedaemonians, and courteous to the allies. But afterwards the +Athenians, grown more powerful, when they saw Cimon so entirely devoted +to the Lacedaemonians, began to be angry, for he would always in +speeches prefer them to the Athenians, and upon every occasion, when he +would reprimand them for a fault, or incite them to emulation, he +would exclaim, "The Lacedaemonians would not do thus." This raised the +discontent, and got him in some degree the hatred of the citizens; but +that which ministered chiefly to the accusation against him fell out +upon the following occasion. + +In the fourth year of the reign of Archidamus, the son of Zeuxidamus, +king of Sparta, there happened in the country of Lacedaemon, the +greatest earthquake that was known in the memory of ma; the earth opened +into chasms, and the mountain Taygetus was so shaken that some of the +rocky points of it fell down, and except five houses, all the town of +Sparta was shattered to pieces. They say that a little before any +motion was perceived, as the young men and the boys just grown up were +exercising themselves together in the middle of the portico, a hare, +of a sudden, started out just by them, which the young men, though all +naked and daubed with oil, ran after for sport. No sooner were they +gone from the place, than the gymnasium fell down upon the boys who had +stayed behind, and killed them all. Their tomb is to this day called +Sismatias.* Archidamus, by the present danger made apprehensive of what +might follow, and seeing the citizens intent upon removing the most +valuable of their goods out of their houses, commanded an alarm to be +sounded, as if an enemy were coming upon them, in order that they should +collect about him in a body, with arms. It was this alone that saved +Sparta at that time, for the Helots had come together from the country +about, with design of surprising the Spartans, and overpowering +those whom the earthquake had spared. But finding them armed and well +prepared, they retired into the towns and openly made war with them, +gaining over a number of the Laconians of the country districts; while +at the same time the Messenians, also, made an attack upon the Spartans, +who therefore despatched Periclidas to Athens to solicit succor, of whom +Aristophanes says in mockery that he came and + + In a red jacket, at the altars seated, + With a white face, for men and arms entreated. + +This Ephialtes opposed, protesting that they ought not to raise up or +assist a city that was a rival to Athens; but that being down, it +were best to keep her so, and let the pride and arrogance of Sparta +be trodden under. But Cimon, as Critias says, preferring the safety of +Lacedaemon to the aggrandizement of his own country, so persuaded the +people, that he soon marched out with a large army to their relief. Ion +records, also, the most successful expression which he used to move the +Athenians. "They ought not to suffer Greece to be lamed, nor their own +city to be deprived of her yoke fellow." + +In his return from aiding the Lacedaemonians, he passed with his army +through the territory of Corinth; whereupon Lachartus reproached him for +bringing his army into the country, without first asking leave of the +people. For he that knocks at another man's door ought not to enter +the house till the master gives him leave. "But you, Corinthians, O +Lachartus," said Cimon, "did not knock at the gates of the Cleonaeans +and Megarians, but broke them down and entered by force, thinking that +all places should be open to the stronger." And having thus rallied +the Corinthian, he passed on with his army. Some time after this, the +Lacedaemonians sent a second time to desire succor of the Athenians +against the Messenians and Helots, who had seized upon Ithome. But when +they came, fearing their boldness and gallantry, of all that came to +their assistance, they sent them only back, alleging that they were +designing innovations. The Athenians returned home, enraged at this +usage, and vented their anger upon all those who were favorers of the +Lacedaemonians; and seizing some slight occasion, they banished Cimon +for ten years, which is the time prescribed to those that are banished +by the ostracism. In the mean time, the Lacedaemonians, on their return +after freeing Delphi from the Phocians, encamped their army at Tanagra, +whither the Athenians presently marched with design to fight them. + +Cimon also, came thither armed and ranged himself among those of his own +tribe, which was the Oeneis, desirous of fighting with the rest against +the Spartans; but the council of five hundred being informed of this, +and frightened at it, his adversaries crying out that he would disorder +the army, and bring the Lacedaemonians to Athens, commanded the officers +not to receive him. Wherefore Cimon left the army, conjuring Euthippus, +the Anaphylstian, and the rest of his companions, who were most +suspected as favoring the Lacedaemonians, to behave themselves bravely +against their enemies, and by their actions make their innocence evident +to their countrymen. These, being in all a hundred, took the arms of +Cimon, and followed his advice; and making a body by themselves, fought +so desperately with the enemy, that they were all cut off, leaving the +Athenians deep regret for the loss of such brave men, and repentance for +having so unjustly suspected them. Accordingly, they did not long retain +their severity toward Cimon, partly upon remembrance of his former +services, and partly, perhaps, induced by the juncture of the times. +For being defeated at Tanagra in a great battle, and fearing the +Peloponnesians would come upon them at the opening of the spring, they +recalled Cimon by a decree, of which Pericles himself was author. So +reasonable were men's resentments in those times, and so moderate their +anger, that it always gave way to the public good. Even ambition, +the least governable of all human passions, could then yield to the +necessities of the State. + +Cimon, as soon as he returned, put an end to the war, and reconciled the +two cities. Peace thus established, seeing the Athenians impatient of +being idle, and eager for the honor and aggrandizement of war, lest they +should set upon the Greeks themselves, or with so many ships cruising +about the isles and Peloponnesus, they should give occasions for +intestine wars, or complaints of their allies against them, he equipped +two hundred galleys, with design to make an attempt upon Egypt and +Cyprus; purposing, by this means, to accustom the Athenians to fight +against the barbarians, and enrich themselves honestly by despoiling +those who were the natural enemies to Greece. But when all things were +prepared, and the army ready to embark, Cimon had this dream. It seemed +to him that there was a furious female dog barking at him, and, mixed +with the barking, a kind of human voice uttered these words: + + Come on, for thou shalt shortly be + A pleasure to my whelps and me. + +This dream was hard to interpret, yet Astyphilus of Posidonia, a man +skilled in divinations, and intimate with Cimon, told him that his death +was presaged by this vision, which he thus explained. A dog is enemy +to him he barks at; and one is always most a pleasure to one's enemies, +when one is dead; the mixture of human voice with barking signifies the +Medes, for the army of the Medes is mixed up of Greeks and barbarians. +After this dream, as he was sacrificing to Bacchus, and the priest +cutting up the victim, a number of ants, taking up the congealed +particles of the blood, laid them about Cimon's great toes. This was not +observed for a good while, but at the very time when Cimon spied it, the +priest came and showed him the liver of the sacrifice imperfect, wanting +that part of it called the head. But he could not then recede from the +enterprise, so he set sail. Sixty of his ships he sent toward Egypt; +with the rest he went and fought the king of Persia's fleet, composed +of Phoenician and Cilician galleys, recovered all the cities thereabout, +and threatened Egypt; designing no less than the entire ruin of the +Persian empire. And the more because he was informed that Themistocles +was in great repute among the barbarians, having promised the king +to lead his army, whenever he should make war upon Greece. But +Themistocles, it is said, abandoning all hopes of compassing his +designs, very much out of the despair of overcoming the valor and +good-fortune of Cimon, died a voluntary death. Cimon, intent on great +designs, which he was now to enter upon, keeping his navy about the isle +of Cyprus, sent messengers to consult the oracle of Jupiter Ammon upon +some secret matter. For it is not known about what they were sent, and +the god would give them no answer, but commanded them to return again, +for Cimon was already with him. Hearing this, they returned to sea, and +as soon as they came to the Grecian army, which was then about Egypt, +they understood that Cimon was dead; and computing the time of the +oracle, they found that his death had been signified, he being then +already with the gods. + +He died, some say, of sickness, while besieging Citium, in Cyprus; +according to others, of a wound he received in a skirmish with the +barbarians. When he perceived that he was going to die, he commanded +those under his charge to return, and by no means to let the news of his +death be known by the way; this they did with such secrecy that they all +came home safe, and neither their enemies nor the allies knew what had +happened. Thus, as Phanodemus relates, the Grecian army was, as it were, +conducted by Cimon thirty days after he was dead. But after his +death there was not one commander among the Greeks that did any thing +considerable against the barbarians, and instead of uniting against +their common enemies, the popular leaders and partisans of war animated +them against one another to such a degree, that none could interpose +their good offices to reconcile them. And while, by their mutual +discord, they ruined the power of Greece, they gave the Persians time +to recover breath, and repair all their losses. It is true, indeed, +Agesilaus carried the arms of Greece into Asia, but it was a long time +afterwards; there were some brief appearances of a war against the +king's lieutenants in the maritime provinces, but they all quickly +vanished; before he could perform any thing of moment, he was recalled +by fresh civil dissensions and disturbances at home. So that he was +forced to leave the Persian king's officers to impose what tribute they +pleased on the Greek cities in Asia, the confederates and allies of +the Lacedaemonians. Whereas, in the time of Cimon, not so much as a +letter-carrier, or a single horseman, was ever seen to come within four +hundred furlongs of the sea. + +The monuments, called Cimonian to this day, in Athens, show that his +remains were conveyed home, yet the inhabitants of the city Citium pay +particular honor to a certain tomb which they call the tomb of Cimon, +according to Nausicrates the rhetorician, who states that in a time +of famine, when the crops of their land all failed, they sent to the +oracle, which commanded them not to forget Cimon, but give him the +honors of a superior being. + + + + +POMPEY + +The people of Rome appear, from the first, to have been affected towards +Pompey, much in the same manner as Prometheus, in Aeschylus, was towards +Hercules, when after that hero had delivered him from his chains, he +says-- + + The sire I hated, but the son I loved. + +For never did the Romans entertain a stronger and more rancorous hatred +for any general than for Strabo, the father of Pompey. While he lived, +indeed, they were afraid of his abilities as a soldier, for he had +great talents for war; but upon his death, which happened by a stroke +of lightning, they dragged his corpse from the bier, on the way to the +funeral pile, and treated it with the greatest indignity. On the other +hand, no man ever experienced from the same Romans an attachment more +early begun, more disinterested in all the stages of his prosperity, or +more constant and faithful in the decline of his fortune, than Pompey. + +The sole cause of their aversion to the father was his insatiable +avarice; but there were many causes of their affection for the son; +his temperate way of living, his application to martial exercises, his +eloquent and persuasive address, his strict honor and fidelity, and the +easiness of access to him upon all occasions; for no man was ever less +importunate in asking favors, or more gracious in conferring them. When +he gave, it was without arrogance; and when he received, it was with +dignity. + +In his youth he had a very engaging countenance, which spoke for him +before he opened his lips. Yet that grace of aspect was not attended +with dignity, and amidst his youthful bloom there was a venerable and +princely air. His hair naturally curled a little before; which, together +with the shining moisture and quick turn of his eye, produced a stronger +likeness to Alexander the Great than that which appeared in the statues +of that prince. + +As to the simplicity of his diet, there is a remarkable saying of his +upon record. In a great illness, when his appetite was almost gone, the +physician ordered him a thrush. His servants, upon inquiry, found there +was not one to be had for money, for the season was passed. They +were informed, however, that Lucullus had them all the year in his +menageries. This being reported to Pompey, he said, "Does Pompey's life +depend upon the luxury of Lucullus?" Then, without any regard to the +physician, he ate something that was easy to be had. + +After the death of Cinna, Carbo, a tyrant still more savage, took the +reins of government. It was not long, however, before Sylla returned to +Italy, to the great satisfaction of most of the Romans, who, in their +present unhappy circumstances, thought the change of their master no +small advantage. + +Pompey, at the age of twenty-three, without a commission from any +superior authority, erected himself into a general; and having placed +his tribunal in the most public part of the great city of Auximum, +enlisted soldiers and appointed tribunes, centurions, and other +officers, according to the established custom. He did the same in all +the neighboring cities; for the partisans of Carbo retired and gave +place to him; and the rest were glad to range themselves under his +banners. So that in a little time he raised three complete legions, +and furnished himself with provisions, beasts of burden, carriages; in +short, with the whole apparatus of war. + +In this form he moved towards Sylla, not by hasty marches, nor as if +he wanted to conceal himself; for he stopped by the way to harass the +enemy; and attempted to draw off from Carbo all the parts of Italy +through which he passed. At last, three generals of the opposite party, +Carinna, Caelius, and Brutus, came against him all at once, not in +front, or in one body, but they hemmed him in with their three armies, +in hopes to demolish him entirely. + +Pompey, far from being terrified, assembled all his forces, and charged +the army of Brutus at the head of his cavalry. The Gaulish horse on the +enemy's side sustained the first shock; but Pompey attacked the foremost +of them, who was a man of prodigious strength, and brought him down with +a push of his spear. The rest immediately fled and threw the infantry +into such disorder that the whole was soon put to flight. This produced +so great a quarrel among the three generals, that they parted and took +separate routes. In consequence of which, the cities, concluding that +the fears of the enemy had made them part, adopted the interest of +Pompey. + +Not long after, Scipio the consul advanced to engage him. But before the +infantry were near enough to discharge their lances, Scipio's soldiers +saluted those of Pompey, and came over to them. Scipio, therefore, +was forced to fly. At last, Carbo sent a large body of cavalry against +Pompey, near the river Arsis. He gave them so warm a reception, that +they were soon broken, and in the pursuit drove them upon impracticable +ground; so that finding it impossible to escape, they surrendered +themselves with their arms and horses. + +Sylla had not yet been informed of these transactions; but upon the +first news of Pompey's being engaged with so many adversaries, and such +respectable generals, he dreaded the consequence, and marched with +all expedition to his assistance. Pompey, having intelligence of his +approach, ordered his officers to see that the troops were armed and +drawn up in such a manner as to make the handsomest and most gallant +appearance before the commander-in-chief. For he expected great honours +from him, and he obtained greater. Sylla no sooner saw Pompey advancing +to meet him, with an army in excellent condition, both as to age and +size of the men, and the spirits which success had given them, than he +alighted; and upon being saluted of course by Pompey as Imperator, he +returned his salutation with the same title: though no one imagined that +he would have honoured a young man not yet admitted into the senate with +a title for which he was contending with the Scipios and the Marii. The +rest of his behavior was as respectable as that in the first interview. +He used to rise up and uncover his head, whenever Pompey came to him; +which he was rarely observed to do for any other, though he had a number +of persons of distinction about him. + +While Pompey was in Sicily, he received a decree of the senate, and +letters from Sylla, in which he was commanded to cross over to Africa +and to carry on the war with the utmost vigor against Domitius, who had +assembled a much more powerful army than that which Marius carried not +long before from Africa to Italy, when he made himself master of +Rome, and from a fugitive became a tyrant. Pompey soon finished his +preparation for this expedition; and leaving the command in Sicily to +Memmius, his sister's husband, he set sail with one hundred and twenty +armed vessels, and eight hundred store-ships, laden with provisions, +arms, money, and machines of war. Part of his fleet landed at Utica, and +part at Carthage: immediately after which seven thousand of the enemy +came over to him; and he had brought with him six legions complete. + +On his arrival he met with a whimsical adventure. Some of his soldiers, +it seems, found a treasure, and rest of the troops concluded that the +place was full of money, which the Carthaginians had hid there in some +time of public distress. Pompey, therefore could make no use of them for +several days, as they were searching for treasures; and he had nothing +to do but walk about and amuse himself with the sight of so many +thousands digging and turning up the ground. At last, they gave up +the point, and bade him lead them wherever be pleased, for they were +sufficiently punished for their folly. + +Domitius advanced to meet him, and put his troops in order of battle. +There happened to be a channel between them, craggy and difficult to +pass. Moreover, in the morning it began to rain, and the wind blew +violently; insomuch that Domitius, not imagining there would be any +action that day, ordered his army to retire. But Pompey looked upon this +as his opportunity, and he passed the defile with the utmost expedition. +The enemy stood upon their defence, but it was in a disorderly and +tumultuous manner, and the resistance they made was neither general +nor uniform. Besides the wind and rain beat in their faces. The storm +incommoded the Romans, too, for they could not well distinguish each +other. Nay, Pompey himself was in danger of being killed by a soldier, +who asked him the pass-word, and did not receive a speedy answer. At +length, however, he routed the enemy with great slaughter; not above +three thousand of them escaping out of twenty thousand. The soldiers +then saluted Pompey, Imperator, but he said he would not accept that +title while the enemy's camp stood untouched; therefore, if they chose +to confer such an honor upon him, they must first make themselves +masters of the intrenchments. + +At that instant they advanced with great fury against them. Pompey +fought without his helmet, for fear of such an accident as he had just +escaped. The camp was taken, and Domitius slain; in consequence of +which most of the cities immediately submitted, and rest were taken by +assault. He took Iarbas, one of the confederates of Domitius, prisoner, +and bestowed his crown on Hiempsal. Advancing with the same tide of +fortune, and while his army had all the spirits inspired by success, he +entered Numidia, in which he continued his march for several days, and +subdued all that came in his way. Thus he revived the terror of the +Roman name, which the barbarians had begun to disregard. Nay, he chose +not to leave the savage beasts in the deserts without giving them a +specimen of the Roman valor and success. Accordingly he spent a few days +in hunting lions and elephants. The whole time he passed in Africa, +they tell us, was not above forty days; in which he defeated the enemy, +reduced the whole country, and brought the affairs of its kings under +proper regulations, though he was only in his twenty-fourth year. + +Upon his return to Utica, he received letters from Sylla, in which he +was ordered to send home the rest of his army, and to wait there +with one legion only for a successor. This gave him a great deal of +uneasiness, which he kept to himself, but the army expressed their +indignation aloud; insomuch that when he entreated them to return to +Italy, they launched out into abusive terms against Sylla, and declared +they would never abandon Pompey, or suffer him to trust a tyrant. At +first, he endeavored to pacify them with mild representations; and +when he found those had no effect, he descended from the tribunal, and +retired to his tent in tears. However, they went and took him thence, +and paced him again upon the tribunal, where they spent a great part of +the day; they insisting that he should stay and keep the command, and he +in persuading them to obey Sylla's orders, and to form no new faction. +At last, seeing no end of their clamors and importunity, he assured +them, with an oath, that he would kill himself, if they attempted to +force him. And even this hardly brought them to desist. + +The first news that Sylla heard was, that Pompey had revolted; upon +which he said to his friends, "Then it is my fate to have to contend +with boys in my old age." This he said, because Marius, who was very +young, had brought him into so much trouble and danger. But when he +received true information of the affair, and observed that all the +people flocked out to receive Pompey to conduct him home with marks of +great regard, he resolved to exceed them in his regards, if possible. +He, therefore, hastened to meet him, and embracing him in the most +affectionate manner, saluted him aloud by the surname of Magnus, or The +Great; at the same time he ordered all about him to give him the same +appellation. Others say, it was given him by the whole army in Africa, +but did not generally obtain till it was authorized by Sylla. It is +certain, he was the last to take it himself, and he did not make use of +it till a long time after, when he was sent into Spain with the dignity +of pro-consul against Sertorius. Then he began to write himself in +his letters in all his edicts, Pompey the Great; for the world was +accustomed to the name, and it was no longer invidious. In this respect +we may justly admire the wisdom of the ancient Romans, who bestowed on +their great men such honorable names and titles, not only for military +achievements, but for the great qualities and arts which adorn civil +life. + +When Pompey arrived at Rome, he demanded a triumph, in which he was +opposed by Sylla. The latter alleged that the laws did not allow that +honor to any person who was not either consul or praetor. Hence it was +that the first Scipio, when he returned victorious from greater wars and +conflicts with the Carthaginians in Spain, did not demand a triumph; for +he was neither consul nor praetor. He added, that if Pompey, who was +yet little better than a beardless youth, and who was not of age to be +admitted into the senate, should enter the city in triumph, it would +bring an odium both upon the dictator's power, and those honors of his +friend. These arguments Sylla insisted on, to show him that he would not +allow of his triumph, and that, in case he persisted, he would chastise +his obstinacy. + +Pompey, not in the least intimidated, bade him consider, that more +worshiped the rising than the setting sun; intimating that his power was +increasing, and Sylla's upon the decline. Sylla did not hear well what +he said, but perceiving by the looks and gestures of the company that +they were struck with the expression, he asked what it was. When he was +told it, he admired the spirit of Pompey and cried, "Let him triumph! +Let him triumph!" + +There is no doubt that he might then have been easily admitted a +senator, if he had desired it; but his ambition was to pursue honor in +a more uncommon track. It would have been nothing strange, if Pompey +had been a senator before the age fixed for it; but it was a very +extraordinary instance of honor to lead up a triumph before he was a +senator. And it contributed not a little to gain him the affections of +the multitude; the people were delighted to see him, after his triumph, +class with the equestrian order. + +The power of the pirates had its foundation in Cilicia. Their progress +was the more dangerous, because at first it was little taken notice +of. In the Mithridatic war they assumed new confidence and courage, on +account of some services they had rendered the king. After this, the +Romans being engaged in civil wars at the very gates of their capital, +the sea was left unguarded, and the pirates by degrees attempted higher +things; they not only attacked ships, but islands, and maritime towns. +Many persons, distinguished for their wealth, their birth, and their +capacity, embarked with them, and assisted in the depredations, as if +their employment had been worthy the ambition of men of honor. They +had in various places arsenals, ports, and watch-towers, all strongly +fortified. Their fleets were not only extremely well manned, supplied +with skillful pilots, and fitted for their business by their lightness +and celerity; but there was a parade of vanity about them more +mortifying than their strength, in gilded sterns, purpose canopies, and +plated oars; as if they took a pride and triumphed in their villainy. +Music resounded, and drunken revels were exhibited on every coast. Here +generals were made prisoners; there the cities the pirates had taken +were paying their ransom; all to the great disgrace of the Roman power. +The number of their galleys amounted to one thousand, and the cities +they were masters of to four hundred. + +Temples which had stood inviolably sacred till that time, they +plundered. They ruined the temple of Apollo at Claros, that of the +Cabiri in Samothrace, of Ceres at Hermione, of Aesculapius at Epidaurus, +those of Neptune in the Isthmus, at Taenarus and in Calauria, those +of Apollo at Actium and in the isle of Leucas, those of Juno at Samos, +Argos, and the promontory of Lacinium. + +They likewise offered strange sacrifices; those of Olympus I mean; and +they celebrated certain secret mysteries, among which those of Mithra +continue to this day, being originally instituted by them. They not only +insulted the Romans at sea but infested the great roads, and plundered +the villas near the coast; they carried off Sextilius and Bellinus, two +praetors, in their purple robes, which all their servants and lictors. +They seized the daughter of Antony, a man who had been honored with a +triumph, as she was going to her country house, and he was forced to pay +a large ransom for her. + +But the most contemptible circumstance of all was, that when they had +taken a prisoner, and he cried out that he was a Roman, and told them +his name, they pretended to be struck with terror, smote their thighs, +and fell upon their knees to ask him pardon. The poor man, seeing them +thus humble themselves before him, thought them in earnest, and said he +would forgive them; for some were so officious as to put on his shoes, +and others to help him on with his gown, that his quality might no more +be mistaken. When they had carried on this farce, and enjoyed it for +some time, they let a ladder down into the sea, and bade him go in +peace; and if he refused to do it, they pushed him off the deck, and +drowned him. + +Their power extended over the whole Tuscan sea, so that the Romans found +their trade and navigation entirely cut off. The consequence of which +was, that their markets were not supplied, and they had reason to +apprehend a famine. This at last led them to send Pompey to clear the +sea of pirates. Gabinius, one of Pompey's intimate friends, proposed +the decree, which created him not admiral, but monarch, and invested him +with absolute power. The decree gave him the empire of the sea as far +as the Pillars of Hercules, and of the land for 400 furlongs from the +coasts. There were few parts of the Roman empire which this commission +did not take in; and the most considerable of the barbarous nations, and +most powerful kings, were moreover comprehended in it. Besides this he +was empowered to choose out of the senators fifteen lieutenants, to +act under him in such districts, and with such authority as he should +appoint. He was to take from the quaestors, and other public receivers, +what money he pleased, and equip a fleet of two hundred sail. The number +of marine forces, of mariners and rowers, was left entirely to his +discretion. + +When this decree was read in the assembly, the people received it with +inconceivable pleasure. The most respectable part of the senate saw, +indeed, that such an absolute and unlimited power was above envy, but +they considered it as a real object of fear. They therefore all, except +Caesar, opposed its passing into a law. He was for it, not out of regard +for Pompey, but to insinuate himself into the good graces of the people, +which he had long been courting. The rest were very severe in the +expressions against Pompey; and one of the consuls venturing to say, +"If he imitates Romulus, he will not escape his fate," was in danger of +being pulled in pieces by the populace. + +It is true, when Catulus rose up to speak against the law, out of +reverence for his person they listened to him with great attention. +After he had freely given Pompey the honor that was his due, and said +much in his praise, he advised them to spare him, and not to expose such +a man to so many dangers; "for where will you find another," said he, +"if you lose him?" They answered with one voice, "Yourself." Finding his +arguments had no effect, he retired. Then Roscius mounted the rostrum, +but not a man would give ear to him. However he made signs to them with +his fingers, that they should not appoint Pompey alone, but give him a +colleague. Incensed at the proposal, they set up such a shout, that a +crow, which was flying over the forum, was stunned with the force of it, +and fell down among the crowd. Hence we may conclude, that when birds +fall on such occasions, it is not because the air is so divided with the +shock as to leave a vacuum, but rather because the sound strikes them +like a blow, when it ascends with force, and produces so violent an +agitation. + +The assembly broke up that day without coming to any resolution. When +the day came that they were to give their suffrages, Pompey retired into +the country; and, on receiving information that the decree was passed, +he returned to the city by night, to prevent the envy which the +multitudes of people coming to meet him would have excited. Next morning +at break of day he made his appearance, and attended the sacrifice. +After which, he summoned an assembly, and obtained a grant of almost as +much more as the first decree had given him. He was empowered to fit +out 500 galleys, and to raise an army of 120,000 foot, and 5,000 +horse. Twenty-four senators were selected, who had all been generals or +praetors, and were appointed his lieutenants; and he had two quaestors +given him. As the price of provisions fell immediately, the people were +greatly pleased, and it gave them occasion to say that the very name of +Pompey had terminated the war. + +However, in pursuance of his charge, he divided the whole Mediterranean +into thirteen parts, appointing a lieutenant for each, and assigning him +a squadron. By thus stationing his fleet in all quarters, he enclosed +the pirates as it were in a net, took great numbers of them, and brought +them into harbor. Such of their vessels as had dispersed and made off +in time, or could escape the general chase, retired to Cilicia, like +so many bees into a hive. Against these he proposed to go himself, with +sixty of his best galleys; but first he resolved to clear the Tuscan +sea, and the coasts of Africa, Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily, of all +piratical adventurers; which he effected in forty days, by his own +indefatigable endeavors and those of his lieutenants. But, as the consul +Piso was indulging his malignity at home, in wasting his stores and +discharging his seamen, he sent his fleet round to Brundusium, and went +himself by land through Tuscany to Rome. + +As soon as the people were informed of his approach, they went in crowds +to receive him, in the same manner as they had done a few days before, +to conduct him on his way. Their extraordinary joy was owing to the +speed with which he had executed his commission, so far beyond all +expectation, and to the superabundant plenty which reigned in the +markets. For this reason Piso was in danger of being deposed from the +consulship, and Gabinius had a decree ready drawn up for that purpose; +but Pompey would not suffer him to propose it. On the contrary, his +speech to the people was full of candor and moderation; and when he had +provided such things as he wanted, he went to Brundusium, and put to sea +again. Though he was straightened for time, and in his haste sailed by +many cities without calling, yet he stopped at Athens. He entered the +town and sacrificed to the gods; after which he addressed the people, +and then prepared to reembark immediately. As he went out of the gate he +observed two inscriptions, each comprised in one line. + +That within the gate was: + + But know thyself a man, and be a god. + +That without: + + We wish'd, we saw; we loved, and we adored. + +Some of the pirates, who yet traversed the seas, made their submission; +and as he treated them in a humane manner, when he had them and their +ships in his power, others entertained hope of mercy, and avoiding the +other officers, surrendered themselves to Pompey, together with their +wives and children. He spared them all; and it was principally by +their means that he found out and took a number who were guilty of +unpardonable crimes, and therefore had concealed themselves. + +Still, however, there remained a great number, and indeed the most +powerful part of these corsairs, who sent their families, treasures, and +all useless hands, into castles and fortified towns upon Mount Taurus. +Then they manned their ships, and waited for Pompey at Coracesium, in +Cilicia. A battle ensued, and the pirates were defeated; after which +they retired into the fort. But they had not been long besieged before +they capitulated, and surrendered themselves, together with the cities +and islands which they had conquered and fortified, and which by their +works as well as situation were almost impregnable. Thus the war was +finished, and whole force of the pirates destroyed, within three months +at the farthest. + +Besides the other vessels, Pompey took ninety ships with beaks of brass; +and the prisoners amounted to 20,000. He did not choose to put them +to death, and at the same time he thought it wrong to suffer them +to disperse, because they were not only numerous, but warlike and +necessitous, and therefore would probably knit again and give future +trouble. He reflected, that man by nature is neither a savage nor an +unsocial creature; and when he becomes so, it is by vices contrary +to nature; yet even then he may be humanized by changing his place of +abode, and accustoming him to a new manner of life; as beasts that are +naturally wild put off their fierceness when they are kept in a domestic +way. For this reason he determined to remove the pirates to a great +distance from the sea, and bring them to taste the sweets of civil life, +by living in cities, and by the culture of the ground. He placed some +of them in the little towns of Cilicia, which were almost desolate, and +which received them with pleasure, because at the same time he gave them +an additional proportion of lands. He repaired the city of Soli, which +had lately been dismantled and deprived of its inhabitants by Tigranes, +king of Armenia, and peopled it with a number of these corsairs. The +remainder, which was a considerable body, he planted in Dyma, a city of +Achaia, which, though it had a large and fruitful territory, was in want +of inhabitants. + +Pompey, having secured the sea from Phoenicia to the Bosphorus, marched +in quest of Mithridates, who had an army of 30,000 foot and 2,000 horse, +but durst not stand an engagement. That prince was in possession of a +strong and secure post upon a mountain, which he quitted upon Pompey's +approach, because it was destitute of water. Pompey encamped in the same +place; and conjecturing, from the nature of the plants and the crevices +in the mountain, that springs might be found, he ordered a number of +wells to be dug, and the camp was in a short time plentifully supplied +with water. He was not a little surprised that this did not occur to +Mithridates during the whole time of his encampment there. + +After this, Pompey followed him to his new camp, and drew a line of +circumvallation round him. Mithridates stood a siege of forty-five days, +after which he found means to steal off with his best troops, having +first killed all the sick, and such as could be of no service. Pompey +overtook him near the Euphrates, and encamped over against him; but +fearing he might pass the river unperceived, he drew out his troops +at midnight. At that time Mithridates is said to have had a dream +prefigurative of what was to befall him. He thought he was upon +the Pontic Sea, sailing with a favorable wind, and in sight of the +Bosphorus; so that he felicitated his friends in the ship, like a man +perfectly safe, and already in harbor. But suddenly he beheld himself in +the most destitute condition, swimming upon a piece of wreck. While he +was in all the agitation which this dream produced, his friends awaked +him, and told him that Pompey was at hand. He was now under a necessity +of fighting for his camp, and his generals drew up the forces with all +possible expedition. + +Pompey, seeing them prepared, was loth to risk a battle in the dark. He +thought it sufficient to surround them, so as to prevent their +flight; and what inclined him still more to wait for daylight, was +the consideration that his troops were much better than the enemy's. +However, the oldest of his officers entreated him to proceed immediately +to the attack, and at last prevailed. It was not indeed very dark; for +the moon, though near her setting, gave light enough to distinguish +objects. But it was a great disadvantage to the king's troops, that the +moon was so low, and on the backs of the Romans; because she projected +their shadows so far before them, that the enemy could form no just +estimate of the distances, but thinking them at hand, threw their +javelins before they could do the least execution. + +The Romans, perceiving their mistake, advanced to the charge with all +the alarm of voices. The enemy were in such a consternation, that they +made not the least stand, and, in their flight, vast numbers were +slain. They lost above 10,000 men, and their camp was taken. As for +Mithridates, he broke through the Romans with 800 horses, in the +beginning of the engagement. That corps, however, did not follow him far +before they dispersed, and left him with only three of his people. + +The pursuit of Mithridates was attended with great difficulties; for he +concealed himself among the nations settled about the Bosphorus and the +Palus Maeotis. Besides, news was brought to Pompey that the Albanians +had revolted, and taken up arms again. The desire of revenge determined +him to march back, and chastise them. But it was with infinite trouble +and danger that he passed the Cyrnus again, the barbarians having fenced +it on their side with palisades all along the banks. And when he was +over, he had a large country to traverse, which afforded no water. +This last difficulty he provided against by filling 10,000 bottles; +and pursuing his march, he found the enemy drawn up on the banks of the +river Abas, to the number of 60,000 foot and 12,000 horse, but many +of them ill-armed, and provided with nothing of the defensive kind but +skins of beasts. + +They were commanded by the king's brother, named Cosis; who, at the +beginning of the battle, singled out Pompey, and rushing in upon him, +struck his javelin into the joints of his breastplate. Pompey in return +run him through with his spear, and laid him dead on the spot. It is +said that the Amazons came to the assistance of the barbarians from +the mountains near the river Thermodon, and fought in this battle. The +Romans, among the plunder of the field, did, indeed, meet with bucklers +in the form of a half-moon, and such buskins as the Amazons wore; but +there was not the body of a woman found among the dead. They inhabit +that part of Mount Caucasus which stretches toward the Hyrcanian Sea, +and are not next neighbors to the Albanians; for Gelae and Leges lie +between; but they meet that people, and spend two months with them every +year on the banks of the Thermodon; after which they retire to their own +country. + +Pompey had advanced near to Petra, and encamped, and was taking some +exercise on horseback without the trenches, when messengers arrived from +Pontus; and it was plain they brought good news, because the points +of their spears were crowned with laurel. The soldiers seeing this, +gathered about Pompey, who was inclined to finish his exercise before +he opened the packet; but they were so earnest in their entreaties, that +they prevailed upon him to alight and take it. He entered the camp with +it in his hand; and as there was no tribunal ready, and the soldiers +were too impatient to raise one of turf, which the common method, they +piled a number of pack-saddles one upon the other, upon which Pompey +mounted, and gave them this information: "Mithridates is dead. He killed +himself upon the revolt of his son Pharnaces. And Pharnaces has seized +all that belonged to his father; which he declares he has done for +himself and Romans." + +At this news the army, as might be expected, gave a loose rein to their +joy, which they expressed in sacrifices to the gods, and in reciprocal +entertainments, as if 10,000 of their enemies had been slain in +Mithridates. Pompey having thus brought the campaign and the whole +war to a conclusion so happy, and so far beyond his hopes, immediately +quitted Arabia, traverses the provinces between that and Galatia with +great rapidity, and soon arrived at Amisus. There he found many presents +from Pharnaces, and several corpses of the royal family, among which was +that of Mithridates. As for Pompey, he would not see the body, but to +propitiate the avenging Nemesis, sent it to Sinope. However, he looked +upon and admired the magnificence of his habit, and the size and beauty +of his arms. The scabbard of his sword cost four hundred talents, and +the diadem was of most exquisite workmanship. + +Pompey having thoroughly settled the affairs of Asia, hoped to return to +Italy the greatest and happiest of men. + +People talked variously at Rome concerning his intentions. Many +disturbed themselves at the thought that he would march with his army +immediately to Rome and make himself sole and absolute master there. +Crassus took his children and money, and withdrew; whether it was that +he had some real apprehensions, or rather that he chose to countenance +the calumny, and add force to the sting of envy; the latter seems the +more probable. But Pompey had no sooner set foot in Italy, than he +called an assembly of his soldiers, and, after a kind and suitable +address, ordered them to disperse in their respective cities, and attend +to their own affairs till his triumph, on which occasion they were to +repair to him again. + +Pompey's triumph was so great, that though it was divided into two days, +the time was far from being sufficient for displaying what was prepared +to be carried in procession; there remained still enough to adorn +another triumph. At the head of the show appeared the titles of the +conquered nations: Pontus, Armenia, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, Media, +Colchis, the Iberians, the Albanians, Syria, Cilicia, Mesopotamia, +Phoenicia, Palestine, Judaea, Arabia, the pirates subdued both by sea +and land. In these countries, it was mentioned that there were not less +than 1,000 castles and 900 cities captured, 800 galleys taken from the +pirates, and 39 desolate cities repeopled. On the face of the tablets it +appeared besides, that whereas the revenues of the Roman empire +before these conquests amounted but to 50,000,000 drachmas, by the +new acquisitions they were advanced to 85,000,000; and that Pompey +had brought into the public treasury in money, and in gold and silver +vessels, the value of 20,000 talents; besides what he had distributed +among the soldiers, of whom he that received least had 1,500 drachmas +to his share. The captives who walked in the procession (not the mention +the chiefs of the pirates) were the son of Tigranes, king of Armenia, +together with his wife and daughter; Zosima, the wife of Tigranes +himself; Aristobulus, king of Judaea; the sister of Mithridates, with +her five sons, and some Scythian women. The hostages of the Albanians +and Iberians, and of the king of Commagene also appeared in the train; +and as many trophies were exhibited as Pompey had gained victories, +either in person or by his lieutenants, the number of which was not +small. + +But the most honorable circumstance, and what no other Roman could +boast, was that his third triumph was over the third quarter of the +world, after his former triumphs had been over the other two. Others +before him had been honored with three triumphs; but his first triumph +was over Africa, his second over Europe, and his third over Asia; so +that the three seemed to declare him conqueror of the world. + +Those who desire to make the parallel between him and Alexander agree +in all respects, tell us he was at this time not quite thirty-four, +whereas, in fact, he was entering upon his fortieth year. (It should be +the forty-sixth year. Pompey was born in the beginning of the month of +August, in the year of Rome 647, and his triumph was in the same month +in the year of Rome 692.) Happy it had been for him, if he had ended his +days while he was blessed with Alexander's good fortune! The rest of +his life, every instance of success brought its proportion of envy, and +every misfortune was irretrievable. + +In the meantime the wars in Gaul lifted Caesar to the first sphere of +greatness. The scene of action was at a great distance from Rome, and he +seemed to be wholly engaged with the Belgae, the Suevi, and the Britons; +but his genius all the while was privately at work among the people of +Rome, and he was undermining Pompey in his most essential interests. His +war with the barbarians was not his principal object. He exercised his +army, indeed, in those expeditions, as he would have done his own body, +in hunting and other diversions of the field, by which he prepared +them for higher conflicts, and rendered them not only formidable but +invincible. + +The gold and silver, and other rich spoils which he took from the enemy +in great abundance, he sent to Rome; and by distributing them freely +among the aediles, praetors, consuls, and their wives, he gained a great +party. Consequently when he passed the Alps and wintered at Lucca, among +the crowd of men and women, who hastened to pay their respects to him, +there were two hundred senators, Pompey and Crassus of the number; and +there were no fewer than one hundred and twenty proconsuls and praetors, +whose faces were to be seen at the gates of Caesar. He made it his +business in general to give them hopes of great things, and his money +was at their devotion; but he entered into a treaty with Crassus +and Pompey, by which it was agreed that they should apply for the +consulship, and that Caesar should assist them, by sending a great +number of his soldiers to vote at the election. As soon as they were +chosen, they were to share the provinces, and take the command of +armies, according to their pleasure, only confirming Caesar in the +possession of what he had for five years more. + +Crassus, upon the expiration of his consulship, repaired to his +province. Pompey remaining at Rome, opened his theatre; and to make the +dedication more magnificent, exhibited a variety of gymnastic games, +entertainments of music, and battles with wild beasts, in which +were killed 500 lions; but the battle of elephants afforded the most +astonishing spectacle. (Dio says the elephants fought with armed men. +There were no less than eighteen of them; and he adds, that some of them +seemed to appeal, with piteous cries to the people; who, in compassion, +saved their lives. If we may believe him, an oath had been taken before +they left Africa, that no injury should be done them.) These things +gained him the love and admiration of the public; but he incurred their +displeasure again, by leaving his provinces and armies entirely to his +friends and lieutenants, and roving about Italy with his wife from +one villa to another. The strong attachment of Julia appeared on the +occasion of an election of aediles. The people came to blows, and some +were killed so near Pompey that he was covered with blood, and forced to +change his clothes. There was a great crowd and tumult about his door, +when his servants went home with a bloody robe; and Julia, happening +to see it, fainted away and was with difficulty restored. Shortly after +Julia died, and the alliance which had rather covered than restrained +the ambition of the two great competitors for power was now no more. +To add to the misfortune, news was brought soon after that Crassus was +slain by the Parthians; and in him another great obstacle to a civil war +was removed. Out of fear of him, they had both kept some measures with +each other. But when fortune had carried off the champion who could take +up the conqueror, we may say with the comic poet-- + + High spirits of emprise + Elates each chief; they oil their brawny limbs, + and dip their hands in dust. + +So little able is fortune to fill the capacities of the human mind; when +such a weight of power, and extent of command, could not satisfy the +ambition of two men. They had heard and read that the gods had divided +the universe into three shares, + +(Plutarch alludes here to a passage in the fifteenth book of the Iliad, +where Neptune says to Iris-- + + Assign'd by lot our triple rule we know; + Infernal Pluto sways the shades below; + O'er the wide clouds, and o'er the starry plain, + Ethereal Jove extends his high domain; + My court beneath the hoary waves I keep, + And hush the roarings of the sacred deep.) + +and each was content with that which fell to his lot, and yet these +men could not think the Roman empire sufficient for two of them. Such +anarchy and confusion took place that numbers began to talk boldly of +setting up a dictator. Cato, now fearing he should be overborne, was of +opinion that it were better to give Pompey some office whose authority +was limited by law, than to intrust him with absolute power. Bibulus, +though Pompey's declared enemy, moved in full senate, that he should be +appointed sole consul. "For by that means," said he, "the commonwealth +will either recover from her disorder, or, if she must serve, will +serve a man of the greatest merit." The whole house was surprised at +the motion; and when Cato rose up, it was expected he would oppose it. +A profound silence ensued, and he said, he should never have been the +first to propose such an expedient, but as it was proposed by another, +he thought it advisable to embrace it; for he thought any kind of +government better than anarchy, and knew no man fitter to rule than +Pompey, in a time of so much trouble. The senate came into his opinion, +and a decree was issued, that Pompey should be appointed sole consul, +and that if he should have need of a colleague, he might choose one +himself, provided it were not before the expiration of two months. + +Pompey being declared sole consul by the Interrex Sulpitius, made his +compliments to Cato, acknowledged himself much indebted to his support, +and desired his advice and assistance in the cabinet, as to the measures +to be pursued in his administration. Cato made answer, that Pompey was +not under the least obligation to him; for what he had said was not out +of regard to him, but to his country. "If you apply to me," continued +he, "I shall give you my advice in private; if not, I shall inform +you of my sentiments in public." Such was Cato, and the same on all +occasions. + +Pompey then went into the city, and married Cornelia, the daughter of +Metellus Scipio. She was a widow, having been married, when very young, +to Publius the son of Crassus, who was lately killed in the Parthian +expedition. This woman had many charms beside her beauty. She was well +versed in polite literature; she played upon the lyre, and understood +geometry; and she had made considerable improvements by the precepts +of philosophy. What is more, she had nothing of that petulance and +affectation which such studies are apt to produce in women of her age. +And her father's family and reputation were unexceptionable. + +Pompey's confidence made him so extremely negligent, that he laughed at +those who seemed to fear the war. And when they said if Caesar should +advance in a hostile manner to Rome, they did not see what forces they +had to oppose him, he bade them, with an open and smiling countenance, +give themselves no pain: "For, if in Italy," said he, "I do but stamp +upon the ground, an army will appear." + +Meantime Caesar was exerting himself greatly. He was now at no great +distance from Italy, and not only sent his soldiers to vote in the +elections, but by private pecuniary applications, corrupted many of +the magistrates. Paulus the consul was of the number, and he had one +thousand five hundred talents for changing sides. So also was Curio, one +of the tribunes of the people, for whom he paid off an immense debt, and +Mark Antony, who, out of friendship for Curio, had stood engaged with +him for the debt. + +It is said, that when one of Caesar's officers, who stood before the +senate-house, waiting the issue of the debates, was informed that they +would not give Caesar a longer term in his command, he laid his hand +on his sword, and said, "But this shall give it." Indeed, all the +preparations of his general tended that way; though Curio's demands in +behalf of Caesar seemed more plausible. He proposed, that either Pompey +should likewise be obliged to dismiss his forces, or Caesar suffered +to keep his. "If they are both reduced to a private station," said +he, "they will agree upon reasonable terms; or, if each retains his +respective power, they will be satisfied. But he who weakens the one, +without doing the same by the other, must double that force which he +fears will subvert the government." + +But now news was brought that Caesar was marching directly towards Rome +with all his forces. The last circumstance, indeed, was not true. He +advanced with only three hundred horse and five thousand foot; the rest +of his forces were on the other side of the Alps, and he would not +wait for them, choosing rather to put his adversaries in confusion by a +sudden and unexpected attack, than to fight them when better prepared. +When he came to the river Rubicon, which was the boundary of his +province, he stood silent a long time, weighing with himself the +greatness of his enterprise. At last, like one who plunges down from the +top of a precipice into a gulf of immense depth, he silenced his reason, +and shut his eyes against the danger; and crying out in the Greek +language, "The die is cast," he marched over with his army. + +Upon the first report of this at Rome, the city was in greater disorder +and astonishment than had ever been known. + +All Italy was in motion, with the stir of the coming storm. Those who +lived out of Rome fled to it from all quarters, and those who lived +in it abandoned it as fast. These saw, that in such a tempestuous and +disorderly state of affairs, the well disposed part of the city wanted +strength, and that the ill disposed were so refractory that they could +not be managed by the magistrates. The terrors of the people could not +be removed, and no one would suffer Pompey to lay a plan of action for +himself. According to the passion wherewith each was actuated, whether +fear, sorrow, or doubt, they endeavored to inspire him with the same; +insomuch that he adopted different measures the same day. He could +gain no certain intelligence of the enemy's motions, because every man +brought him the report he happened to take up, and was angry if it did +not meet with credit. + +Pompey at last caused it to be declared by a formal edict, that the +commonwealth was in danger, and no peace was to be expected. After +which, he signified that he should look upon those who remained in the +city as the partisans of Caesar; and then quitted it in the dusk of the +evening. The consuls also fled, without offering the sacrifices which +their customs required before a war. However, in this great extremity, +Pompey could not but be considered as happy in the affections of his +countrymen. Though many blamed the war, there was not a man who +hated the general. Nay, the number of those who followed him, out of +attachment to his person, was greater than that of the adventurers in +the cause of liberty. + +A few days after, Caesar arrived at Rome. When he was in possession +of the city, he behaved with great moderation in many respects, and +composed in a good measure the minds of its remaining inhabitants. + +Pompey, who was the master of Brundusium, and had a sufficient number of +transports, desired the consuls to embark without loss of time, and sent +them before him with thirty cohorts to Dyrrhachium. But at the same +time he sent his father-in-law Scipio and his son Cnaeus into Syria, +to provide ships of war. He had well secured the gates of the city, and +planted the lightest of his slingers and archers upon the walls; and +having now ordered the Brundusians to keep within doors, he caused a +number of trenches to be cut, and sharp stakes to be driven into them, +and then covered with earth, in all the streets, except two which +led down to the sea. In three days all his other troops were embarked +without interruption; and then he suddenly gave the signal to those who +guarded the walls; in consequence of which, they ran swiftly down to the +harbor, and got on board. Thus having his whole complement, he set sail, +and crossed the sea to Dyrrhachium. + +When Caesar came and saw the walls left destitute of defence, he +concluded that Pompey had taken to flight, and in his eagerness to +pursue, would certainly have fallen upon the sharp stakes in the +trenches, had not the Brundusians informed him of them. He then avoided +the streets, and took a circuit round the town, by which he discovered +that all the vessels had weighed anchor, except two that had not many +soldiers aboard. + +This manoeuvre of Pompey was commonly reckoned among the greatest act +of generalship. Caesar, however, could not help wondering, that his +adversary, who was in possession of a fortified town, and expected his +forces from Spain, and at the same time was master of them, should give +up Italy in such a manner. + +Caesar thus made himself master of all Italy in sixty days without the +least bloodshed, and he would have been glad to have gone immediately +in pursuit of Pompey. But as he was in want of shipping, he gave up that +design for the present, and marched to Spain, with an intent to gain +Pompey's forces there. + +In the meantime Pompey assembled a great army; and at sea he was +altogether invincible. For he had five hundred ships of war, and the +number of his lighter vessels was still greater. As for his land forces, +he had seven thousand horse, the flower of Rome and Italy, all men +of family, fortune, and courage. His infantry, though numerous, was +a mixture of raw, undisciplined soldiers; he therefore exercised them +during his stay at Beroea, where he was by no means idle, but went +through the exercises of a soldier, as if he had been in the flower of +his age. It inspired his troops with new courage, when they saw Pompey +the Great, at the age of fifty-eight, going through the whole military +discipline, in heavy armor, on foot; and then mounting his horse, +drawing his sword with ease when at full speed, and as dexterously +sheathing it again. As to the javelin, he threw it not only with great +exactness, but with such force that few of the young men could dart it +to a greater distance. + +Many kings and princes repaired to his camp; and the number of Roman +officers who had commanded armies was so great, that it was sufficient +to make up a complete senate. Labienus, who had been honored with +Caesar's friendship, and served under him in Gaul, now joined Pompey. + +Caesar had now made himself master of Pompey's forces in Spain, and +though it was not without a battle, he dismissed the officers, and +incorporated the troops with his own. After this, he passed the Alps +again, and marched through Italy to Brundusium, where he arrived at the +time of the winter solstice. There he crossed the sea, and landed at +Oricum; from whence he dispatched Vibullius, one of Pompey's friends, +whom he had brought prisoner thither, with proposals of a conference +between him and Pompey, in which they should agree to disband their +armies within three days, renew their friendship, confirm it with solemn +oath, and then both return to Italy. Pompey took this overture for +another snare, and therefore drew down in haste to the sea, and secured +all the forts and places of strength for land forces, as well as all the +ports and other commodious stations for shipping; so that there was not +a wind that blew, which did not bring him either provisions, or troops, +or money. On the other hand, Caesar was reduced to such straits, both +by sea and land, that he was under the necessity of seeking a battle. +Accordingly, he attacked Pompey's intrenchments, and bade him defiance +daily. In most of these attacks and skirmishes he had the advantage; but +one day was in danger of losing his whole army. Pompey fought with +so much valor, that he put Caesar's whole detachment to flight, after +having killed two thousand men upon the spot; but was either unable or +afraid to pursue his blow, and enter their camp with them. Caesar said +to his friends on this occasion, "This day the victory had been the +enemy's had their general known how to conquer." + +Pompey's troops, elated with this success, were in great haste to come +to a decisive battle. Nay, Pompey himself seemed to give in to their +opinions by writing to the kings, the generals, and cities, in his +interest, in the style of a conqueror. Yet all this while he dreaded the +issue of a general action, believing it much better, by length of time, +by famine and fatigue, to tire out men who had been ever invincible in +arms, and long accustomed to conquer when they fought together. Besides, +he knew the infirmities of age had made them unfit for the other +operations of war, for long marches and countermarches, for digging +trenches and building forts, and that, therefore, they wished for +nothing so much as a battle. Pompey, with all these arguments, found it +no easy matter to keep his army quiet. + +After this last engagement, Caesar was in such want of provisions, that +he was forced to decamp, and he took his way through Athamania into +Thessaly. This added so much to the high opinion Pompey's soldiers had +of themselves, that it was impossible to keep them within bounds. They +cried out with one voice, "Caesar is fled." Some called upon the general +to pursue; some to pass over into Italy. Others sent their friends and +servants to Rome, to engage homes near the forum, for the convenience of +soliciting the great offices of state. And not a few went of their +own accord to Cornelia, who had been privately lodged in Lesbos, to +congratulate her upon the conclusion of the war. + +While he thus softly followed the enemy's steps, a complaint was raised +against him, and urged with much clamor, that he was not exercising his +generalship upon Caesar, but upon the Senate and the whole commonwealth, +in order that he might forever keep the command in his hands, and have +those for his guards and servants who had a right to govern the world. +Domitius Aenobarbus, to increase the odium, always called him Agamemnon, +or king of kings. Favonius piqued him no less with a jest, than others +by their unseasonable severity; he went about crying, "My friends, we +shall eat no figs in Tusculum this year." + +These and many other like sallies of ridicule had such an effect upon +Pompey, who was ambitious of being spoken well of by the world, and had +too much deference for the opinions of his friends, that he gave up his +own better judgment, to follow them in the career of their false hopes +and prospects. A thing which would have been unpardonable in the pilot +or master of a ship, much more in the commander-in-chief of so many +nations and such numerous armies. He had often commended the physician +who gives no indulgence to the whimsical longings of his patients, and +yet he humored the sickly cravings of his army, and was afraid to give +them pain, though necessary for the preservation of their life and +being. For who can say that army was in a sound and healthy state, when +some of the officers went about the camp canvassing for the offices of +consul and praetor; and others, namely, Spinther, Domitius, and Scipio, +were engaged in quarrels and cabals about Caesar's high-priesthood, as +if their adversary had been only a Tigranes, a king of Armenia, or a +prince of the Nabathaeans; and not that Caesar and that army who had +stormed one thousand cities, subdued above three hundred nations, +gained numberless battles of the Germans and Gauls, taken one million +prisoners, and killed as many fairly in the field. Notwithstanding all +this, they continued loud and tumultuous in their demands of a battle; +and when they came to the plains of Pharsalia, forced Pompey to call a +council of war. Lebienus, who had the command of the cavalry, rose up +first, and took an oath, that he would not return from the battle, till +he had put the enemy to flight. All the other officers swore the same. + +The night following, Pompey had this dream. He thought he entered +his own theatre, and was received with loud plaudits; after which, +he adorned the temple of Venus the Victorious with many spoils. This +vision, on one side, encouraged him, and on the other alarmed him. +He was afraid that Caesar, who was a descendant of Venus, would be +aggrandized at his expense. Besides, a panic (A Panic was so called, +from the terror which the god Pan is said to have struck the enemies of +Greece with, at the battle of Marathon.) fear ran through the camp, the +noise of which awakened him. And about the morning watch, over Caesar's +camp, where everything was perfectly quiet, there suddenly appeared a +great light, from which a stream of fire issued in the form of a torch, +and fell upon that of Pompey. Caesar himself says he saw it as he was +going his rounds. + +Caesar was preparing, at break of day, to march to Scotusa; his soldiers +were striking their tents, and the servants and beasts of burden were +already in motion, when his scouts brought intelligence that they had +seen arms handed about in the enemy's camp, and perceived a noise and +bustle, which indicated an approaching battle. After these, others came +and assured him that the first ranks were drawn up. + +Upon this Caesar said: "The long-wished day is come, on which we shall +fight with men, and not with want and famine." Then he immediately +ordered the red mantle to be put up before his pavilion, which, among +the Romans, is the signal of a battle. The soldiers no sooner beheld +it, than they left their tents as they were, and ran to arms with loud +shouts, and every expression of joy. And when the officers began to put +them in order of battle, each man fell into his proper rank as quietly, +and with as much skill and ease, as a chorus in a tragedy. + +Pompey placed himself in his right wing over against Antony, and his +father-in-law, Scipio, in the centre, opposite Domitius Calvinus. +His left wing was commanded by Lucius Domitius, and supported by the +cavalry; for they were almost all ranged on that side, in order to break +in upon Caesar, and cut off the tenth legion, which was accounted the +bravest in his army, and in which he used to fight in person. Caesar, +seeing the enemy's left wing so well guarded with horse, and fearing the +excellence of their armor, sent for a detachment of six cohorts from +the body of the reserve, and placed them behind the tenth legion, with +orders not to stir before the attack, lest they should be discovered by +the enemy; but when the enemy's cavalry had charged, to make up through +the foremost ranks, and then not to discharge their javelins at a +distance, as brave men generally do in their eagerness to come to sword +in hand, but to reserve them till they came to close fighting, and to +push them forward into the eyes and faces of the enemy. "For those fair +young dancers," said he, "will never stand the steel aimed at their +eyes, but will fly to save their handsome faces." + +While Caesar was thus employed, Pompey took a view on horseback of the +order of both armies; and finding that they enemy kept their ranks with +the utmost exactness, and quietly waited for the signal of battle, while +his own men, for want of experience, were fluctuating and unsteady, +he was afraid they would be broken up on the first onset. He therefore +commanded the vanguard to stand firm in their ranks, and in that close +order to receive the enemy's charge. Caesar condemned this measure, +as not only tending to lessen the vigor of the blows, which is always +greatest in the assailants, but also to damp the fire and spirit of the +men; whereas those who advance with impetuosity, and animate each other +with shouts, are filled with an enthusiastic valor and superior ardor. + +Caesar's army consisted of twenty-two thousand men, and Pompey's was +something more than twice that number. When the signal was given on both +sides, and the trumpets sounded a charge, each common man attended only +to his own concern. But some of the principal Romans and Greeks, who +only stood and looked on, when the dreadful moment of action approached, +could not help considering to what the avarice and ambition of two men +had brought the Roman Empire. The same arms on both sides, the troops +marshalled in the same manner, the same standards; in short, the +strength and flower of one and the same city turned upon itself! What +could be a stronger proof of the blindness and infatuation of human +nature, when carried away by its passions? Had they been willing to +enjoy the fruits of their labors in peace and tranquillity, the greatest +and best part of the world was their own. Or, if they must have indulged +their thirst of victories and triumphs, the Parthians and Germans were +yet to be subdued. Scythia and India yet remained; together with a very +plausible color for their lust of new acquisitions, the pretence of +civilizing barbarians. And what Scythian horse, what Parthian arrows, +what Indian treasures, could have resisted seventy thousand Romans, led +on by Pompey and Caesar, with whose names those nations had long been +acquainted! Into such a variety of wild and savage countries had these +two generals carried their victorious arms! Whereas now they stood +threatening each other with destruction; not sparing even their own +glory, though to it they sacrificed their country, but prepared, one of +them, to lose the reputation of being invincible, which hitherto they +had both maintained. So that the alliance which they had contracted by +Pompey's marriage to Julia, was from the first only an artful expedient; +and her charms were to form a self-interested compact, instead of being +the pledge of a sincere friendship. + +The plain of Pharsalia was now covered with men, and horses and arms; +and the signal of battle being given on both sides, the first on +Caesar's side who advanced to the charge was Caius Crastinus, who +commanded a corps of one hundred and twenty men, and was determined to +make good his promise to his general. He was the first man Caesar saw +when he went out of the trenches in the morning; and upon Caesar's +asking him what he thought of the battle, he stretched out his hand, and +answered in a cheerful tone, "You will gain a glorious victory, and I +shall have your praise this day, either alive or dead." In pursuance of +this promise, he advanced the foremost, and many following to support +him, he charged into the midst of the enemy. They soon took to their +swords, and numbers were slain; but as Crastinus was making his way +forward, and cutting down all before him, one of Pompey's men stood to +receive him, and pushed his sword in at his mouth with such force, that +it went through the nape of his neck. Crastinus thus killed, the fight +was maintained with equal advantage on both sides. + +Pompey did not immediately lead on his right wing, but often directed +his eyes to the left, and lost time in waiting to see what execution his +cavalry would do there. Meanwhile they had extended their squadrons to +surround Caesar, and prepared to drive the few horse he had placed in +front, back upon the foot. At that instant Caesar gave the signal; +upon which his cavalry retreated a little; and the six cohorts, which +consisted of 3000 men, and had been placed behind the tenth legion, +advanced to surround Pompey's cavalry; and coming close up to them, +raised the points of their javelins, as they had been taught, and aimed +them at the face. Their adversaries, who were not experienced in any +kind of fighting, and had not the least previous idea of this, could not +parry or endure the blows upon their faces, but turned their backs, or +covered their eyes with their hands, and soon fled with great dishonor. +Caesar's men took no care to pursue them, but turned their force upon +the enemy's infantry, particularly upon that wing, which, now stripped +of its horse, lay open to the attack on all sides. The six cohorts, +therefore, took them in flank, while the tenth legion charged them in +front; and they, who had hoped to surround the enemy, and now, instead +of that, saw themselves surrounded, made but a short resistance, and +then took to a precipitate flight. + +By the great dust that was raised, Pompey conjectured the fate of his +cavalry; and it is hard to say what passed in his mind at that +moment. He appeared like a man moonstruck and distracted; and without +considering that he was Pompey the Great, or speaking to any one, he +quitted the ranks, and retired step by step toward his camp--a scene +which cannot be better painted than in these verses of Homer: (In the +eleventh book of the Iliad, where he is speaking of the flight of Ajax +before Hector.) + + But partial Jove, espousing Hector's part, + Shot heaven-bred horror through the Grecian's heart; + Confused, unnerv'd in Hector's presence grown, + Amazed he stood with terrors not his own. + O'er his broad back his moony shield he threw, + And, glaring round, by tardy steps withdrew. + +In this condition he entered his tent, where he sat down, and uttered +not a word, till at last, upon finding that some of the enemy entered +the camp with the fugitives, he said, "What! Into my camp, too!" After +this short exclamation, he rose up, and dressing himself in a manner +suitable to his fortune, privately withdrew. All the other legions fled; +and a great slaughter was made in the camp, of the servants and others +who had the care of the tents. But Asinius Pollio, who then fought on +Caesar's side, assures us, that of the regular troops there were not +above six thousand men killed. (Caesar says, that in all there were +fifteen thousand killed, and twenty-four thousand taken prisoners.) + +Upon the taking of the camp, there was a spectacle which showed, in +strong colors, the vanity and folly of Pompey's troops. All the tents +were crowned with myrtle; the beds were strewn with flowers; the tables +covered with cups, and bowls of wine set out. In short, everything had +the appearance of preparations for feasts and sacrifices, rather than +for men going out to battle. To such a degree had their vain hopes +corrupted them, and with such a senseless confidence they took to the +field! + +When Pompey had got at a little distance from the camp, he quitted +his horse. He had very few people about him; and, as he saw he was +not pursued, he went softly on, wrapped up in such thoughts as we +may suppose a man to have, who had been used for thirty-four years to +conquer and carry all before him, and now in his old age first came to +know what it was to be defeated and to fly. We may easily conjecture +what his thoughts must be, when in one short hour he had lost the +glory and the power which had been growing up amidst so many wars and +conflicts; and he who was lately guarded with such armies of horse and +foot, and such great and powerful fleets, was reduced to so mean and +contemptible an equipage, that his enemies, who were in search of him, +could not know him. + +He passed by Larissa, and came to Tempe, where, burning with thirst, he +threw himself upon his face, and drank out of the river; after which, +he passed through the valley, and went down to the sea-coast. There +he spent the remainder of the night in a poor fisherman's cabin. Next +morning, about break of day, he went on board a small river-boat, taking +with him such of his company as were freemen. The slaves he dismissed, +bidding them go to Caesar, and fear nothing. + +As he was coasting along, he saw a whip of burden just ready to sail; +the master of which was Peticius, a Roman citizen, who, though not +acquainted with Pompey, knew him by sight. Therefore, without waiting +for any further application, he took him up, and such of his companions +as he thought proper, and then hoisted sail. The persons Pompey took +with him, were the two Lentuli and Favonius; and a little after, they +saw king Deiotarus beckoning to them with great earnestness from the +shore, and took him up likewise. The master of the ship provided them +with the best supper he could, and when it was almost ready, Pompey, for +want of a servant, was going to wash himself, but Favonius, seeing it, +stepped up, and both washed and anointed him. All the time he was on +board, he continued to wait upon him in all the offices of a servant, +even to the washing of his feet and providing his supper; insomuch, that +one who saw the unaffected simplicity and sincere attachment with which +Favonius performed these offices, cried out-- + + The generous mind adds dignity + To every act, and nothing misbecomes it. + +Pompey, in the course of his voyage, sailed by Amphipolis, and from +thence steered for Mitylene, to take up Cornelia and his son. As soon +as he reached the island, he sent a messenger to the town with news far +different from what Cornelia expected. For, by the flattering accounts +which many officious persons had given her, she understood that the +dispute was decided at Dyrrhachium, and that nothing but the pursuit of +Caesar remained to be attended to. The messenger, finding her possessed +with such hopes, had not power to make the usual salutations; but +expressing the greatness of Pompey's misfortunes by his tears rather +than words, only told her she must make haste if she had a mind to see +Pompey with one ship only, and that not his own. + +At this news Cornelia threw herself upon the ground, where she lay a +long time insensible and speechless. At last, coming to herself, she +perceived there was no time to be lost in tears and lamentations, and +therefore hastened through the town to the sea. Pompey ran to meet her, +and received her to his arms as she was just going to fall. While she +hung upon his neck, she thus addressed him: "I see, my dear husband, +your present unhappy condition is the effect of my ill fortune, and not +yours. Alas! how are you reduced to one poor vessel, who, before your +marriage with Cornelia, traversed the sea with 500 galleys! Why did you +come to see me, and not rather leave me to my evil destiny, who have +loaded you, too, with such a weight of calamities? How happy had it been +for me to have died before I heard that Publius, my first husband, was +killed by the Parthians! How wise, had I followed him to the grave, as +I once intended! What have I lived for since, but to bring misfortunes +upon Pompey the Great?" + +Such, we are assured, was the speech of Cornelia; and Pompey answered: +"Till this moment, Cornelia, you have experienced nothing but the smiles +of fortune; and it was she who deceived you, because she stayed with me +longer than she commonly does with her favorites. But, fated as we are, +we must bear this reverse, and make another trial of her. For it is no +more improbable that we may emerge from this poor condition and rise to +great things again, than it was that we should fall from great things +into this poor condition." + +Cornelia then sent to the city for her most valuable movables and her +servants. + +As soon as his wife and his friends were embarked, he set sail, and +continued his course without touching at any port, except for water and +provisions, till he came to Attalia, a city of Pamphylia. There he +was joined by some Cilician galleys; and beside picking up a number of +soldiers, he found in a little time sixty senators about him. When he +was informed that his fleet was still entire, and that Cato was gone +to Africa with a considerable body of men which he had collected after +their flight, he lamented to his friends his great error, in suffering +himself to be forced into an engagement on land, and making no use of +those forces, in which he was confessedly stronger; nor even taking care +to fight near his fleet, that, in case of his meeting with a check +on land, he might have been supplied from the sea with another army, +capable of making head against the enemy. Indeed, we find no greater +mistake in Pompey's whole conduct, nor a more remarkable instance of +Caesar's generalship, than in removing the scene of action to such a +distance from the naval force. + +However, as it was necessary to undertake something with the small means +he had left, he sent to some cities, and sailed to others himself, to +raise money, and to get a supply of men for his ships. But knowing the +extraordinary celerity of the enemy's motions, he was afraid he might be +beforehand with him, and seize all that he was preparing. He, therefore, +began to think of retiring to some asylum, and proposed the matter in +council. They could not think of any province in the Roman empire +that would afford a safe retreat; and when they cast their eyes on the +foreign kingdoms, Pompey mentioned Parthia as the most likely to receive +and protect them in their present weak condition, and afterwards to send +them back with a force sufficient to retrieve their affairs. Others were +of opinion it was proper to apply to Africa, and to Juba in particular. +But Theophanes of Lesbos observed it was madness to leave Egypt, which +was distant but three days' sail. Besides, Ptolemy, who was growing +towards manhood, had particular obligations to Pompey on his father's +account. As so it was determined that they should seek for refuge in +Egypt. Being informed that Ptolemy was with his army at Pelusium, where +he was engaged in war with his sister, he proceeded thither, and sent a +messenger before him to announce his arrival, and to entreat the king's +protection. + +Ptolemy was very young, fourteen years of age, and Photinus, his prime +minister, called a council of his ablest officers; though their advice +had no more weight than he was pleased to allow it. He ordered each, +however, to give his opinion. But who can, without indignation, consider +that the fate of Pompey the Great was to be determined by the wretch +Photinus, by Theodotus, a man of Chios, who was hired to teach the +prince rhetoric, and by Achillas, an Egyptian? For among the king's +chamberlains and tutors these had the greatest influence over him +and were the persons he most consulted. Pompey lay at anchor at some +distance from the place waiting the determination of this respectable +board; while he thought it beneath him to be indebted to Caesar for his +safety. The council were divided in their opinions, some advising the +prince to give him an honorable reception, and others to send him an +order to depart. But Theodotus, to display his eloquence, insisted that +both were wrong. "If you receive him," said he, "you will have Caesar +for your enemy, and Pompey for your master. If you order him off, Pompey +may one day revenge the affront and Caesar resent your not having put +him in his hands: the best method, therefore, is to send for him and put +him to death. By this means you will do Caesar a favor, and have nothing +to fear from Pompey." He added with a smile, "Dead men do not bite." + +This advice being approved of, the execution of it was committed to +Achillas. In consequence of which he took with him Septimius, who had +formerly been one of Pompey's officers, and Salvius, who had also acted +under him as a centurion, with three or four assistants, and made up to +Pompey's ship, where his principal friends and officers had assembled +to see how the affair went on. When they perceived there was nothing +magnificent in their reception, nor suitable to the hopes which +Theophanes had conceived, but that a few men only in a fishing-boat +came to wait upon them, such want of respect appeared a suspicious +circumstance, and they advised Pompey, while he was out of the reach of +missive weapons, to get out to the main sea. + +Meantime, the boat approaching, Septimius spoke first, addressing Pompey +in Latin by the title of Imperator. Then Achillas saluted him in Greek, +and desired him to come into the boat, because the water was very +shallow towards the shore, and a galley must strike upon the sands. At +the same time they saw several of the king's ships getting ready, and +the shore covered with troops, so that if they would have changed their +minds it was then too late; besides, their distrust would have furnished +the assassins with a pretence for their injustice. He therefore embraced +Cornelia, who lamented his sad exit before it happened; and ordered two +centurions, one of his enfranchised slaves, named Philip, and a servant +called Scenes, to get into the boat before him. When Achillas had hold +of his hand, and he was going to step in himself, he turned to his wife +and son, and repeated that verse of Sophocles-- + + Seek'st thou a tyrant's door? + Then farewell freedom! + Though FREE as air before. + +These were the last words he spoke to them. + +As there was a considerable distance between the galley and the +shore, and he observed that not a man in the boat showed him the least +civility, or even spoke to him, he looked at Septimius, and said, +"Methinks, I remember you to have been my fellow-soldier;" but he +answered only with a nod, without testifying any regard or friendship. +A profound silence again taking place, Pompey took out a paper, in which +he had written a speech in Greek that he designed to make to Ptolemy, +and amused himself with reading it. + +When they approached the shore, Cornelia, with her friends in the +galley, watched the event with great anxiety. She was a little +encouraged, when she saw a number of the king's great officers coming +down to the strand, in all appearance to receive her husband and do him +honor. But the moment Pompey was taking hold of Philip's hand, to raise +him with more ease, Septimius came behind, and ran him through the body; +after which Salvius and Achillas also drew their swords. Pompey took his +robe in both hands and covered his face, and without saying or doing +the least thing unworthy of him, submitted to his fate, only uttering +a groan, while they despatched him with many blows. He was then just +fifty-nine years old, for he was killed the day after his birthday. + +Cornelia, and her friends in the galley, upon seeing him murdered, gave +a shriek that was heard to the shore, and weighed anchor immediately. +Their flight was assisted by a brisk gale, as they got out more to +sea; so that the Egyptians gave up their design of pursuing them. The +murderers having cut off Pompey's head, threw the body out of the boat +naked, and left it exposed to all who were desirous of such a sight. +Philip stayed till their curiosity was satisfied, and then washed the +body with sea-water, and wrapped it in one of his own garments, because +he had nothing else at hand. The next thing was to look out for wood for +the funeral pile; and casting his eyes over the shore, he spied the +old remains of a fishing-boat; which, though not large, would make a +sufficient pile for a poor naked body that was not quite entire. + +While he was collecting the pieces of plank and putting them together, +an old Roman, who had made some of his first campaigns under Pompey, +came up and said to Philip, "Who are you that are preparing the funeral +of Pompey the Great?" Philip answered, "I am his freedman." "But you +shall not," said the old Roman, "have this honor entirely to yourself. +As a work of piety offers itself, let me have a share in it; that I +may not absolutely repent my having passed so many years in a foreign +country; but, to compensate many misfortunes, may have the consolation +of doing some of the last honors to the greatest general Rome ever +produced." In this manner was the funeral of Pompey conducted. + +Such was the end of Pompey the Great. As for Caesar, he arrived not +long after in Egypt, which he found in great disorder. When they came to +present the head, he turned from it, and the person that brought it, +as a sight of horror. He received the seal, but it was with tears. +The device was a lion holding a sword. The two assassins, Achillas +and Photinus, he put to death; and the king, being defeated in battle, +perished in the river. Theodotus, the rhetorician, escaped the vengeance +of Caesar, by leaving Egypt; but he wandered about a miserable fugitive, +and was hated wherever he went. At last, Marcus Brutus, who killed +Caesar, found the wretch, in his province of Asia, and put him to death, +after having made him suffer the most exquisite tortures. The ashes of +Pompey were carried to Cornelia, who buried them in his lands near Alba. +(Langhorne has well remarked that Pompey has, in all appearance, and +in all consideration of his character, had less justice done him by +historians than any other man of his time. His popular humanity, +his military and political skills, his prudence (which he sometimes +unfortunately gave up), his natural bravery and generosity, his conjugal +virtues, which (though sometimes impeached) were both naturally +and morally great; his cause, which was certainly, in its original +interests, the cause of Rome; all these circumstances entitled him to +a more distinguished and more respectable character than any of his +historians have thought proper to afford him.) + + + + +THE ENGINES OF ARCHIMEDES FROM THE LIFE OF MARCELLUS + +Marcellus now moved with his whole army to Syracuse, and, camping near +the wall, proceeded to attack the city both by land and by sea. The land +forces were conducted by Appius: Marcellus, with sixty galleys, each +with five rows of oars, furnished with all sorts of arms and missiles, +and a huge bridge of planks laid upon eight ships chained together, upon +which was carried the engine to cast stones and darts, assaulted the +walls, relying on the abundance and magnificence of his preparations, +and on his own previous glory; all which, however, were, it would seem, +but trifles for Archimedes and his machines. + +These machines he had designed and contrived, not as matters of any +importance, but as mere amusements in geometry; in compliance with King +Hiero's desire and request, some little time before, that he should +reduce to practice some part of his admirable speculations in science, +and by accommodating the theoretical truth to sensation and ordinary +use, bring it more within the appreciation of people in general. Eudoxus +and Archytas had been the originators of this far-famed and highly +prized art of mechanics, which they employed as an elegant illustration +of geometrical truths, and as a means of sustaining experimentally, to +the satisfaction of the senses, conclusions too intricate for proof +by words and diagrams. As, for example, to solve the problem, so often +required in constructing geometrical figures, given the two extreme, to +find the two mean lines of a proportion, both these mathematicians had +recourse to the aid of instruments, adapting to their purpose certain +curves and sections of lines. (The 'mesolabes or mesalabium, was the +name by which this instrument was commonly known.) But what with Plato's +indignation at it, and his invectives against it as the mere corruption +and annihilation of the one good of geometry,--which was thus shamefully +turning its back upon the unembodied objects of pure intelligence to +recur to sensation, and to ask help (not to be obtained without haste +subservience and depravation) from matter; so it was that mechanics came +to be separated from geometry, and, being repudiated and neglected by +philosophers, took its place as a military art. Archimedes, however, +in writing to King Hiero, whose friend and near relation he was, had +stated, that given the force, any weight might be moved, and even +boasted, we are told, relying on the strength of demonstration, that if +there were another earth, by going into it he could remove this. Hiero +being struck with amazement at this, and entreating him to make good +this problem by actual experiment, and show some great weight moved by +a small engine, he fixed accordingly upon a ship of burden out of the +king's arsenal, which could not be drawn out of the dock without great +labor and many men; and, loading her with many passengers and a full +freight, sitting himself the while far off, with no great endeavor, but +only holding the head of the pulley in his hand and drawing the cord by +degrees, he drew the ship in a straight line, as smoothly and evenly as +if she had been in the sea. The king, astonished at this, and convinced +of the power of the art, prevailed upon Archimedes to make him engines +accommodated to all the purposes, offensive and defensive, of a siege. +These the king himself never made use of, because he spent almost +all his life in a profound quiet, and the highest influence. But +the apparatus was, in a most opportune time, ready at hand for the +Syracusans, and with it also the engineer himself. + +When, therefore, the Romans assaulted the walls in two places at once, +fear and consternation stupefied the Syracusans, believing that nothing +was able to resist that violence and those forces. But when Archimedes +began to ply his engines, he at once shot against the land forces all +sorts of missile weapons, and immense masses of stone that came down +with incredible noise and violence, against which no man could stand; +for they knocked down those upon whom they fell, in heaps, breaking all +their ranks and files. In the mean time huge poles thrust out from the +walls over the ships, sunk some by the great weights which they let down +from on high upon them; others they lifted up into the air by an iron +hand or beak like a crane's beak, and, when they had drawn them up by +the prow, and set them on end upon the poop, they plunged them to the +bottom of the sea; or else the ships, drawn by engines within, and +whirled about, were dashed against steep rocks that stood jutting out +under the walls, with great destruction of the soldiers that were aboard +them. A ship was frequently lifted up to a great height in the air (a +dreadful thing to behold), and was rolled to and fro, and kept swinging, +until the mariners were all thrown out, when at length it was dashed +against the rocks, or let fall. In the meantime, Marcellus himself +brought up his engine upon the bridge of ships, which was called +"Sambuca," from some resemblance it had to an instrument of music, but +while it was as yet approaching the wall, there was discharged at it a +piece of rock of ten talents' weight, then a second and a third, which, +striking upon it with immense force and with a noise like thunder, +broke all its foundations to pieces, shook out all its fastenings, and +completely dislodged it from the bridge. So Marcellus, doubtful what +counsel to pursue, drew off his ships to a safer distance, and sounded a +retreat to his forces on land. They then took a resolution of coming +up under the walls, if it were possible, in the night; thinking that as +Archimedes used ropes stretched at length in playing his engines, the +soldiers would now be under the shot, and the darts would, for want of +sufficient distance to throw them, fly over their heads without effect. +But he, it appeared, had long before framed for such occasion engines +accommodated to any distance, and shorter weapons; and had made numerous +small openings in the walls, through which, with engines of a shorter +range, unexpected blows were inflicted on the assailants. Thus, when +they who thought to deceive the defenders came close up to the walls, +instantly a shower of darts and other missile weapons was again cast +upon them. And when stones came tumbling down perpendicularly upon their +heads, and, as it were, the whole wall shot out arrows at them, they +retired. And now, again, as they were going off, arrows and darts of +a longer range inflicted a great slaughter among them, and their ships +were driven one against another; while they themselves were not able +to retaliate in any way; for Archimedes had fixed most of his engines +immediately under the wall. The Romans, seeing that infinite mischiefs +overwhelmed them from no visible means, began to think they were +fighting with the gods. + +Yet Marcellus escaped unhurt, and, deriding his own artificers +and engineers, exclaimed "What! Must we give up fighting with this +geometrical Briareus, who plays pitch and toss with our ships, and, +with the multitude of darts which he showers at a single moment upon us, +really outdoes the hundred-handed giants of mythology?" The rest of the +Syracusans were but the body of Archimedes' designs, one soul moving +and governing all; for, laying aside all other arms, with his alone they +infested the Romans, and protected themselves. In fine, when such terror +had seized upon the Romans, that, if they did but see a little rope or +a piece of wood from the wall, they instantly cried out, "There it is +again! Archimedes is about to let fly another engine at us," and turned +their backs and fled, Marcellus desisted from conflicts and assaults, +putting all his hope in a long siege. Yet Archimedes possessed so high a +spirit, so profound a soul, and such treasures of scientific knowledge, +that though these inventions had now obtained him the renown of more +than human sagacity, he yet would not deign to leave behind him any +commentary or writing on such subjects; but, repudiating as sordid and +ignoble the whole trade of engineering, and every sort of art that +lends itself to mere use and profit, he placed his whole affection and +ambition in those purer speculations where there can be no reference +to the vulgar needs of life; studies, the superiority of which to all +others is unquestioned, and in which the only doubt can be, whether +the beauty and grandeur of the subjects examined, or the precision and +cogency of the methods and means of proof, most deserve our admiration. +It is not possible to find in all geometry more difficult and intricate +questions, or more simple and lucid explanations. Some ascribe this to +his natural genius; while others think that incredible effort and toil +produced these apparently easy and unlabored results. No amount of +investigation of yours would succeed in attaining the proof, and yet, +once seen, you immediately believe you would have discovered it; by so +smooth and so rapid a path he leads you to the conclusion required. And +thus it ceases to be incredible that (as is commonly told of him), the +charm of his familiar and domestic Siren made him forget his food and +neglect his person, to such a degree that when he was occasionally +carried by absolute violence to bathe, or have his body anointed, he +used to trace geometrical figures in the ashes of the fire, and diagrams +in the oil on his body, being in a state of entire preoccupation, and, +in the truest sense, divinely possessed with his love and delight in +science. His discoveries were numerous and admirable; and he is said +to have requested his friends and relations that when he was dead, they +would place over his tomb a cylinder containing a sphere, inscribing it +with the ratio of three to two which the containing solid bears to the +contained. + + + + +DESCRIPTION OF CLEOPATRA FROM THE LIFE OF ANTONY + +When Antony was making preparation for the Parthian war, he sent to +command Cleopatra to make her personal appearance in Cilicia, to answer +the accusation, that she had given great assistance, in the late wars, +to Cassius. Dellius, who was sent on this message, had no sooner seen +her face, and remarked her adroitness and subtlety in speech, than he +felt convinced that Antony would not so much as think of giving any +molestation to a woman like this; on the contrary, she would be the +first in favor with him. So he set himself at once to pay his court to +the Egyptia, and gave her his advice, "to go," in the Homeric style, to +Cilicia, "in her best attire," and bade her fear nothing from Antony, +the gentlest and the kindest of soldiers. She had some faith in the +words of Dellius, but more in her own attractions, which, having +formerly recommended her to Caesar and the young Gnaeus Pompey, she +did not doubt might prove yet more successful with Antony. Their +acquaintance was with her when a girl, young, and ignorant of the world, +but she was to meet Antony in the time of life when women's beauty is +most splendid, and their intellects are in full maturity, for she was +now about twenty-eight years of age. She made great preparation for her +journey, of money, gifts, and ornaments of value, such as so wealthy a +kingdom might afford, but she brought with her her surest hopes in her +own magic arts and charms. + +She received several letters, both from Antony and from his friends, to +summon her, but she paid no attention to these orders; and at last, as +if in mockery of them, she came sailing up the river Cydnus, in a barge +with gilded stern and outspread sails of purple, while oars of silver +beat time to the music of flutes and fifes and harps. She herself lay +stretched along under a canopy of cloth of gold, dressed as Venus in a +picture, and beautiful young boys, like painted Cupids, stood on each +side to fan her. Her maids were dressed like Sea Nymphs and Graces, some +steering at the rudder, some working at the ropes. The perfumes +diffused themselves from the vessel to the shore, which was covered with +multitudes, part following the galley up the river on either bank, part +running out of the city to see the sight. The market-place was quite +emptied, and Antony at last was left alone sitting upon the tribunal; +while the word went through all the multitude, that Venus had come to +feast with Bacchus, for the common good of Asia. On her arrival, Antony +sent to invite her to supper. She thought it fitter he should come to +her; so, willing to show his good-humor and courtesy, he complied, +and went. He found the preparations to receive him magnificent beyond +expression, but nothing so admirable as the great number of lights; +for on a sudden there were let down all together so great numbers of +branches with lights in them so ingeniously disposed, some in squares, +and some in circles, that the whole thing was a spectacle that has +seldom been equaled for beauty. + +The next day, Antony invited her to supper, and was very desirous to +outdo her as well in magnificence as contrivance; but he found he was +altogether beaten in both, and was so well convinced of it, that he was +himself the first to jest and mock at his poverty of wit, and his rustic +awkwardness. She, perceiving that his raillery was broad and gross, +and savored more of the soldier than the courtier, rejoined in the +same taste, and fell into it at once, without any sort of reluctance +or reserve. For her actual beauty, it is said, was not in itself so +remarkable that none could be compared with her, or that no one could +see her without being struck by it, but the contact of her presence, +if you lived with her, was irresistible; the attraction of her person, +joining with the charm of her conversation, and the character that +attended all she said or did, was something bewitching. It was a +pleasure merely to hear the sound of her voice, with which, like an +instrument of many strings, she could pass from one language to another; +so that there were few of the barbarian nations that she answered by an +interpreter; to most of them she spoke herself, as to the Aethiopians, +Troglodytes, Hebrews, Arabians, Syrians, Medes, Parthians, and +many others, whose language she had learnt; which was all the more +surprising, because most of the kings her predecessors scarcely gave +themselves the trouble to acquire the Egyptian tongue, and several of +them quite abandoned the Macedonian. + +Antony was so captivated by her that, leaving his troops assembled in +Mesopotamia, and ready to enter Syria, he suffered himself to be carried +away by her to Alexandria, there to keep holiday, like a boy, in play +and diversion, squandering and fooling away in enjoyments that most +costly, as Antiphon says, of all valuable, time. They had a sort of +company, to which they gave a particular name, calling it that of the +"Inimitable Livers." The members entertained one another daily in turn, +with an extravagance of expenditure beyond measure or belief. Philotas, +a physician of Amphissa, who was at that time a student of medicine in +Alexandria, used to tell my grandfather, Lamprias, that, having some +acquaintance with one of the royal cooks, he was invited by him, being a +young man, to come and see the sumptuous preparations for supper. So he +was taken into the kitchen, where he admired the prodigious variety of +all things; but particularly, seeing eight wild boars roasting whole, he +exclaimed, "Surely you have a great number of guests." The cook laughed +at his simplicity, and told him there were not more than twelve to sup, +but that every dish was to be served up just roasted to a turn, and if +anything was but one minute ill-timed, it was spoiled; "And," said he, +"maybe Antony will sup just now, maybe not this hour, maybe he will call +for wine, or begin to talk, and will put it off. So that," he continued, +"not one, but many suppers must be had in readiness, as it impossible to +guess at his hour." + +Plato admits four sorts of flattery, but Cleopatra had a thousand. Were +Antony serious or disposed to mirth, she had at any moment some new +delight or charm to meet his wishes. She played at dice with him, drank +with him, hunted with him; and when he exercised in arms, she was there +to see. At night she would go rambling with him to disturb and torment +people at their doors and windows, dressed like a servant-woman, for +Antony also went in servant's disguise, and from these expeditions +he often came home very scurvily answered, and sometimes even beaten +severely, though most people guessed who it was. It would be trifling +without end to be particular in his follies, but his fishing must not +be forgotten. He went out one day to angle with Cleopatra, and, being +so unfortunate as to catch nothing in the presence of the queen, he gave +secret orders to the fishermen to dive under water, and put fishes that +had been already taken upon his hooks; and these he drew so fast that +the Egyptian perceived it. But, feigning great admiration, she told +everybody how dexterous Antony was, and invited them next day to come +and see him again. So, when a number of them had come on board the +fishing boats, as soon as he had let down his hook, one of her servants +was beforehand with his divers, and fixed upon his hook a salted fish +from Pontus. Antony, feeling his line give, drew up the prey, and when, +as may be imagined, great laughter ensued, Cleopatra said, "Leave the +fishing-rod, general, to us poor sovereigns of Pharos and Canopus; your +game is cities, provinces, and kingdoms." + + + + +ANECDOTES FROM THE LIFE OF AGESILAUS, KING OF SPARTA + +Agesilaus is said to have been a little man, of a contemptible presence; +but the goodness of his humor, and his constant cheerfulness and +playfulness of temper, always free from anything of moroseness or +haughtiness, made him more attractive, even to his old age, than the +most beautiful and youthful men of the nation. Theophrastus writes, +that the Ephors laid a fine upon Archidamus for marrying a little wife, +"For," said they, "she will bring us a race of kinglets, instead of +kings." + +Agesilaus was excessively fond of his children; and it is to him the +story belongs, that when they were little ones, he used to make a horse +of a stick, and ride with them; and being caught at this sport by a +friend, he desired him not to mention it, till he himself should be the +father of children. + +When the Mantineans revolted from Thebes to Sparta, and Epaminondas +understood that Agesilaus had come to their assistance with a powerful +army, he privately in the night quitted his quarters at Tegea, and +unknown to the Mantineans, passing by Agesilaus, marched toward Sparta, +insomuch that he failed very little of taking it empty and unarmed. +Agesilaus had intelligence sent him by Euthynus, the Thespian, as +Callisthenes says, but Xenophon says by a Cretan, and immediately +despatched a horseman to Lacedaemon, to apprise them of it, and to let +them know that he was hastening to them. Shortly after his arrival the +Thebans crossed the Eurotas. They made an assault upon the town, and +were received by Agesilaus with great courage, and with exertions beyond +what was to be expected at his years. For he did not now fight with that +caution and cunning which he formerly made use of, but put all upon a +desperate push; which, though not his usual method, succeeded so well, +that he rescued the city out of the very hands of Epaminondas, and +forced him to retire, and, at the erection of a trophy, was able, in the +presence of their wives and children, to declare that the Lacedaemonians +had nobly paid their debt to their country, and particularly his son +Archidamus, who had that day made himself illustrious, both by his +courage and agility of body, rapidly passing about by the short lanes to +every endangered point, and everywhere maintaining the town against the +enemy with but few to help him. Isadas, too, the son of Phoebidas, +must have been, I think, the admiration of the enemy as well as of his +friends. He was a youth of remarkable beauty and stature, in the very +flower of the most attractive time of life, when the boy is just rising +into the man. He had no arms upon him, and scarcely clothes; he had just +anointed himself at home, when, upon the alarm, without further waiting, +in that undress, he snatched a spear in one hand, and a sword in the +other, and broke his way through the combatants to the enemies, striking +at all he met. He received no wound, whether it were that a special +divine care rewarded his valor with an extraordinary protection, +or whether his shape being so large and beautiful, and his dress +so unusual, they thought him more than a man. The Ephors gave him a +garland; but as soon as they had done so, they fined him a thousand +drachma, for going out to battle unarmed. + + + + +THE BROTHERS FROM THE LIFE OF TIMOLEON + +Timoleon had an older brother, whose name was Timophanes, who was +every way unlike him, being indiscreet and rash and infected by the +suggestions of some friends and foreign soldiers, whom he kept always +about him, with a passion for absolute power. He seemed to have a +certain force and vehemence in all military service, and even to delight +in dangers, and thus he took much with the people, and was advanced +to the highest charges as a vigorous and effective warrior; in the +obtaining of which offices and promotions Timoleon much assisted him, +helping to conceal or at least to extenuate his errors, embellishing +by his praise whatever was commendable in him, and setting off his good +qualities to the best advantage. + +It happened once in the battle fought by the Corinthians against the +forces of Argos and Cleonae, that Timoleon served among the infantry, +when Timophanes, commanding their cavalry, was brought into extreme +danger; for his horse being wounded fell forward, and threw him headlong +amidst the enemies, while part of his companions dispersed at once in +a panic, and the small number that remained, bearing up against a great +multitude, had much ado to maintain any resistance. As soon, therefore, +as Timoleon was aware of the accident, he ran hastily to his brother's +rescue, and covering the fallen Timophanes with his buckler, after +having received an abundance of darts and several strokes by the sword +upon his body and his armor, he at length with much difficulty obliged +the enemies to retire, and brought off his brother alive and safe. But +when the Corinthians, for fear of losing their city a second time, +as they had once before, by admitting their allies, made a decree to +maintain four hundred mercenaries for its security, and gave Timophanes +the command over them, he, abandoning all regard for honor and equity, +at once proceeded to put into execution his plans for making himself +absolute, and bringing the place under his own power; and having cut off +many principal citizens, uncondemned and without trial, who were most +likely to hinder his design, he declared himself tyrant of Corinth; a +procedure that infinitely afflicted Timoleon, to whom the wickedness +of such a brother appeared to be his own reproach and calamity. He +undertook to persuade him by reasoning to desist from that wild and +unhappy ambition, and bethink himself how he could make the Corinthians +some amends, and find out an expedient to remedy the evils he had done +them. When his single admonition was rejected and contemned by him, he +made a second attempt, taking with him Aeschylus his kinsman, brother to +the wife of Timophanes, and a certain diviner, that was his friend, +whom Theopompus in his history calls Satyrus. This company coming to his +brother, all three of them surrounded and earnestly importuned him upon +the same subject, that now at length he would listen to reason and be +of another mind. But when Timophanes began first to laugh at the men's +simplicity, and presently broke out into rage and indignation against +them, Timoleon stepped aside from him and stood weeping with his face +covered, while the other two, drawing out their swords, despatched him +in a moment. + +When the rumor of this act was spread about, the better and more +generous of the Corinthians highly applauded Timoleon for the hatred of +wrong and the greatness of soul that had made him, though of a gentle +disposition and full of love and kindness for his family, think the +obligations to his country stronger than the ties of consanguinity, and +prefer that which is good and just before gain and interest and his own +particular advantage. For the same brother, who with so much bravery had +been saved by him when he fought valiantly in the cause of Corinth, he +had now as nobly sacrificed for enslaving her afterward by a base and +treacherous usurpation. But when he came to understand how heavily his +mother took it, and that she likewise uttered the saddest complaints and +most terrible imprecations against him, he went to satisfy and comfort +her, but he found that she would not endure so much as to look upon him, +but caused her doors to be shut that he might have no admission into +her presence, and with grief at this he grew so disordered in mind and +disconsolate, that he determined to put an end to his perplexity with +his life, by abstaining from all manner of sustenance. But through the +care and diligence of his friends, who were very persistent with him, +and added force to their entreaties, he promised at last that he +would endure living, provided it might be in solitude, and remote from +company; so that, quitting all civil transactions and commerce with the +world, for a long while after his first retirement he never came into +Corinth, but wandered up and down the fields, full of anxious and +tormenting thoughts, and for almost twenty years did not offer to +concern himself in any honorable or public action. + + + + +THE WOUND OF PHILOPOEMEN + +Cleomenes, king of the Lacedaemonians, surprised Megalopolis by night, +forced the guards, broke in, and seized the market-place. + +Awhile after, king Antigonus coming down to succor the Achaeans, they +marched with their united forces against Cleomenes; who, having seized +the avenues, lay advantageously posted on the hills of Sellasia. +Antigonus drew up close by him, with a resolution to force him in his +strength. Philopoemen, with his citizens, was that day placed among the +horse, next to the Illyrian foot, a numerous body of bold fighters, who +completed the line of battle, forming, together with the Achaeans, the +reserve. Their orders were to keep their ground, and not engage till +they should see a red coat lifted up on the point of a spear from the +other wing, where the king fought in person. The Achaeans obeyed their +order and stood fast; but the Illyrians were led on by their commanders +to the attack. Euclidas, the brother of Cleomenes; seeing the foot +thus severed from the horse, detached the best of his light-armed men, +commanding them to wheel about and charge the unprotected Illyrians +in the rear. This charge put things into confusion, and Philopoemen, +considering that those light-armed men could be easily repelled, went +first to the king's officers to make them sensible of what the occasion +required. But when they did not mind what he said, slighting him as a +hare-brained fellow (as indeed he was not yet of any repute sufficient +to give credit to a proposal of such importance). he charged with his +own citizens, and at the first encounter disordered, and soon after put +the troops to flight with great slaughter. Then, to encourage the +king's army further, to bring them all upon the enemy while he was in +confusion, he quitted his horse, and fighting with extreme difficulty +in his heavy horseman's dress, in rough, uneven ground, full of +water-courses and hollows, had both his thighs struck through with a +thonged javelin. It was thrown with great force, so that the head came +out on the other side, and made a severe though not a mortal wound. +There he stood awhile, as if he had been shackled, unable to move. The +fastening which joined the thong to the javelin made it difficult to +get it drawn out, nor would anybody about him venture to do it. But the +fight being now at the hottest, and likely to be quickly decided, he +was transported with the desire of partaking in it, and struggled and +strained so violently, setting one leg forward, the other back, that +at last he broke the shaft in two, and thus got the pieces pulled out. +Being in this manner set at liberty he caught up his sword, and running +through the midst of those who were fighting in the first ranks, +animated his men, and set them afire with emulation. Antigonus, after +the victory, asked the Macedonians, to try them, how it happened that +the cavalry had charged without orders before the signal? and when they +answered that they were forced to it against their wills by a young man +of Megalopolis, who had fallen in before it was time, Antigonus replied, +smiling, "That young man acted like an experienced commander." + + + + +A ROMAN TRIUMPH FROM THE LIFE OF PAULUS AEMILIUS + +Paulus Aemilius, advanced in years, being nearly threescore, yet +vigorous in his own person, and rich in valiant sons and sons-in-law, +besides a great number of influential relations and friends, all of whom +joined in urging him to yield to the desires of the people, who called +him to the consulship. He at first manifested some shyness of the +people, and withdrew himself from their importunity, professing +reluctance to hold office; but, when they daily came to his doors, +urging him to come forth to the place of election, and pressing him with +noise and clamor, he acceded to their request. When he appeared amongst +the candidates, it did not look as if it were to sue for the consulship, +but to bring victory and success, that he came down into the Campus; +with such hopes and such gladness did they all receive him there, +unanimously choosing him a second time consul; nor would they suffer the +lots to be cast, as was usual, to determine which province should fall +to his share, but immediately decreed him the command of the Macedonian +war. It is told, that when he had been proclaimed general against +Perseus, and was honorably accompanied home by great numbers of people, +he found his daughter Tertia, a very little girl, weeping, and taking +her to him asked her why she was crying. She, catching him about the +neck and kissing him, said, "O father, do you not know that Perseus is +dead?" meaning a little dog of that name who had been brought up in the +house with her; to which Aemilius replied, "Good fortune, my daughter; +I embrace the omen." Thus Cicero, the orator, relates in his book on +divination. + +* * * * * + +The triumph of Aemilius over Perseus was performed in this manner. + +The people erected scaffolds in the Forum, in the circuses, as they call +their buildings, for horse-races, and in all other parts of the city +where they could best behold the show. The spectators were clad in white +garments; all the temples were open, and full of garlands and perfumes; +the ways were cleared and kept open by numerous officers, who drove back +all who crowded into or ran across the main avenue. This triumph lasted +three days. On the first, which was scarcely long enough for the sight, +were to be seen the statues, pictures, and colossal images, which were +taken from the enemy, drawn upon two hundred and fifty chariots. On the +second, was carried in a great many wagons the finest and richest armor +of the Macedonians, both of brass and steel, all newly polished and +glittering; the pieces of which were piled up and arranged purposely +with the greatest art, so as to seem to be tumbled in heaps carelessly +and by chance; helmets were thrown upon shields, coats of mail upon +greaves; Cretan targets, and Thracian bucklers and quivers of arrows, +lay huddled amongst horses' bits, and through these there appeared the +points of naked swords, intermixed with long Macedonian sarissas. All +these arms were fastened together with just so much looseness that they +struck against one another as they were drawn along, and made a harsh +and alarming noise, so that, even as spoils of a conquered enemy, they +could not be beheld without dread. After these wagons loaded with +armor, there followed three thousand men who carried the silver that was +coined, in seven hundred and fifty vessels, each of which weighed three +talents, and was carried by four men. Others brought silver bowls and +goblets and cups, all disposed in such order as to make the best show, +and all curious as well for their size as the solidity of their embossed +work. + +On the third day, early in the morning, first came the trumpeters, who +did not sound as they were wont in a procession or solemn entry, but +such a charge as the Romans use when they encourage the soldiers to +fight. Next followed young men wearing frocks with ornamented borders, +who led to the sacrifice a hundred and twenty stalled oxen, with their +horns gilded, and their heads adorned with ribbons and garlands; and +with these were boys that carried basins for libation, of silver and +gold. After this was brought the gold coin, which was divided into +vessels that weighed three talents, like those that contained the +silver; they were in number seventy-seven. These were followed by those +that brought the consecrated bowl which Aemilius had caused to be made, +that weighed ten talents, and was set with precious stones. Then were +exposed to view the cups of Antigonus and Seleucus, and those of the +Thericlean make (Thericles, according to the more probable supposition, +was a Corinthian potter: the first maker of a particular kind of cup, +which long continued to bear his name.) and all the gold plate that was +used at Perseus' table. Next to these came Perseus' chariot, in which +his armor was placed, and on that his diadem. And, after a little +intermission, the king's children were led captives, and with them a +train of their attendants, masters, and teachers, all shedding tears, +and stretching out their hands to the spectators, and making the +children themselves also beg and entreat their compassion. There were +two sons and a daughter whose tender age made them but little sensible +of the greatness of their misery, which very insensibility of their +condition rendered it the more deplorable; insomuch that Perseus himself +was scarcely regarded as he went along, whilst pity fixed the eyes of +the Romans upon the infants; many of them could not forbear tears, and +all beheld the sight with a mixture of sorrow and pleasure, until the +children had passed. + +After his children and their attendants came Perseus himself, clad all +in black, and wearing the boots of his country; and looking like one +altogether stunned and deprived of reason, through the greatness of his +misfortunes. Next followed a great company of his friends and familiars, +whose countenances were disfigured with grief, and who let the +spectators see, by their tears and their continual looking upon Perseus, +that it was his fortune they so much lamented, and that they were +regardless of their own. Perseus sent to Aemilius to entreat that he +might not be led in pomp, but be left out of the triumph; who, deriding, +as was but just, his cowardice and fondness of life, sent him this +answer, that as for that, it had been before, and was now, in his own +power; giving him to understand that the disgrace could be avoided by +death; which the faint-hearted man not having the spirit for, and made +effeminate by I know not what hopes, allowed himself to appear as a part +of his own spoils. After these were carried four hundred crowns, all +made of gold, sent from the cities by their respective deputations to +Aemilius, in honor of his victory. Then he himself came, seated on a +chariot magnificently adorned (a man well worthy to be looked at, even +without these ensigns of power), dressed in a robe of purple, interwoven +with gold, and holding a laurel branch in his right hand. All the army, +in like manner, with boughs of laurel in their hands, divided into +their bands and companies, followed the chariot of their commander; some +singing verses, according to the usual custom, mingled with raillery; +others, songs of triumph, and the praise of Aemilius's deeds; who, +indeed, was admired and accounted happy by all men, and unenvied by +every one that was good; except so far as it seems the province of some +god to lessen that happiness which is too great and inordinate, and so +to mingle the affairs of human life that no one should be entirely free +from calamities; but, as we read in Homer*, only those should think +themselves truly blessed to whom fortune has given an equal share of +good and evil. + + * "Grief is useless; cease to lament," Achilles to Priam, + his suppliant for the body of Hecor. "For thus have the gods + appointed for mortal men; that they should live in vexation, + while the gods themselves are untroubled. Two vessels are + set upon the threshold of Zeus, of the gifts that he + dispenses; one of evil things, the other of good; he who + receives from both at the hand of thundering Zeus, meets at + one time with evil, and at another with good; he who + receives from only one, is a miserable wretch." + + + + +THE NOBLE CHARACTER OF CAIUS FABRICIUS FROM THE LIFE OF PYRRHUS + +Caius Fabricius, a man of highest consideration among the Romans as an +honest man and a good soldier, but extremely poor, went upon an embassy +to Pyrrhus to treat about prisoners that had been taken. Pyrrhus +received him with much kindness, and privately would have persuaded +him to accept of his gold, not for any evil purpose, but as a mark of +respect and hospitable kindness. Upon Fabricius's refusal, he pressed +him no further, but the next day, having a mind to discompose him, as +he had never seen an elephant before, he commanded one of the largest, +completely armed, to be placed behind the hangings, as they were talking +together. This being done, at a given signal the hanging was drawn +aside, and the elephant, raising his trunk over the head of Fabricius, +made a horrid and ugly noise. He gently turned about and, smiling, said +to Pyrrhus, "neither your money yesterday, nor this beast today make any +impression upon me." At supper, amongst all sorts of things that were +discoursed of, but more particularly Greece and the philosophers there, +Cineas, by accident, had occasion to speak of Epicurus, and explained +the opinions his followers hold about the gods and the commonwealth, and +the object of life, who place the chief happiness of man in pleasure, +and decline public affairs as an injury and disturbance of a happy life, +and remove the gods afar off both from kindness or anger, or any +concern for us at all, to a life wholly without business and flowing in +pleasures. Before he had done speaking, Fabricius cried out to Pyrrhus, +"O Hercules! may Pyrrhus and the Samnites entertain themselves with this +sort of opinions as long as they are at war with us." Pyrrhus, admiring +the wisdom and gravity of the man, was the more transported with desire +to make friendship instead of war with the city, and entreated him, +personally, after the peace should be concluded, to accept of living +with him as the chief of his ministers and generals. Fabricius answered +quietly, "Sir, this will not be for your advantage, for they who now +honor and admire you, when they have had experience of me, will rather +choose to be governed by me, than by you." And Pyrrhus received his +answer without any resentment or tyrannic passion; nay, among his +friends he highly commended the great mind of Fabricius, and intrusted +the prisoners to him alone, on condition that if the senate should not +vote a peace, after they had conversed with their friends and celebrated +the festival of Saturn, they should be remanded. And, accordingly, they +were sent back after the holidays; death being decreed for any that +stayed behind. + +After this, when Fabricius had taken the consulate, a person came with +a letter to the camp written by the king's principal physician, offering +to take Pyrrhus off by poison, and so end the war without further hazard +to the Romans, if he might have a reward proportional to his service. +Fabricius, despising the villany of the man, and disposing the other +consul to the same opinion, sent despatches immediately to Pyrrhus to +caution him against the treason. His letter was to this effect: "Caius +Fabricius and Quintus Aemilius, consuls of the Romans, to Pyrrhus the +king, health. You seem to have made a bad judgement both of your friends +and your enemies; you will understand by reading this letter sent to us, +that you are at war with honest men, and trust villains and knaves. Nor +do we disclose this out of any favor to you, but lest your ruin might +bring a reproach upon us, as if we had ended the war by treachery +because not able to do it by force." When Pyrrhus had read the letter, +and made inquiry into the treason, he punished the physician, and as an +acknowledgement to the Romans sent to Rome the prisoners without ransom. +But they, regarding it as at once too great a kindness from an enemy, +and too great a reward for not doing a mean act to accept their +prisoners so, released in return an equal number of the Tarentines +and Samnites, but would admit of no debate of alliance or peace until +Pyrrhus had removed his arms and forces out of Italy, and sailed back to +Epirus with the same ships that brought him over. + + + + +FROM THE LIFE OF QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS + +Hannibal was within five miles of Tarentum, when he was informed that +the town had been taken by Fabius. He said openly, "Rome, then, has also +got a Hannibal; as we won Tarentum, so have we lost it." And, in private +with some of his confidants, he told them, for the first time, that he +always thought it difficult, but now he held it impossible, with the +forces he then had, to master Italy. + +Upon this success, Fabius had a triumph decreed him at Rome, much more +splendid than his first; they looked upon him now as a champion who had +learned to cope with his antagonist, and could now easily foil his arts +and prove his best skill ineffectual. And, indeed the army of Hannibal +was at this time partly worn out with continual action, and partly +weakened and become dissolute with over abundance and luxury. Marcus +Livius, who was governor of Tarentum when it was betrayed to Hannibal, +and had then retired into the citadel, which he kept till the town +was retaken, was annoyed at these honors and distinctions, and, on one +occasion, openly declared in the senate, that by his resistance, more +than by any actions of Fabius, Tarentum had been recovered; on which +Fabius laughingly replied: "What you say is very true, for if Marcus +Livius had not lost Tarentum, Fabius Maximus had never recovered it." +The people, among other marks of gratitude, gave his son the consulship +of the next year; shortly after whose entrance upon his office, there +being some business on foot about provision for the war, his father, +either on account of age and infirmity, or perhaps out of design to try +his son, came up to him on horseback. While he was still at a distance, +the young consul observed it, and bade one of his lictors command his +father to alight, and tell him that, if he had any business with the +consul, he should come on foot. The bystanders seemed offended at the +imperiousness of the son towards a father so venerable for his age and +his authority, and turned their eyes in silence towards Fabius. He, +however, instantly alighted from his horse, and with open arms came up, +almost running, and embracing him said, "Yes, my son, you do well, and +understand what authority you have received, and over whom you are to +use it. This was the way by which we and our forefathers advanced +the dignity of Rome, preferring ever her honor and service to our own +fathers and children." + +And, in fact, it is told that the great-grandfather of Fabius, who was +undoubtedly the greatest man of Rome in his time, both in reputation +and authority, who had been five times consul, and had been honored with +several triumphs for victories obtained by him, took pleasure in serving +as lieutenant under his own son, when he went as consul to his command. +And when afterwards his son had a triumph bestowed upon him for his good +service, the old man followed his triumphant chariot, on horseback, as +one of his attendants; and made it his glory, that while he really +was, and was acknowledged to be, the greatest man in Rome, and held a +father's full power over his son, he yet submitted himself to the law +and the magistrate. + + + + +THE CRUELTY OF LUCIUS CORNELIUS SYLLA + +Sylla's general personal appearance may be known by his statues; only +his blue eyes, of themselves extremely keen and glaring, were rendered +all the more forbidding and terrible by the complexion of his face, in +which white was mixed with rough blotches of fiery red. Hence, it is +said, he was surnamed Sylla, and in allusion to it one of the scurrilous +jesters at Athens made the verse upon him, + + Sylla is a mulberry sprinkled o'er with meal. + +Sylla being wholly bent upon slaughter, filled the city with executions +without number or limit, many wholly uninterested persons falling a +sacrifice to private enmity, through his permission and indulgence to +his friends. At last Caius Metellus, one of the younger men, made bold +in the senate to ask him what end there was of these evils, and at what +point he might be expected to stop? "We do ask you," said he, "to pardon +any whom you have resolved to destroy, but to free from doubt those whom +you are pleased to save." Sylla answering, that he knew not as yet whom +to spare, he asked: "Will you then tell us whom you will punish?" This +Sylla said he would do. These last words, some authors say, were spoken +not by Metellus, but by Afidius, one of Sylla's fawning companions. +Immediately upon this, without communicating with any magistrates, Sylla +proscribed eighty persons, and notwithstanding the general indignation, +after one day's respite, he posted two hundred and twenty more, and on +the third again, as many. In an address to the people on this occasion, +he told them he had put up as many names as he could think of; those +which had escaped his memory, he would publish at a future time. He +issued an edict likewise, making death the punishment of humanity, +proscribing any who should dare to receive and cherish a proscribed +person, without exception to brother, son, or parents. And to him who +should slay any one proscribed person, he ordained two talents' reward, +even were it a slave who had killed his master, or a son his father. +And what was thought most unjust of all, he caused the attainder to +pass upon their sons, and sons' sons, and made open sale of all their +property. Nor did the proscription prevail only at Rome, but throughout +all the cities of Italy the effusion of blood was such that neither +sanctuary of the gods nor hearth of hospitality nor ancestral home +escaped. Men were butchered in the embraces of their wives, children in +the arms of their mothers. Those who perished through public animosity, +or private enmity, were nothing in comparison to the numbers of those +who suffered for their riches. Even the murderers began to say, that +"his fine house killed this man, a garden that, a third, his hot baths." +Quintus Aurelius, a quiet, peaceable man, and one who thought all his +part in the common calamity consisted in condoling with the misfortunes +of others, coming into the forum to read the list, and finding himself +among the proscribed, cried out, "Woe is me, my Alban farm has informed +against me." He had not gone far, before he was despatched by a ruffian, +sent on that errand. + +In the meantime, Marius, on the point of being taken, killed himself; +and Sylla, coming to Praeneste, at first proceeded judicially against +each particular person, till at last, finding it a work of too much +time, he cooped them up together in one place, to the number of twelve +thousand men, and gave order for the execution of them all, save his own +host (The friend, that is, with whom he always stayed when he happened +to be at Praeneste, his 'xenos;' a relationship much regarded to the +Greek and Roman world) alone excepted. But he, brave man, telling him +he could not accept the obligation of life from the hands of one who +had been the ruin of his country, went in among the rest, and submitted +willingly to the stroke. + + + + +THE LUXURY OF LUCULLUS + +Lucullus' life, like the Old comedy, presents us at the commencement +with acts of policy and of war, and at the end offers nothing but good +eating and drinking, feastings, and revelings, and mere play. For I give +no higher name to his sumptuous buildings, porticos and baths, still +less to his paintings and sculptures, and all his industry about these +curiosities, which he collected with vast expense, lavishly bestowing +all the wealth and treasure which he got in the war upon them, insomuch +that even now, with all the advance of luxury, the Lucullean gardens are +counted the noblest the emperor has. Tubero, the stoic, when he saw his +buildings at Naples, where he suspended the hills upon vast tunnels, +brought in the sea for moats and fish-ponds round his house, and +pleasure-houses in the waters, called him Xerxes in a gown. He had also +fine seats in Tusculum, belvederes, and large open balconies for men's +apartments, and porticos to walk in, where Pompey coming to see him, +blamed him for making a house which would be pleasant in summer, but +uninhabitable in winter; whom he answered with a smile, "You think me, +then, less provident than cranes and storks, not to change my home with +the season." When a praetor, with great expense and pains, was preparing +a spectacle for the people, and asked him to lend him some purple robes +for the performers in a chorus, he told him he would go home and see, +and if he had any, would let him take them; and the next day asking how +many he wanted, and being told that a hundred would suffice, bade him +take twice as many: on which the poet Horace observes, that a house is +indeed a poor one, where the valuables unseen and unthought of do not +exceed all those that meet the eye. + +Lucullus' daily entertainments were ostentatiously extravagant, not +only in purple coverlets, and plate adorned with precious stones, and +dancings, and interludes, but with the greatest diversity of dishes and +the most elaborate cookery, for the vulgar to admire and envy. It was a +happy thought of Pompey in his sickness, when his physician prescribed +a thrush for his dinner, and his servants told him that in summer time +thrushes were not to be found anywhere but in Lucullus' fattening coops, +that he would not suffer them to fetch one thence, but observed to +his physician, "So if Lucullus had not been an epicure, Pompey had +not lived," and ordered something else that could easily be got to be +prepared for him. Cato was his friend and connection, but, nevertheless, +so hated his life and habits, that when a young man in the senate made a +long and tedious speech in praise of frugality and temperance, Cato +got up and said, "How long do you mean to go making money like Crassus, +living like Lucullus, and talking like Cato?" + +It is plain from the anecdotes on record of him, that Lucullus was not +only pleased with, but even gloried in his way of living. For he is said +to have feasted several Greeks upon their coming to Rome day after day, +who, out of a true Grecian principle, being ashamed, and declining the +invitation, where so great an expense was every day incurred for them, +he with a smile said to them, "Some of this, indeed, my Grecian friends, +is for your sakes, but more for that of Lucullus." Once when he supped +alone, there being only one course, and that but moderately furnished, +he called his steward and reproved him, who, professing to have supposed +that there would be no need of any great entertainment, when nobody +was invited, was answered, "What, did you not know, then, that today +Lucullus was to dine with Lucullus?" This being much spoken of about +the city, Cicero and Pompey one day met him loitering in the forum, the +former his intimate friend and familiar, and, though there had been some +ill-will between Pompey and him about the command in the war, still +they used to see each other and converse on easy terms together. Cicero +accordingly saluted him, and asked him whether today was a good time for +asking a favor of him, and on his answering, "Very much so," and begging +to hear what it was, Cicero said, "then we should like to dine with you +today, just on the dinner that is prepared for yourself." Lucullus being +surprised, and requesting a day's time, they refused to grant it, and +would not allow him to talk with his servants, for fear he should give +orders for more than was appointed before. But this they consented to, +that before their faces he might tell his servant, that today he would +sup in "the Apollo" (for so one of his best dining-rooms was called), +and by this evasion he outwitted his guests. For every room, as it +seems, had its own assessment of expenditure, dinner at such a price, +and all else in accordance; so that the servants, on knowing where he +would dine, knew also how much was to be expended, and in what style +and form dinner was to be served. The expense for the Apollo was fifty +thousand drachmas, and such a sum being that day laid out, the greatness +of the cost did not so much amaze Pompey and Cicero, as the rapidity +of the outlay. One might believe that Lucullus thought his money really +captive and barbarian, so wantonly and contumeliously did he treat it. + +His furnishing of a library, however, deserves praise and record, for he +collected very many choice manuscripts; and the use they were put to was +even more magnificent than the purchase, the library being always open, +and the walks and reading rooms about it free to all Greeks, whose +delight it was to leave their other occupations and hasten thither as +to the habitation of the Muses, there walking about, and diverting one +another. He himself often passed his hours there, disputing with the +learned in the walks, and giving his advice to statesmen who required +it, insomuch that his house was altogether a home, and in a manner, a +Greek prytaneum for those that visited Rome. + + + + +FROM THE LIFE OF SERTORIUS + +(The Roman who endeavored to establish a separate government for himself +in Spain.) + +Sertorius was highly honored for his introducing discipline and good +order among the Spaniards, for he altered their furious and savage +manner of fighting, and brought them to make use of the Roman armor, +taught them to keep their ranks, and observe signals and watchwords; +and out of a confused horde of thieves and robbers, he constituted a +regular, well-disciplined army. He bestowed silver and gold upon them +liberally to gild and adorn their helmets, he had their shields worked +with various figures and designs, he brought them into the mode of +wearing flowered and embroidered cloaks and coats, and by supplying +money for these purposes, and joining with them in all improvements, he +won the hearts of all. That, however, which delighted them most, was the +care that he took of their children. He sent for all the boys of noblest +parentage out of all their tribes, and placed them in the great city +of Osca, where he appointed masters to instruct them in the Grecian +and Roman learning, that when they came to be men, they might, as he +professed, be fitted to share with him in authority, and in conducting +the government, although under this pretext he really made them +hostages. However, their fathers were wonderfully pleased to see their +children going daily to the schools in good order, handsomely dressed +in gowns edged with purple, and that Sertorius paid for their lessons, +examined them often, distributed rewards to the most deserving, and +gave them the golden bosses to hang around their necks, which the Romans +called "bullae." + +All the cities on this side of the river Ebro finally united their +forces under his command, and his army grew very great, for they +flocked together and flowed in upon him from all quarters. But when they +continually cried out to attack the enemy, and were impatient of delay, +their inexperienced, disorderly rashness caused Sertorius much trouble, +who at first strove to restrain them with reason and good counsel, but +when he perceived them refractory and unseasonably violent, he gave way +to their impetuous desires, and permitted them to engage with the enemy, +in such a way that they might be repulsed, yet not totally routed, and +so become more obedient to his commands for the future. This happening +as he had anticipated, he soon rescued them, and brought them safe into +his camp. And after a few days, being willing to encourage them again, +when he had called all his army together, he caused two horses to be +brought into the field, one an old, feeble, lean animal, the other a +lusty, strong horse, with a remarkably thick and long tail. Near the +lean one he placed a tall, strong man, and near the strong, young horse +a weak, despicable-looking fellow; and at a given signal the strong man +took hold of the weak horse's tail with both his hands, and drew it to +him with his whole force, as if he would pull it off; the other, the +weak man, in the meantime, set to work to pluck off hair by hair the +great horse's tail. And when the strong man had given trouble enough +to himself in vain, and sufficient diversion to the company, and had +abandoned his attempt, whilst the weak, pitiful fellow in a short time +and with little pains had left not a hair on the great horse's tail, +Sertorius arose and said to his army, "You see, fellow-soldiers, that +perseverance is more prevailing than violence, and that many things +which cannot be overcome when they are together, yield readily when +taken little by little. Assiduity and persistence are irresistible, +and in time overthrow and destroy the greatest powers. Time being the +favorable friend and assistant of those who use their judgment to await +his occasions, and the destructive enemy of those who are unseasonably +urging and pressing forward." + +Of all his remarkable exploits, none raised greater admiration than that +which he put in practice against the Characitanians. These are a people +beyond the river Tagus, who inhabit neither cities nor towns, but live +in a vast, high hill, within the deep dens and caves of the rocks, the +mouths of which all open towards the north. The country below is of a +soil resembling a light clay, so loose as easily to break into powder, +and is not firm enough to bear any one that treads upon it, and if you +touch it in the least, it flies about like ashes or unslaked lime. In +any danger of war, these people enter their caves, and carrying in their +booty and prey along with them, stay quietly within, secure from every +attack. And when Sertorius, leaving Metellus some distance off, +had placed his camp near this hill, they slighted and despised him, +imagining that he retired into these parts to escape being overthrown +by the Romans. And whether out of anger and resentment, or out of +his unwillingness to be thought to fly from his enemies, early in the +morning he rode up to view the situation of the place. But finding there +was no way to come at it, as he rode about, threatening them in vain and +disconcerted, he took notice that the wind raised the dust and carried +it up towards the caves of the Characitanians, and the northerly wind, +which some call Caecias, prevailing most in those parts, coming up out +of moist plains or mountains covered with snow, at this particular +time, in the heat of summer, being further supplied and increased by +the melting of the ice in the northern regions, blew a delightful, fresh +gale, cooling and refreshing the Characitanians and their cattle all the +day long. Sertorius, considering well all circumstances in which either +the information of the inhabitants, or his own experience had instructed +him, commanded his soldiers to shovel up a great quantity of this light, +dusty earth, to heap it together, and make a mound of it over against +the hill in which these barbarous people lived, who, imagining that all +this preparation was for raising a mound to get at them, only mocked +and laughed at it. However, he continued the work till the evening, and +brought his soldiers back into their camp. The next morning a gentle +breeze at first arose, and moved the lightest parts of the earth, and +dispersed it about as the chaff before the wind; but when the sun got +higher, and the strong, northerly wind had covered the hills with the +dust, the soldiers came and turned this mound of earth over and over, +and broke the hard clods in pieces, whilst others on horseback rode +through it backward and forward, and raised a cloud of dust into the +air; then with the wind the whole of it was carried away and blown into +the dwellings of the Characitanians, all lying open to the north. And +there being no other vent or breathing-place than that through which the +Caecias rushed in upon them, it quickly blinded their eyes, and filled +their lungs, and all but choked them, whilst they strove to draw in the +rough air mingled with dust and powdered earth. Nor were they able, with +all they could do, to hold out more than two days, but surrendered +on the third, adding, by their defeat, not so much to the power of +Sertorius, as to his renown, in proving that he was able to conquer +places by art, which were impregnable by the force of arms. + + + + +THE SCROLL-FROM THE LIFE OF LYSANDER + +The scroll is made up thus: when the Ephors send an admiral or general +on his way, they take two round pieces of wood, both exactly of a length +and thickness, and cut even to one another; they keep one themselves, +and the other the give to the person they send forth; and these pieces +of wood they call Scytales. When, therefore, they have occasion to +communicate any secret or important matter, making a scroll of parchment +long and narrow like a leathern thong, they roll it about their own +staff of wood, leaving no space void between, but covering the surface +of the staff with the scroll all over. When they have done this, they +write what they please on the scroll, as it is wrapped about the staff; +and when they have written, they take off the scroll, and send it to the +general without the wood. He, when he has received it, can read nothing +of the writing, because the words and letters are not connected, but +all broken up; but taking his own staff, he winds the slip of the scroll +about it, so that this folding, restoring all the parts into the same +order that they were in before, and putting what comes first into +connection with what follows, brings the whole consecutive contents to +view round the outside. And this scroll is called a _staff_, after the +name of the wood, as a thing measured is by the name of the measure. + + + + +THE CHARACTER OF MARCUS CATO + +Marcus Cato grew so powerful by his eloquence that he was commonly +called the Roman Demosthenes; but his manner of life was yet more famous +and talked of. For oratorical skill was, as an accomplishment, commonly +studied and sought after by all young men; but he was a rare man who +would cultivate the old habits of bodily labor, or prefer a light +supper, and a breakfast which never saw the fire; or be in love with +poor clothes and a homely lodging, or could set his ambition rather +on doing without luxuries than on possessing them. For now the state, +unable to keep its purity by reason of its greatness, and having so many +affairs, and people from all parts under its government, was fain to +admit many mixed customs, and new examples of living. With reason, +therefore, everybody admired Cato, when they saw others sink under +labors, and grow effeminate by pleasures, but beheld him unconquered by +either; and that, too, not only when he was young and desirous of honor, +but also when old and gray-headed, after a consulship and triumph; +like some famous victor in the games, persevering in his exercise and +maintaining his character to the very last. He himself says, that he +never wore a suit of clothes which cost more than a hundred drachmas; +and that, when he was general and consul, he drank the same wine which +his workmen did; and that the meat or fish which was bought in the +market for his dinner, did not cost above thirty 'asses.' All which was +for the sake of the commonwealth, that his body might be the hardier for +the war. Having a piece of embroidered Babylonian tapestry left him, he +sold it; because none of his farm-houses were so much as plastered. Nor +did he ever buy a slave for above fifteen hundred drachmas; as he did +not seek for effeminate and handsome ones, but able, sturdy workmen, +horse-keepers, and cow-herds; and these he thought ought to be sold +again, when they grew old, and no useless servants fed in a house. In +short, he reckoned nothing a good bargain, which was superfluous; but +whatever it was, though sold for a farthing, he would think it a great +price, if you had no need of it. + +Yet, in my judgment, it marks an over-rigid temper for a man to take the +work out of his servants as out of brute beasts, turning them off +and selling them in their old age. A kind-natured man will keep even +worn-out horses and dogs, and not only take care of them when they are +foals and whelps, but also when they are grown old. The Athenians, when +they built their Hecatompedon,* (*The Parthenon; built on the site of +an older temple which had borne the name of Hecatompedon, or a "hundred +feet long." The name was retained for the new building.) turned those +mules loose to feed freely, which they had observed to have done the +hardest labor. One of these came once of itself to offer its service, +and ran along with, nay, went before, the teams which drew the wagons up +to the Acropolis, as if it would incite and encourage them to draw more +stoutly; upon which a vote was passed that the creature should be kept +at the public charge till it died. The graves of Cimon's horses, which +thrice won the Olympian races, are yet to be seen close by his own +monument. Old Xanthippus, too, the father of Pericles, entombed his +dogs which swam after his galley to Salamis, when the people fled from +Athens, on the top of a cliff, which they call the dogs' tomb to this +day. + +For his general temperance, however, and self-control, Cato really +deserves the highest admiration. For when he commanded the army, he +never took for himself, and those that belonged to him, more than three +bushels of wheat for a month, and somewhat less than a bushel and a half +a day of barley for his baggage-cattle. And when he entered upon the +government of Sardinia, where his predecessors had been used to require +tents, bedding, and clothes upon the public account, and to charge the +state heavily with the cost of provisions and entertainments for a great +train of servants and friends, the difference he showed in his economy +was something incredible. There was nothing of any sort for which he put +the public to expense; he would walk, instead of taking a carriage to +visit the cities, with only one of the common town officers, who carried +his dress, and a cup to offer libation with. Yet on the other hand, +he showed most inflexible severity and strictness, in what related to +public justice, and was rigorous, and precise in what concerned the +ordinances of the commonwealth; so that the Roman government never +seemed more terrible, nor yet more mild, than under his administration. + +His very manner of speaking seemed to have such a kind of idea with +it; for it was courteous, and yet forcible; pleasant, yet overwhelming; +facetious, yet austere; sententious, and yet vehement: like Socrates, in +the description of Plato, who seemed outwardly to those about him to be +but a simple, talkative, blunt fellow; whilst at the bottom he was full +of such gravity and matter, as would even move tears, and touch the very +hearts of his auditors. Reproving on one occasion the sumptuous habits +of the Romans, he said: "It is hard to preserve a city, where a fish is +sold for more than an ox." He had a saying, also, that the Roman people +were like sheep; for they, when single, do not obey, but when altogether +in a flock, they follow their leaders: "So you," said he, "when you have +got together in a body let yourselves be guided by those whom singly you +would never think of being advised by." + +The Romans having sent three ambassadors to Bithnia, of whom one was +gouty, another had his skull trepanned, and the other seemed little +better than a fool; Cato, laughing, gave out that the Romans had sent an +embassy, which had neither feet, head, nor heart.* (*Both the Romans and +the Greeks conceived of the region of the heart, the chest, as the seat +not of emotion, nor of will and courage merely, but more especially of +judgment, deliberation, and practical sense. Thus the Greeks derived +their word for moral wisdom from Phren, the diaphragm, and the Romans by +'egregie cordatus homo' meant a wise statesman.) + +Cato also said that in his whole life he most repented of three things; +one was, that he had trusted a secret to a woman; another that he +went by water when he might have gone by land; the third, that he had +remained one whole day without doing any business of moment. + +He was a good father, an excellent husband to his wife, and an +extraordinary economist; and as he did not manage his affairs of this +kind carelessly, and as things of little moment, I think I ought to +record a little further whatever was commendable in him in these points. +He married a wife more noble than rich; being of opinion that the rich +and the high-born are equally haughty and proud; but that those of +noble blood would be more ashamed of base things, and consequently more +obedient to their husbands in all that was fit and right. A man who beat +his wife or child, laid violent hands, he said, on what was most sacred; +and a good husband he reckoned worthy of more praise than a great +senator; and he admired the ancient Socrates for nothing so much, as for +having lived a temperate and contented life with a wife who was a scold, +and children who were half-witted. + +When his son began to come to years of discretion, Cato himself would +teach him to read, although he had a servant, a very good grammarian, +called Chilo, who taught many others; but he thought not fit, as he +himself said, to have his son reprimanded by a slave, or pulled, it may +be, by the ears when found tardy in his lesson: nor would he have him +owe to a servant the obligation of so great a thing as his learning; he +himself, therefore, taught him his grammar, his law, and his gymnastic +exercises. Nor did he only show him, too, how to throw a dart, to fight +in armor, and to ride, but to box also and to endure both heat and cold, +and to swim over the most rapid and rough rivers. He says, likewise, +that he wrote histories, in large characters, with his own hand, that +so his son, without stirring out of the house, might learn to know about +his countrymen and forefathers: nor did he less abstain from speaking +any thing improper before his son, than if it had been in the presence +of the sacred virgins, called vestals. Nor would he ever go into the +bath with him; which seems indeed to have been the common custom of the +Romans. + +Thus, like an excellent work, Cato formed and fashioned his son to +virtue. + + + + +THE SACRED THEBAN BAND FROM THE LIFE OF PELOPIDAS. + +Gorgidas, according to some, first formed the Sacred Band of three +hundred chosen men, to whom, as being a guard for the citadel, the State +allowed provision, and all things necessary for exercise: and hence +they were called the city band, as citadels of old were usually called +cities. Others say that it was composed of young men attached to each +other by personal affection, and a pleasant saying of Pammenes is +current, that Homer's Nestor was not well skilled in ordering an army, +when he advised the Greeks to rank tribe and tribe, and family and +family together, that + + "So tribe might tribe, and kinsmen kinsmen aid," + +but that he should have joined lovers and their beloved. For men of the +same tribe or family little value one another when dangers press; but a +band cemented by friendship grounded upon love, is never to be broken, +and invincible; since all, ashamed to be base in sight of their beloved, +willingly rush into danger for the relief of one another. Nor can that +be wondered at; since they have more regard for their absent loving +friends than for others present; as in the instance of the man who, +when his enemy was going to kill him, earnestly requested him to run him +through the breast, that his lover might not blush to see him wounded in +the back. It is a tradition likewise, that Iolaus, who assisted Hercules +in his labors and fought at his side, was beloved of him; and Aristotle +observes, that even in his time, lovers plighted their faith at Iolaus' +tomb. It is likely, therefore, that this band was called sacred on this +account; as Plato calls a lover a divine friend. It is stated that it +was never beaten till the battle at Chaeronea: and when Philip, after +the fight, took a view of the slain, and came to the place where the +three hundred that fought his phalanx lay dead together, he was filled +with wonder, and understanding that it was the band of lovers, he shed +tears and said, "Perish any man who suspects that these men either did +or suffered any thing that was base." + + + + +FROM THE LIFE OF TITUS FLAMININUS, THE CONQUEROR OF PHILIP + +Among the songs written after the battle of Cynos Cephalas (the +Dog-heads), was the following epigram, composed by Alcaeus in mockery of +Philip, exaggerating the number of the slain: + + Naked and tombless see, O passer-by + The thirty thousand men of Thessaly, + Slain by the Aetolians and the Latin band, + That came with Titus from Italia's land: + Alas for mighty Macedon! that day, + Swift as a roe, king Philip fled away. + +Titus himself thought more highly of his liberation of Greece than of +any other of his actions, as appears by the inscription upon some silver +targets, dedicated together with his own shield, to Apollo at Delphi: + + Ye Spartan Tyndarids, twin sons of Jove, + Who in swift horsemanship have placed your love, + Titus, of great Aeneas' race, leaves this + In honor of the liberty of Greece. + +And a golden crown, also offered to Apollo, bore this inscription: + + This golden crown upon thy locks divine, + O blest Latona's son, was set to shine + By the great captain of the Aenean name + O Phoebus, grant the noble Titus fame! + +When the ambassadors of Antiochus were recounting to those of Achaea, +the various multitudes composing their royal master's forces, and ran +over a long catalogue of hard names, "I supped once," said Titus, "with +a friend, and could not forbear expostulating with him at the number +of dishes he had provided, and said I wondered where he had furnished +himself with such a variety; 'Sir,' replied he, 'to confess the truth, +it is all hog's flesh differently cooked.' And so, men of Achaea, when +you are told of Antiochus' lancers, and pikemen, and foot-guards, I +advise you not to be surprised; since in fact they are all Syrians +differently armed." + +The Chalcidians, who owed their lives to Titus, dedicated to him all the +best and most magnificent of their sacred buildings, inscriptions upon +which, like the following, may be seen to this day: THE PEOPLE DEDICATE +THIS GYMNASIUM TO TITUS AND TO HERCULES; so again: THE PEOPLE +CONSECRATE THE DELPHINIUM TO TITUS AND TO HERCULES; and what is yet more +remarkable, even in our time, a priest of Titus was formally elected +and declared; and after sacrifice and libation, they sang a set song, of +which these are the closing verses:-- + + The Roman Faith, whose aid of yore, + Our vows were offered to implore, + We worship now and evermore. + To Rome, to Titus, and to Jove, + O maidens, in the dances move. + Dances and Io-Paeans too + Unto the Roman Faith are due + O Savior Titus, and to you. + + + + +ALEXANDER THE GREAT + +It must be borne in mind that my design has been not to write histories, +but lives. And the most glorious exploits do not always furnish us with +the clearest discoveries of virtue or vice in men; sometimes a matter +of less moment, an expression or a jest, informs us better of their +characters and inclinations, than the most famous sieges, the +greatest armaments, or the bloodiest battles whatsoever. Therefore as +portrait-painters are more exact in the lines and features of the face, +in which the character is seen, than in the other parts of the body, so +I must be allowed to give my more particular attention to the marks and +indications of the souls of men, in my portrayal of their lives. + +It is agreed on by all hands, that on the father's side, Alexander +descended from Hercules by Caranus, and from Aeacus by Neoptolemus on +the mother's side. His father Philip, being in Samothrace, when he was +quite young, fell in love there with Olympias, in company with whom he +was initiated in the religious ceremonies of the country, and her father +and mother being both dead, soon after, with the consent of her brother +Arymbas, he married her. + +Alexander was born on the sixth of Hecatombaeon, the same day that the +temple of Diana at Ephesus was burnt. The statues that gave the best +representation of Alexander's person, were those of Lysippus, those +peculiarities which many of his successors afterwards and his friends +used to affect to imitate,--the inclination of his head a little on +one side towards his left shoulder, and his melting eye,--having been +expressed by this artist with great exactness. But Apelles, who drew him +with thunderbolts in his hand, made his complexion browner and darker +than it was naturally; for he was fair and of a light color, passing +into ruddiness in his face and upon his breast. His temperance, as to +all pleasures, was apparent in him in his very childhood, as he was +with much difficulty incited to them, and always used them with great +moderation; though in other things he was extremely eager and vehement, +and in his love of glory and the pursuit of it, he showed a solidity of +high spirit and magnanimity far above his age. For he neither sought nor +valued it upon every occasion, as his father Philip did (who affected to +show his eloquence almost to a degree of pedantry, and took care to have +the victories of his racing chariots at the Olympic games engraved on +his coin), but when he was asked by some about him, whether he would run +a race in the Olympic games, as he was very swift-footed, he answered, +that he would, if he might have kings to run with him. + +While he was yet very young, he entertained the ambassadors from the +king of Persia, in the absence of his father, and entering much into +conversation with them, gained so much upon them by his affability, +and the questions he asked them, which were far from being childish or +trifling (for he inquired of them the length of the ways, the nature of +the road into inner Asia, the character of their king, how he carried +himself toward his enemies, and what forces he was able to bring into +the field), that they were struck with admiration of him, and looked +upon the ability so much famed of Philip, to be nothing in comparison +with the forwardness and high purpose that appeared thus early in his +son. Whenever he heard that Philip had taken any town of importance, or +won any signal victory, instead of rejoicing at it altogether, he would +tell his companions that his father would anticipate every thing, and +leave him and them no opportunities of performing great and illustrious +actions. For being more bent upon action and glory than upon either +pleasure or riches, he esteemed all that he should receive from his +father as a diminution of his own future achievements; and would have +chosen rather to succeed to a kingdom involved in troubles and wars, +which would have afforded him frequent exercise of his courage, and a +large field of honor, than to one already flourishing and settled, where +his inheritance would be an inactive life, and the mere enjoyment of +wealth and luxury. + +The care of his education, as it might be presumed, was committed to a +great many attendants, preceptors, and teachers, over the whole of +whom Leonidas, a near kinsman of Olympias, a man of an austere temper, +presided, who did not indeed himself decline the name of what in reality +is a noble and honorable office, but in general his dignity, and +his near relationship, obtained him from other people the title of +Alexander's fosterfather and governor. But he who took upon him +the actual place and style of his "pedagogue," was Lysimachus the +Acarnanian. + +Philonicus the Thessalian brought the horse Bucephalas to Philip, +offering to sell him for thirteen talents; but when they went into the +field to try him, they found him so very vicious and unmanageable, that +he reared up when they endeavored to mount him, and would not so much as +endure the voice of any of Philip's attendants. Upon which, as they were +leading him away as wholly useless and untractable, Alexander, who stood +by, said, "What a magnificent horse they lose, for want of address and +boldness to manage him!" Philip at first took no notice of what he said, +but when he heard him repeat the same thing several times, and perceived +that he was much vexed to see the horse sent away, he said to him, "Do +you reproach those who are older than yourself, as if you knew more, and +were better able to manage him than they?" "I could manage this horse," +replied he, "better than others do." "And if you fail," said Philip, +"what will you forfeit for your rashness?" "I will pay," answered +Alexander, "the whole price of the horse." At this the whole company +fell to laughing; and as soon as the wager was settled amongst them, he +immediately ran to the horse, and taking hold of the bridle, turned +him directly towards the sun, having, it seems, observed that he was +disturbed at and afraid of the motion of his own shadow; then letting +him go forward a little, still keeping the reins in his hand, and +stroking him gently when he found him beginning to grow eager and fiery, +he let fall his upper garment softly, and with one nimble leap securely +mounted him, and when he was seated, little by little drew in the +bridle, and curbed him without either striking or spurring him. +Presently, when he found him free from all rebelliousness, and only +impatient for the course, he let him go at full speed, inciting him now +with a commanding voice, and urging him also with his heel. Philip and +his friends looked on at first in silence and anxiety for the result, +till seeing him turn at the end of his career, and come back rejoicing +and triumphing for what he had performed, they all burst out into +acclamations of applause; and his father, shedding tears, it is +said, for joy, kissed him as he came down from his horse, and in his +transport, said, "O my son, seek out a kingdom worthy of thyself, for +Macedonia is too little for thee." + +After this, considering him to be of a temper easy to be led to his +duty by reason, but by no means to be compelled, he always endeavored +to persuade rather than to command or force him to any thing; and now +looking upon the instruction and tuition of his youth to be of greater +difficulty and importance, than to be wholly trusted to the ordinary +masters in music and poetry, and the common school subjects, and to +require, as Sophocles says, + + The bridle and the rudder too, + +he sent for Aristotle, the most learned and most celebrated philosopher +of his time, and rewarded him with a munificence proportionable to and +becoming the care he took to instruct his son. For he repeopled his +native city Stagira, which he had caused to be demolished a little +before, and restored all the citizens who were in exile or slavery, +to their habitations. As a place for the pursuit of their studies and +exercises, he assigned the temple of the Nymphs, near Mieza, where, +to this very day, they show you Aristotle's stone seats, and the shady +walks which he was wont to frequent. It would appear that Alexander +received from him not only his doctrines of Morals, and of Politics, but +also something of those more abstruse and profound theories which these +philosophers, by the very names they gave them, professed to reserve for +oral communication to the initiated, and did not allow many to become +acquainted with. For when he was in Asia, and heard Aristotle had +published some treatises of that kind, he wrote to him, using very +plain language to him in behalf of philosophy, the following letter: +"Alexander to Aristotle greeting. You have not done well to publish your +books of oral doctrine, for what is there now that we excel others in, +if those things which we have been particularly instructed in be laid +open to all? For my part, I assure you, I had rather excel others in +the knowledge of what is excellent, than in the extent of my power +and dominion. Farewell." And Aristotle, soothing this passion for +pre-eminence, speaks, in his excuse for himself, of these doctrines, as +in fact both published and not published. To tell the truth, his books +on metaphysics are written in a style which makes them useless for +ordinary teaching, and instructive only in the way of memoranda, for +those who have been already conversant with that sort of learning. + +Doubtless also it was to Aristotle, that he owed the inclination he had, +not to the theory only, but also to the practice of the art of medicine. +For when any of his friends were sick, he would often prescribe for them +their course of diet, and medicines proper to their disease, as we may +find in his epistles. He was naturally a great lover of all kinds of +learning and reading; and Onesicritus informs us, that he constantly +laid Homer's Iliads, according to the copy corrected by Aristotle, +called "The casket copy," with his dagger under his pillow, declaring +that he esteemed it a perfect portable treasure of all military virtue +and knowledge. When he was in the upper Asia, being destitute of other +books, he ordered Harpalus to send him some; who furnished him with +Philistus's History, a great many of the plays of Euripides, Sophocles, +and Aeschylus, and some dithyrambic odes, composed by Telestes and +Philoxenus. + +While Philip went on his expedition against the Byzantines, he left +Alexander, then sixteen years old, his lieutenant in Macedonia, +committing the charge of his seal to him; who, not to sit idle, reduced +the rebellious Maedi, and having taken their chief town by storm, drove +out the barbarous inhabitants, and planting a colony of several nations +in their room, called the place after his own name, Alexandropolis. At +the battle of Chaeronea, which his father fought against the Greeks, +he is said to have been the first man that charged the Thebans' sacred +band. And even in my remembrance, there stood an old oak near the river +Cephisus, which people called Alexander's oak, because his tent was +pitched under it. And not far off are to be seen the graves of the +Macedonians who fell in that battle. This early bravery made Philip so +fond of him, that nothing pleased him more than to hear his subjects +call himself their general and Alexander their king. + +But later on, through an unfortunate marriage of Philip with Cleopatra, +the niece of Attalus, an estrangement grew up between them. And not long +after the brother of Alexander, Pausanias, having had an insult done to +him at the instance of Attalus and Cleopatra, when he found he could +get no reparation for his disgrace at Philip's hands, watched his +opportunity and murdered him. + +Alexander was but twenty years old when his father was murdered, and +succeeded to a kingdom beset on all sides with great dangers, and +rancorous enemies. Hearing the Thebans were in revolt, and the Athenians +in correspondence with them, he immediately marched through the pass +of Thermopylae, saying that to Demosthenes, who had called him a child +while he was in Illyria, and a youth when he was in Thessaly, he would +appear a man before the walls of Athens. + +When he came to Thebes, to show how willing he was to accept of their +repentance for what was past, he only demanded of them Phoenix and +Prothytes, the authors of the rebellion, and proclaimed a general +pardon to those who would come over to him. But when the Thebans merely +retorted by demanding Philotas and Antipater to be delivered into their +hands, he applied himself to make them feel the last extremities of war. +The Thebans defended themselves with a zeal and courage beyond their +strength, being much outnumbered by their enemies. But when the +Macedonian garrison sallied out upon them from the citadel, they were +so hemmed in on all sides, that the greater part of them fell in the +battle; the city itself being taken by storm, was sacked and razed, +Alexander's hope being that so severe an example might terrify the rest +of Greece into obedience. So that, except the priests, and a few who +had heretofore been the friends and connections of the Macedonians, the +family of the poet Pindar, and those who were known to have opposed the +public vote for the war, all the rest, to the number of thirty thousand, +were publicly sold for slaves; and it is computed that upwards of six +thousand were put to the sword. Among the other calamities that befell +the city, it happened that some Thracian soldiers having broken into +the house of a matron of high character and repute named Timoclea, their +captain, to satisfy his avarice, asked her if she knew of any money +concealed; to which she readily answered that she did, and bade him +follow her into a garden, where she showed him a well, into which, she +told him, upon the taking of the city she had thrown what she had of +most value. The greedy Thracian presently stooping down to view the +place where he thought the treasure lay, she came behind him, and pushed +him into the well, and then flung great stones in upon him, till she +had killed him. After which, when the soldiers led her away bound to +Alexander, her very mien and gait showed her to be a woman of dignity +and high mind, not betraying the least sign of fear or astonishment. +And when the king asked her who she was, she said, "I am the sister +of Theagenes, who fought at the battle of Chaeronea with your father, +Philip, and fell there in command for the liberty of Greece." Alexander +was so surprised, both at what she had done, and what she said, that +he could not chose but give her and her children their freedom to go +whither they pleased. + +After this he received the Athenians into favor. Whether it were, like +the lion, that his passion was now satisfied, or that after an example +of extreme cruelty, he had a mind to appear merciful, it happened well +for the Athenians. Certain it is, too, that in after-time he often +repented of his severity to the Thebans, and his remorse had such +influence on his temper as to make him ever after less rigorous to all +others. And it was observed that whatsoever any Theban, who had the +good fortune to survive this victory, asked of him, he was sure to grant +without the least difficulty. + +Soon after, the Greeks being assembled at the Isthmus, declared their +resolution of joining with Alexander in the war against the Persians, +and proclaimed him their general. While he stayed here, many public +ministers and philosophers came from all parts to visit him, and +congratulated him on his election, but contrary to his expectation, +Diogenes of Sinope, who then was living at Corinth, thought so little +of him, that instead of coming to compliment him, he never so much as +stirred out of the suburb called the Cranium, where Alexander ran across +him lying at full length in the sun. When he saw so much company near +him, he raised himself a little, and vouchsafed to look upon Alexander; +and when he kindly asked him whether he wanted any thing, "Yes," said +he, "I would have you stand from between me and the sun." Alexander was +so struck at this answer, and surprised at the greatness of the man, +who had taken so little notice of him, that as he went away, he told his +followers who were laughing at the moroseness of the philosopher, that +if he were not Alexander, he would choose to be Diogenes. + +His army consisted of about thirty thousand foot, and four thousand +horse; and Aristobulus says, he had not a fund of over seventy talents +for their pay, nor more than thirty days' provision, if we may believe +Duris. However narrow the beginnings of so vast an undertaking might +seem to be, yet he would not embark his army until he had informed +himself particularly what means his friends had to enable them to follow +him, and supplied what they wanted, by giving good farms to some, +a village to one, and the revenue of some hamlet or harbor town to +another. So that at last he had portioned out or engaged almost all the +royal property; which giving Perdiccas an occasion to ask him what he +would leave himself, he answered, "My hopes." "Your soldiers," replied +Perdiccas, "will be your partners in those," and refused to accept of +the estate he had assigned him. + +With such vigorous resolutions, and his mind thus disposed, he passed +the Hellespont, and at Troy sacrificed to Minerva, and honored the +memory of the heroes who were buried there, with solemn libations; +especially Achilles, whose gravestone he anointed, and with his friends, +as the ancient custom is, ran naked about his sepulchre, and crowned it +with garlands, declaring how happy he esteemed him, in having, while he +lived, so faithful a friend, and when he was dead, so famous a poet to +proclaim his actions. While he was viewing the rest of the antiquities +and curiosities of the place, being told he might see Paris's harp, if +he pleased, he said, he thought it not worth looking at, but he should +be glad to see that of Achilles, to which he used to sing the glories +and great actions of brave men. + +In the meantime Darius's captains having collected large forces, were +encamped on the further bank of the river Granicus, and it was necessary +to fight, as it were, in the gate of Asia for an entrance into it. And +when Parmenio advised him not to attempt anything that day, because it +was late, he told him that he should disgrace the Hellespont, should he +fear the Granicus. And so without saying more, he immediately took the +river with thirteen troops of horse, and advanced against whole showers +of darts thrown from the steep opposite side, which was covered with +armed multitudes of the enemy's horse and foot, notwithstanding the +disadvantage of the ground and the rapidity of the stream; so that the +action seemed to have more of frenzy and desperation in it, than of +prudent conduct. However, he persisted obstinately to gain the passage, +and at last with much ado making his way up the banks, which were +extremely muddy and slippery, he had instantly to join in a mere +confused hand-to-hand combat with the enemy, before he could draw up his +men, who were still passing over, into any order. For the enemy pressed +upon him with loud and warlike outcries; and charging horse against +horse, with their lances, after they had broken and spent these, they +fell to it with their swords. And Alexander, being easily known by his +buckler, and a large plume of white feathers on each side of his helmet, +was attacked on all sides, yet escaped without a wound, though his +cuirass was pierced by a javelin in one of the joinings. And Rhoesaces +and Spithridates, two Persian commanders, falling upon him at once, he +avoided one of them, and struck at Rhoesaces, who had a good cuirass +on, with such force, that his spear breaking in his hand, he was glad to +betake himself to his dagger. While they were thus engaged, Spithridates +came up on the other side of him, and raising himself upon his horse, +gave him such a blow with his battle-axe on the helmet, that he cut off +the crest of it, with one of his plumes, and the helmet was only just so +far strong enough to save him, that the edge of the weapon touched the +hair of his head. But as he was about to repeat his stroke, Clitus, +called the black Clitus, prevented him, by running him through the body +with his spear. At the same time Alexander despatched Rhoesaces with +his sword. While the horse were thus dangerously engaged, the Macedonian +phalanx passed the river, and the foot on each side advanced to fight. +But the enemy hardly sustaining the first onset, soon gave ground and +fled, all but the mercenary Greeks, who, making a stand upon a rising +ground, desired quarter, which Alexander, guided rather by passion than +judgment, refused to grant, and charging them himself first, had his +horse (not Bucephalas, but another) killed under him. And this obstinacy +of his to cut off these experienced, desperate men, cost him the lives +of more of his own soldiers than all the battle before, besides those +who were wounded. The Persians lost in this battle twenty thousand foot, +and two thousand five hundred horse. On Alexander's side, Aristobulus +says there were not over four and thirty missing, of whom nine were +foot-soldiers; and in memory of them he caused as many statues of +brass, of Lysippus's making, to be erected. And that the Greeks might +participate in the honor of his victory, he sent a portion of the spoils +home to them, particularly to the Athenians three hundred bucklers, and +upon all the rest he ordered this inscription to be set: "Alexander the +son of Philip, and the Greeks, except the Lacedaemonians, won these from +the barbarians who inhabit Asia." All the plate and purple garments, and +other things of the same kind that he took from the Persians, except a +very small quantity which he reserved for himself, he sent as a present +to his mother. + +This battle presently made a great change of affairs to Alexander's +advantage. For Sardis itself, the chief seat of the barbarians' power +in the maritime provinces, and many other considerable places, were +surrendered to him; only Halicarnassus and Miletus stood out, which he +took by force, together with the territory about them. After which +he was a little unsettled in his opinion how to proceed. Sometimes he +thought it best to find out Darius as soon as he could, and put all +to the hazard of a battle; at another time he looked upon it as a more +prudent course to make an entire reduction of the sea-coast, and not +to seek the enemy till he had first exercised his power here and made +himself secure of the resources of these provinces. While he was thus +deliberating what to do, it happened that a spring of water near the +city of Xanthus in Lycia, of its own accord swelled over its banks, +and threw up a copper plate upon the margin, in which was engraven in +ancient characters, that the time would come, when the Persian empire +should be destroyed by the Greeks. Encouraged by this incident, he +proceeded to reduce the maritime parts of Cilicia and Phoenicia, and +passed his army along the sea-coasts of Pamphylia with such expedition +that many historians have described and extolled it with a height of +admiration, as if it were no less than a miracle, and an extraordinary +effect of divine favor, that the waves which usually come rolling in +violently from the main, and hardly ever leave so much as a narrow beach +under the steep, broken cliffs at any time uncovered, should on a sudden +retire to afford him passage. Menander, in one of his comedies, alludes +to this marvel when he says, + + Was Alexander ever favored more? + Each man I wish for meets me at the door, + And should I ask for passage through the sea, + The sea, I doubt not, would retire for me. + +Then he subdued the Pisidians who made head against him, and conquered +the Phrygians, at whose chief city Gordium, which is said to be the seat +of the ancient Midas, he saw the famous chariot fastened with cords +made of the rind of the cornel-tree, about which the inhabitants had a +tradition, that for him who should untie it, was reserved the empire +of the world. Most authors tell the story of Alexander, finding himself +unable to untie the knot, the ends of which were secretly twisted round +and folded up within it, cut it asunder with his sword. But Aristobulus +tells us it was easy for him to undo it, by only pulling the pin out +of the pole, to which the yoke was tied, and afterwards drawing off the +yoke itself from below. + +Darius was by this time upon his march from Susa, very confident, in the +number of his men, which amounted to six hundred thousand. But Alexander +was detained in Cilicia by a sickness, which some say he contracted from +his fatigues, others from bathing in the river Cydnus, whose waters were +exceedingly cold. None of his physicians would venture to give him any +remedies, they thought his case so desperate, and were so afraid of the +suspicions and ill-will of the Macedonians if they should fail in the +cure; till Philip, the Acarnanian, seeing how critical his case was, but +relying on his own well-known friendship for him, resolved to try the +last efforts of his art, and rather hazard his own credit and life, +than suffer him to perish for want of physic, which he confidently +administered to him, encouraging him to take it boldly, if he desired +a speedy recovery, in order to prosecute the war. At this very time, +Parmenio wrote to Alexander from the camp, bidding him have a care of +Philip, as one who was bribed by Darius to kill him, with great sums of +money, and a promise of his daughter in marriage. When he had perused +the letter, he put it under his pillow, without so much as showing it +to any of his most intimate friends, and when Philip came in with the +potion, he took it with great cheerfulness and assurance, giving him +meantime the letter to read. This was a spectacle well worth being +present at, to see Alexander take the draught, and Philip read the +letter at the same time, and then turn and look upon one another, but +with different sentiments; for Alexander's looks were cheerful and open, +to show his kindness to and confidence in his physician, while the other +was full of surprise and alarm at the accusation, appealing to the gods +to witness his innocence, sometimes lifting up his hands to heaven, and +then throwing himself down by the bedside, and beseeching Alexander to +lay aside all fear, and follow his directions without apprehension. For +the medicine at first worked so strongly as to drive, as it were, the +vital forces into the interior; he lost his speech, and falling into a +swoon, had scarcely any sense or pulse left. However, in a very short +time, by Philip's means, his health and strength returned, and he showed +himself in public to the Macedonians, who were in continual fear and +dejection until they saw him abroad again. + +Darius, in the meantime marched into Cilicia, at the same time that +Alexander advanced into Syria to meet him; and missing one another in +the night, they both turned back again. Alexander, greatly pleased with +the event, made all the haste he could to fight in the defiles, and +Darius to recover his former ground, and draw his army out of so +disadvantageous a place. For now he began to see his error in engaging +himself too far in a country in which the sea, the mountains, and the +river Pinarus running through the midst of it, would force him to divide +his forces, render his horse almost unserviceable, and only cover and +support the weakness of the enemy. Fortune was not kinder to Alexander +in the choice of the ground, than he was careful to improve it to his +advantage. For being much inferior in numbers, so far from allowing +himself to be outflanked, he stretched his right wing much further out +than the left wing of his enemies, and fighting there himself in the +very foremost ranks, put the barbarians to flight. In this battle he was +wounded in the thigh, Chares says by Darius, with whom he fought hand to +hand. But in the account which he gave Antipater of the battle, +though he owns he was wounded in the thigh with a sword, though not +dangerously, he does not mention who it was that wounded him. + +Nothing was wanting to complete this victory, in which he overthrew +above a hundred and ten thousand of his enemies, but the taking of the +person of Darius, who escaped very narrowly by flight. However, having +captured his chariot and his bow, he returned from pursuing him, and +found his own men busy in pillaging the barbarians' camp, which +(though to disburden themselves, they had left most of their baggage +at Damascus) was exceedingly rich. But Darius's tent, which was full of +splendid furniture, and quantities of gold and silver, they reserved +for Alexander himself, who after he had put off his arms, went to bathe +himself, saying, "Let us now cleanse ourselves from the toils of war +in the bath of Darius." "Not so," replied one of his followers, "but in +Alexander's rather; for the property of the conquered is, and should be +called, the conqueror's." Here, when he beheld the bathing vessels, the +water-pots, the pans, and the ointment boxes, all of gold, curiously +wrought, and smelt the fragrant odors with which the whole place was +exquisitely perfumed, and from thence passed into a pavilion of great +size and height, where the couches and tables and preparations for an +entertainment were perfectly magnificent, he turned to those about him +and said, "This, it seems, is royalty." + +But as he was going to supper, word was brought him that Darius's mother +and wife and two unmarried daughters, being taken among the rest of the +prisoners, were all in mourning and sorrow upon the sight of his chariot +and bow, imagining him to be dead. After a little he sent Leonnatus to +them, to let them know Darius was not dead, and that they need not fear +any harm from Alexander, who made war upon him only for dominion. But +the noblest and most royal part of their usage was, that he treated +these illustrious prisoners according to their virtue and character, not +suffering them to hear, or receive, or so much as to apprehend any thing +that was unbecoming. So that they seemed rather lodged in some temple, +or some holy chambers, where they enjoyed their privacy sacred and +uninterrupted, than in the camp of an enemy. Yet Darius's wife was +accounted the most beautiful princess then living, as her husband the +tallest and handsomest man of his time, and the daughters were not +unworthy of their parents. + +In his diet Alexander was most temperate, as appears, omitting many +other circumstances, by what he said to Ada, whom he adopted, with the +title of mother, and afterwards created queen of Caria. For when she out +of kindness sent him every day many curious dishes, and sweetmeats, +and would have furnished him with some cooks and pastry-men, who were +thought to have great skill, he told her he wanted none of them, his +preceptor, Leonidas, having already given him the best, which were "a +night march to prepare for breakfast, and a moderate breakfast to create +an appetite for supper." Leonidas also, he added, used to open and +search the furniture of his chamber, and his wardrobe, to see if his +mother had left him any thing that was delicate or superfluous. He was +much less addicted to wine than was generally believed; that which gave +people occasion to think so of him was, that when he had nothing else to +do, he loved to sit long and talk, rather than drink, and over every cup +hold a long conversation. For when his affairs called upon him, he would +not be detained, as other generals often were, either by wine, or sleep, +nuptial solemnities, spectacles, or any other diversion whatsoever; a +convincing argument of which is, that in the short time he lived, +he accomplished so many and so great actions. When he was free from +employment, after he was up, and had sacrificed to the gods, he used to +sit down to breakfast, and then spend the rest of the day in hunting, +or writing memoirs, giving decisions on some military questions, or +reading. In marches that required no great haste, he would practice +shooting as he went along, or to mount a chariot, and alight from it +in full speed. Sometimes, for sport's sake, as his journals tell us, he +would hunt foxes and go fowling. When he came in for the evening, after +he had bathed and was anointed, he would call for his bakers and chief +cooks, to know if they had his dinner ready. He never cared to dine +till it was pretty late and beginning to be dark, and as wonderfully +circumspect at meals that every one who sat with him should be served +alike and with proper attention; and his love of talking, as was said +before, made him delight to sit long at his wine. And no prince's +conversation was ever so agreeable, yet he would at times fall into a +temper of ostentation and soldierly boasting, which gave his flatterers +a great advantage to ride him, and made his better friends very uneasy. +After such an entertainment, he was wont to bathe, and then perhaps +he would sleep till noon, and sometimes all day long. He was so very +temperate in his eating, that when any rare fish or fruits were sent +him, he would distribute them among his friends, and often reserve +nothing for himself. His table, however, was always magnificent, the +expense of it still increasing with his good fortune, till it amounted +to ten thousand drachmas a day, to which sum he limited it, and beyond +this he would suffer none to lay out in any entertainment where he +himself was the guest. + +Among the treasures and other booty that was taken from Darius, there +was a very precious casket, which being brought to Alexander for a great +rarity, he asked those about him what they thought fittest to be laid up +in it; and when they had delivered their various opinions, he told them +he should keep Homer's Iliad in it. Nor did Homer prove an unprofitable +companion to him in his expeditions. For, after he had become master of +Egypt he determined to found a great and populous city, and give to it +his own name. And when he had measured and staked out the ground with +the advice of the best architects, he chanced one night in his sleep to +see a wonderful vision; a gray-headed old man, of a venerable aspect, +appeared to stand by him, and pronounce these verses: + + An island lies, where loud the billows roar, + Pharos they call it, on the Egyptian shore. + +Alexander upon this immediately rose up and went to Pharos, which, at +that time, was an island lying a little above the Canobic mouth of the +river Nile, though it has now been joined to the main land by a mole. +As soon as he saw the commodious situation of the place, it being a +long neck of land, stretching like an isthmus between large lagoons and +shallow waters on one side, and the sea on the other, the latter at the +end of it making a spacious harbor, he said, Homer, besides his other +excellences, was a very good architect, and ordered the plan of a city +to be drawn out answerable to the place. To do which, for want of chalk, +the soil being black, they laid out their lines with flour, taking in +a pretty large compass of ground in a semicircular figure, and drawing +into the inside of the circumference equal straight lines from each end, +thus giving it something of the form of a cloak or cape. While he was +pleasing himself with his design, on a sudden an infinite number of +great birds of several kinds, rising like a black cloud out of the river +and the lake, came and devoured every morsel of the flour that had been +used in setting out the lines; at which omen even Alexander himself was +troubled, till the augurs restored his confidence again by telling him +it was a sign that the city he was about to build would not only abound +in all things within itself, but also be the nurse and feeder of many +nations. + +The great battle of all that was fought with Darius, was not, as most +writers tell us, at Arbela, but at Gaugamela, which, in their language, +signifies the camel's house, forasmuch as one of their ancient kings +having escaped the pursuit of his enemies on a swift camel, in gratitude +to his beast settled him at this place, with an allowance of certain +villages and rents for his maintenance. It came to pass that in the +month Boedromion, about the beginning of the Feast of Mysteries at +Athens, there was an eclipse of the moon, the eleventh night after +which, the two armies being now in view of one another, Darius kept +his men in arms, and by torchlight took a general review of them. But +Alexander, while his soldiers slept, spent the night before his tent +with his diviner Aristander, performing certain mysterious ceremonies, +and sacrificing to the god Fear. + +In the meanwhile the oldest of his commanders, and chiefly Parmenio, +when they beheld all the plain between Niphates and the Gordyaean +mountains shining with the lights and fires which were made by the +barbarians, and heard the uncertain and confused sound of voices out of +their camp, like the distant roaring of a vast ocean, were so amazed +at the thoughts of such a multitude, that after some conference among +themselves, they concluded it an enterprise too difficult and hazardous +for them to engage so numerous an enemy in the day, and therefore +meeting the king as he came from sacrificing, besought him to attack +Darius by night, that the darkness might conceal the danger of the +ensuing battle. To this he gave them the celebrated answer, "I will not +steal a victory," which, though some at the time thought it a boyish and +inconsiderate speech, as if he played with danger, others regarded as an +evidence that the confided in his present condition, and acted on a true +judgment of the future, not wishing to leave Darius, in case he were +worsted, the pretext of trying his fortune again, which he might suppose +himself to have, if he could impute his overthrow to the disadvantage of +the night, as he did before to the mountains, the narrow passages, and +the sea. For while he had such numerous forces and large dominions still +remaining, it was not any want of men or arms that could induce him +to give up the war, but only the loss of all courage and hope upon the +conviction of an undeniable and manifest defeat. + +After they were gone from him with this answer, he laid himself down +in his tent and slept the rest of the night more soundly than was usual +with him, to the astonishment of the commanders. Not only before the +battle, but in the height of the danger, he showed himself great, and +manifested the self-possession of a just foresight and confidence. For +the battle for some time fluctuated and was dubious. The left wing, +where Parmenio commanded, was so impetuously charged by the Bactrian +horse that it was disordered and forced to give ground, at the same time +that Mazaeus had sent a detachment around to fall upon those who guarded +the baggage, which so disturbed Parmenio, that he sent messengers to +acquaint Alexander that the camp and baggage would be all lost unless he +immediately relieved the rear by a considerable reinforcement drawn out +of the front. This message being brought him just as he was giving the +signal to those about him for the onset, he bade them tell Parmenio that +he must have surely lost the use of his reason, and had forgotten, +in his alarm, that soldiers, if victorious, become masters of their +enemies' baggage; and if defeated, instead of taking care of their +wealth or their slaves, have nothing more to do but to fight gallantly +and die with honor. When he had said this, he put on his helmet, having +the rest of his arms on before he came out of his tent, which were +a coat of the Sicilian make, girt close about him, and over that a +breastpiece of thickly quilted linen, which was taken among other booty +at the battle of Issus. The helmet, which was made by Theophilus, though +of iron, was so well wrought and polished, that it was as bright as the +most refined silver. To this was fitted a gorget of the same metal, set +with precious stones His sword, which was the weapon he most used +in fight, was given him by the king of the Citieans, and was of an +admirable temper and lightness. The belt which he also wore in all +engagements, was of much richer workmanship than the rest of his armor. +It was the work of the ancient Helicon, and had been presented to him +by the Rhodians, as a mark of their respect to him. So long as he +was engaged in drawing up his men, or riding about to give orders or +directions, or to view them, he spared Bucephalas, who was now growing +old, and made use of another horse; but when he was actually to fight, +he sent for him again, and as soon as he was mounted, commenced the +attack. + +He made the longest address that day to the Thessalians and other +Greeks, who answered him with loud shouts desiring him to lead them on +against the barbarians, upon which he shifted his javelin into his left +hand, and with his right lifted up towards heaven, besought the gods, +as Callisthenes tells us, that if he was of a truth the son of Jupiter, +they would be pleased to assist and strengthen the Grecians. At the same +time the augur Aristander, who had a white mantle about him, and a crown +of gold on his head, rode by and showed them an eagle that soared just +over Alexander, and directed his flight towards the enemy; which +so animated the beholders, that after mutual encouragements and +exhortations, the cavalry charged at full speed, and were followed in a +mass by the whole phalanx of the foot. But before they could well come +to blows with the first ranks, the barbarians shrunk back, and were +hotly pursued by Alexander, who drove those that fled before him into +the middle of the battle, where Darius himself was in person, whom he +saw from a distance over the foremost ranks, conspicuous in the midst +of his lifeguard, a tall and fine-looking man, drawn in a lofty chariot, +defended by an abundance of the best cavalry who stood close in order +about it, ready to receive the enemy. But Alexander's approach was so +terrible, forcing those who gave back upon those who yet maintained +their ground, that he beat down and dispersed them almost all. Only a +few of the bravest and valiantest opposed the pursuit, who were slain +in their king's presence, falling in heaps upon one another, and in the +very pangs of death striving to catch hold of the horses. Darius now +seeing all was lost, that those who were placed in front to defend +him were broken and beaten back upon him, that he could not turn or +disengage his chariot without great difficulty, the wheels being clogged +and entangled among the dead bodies, which lay in such heaps as not only +stopped, but almost covered the horses, and made them rear and grow so +unruly, that the frighted charioteer could govern them no longer, in +this extremity was glad to quit his chariot and his arms, and mounting, +it is said, upon a mare that had been taken from her foal, betook +himself to flight. + +This battle being thus over, seemed to put a period to the Persian +empire; and Alexander, who was now proclaimed king of Asia, returned +thanks to the gods in magnificent sacrifices, and rewarded his friends +and followers with great sums of money, and places, and governments of +provinces. + +From here he marched through the province of Babylon, which immediately +submitted to him, and was much surprised at the sight in one place where +fire issues in a continuous stream, like a spring of water, out of a +cleft in the earth, and the stream of naphtha, which, not far from this +spot, flows out so abundantly as to form a sort of lake. This naphtha, +in other respects resembling bitumen, is so subject to take fire, that +before it touches the flame, it will kindle at the very light that +surrounds it, and often inflame the intermediate air also. The +barbarians, to show the power and nature of it, sprinkled the street +that led to the king's lodgings with little drops of it, and when it was +almost night, stood at the further end with torches, which being applied +to the moistened places, the first at once taking fire, instantly, as +quick as a man could think of it, it caught from one end to another, in +such a manner that the whole street was one continuous flame. + +Alexander, in his own letters, has given us an account of his war with +Porus. He says that two armies were separated by the river Hydaspes, +on whose opposite bank Porus continually kept his elephants in order of +battle, with their heads towards their enemies, to guard the passage; +that he, on the other hand, made every day a great noise and clamor in +his camp, to dissipate the apprehensions of the barbarians; that one +stormy, dark night he passed the river, at a distance from the place +where the enemy lay, into a little island, with part of his foot, and +the best of his horse. Here there fell a most violent storm of rain +accompanied with lightning and whirlwinds, and although he saw some of +his men burnt and dying with the lightning, he nevertheless quitted the +island and made over to the other side. Here, apprehending the multitude +of the enemy, and to avoid the shock of their elephants, he divided his +forces, and attacked their left wing himself, commanding Coenus to fall +upon the right, which was performed with good success. By this means +both wings being broken, the enemies fell back in their retreat upon the +centre, and crowded in upon their elephants. There rallying, they fought +a hand to hand battle, and it was the eighth hour of the day before they +were entirely defeated. + +Almost all the historians agree in relating that Porus was four cubits +and a span high, and that when he was upon his elephant, which was +of the largest size, his stature and bulk were so answerable, that he +appeared to be proportionably mounted, as a horseman on his horse. This +elephant, during the whole battle, gave many singular proofs of sagacity +and of particular care of the king, whom as long as he was strong and in +a condition to fight, he defended with great courage, repelling those +who set upon him; and as soon as he perceived him overpowered with his +numerous wounds and the multitude of darts that were thrown at him, to +prevent his falling off, he softly knelt down and began to draw out the +darts with his proboscis. When Porus was taken prisoner, and Alexander +asked him how he expected to be used, he answered, "As a king." And +Alexander, accordingly, not only suffered him to govern his own kingdom +as satrap under himself, but gave him also the additional territory of +various independent tribes whom he subdued. + +Some little time after the battle with Porus, Bucephalas died, as most +of the authorities state, under cure of his wounds, or as Onesicritus +says, of fatigue and age, being thirty years old. Alexander was no +less concerned at his death, than if he had lost an old companion or an +intimate friend, and built a city, which he named Bucephalia, in memory +of him, on the bank of the river Hydaspes. + +Aristobulus tells us that Alexander died of a raging fever, having, in a +violent thirst, taken a copious draught of wine, upon which he fell into +delirium, and died on the thirtieth day of the month Daesius. + +But the journals give the following record. On the eighteenth of the +month, he slept in the bathing-room on account of his fever. The next +day he bathed and removed into his chamber, and spent his time in +playing at dice with Medius. In the evening he bathed and sacrificed, +and ate freely, and had the fever on him through the night. On the +twenty-fourth he was much worse, and was carried out of his bed to +assist at the sacrifices, and gave order that the general officers +should wait within the court, whilst the inferior officers kept watch +without doors. On the twenty-fifth he was removed to his palace on the +other side the river, where he slept a little, but his fever did not +abate, and when the generals came into his chamber, he was speechless, +and continued so the following day. The Macedonians, therefore, +supposing he was dead, came with great clamors to the gates, and menaced +his friends so that they were forced to admit them, and let them all +pass through unarmed along by his bedside. The same day Python and +Seleucus were despatched to the temple of Serapis to inquire if they +should bring Alexander thither, and were answered by the god, that they +should not remove him. On the twenty-eighth, in the evening, he died. + + + + +THE DEATH OF CAESAR + +The place destined for the scene of this murder, in which the senate met +that day, was the same in which Pompey's statue stood, and was one of +the edifices which Pompey had raised and dedicated with his theatre to +the use of the public, plainly showing that there was something of a +supernatural influence which guided the action, and ordered it to that +particular place. Cassius, just before the act, is said to have looked +towards Pompey's statue, and silently implored his assistance, though +he had been inclined to the doctrines of Epicurus. But this occasion +and the instant danger, carried him away out of all his reasonings, and +filled him for the time with a sort of inspiration. As for Antony, who +was firm to Caesar, and a strong man, Brutus Albinus kept him outside +the house, and delayed him with a long conversation contrived on +purpose. When Caesar entered, the senate stood up to show their respect +to him, and of Brutus's confederates, some came about his chair and +stood behind it, others met him, pretending to add their petitions to +those of Tillius Cimber, in behalf of his brother, who was in exile; +and they followed him with their joint supplications till he came to his +seat. When he had sat down, he refused to comply with their requests, +and upon their urging him further, began to reproach them severally for +their importunities, when Tillius, laying hold of his robe with both +his hands, pulled it down from his neck, which was the signal for the +assault. Casca gave him the first cut, in the neck, which was not mortal +nor dangerous, coming, as it did, from one who at the beginning of +such a bold action was probably very much disturbed. Caesar immediately +turned about, and laid his hand upon the dagger and kept hold of it. And +both of them at the same time cried out, he that received the blow, in +Latin, "Vile Casca, what does this mean?" and he that gave it, in Greek, +to his brother, "Brother, help!" Upon this first onset, those who were +not privy to the design were astounded, and their horror and amazement +at what they saw were so great, that they durst not fly nor assist +Caesar, nor so much as speak a word. But those who came prepared for the +business inclosed him on every side, with their naked daggers in their +hands. Which way soever he turned, he met with blows, and saw their +swords leveled at his face and eyes, and was encompassed, like a wild +beast in the toils, on every side. For it had been agreed that they +should each make a thrust at him, and flesh themselves with his blood; +for which reason Brutus also gave him one stab in the groin. Some say +that he fought and resisted all the rest, shifting his body to avoid +the blows, and calling out for help, but that when he saw Brutus's sword +drawn, he covered his face with his robe and submitted, letting himself +fall, whether it were by chance, or that he was pushed in that direction +by his murderers, at the foot of the pedestal on which Pompey's statue +stood, and which was thus wet with his blood. So that Pompey himself +seemed to have presided, as it were, over the revenge done upon his +adversary, who lay here at his feet, and breathed out his soul through +his multitude of wounds, for they say he received three and twenty. And +the conspirators themselves were many of them wounded by each other, +whilst they all leveled their blows at the same person. + +When Caesar's will was opened, and it was found that he had left a +considerable legacy to each one of the Roman citizens, and when his body +was seen carried through the marketplace all mangled with wounds, +the multitude could no longer contain themselves within the bounds of +tranquility and order, but heaped together a pile of benches, bars, and +tables, upon which they placed the corpse, and setting fire to it, burnt +it on them. Then they took brands from the pile, and ran some to fire +the conspirators, others up and down the city, to find out the men and +tear them to pieces, but met, however, with none of them, they having +taken effectual care to secure themselves. + +Caesar died in his fifty-sixth year, not having survived Pompey above +four years. That empire and power which he had pursued through the +whole course of his life with so much hazard, he did at last with much +difficulty compass, but reaped no other fruits from it than the empty +name and invidious glory. But the great genius which attended him +through his lifetime, even after his death remained as the avenger +of his murder, pursuing through every sea and land all those who were +concerned in it, and suffering none to escape, but reaching all who in +any sort or kind were either actually engaged in the fact, or by their +counsels any way promoted it. + +The most remarkable of mere human coincidences was that which befell +Cassius, who, when he was defeated at Philippi, killed himself with the +same dagger which he had made use of against Caesar. The most signal +preternatural appearances were the great comet, which shone very bright +for seven nights after Caesar's death, and then disappeared, and the +dimness of the sun, whose orb continued pale and dull for the whole of +that year, never showing its ordinary radiance at its rising, and giving +but a feeble heat. The air consequently was damp and gross, for want of +stronger rays to open and rarefy it. The fruits, for that reason, never +properly ripened, and began to wither and fall off for want of heat, +before they were fully formed. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Boys' and Girls' Plutarch, by Plutarch + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' PLUTARCH *** + +***** This file should be named 2484.txt or 2484.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/8/2484/ + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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White, LL.D. +Head-Master Berkeley School + + + + +Table of Contents + + +Life of Theseus +Life of Romulus +Comparison of Theseus and Romulus +Life of Lycurgus +Life of Solon +Life of Themistocles +Life of Camillus +Life of Pericles +Life of Demosthenes +Life of Cicero +Comparison of Demosthenes and Cicero +Life of Alcibiades +Life of Coriolanus +Comparison of Alcibiades and Coriolanus +Life of Aristides +Life of Cimon +Life of Pompey +The Engines of Archimedes; from the Life of Marcellus +Description of Cleopatra; from the Life of Antony +Anecdotes from the Life of Agesilaus +The Brothers; from the Life of Timoleon +The Wound of Philopoemen +A Roman Triumph; from the Life of Paulus Aemilius +The Noble Character of Caius Fabricius; from the Life of Pyrrhus +From the Life of Quintus Fabius Maximus +The Cruelty of Lucius Cornelius Sylla +The Luxury of Lucullus +From the Life of Sertorius the Roman, who endeavored to establish +a separate Government for himself in Spain +The Scroll; from the Life of Lysander +The Character of Marcus Cato +The Sacred Theban Band; from the Life of Pelopidas +From the Life of Titus Flamininus, Conqueror of Philip +Life of Alexander the Great +The Death of Caesar + + + + +Theseus + +As geographers crowd into the edges of their maps parts of the +world which they do not know about, adding notes in the margin to +the effect that beyond this lies nothing but sandy deserts full of +wild beasts, unapproachable bogs, Seythian ice, or frozen sea, so, +in this great work of mine, in which I have compared the lives of +the greatest men with one another, after passing through those +periods which probable reasoning can reach to and real history +find a footing in, I might very well say of those that are farther +off, Beyond this there is nothing but prodigies and fictions; the +only inhabitants are the poets and inventors of fables; there is +no credit, or certainty any farther. Yet, after publishing an +account of Lycurgus the lawgiver and Numa the king, I thought I +might, not without reason, ascend as high as to Romulus, being +brought by my history so near to his time. Considering therefore +with myself + +Whom shall I set so great a man face to face? +Or whom oppose? Who's equal to the place? + +(as Aeschylus expresses it), I found none so fit as he who peopled +the beautiful and far-famed city of Athens, to be set in +opposition with the father of the invincible and renowned city of +Rome. Let us hope that Fable may, in what shall follow, so submit +to the purifying processes of Reason as to take the character of +exact history. We shall beg that we may meet with candid readers, +and such as will receive with indulgence the stories of antiquity. + +Theseus seemed to me to resemble Romulus in many particulars. Both +of them had the repute of being sprung from the gods. + +Both warriors; that by all the world's allowed. + +Both of them united with strength of body an equal vigor of mind; +and of the two most famous cities of the world, the one built in +Rome, and the other made Athens be inhabited. Neither of them +could avoid domestic misfortunes nor jealousy at home; but toward +the close of their lives are both of them said to have incurred +great odium with their countrymen, if, that is, we may take the +stories least like poetry as our guide to truth. + +Theseus was the son of Aegeus and Aethra. His lineage, by his +father's side, ascends as high as to Erechtheus and the first +inhabitants of Attica. By his mother's side, he was descended of +Pelops, who was the most powerful of all the kings of +Peloponnesus. + +When Aegeus went from the home of Aethra in Troezen to Athens, he +left a sword and a pair of shoes, hiding them under a great stone +that had a hollow in it exactly fitting them; and went away making +her only privy to it, and commanding her that, if, when their son +came to man's estate, he should be able to lift up the stone and +take away what he had left there, she should send him away to him +with those things with all secrecy, and with injunctions to him as +much as possible to conceal his journey from everyone; for he +greatly feared the Pallantidae, who were continually mutinying +against him, and despised him for his want of children, they +themselves being fifty brothers, all sons of Pallas, the brother +of Aegeus. + +When Aethra's son was born, some say that he was immediately named +Theseus, from the tokens which his father had put under the stone; +others that he received his name afterwards at Athens, when Aegeus +acknowledged him for his son. He was brought up under his +grandfather Pittheus, and had a tutor and attendant set over him +named Connidas, to whom the Athenians, even to this time, the day +before the feast that is dedicated to Theseus, sacrifice a ram, +giving this honor to his memory upon much juster grounds than to +Silanio and Parrhasius, for making pictures and statues of +Theseus. There being then a custom for the Grecian youth, upon +their first coming to a man's estate, to go to Delphi and offer +firstfruits of their hair to the god, Theseus also went thither, +and a place there to this day is yet named Thesea, as it is said, +from him. He clipped only the fore part of his head, as Homer says +the Abantes did. And this sort of tonsure was from him named +Theseis. The Abantes first used it, not in imitation of the +Arabians, as some imagine, nor of the Mysians, but because they +were a warlike people, and used to close fighting, and above all +other nations, accustomed to engage hand to hand; as Archilochus +testifies in these verses: + +Slings shall not whirl, nor many arrows fly, +When on the plain the battle joins; but swords, +Man against man, the deadly conflict try, +As is the practice of Euboea's lords +Skilled with the spear.- + +Therefore, that they might not give their enemies a hold by their +hair, they cut it in this manner. They write also that this was +the reason why Alexander gave command to his captains that all the +beards of the Macedonians should be shaved, as being the readiest +hold for an enemy. + +Aethra for some time concealed the true parentage of Theseus, and +a report was given out by Pittheus that he was the son of Neptune; +for the Troezenians pay Neptune the highest veneration. He is +their tutelar god, to him they offer all their firstfruits, and in +his honor stamp their money with a trident. + +Theseus displaying not only great strength of body, but equal +bravery, and a quickness alike and force of understanding, his +mother Aethra, conducting him to the stone, and informing him who +was his true father, commanded him to take from thence the tokens +that Aegeus had left, and to sail to Athens. He without any +difficulty set himself to the stone and lifted it up; but refused +to take his journey by sea, though it was much the safer way, and +though his mother and grandfather begged him to do so. For it was +at that time very dangerous to go by land on the road to Athens, +no part of it being free from robbers and murderers. That age +produced a sort of men, in force of hand, and swiftness of foot, +and strength of body, excelling the ordinary rate, and wholly +incapable of fatigue; making use, however, of these gifts of +nature to no good or profitable purpose for mankind, but rejoicing +and priding themselves in insolence, and taking the benefit of +their superior strength in the exercise of inhumanity and cruelty, +and in seizing, forcing, and committing all manner of outrages +upon everything that fell into their hands; all respect for +others, all justice, they thought, all equity and humanity, though +naturally lauded by common people, either out of want of courage +to commit injuries or fear to receive them, yet no way concerned +those who were strong enough to win for themselves. Some of these +Hercules destroyed and cut off in his passage through these +countries, but some, escaping his notice, while he was passing by, +fled and hid themselves, or else were spared by him in contempt of +their abject submission; and after that Hercules fell into +misfortune, and, having slain Iphitus, retired to Lydia, and for a +long time was there slave to Omphale, a punishment which he had +imposed upon himself for the murder. Then, indeed, Lydia enjoyed +high peace and security, but in Greece and the countries about it +the like villainies again revived and broke out, there being none +to repress or chastise them. It was therefore a very hazardous +journey to travel by land from Athens to Peloponnesus; and +Pittheus, giving him an exact account of each of these robbers and +villains, their strength, and the cruelty they used to all +strangers, tried to persuade Theseus to go by sea. But he, it +seems, had long since been secretly fired by the glory of +Hercules, held him in the highest estimation, and was never more +satisfied than in listening to any that gave an account of him; +especially those that had seen him, or had been present at any +action or saying of his. So that he was altogether in the same +state of feeling as, in after ages, Themistocles was, when he said +that he could not sleep for the trophy of Miltiades; entertaining +such admiration for the virtues of Hercules that in his dreams +were all of that hero's actions, and in the day a continual +emulation stirred him up to perform the like. Besides, they were +related, being born of own cousins. For Aethra was daughter of +Pittheus, and Alcmena of Lysidice; and Lysidice and Pittheus were +brother and sister, children of Hippodamia and Pelpos. He thought +it therefore a dishonorable thing, and not to be endured, that +Hercules should go out everywhere, and purge both land and sea +from the wicked men, and he should fly from the like adventures +that actually came his way; not showing his true father as good +evidence of the greatness of his birth by noble and worthy +actions, as by the tokens that he brought with him, the shoes and +the sword. + +With this mind and these thoughts, he set forward with a design to +do injury to nobody, but to repel and avenge himself of all those +that should offer any. And first of all, in a set combat he slew +Periphtes, in the neighborhood of Epidaurus, who used a club for +his arms, and from thence had the name of Corynetes, or the club- +bearer; who seized upon him, and forbade him to go forward in his +journey. Being pleased with the club, he took it, and made it his +weapon, continuing to use it as Hercules did the lion's skin, on +whose shoulders that served to prove how huge a beast he had +killed; and to the same end Theseus carried about him this club; +overcome indeed by him, but now, in his hands, invincible. + +Passing on further towards the Isthmus of Peloponnesus, he slew +Sinnis, often surnamed the Bender of Pines, after the same manner +in which he himself had destroyed many others before. And this he +did without having either practiced or ever learnt the art of +bending these trees, to show that natural strength is above all +art. This Sinnis had a daughter of remarkable beauty and stature, +called Perigune, who, when her father was killed, fled, and was +sought after everywhere by Theseus; and coming into a place +overgrown with brushwood, shrubs, and asparagus-thorn, there, in a +childlike, innocent manner, prayed and begged them, as if they +understood her, to give shelter, with vows that if she escaped she +would never cut them down nor burn them. But Theseus calling upon +her, and giving her his promise that he would use her with +respect, and offer no injury, she came forth. Whence it is a +family usage amongst the people called Ioxids, from the name of +her grandson, Ioxus, both male and female, never to burn either +shrubs or asparagus-thorn, but to respect and honor them. + +The Crommyonian sow, which they called Phaea, was a savage and +formidable wild beast, by no means an enemy to be despised. +Theseus killed her, going out of his way on purpose to meet and +engage her, so that he might not seem to perform all his great +exploits out of mere necessity; being also of opinion that it was +the part of a brave man to chastise villainous and wicked men when +attacked by them, but to seek out and overcome the more noble wild +beasts. Others relate that Phaea was a woman, a robber full of +cruelty, that lived in Crommyon, and had the name of Sow given her +from the foulness of her life and manners, and afterwards was +killed by Theseus. He slew also Sciron, upon the borders of +Megara, casting him down from the rocks, being, as most report, a +notorious robber of all passengers, and, as others add, accustomed +out of insolence and wantonness, to stretch forth his feet to +strangers, commanding them to wash them, and then while they did +it, with a kick to send them down the rock into the sea. + +In Eleusis he killed Cercyon, the Arcadian, in a wrestling match. +And going on a little farther, in Erineus, he slew Damastes, +otherwise called Procrustes, forcing his body to the size of his +own bed, as he himself was used to do with all strangers; this he +did in imitation of Hercules, who always returned upon his +assailants the same sort of violence that they offered to him; +sacrificed Busiris, killed Antaeus in wrestling, and Cycnus in +single combat, and Termerus by breaking his skull in pieces +(whence, they say, comes the proverb of "a Termerian mischief"), +for it seems Termerus killed passengers that he met by running +with his head against them. And so also Theseus proceeded with the +same violence from which they had inflicted upon others, justly +suffering after the same manner of their own injustice. + +As he went forward on his journey, and was come as far as the +River Cephisus, some of the race of the Phytalidae met him and +saluted him, and upon his desire to use the purifications, then in +custom, they performed them with all the usual ceremonies, and +having offered propitiatory sacrifices to the gods, invited him +and entertained him at their house, a kindness which, in all his +journey hitherto, he had not met. + +On the eighth day of Cronius, now called Hecatombaeon, he arrived +at Athens, where he found the public affairs full of all +confusion, and divided into parties and factions. Aegeus also, and +his whole private family, laboring under the same distemper; for +Medea, having fled from Corinth, was living with him. She was +first aware of Theseus, whom as yet Aegeus did not know, and he +being in years, full of jealousies and suspicions, and fearing +everything by reason of the faction that was then in the city, she +easily persuaded him to kill him by poison at a banquet, to which +he was to be invited as a stranger. He, coming to the +entertainment, thought it not fit to discover himself at once, +but, willing to give his father the occasion of first finding him +out, the meat being on the table, he drew his sword as if he +designed to cut with it; Aegeus, at once recognizing the token, +threw down the cup of poison, and, questioning his son, embraced +him, and, having gathered together all his citizens, owned him +publicly before them, who, on their part, received him gladly for +the fame of his greatness and bravery. + +The sons of Pallas, who were quiet, upon expectation of recovering +the kingdom after Aegeus's death, who was without issue, as soon +as Theseus appeared and was acknowledged the successor, highly +resenting that Aegeus first, as adopted son only of Pandion, and +not at all related to the family of Erechtheus, should be holding +the kingdom, and that after him, Theseus, a visitor and stranger, +should be destined to succeed to it, broke out into open war. And, +dividing themselves into two companies, one part of them marched +openly from Sphettus, with their father, against the city; the +other, hiding themselves in the village of Gargettus, lay in +ambush, with a design to set upon the enemy on both sides. They +had with them a crier of the township of Agnus, named Leos, who +discovered to Theseus all the designs of the Pallentidae. He +immediately fell upon those that lay in amuscade, and cut them all +off; upon tidings of which Pallas and his company fled and were +dispersed. + +From hence they say is derived the custom among the people of the +township of Pallene to have no marriages or any alliance with the +people of Agnus, nor to suffer the criers to pronounce in their +proclamations the words used in all other parts of the country, +Acouete Leoi (Hear ye people), hating the very sound of Leo, +because of the treason of Leos. + +Theseus, longing to be in action, and desirous also to make +himself popular, left Athens to fight with the bull of Marathon, +which did no small mischief to the inhabitants of Tetrapolis. And, +having overcome it, he brought it alive in triumph through the +city, and afterwards sacrificed it to the Delphian Apollo. The +story of Hecale, also, of her receiving and entertaining Theseus +in this expedition, seems to be not altogether void of truth; for +the townships round about, meeting upon a certain day, used to +offer a sacrifice, which they called Hecalesia, to Jupiter +Hecaleius, and to pay honor to Hecale, whom, by a diminutive name, +they called Hecalene, because she, while entertaining Theseus, who +was quite a youth, addressed him, as old people do, with similar +endearing diminutives; and having made a vow to Jupiter that he +was going to the fight, that, if he returned in safety, she would +offer sacrifices in thanks of it, and dying before he came back, +she had these honors given her by way of return for her +hospitality, by the command of Theseus, as Philochorus tells us. + +Not long afterwards came the third time from Crete the collectors +of the tribute which the Athenians paid them upon the following +occasion. Androgeus having been treacherously murdered in the +confines of Attica, not only Minos, his father, put the Athenians +to extreme distress by a perpetual war, but the gods also laid +waste their country; both famine and pestilence lay heavy upon +them, and even their rivers were dried up. Being told by the +oracle that if they appeased and reconciled Minos, the anger of +the gods would cease and they should enjoy rest from the miseries +they labored under, they sent heralds, and with much supplication +were at last reconciled, entering into an agreement to send to +Crete every nine years a tribute of seven young men and as many +virgins, as most writers agree in stating; and the most poetical +story adds that the Minotaur destroyed them, or that, wandering in +the Labyrinth, and finding no possible means of getting out, they +miserably ended their lives there, and that this Minotaur was (as +Euripides hath it) + +A mingled form, where two strange shapes combined, +And different natures, bull and man, were joined. + +Now when the time of the third tribute was come, and the fathers +who had any young men for their sons were to proceed by lot to the +choice of those that were to be sent, there arose fresh +discontents and accusations against Aegeus among the people, who +were full of grief and indignation that he, who was the cause of +all their miseries, was the only person exempt from the +punishment; adopting and setting his kingdom upon a foreign son, +he took no thought, they said, of their destitution and loss of +their lawful children. These things sensibly affected Theseus, +who, thinking it but just not to disregard, but rather partake of, +the sufferings of his fellow citizens, offered himself for one +without any lot. All else were struck with admiration for the +nobleness, and with love for the goodness, of the act; and Aegeus, +after prayers and entreaties, finding him inflexible and not to be +persuaded, proceeded to the choosing of the rest by lot. +Hellanicus, however, tells us that the Athenians did not send the +young men and virgins by lot, but that Minos himself used to come +and make his own choice, and pitched upon Theseus before all +others; according to the conditions agreed upon between, namely, +that the Athenians should furnish them with a ship, and that the +young men who were to sail with him should carry no weapon of war; +but that if the Minotaur was destroyed the tribute should cease. + +On the two former occasions of the payment of the tribute, +entertaining no hopes of safety or return, they sent out the ship +with a black sail, as to unavoidable destruction; but now, Theseus +encouraging his father and speaking greatly of himself, as +confident that he should kill the Minotaur, he gave the pilot +another sail, which was white, commanding him, as he returned, if +Theseus were safe, to make use of that; but if not, to sail with +the black one, and to hang out that sign of his misfortune. +Simonides says that the sail which Aegeus delivered to the pilot +was not white, but + +Scarlet, in the juicy bloom +Of the living oak-tree steeped. + +The lot being cast, and Theseus having received out of the +Prytaneum those upon whom it fell, he went to the Delphinium, and +made an offering for them to Apollo of his suppliant's badge, +which was a bough of a consecrated olive tree, with white wool +tied about it. + +Having thus performed his devotion, he went to sea, the sixth day +of Munychion, on which day even to this time the Athenians send +their virgins to the same temple to make supplication to the gods. +It is farther reported that he was commanded by the oracle at +Delphi to make Venus his guide, and to invoke her as the companion +and conductress of his voyage, and that, as he was sacrificing a +she goat to her by the seaside, it was suddenly changed into a he, +and for this cause that goddess had the name of Epitragia. + +When he arrived at Crete, as most of the ancient historians as +well as poets tell us, having a clue of thread given him by +Ariadne, who had fallen in love with him, and being instructed by +her now to use it so as to conduct him through the windings of the +Labyrinth, he escaped out of it and slew the Minotaur, and sailed +back, taking along with him Ariadne and the young Athenian +captives. Pherecydes adds that he bored holes in the bottom of the +Cretan ships to hinder their pursuit. Demon writes that Taurus, +the chief captain of Minos, was slain by Theseus at the mouth of +the port, in a naval combat, as he was sailing out for Athens. But +Philochorus gives us the story thus: That at the setting forth of +the yearly games by King Minos, Taurus was expected to carry away +the prize, as he had done before; and was much grudged the honor. +His character and manners made his power hateful, and he was +accused, moreover, of too near familiarity with Pasiphae, for +which reason, when Theseus desired the combat, Minos readily +complied. And as it was a custom in Crete that the women also +should be admitted to the sight of these games, Ariadne, being +present, was struck with admiration of the manly beauty of +Theseus, and the vigor and address which he showed in combat, +overcoming all that encountered with him. Minos, too, being +extremely pleased with him, especially because he had overthrown +and disgraced Taurus, voluntarily gave up the young captives to +Theseus, and remitted the tribute to the Athenians. + +There are yet many traditions about these things, and as many +concerning Ariadne, all inconsistent with each other. Some relate +that she hung herself, being deserted by Theseus. Others that she +was carried away by his sailors to the isle of Naxos, and married +to Oenarus, priest of Bacchus; and that Theseus left her because +he fell in love with another, + +"For Aegle's love was burning in his breast." + +Now Theseus, in his return from Crete, put in at Delos, and, +having sacrificed to the god of the island, dedicated to the +temple the image of Venus which Ariadne had given him, and danced +with the young Athenians a dance that., in memory of him, they say +is still preserved among the inhabitants of Delos, consisting in +certain measured turnings and returnings, imitative of the +windings and twistings of the Labyrinth. And this dance, as +Dicaearchus writes, is called among the Delians, the Crane. This +he danced round the Ceratonian Altar, so called from its +consisting of horns taken from the left side of the head. They +also say that he instituted games in Delos, where he was the first +that began the of giving a palm to the victors. + +When they were come near the coast of Attica, so great was the joy +for the happy success of their voyage, that neither Theseus +himself nor the pilot remembered to hang out the sail which should +have been the token of their safety to Aegeus, who, in despair at +the sight, threw himself headlong from a rock, and perished in the +sea. But Theseus, being arrived at the port of Phalerum, paid +there the sacrifices which he had vowed to the gods at his setting +out to sea, and sent a herald to the city to carry the news of his +safe return. At his entrance, the herald found the people for the +most part full of grief for the loss of their king, others, as may +well be believed, as full of joy for the tidings that he brought, +and eager to welcome him and crown him with garlands for his good +news, which he indeed accepted of, but hung them upon his herald's +staff; and thus returning to the seaside before Theseus had +finished his libation to the gods, he stayed apart for fear of +disturbing the holy rites, but, as soon as the libation was ended, +went up and related the king's death, upon the hearing of which, +with great lamentations and a confused tumult of grief, they ran +with all haste to the city. And from hence, they say, it comes +that at this day, in the feast of Oschoporia, the herald is not +crowned, but his staff, and all who are present at the libation +cry out "eleleu, iou, iou," the first of which confused sounds is +commonly used by men in haste, or at a triumph, the other is +proper to people in consternation or disorder of mind. + +Theseus, after the funeral of his father, paid his vows to Apollo +the seventh day of Pyanepsion; for on that day the youth that +returned with him safe from Crete made their entry into the city. +They say, also, that the custom of boiling pulse at this feast is +derived from hence; because the young men that escaped put all +that was left of their provision together, and, boiling it in one +common pot, feasted themselves with it, and ate it all up +together. Hence, also, they carry in procession an olive branch +bound about with wool (such as they then made use of in their +supplications), which they call Eiresione, crowned with all sorts +of fruits, to signify that scarcity and barrenness was ceased, +singing in their procession this song: + +Eiresione brings figs, and Eiresione brings loaves; +Bring us honey in pints, and oil to rub on our bodies, +And a strong flagon of wine, for all to go mellow to bed on. + +The ship wherein Theseus and the youth of Athens returned had +thirty oars, and was preserved by the Athenians down even to the +time of Demetrius Phalereus, for they took away the old planks as +they decayed, putting in new and stronger timber in their place, +insomuch that this ship became a standing example among the +philosophers, for the logical question as to things that grow; one +side holding that the ship remained the same, and the other +contending that it was not the same. + +Now, after the death of his father Aegeus, forming in his mind a +great and wonderful design, he gathered together all the +inhabitants of Attica into one town, and made them one people of +one city, whereas before they lived dispersed, and were not easy +to assemble upon any affair, for the common interest. Nay, the +differences and even wars often occurred between them, which he by +his persuasions appeased, going form township to township, and +from tribe to tribe. And those of a more private and mean +condition readily embracing such good advice, to those of greater +power he promised a commonwealth without monarchy, a democracy, or +people's government, in which he should only be continued as their +commander in war and the protector of their laws, all things else +being equally distributed among them;--and by this means brought +a part of them over to his proposal. The rest, fearing his power, +which was already grown very formidable, and knowing his courage +and resolution, chose rather to be persuaded than forced into a +compliance. He then dissolved all the distant state-houses, +council halls, and magistracies, and built one common state-house +(the Prytaneum) and council hall on the site of the present upper +town, and gave the name of Athens to the whole state, ordaining a +common feast and sacrifice, which he called Panathenaea, or the +sacrifice of all the united Athenians. He instituted also another +sacrifice, called Metoecia, or Feast of Migration, which is yet +celebrated on the sixteenth day of Hecatombaeon. Then, as he had +promised, he laid down his regal power and proceeded to order a +commonwealth, entering upon this great work not without advice +from the gods. For having sent to consult the oracle of Delphi +concerning the fortune of his new government and city, he received +this answer: + +Son of the Pitthean maid, +To your town the terms and fates +My father gives of many states. +Be not anxious or afraid: +The bladder will not fail to swim +On the waves that compass him. + +Which oracle, they say, one of the sibyls long after did in a +manner repeat to the Athenians, in this verse: + +The bladder may be dipt, but not be drowned. + +Farther yet designing to enlarge his city, he invited all +strangers to come and enjoy equal privileges with the natives, and +it is said that the common form, "Come hither all ye people," was +the words that Theseus proclaimed when he thus set up a +commonwealth, in a manner, for all nations. Yet he did not suffer +his state, by the promiscuous multitude that flowed in, to be +turned into confusion and be left without any order or degree, but +was the first that divided the commonwealth into three distinct +ranks, the noblemen, the husbandmen, and artificers. To the +nobility he committed the care of religion, the choice of +magistrates, the teaching and dispensing of the laws, and +interpretation and direction in all sacred matters; the whole city +being, as it were, reduced to an exact equality, the nobles +excelling the rest in honor, the husbandmen in profit, and the +artifices in number. And that Theseus was the first, who, as +Aristotle says, out of an inclination to popular government, +parted with the regal power, Homer also seems to testify, in his +catalogue of ships, where he gives the name of "People" to the +Athenians only. + +He also coined money, and stamped it with the image of an ox, +either in memory of the Marathonian bull, or of Taurus, whom he +vanquished, or else to put his people in mind to follow husbandry; +and from this coin came the expression so frequent among the +Greeks, as a thing being worth ten or a hundred oxen. After this +he joined Megara to Attica, and erected that famous pillar on the +isthmus, which bears an inscription of two lines, showing the +bounds of the two countries that meet there. On the east side the +inscription is,-"Peloponnesus there, Ionia here," And on the west +side,-"Peloponnesus here, Ionia there." + +He also instituted the games, in emulation of Hercules, being +ambitious that as the Greeks, by that hero's appointment, +celebrated the Olympian games to the honor of Jupiter, so, by his +institution, they should celebrate the Isthmian to the honor of +Neptune. At the same time he made an agreement with the +Corinthians, that they should allow those that came from Athens to +the celebration of the Isthmian games as much space of honor +before the rest to behold the spectacle in as the sail of the ship +that brought them thither, stretched to its full extent, could +cover; so Hellenicus and Andro of Halicarnassus have established. + +Concerning his voyage into the Euxine Sea, Philochorus and some +others write that he made it with Hercules, offering him his +service in the war against the Amazons, and had Antiope given him +for the reward of his valor; but the greater number, of whom are +Pherecides, Hellanicus, and Herodorus, with a navy under his own +command, and took the Amazon prisoner,--the more probable story, +for we do not read that any other, of all those that accompanied +him in this action, took any Amazon prisoner. Bion adds, that, to +take her, he had to use deceit and fly away; for the Amazons, he +says, being naturally lovers of men, were so far from avoiding +Theseus when he touched upon their coasts, that they sent him +presents to his ship; but he, having invited Antiope, who brought +them, to come aboard, immediately set sail and carried her away. +An author named Menecrates, that wrote the History of Nicaea in +Bithynia, adds, that Theseus, having Antiope aboard his vessel, +cruised for some time about those coasts, and that there were in +the same ship three young men of Athens, that accompanied him in +his voyage, all brothers, whose names were Euneos, Thoas, and +Soloon. The last of these fell desperately in love with Antiope; +and escaping the notice of the rest, revealed the secret only to +one of his most intimate acquaintance, and employed him to +disclose his passion to Antiope. She rejected his pretences with a +very positive denial, yet treated the matter with much gentleness +and discretion, and made no complaint to Theseus of anything that +had happened; but Soloon, the thing being desperate, leaped into a +river near the seaside and drowned himself. As soon as Theseus was +aquainted with his death, and his unhappy love that was the cause +of it, he was extremely distressed, and, in the height of his +grief, an oracle which he had formerly received at Delphi came +into his mind; for he had been commanded by the priestess of +Apollo Pythius, that, wherever in a strange land he was most +sorrowful and under the greatest affliction, he should build a +city there, and leave some of his followers to be governors of the +place. For this cause he there founded a city, which he called, +from the name of Apollo, Pythopolis, and, in honor of the +unfortunate youth, he named the river that runs by it Soloon, and +left the two surviving brothers intrusted with the care of the +government and laws, joining with them Hermus, one of the nobility +of Athens, from whom a place in the city is called the House of +Hermus; though by an error in the accent it has been taken for the +House of Hermes, or Mercury, and the honor that was designed to +the hero, transferred to the god. + +This was the origin and cause of the Amazonian invasion of Attica, +which would seem to have been no slight or womanish enterprise. +For it is impossible that they should have placed their camp in +the very city, and joined battle close by the Pnyx and the hill +called Museum, unless, having first conquered the country round +about, they had thus with impunity advanced to the city. That they +made so long a journey by land, and passed the Cimmerian Bosphorus +when frozen, as Hellanicus writes, is difficult to be believed. +That they encamped all but in the city is certain, and may be +sufficiently confirmed by the names that the places thereabout yet +retain, and the graves and the monuments of those that fell the +battle. Both armies being in sight, there was a long pause and +doubt on each side which should give the first onset; at last +Theseus, having sacrificed to Fear, in obedience to the command of +an oracle he had received, gave them battle, in which action a +great number of the Amazons were slain. At length, after four +months, a peace was concluded between them by the mediation of +Hippolyta (for so this historian calls the Amazon whom Theseus +married, and not Antiope), though others write that she was slain +with a dart by Molpadia, while fighting by Theseus's side, and +that the pillar which stands by the temple of Olympian Earth was +erected to her honor. Nor is it to be wondered at, that in events +of such antiquity, history should be in disorder. This is as much +as is worth telling concerning the Amazons. + +The celebrated friendship between Theseus and Pirithous is said to +have been begun as follows: The fame of the strength and valor of +Theseus being spread through Greece, Pirithous was desirous to +make a trial and proof of it himself, and to this end seized a +herd of oxen which belonged to Theseus, and was driving them away +from Marathon, and, when news was brought that Theseus pursued him +in arms, he did not fly, but turned back and went to meet him. But +as soon as they had viewed one another, each so admired the +gracefulness and beauty, and was seized with such a respect for +the courage of the other, that they forgot all thoughts of +fighting; and Pirithous, first stretching out his hand to Theseus, +bade him be judge in this case himself, and promised to submit +willingly to any penalty he should impose. But Theseus not only +forgave him all, but entreated him to be his friend and brother in +arms; and they ratified their friendship by oaths. After this +Pirithous married Deidamia, and invited Theseus to the wedding, +entreating him to come and see his country, and make acquaintance +with the Lapithae; he had at the same time invited the Centaurs to +the feast, who, growing hot with wine and beginning to be insolent +and wild, the Lapithae took immediate revenge upon them, slaying +many of them upon the place, and afterwards, having overcome them +in battle, drove the whole race of them out of their country, +Theseus all along taking the part of the Lapithae, and fighting on +their side. + +Theseus was now fifty years old, as Hellanicus states, when he +carried off Helen, who was yet too young to be married. Some +writers, to take away this accusation of one of the greatest +crimes laid to his charge, say that he did not steal away Helen +himself, but that Idas and Lynceus brought her to him, and +committed her to his charge, and that, therefore, he refused to +restore her at the demand of Castor and Pollux; or, indeed, they +say her own father, Tyndarus, had sent her to be kept by him, for +fear of Enarophorus, the son of Hippocoon, who would have carried +her away by force when she was yet a child. But the most probable +account, and that which has witnesses on its side, is this: +Theseus and Pirithous went both together to Sparta, and, having +seized the young lady as she was dancing in the temple of Diana +Orthia, fled away with her. There were presently men in arms sent +to pursue, but they followed no farther than to Tegea; and Theseus +and Pirithous being now out of danger, having passed through +Peloponnesus, made an agreement between themselves, that he to +whom the lot should fall should have Helen to his wife, but should +be obliged to assist in procuring another for his friend. The lot +fell upon Theseus, who conveyed her to Aphidnae, not being yet +marriageable, and delivered her to one of his allies, called +Aphidnus, and having sent his mother, Aethra, after to take care +of her, desired him to keep them so secretly that none might know +where they were; which done, to return the same service to his +friend Pirithous, he accompanied him in his journey to Epirus, in +order to steal away the king of the Molossians' daughter. The +king, his own name being Aidoneus, or Pluto, called his wife +Proserpina, and his daughter Cora, and a great dog which he kept +Cerberus, with whom he ordered all that came as suitors to his +daughter to fight, and promised her to him that should overcome +the beast. But having been informed that the design of Pirithous +and his companion was not to court his daughter, but to force her +away, he caused them both to be seized, and threw Pirithous to be +torn to pieces by the dog, and put Theseus into prison, and kept +him. + +About this time Menetheus, the son of Peteus, grandson of Orneus, +and great-grandson to Erechtheus, the first man that is recorded +to have affected popularity and ingratiated himself with the +multitude, stirred up and exasperated the most eminent men of the +city, who had long borne a secret grudge to Theseus, conceiving +that he had robbed them of their several little kingdoms and +lordships, and, having pent them all up in one city, was using +them as his subjects and slaves. He put also the meaner people +into commotion, telling them, that, deluded with a mere dream of +liberty, though indeed they were deprived both of that and their +proper homes and religious usages, instead of many good and +gracious kings of their own, they had given themselves up to be +lorded over by a newcomer and a stranger. Whilst he was thus +busied in infecting the minds of the citizens, the war that Castor +and Pollux brought against Athens came very opportunity to farther +the sedition he had been promoting, and some say that he by his +persuasions was wholly the cause of their invading the city. At +their first approach they committed no acts of hostility, but +peaceably demanded their sister Helen; but the Athenians returning +answer that they neither had her nor knew where she was disposed +of, they prepared to assault the city, when Academus, having, by +whatever means, found it out, disclosed to them that she was +secretly kept at Aphidnea. For which reason he was both highly +honored during his life by Castor and Pollux, and the +Lacedaemonians, when often in after times they made excursions +into Attica, and destroyed all the country round about, spared the +Academy for the sake of Academus. + +Hercules, passing by the Molossians, was entertained in his way by +Aidoneus the king, who, in conversation, accidentally spoke of the +journey of Theseus and Pirithous into his country, of what they +had designed to do, and what they were forced to suffer. Hercules +was much grieved for the inglorious death of the one and the +miserable condition of the other. As for Pirithous, he thought it +useless to complain; but begged to have Theseus released for his +sake, and obtained that favor from the king. Theseus, being thus +set at liberty, returned to Athens, where his friends were not +wholly suppressed, and dedicated to Hercules all the sacred places +which the city had set apart for himself, changing their names +from Thesea to Herculea, four only excepted, as Philochorus +writes. And wishing immediately to resume the first place in the +commonwealth, and manage the state as before, he soon found +himself involved in factions and troubles; those who long had +hated him had now added to their hatred contempt; and the minds of +the people were so generally corrupted, that, instead of obeying +commands with silence, they expected to be flattered into their +duty. He had some thoughts to have reduced them by force, but was +overpowered by demagogues and factions. And at last, despairing of +any good success of his affairs in Athens, he sent away his +children privately to Euboea, commending them to the care of +Elephenor, the son of Chalcodon; and he himself, having solemnly +cursed the people of Athens in the village of Gargettus, in which +there yet remains the place called Araterion, or the place of +cursing, sailed to Scyros, where he had lands left him by his +father, and friendship, as he thought, with those of the island. +Lycomedes was then king of Scyros. Theseus, therefore, addressed +himself to him, and desired to have his lands put into his +possession, as designing to settle and dwell there, though others +say that he came to beg his assistance against the Athenians. But +Lycomedes, either jealous of the glory of so great a man, or to +gratify Menestheus, having led him up to the highest cliff of the +island, on pretense of showing him from thence the lands that he +desired, threw him headlong down from the rock and killed him. +Others say he fell down of himself by a slip of his foot, as he +was walking there, according to his custom, after supper. At that +time there was no notice taken, nor were any concerned for his +death, but Menestheus quietly possessed the kingdom of Athens. His +sons were brought up in a private condition, and accompanied +Elephenor to the Trojan war, but, after the decease of Menestheus +in that expedition, returned to Athens, and recovered the +government. But in succeeding ages, beside several other +circumstances that moved the Athenians to honor Theseus as a +demigod, in the battle which was fought at Marathon against the +Medes, many of the soldiers believed they saw an apparition of +Theseus in arms, rushing on at the head of them against the +barbarians. And after the Median war, Phaedo being archon of +Athens, the Athenians, consulting the oracle at Delphi, were +commanded to gather together the bones of Theseus, and, laying +them in some honorable place, keep them as sacred in the city. But +it was very difficult to recover these relics, or so much as to +find out the place where they lay, on account of the inhospitable +and savage temper of the barbarous people that inhabited the +island. Nevertheless, afterwards, when Cimon took the island (as +is related in his life), and had a great ambition to find the +place where Theseus was buried, he, by chance, spied an eagle upon +a rising ground pecking with her beak and tearing up the earth +with her talons, when on the sudden it came into his mind, as it +were by some divine inspiration, to dig there, and search for the +bones of Theseus. There were found in that place a coffin of a man +of more than ordinary size, and a brazen spear-head, and a sword +lying by it, all which he took aboard his galley and brought with +him to Athens. Upon which the Athenians, greatly delighted, went +out to meet and receive the relics with splendid procession and +with sacrifices, as if it were Theseus himself returning alive to +the city. He lies interred in the middle of the city, near the +present gymnasium. His tomb is a sanctuary and refuge for slaves, +and all those of mean condition that fly from the persecution of +men in power, in memory that Theseus while he lived was an +assister and protector of the distressed, and never refused the +petitions of the afflicted that fled to him. The chief and most +solemn sacrifice which they celebrate to him is kept on the eighth +day of Pyanepsion, on which he returned with the Athenian young +men from Crete. Besides which, they sacrifice to him on the eighth +day of every month, either because he returned from Troezen the +eighth day of Hecatombaeon, as Diodorus the geographer writes, or +else thinking that number to be proper to him, because he was +reputed to be born of Neptune, because they sacrifice to Neptune +on the eighth day of every month. The number eight being the first +cube of an even number, and the double of the first square, seemed +to be am emblem of the steadfast and immovable power of this god, +who from thence has the names of Asphalius and Gaeiochus, that is, +the establisher and stayer of the earth. + + + + +Romulus + +From whom, and for what reason, the city of Rome, a name so great +in glory, and famous in the mouths of all men, was so first +called, authors do not agree. + +But the story which is most believed and has the greatest number +of vouchers in general outline runs thus: the kings of Alba +reigned in lineal descent from Aeneas, and the succession devolved +at length upon two brothers, Numitor and Amulius. Amulius proposed +to divide things into two equal shares, and set as equivalent to +the kingdom the treasure and gold that were brought from Troy. +Numitor chose the kingdom; but Amulius, having the money, and +being able to do more with that than Numitor, took his kingdom +from with great ease, and, fearing lest his daughter might have +children who would supplant him, made her a Vestal, bound in that +condition forever to live a single and maiden life. This lady some +call Ilia, others Rhea, and others Silvia; however, not long +after, contrary to the established laws of the Vestals, she had +two sons of more than human size and beauty, whom Amulius, +becoming yet more alarmed, commanded a servant to take and cast +away; this man some call Faustulus, others say Faustulus was the +man who brought them up. He put the children, however, in a small +trough, and went towards the river with a design to cast them in; +but seeing the waters much swollen and coming violently down, was +afraid to go nearer, and, dropping the children near the bank, +went away. The river overflowing, the flood at last bore up the +trough, and, gently wafting it, landed them on a smooth piece of +ground, which they now call Cermanus, formerly Germanus, perhaps +from "Germani," which signifies brothers. + +While the infants lay here, history tells us, a she-wolf nursed +them, and a woodpecker constantly fed and watched them. These +creatures are esteemed holy to the god Mars; the woodpecker the +Latins still especially worship and honor. Which things, as much +as any, gave credit to what the mother of the children said, that +their father was the god Mars. + +Meantime Faustulus, Amulius's swineherd, brought up the children +without any man's knowledge; or, as those say who wish to keep +closer to probabilities, with the knowledge and secret assistance +of Numitor; for it is said, they went to school at Gabii, and were +well instructed in letters, and other accomplishments befitting +their birth. And they were called Romulus and Remus (from "ruma", +the dug), because they were found suckling the wolf. In their very +infancy, the size and beauty of their bodies intimated their +natural superiority; and when they grew up, they both proved brave +and manly, attempting all enterprises that seemed hazardous, and +showing in them a courage altogether undaunted. But Romulus seemed +rather to act by counsel, and to show the sagacity of a statesman, +and in all his dealings with their neighbors, whether relating to +feeding of flocks or to hunting, gave the idea of being born +rather to rule than to obey. To their comrades and inferiors they +were therefore dear; but the king's servants, his bailiffs and +overseers, as being in nothing better men than themselves, they +despised and slighted, nor were the least concerned at their +commands and menaces. They used honest pastimes and liberal +studies, not esteeming sloth and idleness honest and liberal, but +rather such exercises as hunting and running, repelling robbers, +taking of thieves, and delivering the wronged and oppressed from +injury. For doing such things, they became famous. + +A quarrel occurring betwixt Numitor's and Amulius's cowherds, the +latter, not enduring the driving away of their cattle by the +others, fell upon them and put them to flight, and rescued the +greatest part of the prey. At which Numitor being highly incensed, +they little regarded it, but collected and took into their company +a number of needy men and runaway slaves,--acts which looked like +the first stages of rebellion. It so happened, that when Romulus +was attending a sacrifice, being fond of sacred rites and +divination, Numitor's herdsmen, meeting with Remus on a journey +with few companions, fell upon him, and, after some fighting, took +him prisoner, carried him before Numitor, and there accused him. +Numitor would not punish him himself, fearing his brother's anger, +but went to Amulius and desired justice, as he was Amulius's +brother and was affronted by Amulius's servants. The men of Alba +likewise resenting the thing, and thinking he had been +dishonorably used, Amulius was induced to deliver Remus up into +Numitor's hands, to use him as he thought fit. He therefore took +and carried him home, and, being struck with admiration of the +youth's person, in stature and strength of body exceeding all men, +and perceiving in his very countenance the courage and force of +his mind, which stood unsubdued and unmoved by his present +circumstances, and hearing further that all the enterprises and +actions of his life were answerable to what he saw of him, but +chiefly, as it seemed, a divine influence aiding and directing the +first steps that were to lead to great results, out of the mere +thought of his mind, and casually, as it were, he put his hand +upon the fact, and, in gentler terms and with a kind aspect, to +inspire him with confidence and hope, asked him who he was, and +whence he was derived. He, taking heart, spoke thus: "I will hide +nothing from you, for you seem to be of a more princely temper +than Amulius, in that you give a hearing and examine before you +punish, while he condemns before the cause is heard. Formerly, +then, we (for we are twins) thought ourselves the sons of +Faustulus and Larentia, the king's servants; but since we have +been accused and aspersed with calumnies, and brought in peril of +our lives here before you, we hear great things of ourselves, the +truth of which my present danger is likely to bring to the test. +Our birth is said to have been secret, our fostering and nurture +in our infancy still more strange; by birds and beasts, to whom we +were cast out, we were fed--by the milk of a wolf, and the +morsels of a woodpecker, as we lay in a little trough by the side +of the river. The trough is still in being, and is preserved, with +brass plates round it, and an inscription in letters almost +effaced, which may prove hereafter unavailing tokens to our +parents when we are dead and gone." Numitor, upon these words, and +computing the dates by the young man's looks, slighted not the +hope that flattered him, but considered how to come at his +daughter privately (for she was still kept under restraint), to +talk with her concerning these matters. + +Faustulus, hearing Remus was taken and delivered up, called on +Romulus to assist in his rescue, informing him then plainly of the +particulars of his birth--not but he had before given hints of it +- and told as much as an attentive man might make no small +conclusions from; he himself, full of concern and fear of not +coming in time, took the trough, and ran instantly to Numitor; but +giving a suspicion to some of the king's sentry at his gate, and +being gazed upon by them and perplexed with their questions, he +let it be seen that he was hiding the trough under his cloak. By +chance there was one among them who was at the exposing of the +children, and was one employed in the office; he, seeing the +trough and knowing it by its make and inscription, guessed at the +business, and, without further delay, telling the king of it, +brought in the man to be examined. Faustulus, hard beset, did not +show himself altogether proof against terror; nor yet was he +wholly forced out of all: confessed indeed the children were +alive, but lived, he said, as shepherds, a great way from Alba; he +himself was going to carry the trough to Ilia, who had often +greatly desired and handle it, for a confirmation of her hopes of +her children. As men generally do who are troubled in mind and act +either in fear or passion, it so fell out Amulius now did; for he +sent in haste as a messenger, a man, otherwise honest and friendly +to Numitor, with commands to learn from Numitor whether any +tidings were come to him of the children's being alive. He, coming +and seeing how little Remus wanted of being received into the arms +and embraces of Numitor, both gave him surer confidence in his +hope, and advised them, with all expedition, to proceed to action; +himself too joining and assisting them, and indeed, had they +wished it, the time would not have let them demur. For Romulus was +now come very near, and many of the citizens, out of fear and +hatred of Amulius, were running out to join him; besides, he +brought great forces with him, dividing into companies, each of an +hundred men, every captain carrying a small bundle of grass and +shrubs tied to a pole. The Latins call such bundles "manipuli," +and from hence it is that in their armies still they call their +captains "manipulares." Remus rousing the citizens within to +revolt, and Romulus making attacks from without, the tyrant, not +knowing either what to do, or what expedient to think of for his +security, in this perplexity and confusion was taken and put to +death. This narrative, for the most part given by Fabius and +Diocles of Peparethos, who seem to be the earliest historians of +the foundation of Rome, is suspected by some because of its +dramatic and fictitious appearance; but it would not wholly be +disbelieved, if men would remember what a poet Fortune sometimes +shows herself, and consider that the Roman power would hardly have +reached so high a pitch without a divinely ordered origin, +attended with great and extraordinary circumstances. + +Amulius now being dead and matters quietly disposed, the two +brothers would neither dwell in Alba without governing there, nor +take the government into their own hands during the life of their +grandfather. Having therefore delivered the dominion up into his +hands, and paid their mother befitting honor, they resolved to +live by themselves, and build a city in the same place where they +were in their infancy brought up. This seems the most honorable +reason for their departure; though perhaps it was necessary, +having such a body of slaves and fugitives collected about them, +either to come to nothing by dispersing them, or if not so, then +to live with them elsewhere. For that the inhabitants of Alba did +not think fugitives worthy of being received and incorporated as +citizens among them plainly appears from the matter of the women, +an attempt made not wantonly, but of necessity, because they could +not get wives by good-will. For they certainly paid unusual +respect and honor to those whom they thus forcibly seized. + +Not long after the first foundation of the city, they opened a +sanctuary of refuge for all fugitives, which they called the +temple of the god Asylaeus, where they received and protected all, +delivering none back, neither the servant to his master, the +debtor to his creditor, nor the murderer into the hands of the +magistrate, saying it was a privileged place, and they could so +maintain it by an order of the holy oracle; insomuch that the city +grew presently very populous, for, they say, it consisted at first +of no more than a thousand houses. But of that hereafter. + +Their minds being fully bent upon building, there arose presently +a difference about the place where. Romulus chose what was called +Roma Quadrata, or the Square Rome, and would have the city there. +Remus laid out a piece of ground on the Aventine Mount, well +fortified by nature, which was from him called Remonium, but now +Rignarium. Concluding at last to decide the contest by a +divination from a flight of birds, and placing themselves apart at +some distance, Remus, they say, saw six vultures, and Romulus +double the number; others say Remus did truly see his number, and +that Romulus feigned his, but, when Remus came to him, that then +he did, indeed, see twelve. Hence it is that the Romans, in their +divinations from birds, chiefly regard the vulture, though +Herodorus Ponticus relates that Hercules was always very joyful +when a vulture appeared to him upon any occasion. For it is a +creature the least hurtful of any, pernicious neither to corn, +fruit-tree, nor cattle; it preys only on carrion, and never kills +or hurts any living thing; and as for birds, it touches not them, +though they are dead, as being of its own species, whereas eagles, +owls, and hawks mangle and kill their own fellow-creatures; yet, +as Aeschylus says,-- + +What bird is clean that preys on fellow bird? + +Besides, all other birds are, so to say, never out of our eyes; +they let themselves be seen of us continually; but a vulture is a +very rare sight, and you can seldom meet with a man that has seen +their young; their rarity and infrequency has raised a strange +opinion in some, that they come to us from some other world; as +soothsayers ascribe a divine origination to all things not +produced either of nature or of themselves. + +When Remus knew the cheat, he was much displeased; and as Romulus +was casting up a ditch, where he designed the foundation of the +city wall, he turned some pieces of the work to ridicule, and +obstructed others: at last, as he was in contempt leaping over it, +some say Romulus himself struck him, others Celer, one of his +companions; he fell, however, and in the scuffle Faustulus also +was slain, and Plistinus, who, being Faustulus's brother, story +tells us, helped to bring up Romulus. Celer upon this fled +instantly into Tuscany, and from him the Romans call all men that +are swift of foot Celeres; and because Quintus Metellus, at his +father's funeral, in a few days' time gave the people a show of +gladiators, admiring his expedition in getting it ready, they gave +him the name of Celer. + +Romulus, having buried his brother Remus, together with his two +foster-fathers, on the mount Remonia, set to building his city; +and sent for men out of Tuscany, who directed him by sacred usages +and written rules in all the ceremonies to be observed, as in a +religious rite. First, they dug a round trench about that which is +now the Comitium, or Court of Assembly and into it solemnly threw +the first-fruits of all things either good by custom or necessary +by nature; lastly, every man taking a small piece of earth of the +country from whence he came, they all threw them in promiscuously +together. This trench they call, as they do the heavens, Mundus; +making which their centre, they described the city in a circle +round it. Then the founder fitted to a plough, a bronze +ploughshare, and, yoking together a bull and a cow, drove himself +a deep line or furrow round the bounds; while the business of +those that followed after was to see that whatever earth was +thrown up should be turned all inwards towards the city, and not +to let any clod lie outside. With this line they described the +wall, and called it, by a contradiction, Pomoerium, that is, "post +murum," after or beside the wall; and where they designed to make +a gate, there they took out the share, carried the plough over, +and left a space; for which reason they consider the whole wall as +holy, except where the gates are; for had they adjudged them also +sacred, they could not, without offence to religion, have given +free ingress and egress for the necessaries of human life, some of +which are in themselves unclean. + +As for the day they began to build the city, it is universally +agreed to have been the twenty-first of April, and that day the +Romans annually keep holy, calling it their country's birthday. At +first, they say, they sacrificed no living creatures on this day, +thinking it fit to preserve the feast of their country's birthday +pure and without stain of blood. Yet before ever the city was +built, there was a feast of herdsmen and shepherds kept on this +day, which went by the name of Palilia. The Roman and Greek months +have now little or no agreement; they say, however, the day on +which Romulus began to build was quite certainly the thirtieth of +the month, at which time there was an eclipse of the sun which +they conceive to be that seen by Antimachus, the Teian poet, in +the third year of the sixth Olympiad. In the times of Varro the +philosopher, a man deeply read in Roman history, lived one +Tarrutius, his familiar acquaintance, a good philosopher and +mathematician, and one, too, that out of curiosity had studied the +way of drawing schemes and tables, and was thought to be a +proficient in the art; to him Varro propounded to cast Romulus's +nativity, even to the first day and hour, making his deductions +from the several events of the man's life which he should be +informed of, exactly as in working back a geometrical problem; for +it belonged, he said, to the same science both to foretell a man's +life by knowing the time of his birth, and also to find out his +birth by the knowledge of his life. This task Tarrutius undertook, +and first looking into the actions and casualties of the man, +together with the time of his life and manner of his death, and +then comparing all these remarks together, he very confidently and +positively pronounced that Romulus was born the twenty-first day +of the month Thoth, about sun-rising; and that the first stone of +Rome was laid by him the ninth day of the month Pharmuthi, between +the second and third hour. For the fortunes of cities as well as +of men, they think, have their certain periods of time prefixed, +which may be collected and foreknown from the position of the +stars at their first foundation. But these and the like relations +may perhaps not so much take and delight the reader with their +novelty and curiosity as offend him by their extravagance. + +The city now being built, Romulus enlisted all that were of age to +bear arms into military companies, each company consisting of +three thousand footmen and three hundred horse. These companies +were called legions, because they were the choicest and most +select of the people for fighting men. The rest of the multitude +he called the people; an hundred of the most eminent he chose for +counselors; these he styled patricians, and their assembly the +senate, which signifies a council of elders. + +In the fourth month after the city was built, as Fabius writes, +the adventure of stealing the women was attempted. It would seem +that, observing his city to be filled by a confluence of +foreigners, few of whom had wives, and that the multitude in +general, consisting of a mixture of mean and obscure men, fell +under contempt, and seemed to be of no long continuance together, +and hoping farther, after the women were appeased, to make this +injury in some measure an occasion of confederacy and mutual +commerce with the Sabines, Romulus took in his hand this exploit +after this manner. First, he gave it out that he had found an +altar of a certain god hid under ground, perhaps the equestrian +Neptune, for the altar is kept covered in the Circus Maximus at +all other times, and only at horse-races is exposed to public +view. Upon discovery of this altar, Romulus, by proclamation, +appointed a day for a splendid sacrifice, and for public games and +shows, to entertain all sorts of people; many flocked thither, and +he himself sat in front, amidst his nobles, clad in purple. Now +the signal for their falling on was to be whenever he rose and +gathered up his robe and threw it over his body; his men stood all +ready armed, with their eyes intent upon him, and when the sign +was given, drawing their swords and falling on with a great shout, +they stole away the daughters of the Sabines, the men themselves +flying without any let or hindrance. Some say there were but +thirty taken, and from Curiae or Fraternities were named; but +Valerius Antias says five hundred and twenty seven, Juba, six +hundred and eighty-three. + +It continues a custom at this very day for the bride not of +herself to pass her husband's threshold, but to be lifted over, in +memory that the Sabine virgins were carried in by violence, and +did not go in of their own free will. Some say, too, the custom of +parting the bride's hair with the head of a spear was in token +their marriages began at first by war and acts of hostility. + +The Sabines were a numerous and martial people, but lived in +small, unfortified villages, as it befitted, they thought, a +colony of the Lacedaemonians to be bold and fearless; +nevertheless, seeing themselves bound by such hostages to their +good behavior, and being solicitous for their daughters, they sent +ambassadors to Romulus with fair and equitable requests, that he +would return their young women and recall that act of violence, +and afterwards, by persuasion and lawful means, seek friendly +correspondence between both nations. Romulus would not part with +the young women, yet proposed to the Sabines to enter into an +alliance with them; upon which point some consulted and demurred +long, but Acron, king of the Ceninenses, a man of high spirit and +a good warrior, who had all along a jealousy of Romulus's bold +attempts, and considering particularly from this exploit upon the +women that he was growing formidable to all people, and indeed +insufferable, were he not chastised, first rose up in arms, and +with a powerful army advanced against him. Romulus likewise +prepared to receive him; but when they came within sight and +viewed each other, they made a challenge to fight a single duel, +the armies standing by under arms, without participation. And +Romulus, making a vow to Jupiter, if he should conquer, to carry +himself, and dedicate his adversary's armor to his honor, overcame +him in combat, and, a battle ensuing, routed his army also, and +then took his city; but did those he found in it no injury, only +commanded them to demolish the place and attend him to Rome, there +to be admitted to all the privileges of citizens. And indeed there +was nothing did more advance the greatness of Rome, than that she +did always unite and incorporate those whom she conquered into +herself. Romulus, that he might perform his vow in the most +acceptable manner to Jupiter, and withal make the pomp of it +delightful to the eye of the city, cut down a tall oak which he +saw growing in the camp, which he trimmed to the shape of a +trophy, and fastened on it Acron's whole suit of armor disposed in +proper form; then he himself, girding his clothes about him, and +crowning his head with a laurel-garland, his hair gracefully +flowing, carried the trophy resting erect upon his right shoulder, +and so marched on, singing songs of triumph, and his whole army +following after, the citizens all receiving him with acclamations +of joy and wonder. The procession of this day was the origin and +model of all after triumphs. But the statues of Romulus in triumph +are, as may be seen in Rome, all on foot. + +After the overthrow of the Ceninensians, the other Sabines still +protracting the time in preparations, the people of Fidenae, +Crustumerium, and Antemna, joined their forces against the Romans; +they in like manner were defeated in battle, and surrendered up to +Romulus their cities to be seized, their lands and territories to +be divided, and themselves to be transplanted to Rome. All the +lands which Romulus acquired he distributed among the citizens, +except only what the parents of the stolen virgins had; these he +suffered to possess their own. The rest of the Sabines, enraged +thereat, choosing Tatius their captain, marched straight against +Rome. The city was almost inaccessible, having for its fortress +that which is now the Capitol, where a strong guard was placed, +and Tarpeius their captain. But Tarpeia, daughter to the captain, +coveting the golden bracelets she saw them wear, betrayed the fort +into the Sabines' hands, and asked, in reward of her treachery, +the things they wore on their left arms. Tatius conditioning thus +with her, in the night she opened one of the gates and received +the Sabines in. And truly Antigonus, it would seem, was not +solitary in saying he loved betrayers, but hated those who had +betrayed; nor Caesar, who told Rhymitalces the Thracian that he +loved the treason, but hated the traitor; but it is the general +feeling of all who have occasion for wicked men's services, as +people have for the poison of venomous beasts; they are glad of +them while they are of use, and abhor their baseness when it is +over. And so did Tatius behave towards Tarpeia, for he commanded +the Sabines, in regard to their contract, not to refuse her the +least part of what they wore on their left arms; and he himself +first took his bracelet off his arm, and threw that, together with +his buckler, at her; and all the rest following, she, being borne +down and quite buried with the multitude of gold and their +shields, died under the weight and pressure of them; Tarpeius also +himself, being prosecuted by Romulus, was found guilty of treason, +and that part of the Capitol they still call the Tarpeian Rock, +from which they used to cast down malefactors. + +The Sabines being possessed of the hill, Romulus, in great fury, +bade them battle, and Tatius was confident to accept it. There +were many brief conflicts, we may suppose, but the most memorable +was the last, in which Romulus having received a wound on his head +by a stone, and being almost felled to the ground by it, and +disabled, the Romans gave way, and, being driven out of the level +ground, fled towards the Palatium. Romulus, by this time +recovering from his wound a little, turned about to renew the +battle, and, facing the fliers, with a loud voice encouraged them +to stand and fight. But being overborne with numbers, and nobody +daring to face about, stretching out his hands to heaven, he +prayed to Jupiter to stop the army, and not to neglect but +maintain the Roman cause, now in extreme danger. The prayer was no +sooner made than shame and respect for their king checked many; +the fears of the fugitives changed suddenly into confidence. The +place they first stood at was where now is the temple of Jupiter +Stator (which may be translated the Stayer); there they rallied +again into ranks, and repulsed the Sabines to the place called now +Regia, and to the temple of Vesta; where both parties, preparing +to begin a second battle, were prevented by a spectacle, strange +to behold, and defying description. For the daughters of the +Sabines, who had been carried off, came running, in great +confusion, some on this side, some on that, with miserable cries +and lamentations, like creatures possessed, in the midst of the +army, and among the dead bodies, to come at their husbands and +their fathers, some with their young babes in their arms, others +their hair loose about their ears, but all calling, now upon the +Sabines, now upon the Romans, in the most tender and endearing +words. Hereupon both melted into compassion, and fell back, to +make room for them betwixt the armies. The sight of the women +carried sorrow and commiseration upon both sides into the hearts +of all, but still more their words, which began with expostulation +and upbraiding, and ended with entreaty and supplication. + +"Wherein," say they, "have we injured or offended you, as to +deserve such sufferings, past and present? We were ravished away +unjustly and violently by those whose now we are; that being done, +we were so long neglected by our fathers, our brothers, and +countrymen, that time, having now by the strictest bonds united us +to those we once mortally hated, has made it impossible for us not +to tremble at the danger and weep at the death of the very men who +once used violence to us. You did not come to vindicate our honor, +while we were virgins, against our assailants; but do come now to +force away wives from their husbands and mothers from their +children, a succor more grievous to its wretched objects than the +former betrayal and neglect of them. Which shall we call the +worst, their love-making or your compassion? If you were making +war upon any other occasion, for our sakes you ought to withhold +your hands from those to whom we have made you fathers-in-law and +grandsires. If it be for our own cause, then take us, and with us +your sons-in-law and grandchildren. Restore to us our parents and +kindred, but do not rob us of our children and husbands. Make us +not, we entreat you, twice captives." Having spoken many such +words as these, and earnestly praying, a truce was made, and the +chief officers came to a parley; the women, in the meantime, +brought and presented their husbands and children to their fathers +and brothers; gave those that wanted, meat and drink, and carried +the wounded home to be cured, and showed also how much they +governed within doors, and how indulgent their husbands were to +them, in demeaning themselves towards them with all kindness and +respect imaginable. Upon this, conditions were agreed upon, that +what women pleased might stay where they were, exempt from all +drudgery and labor but spinning; that the Romans and Sabines +should inhabit the city together; that the city should be called +Rome, from Romulus; but the Romans, Quirites, from the country of +Tatius; and that they both should govern and command in common. +The place of the ratification is still called Comitium, from +"coire," to meet. + +The city thus being doubled in number, an hundred of the Sabines +were elected senators, and the legions were increased to six +thousand foot and six hundred horse; then they divided the people +into three tribes: the first, from Romulus, named Ramnenses; the +second, from Tatius, Tatienses; the third, Luceres, from the +"lucus," or grove, where the Asylum stood, whither many fled for +sanctuary, and were received into the city. And that they were +just three, the very name of "tribe" and "tribune" seems to show. +Then they constituted many things in honor to the women, such as +to give them the way wherever they met them; to speak no ill word +in their presence; that their children should wear an ornament +about their necks called the "bulla" (because it was like a +bubble), and the "praetexta," a gown edged with purple. + +The princes did not immediately join in council together, but at +first each met with his own hundred; afterwards all assembled +together. Tatius dwelt where now the temple of Moneta stands, and +Romulus, close by the steps, as they call them, of the Fair Shore, +near the descent from the Mount Palatine to the Circus Maximus. +There, they say, grew the holy cornel tree, of which they report +that Romulus once, to try his strength, threw a dart from the +Aventine Mount, the staff of which was made of cornel, which +struck so deep into the ground that no one of many that tried +could pluck it up; and the soil, being fertile, gave nourishment +to the wood, which sent forth branches, and produced a cornel- +stock of considerable bigness. This did posterity preserve and +worship as one of the most sacred things; and therefore, walled it +about; and if to any one it appeared not green nor flourishing, +but inclining to pine and wither, he immediately made outcry to +all he met, and they, like people hearing of a house on fire, with +one accord would cry for water, and run from all parts with +bucketfuls to the place. But when Gaius Caesar. they say, was +repairing the steps about it, some of the laborers digging too +close, the roots were destroyed, and the tree withered. + +The Sabines adopted the Roman months, of which whatever is +remarkable is mentioned in the Life of Numa. Romulus, on the other +hand, adopted their long shields, and changed his own armor and +that of all the Romans, who before wore round targets of the +Argive pattern. Feasts and sacrifices they partook of in common, +not abolishing any which either nation observed before, and +instituting several new ones. This, too, is observable as a +singular thing in Romulus, that he appointed no punishment for +real parricide, but called all murder so, thinking the one an +accursed thing, but the other a thing impossible; and for a long +time, his judgement seemed to have been right; for in almost six +hundred years together, nobody committed the like in Rome; Lucius +Hostius, after the wars of Hannibal, is recorded to have been the +first parricide. Let thus much suffice concerning these matters. + +In the fifth year of the reign of Tatius, some of his friends and +kinsmen, meeting ambassadors coming from Laurentum to Rome, +attempted on the road to take away their money by force, and, upon +their resistance, killed them. So great a villany having been +committed, Romulus thought the malefactors ought at once to be +punished, but Tatius shuffled off and deferred the execution of +it; and this one thing was the beginning of an open quarrel +betwixt them; in all other respects they were very careful of +their conduct, and administered affairs together with great +unanimity. The relations of the slain, being debarred of lawful +satisfaction by reason of Tatius, fell upon him as he was +sacrificing with Romulus at Lavinium, and slew him; but escorted +Romulus home, commending and extolling him for just a prince. +Romulus took the body of Tatius, and buried it very splendidly in +the Aventine Mount. + +The Roman cause daily gathering strength, their weaker neighbors +shrunk away, and were thankful to be left untouched; but the +stronger, out of fear or envy, thought they ought not to give away +to Romulus, but to curb and put a stop to his growing greatness. +The first were the Veientes, a people of Tuscany, who had large +possessions, and dwelt in a spacious city; they took occasion to +commence a war, by claiming Fidenae as belonging to them. But +being scornfully retorted upon by Romulus in his answers, they +divided themselves into two bodies; with one they attacked the +garrison of Fidenae, the other marched against Romulus; that which +went against Fidenae got the victory, and slew two thousand +Romans; the other was worsted by Romulus, with the loss of eight +thousand men. A fresh battle was fought near Fidenae, and here all +men acknowledge the day's success to have been chiefly the work of +Romulus himself, who showed the highest skill as well as courage, +and seemed to manifest a strength and swiftness more than human. +But what some write, that, of fourteen thousand that fell that +day, above half were slain by Romulus's own hand, verges too near +to fable, and is, indeed, simply incredible: since even the +Messenians are thought to go too far in saying that Aristomenes +three times offered sacrifices for the death of a hundred enemies, +Lacedaemonians, slain by himself. The army being thus routed, +Romulus, suffering those that were left to make their escape, led +his forces against the city; they, having suffered such great +losses, did not venture to oppose, but, humbly suing him, made a +league and friendship for an hundred years; surrendering also a +large district of land called Septempagium, that is, the seven +parts, as also their salt-works upon the river, and fifty noblemen +for hostages. He made his triumph for this on the Ides of October, +leading, among the rest of his many captives, the general of the +Veientes, an elderly man, but who had not, it seemed, acted with +the prudence of age; whence even now, in sacrifices for victories, +they led an old man through the market-place to the Capitol, +appareled in purple, with a bulla, or child's toy, tied to it, and +the crier cries, "Sardians to be sold;" for the Tuscans are said +to be a colony of the Sardians, and the Veientes are a city of +Tuscany. + +This was the last battle Romulus ever fought; afterwards he, as +most, nay all men, very few excepted, do, who are raised by great +and miraculous good-haps of fortune to power and greatness, so, I +say, did he: relying upon his own great actions and growing of a +haughtier mind, he forsook his popular behavior for kingly +arrogance, odious to the people; to whom in particular the state +which he assumed was hateful. For he dressed in scarlet, with the +purple-bordered robe over it; he gave audience on a couch of +slate, having always about him some young men called "Celeres," +from their swiftness in doing commissions. He suddenly disappeared +on the Nones of July, as they call the month which was then +Quintilis, leaving nothing of certainty to be related of his +death; the senators suffered the people not to search, or busy +themselves about the matter, but commanded them to honor and +worship Romulus as one taken up to the gods, and about to be to +them, in the place of a good prince, now a propitious god. The +multitude, hearing this, went away believing and rejoicing in +hopes of good things from him; but there were some, who, +canvassing the matter in a hostile temper, accused the patricians, +as men that persuaded the people to believe ridiculous tales, when +they were the murderers of the king. + +Things being in this disorder, one, they say, of the patricians, +of noble family and approved good character, and a faithful and +familiar friend of Romulus himself, having come with him from +Alba, Julius Proculus by name, presented himself in the forum; and +taking a most sacred oath, protested before them all, that, as he +was travelling on the road, he had seen Romulus coming to meet +him, looking taller and comelier than ever, dressed in shining and +flaming armor; and he, being affrighted at the apparition, said, +"Why, O king, or for what purpose, have you abandoned us to unjust +and wicked surmises, and the whole city to bereavement and endless +sorrow?" and that he made answer, "It pleased the gods, O +Proculus, that we, who came from them, should remain so long a +time amongst men as we did; and, having built a city to be the +greatest in the world for empire and glory, should again return to +heaven. But farewell; and tell the Romans, that, by the exercise +of temperance and fortitude, they shall attain the height of human +power; we will be to you the propitious god Quirinus." This seemed +credible to the Romans, upon the honesty and oath of the relator, +and laying aside all jealousies and detractions, they prayed to +Quirinus and saluted him as a god. + +This is like some of the Greek fables of Aristeas the +Proconnesian, and Cleomedes the Astypalaean; for they say Aristeas +died in a fuller's workshop, and his friends, coming to look for +him, found his body vanished; and that some presently after, +coming from abroad, said they met him travelling towards Croton. +And that Cleomedes, being an extraordinarily strong and gigantic +man, but also wild and mad, committed many desperate freaks; and +at last, in a schoolhouse, striking a pillar that sustained the +roof with his fist, broke it in the middle, so that the house fell +and destroyed the children in it; and being pursued, he fled into +a great chest, and, shutting to the lid, held it so fast that many +men, with their united strength, could not force it open; +afterwards, breaking the chest to pieces, they found no man in it +alive or dead. + +And many such improbabilities do your fabulous writers relate, +deifying creatures naturally mortal; for though altogether to +disown a divine nature in human virtue were impious and base, so +again to mix heaven with earth is ridiculous. Let us believe with +Pindar, that + +All human bodies yield to Death's decree: +The soul survives to all eternity. + +For that alone is derived from the gods, thence comes, and thither +returns. + +It was in the fifty-fourth year of his age and the thirty-eighth +of his reign that Romulus, they tell us, left the world. + + + +Comparison of Theseus and Romulus + +Both Theseus and Romulus were by nature meant for governors; yet +neither lived up to the true character of a king, but fell off, +and ran, the one into popularity, the other into tyranny, falling +both into the same fault out of different passions. For a ruler's +first end is to maintain his office, which is done no less by +avoiding what is unfit than by observing what is suitable. Whoever +is either too remiss or too strict is no more a king or a +governor, but either a demagogue or a despot, and so becomes +either odious or contemptible to his subjects. Though certainly +the one seems to be the fault of easiness and good-nature, the +other of pride and severity. + +But Romulus has, first of all, one great plea, that his +performances proceeded from very small beginnings; for both the +brothers, being thought servants and the sons of swineherds, +before becoming freemen themselves gave liberty to almost all the +Latins, obtaining at once all the most honorable titles, as, +destroyers of their country's enemies, preservers of their friends +and kindred, princes of the people, founders of cities; not +removers, like Theseus, who raised and compiled only one house out +of many, demolishing many cities bearing the names of ancient +kings and heroes. Romulus, indeed, did the same afterwards, +forcing his enemies to deface and ruin their own dwellings, and to +sojourn with their conquerors; but at first, not by removal, or +increase of an existing city, but by foundation of a new one, he +obtained himself lands, a country, a kingdom, wives, children, and +relations. And, in so doing, he killed or destroyed nobody, but +benefited those that wanted houses and homes, and were willing to +be of a society and become citizens. Robbers and malefactors he +slew not; but he subdued nations, he overthrew cities, he +triumphed over kings and commanders. As to Remus, it is doubtful +by whose hand he fell; it is generally imputed to others. His +mother he clearly retrieved from death, and placed his +grandfather, who was brought under base and dishonorable +vassalage, on the ancient throne of Aeneas, to whom he did +voluntarily many good offices, but never did him harm even +inadvertently. But Theseus, in his forgetfulness and neglect of +the command concerning the flag, can scarcely, methinks, by any +excuses, or before the most indulgent judges, avoid the imputation +of parricide. And, indeed, one of the Attic writers, perceiving it +to be very hard to make an excuse for this, feigns that Aegeus, at +the approach of the ship, running hastily to the Acropolis to see +what news there was, slipped and fell down; as if he had no +servants, or none would attend him on his way to the shore. + + + +LYCURGUS + +Those authors who are most worthy of credit deduce the genealogy +of Lycurgus, the lawgiver of Sparta, as follows: + + Aristodemus. + | + Patrocles. + | + Sous. + | + Eurypon. + | + Eunomus. + | +_________________________________________________ +Polydectes by his first wife. Lycurgus by Dionassa his second. + +Sous certainly was the most renowned of all his ancestors, under +whose conduct the Spartans made slaves of the Helots, and added to +their dominions, by conquest, a good part of Arcadia. There goes a +story of this king Sous, that, being besieged by the Clitorians in +a dry and stony place so that he could come at no water, he was at +last constrained to agree with them upon these terms, that he +would restore to them all his conquests, provided that himself and +all his men should drink of the nearest spring. After the usual +oaths and ratifications, he called his soldiers together, and +offered to him that would forbear drinking, his kingdom for a +reward; and when not a man of them was able to forbear, in short, +when they had all drunk their fill, at last comes king Sous +himself to the spring, and, having sprinkled his face only, +without swallowing one drop, marches off in the face of his +enemies, refusing to yield up his conquests, because himself and +all his men had not, according to the articles, drunk of their +water. + +Although he was justly had in admiration on this account, yet his +family was not surnamed from him, but from his son Eurypon (of +whom they were called Eurypontids); the reason of which was that +Eurypon relaxed the rigor of the monarchy, seeking favor and +popularity with the many. They, after this first step, grew +bolder; and the succeeding kings partly incurred hatred with their +people by trying to use force, or, for popularity's sake and +through weakness, gave way; and anarchy and confusion long +prevailed in Sparta, causing, moreover, the death of the father of +Lycurgus. For as he was endeavoring to quell a riot, he was +stabbed with a butcher's knife, and left the title of king to his +eldest son Polydectes. + +He, too, dying soon after, the right of succession (as every one +thought) rested in Lycurgus; and reign he did for a time, but +declared that the kingdom belonged to the child of his sister-in- +law the queen, and that he himself should exercise the regal +jurisdiction only as his guardian; the Spartan name for which +office is prodicus. Soon after, an overture was made to him by the +queen, that she would herself in some way destroy the infant, upon +condition that he would marry her when he came to the crown. +Abhorring the woman's wickedness, he nevertheless did not reject +her proposal, but, making show of closing with her, despatched the +messenger with thanks and expressions of joy, with orders that +they should bring the boy baby to him, wheresoever he were, and +whatsoever doing. It so fell out that when he was at supper with +the principal magistrates, the queen's child was presented to him, +and he, taking him into his arms, said to those about him, "Men of +Sparta, here is a king born unto us;" this said, he laid him down +in the king's place, and named him Charilaus, that is, the joy of +the people; because that all were transported with joy and with +wonder at his noble and just spirit. His reign had lasted only +eight months, but he was honored on other accounts by the +citizens, and there were more who obeyed him because of his +eminent virtues, than because he was regent to the king and had +the royal power in his hands. Some, however, envied and sought to +impede his growing influence while he was still young; chiefly the +kindred and friends of the queen-mother, who pretended to have +been dealt with injuriously. Her brother Leonidas, in a warm +debate which fell out betwixt him and Lycurgus, went so far as to +tell him to his face that he was well assured that ere long he +should see him king; suggesting suspicions and preparing the way +for an accusation of him, as though he had made away with his +nephew, if the child should chance to fail, though by a natural +death. Words of the like import were designedly cast abroad by the +queen-mother and her adherents. + +Troubled at this, and not knowing what it might come to, he +thought it his wisest course to avoid their envy by a voluntary +exile, and to travel from place to place until his nephew came to +marriageable years, and, by having a son, had secured the +succession. Setting sail, therefore, with this resolution, he +first arrived at Crete, where, having considered their several +forms of government, and got an acquaintance with the principal +men amongst them, some of their laws he very much approved of, and +resolved to make use of them in his own country; a good part he +rejected as useless. Amongst the persons there the most renowned +for their learning and their wisdom in state matters was one +Thales, whom Lycurgus, by importunities and assurances of +friendship, persuaded to go over to Lacedaemon; where, though by +his outward appearance and his own profession he seemed to be no +other than a lyric poet, in reality he performed the part of one +of the ablest lawgivers in the world. The very songs which he +composed were exhortations to obedience and concord, and the very +measure and cadence of the verse, conveying impressions of order +and tranquillity, had so great an influence on the minds of the +listeners that they were insensibly softened and civilized, +insomuch that they renounced their private feuds and animosities, +and were reunited in a common admiration of virtue. So that it may +truly be said that Thales prepared the way for the discipline +introduced by Lycurgus. + +From Crete he sailed to Asia, with design, as is said, to examine +the difference betwixt the manners and rules of life of the +Cretans, which were very sober and temperate, and those of the +Ionians, a people of sumptuous and delicate habits, and so to form +a judgment; just as physicians do by comparing healthy and +diseased bodies. Here he had the first sight of Homer's works, in +the hands, we may suppose, of the posterity of Creophylus; and, +having observed that the few loose expressions and actions of ill +example which are to be found in his poems were much outweighed by +serious lessons of state and rules of morality, he set himself +eagerly to transcribe and digest them into order, as thinking they +would be of good use in his own country. They had, indeed, already +obtained some slight repute amongst the Greeks, and scattered +portions, as chance conveyed them, were in the hands of +individuals; but Lycurgus first made them really known. + +The Egyptians say that he took a voyage into Egypt, and that, +being much taken with their way of separating the soldiery from +the rest of the nation, he transferred it from them to Sparta; a +removal from contact with those employed in low and mechanical +occupations giving high refinement and beauty to the state. Some +Greek writers also record this. But as for his voyages into Spain, +Africa, and the Indies, and his conferences there with the +Gymnosophists, the whole relation, as far as I can find, rests on +the single credit of the Spartan Aristocrates, the son of +Hipparchus. + +Lycurgus was much missed at Sparta, and often sent for, "For kings +indeed we have," they said, "who wear the marks and assume the +titles of royalty, but as for the qualities of their minds, they +have nothing by which they are to be distinguished from their +subjects;" adding that in him alone was the true foundation of +sovereignty to be seen, a nature made to rule, and a genius to +gain obedience. Nor were the kings themselves averse to see him +back, for they looked upon his presence as a bulwark against the +insolencies of the people. + +Things being in this posture at his return, he applied himself, +without loss of time, to a thorough reformation, and resolved to +change the whole face of the commonwealth; for what could a few +particular laws and a partial alteration avail? He must act as +wise physicians do, in the case of one who labors under a +complication of diseases,--by force of medicines reduce and +exhaust him, change his whole temperament, and then set him upon a +totally new regimen of diet. Having thus projected things, away he +goes to Delphi to consult Apollo there; which having done, and +offered his sacrifice, he returned with that renowned oracle, in +which he is called beloved of God, and rather God than man: that +his prayers were heard, that his laws should be the best, and the +commonwealth which observed them the most famous in the world. +Encouraged by these things, he set himself to bring over to his +side the leading men of Sparta, exhorting them to give him a +helping hand in his great undertaking: he broke it first to his +particular friends, and then by degrees gained others, and +animated them all to put his design in execution. When things were +ripe for action, he gave order to thirty of the principal men of +Sparta to be ready armed at the market-place at break of day, to +the end that he might strike a terror into the opposite party. +Hermippus hath set down the names of twenty of the most eminent of +them: but the name of him whom Lycurgus most confided in, and who +was of most use to him both in making his laws and putting them in +execution, was Arthmiadas. Things growing to a tumult, king +Charilaus, apprehending that it was a conspiracy against his +person, took sanctuary in the temple of Athena of the Brazen +House; but, being soon after undeceived, and having taken an oath +of them that they had no designs against him, he quitted his +refuge, and himself also entered into the confederacy with them; +of so gentle and flexible a disposition he was, to which +Archelaus, his brother-king, alluded, when, hearing him extolled +for his goodness, he said: "Who can say he is anything but good? +he is so even to the bad." + +Amongst the many changes and alterations which Lycurgus made, the +first and of greatest importance was the establishment of the +senate, which, having a power equal to the kings' in matters of +great consequence, and, as Plato expresses it, allaying and +qualifying the fiery genius of the royal office, gave steadiness +and safety to the commonwealth. For the state, which before had no +firm basis to stand upon, but leaned one while towards an absolute +monarchy, when the kings had the upper hand, and another while +towards a pure democracy, when the people had the better, found in +this establishment of the senate a central weight, like ballast in +a ship, which always kept things in a just equilibrium; the +twenty-eight always adhering to the kings so far as to resist +democracy, and, on the other hand, supporting the people against +the establishment of absolute monarchy. As for the determinate +number of twenty-eight, Aristotle states that it so fell out +because two of the original associates, for want of courage, fell +off from the enterprise; but Sphaerus assures us that there were +but twenty-eight of the confederates at first; perhaps there is +some mystery in the number, which consists of seven multiplied by +four, and is the first of perfect numbers after six, being, as +that is, equal to all its parts. For my part, I believe Lycurgus +fixed upon the number of twenty-eight, that, the two kings being +reckoned amongst them, they might be thirty in all. So eagerly set +was he upon this establishment, that he took the trouble to obtain +an oracle about it from Delphi; and the Rhetra (or sacred +ordinance) runs thus: "After that you have built a temple to +Jupiter Hellanius, and to Minerva Hellania, and after that you +have phyle'd the people into phyles, and obe'd them into obes, you +shall establish a council of thirty elders, the leaders included, +and shall, from time to time, assemble the people betwixt Babyca +and Cnacion, there propound and put to the vote. The commons have +the final voice and decision." By phyles and obes are meant the +divisions of the people; by the leaders, the two kings; Aristotle +says Cnacion is a river, and Babyca a bridge. Betwixt this Babyca +and Cnacion, their assemblies were held, for they had no council- +house or building to meet in. Lycurgus was of opinion that +ornaments were so far from advantaging them in their councils, +that they were rather an hindrance, by diverting their attention +from the business before them to statues and pictures, and roofs +curiously fretted, the usual embellishments of such places amongst +the other Greeks. The people then being thus assembled in the open +air, it was not allowed to any one of their order to give his +advice, but only either to ratify or reject what should be +propounded to them by the king or senate. + +After the creation of the thirty senators, his next task, and, +indeed, the most hazardous he ever undertook, was the making of a +new division of their lands. For there was an extreme inequality +amongst them, and their state was overloaded with a multitude of +indigent and necessitous persons, while its whole wealth had +centred upon a very few. To the end, therefore, that he might +expel from the state arrogance and envy, luxury and crime, and +those yet more inveterate diseases of want and superfluity, he +obtained of them to renounce their properties, and to consent to a +new division of the land, and that they should live all together +on an equal footing; merit to be their only road to eminence, and +the disgrace of evil, and credit of worthy acts, their one measure +of difference between man and man. + +Upon their consent to these proposals, proceeding at once to put +them into execution, he divided the country of Laconia in general +into thirty thousand equal shares, and the part attached to the +city of Sparta into nine thousand; these he distributed among the +Spartans, as he did the others to the country citizens. A lot was +so much as to yield, one year with another, about seventy bushels +of grain for the master of the family, and twelve for his wife, +with a suitable proportion of oil and wine. And this he thought +sufficient to keep their bodies in good health and strength; +superfluities they were better without. It is reported, that, as +he returned from a journey shortly after the division of the +lands, in harvest time, the ground being newly reaped, seeing the +stacks all standing equal and alike, he smiled, and said to those +about him, "Methinks all Laconia looks like one family estate just +divided among a number of brothers." + +Not contented with this, he resolved to make a division of their +movables too, that there might be no odious distinction or +inequality left amongst them; but finding that it would be very +dangerous to go about it openly, he took another course, and +defeated their avarice by the following stratagem: he commanded +that all gold and silver coin should be called in, and that only a +sort of money made of iron should be current, a great weight and +quantity of which was worth but very little; so that to lay up a +hundred or two dollars there was required a pretty large closet, +and, to remove it, nothing less than a yoke of oxen. With the +diffusion of this money, at once a number of vices were banished +from Lacedaemon; for who would rob another of such a coin? Who +would unjustly detain or take by force, or accept as a bribe, a +thing which it was not easy to hide, nor a credit to have, nor +indeed of any use to cut in pieces? For when it was just red-hot, +they quenched it in vinegar, and by that means spoilt it, and made +it almost incapable of being worked. + +In the next place, he declared an outlawry of all needless and +superfluous arts; but here he might almost have spared his +proclamation; for they of themselves would have gone with the gold +and silver, the money which remained being not so proper payment +for curious work; for, being of iron, it was scarcely portable, +neither, if they should take the pains to export it, would it pass +amongst the other Greeks, who ridiculed it. so there was now no +more means of purchasing foreign goods and small wares; merchants +sent no shiploads into Laconian ports; no rhetoric-master, no +itinerant fortune-teller, or gold or silversmith, engraver, or +jeweler, set foot in a country which had no money; so that luxury, +deprived little by little of that which fed and fomented it, +wasted to nothing, and died away of itself. For the rich had no +advantage here over the poor, as their wealth and abundance had no +road to come abroad by, but were shut up at home doing nothing. +And in this way they became excellent artists in common necessary +things; bedsteads, chairs, and tables, and such like staple +utensils in a family, were admirably well made there; their cup, +particularly, was very much in fashion, and eagerly sought for by +soldiers, as Critias reports; for its color was such as to prevent +water, drunk upon necessity and disagreeable to look at, from +being noticed; and the shape of it was such that the mud stuck to +the sides, so that only the purer part came to the drinker's +mouth. For this, also, they had to thank their lawgiver, who, by +relieving the artisans of the trouble of making useless things, +set them to show their skill in giving beauty to those of daily +and indispensable use. + +The third and most masterly stroke of this great lawgiver, by +which he struck a yet more effectual blow against luxury and the +desire of riches, was the ordinance he made that they should all +eat in common, of the same bread and same meat, and of kinds that +were specified, and should not spend their lives at home, laid on +costly couches at splendid tables, delivering themselves up into +the hands of their tradesmen and cooks, to fatten them in corners, +like greedy brutes, and to ruin not their minds only but their +very bodies, which, enfeebled by indulgence and excess, would +stand in need of long sleep, warm bathing, freedom from work, and, +in a word, of as much care and attendance as if they were +continually sick. It was certainly an extraordinary thing to have +brought about such a result as this, but a greater yet to have +taken away from wealth, as Theophrastus observes, not merely the +property of being coveted, but its very nature of being wealth. +For the rich, being obliged to go to the same table with the poor, +could not make use of or enjoy their abundance, nor so much as +please their vanity by looking at or displaying it. So that the +common proverb, that Plutus, the god of riches, is blind, was +nowhere in all the world literally verified but in Sparta. There, +indeed, he was not only blind, but, like a picture, without either +life or motion. Nor were they allowed to take food at home first, +and then attend the public tables, for everyone had an eye upon +those who did not eat and drink like the rest, and reproached them +with being dainty and effeminate. + +This last ordinance in particular exasperated the wealthier men. +They collected in a body against Lycurgus, and from ill words came +to throwing stones, so that at length he was forced to run out of +the market-place, and make to sanctuary to save his life; by good- +hap he outran all excepting one Alcander, a young man otherwise +not ill accomplished, but hasty and violent, who came up so close +to him, that, when he turned to see who was near him, he struck +him upon the face with his stick, and put out one of his eyes. +Lycurgus, so far from being daunted and discouraged by this +accident, stopped short and showed his disfigured face and eye +beat out to his countrymen; they, dismayed and ashamed at the +sight, delivered Alcander into his hands to be punished, and +escorted him home, with expressions of great concern for his ill +usage. Lycurgus, having thanked them for their care of his person, +dismissed them all, excepting only Alcander; and, taking him with +him into his house, neither did nor said anything severe to him, +but dismissing those whose place it was, bade Alcander to wait +upon him at table. The young man, who was of an ingenuous temper, +did without murmuring as he was commanded; and, being thus +admitted to live with Lycurgus, he had an opportunity to observe +in him, beside his gentleness and calmness of temper, an +extraordinary sobriety and an indefatigable industry, and so, from +an enemy, became one of his most zealous admirers, and told his +friends and relations that Lycurgus was not that morose and ill- +natured man they had formerly taken him for, but the one mild and +gentle character of the world. And thus did Lycurgus, for +chastisement of his fault, make of a wild and passionate young man +one of the discreetest citizens of Sparta. + +In memory of this accident, Lycurgus built a temple to Minerva. +Some authors, however, say that he was wounded, indeed, but did +not lose his eye from the blow; and that he built the temple in +gratitude for the cure. Be this as it will, certain it is, that, +after this misadventure, the Lacedaemonians made it a rule never +to carry so much as a staff into their public assemblies. + +But to return to their public repasts. They met by companies of +fifteen, more or less, and each of them stood bound to bring in +monthly a bushel of meal, eight gallons of wine, five pounds of +cheese, two pounds and a half of figs, and some very small sum of +money to buy flesh or fish with. Besides this, when any of them +made sacrifice to the gods, they always sent a dole to the common +hall; and, likewise, when any of them had been a-hunting, he sent +thither a part of the venison he had killed; for these two +occasions were the only excuses allowed for supping at home. The +custom of eating together was observed strictly for a great while +afterwards; insomuch that king Agis himself, after having +vanquished the Athenians, sending for his commons at his return +home, because he desired to eat privately with his queen, was +refused them by the polemarchs; and when he resented this refusal +so much as to omit next day the sacrifice due for a war happily +ended, they made him pay a fine. + +They used to send their children to these tables as to schools of +temperance; here they were instructed in state affairs by +listening to experienced statesmen; here they learnt to converse +with pleasantry, to make jests without scurrility, and take them +without ill humor. In this point of good breeding, the +Lacedaemonians excelled particularly, but if any man were uneasy +under it, upon the least hint given there was no more to be said +to him. It was customary also for the eldest man in the company to +say to each of them, as they came in, "Through this" (pointing to +the door), "no words go out." When any one had a desire to be +admitted into any of these little societies, he was to go through +the following probation: each man in the company took a little +ball of soft bread, which they were to throw into a deep basin, +that a waiter carried round upon his head; those that liked the +person to be chosen dropped their ball into the basin without +altering its figure, and those who disliked him pressed it betwixt +their fingers, and made it flat; and this signified as much as a +negative voice. And if there were but one of these flattened +pieces in the basin, the suitor was rejected, so desirous were +they that all the members of the company should be agreeable to +each other. The basin was called caddichus, and the rejected +candidate had a name thence derived. Their most famous dish was +the black broth, which was so much valued that the elderly men fed +only upon that, leaving what flesh there was to the younger. + +They say that a certain king of Pontus, having heard much of this +black broth of theirs, sent for a Lacedaemonian cook on purpose to +make him some, but had no sooner tasted it than he found it +extremely bad, which the cook observing, told him, "Sir, to make +this broth relish, you should have bathed yourself first in the +river Eurotas." + +After drinking moderately, every man went to his home without +lights, for the use of them was, on all occasions, forbid, to the +end that they might accustom themselves to march boldly in the +dark. Such was the common fashion of their meals. + +Lycurgus would never reduce his laws into writing; nay, there is a +Rhetra expressly to forbid it. For he thought that the most +material points, and such as most directly tended to the public +welfare, being imprinted on the hearts of their youth by a good +discipline, would be sure to remain, and would find a stronger +security, than any compulsion would be, in the principles of +action formed in them by their best lawgiver, education. + +One, then, of the Rhetras was, that their laws should not be +written; another is particularly leveled against luxury and +expensiveness, for by it it was ordained that the ceilings of +their houses should only be wrought by the axe, and their gates +and doors smoothed only the saw. Epaminondas's famous dictum about +his own table, that "Treason and a dinner like this do not keep +company together," may be said to have been anticipated by +Lycurgus. Luxury and a house of this kind could not well be +companions. For a man must have a less than ordinary share of +sense that would furnish such plain and common rooms with silver- +footed couches and purple coverlets and gold and silver plate. +Doubtless he had good reason to think that they would proportion +their beds to their houses, and their coverlets to their beds, and +the rest of their goods and furniture to these. It is reported +that King Leotychides, the first of that name, was so little used +to the sight of any other kind of work, that, being entertained at +Corinth in a stately room, he was much surprised to see the timber +and ceilings so finely carved and paneled, and asked his host +whether the trees grew so in his country. + +A third ordinance or Rhetra was that they should not make war +often, or long, with the same enemy, lest they should train and +instruct them in war, by habituating them to defend themselves. +And this is what Agesilaus was much blamed for a long time after; +it being thought that, by his continual incursions into Boeotia, +he made the Thebans a match for the Lacedaemonians; and therefore +Antalcidas, seeing him wounded one day, said to him that he was +very well paid for taking such pains to make the Thebans good +soldiers, whether they would or no. These laws were called the +Rhetras, to intimate that they were divine sanctions and +revelations. + +In order to the good education of their youth (which, as I said +before, he thought the most important and noblest work of a +lawgiver), he took in their case all the care that was possible; +he ordered the maidens to exercise themselves with wrestling, +running, throwing the quoit, and casting the dart, to the end that +they might have strong and healthy bodies. + +It was not in the power of the father to dispose of his child as +he thought fit; he was obliged to carry it before certain "triers" +at a place called Lesche; these were some of the elders of the +tribe to which the child belonged; their business it was carefully +to view the infant, and, if they found it stout and well made, +they gave order for its rearing, and allotted to it one of the +nine thousand shares of land above mentioned for its maintenance; +but if they found it puny and ill-shaped, ordered it to be taken +to what was called the Apothetae, a sort of chasm under Taygetus; +as thinking it neither for the good of the child itself, nor for +the public interest, that it should be brought up, if it did not, +from the very outset, appear made to be healthy and vigorous. Upon +the same account, the women did not bathe the new-born children +with water, as is the custom in all other countries, but with +wine, to prove the temper and complexion of their bodies; from a +notion they had that epileptic and weakly children faint and waste +away upon their being thus bathed, while, on the contrary, those +of a strong and vigorous habit acquire firmness and get a temper +by it like steel. There was much care and art, too, used by the +nurses; they had no swaddling bands; the children grew up free and +unconstrained in limb and form, and not dainty and fanciful about +their food; nor afraid in the dark, or of being left alone; +without any peevishness or ill humor or crying. Upon this account, +Spartan nurses were often bought up, or hired by people of other +countries. + +Lycurgus was of another mind; he would not have masters bought out +of the market for his young Spartans, nor such as should sell +their pains; nor was it lawful, indeed, for the father himself to +raise his children after his own fancy; but as soon as they were +seven years old they were to be enrolled in certain companies and +classes, where they all lived under the same order and discipline, +doing their exercises and taking their play together. Of these he +who showed the most conduct and courage was made captain; they had +their eyes always upon him, obeyed his orders, and underwent +patiently whatsoever punishment he inflicted; so that the whole +course of their education was one continued exercise of a ready +and perfect obedience. The old men, too, were spectators of their +performances, and often raised quarrels and disputes among them, +to have a good opportunity of finding out their different +characters, and of seeing which would be valiant, which a coward, +when they should come to more dangerous encounters. Reading and +writing they gave them, just enough to serve their turn; their +chief care was to make them good subjects, and to teach them to +endure pain and conquer in battle. To this end, as they grew in +years, their discipline was proportionally increased; their heads +were close-clipped; they were accustomed to go barefoot, and for +the most part to play naked. + +After they were twelve years old they were no longer allowed to +wear any under-garment; they had one coat to serve them a year; +their bodies were hard and dry, with but little acquaintance of +baths and unguents; these human indulgences they were allowed only +on some few particular days in the year. They lodged together in +little bands upon beds made of the rushes which grew by the banks +of the river Eurotas, which they were to break off with their +hands without a knife; if it were winter, they mingled some +thistledown with their rushes, which it was thought had the +property of giving warmth. + +Besides all this, there was always one of the best and most honest +men in the city appointed to undertake the charge and governance +of them; he again arranged them into their several bands, and set +over each of them for their captain the most temperate and bold of +those they called Irens, who were usually twenty years old, two +years out of boyhood; and the eldest of the boys, again, were +Mell-Irens, as much as to say, "who would shortly be men." This +young man, therefore, was their captain when they fought, and +their master at home, using them for the offices of his house; +sending the oldest of them to fetch wood, and the weaker and less +able, to gather salads and herbs, and these they must either go +without or steal; which they did by creeping into the gardens, or +conveying themselves cunningly and closely into the eating-houses; +if they were taken in the act, they were whipped without mercy, +for thieving so ill and awkwardly. They stole, too, all other meat +they could lay their hands on, looking out and watching all +opportunities, when people were asleep or more careless than +usual. If they were caught, they were not only punished with +whipping, but hunger, too, being reduced to their ordinary +allowance, which was but very slender, and so contrived on +purpose, that they might set about to help themselves, and be +forced to exercise their energy and address. + +So seriously did the Lacedaemonian children go about their +stealing, that a youth, having stolen a young fox and hid it under +his coat, suffered it to tear out his very bowels with its teeth +and claws, and died upon the place, rather than let it be seen. +What is practised to this very day in Lacedaemon is enough to gain +credit to this story, for I myself have seen several of the youths +endure whipping to death at the foot of the altar of Diana +surnamed Orthia. + +The Iren, or under-master, used to stay a little with them after +supper, and one of them he bade to sing a song, to another he put +a question which required an advised and deliberate answer; for +example, Who was the best man in the city? What he thought of such +an action of such a man? They accustomed them thus early to pass a +right judgment upon persons and things, and to inform themselves +of the abilities or defects of their countrymen. If they had not +an answer ready to the question, Who was a good or who an ill- +reputed citizen? they were looked upon as of a dull and careless +disposition, and to have little or no sense of virtue and honor; +besides this, they were to give a good reason for what they said, +and in as few words and as comprehensive as might be; he that +failed of this, or answered not to the purpose, had his thumb bit +by his master. + +They taught them, also, to speak with a natural and graceful +raillery, and to comprehend much matter of thought in few words. +For Lycurgus, who ordered, as we saw, that a great piece of money +should be but of an inconsiderable value, on the contrary would +allow no discourse to be current which did not contain in few +words a great deal of useful and curious sense; children in +Sparta, by a habit of long silence, came to give just and +sententious answers; for, indeed, loose talkers seldom originate +many sensible words. King Agis, when some Athenian laughed at +their short swords, and said that the jugglers on the stage +swallowed them with ease, answered him, "We find them long enough +to reach our enemies with;" and as their swords were short and +sharp, so, it seems to me, were their sayings. They reach the +point and arrest the attention of the hearers better than any +others. Lycurgus himself seems to have been short and sententious. +if we may trust the anecdotes of him; as appears by his answer to +one who by all means would set up democracy in Lacedaemon. "Begin, +friend," said he, "and set it up in your family." Another asked +him why he allowed of such mean and trivial sacrifices to the +gods. He replied, "That we may always have something to offer to +them." Being asked what sort of martial exercises or combats he +approved of, he answered, "All sorts, except that in which you +stretch out your hands." + +Of their dislike to talkativeness, the following apophthegms are +evidence. King Leonidas said to one who held him in discourse upon +some useful matter, but not in due time and place, "Much to the +purpose, sir, elsewhere." King Charilaus, the nephew of Lycurgus, +being asked why his uncle had made so few laws, answered, "Men of +few words require but few laws." When one blamed Hecataeus the +sophist because that, being invited to the public table, he had +not spoken one word all supper-time, Archidamidas answered in his +vindication, "He who knows how to speak, knows also when." + +The sharp, and yet not ungraceful, retorts which I mentioned may +be instanced as follows. Demaratus, being asked in a troublesome +manner by an importunate fellow, Who was the best man in +Lacedaemon? answered at last," He, sir, that is the least like +you." Some, in company where Agis was, much extolled the Eleans +for their just and honorable management of the Olympic games; +"Indeed," said Agis, "they are highly to be commended if they can +do justice one day in five years." + +We may see their character, too, in their very jests. For they did +not throw them out at random, but the very wit of them was +grounded upon something or other worth thinking about. For +instance, one, being asked to go hear a man who exactly +counterfeited the voice of a nightingale, answered, "Sir, I have +heard the nightingale itself." Another, having read the following +inscription upon a tomb,---- + +Seeking to quench a cruel tyranny, +They, at Selinus, did in battle die, + +said, it served them right; for instead of trying to quench the +tyranny they should have let it burn out. A lad, being offered +some game-cocks that would die upon the spot, said he cared not +for cocks that would die, but for such as would live and kill +others. In short, their answers were so sententious and pertinent, +that one said well that intellectual, much more truly than +athletic, exercise was the Spartan characteristic. + +Nor was their instruction in music and verse less carefully +attended to than their habits of grace and good breeding in +conversation. And their very songs had a life and spirit in them +that inflamed and possessed men's minds with an enthusiasm and +ardor for action; the style of them was plain and without +affectation; the subject always serious and moral; most usually it +was in praise of such men as had died in defence of their country, +or in derision of those that had been cowards; the former they +declared happy and glorified; the life of the latter they +described as most miserable and abject. There were also vaunts of +what they would do, and boasts of what they had done, varying with +the various ages, as, for example, they had three choirs in their +solemn festivals, the first of the old men, the second of the +young men, and the last of the children; the old men began thus: + +We once were young, and brave and strong; + +the young men answered them, singing, + +And we're so now, come on and try; + +the children came last and said, + +But we'll be strongest by and by. + +Before they engaged in battle, the Lacedaemonians abated a little +the severity of their manners in favor of their young men, +suffering them to curl and adorn their hair, and to have costly +arms, and fine clothes; and were well pleased to see them, like +proud horses, neighing and pressing to the course. And therefore, +as soon as they came to be well grown, they took a great deal of +care of their hair, to have it parted and trimmed, especially +against a day of battle, pursuant to a saying recorded of their +lawgiver, that a large head of hair added beauty to a good face, +and terror to an ugly one. + +The senate, as I said before, consisted of those who were +Lycurgus's chief aiders and assistants in his plan. The vacancies +he ordered to be supplied out of the best and most deserving men +past sixty years old. The manner of their election was as follows: +the people being called together, some selected persons were +locked up in a room near the place of election, so contrived that +they could neither see nor be seen, but could only hear the noise +of the assembly without; for they decided this, as most other +affairs of moment, by the shouts of the people. This done, the +competitors were not brought in and presented all together, but +one after another by lot, and passed in order through the assembly +without speaking a word. Those who were locked up had writing- +tables with them, in which they recorded and marked each shout by +its loudness, without knowing in favor of which candidate each of +them was made, but merely that they came first, second, third, and +so forth. He who was found to have the most and loudest +acclamations was declared senator duly elected. + +When he perceived that his more important institutions had taken +root in the minds of his countrymen, that custom had rendered them +familiar and easy, that his commonwealth was now grown up and able +to go alone, then, as Plato somewhere tells us the Maker of the +world, when first he saw it existing and beginning its motion, +felt joy, even so Lycurgus, viewing with joy and satisfaction the +greatness and beauty of his political structure, now fairly at +work and in motion, conceived the thought to make it immortal too, +and as far as human forecast could reach, to deliver it down +unchangeable to posterity. He called an extraordinary assembly of +all the people, and told them that he now thought everything +reasonably well established, both for the happiness and the virtue +of the state; but that there was one thing still behind, of the +greatest importance, which he thought not fit to impart until he +had consulted the oracle; in the meantime, his desire was that +they would observe the laws without even the least alteration +until his return, and then he would do as the god should direct +him. They all consented readily, and bade him hasten his journey; +but, before he departed, he administered an oath to the two kings, +the senate, and the whole commons, to abide by and maintain the +established form of polity until Lycurgus should come back. This +done, he set out for Delphi, and, having sacrificed to Apollo, +asked him whether the laws he had established were good and +sufficient for a people's happiness and virtue. The oracle +answered that the laws were excellent, and that the people, while +it observed them, should live in the height of renown. Lycurgus +took the oracle in writing, and sent it over to Sparta, and, +having sacrificed a second time to Apollo, and taken leave of his +friends and his son, he resolved that the Spartans should not be +released from the oath they had taken, and that he would, of his +own act, close his life where he was. He was now about that age in +which life was still tolerable, and yet might be quitted without +regret. Everything, moreover, about him was in a sufficiently +prosperous condition. He, therefore, made an end of himself by a +total abstinence from food; thinking it a statesman's duty to make +his very death, if possible, an act of service to the state, and +even in the end of his life to give some example of virtue and +effect some useful purpose. Nor was he deceived in his +expectations, for the city of Lacedaemon continued the chief city +of all Greece for the space of five hundred years, in strict +observance of Lycurgus's laws; in all which time there was no +manner of alteration made, during the reign of fourteen kings, +down to the time of Agis, the son of Archidamus. + +King Theopompus, when one said that Sparta held up so long because +their kings could command so well, replied, "Nay, rather because +the people know so well how to obey." For people do not obey, +unless rulers know how to command; obedience is a lesson taught by +commanders. A true leader himself creates the obedience of his own +followers; as it is the greatest attainment in the art of riding +to make a horse gentle and tractable, so is it of the science of +government to inspire men with a willingness to obey. + +It is reported that when the bones were brought home to Sparta his +tomb was struck with lightning, an accident which befell no +eminent person but himself and Euripides. But Aristocrates, the +son of Hipparchus, says that he died in Crete, and that his Cretan +friends, in accordance with his own request, when they had burned +his body, scattered the ashes into the sea, for fear lest, if his +relics should be transported to Lacedaemon, the people might +pretend to be released from their oaths, and make innovations in +the government. + + + +SOLON + +SOLON, as Hermippus writes, when his father had ruined his estate +in doing benefits and kindnesses to other men, though he had +friends enough that were willing to contribute to his relief, yet +was ashamed to be beholden to others, since he was descended from +a family who were accustomed to do kindnesses rather than receive +them; and therefore applied himself to merchandise in his youth; +though others assure us that he traveled rather to get learning +and experience than to make money. It is certain that he was a +lover of knowledge, for when he was old he would say that he + +Each day grew older, and learnt something new. + +But that he accounted himself rather poor than rich is evident +from the lines, + +Some wicked men are rich, some good are poor, +We will not change our virtue for their store; +Virtue's a thing that none can take away, +But money changes owners all the day. + +It is stated that Anacharsis and Solon and Thales were familiarly +acquainted, and some have quoted parts of their discourse; for, +they say, Anacharsis, coming to Athens, knocked at Solon's door +and told him that he, being a stranger, was come to be his guest, +and contract a friendship with him; and Solon replying; "It is +better to make friends at home," Anacharsis replied, "Then you +that are at home make friendship with me." Solon, somewhat +surprised at the readiness of the repartee, received him kindly, +and kept him some time with him, being already engaged in public +business and the compilation of his laws; which when Anacharsis +understood, he laughed at him for imagining the dishonesty and +covetousness of his countrymen could be restrained by written +laws, which were like spiders' webs, and would catch, it is true, +the weak and poor, but easily be broken by the mighty and rich. To +this Solon rejoined that men keep their promises when neither side +can get anything by the breaking of them; and he would so fit his +laws to the citizens, that all should understand it was more +eligible to be just than to break the laws. But the event rather +agreed with the conjecture of Anacharsis than Solon's hope. +Anacharsis, being once at the assembly, expressed his wonder that +in Greece wise men spoke and fools decided. + +Now, when the Athenians were tired with a tedious and difficult +war that they conducted against the Megarians for the island +Salamis, and made a law that is should be death for any man, by +writing or speaking, to assert that the city ought to endeavor to +recover it, Solon, vexed at the disgrace, and perceiving thousands +of the youth wished for somebody to begin, but did not dare to +stir first for fear of the law, counterfeited a distraction, and +by his own family it was spread about the city that he was mad. He +then secretly composed some elegiac verses, and getting them by +heart, that it might seem extempore, ran out into the market-place +with a cap upon his head, and, the people gathering about him, got +upon the herald's stand, and sang that elegy which begins thus:-- + +I am a herald come from Salamis the fair, +My news from thence my verses shall declare. + +The poem is called "Salamis"; it contains a hundred verses, very +elegantly written. When it had been sung, his friends commended +it, and especially Pisistratus exhorted the citizens to obey his +directions; insomuch that they recalled the law, and renewed the +war under Solon's conduct. The popular take is, that with +Pisistratus he sailed to Colias, and, finding the women, according +to the custom of the country there, sacrificing to Ceres, he sent +a trusty friend to Salamis, who should pretend himself a renegade, +and advise them, if they desired to seize the chief Athenian +women, to come with him at once to Colias; the Megarians presently +sent off men in the vessel with him, and Solon, seeing it put off +from the island, commanded the women to be gone, and some +beardless youths, dressed in their clothes, their shoes, and caps, +and privately armed with daggers, to dance and play near the shore +till the enemies had landed and the vessel was in their power. +Things being thus ordered, the Megarians were allured with the +appearance, and, coming to the shore, jumped out, eager who should +first seize a prize, so that not one of them escaped; and the +Athenians set sail for the island and took it. + +For this Solon grew famed and powerful; but his advice in favor of +defending the oracle at Delphi, to give aid, and not to suffer the +Cirrhaeans to profane it, but to maintain the honor of the god, +got him most repute among the Greeks: for upon his persuasion the +Amphictyons undertook the war. + +Now the Cylonian pollution had a long time disturbed the +commonwealth, ever since the time when Megacles the archon +persuaded the conspirators with Cylon that took sanctuary in +Athena's temple to come down and stand to a fair trial. And they, +tying a thread to the image, and holding one end of it, went down +to the tribunal; but when they came to the temple of the Furies, +the thread broke of its own accord, upon which, as if the goddess +had refused them protection, they were seized by Megacles and the +other magistrates; as many as were without the temples were +stoned, those that fled for sanctuary were butchered at the altar, +and only those escaped who made supplication to the wives of the +magistrates. + +The Athenians, now the Cylonian sedition was over and the polluted +gone into banishment, fell into their old quarrels about the +government, there being as many different parties as there were +diversities in the country. The Hill quarter favored democracy; +the Plain, oligarchy; and those that lived by the Sea-side stood +for a mixed sort of government, and so hindered either of the +parties from prevailing. And the disparity of fortune between the +rich and the poor at that time also reached its height; so that +the city seemed to be in a truly dangerous condition, and no other +means for freeing it from disturbances and settling it to be +possible but a despotic power. + +Then the wisest of the Athenians, perceiving Solon was of all men +the only one not implicated in the troubles, that he had not +joined in the exactions of the rich, and was not involved in the +necessities of the poor, pressed him to succor the commonwealth +and compose the differences. Solon, reluctantly at first, engaged +in state affairs, being afraid of the pride of one party and the +greediness of the other; he was chosen archon, however, after +Philombrotus, and empowered to be an arbitrator and lawgiver; the +rich consenting because he was wealthy, the poor because he was +honest. There was a saying of his current before the election, +that when things are even there never can be war, and this pleased +both parties, the wealthy and the poor; the one conceiving him to +mean, when all have their fair proportion; the other, when all are +absolutely equal. Thus, there being great hopes on both sides, the +chief men pressed Solon to take the government into his own hands, +and, when he was once settled, manage the business freely and +according to his pleasure; and many of the commons, perceiving it +would be a difficult change to be effected by law and reason, were +willing to have one wise and just man set over the affairs; and +some say that Solon had this oracle from Apollo: + +Take the mid-seat, and be the vessel's guide; +Many in Athens are upon your side. + +From which it is manifest that he was a man of great reputation +before he gave his laws. The several mocks that were put upon him +for refusing the power, he records in these words: + +Solon surely was a dreamer, and a man of simple mind; +When the gods would give him fortune, he of his own will declined; +When the new was full of fishes, over-heavy thinking it, +He declined to haul it up, through want of heart and want of wit. +Had but I that chance of riches and of kingship for one day, +I would give my skin for flaying, and my house to die away. + +Thus he makes the many and the low people speak of him. Yet, +though he refused the government, he did not show himself mean and +submissive to the powerful, nor make his laws to pleasure those +that chose him. For the first thing which he settled was, that +what debts remained should be forgiven, and no man, for the +future, should engage the body of his debtor for security. Though +some, as Androtion, affirm that the debts were not canceled, but +the interest only lessened, which sufficiently pleased the people; +so that they named this benefit the Seisacthea, together with the +enlarging of their measures, and raising the value of their money; +for he made a pound, which before passed for seventy-three +drachmas, go for a hundred; so that, though the number of pieces +in the payment was equal, the value was less; which proved a +considerable benefit to those that were to discharge great debts, +and no loss to the creditors. + +While he was designing this, a most vexatious thing happened; for +when he had resolved to take off the debts, and was considering +the proper form and fit beginning for it, he told some of his +friends, Conon, Clinias, and Hipponicus, in whom he had a great +deal of confidence, that he would not meddle with the lands, but +only free the people from their debts; upon which, they, using +their advantage, made haste and borrowed some considerable sums of +money, and purchased some large farms; and when the law was +enacted, they kept the possessions, and would not return the +money; which brought Solon into great suspicion and dislike, as if +he himself had not been abused, but was concerned in the +contrivance. But he presently stopped this suspicion, by releasing +his own debtors of five talents (for he had lent so much), +according to the law; others, as Polyzelus the Rhodian, say +fifteen. + +Soon becoming sensible of the good that was done, the people laid +by their grudges, made a public sacrifice, and chose Solon to new- +model and make laws for the commonwealth, giving him the entire +power over everything, their magistracies, their assemblies, +courts, and councils; that he should appoint the number, times of +meeting, and what estate they must have that could be capable of +these, and dissolve or continue any of the present constitutions, +according to his pleasure. + +First, then, he repealed all Draco's laws, except those concerning +homicide, because they were too severe and the punishments too +great; for death was appointed for almost all offences, insomuch +that those that were convicted of idleness were to die, and those +that stole a cabbage or an apple to suffer even as villains that +committed sacrilege or murder. So that Demades, in after time, was +thought to have said very happily, that Draco's laws were written +not with ink, but blood; and he himself, being once asked why he +made death the punishment of most offences, replied: "Small ones +deserve that, and I have no higher for the greater crimes." + +Next, Solon, being willing to continue the magistracies in the +hands of the rich men, and yet receive the people into the other +part of the government, took an account of the citizens' estates, +and those that were worth five hundred measures of fruits, dry and +liquid, he placed in the first rank; those that could keep a +horse, or were worth three hundred measures, were made the second +class; those that had two hundred measures, were in the third; and +all the other were called Thetes, who were not admitted to any +office, but could come to the assembly, and act as jurors; which +at first seemed nothing, but afterward was found an enormous +privilege, as almost every matter of dispute came before them in +this latter capacity. Besides, it is said that he was obscure and +ambiguous in the wording of his laws, on purpose to increase the +honor of his courts; for since their differences could not be +adjusted by the letter, they would have to bring all their causes +to the judges, who thus were in a manner masters of the laws. Of +this equalization he himself makes mention in this manner: + +Such power I gave the people as might do, +Abridged not what they had, now lavished new. +Those that were great in wealth and high in place, +My counsel likewise kept from all disgrace. +Before them both I held my shield of might, +And let not either touch the other's right. + +When he had constituted the Areopagus of those who had been yearly +archons, of which he himself was a member therefore, observing +that the people, now free from their debts, were unsettled and +imperious, he formed another council of four hundred, a hundred +out of each of the four tribes, which was to inspect all matters +before they were propounded to the people, and to take care that +nothing but what had been first examined should be brought before +the general assembly. The upper council, or Areopagus, he made +inspectors and keepers of the laws, conceiving that the +commonwealth, held by these two councils like anchors, would be +less liable to be tossed by tumults, and the people be more at +quiet. Such is the general statement that Solon instituted the +Areopagus. + +Amongst his other laws, one is very peculiar and surprising, which +disfranchises all who stand neuter in a sedition; for it seems he +would not have any one remain insensible and regardless of the +public good, but at once join with the good party and those that +have the right upon their side, assist and venture with them, +rather than keep out of harm's way and watch who would get the +better. + +Another commendable law of Solon's is that which forbids men to +speak evil of the dead. + +Since the country has but few rivers, lakes, or large springs, and +many used wells which they had dug, there was a law made, that, +where there was a public well within a hippicon, that is, four +furlongs, all should draw at that; but then it was farther off, +they should try and procure a well of their own; and, if they had +dug ten fathoms deep and could find no water, they had liberty to +fetch a pitcherful of four gallons and a half in a day from their +neighbors'; for he thought it prudent to make provision against +want, but not to supply laziness. He showed skill in his orders +about planting, for any one that would plant another tree was not +to set it within five feet of his neighbor's field; but if a fig +or an olive, not within nine, for their roots spread farther, nor +can they be planted near all sorts of trees without damage, for +they draw away the nourishment, and in some cases are noxious by +their effluvia. He that would dig a pit or a ditch was to dig it +at the distance of its own depth from his neighbor's ground; and +he that would raise stocks of bees was not to place them within +three hundred feet of those which another had already raised. + +He permitted only oil to be exported, and those that exported any +other fruit, the archon was solemnly to curse, or else pay an +hundred drachmas (a drachma was about twenty cents.) himself; and +this law was written in his first table, and, therefore, let none +think it incredible, as some affirm, that the exportation of figs +was once unlawful. He made a law also, concerning hurts and +injuries from beasts, in which he commands the master of any dog +that bit a man to deliver him up with a log about his neck four +and a half feet long-a happy device for men's security. + +All his laws he established for an hundred years, and wrote them +on wooden tables or rollers, named axones, which might be turned +round in oblong cases; some of their relics were in my time still +to be seen in the Prytaneum, or common hall, at Athens. These, as +Aristotle states, were called cyrbes, and there is a passage of +Cratinus the comedian, + +By Solon, and by Draco, if you please, +Whose Cyrbes make the fires that parch our peas. + +But some say those are properly cyrbes, which contain laws +concerning sacrifices and the rites of religion, and all the other +axones. The council all jointly swore to confirm the laws, and +every one of the Thesmothetae vowed for himself at the stone in +the market-place, that, if he broke any of the statutes, he would +dedicate a golden statue, as big as himself, at Delphi. + +Now when these laws were enacted, and some came to Solon every +day, to commend or dispraise them, and to advise, if possible, to +leave out, or put in something, and many criticised, and desired +him to explain, and tell the meaning of such and such a passage, +he, to escape all displeasure, it being a hard thing, as he +himself says, + +In great affairs to satisfy all sides, + +As an excuse for traveling, bought a trading vessel and, having +obtained leave for ten years' absence, departed, hoping that by +that time his laws would have become familiar. + His first voyage was for Egypt, and he lived, as he himself +says, + +Near Nilus' mouth, by fair Canopus' shore, + +And spent some time in study with Psenophis of Heliopolis, and +Sonchis the Saite, the most learned of all the priests; from whom, +as Plato says, getting knowledge of the Atlantic story, he put it +into a poem, and proposed to bring it to the knowledge of the +Greeks. From thence he sailed to Cyprus, where he was made much of +by Philocyprus, one of the kings there, who had a small city built +by Demophon, Theseus's son, near the river Clarius, in a strong +situation, but incommodious and uneasy of access. Solon persuaded +him, since there lay a fair plain below, to remove, and build +there a pleasanter and more spacious city. And he stayed himself, +and assisted in gathering inhabitants, and in fitting it both for +defence and convenience of living; insomuch that many flocked to +Philocyprus, and the other kings imitated the design; and, +therefore, to honor Solon, he called the city Soli. + +That Solon should discourse with Croesus, some think not agreeable +with chronology; but I cannot reject so famous and well-attested a +narrative, and, what is more, so agreeable to Solon's temper, and +so worthy his wisdom and greatness of mind, because, forsooth, it +does not agree with some chronological canons, which thousands +have endeavored to regulate, and yet, to this day, could never +bring their differing opinions to any agreement. They say, +therefore, that Solon, coming to Croesus at his request, was in +the same condition as an inland man when first he goes to see the +sea; for as he fancies every river he meets with to be the ocean, +so Solon, as he passed through the court, and saw a great many +nobles richly dressed, and proudly attended with a multitude of +guards and footboys, thought every one to be the king, till he was +brought to Croesus, who was decked with every possible rarity and +curiosity, in ornaments of jewels, purple, and gold, that could +make a grand and gorgeous spectacle of him. Now when Solon came +before him, and seemed not at all surprised, nor gave Croesus +those compliments he expected, but showed himself to all +discerning eyes to be a man that despised the gaudiness and petty +ostentation of it, he commanded them to open all his treasure +houses, and carry him to see his sumptuous furniture and luxuries, +though Solon did not wish it; he could judge of him well enough by +the first sight of him; and, when he returned from viewing all, +Croesus asked him if ever he had known a happier man than he. And +when Solon answered that he had known one Tellus, a fellow-citizen +of his own, and told him that this Tellus had been an honest man, +had had good children, a competent estate, and died bravely in +battle for his country, Croesus took him for an ill-bred fellow +and a fool, for not measuring happiness by the abundance of gold +and silver, and preferring the life and death of a private and +mean man before so much power and empire. He asked him however, +again, if, besides Tellus, he knew any other man more happy. And +Solon replying, Yes, Cleobis and Biton, who were loving brothers, +and extremely dutiful sons to their mother, and, when the oxen +delayed her, harnessed themselves to the wagon, and drew her to +Juno's temple, her neighbors all calling her happy, and she +herself rejoicing; then, after sacrificing and feasting, they went +to rest, and never rose again, but died in the midst of their +honor a painless and tranquil death. "What," said Croesus, +angrily, "and dost not thou reckon us amongst the happy men at +all?" Solon, unwilling either to flatter or exasperate him more, +replied, "The gods, O king, have given the Greeks all other gifts +in moderate degree; and so our wisdom, too, is a cheerful and a +homely, not a noble and kingly, wisdom; and this, observing the +numerous misfortunes that attend all conditions, forbids us to +grow insolent upon our present enjoyments, or to admire any man's +happiness that may yet, in course of time, suffer change. For the +uncertain future has yet to come, with every possible variety of +fortune; and him only to whom the divinity has continued happiness +unto the end, we call happy; to salute as happy one that is still +in the midst of life and hazard, we think as little safe, and +conclusive as to crown and proclaim as victorious the wrestler +that is yet in the ring." After this, he was dismissed, having +given Croesus some pain, but no instruction. + +Aesop, who wrote the fables, being then at Sardis upon Croesus's +invitation, and very much esteemed, was concerned that Solon was +so ill-received, and gave him this advice: "Solon, let your +converse with kings be either short or seasonable." "Nay, rather," +replied Solon, "either short or reasonable." So at this time +Croesus despised Solon; but when he was overcome by Cyrus, had +lost his city, was taken alive, condemned to be burnt, and laid +bound upon the pile before all the Persians and Cyrus himself, he +cried out as loud as he possibly could three times, "O Solon!" and +Cyrus being surprised, and sending some to inquire what man or god +this Solon was, whom alone he invoked in this extremity, Croesus +told him the whole story, saying, "He was one of the wise men of +Greece, whom I sent for, not to be instructed, or to learn +anything that I wanted, but that he should see and be a witness of +my happiness; the loss of which was, it seems, to be a greater +evil than the enjoyment was a good; for when I had them they were +goods only in opinion, but now the loss of them has brought upon +me intolerable and real evils. And he, conjecturing from what then +was, this that now is, bade me look to the end of my life, and not +rely and grow proud upon uncertainties." When this was told Cyrus, +who was a wiser man than Croesus, and saw in the present example +Solon's maxim confirmed, he not only freed Croesus from +punishment, but honored him as long as he lived; and Solon had the +glory, by the same saying, to save one king and instruct another. + +When Solon was gone, the citizens began to quarrel; Lycurgus +headed the Plain; Megacles, the son of Alcmaeon, those of the Sea- +side; and Pisistratus the Hill-party, in which were the poorest +people, the Thetes, and greatest enemies to the rich; insomuch +that, though the city still used the new laws, yet all looked for +and desired a change of government, hoping severally that the +change would be better for them, and put them above the contrary +faction. Affairs standing thus, Solon returned, and was reverenced +by all, and honored; but his old age would not permit him to be as +active, and to speak in public, as formerly; yet, by privately +conferring with the heads of the factions, he endeavored to +compose the differences, Pisistratus appearing the most tractable; +for he was extremely smooth and engaging in his language, a great +friend to the poor, and moderate in his resentments; and what +nature had not given him, he had the skill to imitate; so that he +was trusted more than the others, being accounted a prudent and +orderly man, one that loved equality, and would be an enemy to any +that moved against the present settlement. Thus he deceived the +majority of people; but Solon quickly discovered his character, +and found out his design before any one else; yet did not hate him +upon this, but endeavored to humble him, and bring him off from +his ambition, and often told him and others, that if any one could +banish the passion for preeminence from his mind, and cure him of +his desire of absolute power, none would make a more virtuous man +or a more excellent citizen. Thespis, at this time, beginning to +act tragedies, and the thing, because it was new, taking very much +with the multitude, though it was not yet made a matter of +competition, Solon, being by nature fond of hearing and learning +something new, and now, in his old age, living idly, and enjoying +himself, indeed, with music and with wine, went to see Thespis +himself, as the ancient custom was, act; and after the play was +done, he addressed him, and asked him if he was not ashamed to +tell so many lies before such a number of people; and Thespis +replying that it was no harm to say or do so in play, Solon +vehemently struck his staff against the ground: "Ay," said he, "if +we honor and commend such play as this, we shall find it some day +in our business." + +Now when Pisistratus, having wounded himself, was brought into the +market-place in a chariot, and stirred up the people, as if he had +been thus treated by his opponents because of his political +conduct, and a great many were enraged and cried out, Solon, +coming close to him, said, "This, O son of Hippocrates, is a bad +copy of Homer's Ulysses; you do, to trick your countrymen, what he +did to deceive his enemies." After this, the people were eager to +protect Pisistratus, and met in an assembly, where one Ariston +made a motion that they should allow Pisistratus fifty clubmen for +a guard to his person. Now, the people, having passed the law, +were not nice with Pisistratus about the number of his clubmen, +but took no notice of it, though he enlisted and kept as many as +he would, until he seized the Acropolis. When that was done, and +the city in an uproar, Megacles, with all his family, at once +fled; But Solon, though he was now very old, and had none to back +him, yet came into the market-place and made a speech to the +citizens, partly blaming their inadvertency and meanness of +spirit, and in part urging and exhorting them not thus tamely to +lose their liberty; and likewise then spoke that memorable saying, +that, before, it was an easier task to stop the rising tyranny, +but now the greater and more glorious action to destroy it, when +it was begun already, and had gathered strength. But all being +afraid to side with him, he returned home, and, taking his arms, +he brought them out and laid them in the porch before his door, +with these words: "I have done my part to maintain my country and +my laws," and then be busied himself no more. + +But Pisistratus, having got the command, so extremely courted +Solon, so honored him, obliged him, and sent to see him, that +Solon gave him his advice, and approved many of his actions; for +he retained most of Solon's laws, observed them himself, and +compelled his friends to obey. And he added other laws, one of +which is that the maimed in the wars should be maintained at the +public charge, following Solon's example in this, who had decreed +it in the case of one Thersippus, that was maimed. + +Solon lived after Pisistratus seized the government a long time. +But the story that his ashes were scattered about the island +Salamis is too strange to be easily believed, or be thought +anything but a mere fable; and yet it is given, among other good +authors, by Aristotle the philosopher. + + + +Themistocles + +The birth of Themistocles was somewhat too obscure to do him +honor. His father, Neocles, was not of the distinguished people of +Athens, but of the township of Phrearrhi; and by his mother's +side, as it is reported, he was low-born. + +"I am not of the noble Grecian race, +I'm poor Abrotonon, and born in Trace; +Let the Greek women scorn me, if they please, +I was the mother of Themistocles." + +From his youth he was of a vehement and impetuous nature, of a +quick apprehension, and a strong and aspiring bent for action and +great affairs. the holidays and intervals in his studies he did +not spend in play or idleness, as other children, but would be +always inventing or arranging some oration or declamation to +himself, the subject of which was generally the excusing of +accusing of his companions, so that his master would often say to +him, "You, my boy, will be nothing small,, but great one way or +other, for good and else for bad." he received reluctantly and +carelessly instructions given him to improve his manners and +behavior, or to teach him any pleasing or graceful accomplishment, +but whatever was said to improve him in sagacity, or in management +of affairs, he would give attention to beyond one of years, from +confidence in his natural capacities for such things. + +In the first essays of his youth he was not regular nor happily +balanced; he allowed himself to follow mere natural character, +which, without the control of reason and instruction, is apt to +hurry, upon either side, into sudden and violent courses, and very +often to break away and determine upon the worst; as he afterwards +owned himself, saying that the wildest colts make the best +horses, if they only get properly trained and broken in. + +Yet it is evident that his mind was early imbued with the keenest +interest in public affairs, and the most passionate ambition for +distinction. It is said that Themistocles was so transported with +the thoughts of glory, and so inflamed with the passion for great +actions, that, though he was still young when the battle of +Marathon was fought against the Persian, upon the skillful conduct +of the general, Miltiades, being everywhere talked about, he was +observed to be thoughtful and reserved; he passed the nights +without sleep, and avoided all his usual places of recreation, and +to those how wondered at the change, and inquired the reason of +it, he gave the answer that "the trophy of Miltiades would not let +him sleep." And when others were of opinion that the battle of +Marathon would be an end to the war, Themistocles thought that it +was but the beginning of far greater conflict, and for these, to +the benefit of Greece, he kept himself in continual readiness, and +his city also in proper training, foreseeing from far before what +would happen. + +And, first of all, the Athenians being accustomed to divide +amongst themselves the revenue proceeding from the silver mines at +Laurium, he was the only man that durst propose to the people that +this distribution should cease, and that with the money, ships +should be built to make war against the Aeginetans, who were the +most flourishing people in all Greece, and by the number of their +ships held the sovereignty of the sea; and Themistocles thus, +little by little, turned and drew the city down towards the sea, +in the belief that, whereas by land they were not a match for +their next neighbors, with their ships they might be able to repel +the Persian and command Greece; thus, as Plato says, from steady +soldiers he turned them into mariners and seamen tossed about the +sea, and gave occasion for the reproach against him, that he took +away from the Athenians the spear and the shield, and bound them +to the bench and the oar. He was well liked by the common people, +would salute every particular citizen by his own name, and always +showed himself a just judge in questions of business between +private men; he said to Simonides, the poet of Ceos, who desired +something of him when he was commander of the army that was no +reasonable, "Simonides, you would be no good poet if you wrote +false measure, nor should I be a good magistrate if for favor I +made false law." + +Gradually growing to be great, and winning the favor of the +people, he at last gained the day with his faction over that of +Aristides, and procured his banishment by ostracism. When the kind +of Persia was now advancing against Greece, and sent messengers +into Greece, with an interpreter, to demand earth and water, as an +acknowledgement of subjection, Themistocles, by the consent of the +people, seized upon the interpreter, and put him to death, for +presuming to publish the barbarian orders and decrees in the Greek +language; and having taken upon himself the command of the +Athenian forces, he immediately endeavored to persuade the +citizens to leave the city, and to embark upon their galleys, and +meet with the Persians at a great distance from Greece. + +When the contingents met at the straits of Artemisium, the Greeks +would have the Lacedaemonians to command, and Eurybiades to be +their admiral; but the Athenians, who surpassed all the rest +together in number of vessels, would not submit to come after any +other, till Themistocles, perceiving the danger of this contest, +yielded his own command to Eurybiades, and got the Athenians to +submit, persuading them that if in this war they behaved +themselves like men, he would answer for it after that, that the +Greeks, of their own will, would submit to their command. + +Though the fights between the Greeks and Persians in the straits +of Euboea were not so important as to make any final decision of +the war, yet the experience which the Greeks obtained in them was +of great advantage; for thus, by actual trial and in real danger, +they found out, that neither number of ships, or riches and +ornaments, nor boasting shouts, nor barbarous songs of victory, +were any way terrible to men that knew how to fight, and were +resolved to come hand to hand with their enemies. This, Pindar +appears to have seen, and says justly enough of the fight at +Artemisium, that + +There the sons of Athens set + The stone that freedom stands on yet. + +For the first step towards victory undoubtedly is to gain courage. +Artemisium is in Euboea, beyond the city of Histiaea, a sea-beach +open to the north; there is small temple there, dedicated to +Diana, surnamed of the Dawn, and trees about it, around which +again stand pillars of white marble; and if rub them with your +hand, they send forth both the smell and color of saffron. + +But when news came from Thermopylae to Artemisium, informing that +that king Leonidas was slain, and that Xerxes had made himself +master of all the passages by land, they returned back to the +interior of Greece. Xerxes had already passed through Doris and +invaded the country of Phocis, and was burning and destroying the +cities of the Phocians, yet the Greeks sent them no relief; and, +though the Athenians earnestly desired them to meet the Persians +in Boeotia, before they could come into Attica, as they themselves +had come forward by sea at Artemisium, they gave no ear to their +request, being wholly intent upon Peloponnesus, and resolved to +gather all their forces together within the Isthmus, and to build +a wall from sea to sea in that narrow neck of land; so that the +Athenians were enraged to see themselves betrayed, and at the same +time afflicted and dejected at their own destitution. For to fight +alone against such a numerous army was to no purpose, and the only +expedient now left them was to leave their city and cling to their +ships; which the people were very unwilling to submit to, +imagining that it would signify little now to gain a victory, and +not understanding how there could be deliverance any longer after +they had once forsaken the temples of their gods and exposed the +tombs and monuments of their ancestors to the fury of their +enemies. + +Themistocles, being at a loss, and not able to draw the people +over to his opinion by any human reason, set his machines to work, +as in a theatre, and employed prodigies and oracles. The serpent +of Athena, kept in the inner part of her temple, disappeared; the +priests gave it out to the people and declared, by the suggestion +of Themistocles, that the goddess had left the city, and taken her +flight before them towards the sea. And he often urged them with +the oracle which bade them "trust to walls of wood," showing them +that walls of wood could signify nothing else but ships; and that +the island of Salamis was termed in it not miserable or unhappy, +but had the epithet of divine, for that it should one day be +associated with a great good fortune of the Greeks. At length his +opinion prevailed, and he obtained a decree that the city should +be committed to the protection of Athena, "queen of Athens"; that +they who were of age to bear arms should embark, and that each +should see to sending away his children, women, and slaves where +he could. This decree being confirmed, most of the Athenians +removed their parents, wives, and children to Troezen, where they +were received with eager good-will by the Troezenians, who passed +a vote that they should be maintained at the public charge. + +Among the great actions of Themistocles at this crisis, the recall +of Aristides was not the least, for, before the war, he had been +ostracized by the party which Themistocles headed, and was in +banishment; but now, perceiving that the people regretted his +absence, and were fearful that he might go over to the Persians to +revenge himself, and thereby ruin the affairs of Greece, +Themistocles proposed a decree that those who were banished for a +time might return again, to give assistance by word and deed to +the cause of Greece with the rest of their fellow citizens. + +Eurybiades, by reason of the greatness of Sparta, was admiral of +the Greek fleet, but yet was faint-hearted in time of danger, and +willing to weigh anchor and set sail for the Isthmus of Corinth, +near which the land army lay encamped; which Themistocles, +resisted; and this was the occasion of the well-known words, when +Eurybiades, to check his impatience, told him that at the Olympic +games they that start up before the rest are lashed. "And they," +replied Themistocles, "that are left behind are not crowned." Some +say that while Themistocles was thus speaking things upon the +deck, an owl was seen flying to the right hand of the fleet, which +came and sat upon the top of the mast; and this happy omen so far +disposed the Greeks to follow his advice, that they presently +prepared to fight. Yet, when the enemy's fleet was arrived at the +haven of Phalerum, upon the coast of Attica, and with the number +of their ships concealed all the shore, and when they saw the king +himself in person come down with his land army to the sea-side, +with all his forces united, then the good counsel of Themistocles +was soon forgotten, and the Peloponnesians cast their eyes again +towards the Isthmus, and took it very ill if any one spoke against +their returning home; and, resolving to depart that night, the +pilots had order what course to steer. + +Themistocles, in great distress that the Greeks should return, and +lost the advantage of the narrow seas and strait passage, and slip +home very one to his own city, considered with himself, and +contrived that stratagem which was carried out by Sicinnus. this +Sicinnus was a Persian captive, but a great lover of Themistocles, +and the attendant of his children. Upon this occasion he sent him +privately to Xerxes, commanding him to tell the king that +Themistocles, the admiral of the Athenians, having espoused his +interest, wished to be the first to inform him that the Greeks +were ready to make their escape, and that he counseled him to +hinder their flight, to set upon them while they were in this +confusion and at a distance from their land army, and thereby +destroy all their forces by sea. Xerxes was very joyful at this +message, and received it as from one who wished him all that was +good. and immediately issued instructions to the commanders of his +ships that they should instantly set out with two hundred galleys +to encompass all the islands, and enclose all the straits and +passages, that none of the Greeks might escape, and that they +should afterward follow with the rest of their fleet at leisure. +This being done, Aristides, the son of Lysimachus, was the first +man that perceived it, and went to the test of Themistocles, not +out of any friendship, for he had been formerly banished by his +means, as has been related, but to inform him how they were +encompassed by their enemies. Themistocles, knowing the generosity +of Aristides, and much struck by his visit at that time, imparted +to him all that he had transacted by Sicinnus, and entreated him +that, as he would be more readily believed among the Greeks, he +would make use of his credit to help to induce them to stay and +fight their enemies in the narrow seas. Aristides applauded +Themistocles, and went to the other commanders and captains of the +galleys and encouraged them to engage; yet they did not perfectly +assent to him till a galley of Tenos, which deserted from the +Persians, of which Panaetius was commander, came in, while they +were still doubting, and confirmed the news that all the straits +and passages were beset; and then their rage and fury, as well as +their necessity, provoked them all to fight. + +As soon as it was day, Xerxes placed himself high up, to view his +fleet, as Acestodorus writes, in the confines of Megara, upon +those hills which are called the Horns, where he sat in a chair of +gold, with many secretaries about him to write down all that was +done in the fight. + +The number of the enemy's ships the poet Aeschylus gives in his +tragedy called the Persians, as on his certain knowledge, in the +following words: + +Xerxes, I know, did into battle lead + One thousand ships; of more than usual speed + Seven and two hundred. So is it agreed. + +The Athenians had a hundred and eighty; in every ship eighteen men +fought upon the deck, four of whom were archers and the rest men- +at-arms. + +As Themistocles had fixed upon the most advantageous place, so, +with no less sagacity, he chose the best time of fighting; for he +would not run the prows of his galleys against the Persians, nor +begin the fight till the time of day was come when there regularly +blows in a fresh breeze from the open sea, and brings in with it a +strong swell into the channel; this was no inconvenience to the +Greek ships, which were low-built, and little above the water, but +did much hurt to the Persians, which had high sterns and lofty +decks, and were heavy and cumbrous in their movements, as it +presented them broadside to the quick charges of the Greeks, who +kept their eyes upon the motions of Themistocles, as their best +example, and more particularly because, opposed to his ship, +Ariamenes, admiral to Xerxes, a brave man, and by far the best and +worthiest of the king's brothers, was seen throwing darts and +shooting arrows from his huge galley, as from the walls of a +castle. Aminias the Decelean and Sosicles the Pedian, who sailed +in the same vessel, upon the ships meeting stem to stem, and +transfixing each the other with their brazen prows, so that they +were fastened together, when Ariamenes attempted to board theirs, +ran at them with their pikes, and thrust him into the sea; his +body, as it floated amongst other shipwrecks, was discovered by +Artemisia, and carried to Xerxes. + +The first man that took a ship was Lycomedes the Athenian, captain +of a galley, who cut down its ensign, and dedicated it to Apollo +the Laurel-crowned. And as the Persians fought in a narrow sea, +and could bring but part of their fleet to fight, and fell foul of +one another, the Greeks thus equaled them in strength, and fought +with them till the evening, forced them back, and obtained, as +says Simonides, that noble and famous victory, than which neither +amongst the Greeks nor barbarians was ever known more glorious +exploit on the seas; by the joint valor, indeed, and zeal of all +who fought, but most by the wisdom and sagacity of Themistocles. + +After this sea-fight, Xerxes, enraged at his ill-fortune, +attempted, by casting great heaps of earth and stones into the +sea, to stop up the channel and to make a dam, upon which he might +lead his land forces over into the island of Salamis. + +Themistocles, being desirous to try the opinion of Aristides, told +him that he proposed to set sail for the Hellespont, to break the +bridge of ships, so as to shut up, he said, Aisa a prisoner within +Europe; but Aristides, disliking the design, said: "We have +hitherto fought with an enemy who has regarded little else but his +pleasure and luxury; but if we shut him up within Greece, and +drive him to necessity, he that is master of such great forces +will no longer sit quietly with an umbrella of gold over his head, +looking upon the fight for his pleasure; but he will be resolute, +and attempt all things. Therefore, it is noways our interest, +Themistocles," he said, "to take away the bridge that is already +made, but rather to build another, if it were possible, that he +might make his retreat with the more expedition." To which +Themistocles answered: "If this be requisite, we must immediately +use all diligence, art, and industry, to rid ourselves of him as +soon as may be;" and to this purpose he found out among the +captives one named Arnaces, whom he sent to the king, to inform +him that the Greeks, being now victorious by sea, had decreed to +sail to the Hellespont, where the boasts were fastened together, +and destroy the bridge; but that Themistocles, being concerned for +the king, revealed this to him, that he might hasten toward the +Asiatic seas, and pass over into his own dominions; and in the +meantime would cause delays, and hinder the confederates from +pursuing him. Xerxes no sooner heard this than, being very much +terrified, he proceeded to retreat out of Greece with all speed. +The prudence of Themistocles and Aristides in this was afterward +more fully understood at the battle of Plataea, where Mardonius, +with a very small fraction of the forces of Xerxes, put the Greeks +in danger of losing all. + +Herodotus writes that, of all the cities of Greece, Aegina was +held to have performed the best service in the war; while all +single men yielded to Themistocles, though, out of envy, +unwillingly; and when they returned to the entrance of +Peloponnesus, where the several commanders delivered their +suffrages at the altar, to determine who was most worthy, every +one gave the first vote for himself and the second for +Themistocles. The Lacedaemonians carried him with them to Sparta, +where, giving the rewards of valor to Eurybiades, and of wisdom +and conduct to Themistocles, they crowned him with olive, +presented him with the best chariot in the city, and sent three +hundred young men to accompany him to the confines of their +country. And at the next Olympic games, when Themistocles entered +the course, the spectators took no further notice of those who +were competing for the prizes, but spent the whole day in looking +upon him, showing him to the strangers, admiring him, and +applauding him by clapping their hands, and other expressions of +joy, so that he himself, much gratified, confessed to his friends +that he then reaped the fruit of all his labors for the Greeks. + +He was, indeed, by nature, a great lover of honor, as is evident +from the anecdotes recorded of him. When chosen admiral by the +Athenians, he would not quite conclude any single matter of +business, either public or private, but deferred all till the day +they were to set sail, that, by dispatching a great quantity of +business all at once, and having to met a great variety of people, +he might make an appearance of greatness and power. Viewing the +dead bodies cast up by the sea, he perceived bracelets and +necklaces of gold about them, yet passed on, only showing them to +a friend that followed him, saying, "Take you these things, for +you are not Themistocles." He aid to Antiphates, a handsome young +man, "Time, young man, has taught us both a lesson." He said that +the Athenians did not honor him or admire him, but made, as it +were, a sort of plane-tree of him; sheltered themselves under him +in bad weather, and as soon as it was fine, plucked his leaves and +cut his branches. When a Seriphian told him that he had not +obtained this honor by himself, but by the greatness of his city, +he replied: "You speak truth; I should never have been famous if I +had been of Seriphus; nor you, had you been of Athens." Laughing +at his own son, who got his mother, and by his mother's means, his +father also to indulge him, he told him that he had the most power +of any one is Greece: "For the Athenians command the rest of +Greece, I command the Athenians, your mother commands me, and you +command your mother." Of the two who made love to his daughter, he +preferred the man of worth to the one who was rich, saying he +desired a man without riches, rather than riches without a man. + +When the citizens of Athens began to listen willingly to those who +traduced and reproached him, he was forced, with somewhat +obnoxious frequency, to put them in mind of the great services he +had performed. And he yet more provoked the people by building a +temple to Diana with the epithet of Aristobule, or Diana of Best +Counsel; intimating thereby that he had given the best counsel, +not only to the Athenians, but to all Greece. At length the +Athenians banished him, making use of the ostracism to humble his +eminence and authority, as they ordinarily did with all whom they +thought too powerful, or, by their greatness, disproportionate to +the equality thought requisite in a popular government. For the +ostracism was instituted, not so much to punish the offender as to +mitigate and pacify the violence of the envious, who delighted to +humble eminent men, and who, by fixing this disgrace upon them, +might vent some part of their rancor. + +Themistocles being banished from Athens, while he stayed at Argos +the detection of Pausanias happened. And after Pausanias was put +to death, letters and writings were found which rendered +Themistocles suspected, and his enemies among the Athenians +accused him. In answer to the malicious detractions of his +enemies, he merely wrote to the citizens urging that he who was +always ambitious to govern, and not of a character or a +disposition to serve, would never sell himself and his country +into slavery to a barbarous and hostile nation. + +Notwithstanding this, the people, being persuaded by his accuser, +set officers to take him and bring him away to be tried before a +council of the Greeks; but, having timely notice of it, he passed +over into the island of Corcyra, where the state was under +obligations to him; for, being chosen as arbitrator in a +difference between them and the Corinthians, he decided the +controversy by ordering the Corinthians to pay down twenty +talents, and declaring the town and island of Leucas a joint +colony from both cities. From thence he fled into Epirus, and, the +Athenians and Lacedaemonians still pursuing him, he threw himself +upon chances of safety that seemed all but desperate. For he fled +fro refuge to Admetus, kind of the Molossians, who had formerly +made some request to the Athenians when Themistocles was in the +height of his authority, and had been disdainfully used and +insulted by him, and had let it appear plain enough that could he +lay hold of him he would take his revenge. Yet in this misfortune, +Themistocles, fearing the recent hatred of his neighbors and +fellow-citizens more than the old displeasure of the king, put +himself at his mercy, and became an humble suppliant to Admetus, +after a peculiar manner, different from the custom of other +countries. For taking the king's son, who was then a child, in his +arms, he laid himself down at his hearth, this being the most +sacred and only manner of supplication, among the Molossians, +which was not to be refused. + +Thucydides says, that, passing over land to the Aegean Sea, he +took shop at Pydna in the bay of Thermae, not being known to any +one in the ship, till, being terrified to see the vessel driven by +the winds near to Naxos, which was then besieged by the Athenians, +he made himself known to the master and pilot, and, partly +entreating them, partly threatening, he compelled them to bear off +and stand out to sea, and sail forward toward the coast of Aisa. + +When he arrived at Cyme, and understood that all along the coast +many laid in wait for him (the king of Persia having offered by +public proclamation two hundred talents to him that should take +him), he fled to Aegae, a small city of the Aeolians, where no one +knew him but only his host Nicogenes, who was the richest man in +Aeolia, and well known to the great men of Inner Asia. There +Themistocles, going to bed, dreamed that he saw a snake coil +itself up upon his belly, and so creep to his neck; then, as soon +as it touched his face, it turned into an eagle, which spread its +wings over him, and took him up and flew away with him a great +distance; then there appeared a herald's golden wand, and upon +this at last it set him down securely, after infinite terror and +disturbance. + +His departure was effected by Nicogenes by the following artifice: +the barbarous nations, and among them the Persians especially, are +extremely jealous, severe, and suspicious about their wives, whom +they keep so strictly that no one ever sees them abroad; they +spend their lives shut up within doors, and, when they take a +journey, are carried in close tenets, curtained in on all sides, +and set upon a wagon. Such a traveling carriage being prepared for +Themistocles, they hid him in it, and carried him on his journey, +and told those whom they met or spoke with upon the road that they +were conveying a young Greek woman out of Ionia to a nobleman at +court. + +When he was introduced to the king, and had paid his reverence to +him, he stood silent, till the king commanding the interpreter to +ask him who he was, he replied: "O king, I am Themistocles the +Athenian, driven into banishment by the Greeks. The evils I have +done to the Persians are numerous; but my benefits to them yet +greater, in withholding the Greeks from pursuit, so soon as the +deliverance of my own country allowed me to show kindness also to +you. I come with a mind suited to my present calamities; prepared +alike for favors and for anger; to welcome your gracious +reconciliation, and to deprecate your wrath. Take my own +countrymen for witnesses of the services I have done for Persia, +and make use of this occasion to show the world your virtue, +rather than to satisfy your indignation. If you save me, you will +save your suppliant; if otherwise, you will destroy an enemy of +the Greeks." + +In the morning, calling together the chief of his court, he had +Themistocles brought before him, who expected no good of it. Yet, +when he came into the presence, and again fell down, the king +saluted him, and spake to him kindly, telling him he was now +indebted to him two hundred talents; for it was just and +reasonable that he should receive the reward which was proposed to +whosoever should bring Themistocles; and promising much more, and +encouraging him, he commanded him to speak freely what he would +concerning the affairs of Greece. Themistocles replied, that a +man's discourse was like to a rich Persians carpet, the beautiful +figures and patterns of which can only be shown by spreading and +extending it out; when it is contracted and folded up, they are +obscured and lost; and, therefore, he desired time. The king being +pleased with the comparison, and bidding him take what time he +would, he desired a year; in which time, having learnt the Persian +language sufficiently, he spoke with the king by himself without +the help of an interpreter; the king invited him to partake of his +own pastimes and recreations both at home and abroad, carrying him +with him a-hunting, and made him his intimate so far that he +permitted him to see the queen-mother, and converse frequently +with her. By the king's command, he also was made acquainted with +the Magian learning. + +They relate, also, how Themistocles, when he was in great +prosperity, and courted by many, seeing himself splendidly served +at his table, turned to his children and said: "Children, we had +been undone if we had not been undone." Most writers say that he +had three cities given him--Magnesia, Myus and Lampsacus--to +maintain him in bread, meat and wine; and some add two more, the +city of Palaescepsis, to provide him with clothes, and Percote, +with bedding and furniture for his house. + +He lived quietly in his own house in Magnesia, where for a long +time he passed his days in great security, being courted by all, +and enjoying rich presents, and honored equally with the greatest +persons in the Persian empire; the king, at that time, not minding +his concerns with Greece, being taken up with the affairs of Inner +Aisa. + +But when Egypt revolted, being assisted by the Athenians, and the +Greek galleys roved about as far as Cyprus and Cilicia, and Cimon +had made himself master of the seas, the king turned his thoughts +thither, and, bending his mind chiefly to resist the Greeks, and +to cheek the growth of their power against him, began to raise +forces, and send out commanders, and to dispatch messengers to +Themistocles at Magnesia, to put him in mind of his promise, and +to summon him to act against the Greeks. Yet this did not increase +his hatred nor exasperate him against the Athenians, but, being +ashamed to sully the glory of his former great actions, and of his +many victories and trophies, he determined to put a conclusion to +his life, agreeable to its previous course. He sacrificed to the +gods, and invited his friends; and having entertained them and +shaken hands with them, drank bull's blood, as is the usual story; +as others state, a poison, producing instant death; and ended his +days in the city of Magnesia, having lived sixty-five years, most +of which he had spent in politics and in the wars, in government +and command. The king, being informed of the cause and manner of +his death, admired him the more than ever, and continued to show +kindness to his friends and relations. + +The Magnesians possess a splendid sepulchre of Themistocles, +placed in the middle of their market-place. And various honors and +privileges were granted to the kindred of Themistocles at +Magnesia, which were observed down to our times, and were enjoyed +by another Themistocles of Athens, with whom I had an intimate +acquaintance and friendship in the house of Ammonius the +philosopher. + + + +CAMILLUS + +Among the many remarkable things that are related of Furius +Camillus, it seems singular that he, who continually was in the +highest commands, and obtained the greatest successes, was five +times chosen dictator, triumphed four times, and was styled a +second founder of Rome, yet never was so much as once consul. The +reason of which was the state and temper of the commonwealth at +that time; for the people, being at dissension with the senate, +refused to return consuls, but they instead elected other +magistrates, called military tribunes, who acted, indeed, with +full consular power, but were thought to exercise a less obnoxious +amount of authority, because it was divided among a larger number. + +The house of the Furii was not, at that time, of any considerable +distinction; he, by his own acts, first raised himself to honor, +serving under Postumius Tubertus, dictator, in the great battle +against the Aequians and Volscians. For, riding out from the rest +of the army, and in the charge receiving a would in his thigh, he +for all that did not quit the fight, but, letting the dart drag in +the would, and engaging with the bravest of the enemy, put them to +flight; for which action, among other rewards bestowed on him, he +was created censor, an office in those days of great repute and +authority. During his censorship one very good act of his is +recorded, that, whereas the wars had made many widows, he obliged +such as had no wives, some by fair persuasion, others by +threatening to set fines on their heads, to take them in marriage; +another necessary one, in causing orphans to be rated, who before +were exempted from taxes, the frequent wars requiring more than +ordinary expenses to maintain them. What, however, pressed them +most was the siege of Veii. Some call this people Veientani. This +was the head city of Tuscany, not inferior to Rome either in +number of arms or multitude of soldiers, insomuch that, presuming +on her wealth and luxury, and priding herself upon her refinement +and sumptuousness, she engaged in many honorable contests with the +Romans for glory and empire. But now they had abandoned their +former ambitious hopes, having been weakened by great defeats, so +that, having fortified themselves with high and strong walls, and +furnished the city with all sorts of weapons offensive and +defensive, as likewise with corn and all manner of provisions, +they cheerfully endured a siege, which, though tedious to them, +was no less troublesome and distressing to the besiegers. For the +Romans, having never been accustomed to stay away from home except +in summer, and for no great length of time, and constantly to +winter at home, were then first compelled by the tribunes to build +forts in the enemy's country, and, raising strong works about +their camp, to join winter and summer together. And now the +seventh year of the war drawing to an end, the commanders began to +be suspected as too slow and remiss in driving on the siege, +insomuch that they were discharged and others chosen for the war, +among whom was Camillus, then second time tribune. But at present +he had no hand in the siege, the duties that fell by lot to him +being to make war upon the Faliscans and Capenates, who, taking +advantage of the Romans being occupied on all hands, had carried +ravages into their country, and through all the Tuscan war, given +them much annoyance, but were now reduced by Camillus, and with +great loss shut up within their walls. + +And now, in the very heat of the war, a strange phenomenon in the +Alban lake, which, in the absence of any known cause and +explanation by natural reasons, seemed as great a prodigy as the +most incredible that are reported, occasioned great alarm. It was +the beginning of autumn, and the summer now ending had, to all +observation, been neither rainy nor much troubled with southern +winds; and of the many lakes, brooks, and springs of all sorts +with which Italy abounds, some were wholly dried up, others had +very little water in them; all the rivers, as is usual in summer, +ran in a very low and hollow channel. But the Alban lake, which is +fed by no other waters but its own, and is on all sides encircled +with fruitful mountains, without any cause, unless it were divine, +began visibly to rise and swell, increasing to the feet of the +mountains, and by degrees reaching the level of the very tops of +some of them, and all this without any waves or agitation. At +first it was the wonder of shepherds and herdsmen; but when the +earth, which, like a great dam, held up the lake from falling into +the lower grounds, through the quantity and weight of water was +broken down, and in a violent stream it ran through the ploughed +fields and plantations to discharge itself in the sea, it not only +struck terror into the Romans, but was thought by all the +inhabitants of Italy to portend some extraordinary event. But the +greatest talk of it was in the camp that besieged Veii, so that in +the town itself, also, the occurrence became known. + +As in long sieges it commonly happens that both parties on both +sides meet often and converse with one another, so it chanced that +a Roman had gained much confidence and familiarity with one of the +besieged, a man versed in ancient prophecies, and of repute for +more than ordinary skill in divination. The Roman, observing him +to be overjoyed at the story of the lake, and to mock at the +siege, told him that this was not the only prodigy that of late +had happened to the Romans; others more wonderful yet than this +had befallen them, which he was willing to communicate to him, +that he might the better provide for his private interests in +these public distempers. The man greedily embraced the proposal, +expecting to hear some wonderful secrets; but when, little by +little, he had led him on in conversation, and insensibly drawn +him a good way from the gates of the city, he snatched him up the +middle, being stronger than he, and, by the assistance of others +who came running from the camp, seized and delivered him to the +commanders. The man, reduced to this necessity, and sensible now +that destiny was not to be avoided, discovered to them the secret +oracle of Veii, that it was not possible the city should be taken +until the Alban lake, which now broke forth and had found out new +passages, was drawn back from that course, and so diverted that it +could not mingle with the sea. The senate, having heard and +satisfied themselves about the matter, decreed to send to Delphi, +to ask counsel of the god. The messengers returned with the answer +that the Alban water, if possible, they should keep from the sea, +and shut it up in its ancient bounds; but if that was not to be +done, then they should carry it off by ditches and trenches into +the lower grounds, and so dry it up; which message being +delivered, the priests performed what related to the sacrifices, +and the people went to work and turned the water. + +And now the senate, in the tenth year of the war, taking away all +other commands, created Camillus dictator, who chose Cornelius +Scipio for his general of horse, and, having made vows, marched +into the country of the Faliscans, and in a great battle overthrew +them and the Capenates, their confederates; afterwards he turned +to the siege of Veii, and finding that to take it by assault would +prove a difficult and hazardous attempt, proceeded to cut mines +under ground, the earth about the city being easy to break up, and +allowing such depth for the works as would prevent their being +discovered by the enemy. This design going on in a hopeful way, he +openly gave assaults to the enemy, to keep them to the walls, +until they that worked underground in the mines might, without +being perceived, arrive within the citadel, close to the temple of +Juno, which was the greatest and most honored in all the city. It +is said that the prince of the Tuscans was at that very time at +sacrifice, and that the priest, after he had looked into the +entrails of the beast, cried out with a loud voice that the gods +would give the victory to those that should complete those +offerings; and that the Romans who were in the mines, hearing the +words, immediately pulled down the floor, and, ascending with +noise, and clashing of weapons, frightened away the enemy, and, +snatching up the entrails, carried them to Camillus. But this may +look like a fable. The city, however, being taken by storm, and +the soldiers busied in pillaging and gathering an infinite +quantity of riches and spoil, Camillus, from the high tower +viewing what was done, at first wept for pity; and when the +bystanders congratulated him upon his success, he lifted up his +hands to heaven, and broke out into this prayer: "O most mighty +Jupiter, and ye gods that are judges of good and evil actions, ye +know that not without just cause, but constrained by necessity, we +have been forced to revenge ourselves on the city of our +unrighteous and wicked enemies. But if, the the vicissitude of +things, there by any calamity due, to counter-balance this great +felicity, I beg that it may be diverted from the city and army of +the Romans, and fall, with as little hurt as may be, upon my own +head." Having said these words, and just turning about (as the +custom of the Romans is to turn to the right after adoration or +prayer), he stumbled and fell, to the astonishment of all that +were present. But, recovering himself presently from the fall, he +told them that he had received what he had prayed for, a small +mischance, in compensation for the greatest good fortune. + +Camillus, however, whether puffed up with the greatness of his +achievement in conquering a city that was the rival of Rome, and +held out a ten years' siege, or exalted with the felicitations of +those that were about him, assumed to himself more than became a +civil and legal magistrate; among other things, in the pride and +haughtiness of triumph, driving through Rome in a chariot drawn +with four white horses, which no general either before or since +ever did; for the Romans consider such a mode of conveyance to be +sacred and specially set apart to the king and father of the gods. +This alienated the hearts of his fellow-citizens, who were not +accustomed to such pomp and display. + +The second pique they had against him was his opposing the law by +which the city was to be divided; for the tribunes of the people +brought forward a motion that the people and senate should be +divided into two parts, one of which should remain at home, the +other, as the lot should decide, remove to the new-taken city. By +which means they should not only have much more room, but, by the +advantage of two great and magnificent cities, be better able to +maintain their territories and their fortunes in general. The +people, therefore, who were numerous and indigent, greedily +embraced it, and crowded continually to the forum, with tumultuous +demands to have it put to the vote. But the senate and the noblest +citizens, judging the proceedings of the tribunes to tend rather +to a destruction than a division of Rome, greatly averse to it, +went to Camillus for assistance, who, fearing the result if it +came to a direct contest, contrived to occupy the people with +other business, and so staved it off. He thus became unpopular. + +And now the tribunes of the people again resuming their motion for +the division of the city, the war against the Faliscans luckily +broke out, giving liberty to the chief citizens to choose what +magistrates they pleased, and to appoint Camillus military +tribune, with five colleagues; affairs then requiring a commander +of authority and reputation, as well as experience. And when the +people had ratified the election, he marched with his forces into +the territories of the Faliscans, and laid siege to Falerii, a +well-fortified city, and plentifully stored with all necessaries +of war. And although he perceived it would be so small work to +take it, and no little time would be required for it, yet he was +willing to exercise the citizens and keep them abroad, that they +might have no leisure, idling at home, to follow the tribunes in +factions and seditions: a very common remedy, indeed, with the +Romans, who thus carried off, like good physicians, the ill humors +of their commonwealth. The Falerians (The Falerians, in this +narrative, are the people of the town; the Faliscans, the nation +in general.), trusting in the strength of their city, which was +well fortified on all sides, made so little account of the siege, +that all, with the exception of those that guarded the walls, as +in times of peace, walked about the streets in their common dress; +the boys went to school, and were led by their master to play and +exercise about the town walls; for the Falerians, like the Greeks, +used to have a single teacher for many pupils, wishing their +children to live and be brought up from the beginning in each +others company. + +This schoolmaster, designing to betray the Falerians by their +children, led them out every day under the town wall, at first but +a little way, and, when they had exercised, brought them home +again. Afterwards by degrees he drew them farther and farther, +till by practice he had made them bold and fearless, as if no +danger was about them; and at last, having got them all together, +he brought them to the outposts of the Romans, and delivered them +up, demanding to be led to Camillus. Where being come, and +standing in the middle, he said that he was the master and teacher +of these children, but, preferring his favor before all other +obligations, he had come to deliver up his charge to him, and, in +that, the whole city. When Camillus had heard him out, he was +astounded at the treachery of the act, and, turning to the +standers-by observed that, "War, indeed, is of necessity attended +with much injustice and violence! Certain laws, however, all good +men observe even in war itself, nor is victory so great an object +as to induce us to incur for its sake obligations for base and +impious acts. A great general should rely on his own virtue, and +not other men's vices." Which said, he commanded the officers to +tear off the man's clothes, and bind his hands behind him and give +the boys rods and scourges, to punish the traitor and drive him +back to the city. By this time the Falerians had discovered the +treachery of the schoolmaster, and the city, as was likely, was +full of lamentations and cries for their calamity, men and women +of worth running in distraction about the walls and gates; when, +behold, the boys came whipping their master on, naked and bound, +calling Camillus their preserver and god and father; so that it +struck not only the parents, but the rest of the citizens, with +such admiration and love of Camillus's justice, that, immediately +meeting in assembly, they sent ambassadors to him, to resign +whatever they had to his disposal. Camillus sent them to Rome, +where, being brought into the senate, they spoke to this purpose: +that the Romans, preferring justice before victory, had taught +them rather to embrace submission than liberty; they did not so +much confess themselves to be inferior in strength as they must +acknowledge them to be superior in virtue. The senate remitted the +whole matter to Camillus, to judge and order as he thought fit; +who, taking a sum of money of the Falerians, and making a peace +with the whole nation of Faliscans, returned home. + +But the soldiers, who had expected to have the pillage of the +city, when they came to Rome empty-handed railed against Camillus +among their fellow-citizens, as a hater of the people, and one +that grudged all advantage to the poor. The People were +exasperated against him. Gathering, therefore, together his +friends and fellow-soldiers, and such as had borne command with +him, a considerable number in all, he besought them that they +would not suffer him to be unjustly overborne by shameful +accusations, and left the mock and scorn of his enemies. His +friends, having advised and consulted among themselves, made +answer, that, as to the sentence, they did not see how they could +help him, but that they would contribute to whatsoever fine should +be set upon him. Not able to endure so great an indignity, he +resolved in his anger to leave the city and go into exile; and so, +having taken leave of his wife and son, he went silently to the +gate of the city, and, there stopping and turning round, stretched +out his hands to the Capitol, and prayed to the gods, that if, +without any fault of his own, but merely through the malice and +violence of the people, he was driven out into banishment, the +Romans might quickly repent of it; and that all mankind might +witness their need for the assistance, and desire for the return, +of Camillus. + +And there is not a Roman but believes that immediately upon the +prayers of Camillus a sudden judgment followed, and that he +received a revenge for the injustice done unto him, which was very +remarkable, and noised over the whole world: such a punishment +visited the city of Rome, an era of such loss and danger and +disgrace so quickly succeeded; whether it thus fell out by +fortune, or it be the office of god not to see injured virtue go +unavenged. + +The first token that seemed to threaten some mischief to ensure +was the death of the censor Julius; for the Romans have a +religious reverence for the office of a censor, and esteem it +sacred. The second was, that, just before Camillus went into +exile, Marcus Caedicius, a person of no great distinction, nor of +the rank of senator, but esteemed a good and respectable man, +reported to the military tribunes a thing worthy their +consideration: that, going along the night before in the street +called the New Way, and being called by somebody in a loud voice, +he turned about, but could see no one, but heard a voice greater +than human, which said these words, "Go, Marcus Caedicius, and +early in the morning tell the military tribunes that they are +shortly to expect the Gauls." But the tribunes made a mock and +sport with the story, and a little after came Camillus's +banishment. + +The Gauls are of the Celtic race, and are reported to have been +compelled by their numbers to leave their country, which was +insufficient to sustain them all, and to have gone in search of +other homes. And being, many thousands of them, young men able to +bear arms, and carrying with them a still greater number of women +and young children, some of them, passing the Riphaean mountains, +fell upon the Northern Ocean, and possessed themselves of the +farthest parts of Europe; others, seating themselves between the +Pyrenean mountains and the Alps, lived there a considerable time, +near to the Senones and Celtorii; but, afterwards tasting wine, +which was then first brought them out of Italy, they were all so +much taken with the liquor, and transported with the hitherto +unknown delight, that, snatching up their arms and taking their +families along with them, they marched directly to the Alps, to +find out the country which yielded such fruit, pronouncing all +others barren and useless. He that first brought wine among them +and was the chief instigator of their coming into Italy is said to +have been one Aruns, A Tuscan, a man of noble extraction. + +At their first coming they at once possessed themselves of all +that country which anciently the Tuscans inhabited, reaching from +the Alps to both the seas, as the names themselves testify; for +the North of Adriatic Sea is named from the Tuscan city Adria, and +that to the south the Tuscan Sea simply. The whole country is rich +in fruit trees, has excellent pasture, and is well watered with +river. It had eighteen large and beautiful cities, well provided +with all the means for industry and wealth, and all the enjoyments +and pleasures of life. The Gauls cast out the Tuscans, and seated +themselves in them. + +The Gauls at this time were besieging Clusium, a Tuscan city. The +Clusinians sent to the Romans for succor, desiring them to +interpose with the barbarians by letters and ambassadors. The +Romans, perceiving that Brennus, the leader of the Gauls, was not +to be treated with, went into Clusium and encouraged the +inhabitants to make a sally with them upon the barbarians, which +they did either to try their strength or to show their own. The +sally being made, and the fight growing hot about the walls, one +of the Fabii, Quintus Ambustus, who had come as an ambassador, +being well mounted, and setting spurs to his horse, made full +against a Gaul, a man of huge bulk and stature, whom he saw riding +out at a distance from the rest. At the first he was not +recognized, through the quickness of the conflict and the +glittering of the armor, that precluded any view of him; but when +he had overthrown the Gaul, and was going to gather the spoils, +Brennus knew him; and invoking the gods to be witnesses that, +contrary to the known and common law of nations, which is holily +observed by all mankind, he who had come as an ambassador had now +engaged in hostility against him, he drew off his men, and, +bidding Clusium farewell, led his army directly against Rome. + +Whilst the barbarians were hastening with all speed, the military +tribunes brought the Romans into the field to be ready to engage +them, being not inferior to the Gauls in number (for they were no +less than forty thousand foot), but most of them raw soldiers, and +such as had never handled a weapon before. Besides, they had +wholly neglected all religious usages, had not obtained favorable +sacrifices, nor made inquiries of the prophets, natural in danger +and before battle. No less did the multitude of commanders +distract and confound their proceedings; frequently before, upon +less occasions, they had chosen a single leader, with the title of +dictator, being sensible of what great importance it is in +critical times to have the solders united under one general with +the entire and absolute control placed in his hands. Add to all, +the remembrance of Camillus's treatment, which made it now seem a +dangerous thing for officers to command without humoring their +solders. In this condition they left the city, and encamped by the +river Allia, about ten miles from Rome, and not far from the place +where it falls into the Tiber; and here the Gauls came upon them, +and, after a disgraceful resistance, devoid of order and +discipline, they were miserably defeated. The left wing was +immediately driven into the river, and there destroyed; the right +had less damage by declining the shock, and from the low ground +getting to the tops of the hills, from whence most of them +afterwards dropped into the city; the rest, as many as escaped, +the enemy being weary of the slaughter, stole by night to Veii, +giving up Rome and all that was in it for lost. + +This battle was fought about the summer solstice, the moon being +at full, the very same day in which the sad disaster of the Fabii +had happened, when three hundred of that name were at one time cut +off by the Tuscans. + +And now, after the battle, had the Gauls immediately pursued those +that fled, there had been no remedy but Rome must have wholly been +ruined, and all those who remained in it utterly destroyed; such +was the terror that those who escaped the battle brought with them +into the city, and with such distraction and confusion were they +themselves in turn infected. But the Gauls, not imagining their +victory to be so considerable, and overtaken with the present joy, +fell to feasting and dividing the spoil, by which means they gave +leisure to those who were for leaving the city to make their +escape, and to those that remained, to anticipate and prepare for +their coming. + +On the third day after the battle, Brennus appeared with his army +at the city, and, finding the gates wide open and no guards upon +the walls, first began to suspect it was some design or stratagem, +never dreaming that the Romans were in so desperate a condition. +But when he found it to be so indeed, he entered at the Colline +gate, and took Rome, in the three hundred and sixtieth year, or a +little more, after it was built. + +Brennus having taken possession of Rome, set a strong guard about +the Capitol, and, going himself down into the forum, was there +struck with amazement at the sight of so many men sitting in such +order and silence, observing that they neither rose at his coming, +nor so much as changed color or countenance, but remained without +fear or concern, leaning upon their staves, and sitting quietly, +looking at each other. The Gauls, for a great while, stood +wondering at the strangeness of the sight, not daring to approach +or touch them, taking them for an assembly of superior beings. But +when one, bolder than the rest, drew near to Marcus Papirius, and, +putting forth his hand, gently touched his chin and stroked his +long beard, Papirius with his staff struck him a severe blow on +the head; upon which the barbarian drew his sword and slew him. +This was the introduction to the slaughter; for the rest, +following his example, set upon them all and killed them, and +dispatched all others that came in their way; and so went on to +the sacking and pillaging of the houses, which they continued for +many days ensuing. + +Camillus then sojourned in the city of Ardea, having, ever since +his leaving Rome, sequestered himself from all business, and taken +to a private life; but now he began to rouse up himself, and +consider not how to avoid or escape the enemy, but to find out an +opportunity to be revenged upon them. And perceiving that the +Ardeatians wanted not men, but rather enterprise, through the +inexperience and timidity of their officers, he began to speak +with the young men, first to the effect that they ought not to +ascribe the misfortune of the Romans to the courage of their +enemy, nor attribute the losses they sustained by rash counsel to +the conduct of men who had no title to victory: the event had been +only an evidence of the power of fortune. When he found the young +men embraced the thing, he went to the magistrates and council of +the city, and, having persuaded them also, he mustered all that +could bear arms, and drew them up within the the walls, that they +might not be perceived by the enemy, who was near; who, having +scoured the country, and now returned heavy laden with booty, lay +encamped in the plains in a careless and negligent posture, so +that, with the night ensuing upon debauch and drunkenness, silence +prevailed through all the camp. When Camillus learned this from +his scouts, he drew out the Ardeatians, and in the dead of the +night, passing in silence over the ground that lay between, came +up to their works, and, commanding his trumpets to sound and his +men to shout and halloo, he struck terror into them from all +quarters; while drunkenness impeded and sleep retarded their +movements. A few whom fear had sobered, getting into some order, +for awhile resisted; and so died with their weapons in their +hands. But the greatest part of them, buried in wine and sleep, +were surprised without their arms, and dispatched; and as many of +them as by the advantage of the night got out of the camp were the +next day found scattered abroad and wandering in the fields, and +were picked up by the horse that pursued them. + +The fame of this action soon flew through the neighboring cities, +and stirred up the young men from various quarters to come and +join themselves with him. But none were so much concerned as those +Romans who escaped in the battle of Allia, and were now at Veii, +thus lamenting with themselves, "O heavens, what a commander has +Providence bereaved Rome of, to honor Ardea with his actions! And +that city, which brought forth and nursed so great a man, is lost +and gone, and we, destitute of a leader and shut up within strange +walls, sit idle, and see Italy ruined before our eyes. Come, let +us send to the Ardeatians to have back our general, or else, with +weapons in our hands, let us go thither to him." To this they all +agreed, and sent to Camillus to desire him to take the command; +but he answered that he would not until they that were in the +Capitol should legally appoint him. When this answer was returned, +they admired the modesty and tempter of Camillus; but they could +not tell how to find a messenger to carry the intelligence to the +Capitol, or rather, indeed, it seemed altogether impossible for +any one to get to the citadel whilst the enemy was in full +possession of the city. But among the young men there was one +Pontius Cominius, of ordinary birth, but ambitious of honor, who +proffered himself to run the hazard, and took no letters with him +to those in the Capitol, lest, if he were intercepted, the enemy +might learn the intentions of Camillus; but, putting on a poor +dress and carrying corks under, he boldly traveled the greatest +part of the way by day, and came to the city when it was dark; the +bridge he could not pass, as it was guarded by the barbarians; so +that taking his clothes, which were neither many nor heavy, and +binding them about his head, he laid his body upon the corks, and, +swimming with them, got over to the city. And avoiding those +quarters where he perceived the enemy was awake, which he guessed +at by the lights and noise, he went to the Carmental gate, where +there was greatest silence, and where the hill of the Capitol is +steepest, and rises with craggy and broken rock. By this way he +got up, though with much difficulty, by the hollow of the cliff, +and presented himself to the guards, saluting them, and telling +them his name; he was taken in, and carried to the commanders. And +a senate being immediately called, he related to them in order the +victory of Camillus, which they had not heard of before, and the +proceedings of the soldiers, urging them to confirm Camillus in +the command, as on him alone all their fellow-countrymen outside +the city would rely. Having heard and consulted of the matter, the +senate declared Camillus dictator, and sent back Pontius the same +way that he came, who, with the same success as before, got +through the enemy without being discovered, and delivered to the +Romans outside the decision of the senate, who joyfully received +it. Camillus, on his arrival, found twenty thousand of them ready +in arms; with which forces, and those confederates he brought +along with him, he prepared to set upon the enemy. + +But at Rome some of the barbarians passing by chance near the +place at which Pontius by night had got into the Capitol, spied in +several places marks of feet and hands, where he had laid hold and +clambered, and places where the plants that grew to the rock had +been rubbed off, and the earth had slipped, and went accordingly +and reported it to the king, who, coming in person, and viewing +it, for the present said nothing, but in the evening, picking out +such of the Gauls as were nimblest of body, and by living in the +mountains were accustomed to climb, he said to them, "The enemy +themselves have shown us a way how to come at them; where it was +easy for one man to get up, it will not be hard for many, one +after another; nay, when many shall undertake it, they will be aid +and strength to each other. Rewards and honors shall be bestowed +on every man as he shall acquit himself." + +When the king had thus spoken, the Gauls cheerfully undertook to +perform it, and in the dead of night a good party of them +together, with great silence, began to climb the rock, clinging to +the precipitous and difficult ascent, which yet upon trial offered +a way to them, and proved less difficult than they had expected. +So that the foremost of them having gained the top of all, and put +themselves into order, they all but surprised the outworks, and +mastered the watch, who were fast asleep; for neither man nor dog +perceived their coming. But there were sacred geese kept near the +temple of Juno, which at other times were plentifully fed, but +now, by reason that corn and all other provisions were grown +scarce for all, were in but a poor condition. The creature is by +nature of quick sense, and apprehensive of the least noise, so +that these, being moreover watchful through hunger, and restless, +immediately discovered the coming of the Gauls, and, running up +and down with the noise and cackling, they raised the whole camp; +while the barbarians, on the other side, perceiving themselves +discovered, no longer endeavored to conceal their attempt, but +with shouting and violence advanced to the assault. The Romans, +every one in haste snatching up the first weapon that came to +hand, did what they could on the sudden occasion. Manlius, a man +of consular dignity, of strong body and great spirit, was the +first that made head against them, and, engaging with two of the +enemy at once, with his sword cut off the right arm of one just as +he was lifting up his blade to strike, and, running his target +full in the face of the other, tumbled him headlong down the steep +rock; then mounting the rampart, and there standing with others +that came running to his assistance, drove down the rest of them, +who, indeed, to begin with, had not been many, and did nothing +worthy of so bold an attempt. The Romans, having thus escaped this +danger, early in the morning took the captain of the watch and +flung him down the rock upon the heads of their enemies, and to +Manlius for his victory voted a reward, intended more for honor +than advantage, bringing him, each man of them, as much as he +received for his daily allowance, which was half a pound of bread +and one eighth of a pint of wine. + +Henceforward, the affairs of the Gauls were daily in a worse and +worse condition; they wanted provisions, being withheld from +foraging through fear of Camillus, and sickness also was amongst +them, occasioned by the number of carcasses that lay in heaps +unburied. Neither, indeed, were things on that account any better +with the besieged, for famine increased upon them, and despondency +with not hearing anything of Camillus, it being impossible to send +any one to him, the city was so guarded by the barbarians. Things +being in this sad condition on both sides, a motion of treaty was +made at first by some of the outposts, as they happened to speak +with one another; which being embraced by the leading men, +Sulpicius, tribune of the Romans, came to a parley with Brennus, +in which it was agreed that the Romans laying down a thousand +weight of gold, the Gauls upon the receipt of it should +immediately quit the city and territories. The agreement being +confirmed by oath on both sides, and the gold brought forth, the +Gauls used false dealing in the weights, secretly at first, but +afterwards openly pulled back and disturbed the balance; at which +the Romans indignantly complaining, Brennus in a scoffing and +insulting manner pulled off his sword and belt, and threw them +both into the scales; and when Sulpicius asked what that meant, +"What should it mean," says he, "but woe to the conquered?" which +afterwards became a proverbial saying. + +Whilst this difference remained still unsettled, both amongst +themselves and with the Gauls, Camillus was at the gates with his +army; and, having learned what was going on, commanded the main +body of his forces to follow slowly after him in good order, and +himself with the choicest of his men hastening on, went at once to +the Romans; where all giving way to him, and receiving him as +their sole magistrate, with profound silence and order, he took +the gold out of the scales, and delivered it to his officers, and +commanded the Gauls to take their weights and scales and depart; +saying that is was customary with the Romans to deliver their +country with iron, not with gold. And when Brennus began to rage, +and say that he was unjustly dealt with in such a breach of +contract, Camillus answered that it was never legally made, and +the agreement of no force or obligation; for that himself being +declared dictator, and there being no other magistrate by law, the +engagement had been made with men who had no power to enter into +it; but now they might say anything they had to urge, for he had +come with full power by law to grant pardon to such as should ask +it, or inflict punishment on the guilty, if they did not repent. +At this, Brennus broke into violent anger, and an immediate +quarrel ensued; both sides drew their swords and attacked, but in +confusion, as could not otherwise be amongst houses, and in narrow +lanes and places where it was impossible to form any order. But +Brennus, presently recollecting himself, called off his men, and, +with the loss of a few only, brought them to their camp; and, +rising in the night with all his forces, left the city, and +advancing about eight miles, encamped upon the way to Gabii. As +soon as day appeared, Camillus came up with him, splendidly armed +himself, and his soldier full o courage and confidence; and there +engaging with him in a sharp conflict, which lasted a long while, +overthrew his army with great slaughter, and took their camp. Of +those that fled, some were presently cut off by the pursuers; +other, and these were the greatest number, dispersed hither and +thither, and were despatched by the people that came sallying out +from the neighboring towns and villages. + +Thus Rome was strangely taken, and more strangely recovered, +having been seven whole months in the possession of the +barbarians, who entered her a little after the Ides of July, and +were driven out about the Ides of February following. Camillus +triumphed, as he deserved, having saved his country that was lost, +and brought the city so to say, back again to itself. For those +that had fled abroad, together with their wives and children, +accompanied him as he rode in; and those who had been shut up in +the capitol, and were reduced almost to the point of perishing +with hunger, went out to meet him, embracing each other as they +met, and weeping for joy, and, though the excess of the present +pleasure, scarcely believing in its truth. + +It was a hard task, amidst so much rubbish, to discover and re- +determine the consecrated places; but by the zeal of Camillus, and +the incessant labor of the priest, it was at last accomplished. +But when it came also to rebuilding the city, which was wholly +demolished, despondency seized the multitude, and a backwardness +to engage in a work for which they had no materials. The senate, +therefore, fearing a sedition, would not suffer Camillus, though +desirous, to lay down his authority within the year, though no +other dictator had ever held it above six months. + +Camillus thought good to refer the matter of rebuilding to general +deliberation, and himself spoke largely and earnestly in behalf of +his country, as also may others. At last, calling to Lucius +Lucretius, whose place it was to speak first, he commanded him to +give his sentence, and the rest as they followed, in order. +Silence being made, and Lucretius just about to begin, by chance a +centurion, passing by outside with his company of the day-guard, +called out with a loud voice to the ensign-bearer to halt and fix +his standard, for this was the best place to stay in. This voice, +coming in that moment of time, and that crisis of uncertainty and +anxiety for the future, was taken as a direction what was to be +done; so that Lucretius, assuming an attitude of devotion, gave +sentence in concurrence with the gods, as he said, as likewise did +all that followed. Even among the common people it created a +wonderful change of feeling: every one now cheered and encouraged +his neighbor, and set himself to the work, proceeding in it, +however, not by any regular lines or divisions, but every one +pitching upon that plot of ground which came next to hand, or best +pleased his fancy; by which haste and hurry in building they +constructed their city in narrow and ill-designed lanes, and with +houses huddled together one upon another; for it is said that +within the compass of the year the whole city was raised up anew, +both in its public walls and private buildings. + +And now they had scarcely got a breathing time from their trouble +when a new war came upon them;a and the Aequians, and the Tuscans +besieged Sutrium, their confederate city. Camillus, being the +third time chosen dictator, armed not only those under, but also +those over, the age of service; and taking a large circuit around +the mountain Maecius, undiscovered by the enemy, lodged his army +on their rear, and then by many fires gave notice of his arrival. +The besieged, encouraged by this, prepared to sally forth and join +battle; but the Latins and Volscians, fearing this exposure to any +enemy on both sides, drew themselves within their works, and +fortified their camp with a strong palisade of trees on every +side, resolving to wait for more supplies from home, and +expecting, also, the assistance of the Tuscans, their confederate. +Camillus, detecting their object, and fearing to be reduced to the +same position to which he had brought them, namely, to be besieged +himself, resolved to lose no time; and finding their rampart was +all of timber, and observing that a strong wind constantly at sun- +rising blew off from the mountains, after having prepared a +quantity of combustibles, about break of day he drew forth his +forces, commanding a part with their missiles to assault the enemy +with noise and shouting on the other quarter, whilst he, with +those that were to fling in the fire, went to that side of the +enemy's camp to which the wind usually blew, and there waited his +opportunity. When the skirmish was begun, and the sun risen, and a +strong wind set in from the mountains, he gave the signal of +onset; and, heaping in an immense quantity of fiery matter, filled +all their rampart with it, so that the flame being fed by the +close timber and wooden palisades, went on and spread into all +quarters. The Latins, having nothing ready to keep it off or +extinguish it, when the camp was now almost full of fire, were +driven back within a very small compass, and at last forced by +necessity to come into their enemy's hands, who stood before the +works ready armed and prepared to receive them; of these very few +escaped, while those that stayed in the camp were all a prey to +the fire, until the Romans, to gain the pillage, extinguished it. + +These things performed, Camillus, leaving his son Lucius in the +camp to guard the prisoners and secure the booty, passed into the +enemy's country, where, having taken the city of the Aequians and +reduced the Volscians to obedience, he then immediately led his +army to Sutrium, not having heard what had befallen the Sutrians, +but making haste to assist them, as if they were still in danger +and besieged by the Tuscans. They, however, had already +surrendered their city to their enemies, and destitute of all +things, with nothing left but their clothes, and bewailing their +misfortune. Camillus himself was struck with compassion, and +perceiving the soldiers weeping, and commiserating their case, +while the Sutrians hung about and clung to them, resolved not to +defer revenge, but that very day to lead his army to Sutrium; +conjecturing that the enemy, having just taken a rich and +plentiful city, without an enemy left within it, nor any from +without to be expected, would be found abandoned to enjoyment, and +unguarded. Neither did his opinion fail him: he not only passed +through their country without discovery, but came up to their very +gates and possessed himself of the walls, not a man being left to +guard them, but their whole army scattered about in the houses, +drinking and making merry. Nay, when at last they did perceive +that the enemy had seized the city, they were so overloaded with +meat and wine that few were able so much as to endeavor to +escape,but either waited shamefully for their death within +doors,or surrendered themselves to the conqueror. Thus the city of +the Sutrians was twice taken in one day; and they who were in +possession lost it, and they who had lost regained it, alike by +the means of Camillus. For all which actions he received a triumph +which brought him no less honor and reputation than the two former +ones; for those citizens who before most regarded him with an evil +eye, and ascribed his successes to a certain luck rather than real +merit, were compelled by these last acts of his to allow the whole +honor to his great abilities and energy. + +Of all he adversaries and enviers of his glory, Marcus Manlius was +the most distinguished, he who first drove back the Gauls when +they made their night attack upon the Capitol, and who for that +reason had been named Capitolinus. This man, affecting the first +place in the commonwealth, and not able by noble ways to outdo +Camillus's reputation, took that ordinary course toward usurpation +of absolute power, namely, to gain the multitude, those of them +especially that were in debt; defending some by pleading their +causes against their creditors, rescuing others by force, and not +suffering the law to proceed against them; insomuch that in a +short time he got great numbers of indigent people about him, +whose tumults and uproars in the forum struck terror into the +principal citizens. After that Quintius Capitolinus, who was made +dictator to suppress these disorders, had committed Manlius to +prison, the people immediately changed their apparel, a thing +never done but in great and public calamities, and the senate, +fearing some tumult, ordered him to be released. He, however,when +set at liberty, changed not his course, but was rather the more +insolent in his proceedings,filling the whole city with faction +and sedition. They chose, therefore, Camillus again military +tribune; and a day being appointed for Manlius to answer to his +charge, the prospect from the place where his trial was held +proved a great impediment to his accusers; for the very spot where +Manlius by night fought with the Gauls overlooked the forum from +the Capitol, so that, stretching forth his hands that way, and +weeping, he called to their remembrance his past actions, raising +compassion in all that beheld him. Insomuch that the judges were +at a loss what to do, and several times adjourned the trial, +unwilling to acquit him of the crime, which was sufficiently +proved, and yet unable to execute the law while his noble action +remained, as it were, before their eyes. Camillus, considering +this, transferred the court outside the gates to the Peteline +Grove, from whence there is no prospect of the Capitol Here his +accuser went on with his charge, and his judges were capable of +remembering the duly resenting his guilty deeds. He was convicted, +carried to the Capitol, and flung headlong from the rock; so that +one and same spot was thus the witness of his greatest glory, and +monument of his most unfortunate end. The Romans, besides, razed +his house, and built there a temple to the goddess they call +Moneta, ordaining for the future that none of the patrician order +should ever dwell on the Capitoline. + +And now Camillus, being called to his sixth tribuneship, desired +to be excused, as being aged, and perhaps not unfearful of the +malice of fortune, and those reverses which seem to ensue upon +great prosperity. But the most apparent pretence was the weakness +of his body, for he happened at that time to be sick; the people, +however, would admit of no excuses, but, crying that they wanted +not his strength for horse or for foot service, but only his +counsel and conduct, constrained him to undertake the command, and +with one of his fellow-tribunes to lead the army immediately +against the enemy. These were the Praenestines and Volscians, who, +with large forces, were laying waste the territory of the Roman +confederates. Having marched out with his army, he sat down and +encamped near the enemy, meaning himself to protract the war, or +if there should come any necessity or occasion of fighting, in the +meantime to regain his strength. but Lucius Furius, his colleague, +carried away with the desire of glory, was not to e held in, but, +impatient to give battle, inflamed the inferior officers of the +army with the same eagerness; so that Camillus, fearing he might +seem out of envy to be wishing to rob the young man of the glory +of a noble exploit, consented, though unwillingly, that he should +draw out the forces, whilst himself, by reason of weakness, stayed +behind with a few in the camp. Lucius, engaging rashly, was +discomfited, when Camillus, perceiving the Romans to give ground +and fly, could not contain himself, but, leaping from his bed, +with those he had about him ran to meet them at the gates of the +camp, making his way through the flyers to oppose the pursuers; so +that those who had got within the camp turned back at once and +followed him, and those that came flying from without made head +again and gathered about him, exhorting one another not to forsake +their general. Thus the enemy, for that time, was stopped in his +pursuit. The next day Camillus, drawing out his forces and joining +battle with them, overthrew them by main force, and, following +close upon them, entered pell-mell with them into their camp, and +took it, slaying the greatest part of them. Afterwards, having +heard that the city of Satricum was taken by the Tuscans, and the +inhabitants, all Romans, put to the sword, he sent home to Rome +the main body of his forces and heaviest-armed, and, taking with +him the lightest and most vigorous soldiers, set suddenly upon the +Tuscans, who were in the possession of the city, and mastered +them, slaying some and expelling the rest; and so, returning to +Rome with great spoils, gave signal evidence of their superior +wisdom, who, not mistrusting the weakness and age of a commander +endowed with courage and conduct, had rather chosen him who was +sickly and desirous to be excused, than young men who were forward +and ambitious to command. + +When, therefore, the revolt of the Tusculans was reported, they +gave Camillus the charge of reducing them, choosing one of his +five colleagues to go with him. And when every one was eager for +the place, contrary to the expectation of all, he passed by the +rest and chose Lucius Furius, the very same man who lately, +against the judgment of Camillus, had rashly hazarded and nearly +lost a battle; willing, at it should seem, to dissemble that +miscarriage, and free him from the shame of it. The Tusculans, +hearing of Camillus's coming against them, made a cunning attempt +at revoking their act of revolt; their fields, as in times of +highest peace, were full of ploughmen and shepherds; their gates +stood wide open, and their children were being taught in the +schools; of the people, such as were tradesmen, he found in their +workshops, busied about their several employments, and the better +sort of citizens walking in the public places in their ordinary +dress; the magistrates hurried about to provide quarters for the +Romans, as if they stood in fear of no danger and were conscious +of no fault. Which arts, though they could not dispossess Camillus +of the conviction he had of their treason, yet induced some +compassion for their repentance; he commanded them to go to the +senate and deprecate their anger, and joined himself as an +intercessor in their behalf, so that their city was acquitted of +all guilt and admitted to Roman citizenship. These were the most +memorable actions of his sixth tribuneship. + +After these things, Licinius Stolo raised a great sedition in the +city, and brought the people to dissension with the senate, +contending, that of two consuls one should be chosen out of the +commons, and not both out of the patricians. Tribunes of the +people were chosen, but the election of consuls was interrupted +and prevented by the people. And as this absence of any supreme +magistrate was leading to yet further confusion, Camillus was the +fourth time created dictator by the senate, sorely against the +people's will, and not altogether in accordance with his own; he +had little desire for a conflict with men whose past services +entitles them to tell him that he had achieved far greater actions +in war along with them than in politics with the patricians, who, +indeed, had only put him forward now out of envy; that, if +successful, he might crush the people, or, failing, be crushed +himself. However, to provide as good a remedy as he could for the +present, knowing the day on which the tribunes of the people +intended to prefer the law, he appointed it by proclamation for a +general muster, and called the people from the forum into the +Campus, threatening to set heavy fines upon such as should not +obey. On the other side, the tribunes of the people met his +threats by solemnly protesting they would fine him fifty thousand +drachmas of silver, if he persisted in obstructing the people from +giving their suffrages for the law. Whether it were, then, that he +feared another banishment or condemnation, which would ill become +his age and past great actions, or found himself unable to stem +the current of the multitude, which ran strong and violent, he +betook himself, for the present, to his house, and afterwards, for +some days together, professing sickness, finally laid down his +dictatorship. The senate created another dictator; who, choosing +Stolo, leader of the sedition, to be his general of horse, +suffered that law to be enacted and ratified, which was most +grievous to the patricians, namely that no person whatsoever +should possess above five hundred acres of land. Stolo was much +distinguished by the victory he had gained; but, not long after +was found himself to possess more than he had allowed to others, +and suffered the penalties of his own law. + +And now the contention about election of consuls coming on (which +was the main point and original cause of the dissension, and had +throughout furnished most matter of division between the senate +and the people), certain intelligence arrived, that the Gauls +again, proceeding from the Adriatic Sea, were marching in vast +number upon Rome. On the very heels of the report followed +manifest acts also of hostility; the country through which they +marched was all wasted, and such as by flight could not make their +escape to Rome were dispersing and scattering among the mountains. +The terror of this war quieted the sedition; nobles and commons, +senate and people together, unanimously chose Camillus the fifth +time dictator; who, though very aged, not wanting much of +fourscore years, yet, considering the danger and necessity of his +country, did not, as before, pretend sickness, or depreciate his +own capacity, but at once undertook the charge, and enrolled +soldiers. And, knowing that the great force of the barbarians lay +chiefly in their swords, with which they laid about them in a rude +and inartificial manner, hacking and hewing the head and +shoulders, he caused head-pieces entire of iron to be made for +most of his men, smoothing and polishing the outside, that the +enemy's swords, lighting upon them, might either slide off or be +broken; and fitted also their shields with a little rim of brass, +the wood itself not being sufficient to bear off the blows. +Besides, he taught his soldiers to use their long javelins in +close encounter, and, by bringing them under their enemy's swords, +to receive their strokes upon them. + +When the Gauls drew near, about the river Anio, dragging a heavy +camp after them, and loaded with infinite spoil, Camillus drew +forth his forces, and planted himself upon a hill of easy ascent, +and which had many dips in it, with the object that the greatest +part of his army might lie concealed, and those who appeared might +be thought to have betaken themselves, through fear, to those +upper grounds. And the more to increase this opinion in them, he +suffered them, without any disturbance, to spoil and pillage even +to his very trenches, keeping himself quiet within his works, +which were well fortified; till, at last, perceiving that part of +the enemy were scattered about the country foraging, and that +those that were in the camp did nothing day and night but drink +and revel, in the night time he drew up his lightest-armed men, +and sent them out before to impede the enemy while forming into +order, and to harass them when they should first issue out of the +their camp; and early in the morning brought down his main body, +and set them in battle array in the lower round, numerous and +courageous army, not, as the barbarians had supposed, an +inconsiderable and fearful division. The first thing that shook +the courage of the Gauls was, that their enemies had, contrary to +their expectation, the honor of being aggressors. In the next +place, the light-armed men, falling upon them before they could +get into their usual order or range themselves in their proper +squadrons, so disturbed and pressed upon them, that they were +obliged to fight at random, without any order at all. But at last, +when Camillus brought on his heavy-armed legions, the barbarians, +with their swords drawn, went vigorously to engage them; the +Romans, however, opposing their javelins, and receiving the force +of their blows on those parts of the defences which were well +guarded with steel, turned the edge of their weapons, beingmade of +a soft and ill-tempered metal, so that their swords bent and +doubled up in their hands; and their shields were pierced through +and through, and grew heavy with the javelins that stuck upon +them. And thus forced to quit their own weapons, they endeavored +to take advantage of those of their enemies, laid hold of the +javelins with their hands, and tried to pluck them away. But the +Romans, perceiving them now naked and defenceless, betook +themselves to their swords, which they so well used, that in a +little time great slaughter was made in the foremost ranks, while +the rest fled over all parts of the level country; the hills and +upper grounds Camillus had secured beforehand, and their camp they +knew it would not be difficult for the enemy to take, as, through +confidence of victory, they had left it unguarded. This fight, it +is stated, was thirteen years after the sacking of Rome; and from +henceforward the Romans took courage, and surmounted the +apprehensions they had hitherto entertained of the barbarians, +whose previous defeat they had attributed rather to pestilence and +a concurrence of mischances than to their own superior valor. And, +indeed, this fear had been formerly so great, that they made a +law, that priests should be excused from service in war, unless in +an invasion from the Gauls. + +This was the last military action that Camillus ever performed; +for the voluntary surrender of the city of the Velitrani was but a +mere accessory to it. But the greatest of all civil contests, and +the hardest to be managed, was still to be fought out against the +people; who, returning home full of victory and success, insisted, +contrary to established law, to have one of the consuls chosen out +of their own body. The senate strongly opposed it, and would not +suffer Camillus to lay down his dictatorship, thinking, that, +under the shelter of his great name and authority, they should be +better able to contend for the power of the aristocracy. But when +Camillus was sitting upon the tribunal, dispatching public +affairs, an officer, sent by the tribunes of the people, commanded +him to rise and follow him, laying his and upon him, as ready to +seize and carry him away; upon which, such a noise and tumult as +was never heard before, filled the whole forum; some that were +about Camillus thrusting the officer from the bench, and the +multitude below calling out to him to bring Camillus down. Being +at a loss what to do in these difficulties, he yet laid not down +his authority, but, taking the senators along with him, he went to +the senate-house; but before he entered, besought the gods that +they would bring these troubles to a happy conclusion, solemnly +vowing, when the tumult was ended, to build a temple to Concord. A +great conflict of opposite opinions arose in the senate; but, at +last, the most moderate and most acceptable to the people +prevailed, and consent was given, that of two consuls, one should +be chosen from the commonalty. When the dictator proclaimed this +determination of the senate to the people, at the moment pleased +and reconciled with the senate, as they could not well otherwise +be, they accompanied Camillus home with all expressions and +acclamations of joy; and the next day, assembling together, they +voted a temple of Concord to be built, according to Camillus's +vow, facing the assembly and the forum; and to the feasts, called +the Latin holidays, they added one day more, making four in all; +and ordained that, on the present occasion the whole people of +Rome should sacrifice with garlands on their heads. + +In the election of consuls held by Camillus, Marcus Aemilius was +chosen of the patricians, and Lucius Sextius the first of the +commonalty; and this was the last of all Camillus's actions. In +the year following, a pestilential sickness infected Rome, which, +besides an infinite number of the common people, swept away most +of the magistrates, among whom was Camillus; whose death cannot be +called premature, if we consider his great age, or greater +actions, yet was he more lamented than all the rest put together +that then died of that distemper. + + + +Pericles + +We are inspired by acts of virtue with an emulation and eagerness +that may lead on to imitation. In other things there does not +immediately follow upon the admiration and liking of the thing +done, any strong desire of doing the like. Nay, many times, on the +very contrary, when we are pleased with the work, we slight and +set little by the workman or artist himself, as, for instance, in +perfumes and purple dyes, we are taken with the things themselves +well enough, but do not think dyers and perfumers otherwise than +low and sordid people. It was not said amiss by Antisthenes, when +people told him that one Ismenias was an excellent piper, "It may +be so, but he is a wretched human being, otherwise he would not +have been an excellent piper." And King Philip, to the same +purpose, told his son Alexander, who once at a merry meeting +played a piece of music charmingly and skillfully, "Are you not +ashamed, my son, to play so well?" For it is enough for a king or +prince to find leisure sometimes to hear others sing, and he does +the muses quite honor enough when he pleases to be but present, +while others engage in such exercises and trials of skill. + +He who busies himself in mean occupations produces, in the very +pains he takes about things of little or no use, an evidence +against himself of his negligence and indisposition to what is +really good. Nor did any generous and ingenuous young man, at the +sight of the statue of Jupiter at Pisa, ever desire to be a +Phidias, or, on seeing that of Juno at Argos, long to be a +Polycletus, or feel induced by his pleasure in their poems to wish +to be an Anacreon or Pliletas or Archilochus. But virtue, by the +bare statement of its actions, can so affect men's minds as to +create at once both admiration of the things done and desire to +imitate the doers of them. The goods of fortune we would possess +and would enjoy; those of virtue we long to practice and exercise; +we are content to receive the former from others, the latter we +wish others to experience from us. + +And so we have thought fit to spend our time and pains in writing +of the lives of famous persons; and have composed this tenth book +upon that subject, containing the life of Pericles, and that of +Fabius Maximus, who carried on the war against Hannibal, men +alike, as in their other virtues and good parts, so especially in +their mild and upright temper and demeanor, and in that capacity +to bear the cross-grained humors of their fellow-citizens and +colleagues in office which made them both most useful and +serviceable to the interests of their countries. Whether we take a +right aim at our intended purpose, it is left to the reader to +judge by what he shall find here. + +Pericles was of the tribe of Acamantis, and the township +Cholargus, of the noblest birth both on his father's and mother's +side. Xanthippus, his father, who defeated the king of Persia's +generals in the battle at Mycale, took to Wife Agariste, the +grandchild of Clisthenes, who drove out the sons of Pisistratus, +and nobly put and end to their tyrannical usurpation, and moreover +made a body of laws, and settled a model of government admirably +tempered and suited for the harmony and safety of the people. + +Pericles in other respects was perfectly formed physically, only +his head was somewhat longish and out of proportion. For which +reason almost all the images and statues that were made of him +have the head covered with a helmet, the workmen not apparently +being willing to expose him. The poets of Athens called him +"Schinocephalos," or squill-head, from "schinos," a squill, or +sea-onion. + +Pericles was a hearer of Zeno, the Eliatic, who treated of natural +philosophy in the same manner as Parmenides did, but had also +perfected himself in an art of his own for refuting and silencing +opponents in argument; as Timon of Phlius describes it,-- + +Also the two-edged tongue of mighty Zeno, who, +Say what one would, could argue it untrue. + +But he saw most of Pericles, and furnished him most especially +with a weight and grandeur of sense, superior to all arts of +popularity, and in general gave him his elevation and sublimity of +purpose and of character, was Anaxagoras of Clazomenae; whom the +men of those times called by the name of Nous, that is mind, or +intelligence, whether in admiration of the great and extraordinary +gift he displayed for the science of nature, or because he was the +first of the philosophers who did not refer the first ordering of +the world to fortune or chance, nor to necessity or compulsion, +but to a pure, unadulterated intelligence, which in all other +existing mixed and compound things acts as a principle of +discrimination, and of combination of like with like. + +For this man, Pericles entertained an extraordinary esteem and +admiration, and, filling himself with this lofty and, as they call +it, up-in-the-air sort of thought, derived hence not merely, as +was natural, elevation of purpose and dignity of language, raised +far above the base and dishonest buffooneries of mob-eloquence, +but, besides this, a composure of countenance, and a serenity and +calmness in all his movements, which no occurrence whilst he was +speaking could disturb, a sustained and even tone of voice, and +various other advantages of a similar kind, which produced the +greatest effect on his hearers. Once, after being reviled and ill- +spoken of all day long in his own hearing by some abandoned fellow +in the open market-place where he was engaged in the despatch of +some urgent affair, he continued his business in perfect silence, +and in the evening returned home composedly, the man still dogging +him at the heels, and pelting him all the way with abuse and foul +language; and stopping into his house, it being by this time dark, +he ordered one of hi servants to take a light and to go along with +the man and see him safe home. + +Nor were these the only advantages which Pericles derived from +Anaxagoras's acquaintance; he seems also to have become, by his +instructions, superior to that superstition with which an ignorant +wonder at appearances, for example, in the heavens, possesses the +minds of people unacquainted with their causes, eager for the +supernatural, and excitable through an inexperience which the +knowledge of natural causes removes, replacing wild and timid +superstition by the good hope and assurance of an intelligent +piety. + +There is a story that once Pericles had brought to him from a +country farm of his, a ram's head with one horn, and that Lampon, +the diviner, upon seeing the horn grow strong and solid out of the +midst of the forehead, gave it as his judgement that, there being +at that time two potent factions, parties, or interests in the +city, the one of Thucydides and the other of Pericles, the +government would come about to that one of them in whose ground or +estate this token or indication of fate had shown itself. But that +Anaxagoras, cleaving the skull in sunder, showed to the bystanders +that the brain had not filled up its natural place, but being +oblong, like an egg, had collected from all parts of the vessel +which contained it, in a point to that place from whence the root +of the horn took its rise. And that, for the time, Anaxagoras was +much admired for his explanation by those that were present; and +Lampon no less a little while after, when Thucydides was +overpowered, and the whole affairs of the state and government +came into the hands of Pericles. + +Pericles, while yet but a young man, stood in considerable +apprehension of the people, as he was thought in face and figure +to be very like the tyrant Pisitratus, and those of great age +remarked upon the sweetness of his voice, and his volubility and +rapidity in speaking, and were struck with amazement at the +resemblance. But when Aristides was now dead, and Themosticles +driven out, and Cimon was for the most part kept abroad by the +expeditions he made in parts out of Greece, Pericles, seeing +things in this posture, now advanced and took his side, not with +the rich and few, but with the many and poor, contrary to his +natural bent, which was far from democratical; but, most likely, +fearing he might fall under suspicion of aiming at arbitrary +power, and seeing Cimon on the side of the aristocracy, and much +beloved by the better and more distinguished people, he joined the +party of the people, with a view at once both to secure himself +and procure means against Cimon. + +He immediately entered, also, on quite a new course of life and +management of his time. For he was never seen to walk in any +street but that which led to the market-place and the council- +hall, and he avoided invitations of friends to supper, and all +friendly visits and intercourse whatever; in all the time he had +to do with the public, which was not a little, he was never known +to have gone to any of his friends to a supper, except that once +when his near kinsman Euryptolemus married, he remained present +till the ceremony of the drink-offering, and then immediately rose +from the table and went his way. For these friendly meetings are +very quick to defeat any assumed superiority, and in intimate +familiarity an exterior of gravity is hard to maintain. Real +excellence, indeed, is best recognized when most openly looked +into; and in really good men, nothing which meets the eyes of +external observers so truly deserves their admiration, as their +daily common life does that of their nearer friends. Pericles, +however, to avoid any feeling of commonness, or any satiety on the +part of the people, presented himself at intervals only, not +speaking on every business, nor at all times coming into the +assembly, but, as Critoaus says, reserving himself, like the +Salaminian galley, for great occasions, while matters of lesser +importance were despatched by friends or other speakers under his +direction. And of this number we are told Ephialtes made one, who +broke the power of the council of Areopagus, giving the people, +according to Plato's expression, so copious and so strong a +draught of liberty, that, growing wild and unruly, like an +unmanageable horse, it, as the comic poets say, - + +"--got beyond all keeping in, +Champing at Euboea, and among the islands leaping in." + +The style of speaking most consonant to his form of life and the +dignity of his views he found, so to say, in the tones of that +instrument with which Anaxagoras had furnished him; of his +teaching he continually availed himself, and deepened the colors +of rhetoric with the dye of natural science. + +A saying of Thucydides, the son of Melesias, stands on record, +spoken by him by way of pleasantry upon Pericles's dexterity. +Thucydides was one of the noble and distinguished citizens, and +had been his greatest opponent; and, when Archidamus, the king of +the Lacedaemonians, asked him whether he or Pericles were the +better wrestler, he made this answer: "When I," said he, "have +thrown him and given him a fair fall, he by persisting that he had +no fall, gets the better of me, and makes the bystanders, in spite +of their own eyes, believe him." + +The rule of Pericles has been described as an aristocratical +government, that went by the name of a democracy, but was, indeed, +the supremacy of a single great man; while many say, that by him +the common people were first encouraged and led on to such evils +as appropriations of subject territory, allowances for attending +theatres, payments for performing public duties, and by these bad +habits were, under the influence of his public measures, changed +from a sober, thrifty people, that maintained themselves by their +own labors, to lovers of expense, intemperance, and license. + +At the first, as has been said, when he set himself against +Cimon's great authority, he did caress the people. Finding himself +come short of his competitor in wealth and money, by which +advantages the other was enabled to take care of the poor, +inviting every day some one or other of the citizens that was in +want to supper, and bestowing clothes on the aged people, and +breaking down the hedges and enclosures of his grounds, that all +that would might freely gather what fruit they pleased. Pericles, +thus outdone in popular arts, turned to the distribution of the +public moneys; and in a short time having bought the people over, +what with moneys allowed for shows and for service on juries, and +what with the other forms of pay and largess, he made use of them +against the council of Areopagus, and directed the exertions of +his party against this council with such success, that most of +those causes and matters which had been formerly tried there, were +removed from its cognizance; Cimon, also, was banished by +ostracism as a favorer of the Lacedaemonians and a hater of the +people, though in wealth and noble birth he was among the first, +and had won several most glorious victories over the barbarians, +and had filled the city with money and spoils of war. So vast an +authority had Pericles obtained among the people. + +The ostracism was limited by law to ten years; but the +Lacedaemonians, in the meantime, entering with a great army into +the territory of Tanagra, and the Athenians going out against the, +Cimon, coming from his banishment before his time was out, put +himself in arms and array with those of his fellow-citizens that +were of his own tribe, and desired by his deeds to wipe off the +suspicion of his favoring the Lacedaemonians, by venturing his own +person along with his countrymen. But Pericles's friends, +gathering in a body, forced him to retire as a banished man. For +which cause also Pericles seems to have exerted himself more than +in any other battle, and to have been conspicuous above all for +his exposure of himself to danger. All Cimon's friends, also, to a +man, fell together side by side, whom Pericles had accused with +him of taking part with the Lacedaemonians. Defeated in this +battle on their own frontiers, and expecting a new and perilous +attack with return of spring, the Athenians now felt regret and +sorrow for the loss of Cimon, and repentance for their expulsion +of him. Pericles, being sensible of their feelings, did not +hesitate or delay to gratify it, and himself made the motion for +recalling him home. He, upon his return, concluded a peace betwixt +the two cities; for the Lacedaemonians entertained as kindly +feelings towards him as they did the reverse towards Pericles and +the other popular leaders. + +Cimon, while he was admiral, ended his days in the Isle of Cyprus. +And the aristocratical party, seeing that Pericles was already +before this grown to be the greatest and foremost man of all the +city, but nevertheless wishing there should be somebody set up +against him, to blunt and turn the edge of his power, that it +might not altogether prove a monarchy, put forward Thucydides of +Alopece, a discreet person, and a near kinsman of Cimon's, to +conduct the opposition against him. And so Pericles, at that time +more than at any other, let loose the reins to the people, and +made his policy subservient to their pleasure, contriving +continually to have some great public show or solemnity, some +banquet, or some procession or other in the town to please them, +coaxing his countrymen like children, with such delights and +pleasures as were not, however, unedifying. Besides that, every +year he sent out threescore galleys, on board of which there went +numbers of the citizens, who were in pay eight months, at the same +time learning and practicing the art of seamanship. + +He sent, moreover, a thousand of them into the Chersonese as +planters, to share the land among them by lot, and five hundred +more into the isle of Naxos, and half that number to Andros, a +thousand into Thrace to dwell among the Bisaltae, and others into +Italy, when the city Sybaris, which now was called Thurii, was to +be repeopled. And this he did to ease and discharge the city of an +idle, and, by reason of their idleness, a busy, meddling crowd of +people; and at the same time to meet the necessities and restore +the fortunes of the poor townsmen, and to intimidate, also, and +check their allies from attempting any change, by posting such +garrisons, as it were, in the midst of them. + +That which gave most pleasure and ornament to the city of Athens, +and the greatest admiration and even astonishment to all +strangers, and that which now is Greece's only evidence that the +power she boasts of and her ancient wealth are no romance or idle +story, was his construction of the public and sacred buildings. + +The materials were stone, brass, ivory, gold, ebony, and cypress- +wood; the artisans that wrought and fashioned them were smiths and +carpenters, moulders, founders and braziers, stone-cutters, dyers, +goldsmiths, ivory-workers, painters, embroiderers, turners; those +again that conveyed them to the town for use, merchants and +mariners and ship-masters by sea; and by land, cartwrights, +cattle-breeders, wagoners, rope-makers, flax-workers, shoe-makers +and leather-dressers, road-makers, miners. And every trade in the +same nature, as a captain in an army has his particular company of +soldiers under him, had its own hired company of journeymen and +laborers belonging to it banded together as in array, to be as it +were the instrument and body for the performance of the service of +these public works distributed plenty through every age and +condition. + +As then grew the works up, no less stately in size than exquisite +in form, the workmen striving to outvie the material and the +design with the beauty of their workmanship, yet the most +wonderful thing of all was the rapidity of their execution. +Undertakings, any one of which singly might have required, they +thought, for their completion, several successions and ages of +men, were every one of them accomplished in the height and prime +of one man's political service. Although they say, too, that +Zeuxis once, having heard Agatharchus, the painter, boast of +despatching his work with speed and ease, replied, "I take a long +time." For ease and speed in doing a thing do not give the work +lasting solidity or exactness of beauty; the expenditure of time +allowed to a man's pains beforehand for the production of a thing +is repaid by way of interest with a vital force for its +preservation when once produced. For which reason Pericles's works +are especially admired, as having been made quickly, to last long. +For every particular piece of his work was immediately, even at +that time, for its beauty and elegance, antique; and yet in its +vigor and freshness looks to this day as if it were just executed. +There is a sort of bloom of newness upon those works of his, +preserving them from the touch of time, as if they had some +perennial spirit and undying vitality mingled in the composition +of them. + +Phidias had the oversight of all the works, and was surveyor- +general, though upon the various portions other great masters and +workmen were employed. For Callicrates and Ictinus built the +Parthenon; the chapel at Eleusis, where the mysteries were +celebrated, was begun by Coroebus, who erected the pillars that +stand upon the floor or pavement, and joined them to the +architraves; and after his death Metagenes of Xypete added the +frieze and the upper line of columns; Xenocles of Cholargus roofed +or arched the lantern on the top of the temple of Castor and +Pollux; and the long wall, which Socrates says he himself heard +Pericles propose to the people, was undertaken by Callicrates. + +The Odeum, or music-room, which in its interior was full of seats +and ranges of pillars, and outside had its roof made to slope and +descend from one single point at the top, was constructed, we are +told, in imitation of the king of Persia's Pavilion; this likewise +by Pericles's order; which Cratinus again, in his comedy called +The Thracian Women, made an occasion of raillery, - + +So, we see here, +Jupiter Long-pate Pericles appear, +Since ostracism time he's laid aside his head, +And wears the new Odeum in its stead. + +Perils, also eager for distinction, then first obtained the decree +for a contest in musical skill to be held yearly at the +Panathenaea, and he himself, being chosen judge, arranged the +order and method in which the competitors should sing and play on +the flute and the harp. And both at that time, and at other times +also, they sat in this music-room to see and hear all such trials +of skill. + +The propylaea, or entrances to the Acropolis, were finished in +five years' time, Mnesicles being the principal architect. A +strange accident happened in the course of building, which showed +that the goddess was not averse to the work, but was aiding and +co-operating to bring it to perfection. One of the artificers, the +quickest and the handiest workmen among them all, with a slip of +his foot, fell down from a great height, and lay in a miserable +condition, the physician having no hopes of his recovery. When +Pericles was in distress about this, Athenia appeared to him at +night in a dream, and ordered a course of treatment which he +applied, and in a short time, and with great ease, cured the man. +And upon this occasion it was that he set up a brass statue of +Athena, surnamed Health, in the citadel near the altar, which they +say was there before. But it was Phidias who wrought the goddess's +image in gold, and he has his name inscribed on the pedestal as +the workman of it; and indeed the whole work in a manner was under +his charge, and he had, as we have said already, the oversight +over all the artists and workmen, through Pericles's friendship +for him. + +When the orators, who sided with Thucydides and his party, were at +one time crying out, as their custom was, against Pericles, as one +who squandered away public money and made havoc of the state +revenues, he rose in the open assembly and put the question to the +people, whether they thought that he had laid out much; and +saying, "Too much, a great deal," "Then," said he, "since it is +so, let the cost not go to your account, but to mine; and let the +inscription upon the buildings stand in my name." When they heard +him say thus, whether it were out of a surprise to see the +greatness of his spirit, or out of emulation of the glory of the +works, they cried aloud, bidding him to spend on, and lay out what +he thought fit from the public purse, and to spare no cost, till +all were finished. + +At length, coming to a final contest with Thucydides, which of the +two should ostracize the other out of the country, and, having +gone through this peril, he threw his antagonist out, and broke up +the confederacy that had been organized against him. So that now +all schism and division being at an end, and the city brought to +evenness and unity, he got all Athens and all affairs that +pertained to the Athenians into his own hands, their tributes, +their armies and their galleys, the islands, the sea, and their +wide-extended power, partly over other Greeks and partly over +barbarians, and all that empire which they possessed, founded and +fortified upon subject nations and royal friendships and +alliances. + +After this he was no longer the same man he had been before, nor +as tame and gentle and familiar as formerly with the populace, so +as readily to yield to their pleasures and to comply with the +desires of the multitude, as a steersman shifts with the winds. +Quitting that loose, remiss, and, in some cases, licentious court +of the popular will, he turned those soft and flowery modulations +to the austerity of aristocratical and regal rule; but, employing +this uprightly and undeviatingly for the country's best interests, +he was able generally to lead the people along, with their own +will and consent, by persuading and showing them what was to be +done. + +The source of this predominance was not barely his power of +language, but, as Thucydides the historian assures us, the +reputation of his life, and the confidence felt in his character; +his manifest freedom from every kind of corruption, and +superiority to all considerations of money. Notwithstanding he had +made the city of Athens, which was great of itself, as great and +rich as can be imagined, and though he were himself in power and +interest more than equal to many kings and absolute rulers, who +some of them also bequeathed by will their power to their +children, he for his part, did not make the patrimony his father +left him greater than it was by one drachma. + +Teleclides says the Athenians had surrendered to him - + +The tributes of the cities, and, with them, the cities, too, to do +with them as he pleases, and undo; +To build up, if he likes, stone walls around a town; and again, if +so he likes, to pull them down; +Their treaties and alliances, power, empire, peace, and war, their +wealth and their success forevermore. + +Nor was all this the luck of some happy occasion; nor was it the +mere bloom and grace of a policy that flourished for a season; but +having for fifty-five years together maintained the first place +among statesmen, in the exercise of one continuous unintermitted +command in the office, to which he was annually reelected, of +General, he preserved his integrity unspotted; though otherwise he +was not altogether idle or careless in looking after his pecuniary +advantage; his paternal estate, which of right belonged to him, he +so ordered that it might neither through negligence be wasted or +lessened, nor yet, being so full of business as he was, cost him +any great trouble or time with taking care of it; and put it into +such a way of management as he thought to be most easy for +himself, and the most exact. All his yearly products and profits +he sold together in a lump, and supplied his household needs +afterward by buying everything that he or his family wanted out of +the market. Upon which account, his children, when they grew to +age, were not well pleased with his management; since there was +not there, as is usual in a great family and a plentiful estate, +anything to spare, or over and above; but all that went out or +came in, all disbursements and all receipts, proceeded as it were +by number and measure. His manager in all this was a single +servant, Evangelus by name, a man either naturally gifted or +instructed by Pericles so as to excel every one in this art of +domestic economy. + +The Lacedaemonians beginning to show themselves troubled at the +growth of the Athenian power, Pericles, on the other hand, to +elevate the people's spirit yet more, and to raise them to the +thought of great actions, proposed a decree to summon all the +Greeks in what part soever, whether of Europe or Asia, every city, +little as well as great, to send their deputies to Athens to a +general assembly or convention, there to consult and advise +concerning the Greek temples which the barbarians had burnt down; +and also concerning the navigation of the sea, that they might +henceforward all of them pass to and fro and trade securely, and +be at peace among themselves. + +Nothing was effected, nor did the cities meet by their deputies, +as was desired; the Lacedaemonians, as it is said, crossing the +design underhand, and the attempt being disappointed and baffled +first in Peloponnesus. I thought fit, however, to introduce the +mention of it, to show the spirit of the man and the greatness of +his thoughts. + +In his military conduct he gained a great reputation for wariness; +he would not by his good-will engage in any fight which had much +uncertainty or hazard; he did not envy the glory of generals whose +rash adventures fortune favored with brilliant success, however +they were admired by others; nor did he think them worthy his +imitation, but always used to say to his citizens that, so far as +lay in his power, they should continue immortal, and live forever. +Seeing Tolmides, the son of Tolmaeus, upon the confidence of his +former successes, and flushed with the honor his military actions +had procured him, making preparation to attack the Boeotians in +their own country, when there was no likely opportunity, and that +he had prevailed with the bravest and most enterprising of the +youth to enlist themselves as volunteers in the service, who +besides his other force made up a thousand, he endeavored to +withhold him, and advised him against it in the public assembly, +telling him in a memorable saying of which still goes about, that, +if he would not take Pericles's advice, yet he would not do amiss +to wait and be ruled by time, the wisest counselor of all. This +saying, at that time, was but slightly commended; but, within a +few days after, when news was brought that Tolmides himself had +been defeated and slain in battle near Coronea, and that many +brave citizens had fallen with him, it gained him great repute as +well as good-will among the people, for wisdom and for love of his +countrymen. + +But of all his expeditions, that to the Chersonese gave most +satisfaction and pleasure, having proved the safety of the Greeks +who inhabited there. For not only by carrying along with him a +thousand fresh citizens of Athens he gave new strength and vigor +to the cities, but also by belting the neck of land, which joins +the peninsula to the continent, with bulwarks and forts from sea +to sea, he put a stop to the inroads of the Thracians, who lay all +about the Chersonese, and closed the door against a continual and +grievous war, with which that country had been long harassed, +lying exposed to the encroachments and influx of barbarous +neighbors, and groaning under the evils of a predatory population +both upon and within its borders. + +Entering also the Euxine Sea with a large and finely equipped +fleet, he obtained for the Greek cities any new arrangements they +wanted, and entered into friendly relations with them; and to the +barbarous nations, and kings and chiefs round about them, +displayed the greatness of the power of the Athenians, their +perfect ability and confidence to sail wherever they had a mind, +and to bring the whole sea under his control. He left the +Sinopians thirteen ships of war, with soldiers under the command +of Lamachus, to assist them against Timesileus the tyrant; and, +when he and his accomplices had been thrown out, obtained a decree +that six hundred of the Athenians that were willing should sail to +Sinope and plant themselves there with the Sinopians, sharing +among them the houses and land which the tyrant and his party had +previously held. + +But in other things he did not comply with the giddy impulses of +the citizens, nor quit his own resolutions to follow their +fancies, when, carried away with the thought of their strength and +great success, they were eager to interfere again in Egypt, and to +disturb the king of Persia's maritime dominions. Nay, there were a +good many who were, even then, possessed with that unblest and +unauspicious passion for Sicily, which afterward the orators of +Alciabes's party blew up into a flame. There were some also who +dreamt of Tuscany and of Carthage, and not without plausible +reason in their present large dominion and the prosperous course +of their affairs. + +But Pericles curbed this passion for foreign conquest, and +unsparingly pruned and cut down their ever-busy fancies for a +multitude of undertakings, and directed their power for the most +part to securing and consolidating what they had already got, +supposing it would be quite enough for them to do, if they could +keep the Lacedaemonians in check; to whom he entertained all along +a sense of opposition; which, as upon many other occasions, he +particularly showed by what he did in the time of the holy war. +The Lacedaemonians, having gone with an army to Delphi, restored +Apollo's temple, which the Phocians had got into their possession, +to the Delphians; immediately after their departure, Pericles, +with another army, came and restored it to the Phocians. And the +Lacedaemonians having engraven the record of their privilege of +consulting the oracle before others, which the Delphians gave +them, upon the forehead of the brazen wolf which stands there, he, +also, having received from the Phocians the like privilege for the +Athenians, had it cut upon the same wolf of brass, on his right +side. + +When Pericles, in giving up his accounts, stated a disbursement of +ten talents, as laid out upon fit occasion, the people, without +any question, nor troubling themselves to investigate the mystery, +freely allowed it. And some historians, in which number is +Theophtastus the philosopher, have given it as a truth that +Pericles every year used to send privately the sum of ten talents +to Sparta, with which he complimented those in office, to keep off +the war; not to purchase peace either, but time, that he might +prepare at leisure, and be the better able to carry on war +hereafter. + +After this, having made a truce between the Athenians and +Lacedaemonians for thirty years, he ordered, by public decree, the +expedition against the Isle of Samos, on the ground, that, when +they were bid to leave off their war with the Milesians, they had +not complied. For the two states were at war for the possession of +Priene; and the Samians, getting the better, refused to lay down +their arms and to have the controversy betwixt them decided by +arbitration before the Athenians. Pericles, therefore, fitting out +a fleet, went and broke up the oligarchal government at Samos, +and, taking fifty of the principal men of the town as hostages, +and as many of their children, sent them to the Isle of Lemnos, +there to be kept, though he had offers, as some relate, of a +talent apiece for himself from each one of the hostages, and of +many other presents from those who were anxious not to have a +democracy. Moreover, Pissuthnes the Persian, one of the king's +lieutenants, bearing some good-will to the Samians, sent him ten +thousand pieces of gold to excuse the city. Pericles, however, +would receive none of all this; but after he had taken that course +with the Samians which he thought fit, and set up a democracy +among them, sailed back to Athens. + +But they, however, immediately revolted, Pissuthnes having privily +got away their hostages for them, and provided them with means for +war. Whereupon Pericles came out with a fleet a second time +against them, and found them not idle nor slinking away, but +manfully resolved to try for the dominion of the sea. The issue +was, that, after a sharp sea-fight about the island called Tragia, +Pericles obtained a decisive victory, having with forty-four ships +routed seventy of the enemy's, twenty of which were carrying +soldiers. + +Together with his victory and pursuit, having made himself master +of the port, he laid siege to the Samians, and blocked them up, +who yet, one way or other, still ventured to make sallies, and +fight under the city walls. But after another greater fleet from +Athens had arrived, and the Samians were now shut up with a close +leaguer on every side, Pericles, taking with him sixty galleys, +sailed out into the main sea, with the intention, as most authors +give the account, to meet a squadron of Phoenician ships that were +coming for the Samians' relief, and to fight them at as great a +distance as could be from the island; but, as Stesimbrotus says, +with a design of putting over to Cyprus; which does not seem to be +probable. But whichever of the two was his intent, it seems to +have been a miscalculation. For on his departure, Melissus, the +son of Ithagenes, a philosopher, being at that time general in +Samos, despising either the small number of ships that were left +or the inexperience of the commanders, prevailed with the citizens +to attack the Athenians. And the Samians having won the battle and +taken several of the men prisoners, and disabled several of the +ships, were masters of the sea, and brought into port all +necessities they wanted for the war, which they had not before. +Aristotle says, too, that Pericles himself had been once before +this worsted by the Milissus in a sea-fight. + +The Samians, that they might requite an affront which had before +been put upon them, branded the Athenians whom they took +prisoners, in their foreheads, with the figure of an owl. For so +the Athenians had marked them before with a Samaena, which is a +sort of ship, low and flat in the prow, so as to look snub-nosed, +but wide and large and well-spread in the hold, by which it both +carries a large cargo and sails well. And so it was called, +because the first of that kind was seen at Samos, having been +built by order of Polycrates the tyrant. These brands upon the +Samians' foreheads, they say, are the allusion in the passage of +Aristophanes, where he says, -- + +For, oh, the Samians are a lettered people. + +Pericles, as soon as news was brought to him of the disaster that +had befallen his army, made all the haste he could to come in to +their relief, and having defeated Melissus, who bore up against +him, and put the enemy to flight, he immediately proceeded to hem +them in with a wall, resolving to master them and take the town, +rather with some cost and time than with the wounds and hazards of +his citizens. But as it was a hard matter to keep back the +Athenians, who were vexed at the delay, and were eagerly bent to +fight, he divided the whole multitude into eight parts, and +arranged by lot that that part which had the white bean should +have leave to feast and take their ease, while the other seven +were fighting. And this is the reason, they say, that people, when +at any time they have been merry, and enjoyed themselves, call it +white day, in allusion to this white bean. + +Ephorus, the historian, tells us besides, that Pericles made use +of engines of battery in this siege, being much taken with the +curiousness of the invention, with the aid and presence of Artemon +himself, the engineer, who, being lame, used to be carried about +in a litter, where the works required his attendance, and for that +reason was called Periphoretus. But Heraclides Ponticus disproves +this out of Anacreon's poems, where mention is made of this +Artemon Periphoretus several ages before the Samian war, or any of +these occurrences. And he says that Artemon, being a man who loved +his ease, and had a great apprehension of danger, for the most +part kept close within doors, having two of his servants to hold a +brazen shield over his head, that nothing might fall upon him from +above; and if he were at any time forced upon necessity to go +abroad, that he was carried about in a little hanging-bed, close +to the very ground, and that for this reason he was called +Periphoretus. + +In the ninth month, the Samians surrendering themselves and +delivering up the town, Pericles pulled down their walls, and +seized their shipping, and set a fine of a large sum upon them, +part of which they paid down at once, and they agreed to bring in +the rest by a certain time, and gave hostages for security. +Pericles, however, after the reduction of Samos, returning back to +Athens, took care that those who died in the war should be +honorably buried, and made a funeral harangue, as the custom is, +in their commendation at their graves, for which he gained great +admiration. As he came down from the stage on which he spoke, all +the women except Elpinice, the aged sister of Cimon, came out and +complimented him, taking him by the hand, and crowning him with +garlands and ribbons, like a victorious athlete in the games. + +After this was over, the Peloponnesian war beginning to break out +in full tide, he advised the people to send help to the +Corcyraeans, who were attacked by the Corinthians, and to secure +to themselves an island possessed of great naval resources, since +the Peloponnesians were already all but in actual hostilities +against them. Archidamus, the king of the Lacedaemonians, +endeavoring to bring the greater part of the complaints and +matters in dispute to a fair determination, and to pacify and +allay the heats of the allies, it is very likely that the war +would not upon any other grounds of quarrel have fallen upon the +Athenians, could they have been prevailed upon to be reconciled +with the inhabitants of Megara. + +The true occasion of the quarrel is not easy to find out. The +worst motive of all, which is confirmed by most witnesses, is to +the following effect. Phidias the Moulder had, as has before been +said, undertaken to make the statue of Athena. Now he, being +admitted to friendship with Pericles, and a great favorite of his, +had many enemies upon this account, who envied and maligned him; +and they, to make trial in a case of his what kind of judges the +commons would prove, should there be occasion to bring Pericles +himself before them, having tampered with Menon, one who had been +a workman with Phidias, stationed him in the marketplace, with a +petition desiring public security upon his discovery and +impeachment of Phidias. The people admitting the man to tell his +story, and, the prosecution proceeding in the assembly, there was +nothing of theft or cheat proved against him; for Phidias, from +the very first beginning, by the advice of Pericles, had so +wrought and wrapt the gold that was used in the work about the +statue, that they might take it all off and make out the just +weight of it, which Pericles at that time bade the accusers do. +But the repudiation of his works was what brought envy upon +Phidias, especially that where he represents the fight of the +Amazons upon the goddesses' shield, he had introduced a likeness +of himself as a bald old man holding up a great stone with both +hands, and had put in a very fine representation of Pericles +fighting with an Amazon. And the position of the hand, which holds +out the spear in front of the face, was ingeniously contrived to +conceal in some degree the likeness, which, meantime, showed +itself on either side. + +Phidias then was carried away to Prison, and there died of a +disease; but, as some say, of poison administered by the enemies +of Pericles, to raise a slander, or a suspicion at least, as +though he had procured it. The informer Menon, upon Glycon's +proposal, the people made free from payment of taxes and customs, +and ordered the generals to take care that nobody should do him +any hurt. And Pericles, finding that in Phidias's case he had +miscarried with the people, being afraid of impeachment, kindled +the war, which hitherto had lingered and smothered, and blew it up +into a flame; hoping, by that means, to disperse and scatter these +complaints and charges, and to allay their jealousy; the city +usually throwing herself upon him alone, and trusting to his sole +conduct, upon the urgency of great affairs and public dangers, by +reason of his authority and the sway he bore. + +These are given out to have been the reasons which induced +Pericles not to suffer the people of Athens to yield to the +proposals of the Lacedaemonians; but their truth is uncertain. + +The Lacedaemonians, therefore, and their allies, with a great +army, invaded the Athenian territories, under the conduct of king +Archidamus, and laying waste the country, marched on as far as +Acharnae, and there pitched their camp, presuming that the +Athenians would never endure that, but would come out and fight +them for their country's and their honor's sake. But Pericles +looked upon it as dangerous to engage in battle, to the risk of +the city itself, against sixty thousand men-at-arms of +Peloponnesians and Boeotians; for so many they were in number that +made the inroad at first; and he endeavored to appease those who +were desirous to fight, and were grieved and discontented to see +how things went, and gave them good words, saying, that "trees, +when they are lopped and cut, grow up again in a short time, but +men, being once lost, cannot easily be recovered." He did not +convene the people into an assembly, for fear lest they should +force him to act against his judgement; and many of his enemies +threatened and accursed him for doing as he did, and many made +songs and lampoons upon him, which were sung about the town to his +disgrace, reproaching him with the cowardly exercise of his office +of general, and the tame abandonment of everything to the enemy's +hands. + +Cleon, also, already was among his assailants, making use of the +feeling against him as a step to the leadership of the people, as +appears in the anapaestic verses of Hermippus. + +Satyr-king, instead of swords, +Will you always handle words? +Very brave indeed we find them, +But a Teles lurks behind them. (Teles was apparently some +notorious coward.) +Yet to gnash your teeth you're seen, +When the little dagger keen, +Whetted every day anew, +Of sharp Cleon touches you. + +Pericles, however, was not at all moved by any attacks, but took +all patiently, and submitted in silence to the disgrace they threw +upon him and the ill-will they bore him; and, sending out a fleet +of a hundred galleys to Peloponnesus, he did not go along with it +in person, but stayed behind, that he might watch at home and keep +the city under his own control, till the Peloponnesians broke up +their camp and were gone. Yet to soothe the common people, jaded +and distressed with the war, he relieved them with distributions +of public moneys, and ordained new divisions of subject land. For +having turned out all the people of Aegina, he parted the island +among the Athenians, according to lot. Some comfort, also, and +ease in their miseries, they might receive from what their enemies +endured. For the fleet, sailing round the Peloponnesus, ravaged a +great deal of the country, and pillaged and plundered the towns +and smaller cities; and by land he himself entered with an army +the Megarian country, and made havoc of it all. Whence it is clear +that the Peloponnesians, though they did the Athenians much +mischief by land, yet suffering as much themselves from them by +sea, would not have protracted the war to such a length, but would +quickly have given it over, as Pericles at first foretold they +would, had not some divine power crossed human purposes. + +In the first place, the pestilential disease, or plague, seized +upon the city, and ate up all the flour and prime of their youth +and strength. Upon occasion of which the people, distempered and +afflicted in their souls, as well as in their bodies, were utterly +enraged like madmen against Pericles, and, like patients grown +delirious, sought to lay violent hands on their physician, or, as +it were, their father. + +Finding the Athenians ill affected and highly displeased with him, +he tried and endeavored what he could to appease and re-encourage +them. But he could not pacify or allay their anger nor persuade or +prevail with them anyway, til they freely passed their votes upon +him, resumed their power, took away his command from him, and +fined him in a sum of money. + +After this, public troubles were soon to leave him unmolested; the +people, so to say, discharged their passion in their stroke, and +lost their stings in the wound. But his domestic concerns were in +an unhappy condition, many of his friends and acquaintance having +died in the plague time, and those of his family having long since +been in disorder and in a kind of mutiny against him. For the +eldest of his sons, Xanthippus by name, being naturally prodigal, +and marrying a young and expensive wife, was highly offended at +his father's economy in making him but a scanty allowance, by +little and little at a time. He sent therefore, to a friend one +day, and borrowed some money of him in his father Pericles's name, +pretending it was by his order. The man coming afterward to demand +the debt, Pericles was so far from yielding to pay it, that he +entered an action against him. Upon which the young man, +Xanthippus, thought himself so ill used and disobliged, that he +openly reviled his father; telling first, by way of ridicule, +stories about his conversations at home, and the discourses he had +with the sophists and scholars that came to his house. As for +instance, how one who was a practicer of the five games of skill, +* having with a dart or javelin unawares against his will struck +and killed Epitimus the Pharsalian, his father spent a whole day +with Protagoras in a serious dispute, whether the javelin, or the +man that threw it, or the masters of the games who appointed these +sports, were, according to the strictest and best reason, to be +accounted the cause of this mischance. And in general, this +difference of the young man's with his father, in the breach +betwixt them, continued never to be healed or made up til his +death. For Xanthippus died in the plague time of the sickness. At +which time Pericles also lost his sister, and the greatest part of +his relations and friends, and those who had been most useful and +serviceable to him in managing the affairs of state. However, he +did not shrink or give in on these occasions, nor betray or lower +his high spirit and even the greatness of his mind under all his +misfortunes; he was not even so much as seen to weep or to mourn, +or even attend the burial of his friends or relations, till at +last he lost his only remaining son. Subdued by this blow, yet +striving still, as far as he could, to maintain his principle, and +yet to preserve and keep up the greatness of his soul, when he +came, however, to perform the ceremony of putting a garland of +flowers on the head of the corpse, he was vanquished by his +passion at the sight, so that he burst into exclamations, and shed +copious tears, having never done any such thing in all his life +before. + +The city having made trial of other generals for the conduct of +war, and orators for business of state, when they found there was +no one who was of weight enough for such a charge, or of authority +sufficient to be trusted with so great a command, regretted the +loss of him, and invited him again to address and advise them, and +to resume the office of general. He, however, lay at home in +dejection and mourning; but was persuaded by Alcibiades and others +of his friends to come abroad and show himself to the people; who +having, upon his appearance, made their acknowledgements, and +apologized for their untowardly treatment of him, he undertook the +public affairs once more. + +About this time, it seems, the plague seized Pericles, not with +sharp and violent fits, as it did others that had it, but with a +dull and lingering distemper, attended with various changes and +alterations, leisurely, by little and little, wasting the strength +of his body, and undermining the noble faculties of his soul. + +When he was now near his end, the best of citizens and those of +his friends who were left alive, sitting about him, were speaking +of the greatness of his merit, and his power, and reckoning up his +famous actions and the number of his victories; there were no less +than nine trophies which, as their chief commander and conqueror +of their enemies, he had set up, for the honor of the city. They +talked thus among themselves, as though he were unable to +understand or mind what they said, but had now lost his +consciousness. He had listened, however, all the while, and +attended to all, and speaking out among them, said, that he +wondered they should commend and take notice of things which were +as much owing to fortune as to anything else, and had happened to +many other commanders, and, at the same time, should not speak or +make mention of that which was the most excellent and greatest +thing of all. "For," said he, "no Athenian through my means, ever +wore mourning." + +He was indeed a character deserving our high admiration, not only +for his equable and mild temper, which all along, in the many +affairs of his life, and the great animosities which he incurred, +he constantly maintained; but also for the high spirit and feeling +which made him regarded the noblest of all his honors, that, in +the exercise of such immense power, he never had gratified his +envy or his passion, nor ever had treated any enemy as +irreconcilably opposed to him. And to me it appears that this one +thing gives an otherwise childish and arrogant title a fitting and +becoming significance; so dispassionate a temper, a life so pure +and unblemished, in the height of power and place, might well be +called "Olympian," in accordance with our conceptions of divine +beings, to whom, as the natural of all good and of nothing evil, +we ascribe the rule and government of the world. + +The course of public affairs after his death produced a quick and +speedy sense of the loss of Pericles. Those who, while they live, +resented his great authority, as that which eclipsed themselves, +presently after quitting the stage, making trial of other orators +and demagogues, readily acknowledged that there never had been in +nature such a disposition as his was, more moderate and reasonable +in the height of that state he took upon him, or more grave and +impressive in the mildness which he used. + + + +DEMOSTHENES + +Whoever it was, Sosius, that wrote the poem in honor of +Alcibiades, upon his winning the chariot-race at the Olympian +Games, whether it was Euripedes, as is most commonly thought, or +some other person he tells us, that to a man's being happy it is +pre-eminently requisite that he should be born in "some famous +city." + +But if anybody undertakes to write a history, that has to be +collected from materials gathered by observation and the reading +of works not easy to be got in all places, nor written always in +his own language, but many of them foreign and dispersed in other +hands, for him, undoubtedly, it is above all things most +necessary, to reside in some city of good note, devoted to liberal +arts, and populous; where he may have plenty of all sorts of +books, and upon inquiry may hear and inform himself of such +particulars as, having escaped the pens of writers, are more +faithfully preserved in the memories of men. + +But for me, I live in a little town, where I am willing to +continue, lest it should grow less; and having had no leisure, +while I was in Rome and other parts of Italy, to practice myself +in the Roman language, on account of public business and of those +who came to be instructed by me in philosophy, it was very late, +and in the decline of my age, before I applied myself to the +reading of Latin authors. But to appreciate the graceful and ready +pronunciation of the Roman tongue, to understand the various +figures and connection of words, and such other ornaments, in +which the beauty of speaking consists, is, I doubt not, an +admirable and delightful accomplishment; but it requires a degree +of practice and study which is not easy, and will better suit +those who have more leisure, and time enough yet before them for +the occupation. + +And so in this book of my Parallel Lives, in giving an account of +Demosthenes and Cicero, my comparison of their natural +dispositions and their characters will be formed upon their +actions and their lives as statesmen, and I shall not pretend to +criticise their orations one against the other, to show which of +the two was the more charming or the more powerful speaker. For +there, as Ion says, + +We are but like a fish upon dry land. + +The divine power seems originally to have designed Demosthenes and +Cicero upon the same plan, giving them many similarities in their +natural characters, as their passion for distinction and their +love of liberty in civil life, and their want of courage in +dangers and war, and at the same time also to have added many +accidental resemblances. I think there can hardly be found two +other orators, who, from small and obscure beginnings, became so +great and mighty; who both contested with kings and tyrants; both +lost their daughters, were driven out of their country, and +returned with honor; who, flying from thence again, were both +seized upon by their enemies, and at last ended their lives with +the liberty of their countrymen. So that if we were to suppose +that there had been a trial of skill between nature and fortune, +as there is sometimes between artists, it would be hard to judge, +whether that succeeded best in making them alike in their +dispositions and manners, or this, in the coincidences of their +lives. We will speak of the eldest first. + +Demosthenes, the father of Demosthenes, was a citizen of good rank +and quality, as Theopompus informs us, surnamed the Sword-maker, +because he had a large workhouse, and kept servants skilful in +that art at work. Demosthenes, when only seven years old, was left +by his father in affluent circumstances, the whole value of his +estate being little short of fifteen talents, but was wronged by +his guardians, part of his fortune being embezzled by them, and +the rest neglected; insomuch that even his teachers were defrauded +of their salaries. This was the reason that he did not obtain the +liberal education that he should have had; besides that on account +of weakness and delicate health, his mother would not let him +exert himself, and his teachers forebore to urge him. He was +meagre and sickly from the first, and hence had the nickname of +Batalus, given him, it is said, by the boys, in derision of his +appearance; Batalus being a certain enervated flute-player, in +ridicule of whom Antiphanes wrote a play. + +The first occasion of his eager inclination to oratory, they say, +was this. Callistratus, the orator, was to plead in open court for +Oropus, and the expectation of the issue of that cause was very +great, as well for the ability of the orator, who was then at the +height of his reputation, as also for the fame of the action +itself. Therefore, Demosthenes, having heard the tutors and +schoolmasters agreeing among themselves to be present at this +trial, with much importunity persuades his tutor to take him along +with him to the hearing; who, having some acquaintance with the +doorkeepers, procured a place where the boy might sit unseen, and +hear what was said. Callistratus having got the day, and being +much admired, the boy began to look upon his glory with emulation, +observing how he was courted on all hands, and attended on his way +by the multitude; but his wonder was more than all excited by the +power of his eloquence, which seemed able to subdue and win over +any thing. From this time, therefore, bidding farewell to other +sorts of learning and study, he now began to exercise himself, and +to take pains in declaiming, as one that meant to be himself also +an orator. He made use of Isaeus as his guide to the art of +speaking, though Isocrates at that time was giving lessons; +whether, as some say, because he was an orphan, and was not able +to pay Isocrates his appointed fee of ten minae, or because he +preferred Isaeus's speaking, as being more business-like and +effective in actual use. + +As soon, therefore, as he was grown up to man's estate, he began +to go to law with his guardians, and to write orations against +them; who, in the meantime, had recourse to various subterfuges +and pleas for new trials, and Demosthenes, though he was thus, as +Thucydides says, taught his business in dangers, and by his own +exertions was successful in his suit, was yet unable for all this +to recover so much as a small fraction of his patrimony. He only +attained some degree of confidence in speaking, and some competent +experience in it. And having got a taste of the honor and power +which are acquired by pleadings, he now ventured to come forth, +and to undertake public business. And, as it is said of Laomedon, +the Orchomenian, that by advice of his physician, he used to run +long distances to keep off some disease of his spleen, and by that +means having, through labor and exercise, framed the habit of his +body, he betook himself to the great garland games, and became one +of the best runners at the long race; so it happened to +Demosthenes, who, first venturing upon oratory for the recovery of +his own private property, by this acquired ability in speaking, +and at length, in public business, as it were in the great games, +came to have the pre-eminence of all competitors in the assembly. +But when he first addressed himself to the people, he met with +great discouragements, and was derided for his strange and uncouth +style, which was cumbered with long sentences and tortured with +formal arguments to a most harsh and disagreeable excess. Besides, +he had, it seems, a weakness in his voice, a perplexed and +indistinct utterance and a shortness of breath, which, by breaking +and disjointing his sentences, much obscured the sense and meaning +of what he spoke. So that in the end, being quite disheartened, he +foresook the assembly; and as he was walking carelessly and +sauntering about the Piraeus, Eunomus, the Thriasian, then a very +old man, seeing him, upbraided him, saying that his diction was +very much like that of Pericles, and that he was wanting to +himself through cowardice and meanness of spirit, neither bearing +up with courage against popular outcry, nor fitting his body for +action, but suffering it to languish through mere sloth and +negligence. + +Another time, when the assembly had refused to hear him, and he +was going home with his head muffled up, taking it very heavily, +they relate that Satyrus, the actor followed him, and being his +familiar acquaintance, entered into conversation with him. To whom +Demosthenes bemoaned, that although he had been the most +industrious of all the pleaders, and had spent almost the whole +strength and vigor of his body in that employment, he could not +yet find any acceptance with the people, while drunken sots, +mariners, and illiterate fellows were heard, and had the hustings +for their own. "You say true, Demosthenes," replied Satyrus, "but +I will quickly remedy the cause of all this, if you will repeat to +me some passage out of Euripides or Sophocles." When Demosthenes +had pronounced one, Satyrus presently taking it up after him, gave +the same passage, in his rendering of it, such a new form, by +accompanying it with the proper mien and gesture, that to +Demosthenes it seemed quite another thing. By this being convinced +how much grace and ornament language acquires from action, he +began to esteem it a small matter, and as good as nothing for a +man to exercise himself in declaiming, if he neglected enunciation +and delivery. Hereupon he built himself a place under ground to +study in (which was still remaining in our time), and hither he +would come constantly every day to form his action, and to +exercise his voice; and here he would continue, oftentimes without +intermission, two or three months together, shaving one half of +his head, so that for shame he might not go abroad, though he +desired it never so much. + +Nor was this all, but he also made his conversation with people +abroad, his common speech, and his business, subservient to his +studies, taking from hence occasions and arguments as matter to +work upon. For as soon as he was parted from his company, down he +would go at once into his study, and run over everything in order +that had passed, and the reasons that might be alleged for and +against it. Any speeches, also, that he was present at, he would +go over again with himself, and reduce into periods; and whatever +others spoke to him, or he to them, he would correct, transform, +and vary in several ways. Hence it was, that he was looked upon as +a person of no great natural genius, but one who owed all the +power and ability he had in speaking to labor and industry. He was +very rarely heard to speak off-hand, but though he were by name +frequently called upon by the people, as he sat in the assembly, +yet he would not rise unless he had previously considered the +subject, and come prepared for it. So that many of the popular +pleaders used to make it a jest against him; and Pytheas once, +scoffing at him, said that his arguments smelt of the lamp. To +which Demosthenes gave the sharp answer, "It is true, indeed, +Pytheas, that your lamp and mine are not conscious of the same +things." To others, however, he would not deny it, but would admit +frankly enough, that he neither entirely wrote his speeches +beforehand, nor yet spoke wholly extempore. And he would affirm, +that it was the more truly popular act to use premeditation, such +preparation being a kind of respect to the people. + +How then, some may say, was it, that Aeschines speaks of him as a +person much to be wondered at for his boldness in speaking? And, +when Lamachus, the Myrinaean, had written a panegyric upon king +Philip and Alexander, in which he uttered many things in reproach +of the Thebans and Olynthians, and at the Olympic Games recited it +publicly, Demosthenes, then rising up, and recounting historically +and demonstratively what benefits and advantages all Greece had +received from the Thebans and Chalcidians, and on the contrary, +what mischiefs the flatterers of the Macedonians had brought upon +it, so turned the minds of all that were present that the sophist, +in alarm at the outcry against him, secretly made his way out of +the assembly. But Demosthenes, it would seem, regarded the reserve +and sustained manner of Pericles, and his forbearing to speak on +the sudden, or upon every occasion, as being the things to which +he principally owed his greatness, and this he followed, and +endeavored to imitate, neither wholly neglecting the glory which +present occasion offered, nor yet willing too often to expose his +faculty to the mercy of chance. For, in fact, the orations which +were spoken by him had much more of boldness and confidence in +them than those that he wrote. Eratosthenes says that often in his +speaking he would be transported into a kind of ecstasy, and +Demetrius, that he uttered the famous metrical adjuration to the +people, + +By the earth, the springs, the rivers, and the streams, + +as a man inspired, and beside himself. One of the comedians calls +him a rhopoperperethras--a loud declaimer about petty matters; +from rhopos, small wares, and perperos, a loud talker; and another +scoffs at him for the use of antithesis: -- + +And what he took, took back; a phrase to please +The very fancy of Demosthenes. + +Unless, indeed, this also is meant by Antiphanes for a jest upon +the speech on Halonesus, which Demosthenes advised the Athenians +not to take at Philip's hands, but to take back. + +All, however, used to consider Demades, in the mere use of his +natural gifts, an orator impossible to surpass, and that in what +he spoke on the sudden, he excelled all the study and preparation +of Demosthenes. And Ariston, the Chian, has recorded a judgment +which Theophrastus passed upon the orators; for being asked what +kind of orator he accounted Demosthenes, he answered, "Worthy of +the city of Athens;" and then, what he thought of Demades, he +answered, "Above it." And the same philosopher reports, that +Polyeuctus, the Sphettian, one of the Athenian politicians about +that time, was wont to say that Demosthenes was the greatest +orator, but Phocion the ablest, as he expressed the most sense in +the fewest words. And, indeed, it is related, that Demosthenes +himself, as often as Phocion stood up to plead against him, would +say to his acquaintance, "Here comes the knife to my speech." Yet +it does not appear whether he had this feeling for his powers of +speaking, or for his life and character, and meant to say that one +word or nod from a man who was really trusted, would go further +than a thousand lengthy periods from others. + +Demetrius, the Phalerian, tells us, that he was informed by +Demosthenes himself, when old, that the ways he made use of to +remedy his natural bodily infirmities and defects were such as +these: his inarticulate and stammering pronunciation he overcame +and rendered more distinct by speaking with pebbles in his mouth; +his voice he disciplined by declaiming and reciting speeches or +verses when he was out of breath, while running or going up steep +places; and that in his house he had a large looking-glass, before +which he would stand and go through his exercises. It is told that +some one once came to request his assistance as a pleader, and +related how he had been assaulted and beaten. "I am sure," said +Demosthenes, "nothing of the kind can have happened to you." Upon +which the other, raising his voice, exclaimed loudly, "What, +Demosthenes, nothing has been done to me?" "Ah," replied +Demosthenes, "now I hear the voice of one that has been injured +and beaten." Of so great consequence towards the gaining of belief +did he esteem the tone and action of the speaker. When a thief, +who had the nickname of the Brazen, was attempting to upbraid him +for sitting up late, and writing by candlelight, "I know very +well," said he, "that you had rather have all lights out; and +wonder not, O ye men of Athens, at the many robberies which are +committed, since we have thieves of brass and walls of clay." + +His first entering into public business was about the time of the +Phocian war. But the object which he chose for himself in the +commonwealth was noble and just, the defence of the Greek against +Philip; and in this he behaved himself so worthily that he soon +grew famous, and excited attention everywhere for his eloquence +and courage in speaking. He was admired through all Greece, the +king of Persia courted him, and by Philip himself he was more +esteemed than all the other orators. His very enemies were forced +to confess that they had to do with a man of mark; for such a +character even Aeschines and Hyperides give him, where they accuse +and speak against him. + +Demosthenes would never turn aside or prevaricate, either in word +or deed. Panaetius, the philosopher, said, that most of his +orations were written, as if they were to prove this one +conclusion: that only what is honest and virtuous is to be chosen; +as that of the Crown, that against Aristocrates, that for the +Immunities, and the Philippics; in all which he persuades his +fellow-citizens to pursue not that which seems most pleasant, +easy, or profitable; but declares over and over again, that they +ought in the first place to prefer that which is just and +honorable, before their own safety and preservation. + +Excepting only Phocion, he far surpassed, even in his life and +manners, the other orators of his time. None of them addressed the +people so boldly; he attacked the faults, and opposed himself to +the unreasonable desires of the multitude, as may be seen in his +orations. Theopompus writes, that the Athenians having by name +selected Demosthenes, and called upon him to accuse a certain +person, he refused to do it; upon which the assembly being all in +an uproar, he rose up and said, "Your counselor, whether you will +or no, O ye men of Athens, you shall always have me; but a +sycophant or false accuser, I shall never be." And his conduct in +the case of Antiphon was perfectly aristocratical; whom, after he +had been acquitted in the assembly, he took and brought before the +court of Areopagus, and, setting at naught the displeasure of the +people, convicted him there of having promised Philip to burn the +arsenal; whereupon the man was condemned by that court, and +suffered for it. He accused, also, Theoris, the priestess, among +other misdemeanors, of having instructed and taught the slaves to +deceive and cheat their masters, for which the sentence of death +was passed upon her, and she was executed. + +It was evident, even in time of peace, what course Demosthenes +would steer in the commonwealth; for whatever was done by the +Macedonian, he criticised and found fault with, and upon all +occasions was stirring up the people of Athens, and inflaming them +against him. Therefore, in the court of Philip, no man was so much +talked of, or of so great account as he; and when he came thither, +as one of the ten ambassadors who was sent into Macedonia, his +speech was answered with most care and exactness. But in other +respects, Philip entertained him not so honorably as the rest, +neither did he show him the same kindness and civility with which +he applied himself to the party of Aeschines and Philocrates. So +that, when the others commended Philip for his able speaking, his +beautiful person, nay, and also for his good companionship in +drinking, Demosthenes could not refrain from cavilling at these +praises; the first, he said, was a quality which might well enough +become a rhetorician, the second a woman, and the last was only +the property of a sponge; no one of them was the proper +commendation of a prince. + +Not long after, he undertook an embassy through the States of +Greece, which he solicited and so far incensed against Philip, +that a few only excepted, he brought them all into a general +league. So that, besides the forces composed of the citizens +themselves, there was an army consisting of fifteen + +thousand foot and two thousand horse, and the money to pay these +strangers was levied and brought in with great cheerfulness. On +which occasion it was, says Theophrastus, on the allies requesting +that their contributions for the war might be ascertained and +stated, Crobylus, the orator, made use of the saying, "War can't +be fed at so much a day." Now was all Greece up in arms, and in +great expectation what would be the event. The Euboeans, the +Achaeans, the Corinthians, the Megarians, the Leucadians, and +Corcyraeans, their people and their cities, were all joined +together in a league. But the hardest task was yet behind, left +for Demosthenes, to draw the Thebans into this confederacy with +the rest. Their country bordered next upon Attica, they had great +forces for the war, and at that time they were accounted the best +soldiers of all Greece, but it was no easy matter to make them +break with Philip, who by many good offices, had so lately obliged +them in the Phocian war; especially considering how the subjects +of dispute and variance between the two cities were continually +renewed and exasperated by petty quarrels, arising out of the +proximity of their frontiers. + +But after Philip, puffed up with his good success at Amphissa, on +a sudden surprised Elatea and possessed himself of Phocis, the +Athenians were in a great consternation, none durst venture to +rise up to speak, all were at a loss, and the whole assembly was +in silence and perplexity. In this extremity of affairs, +Demosthenes was the only man who appeared, his counsel to them +being alliance with the Thebans. And having in other ways +encouraged the people, and, as his manner was, raised their +spirits up with hopes, he, with some others was sent ambassador to +Thebes. To oppose him, as Marsyas says, Philip also sent thither +his envoys. Now the Thebans, in their consultations, were well +enough aware what suited best with their own interest, but every +one had before his eye the terrors of war, and their losses in the +Phocian troubles were still recent: but such was the force and +power of the orator, fanning up their courage, and firing their +emulation, that, casting away every thought of prudence, fear, or +obligation, in a sort of divine possession, they chose the path of +honor, to which his words invited them. And this success, thus +accomplished by an orator, was thought to be so glorious and of +such consequence, that Philip immediately sent heralds to treat +and petition for a peace: all Greece was aroused, and up in arms +to help. And the commanders-in-chief, not only of Attica, but of +Boeotia, applied themselves to Demosthenes, and observed his +directions. He managed all the assemblies of the Thebans, no less +than those of the Athenians; he was beloved both by the one and by +the other, and exercised the same supreme authority with both; and +that not by unfair means, or without just cause, but it was no +more than was due to his merit. + +But there was, it should seem, some divinely-ordered fortune, +commissioned, in the revolution of things, to put a period at this +time to the liberty of Greece, which opposed and thwarted all +their actions, and by many signs foretold what should happen. Such +were the sad predictions uttered by the Pythian priestess, and +this old oracle cited out of the Sibyl's verses: + +The battle on Thermodon that shall be +Safe at a distance I desire to see, +Far, like an eagle, watching in the air. +Conquered shall weep, and conqueror perish there. + +This Thermodon, they say, is a little rivulet here in our country +in Chaeronea, running into the Cephisus. But we know of none that +is so called at the present time; and can only conjecture that the +streamlet which is now called Haemon, and runs by the Temple of +Hercules, where the Greeks were encamped, might perhaps in those +days be called Thermodon. + +But of Demosthenes it is said, that he had such great confidence +in the Greek forces, and was so excited by the sight of the +courage and resolution of so many brave men ready to engage the +enemy, that he would by no means endure they should give any heed +to oracles, or hearken to prophecies, but gave out that he +suspected even the prophetess herself, as if she had been tampered +with to speak in favor of Philip. He put the Thebans in mind of +Epaminondas, the Athenians of Pericles, who always took their own +measures and governed their actions by reason, looking upon things +of this kind as mere pretexts for cowardice. Thus far, therefore, +Demosthenes acquitted himself like a brave man. But in the fight +he did nothing honorable, nor was his performance answerable to +his speeches. For he fled, deserting his place disgracefully, and +throwing away his arms, not ashamed, as Pytheas observed, to belie +the inscription written on his shield, in letters of gold, "With +good fortune." + +In the meantime Philip, in the first moment of victory, was so +transported with joy, that he grew extravagant, and going out, +after he had drunk largely, to visit the dead bodies, he chanted +the first words of the decree that had been passed on the motion +of Demosthenes, + +The motion of Demosthenes, Demosthenes's son, + +dividing it metrically into feet, and marking the beats. + +But when he came to himself, and had well considered the danger he +was lately under, he could not forbear from shuddering at the +wonderful ability and power of an orator who had made him hazard +his life and empire on the issue of a few brief hours. The fame of +it also reached even to the court of Persia, and the king sent +letters to his lieutenants, commanding them to supply Demosthenes +with money, and to pay every attention to him, as the only man of +all the Greeks who was able to give Philip occupation and find +employment for his forces near home, in the troubles of Greece. + +At this time, however, upon the ill success which now happened to +the Greeks, those of the contrary faction in the commonwealth +turned upon Demosthenes, and took the opportunity to frame several +informations and indictments against him. But the people not only +acquitted him of these accusations, but continued towards him +their former respect, and when the bones of those who had been +slain at Chaeronea were brought home to be solemnly interred, +Demosthenes was the man they chose to make the funeral oration. +The speech, therefore, was spoken by Demosthenes. But the +subsequent decrees he would not allow to be passed in his own +name, but made use of those of his friends, one after another, +looking upon his own as unfortunate and inauspicious; till at +length he took courage again after the death of Philip, who did +not long outlive his victory at Chaeronea. And this, it seems, was +that which was foretold in the last verse of the oracle, + +Conquered shall weep, and conqueror perish there. + +Demosthenes had secret intelligence of the death of Philip, and +laying hold of this opportunity to prepossess the people with +courage and better hopes for the future, he came into the assembly +with a cheerful countenance, pretending to have had a dream that +presaged some great good fortune for Athens; and, not long after, +arrived the messengers who brought the news of Philip's death. No +sooner had the people received it, but immediately they offered +sacrifice to the gods, and decreed that Pausanias should be +presented with a crown. Demosthenes appeared publicly in a rich +dress, with a chaplet on his head, though it were but the seventh +day since the death of his daughter, as is said by Aeschines, who +upbraids him upon this account, and rails at him as one void of +natural affection towards his children. Whereas, Aeschines rather +betrays himself to be of a poor spirit, if he really means to make +wailings and lamentation the only signs of a gentle and +affectionate nature. I must commend the behavior of Demosthenes, +who leaving tears and lamentations and domestic sorrows to the +women, made it his business to attend to the interests of the +commonwealth. + +But now to return to my narrative. The cities of Greece were +inspirited once more by the efforts of Demosthenes to form a +league together. The Thebans, whom he had provided with arms, set +upon their garrison, and slew many of them; the Athenians made +preparations to join their forces with them; Demosthenes ruled +supreme in the popular assembly, and wrote letters to the Persian +officers who commanded under the king in Asia, inciting them to +make war upon the Macedonian, calling him child and simpleton. But +as soon as Alexander had settled matters in his own country, and +come in person with his army into Boeotia, down fell the courage +of the Athenians, and Demosthenes was hushed; the Thebans, +deserted by them, fought by themselves, and lost their city. After +which, the people of Athens, all in distress and great perplexity, +resolved to send ambassadors to Alexander, and amongst others, +made choice of Demosthenes for one; but his heart failing him for +fear of the king's anger, he returned back from Cithaeron, and +left the embassy. In the mean time, Alexander sent to Athens, +requiring eight of the orators to be delivered up to him,-- +Demosthenes, Polyeuctus, Ephialtes, Lycurgus, Moerocles, Demon, +Callisthenes, and Charidemus. It was upon this occasion that +Demosthenes related to them the fable in which the sheep are said +to deliver up their dogs to the wolves; himself and those who with +him contended for the people's safety, being, in his comparison, +the dogs that defended the flock, and Alexander "the Macedonian +arch wolf." He further told them, "As we see corn-dealers sell +their whole stock by a few grains of wheat which they carry about +with them in a dish, as a sample of the rest, so you, by +delivering up us, who are but a few, do at the same time unawares +surrender up yourselves all together with us." The Athenians were +deliberating, and at a loss what to do, when Demades, having +agreed with the persons whom Alexander had demanded, for five +talents, undertook to go ambassador, and to intercede with the +king for them; and, whether it was that he relied on his +friendship and kindness, or that he hoped to find him satiated, as +a lion glutted with slaughter, he certainly went, and prevailed +with him both to pardon the men, and to be reconciled to the city. + +So he and his friends, when Alexander went away, were great men, +and Demosthenes was quite put aside. Yet when Agis, the Spartan, +made his insurrection, he also for a short time attempted a +movement in his favor; but he soon shrunk back again, as the +Athenians would not take any part in it, and, Agis being slain, +the Lacedaemonians were vanquished. During this time it was that +the indictment against Ctesiphon, concerning the Crown, was +brought to trial. The action was commenced a little before the +battle in Chaeronea, when Chaerondas was archon, but it was not +proceeded with till about ten years after, Aristophon being then +archon. Never was any public cause more celebrated than this, +alike for the fame of the orators, and for the generous courage of +the judges, who, though at that time the accusers of Demosthenes, +were in the height of power, and supported by all the favor of the +Macedonians, yet would not give judgment against him, but +acquitted him so honorably, that Aeschines did not obtain the +fifth part of their suffrages on his side, so that, immediately +after, he left the city, and spent the rest of his life in +teaching rhetoric about the island of Rhodes, and upon the +continent in Ionia. + +It was not long after that Harpalus fled from Alexander, and came +to Athens out of Asia; knowing himself guilty of many misdeeds +into which his love of luxury had led him, and fearing the king, +who was now grown terrible even to his best friends. Yet this man +had no sooner addressed himself to the people, and delivered up +his goods, his ships, and himself to their disposal, but the other +orators of the town had their eyes quickly fixed upon his money, +and came in to his assistance, persuading the Athenians to receive +and protect their suppliant. Demosthenes at first gave advice to +chase him out of the country, and to beware lest they involved +their city in a war upon an unnecessary and unjust occasion. But +some few days after, as they were taking an account of the +treasure, Harpalus, perceiving how much he was pleased with a cup +of Persian manufacture, and how curiously he surveyed the +sculpture and fashion of it, desired him to poise it in his hand, +and consider the weight of the gold. Demosthenes, being amazed to +feel how heavy it was asked him what weight it came to. "To you," +said Harpalus, smiling, "it shall come with twenty talents." And +presently after, when night drew on, he sent him the cup with so +many talents. Harpalus, it seems, was a person of singular skill +to discern a man's covetousness by the air of his countenance, and +the look and movement of his eyes. For Demosthenes could not +resist the temptation, but admitting the present, like an armed +garrison, into the citadel of his house, he surrendered himself up +to the interest of Harpalus. The next day he came into the +assembly with his neck swathed about with wool and rollers, and +when they called on him to rise up and speak, he made signs as if +he had lost his voice. But the wits, turning the matter to +ridicule, said that certainly the orator had been seized that +night with no other than a silver quinsy. And soon after, the +people, becoming aware of the bribery, grew angry, and would not +suffer him to speak, or make any apology for himself, but ran him +down with noise; and one man stood up and cried out, "What, ye men +of Athens, will you not hear the cup-bearer?" So at length they +banished Harpalus out of the city; and fearing lest they should be +called to account for the treasures which the orators had +purloined, they made a strict inquiry, going from house to house. + +Demosthenes resisted the inquisition, and proposed a decree to +refer the business to the court of Areopagus, and to punish those +whom that court should find guilty. But being himself one of the +first whom the court condemned, when he came to the bar, he was +fined fifty talents, and committed to prison; where, out of shame +of the crime for which he was condemned, and through the weakness +of his body, growing incapable of supporting the confinement, he +made his escape, by the carelessness of some and by the connivance +of others of the citizens. He did not show much fortitude in his +banishment, spending his time for the most part in Aegina and +Troezen, and, with tears in his eyes, looking towards the country +of Attica. The young men that came to visit and converse with him, +he deterred from meddling with state affairs, telling them, that +if at first two ways had been proposed to him, the one leading to +the speaker's stand and the assembly, the other going direct to +destruction, and he could have foreseen the many evils which +attend those who deal in public business, such as fears, envies, +calumnies, and contentions, he would certainly have taken that +which led straight on to his death. + +But now happened the death of Alexander, while Demosthenes was in +this banishment which we have been speaking of. And the Greeks +were once again up in arms, encouraged by the brave attempts of +Leosthenes, who was then drawing a circumvallation about +Antipater, whom he held close besieged in Lamia. Pytheas, +therefore, the orator, and Callimedon, called the Crab, fled from +Athens, and taking sides with Antipater, went about with his +friends and ambassadors to keep the Greeks from revolting and +taking part with the Athenians. But, on the other side, +Demosthenes, associating himself with the ambassadors that came +from Athens, used his utmost endeavors and gave them his best +assistance in persuading the cities to fall unanimously upon the +Macedonians, and to drive them out of Greece. With this conduct +the people of Athens were so well pleased, that they decreed the +recall of Demosthenes from banishment. The decree was brought in +by Demon the Paeanian, cousin to Demosthenes. So they sent him a +ship to Aegina, and he landed at the port of Piraeus, where he was +met and joyfully received by all the citizens, not so much as an +Archon or a priest staying behind. And Demetrius, the Magnesian, +says, that he lifted up his hands towards heaven, and blessed this +day of his happy return, as far more honorable than that of +Alcibiades; since he was recalled by his countrymen, not through +any force or constraint put upon them, but by their own good-will +and free inclinations. There remained only his pecuniary fine, +which, according to law, could not be remitted by the people. But +they found out a way to elude the law. It was a custom with them +to allow a certain quantity of silver to those who were to furnish +and adorn the altar for the sacrifice of Jupiter Soter. This +office, for that turn, they bestowed on Demosthenes, and for the +performance of it ordered him fifty talents, the very sum in which +he was condemned. + +Yet it was no long time that he enjoyed his country after his +return, the attempts of the Greeks being soon all utterly +defeated. And in the month of Pyanepsion following Demosthenes +died after this manner. + +Upon the report that Antipater was coming to Athens, Demosthenes +with his party took their opportunity to escape privily out of the +city; but sentence of death was, upon the motion of Demades, +passed upon them by the people. They dispersed themselves, flying +some to one place, some to another; and Antipater sent about his +soldiers into all quarters to apprehend them. Archias, formerly an +actor, was their captain, and was thence called the exile-hunter. +This Archias finding Hyperides the orator, Aristonicus and +Himeraeus in Aegina, took them by force out of the temple of +Aeacus, whither they had fled for safety, and sent them to +Antipater, and put them all to death; and Hyperides, they say, had +his tongue cut out. + +Demosthenes, he heard, had taken sanctuary at the temple of +Neptune at Calauria, and, crossing over thither in some light +vessels, as soon as he had landed himself, and the Thracian spear- +men that came with him, he endeavored to persuade Demosthenes to +accompany him to Antipater, as if he should meet with no hard +usage from him. But Demosthenes, in his sleep the night before, +had a strange dream. It seemed to him that he was acting a +tragedy, and contended with Archias for the victory; and though he +acquitted himself well, and gave good satisfaction to the +spectators, yet for want of better furniture and provision for the +stage, he lost the day. And so, while Archias was discoursing to +him with many expressions of kindness, he sat still in the same +posture, and looking up steadfastly upon him, said: "O Archias, I +am as little affected by your promises now as I used formerly to +be by your acting." Archias at this beginning to grow angry and to +threaten him, "Now," said Demosthenes, "you speak like the genuine +Macedonian oracle; before you were but acting a part. Therefore +forebear only a little, while I write a word or two home to my +family." Having thus spoken, he withdrew into the temple, and +taking a scroll, as if he meant to write, he put the reed into his +mouth, and biting it, as he was wont to do when he was thoughtful +or writing, he held it there for some time. Then he bowed down his +head and covered it. The soldiers that stood at the door, +supposing all this to proceed from want of courage and fear of +death, in derision called him effeminate, and faint-hearted, and +coward. And Archias, drawing near, desired him to rise up, and +repeating the same kind things he had spoken before, he once more +promised him to make his peace with Antipater. But Demosthenes, +perceiving that now the poison had pierced and seized his vitals, +uncovered his head, and fixing his eyes upon Archias, "Now," said +he, "as soon as you please you may commence the part of Creon in +the tragedy, and cast out this body of mine unburied. But, O +gracious Neptune, I, for my part, while I am yet alive, arise up +and depart out of this sacred place; though Antipater and the +Macedonians have not left so much as thy temple unpolluted." After +he had thus spoken and desired to be held up, because already he +began to tremble and stagger, as he was going forward, and passing +by the altar, he fell down, and with a groan gave up the ghost. + +Ariston says that he took the poison out of a reed, as we have +shown before. And Eratosthenes also says that he kept the poison +in a hollow ring, which he wore about his arm. There are various +other statements made by the many authors who have related the +story, but there is no need to enter into their discrepancies; yet +I must not omit what is said by Demochares, the relation of +Demosthenes, who is of opinion, it was not by the help of poison +that he met with no sudden and so easy a death, but that by the +singular favor and providence of the gods he was thus rescued from +the cruelty of the Macedonians. He died on the sixteenth of +Pyanepsion, the most sad and solemn day of the Thesmophoria, which +the women observe by fasting in the temple of the goddess. + +Soon after his death, the people of Athens bestowed on him such +honors as he had deserved. They erected his statue of brass; they +decreed that the eldest of his family should be maintained in the +Prytaneum; and on the base of his statue was engraven the famous +inscription,-- + +Had you for Greece been strong, as wise you were, +The Macedonian had not conquered her. + +A little before we went to Athens, the following incident was said +to have happened. A soldier, being summoned to appear before his +superior officer, and answer to an accusation brought against him, +put a little gold which he had into the hands of Demosthenes's +statue. The fingers of this statue were folded one within another, +and near it grew a small plane-tree, from which many leaves, +either accidentally blown thither by the wind, or placed so on +purpose by the man himself, falling together, and lying round +about the gold, concealed it for a long time. In the end, the +soldier returned, and found his treasure entire, and the fame of +this incident was spread abroad. And many ingenious persons of the +city competed with each other, on this occasion, to vindicate the +integrity of Demosthenes, in several epigrams which they made on +the subject. + +As for Demades, he did not long enjoy the new honors he now came +in for, divine vengeance for the death of Demosthenes pursuing him +into Macedonia, where he was justly put to death by those whom he +had basely flattered. + + + +CICERO + +It is generally said that Helvia, the mother of Cicero, was well +born; but of his father nothing is reported but in extremes. For +whilst some would have him the son of a fuller, and educated in +that trade, others carry back the origin of his family to Tullus +Attius, an illustrious king of the Volscians, who waged war not +without honor against the Romans. However, he who first of that +house was surnamed Cicero seems to have been a person worthy to be +remembered; since those who succeeded him not only did not reject, +but were fond of that name, though vulgarly made a matter of +reproach. For the Latins call a vetch Cicer, and a nick or dent at +the tip of his nose, which resembled the opening in a vetch, gave +him the surname of Cicero. + +Cicero, whose story I am writing, is said to have replied with +spirit to some of his friends, who recommended him to lay aside or +change the name when he first stood for office and engaged in +politics, that he would make it his endeavor to render the name of +Cicero more glorious than that of the Scauri and Catuli. And when +he was quaestor in Sicily, and was making an offering of silver +plate to the gods, and had inscribed his two names, Marcus and +Tullius, instead of the third, he jestingly told the artificer to +engrave the figure of a vetch by them. + +Cicero was born on the third of January, the same day on which now +the magistrates of Rome pray and sacrifice for the emperor. As +soon as he was of an age to begin to have lessons, he became so +distinguished for his talent, and got such a name and reputation +amongst the boys, that their fathers would often visit the school, +that they might see young Cicero, and might be able to say that +they themselves had witnessed the quickness and readiness in +learning for which he was renowned. And the more rude among them +used to be angry with their children, to see them, as they walked +together, receiving Cicero with respect into the middle place. And +being, as Plato would have the scholar-like and philosophical +temper, eager for every kind of learning, and indisposed to no +description of knowledge or instruction, he showed, however, a +more peculiar propensity to poetry; and there is a poem now +extant, made by him when a boy, in tetrameter verse, called +Pontius Glaucus. And afterwards, when he applied himself more +curiously to these accomplishments, he had the name of being not +only the best orator, but also the best poet of Rome. And the +glory of his rhetoric still remains, notwithstanding the many new +modes in speaking since his time; but his verses are forgotten and +out of all repute, so many ingenious poets have followed him. + +Leaving his juvenile studies, he became an auditor of Philo the +Academic, whom the Romans, above all the other scholars of +Clitomachus, admired for his eloquence and loved for his +character. He also sought the company of the Mucii, who were +eminent statesmen and leaders in the senate, and acquired from +them a knowledge of the laws. For some short time he served in +arms under Sylla, in the Marsian war. But perceiving the +commonwealth running into factions, and from faction all things +tending to an absolute monarchy, he betook himself to a retired +and contemplative life, and conversing with the learned Greeks, +devoted himself to study, till Sylla had obtained the government. + +At this time, Chrysogonus, Sylla's emancipated slave, having laid +an information about an estate belonging to one who was said to +have been put to death by proscription, had bought it himself for +two thousand drachmas. And when Roscius, the son and heir of the +dead, complained, and demonstrated the estate to be worth two +hundred and fifty talents, Sylla took it angrily to have his +actions questioned, and preferred a process against Roscius for +the murder of his father, Chrysogonus managing the evidence. None +of the advocates durst assist him, but fearing the cruelty of +Sylla, avoided the cause. The young man, being thus deserted, came +for refuge to Cicero. Cicero's friends encouraged him, saying he +was not likely ever to have a fairer and more honorable +introduction to public life; he therefore undertook the defence, +carried the cause, and got much renown for it. + +But fearing Sylla, he traveled into Greece, and gave it out that +he did so for the benefit of his health. And indeed he was lean +and meagre, and had such a weakness in his stomach that he could +take nothing but a spare and thin diet, and that not till late in +the evening. His voice was loud and good, but so harsh and ill- +managed that in vehemence and heat of speaking he always raised it +to so high a tone, that there seemed to be reason to fear for his +health. + +At Athens, he became a hearer of Antiochus of Ascalon, with whose +fluency and elegance of diction he was much taken, although he did +not approve of his innovations in doctrine. And Cicero made up his +mind that if he should be disappointed of any employment in the +commonwealth, to retire from pleading and politics, and pass his +life quietly in the study of philosophy. + +But after he had received the news of Sylla's death, and his body, +strengthened again by exercise, had grown vigorous, and his voice +was rendered sweet and full to the ear, his friends at Rome +earnestly solicited him by letters to return to public affairs. +He, therefore, again prepared for use his orator's instrument of +rhetoric, and summoned into action his political faculties, +diligently exercising himself in declamations, and attending the +most celebrated rhetoricians of the time. He sailed from Athens +for Asia and Rhodes. Among the Asian masters, he conversed with +Xenocles of Adramyttium, Dionysius of Magnesia, and Menippus of +Caria; at Rhodes, he studied oratory with Apollonius, the son of +Molon, and philosophy with Posidonius. Apollonius, we are told, +not understanding Latin, requested Cicero to declaim in Greek. He +complied willingly, thinking that his faults would thus be better +pointed out to him. After he finished, all his other hearers were +astonished, and vied with each other in praising him, but +Apollonius showed no signs of excitement while he was hearing him, +and now, when he had finished, sat musing for some time, without +any remark. And when Cicero was discomposed at this, he said, "You +have my praise and admiration, Cicero, and Greece my pity and +commiseration, since those arts and that eloquence which are the +only glories that remain to her, will now be transferred by you to +Rome." + +And now when Cicero, full of expectation, was again bent upon +political affairs, a certain oracle blunted the edge of his +inclination; for consulting the god of Delphi how he should attain +most glory, the Pythoness answered, "By making your own genius and +not the opinion of the people the guide of your life;" and +therefore at first he passed his time in Rome cautiously, and was +very backward in pretending to public offices, so that he was at +that time in little esteem, and had got the names, so readily +given by low and ignorant people in Rome, of Greek and Scholar. +But when his own desire of fame and the eagerness of his father +and relations had made him take in earnest to pleading, he made no +slow or gentle advance to the first place, but shone out in full +lustre at once, and far surpassed all the advocates at the bar. At +first, it is said, he as well as Demosthenes, was defective in his +delivery, and on that account paid much attention to the +instructions, sometimes of Roscius, the comedian, and sometimes of +Aesop, the tragedian. They tell of this Aesop, that while +representing in the theatre Atreus deliberating the revenge of +Thyestes, he was so transported beyond himself in the heat of +action, that he struck with his sceptre one of the servants, who +was running across the stage, so violently, that he laid him dead +upon the place. And such afterwards was Cicero's delivery, that it +did not a little contribute to render his eloquence persuasive. He +used to ridicule loud speakers, saying that they shouted because +they could not speak, like lame men who get on horseback because +they cannot walk. And his readiness and address in wit and sarcasm +were thought to suit a pleader well. + +He was appointed quaestor in a great scarcity of corn, and had +Sicily for his province, where, at first, he displeased many, by +compelling them to send in their provisions to Rome, yet after +they had had experience of his care, justice, and clemency, they +honored him more than ever they did any of their governors before. +It happened, also, that some young Romans of good and noble +families, charged with neglect of discipline and misconduct in +military service, were brought before the praetor in Sicily. +Cicero undertook their defence, which he conducted admirably, and +got them acquitted. So returning to Rome with a great opinion of +himself for these things, a ludicrous incident befell him, as he +tells us himself. Meeting an eminent citizen in Campania, whom he +accounted his friend, he asked him what the Romans said and +thought of his actions, as if the whole city had been filled with +the glory of what he had done. His friend asked him in reply, +"Where is it you have been, Cicero?" Utterly mortified and cast +down, he perceived that the report of his actions had sunk into +the city of Rome as into an immense ocean, without any visible +effect or result in reputation. + +On beginning to apply himself more resolutely to public business, +he remarked it as unreasonable that artificers, using vessels and +instruments inanimate, should know the name, place, and use of +every one of them, and yet the statesman, whose instruments for +carrying out public measures are men, should be negligent and +careless in the knowledge of persons. And so he not only +acquainted himself with the names, but also knew the very place +where every one of the more eminent citizens dwelt, what lands he +possessed, his friends and his neighbors, and when he traveled on +any road in Italy, he could readily name and show the estates and +seats of his acquaintances. Having a small competency for his own +expenses, it was much wondered at that he took neither fees nor +gifts from his clients, and especially, that he did not do so when +he undertook the prosecution of Verres. This Verres, who had been +praetor of Sicily, and stood charged by the Sicilians with many +evil practices during his government there, Cicero succeeded in +getting condemned, not by speaking, but, as it were, by holding +his tongue. For the praetors, favoring Verres, had deferred the +trial by several adjournments to the last day, in which it was +evident there could not be sufficient time for the advocates to be +heard, and the cause brought to an issue. Cicero, therefore, came +forward, and said there was no need of speeches; and after +producing and examining witnesses, he required the judges to +proceed to sentence. Many witty sayings are on record, as having +been used by Cicero on the occasion. When a man named Caecilius, +one of the freed slaves, who was said to be given to Jewish +practices, would have put by the Sicilians, and undertaken the +prosecution of Verres himself, Cicero asked, "What has a Jew to do +with swine?" verres being the Roman word for a boar. And when +Verres began to reproach Cicero with effeminate living, "You +ought," replied he, "to use this language at home, to your sons;" +Verres having a son who had fallen into disgraceful courses. +Hortensius, the orator, not daring directly to undertake the +defence of Verres, was yet persuaded to appear for him at the +laying on of the fine, and received an ivory sphinx for his +reward; and when Cicero, in some passage of his speech, obliquely +reflected on him, and Hortensius told him he was not skilful in +solving riddles, "No," said Cicero, "and yet you have the Sphinx +in your house!" + +Verres was thus convicted; though Cicero, who set the fine at +seventy-five myriads, lay under the suspicion of being corrupted +by bribery to lessen the sum. But the Sicilians, in testimony of +their gratitude, came and brought him all sorts of presents from +the island, when he was aedile; of which he made no private profit +himself, but used their generosity only to reduce the public price +of provisions. + +He had a very pleasant seat at Arpi, he had also a farm near +Naples, and another near Pompeii, but none were of any great +value. The portion of his wife, Terentia, amounted to ten myriads, +and he had a bequest valued at nine myriads of denarii: upon these +he lived in a liberal but temperate style, with the learned Greeks +and Romans that were his familiars. He rarely, if at any time, sat +down to meat till sunset, and that not so much on account of +business as for his health and the weakness of his stomach. He was +otherwise in the care of his body nice and delicate, appointing +himself, for example, a set number of walks and rubbings. And +after this manner managing the habit of his body, he brought it in +time to be healthful, and capable of supporting many great +fatigues and trials. His father's house he made over to his +brother, living himself near the Palatine Hill, that he might not +give the trouble of long journeys to those that made suit to him. +And, indeed, there were not fewer daily appearing at his door, to +do their court to him, than there were that came to Crassus for +his riches, or to Pompey for his power among the soldiers, these +being at that time the two men of the greatest repute and +influence in Rome. Nay, even Pompey himself used to pay court to +Cicero, and Cicero's public actions did much to establish Pompey's +authority and reputation in the state. + +Numerous distinguished competitors stood with him for the +praetor's office; but he was chosen before them all, and managed +the decision of causes with justice and integrity. It is related +that Licinius Macer, a man himself of great power in the city, and +supported also by the assistance of Crassus, was accused before +him of extortion, and that, in confidence on his own interest and +the diligence of his friends, whilst the judges were debating +about the sentence, he went to his house, where hastily trimming +his hair and putting on a clean gown, as already acquitted, he was +setting off again to go to the Forum; but at his hall door meeting +Crassus, who told him that he was condemned by all the votes, he +went in again, threw himself upon his bed, and died immediately. +This verdict was considered very creditable to Cicero, as showing +his careful management of the courts of justice. + +Yet he was preferred to the consulship no less by the nobles than +the common people for the good of the city; and both parties +jointly assisted his promotion, for the following reasons. The +change of government made by Sylla, which at first seemed a +senseless one, by time and usage had now come to be considered by +the people no unsatisfactory settlement. But there were some that +endeavored to alter and subvert the whole present state of +affairs, not from any good motives, but for their own private +gain; and Pompey being at this time employed in the wars with the +kings of Pontus and Armenia, there was no sufficient force at Rome +to suppress any attempts at a revolution. These people had for +their head a man of bold, daring, and restless character, Lucius +Catiline, who was accused, besides other great offences, of +killing his own brother; and fearing to be prosecuted at law, he +persuaded Sylla to set his brother down, as though he were yet +alive, amongst those that were to be put to death by proscription. +This man the profligate citizens choosing for their captain, gave +faith to one another, amongst other pledges, by sacrificing a man +and eating of his flesh; and a great part of the young men of the +city were corrupted by him, he providing for every one pleasures +and drink, and profusely supplying the expense of their debauches. +Etruria, moreover, had all been excited to revolt, as well as a +great part of Gaul within the Alps. But Rome itself was in the +most dangerous inclination to change on account of the unequal +distribution of wealth and property, those of highest rank and +greatest spirit having impoverished themselves by shows, +entertainments, running for office, and sumptuous buildings, and +the riches of the city had thus fallen into the hands of mean and +low-born persons. So that it required but a slight impetus to set +all in motion, it being in the power of any daring man to overturn +a sickly commonwealth. + +Catiline, however, being desirous of procuring a strong position +to carry out his designs, stood for the consulship, and had great +hopes of success, thinking he should be appointed, with Caius +Antonius as his colleague, who was a man fit to lead neither in a +good cause nor in a bad one, but might be a valuable accession to +another's power. The greater part of the good and honest citizens +apprehending these things, put Cicero upon standing for the +consulship; whom the people readily receiving, Catiline was put +by, so that he and Caius Antonius were chosen, although amongst +the competitors he was the only man descended from the father of +the equestrian, and not of the senatorial, order. + +Though the designs of Catiline were not yet publicly known, yet +considerable trouble immediately followed Cicero's entrance upon +the consulship. For, on the one side, those who were disqualified +by the laws of Sylla from holding any public offices, being +neither inconsiderable in power nor in number, came forward as +candidates and entreated the people; on the other hand, the +tribunes of the people proposed laws to the same purpose, +constituting a commission of ten persons, with unlimited powers, +in whom as supreme governors should be vested the right of selling +the public lands of all Italy and Syria and Pompey's new +conquests, of judging and banishing whom they pleased, of planting +colonies, of taking money out of the treasury, and of levying and +paying what soldiers should be though needful. And several of the +nobility favored this law, but especially Caius Antonius, Cicero's +colleague, in hopes of being one of the ten. But what gave the +greatest fear to the nobles was, that he was thought privy to the +conspiracy of Catiline, and not to dislike it because of his great +debts. + +Cicero, endeavoring in the first place to provide a remedy against +this danger, procured a decree assigning to Antonius the province +of Macedonia, he himself declining that of Gaul, which was offered +to him. And this piece of favor so completely won over Antonius, +that he was ready to second, like a hired player, whatever Cicero +said for the good of the country. And now, having made his +colleague tame and tractable, he could with greater courage attack +the conspirators. Therefore, in the senate, making an oration +against the law of the ten commissioners, he so confounded those +who proposed it, that they had nothing to reply. + +For Cicero, it may be said, was the one man, above all others, who +made the Romans feel how great a charm eloquence lends to what is +good, and how invincible justice is if it be well presented. An +incident occurred in the theatre, during his consulship, which +showed what his speaking could do. Formerly the knights of Rome +were mingled in the theatre with the common people, and took their +places amongst them just as it happened; but when Marcus Otho +became praetor he distinguished them from the other citizens, and +appointed them special seats, which they still enjoy as their +place in the theatre. This the common people took as an indignity +done to them, and, therefore, when Otho appeared in the theatre +they hissed him; the knights, on the contrary, received him with +loud clapping. The people repeated and increased their hissing; +the knights continued their clapping. Upon this, turning upon one +another, they broke out into insulting words, so that the theatre +was in great disorder. Cicero, being informed of it, came himself +to the theatre, and summoning the people into the temple of +Bellona, he so effectually chid and chastised them for it, that, +again returning into the theatre, they received Otho with loud +applause, contending with the knights as to who should give him +the greatest demonstrations of honor and respect. + +The conspirators with Catiline, at first cowed and disheartened, +began presently to take courage again. And assembling together, +they exhorted one another boldly to undertake the design before +Pompey's return. But the old soldiers of Sylla were Catiline's +chief stimulus to action. They had been disbanded all about Italy, +but the greatest number and the fiercest of them lay scattered +among the cities of Etruria entertaining themselves with dreams of +new plunder and rapine among the hoarded riches of Italy. These, +having for their leader Manlius, who had served with distinction +in the wars under Sylla, joined themselves to Catiline, and came +to Rome to assist him with their suffrages at the election. For he +again aspired for the consulship, having resolved to kill Cicero +in a tumult at the elections. The divine powers seemed to give +intimation of the coming troubles, by earthquakes, thunderbolts +and strange appearances. Nor was human evidence wanting, certain +enough in itself, though not sufficient to convict the noble and +powerful Catiline. Therefore Cicero, deferring the day of +election, summoned Catiline into the senate, and questioned him as +to the charges made against him. Catiline, believing there were +many in the senate desirous of change, and to give a specimen of +himself to the conspirators present, returned an audacious answer. +"What harm," said he, "when I see two bodies, the one lean and +consumptive with a head, the other one great and strong without +one, if I put a head to that body which wants one?" This covert +representation of the senate and the people excited yet greater +apprehensions in Cicero. He put on armor, and was attended from +his house by the noble citizens in a body; and a number of the +young men went with him into the Plain. Here, designedly letting +his tunic slip partly off from his shoulders, he showed his armor +underneath, and discovered his danger to the spectators, who, +being much moved at it, gathered around about him for his defence. +At length, Catiline was by general suffrage again put by, and +Silanus and Murena chosen consuls. + +Not long after this, Catiline's soldiers got together in a body in +Etruria, and began to form themselves into companies, the day +appointed for the design being near at hand. About midnight, some +of the principal and most powerful citizens of Rome, Marcus, +Crassus, Marcus Marcellus, and Scipio Metellus went to Cicero's +house, where, knocking at the gate, and calling up the porter, +they commanded him to awake Cicero, and tell him they were there. +The business was this: Crassus's porter after supper had delivered +to him letters brought by an unknown person. Some of them were +directed to others, but one to Crassus, without a name; this only +Crassus read, which informed him that there was a great slaughter +intended by Catiline, and advised him to leave the city. The +others he did not open, but went with them immediately to Cicero, +being affrighted at the danger, and to free himself of the +suspicion he lay under for his familiarity with Catiline. Cicero, +considering the matter, summoned the senate at break of day. The +letters he brought with him, and delivered them to those to whom +they were directed, commanding them to read them publicly; they +all alike contained an account of the conspiracy. And when Quintus +Arrius, a man of praetorian dignity, recounted to them, how +soldiers were collecting in companies in Etruria, and Manlius was +stated to be in motion with a large force, hovering about those +cities, in expectation of intelligence from Rome, the senate made +a decree to place all in the hands of the consuls, who should +undertake the conduct of everything, and do their best to save the +state. This was not a common thing, but only done by the senate in +cases of imminent danger. + +After Cicero had received this power, he committed all affairs +outside to Quintus Metellus; but the management of the city he +kept in his own hands. Such a numerous attendance guarded him +every day when he went abroad that the greater part of the forum +was filled with his train when he entered it. Catiline, impatient +of further delay, resolved himself to break forth and go to +Manlius; but he commanded Marcius and Cethegus to take their +swords and go early in the morning to Cicero's gates, as if only +intending to salute him, and then to fall upon him and slay him. A +noble lady, Fulvia, coming by night, discovered this to Cicero, +bidding him beware of Cethegus and Marcius. They came by break of +day, and being denied entrance, made an outcry and disturbance at +the gates, which excited all the more suspicion. But Cicero, going +forth, summoned the senate into the temple of Jupiter Stator, +which stands at the end of the Sacred Street, going up to the +Palatine. And when Catiline with others of his party also came, as +though intending to make his defence, none of the senators would +sit by him, but all of them left the bench where he had placed +himself. And when he began to speak, they interrupted him with +outcries. At length, Cicero, standing up, commanded him to leave +the city; for, since one governed the commonwealth with words, the +other with arms, it was necessary that there should be a wall +betwixt them. Catiline, therefore, immediately left the town, with +three hundred armed men; and assuming, like a magistrate, the +rods, axes, and military ensigns, he went to Manlius, and having +got together a body of near twenty thousand men, with these he +marched to the several cities, endeavoring to persuade or force +them to revolt. It being now come to open war, Antonius was sent +forth to fight him. + +The remainder of those in the city whom he had corrupted, +Cornelius Lentulus kept together and encouraged. He had the +surname Sura, and was a man of a noble family, but a dissolute +liver, who for his debauchery was formerly turned out of the +senate, and was now holding the office of praetor for the second +time, as the custom is with those who desire to regain the dignity +of senator. It is said that he got the surname Sura upon this +occasion; being quaestor in the time of Sylla, he had lavished +away and consumed a great quantity of the public moneys, at which +Sylla, being provoked, called him to give an account in the +senate. He appeared with great coolness and contempt, and said he +had no account to give, but they might take this, holding up the +calf of his leg, as boys do at ball, when they have missed. Upon +which he was surnamed Sura, sura being the Roman word for the calf +of the leg. Being at another time prosecuted at law, and having +bribed some of the judges, he escaped by only two votes, and +complained of the needless expense he had gone to in paying for a +second, as one would have sufficed to acquit him. This man, such +in his own nature, and now inflamed by Catiline, false prophets +and fortune-tellers had also corrupted with vain hopes, quoting to +him fictitious verses and oracles, and proving from the Sibylline +prophecies that there were three of the name Cornelius designed by +fate to be monarchs of Rome; two of whom, Cinna and Sylla, had +already fulfilled the decree, and that divine fortune was now +advancing with the gift of monarchy for the remaining third +Cornelius; and that therefore he ought by all means to accept it, +and not lose opportunity by delay, as Catiline had done. + +Lentulus, therefore, designed no mean or trivial matter, for he +had resolved to kill the whole senate, and as many other citizens +as he could, to fire the city, and spare nobody, except Pompey's +children, intending to seize and keep them as pledges of his +reconciliation with Pompey. For there was then a common report +that Pompey was on his way homeward from his great expedition. The +night appointed for the design was one of the Saturnalia; swords, +flax, and sulphur they carried and hid in the house of Cethegus; +and providing one hundred men, and dividing the city into as many +parts, they had allotted to every one singly his proper place, so +that in a moment, many kindling the fire, the city might be in a +flame all together. Others were appointed to stop up the +aqueducts, and to kill those who should endeavor to carry water to +put it out. While these plans were preparing, it happened that +there were two ambassadors from the Allobroges staying in Rome; a +nation at that time in a distressed condition, and very uneasy +under the Roman government. These Lentulus and his party, judging +useful instruments to move Gaul to revolt, admitted into the +conspiracy, and they gave them letters to their own magistrates, +and letters to Catiline; in those they promised liberty, in these +they exhorted Catiline to set all slaves free, and to bring them +along with him to Rome. They sent also to accompany them to +Catiline, one Titus, a native of Croton, who was to carry those +letters to him. + +These counsels of inconsidering men, who conversed together over +their wine, Cicero watched with sober industry and forethought, +and with most admirable sagacity, having several emissaries +abroad, who observed and traced with him all that was done, and +keeping also a secret correspondence with many who pretended to +join in the conspiracy. He thus knew all the discourse which +passed between them and the strangers; and lying in wait for them +by night, he took the Crotonian with his letters, the ambassadors +of the Allobroges acting secretly in concert with him. + +By break of day, he summoned the senate into the temple of +Concord, where he read the letters and examined the informers. +Junius Silanus further stated that several persons had heard +Cethegus say that three consuls and four praetors were to be +slain; Piso, also, a person of consular dignity, testified other +matters of like nature; and Caius Sulpicius, one of the praetors, +being sent to Cethegus's house, found there a quantity of darts +and of armor, and a still greater number of swords and daggers, +all recently whetted. At length, the senate, decreeing indemnity +to the Crotonian upon his confession of the whole matter, Lentulus +was convicted, abjured his office (for he was then praetor), and +put off his robe edged with purple in the senate, changing it for +another garment more agreeable to his present circumstances. He, +thereupon, with the rest of his confederates present, was +committed to the charge of the praetors in free custody. + +It being evening, and the common people in crowds expecting +without, Cicero went forth to them, and told them what was done, +and then, attended by them, went to the house of a friend and near +neighbor; for his own was taken up by the women, who were +celebrating with secret rites the feast of the goddess whom the +Romans call the Good, and the Greeks, the Women's goddess. For a +sacrifice is annually performed to her in the consul's house, +either by his wife or mother, in the presence of the vestal +virgins. And having got into his friend's house privately, a few +only being present, he began to deliberate how he should treat +these men. The severest and the only punishment fit for such +heinous crimes, he was somewhat shy and fearful of inflicting, as +well from the clemency of his nature, as also lest he should be +thought to exercise his authority too insolently, and to treat too +harshly men of the noblest birth and most powerful friendships in +the city; and yet, if he should use them more mildly, he had a +dreadful prospect of danger from them. For there was no likelihood +that, if they suffered less than death, they would be reconciled, +but, rather, adding new rage to their former wickedness, they +would rush into every kind of audacity, while he himself, whose +character for courage already did not stand very high with the +multitude, would be thought guilty of the greatest cowardice and +want of manliness. + +While Cicero was in doubt what course to take, a portent happened +to the women in their sacrificing. For on the altar, where the +fire seemed wholly extinguished, a great and bright flame issued +forth from the ashes of the burnt wood; at which others were +affrighted, but the holy virgins called to Terentia, Cicero's +wife, and bade her hasten to her husband, and command him to +execute what he had resolved for the good of his country, for the +goddess had sent a great light to the increase of his safety and +glory. Terentia, therefore, as she was otherwise in her own nature +neither tender-hearted nor timorous, but a woman eager for +distinction (who, as Cicero himself says, would rather thrust +herself into his public affairs than communicate her domestic +matters to him), told him these things, and excited him against +the conspirators. So also did Quintus his brother, and Publius +Nigidius, one of his philosophical friends, whom he often made use +of in his most weighty affairs of state. + +The next day, a debate arising in the senate about the punishment +of the men, Silanus, being the first who was asked his opinion, +said, it was fit that they should be all sent to prison, and there +suffer the utmost penalty. With him all agreed in order till it +came to Caius Caesar, who was afterwards dictator. He was then but +a young man, and only at the outset of his career, but had already +directed his hopes and policy to that course by which he +afterwards changed the Roman state into a monarchy. + +When it came Caesar's turn to give his opinion, he stood up and +proposed that the conspirators should not be put to death, but +their estates confiscated, and their persons confined in such +cities in Italy as Cicero should approve, there to be kept in +custody till Catiline was conquered. To this sentence, as it was +the most moderate, and he that delivered it a most powerful +speaker, Cicero himself gave no small weight, for he stood up and, +turning the scale on either side, spoke in favor partly of the +former, partly of Caesar's sentence. And all Cicero's friends, +judging Caesar's sentence most expedient for Cicero, because he +would incur the less blame if the conspirators were not put to +death, chose rather the latter; so that Silanus, also, changing +his mind, retracted his opinion, and said he had not declared for +capital, but only the utmost punishment, which to a Roman senator +is imprisonment. The first man who spoke against Caesar's motion +was Catulus Lutatius. Cato followed, and so vehemently urged in +his speech the strong suspicion about Caesar himself, and so +filled the senate with anger and resolution, that a decree was +passed for the execution of the conspirators. But Caesar opposed +the confiscation of their goods, not thinking it fair that those +who had rejected the mildest part of his sentence should avail +themselves of the severest. And when many insisted upon it, he +appealed to the tribunes, but they would do nothing; till Cicero +himself yielding, remitted that part of the sentence. + +After this, Cicero went out with the senate to the conspirators; +they were not all together in one place, but the several praetors +had them, some one, some another, in custody. And first he took +Lentulus from the Palatine, and brought him by the Sacred Street, +through the middle of the market-place, a circle of the most +eminent citizens encompassing and protecting him. The people, +affrighted at what was doing, passed along in silence, especially +the young men; as if, with fear and trembling, they were +undergoing a rite of initiation into some ancient, sacred +mysteries of aristocratic power. Thus passing from the market- +place, and coming to the gaol, he delivered Lentulus to the +officer, and commanded him to execute him; and after him Cethegus, +and so all the rest in order, he brought and delivered up to +execution. And when he saw many of the conspirators in the market- +place, still standing together in companies, ignorant of what was +done, and waiting for the night, supposing the men were still +alive and in a possibility of being rescued, he called out in a +loud voice, and said, "They did live"; for so the Romans, to avoid +inauspicious language, name those that are dead. + +It was now evening, when he returned from the market-place to his +own house, the citizens no longer attending him with silence, nor +in order, but receiving him, as he passed, with acclamations and +applauses, and saluting him as the savior and founder of his +country. A bright light shone through the streets from the lamps +and torches set up at the doors, and the women showed lights from +the tops of the houses, to honor Cicero, and to behold him +returning home with a splendid train of the principal citizens; +amongst whom were many who had conducted great wars, celebrated +triumphs, and added to the possessions of the Roman empire, both +by sea and land. These, as they passed along with him, +acknowledged to one another, that though the Roman people were +indebted to several officers and commanders of that age for +riches, spoils, and power, yet to Cicero alone they owed the +safety and security of all these, for delivering them from so +great and imminent a danger. For though it might seem no wonderful +thing to prevent the design, and punish the conspirators, yet to +defeat the greatest of all conspiracies with so little +disturbance, trouble, and commotion, was very extraordinary. For +the greater part of those who had flocked in to Catiline, as soon +as they heard of the fate of Lentulus and Cethegus, forsook him, +and he himself, with his remaining forces, joining battle with +Antonius, was destroyed with his army. + +And yet there were some who were very ready both to speak ill of +Cicero, and to do him hurt for these actions; and they had for +their leaders some of the magistrates of the ensuing year, as +Caesar, who was one of the praetors, and Metellus and Bestia, the +tribunes. These, entering upon their office some few days before +Cicero's consulate expired, would not permit him to make any +address to the people, but, throwing the benches before the +Rostra, hindered his speaking, telling him he might, if he +pleased, make the oath of withdrawal from office, and then come +down again. Cicero, accordingly, accepting the conditions, came +forward to make his withdrawal; and silence being made, he recited +his oath, not in the usual, but in a new and peculiar form, +namely, that he had saved his country, and preserved the empire; +the truth of which oath all the people confirmed with theirs. +Caesar and the tribunes, all the more exasperated by this, +endeavored to create him further trouble, and for this purpose +proposed a law for calling Pompey home with his army, to put an +end to Cicero's usurpation. But it was a very great advantage for +Cicero and the whole commonwealth that Cato was at that time one +of the tribunes. For he, being of equal power with the rest, and +of greater reputation, could oppose their designs. He easily +defeated their other projects, and, in an oration to the people, +so highly extolled Cicero's consulate, that the greatest honors +were decreed him, and he was publicly declared the Father of his +Country, which title he seems to have obtained, the first man who +did so, when Cato applied it to him in this address to the people. + +At this time, therefore, his authority was very great in the city; +but he created himself much envy, and offended very many, not by +any evil action, but because he was always lauding and magnifying +himself. For neither senate, nor assembly of the people, nor court +of judicature could meet, in which he was not heard to talk of +Catiline and Lentulus. Indeed, he filled his books and writings +with his own praises, to such an excess as to render a style, in +itself most pleasant and delightful, nauseous and irksome to his +hearers. This ungrateful humor, like a disease, always clove to +him. Still, though fond of his own glory, he was very free from +envying others, but was, on the contrary, most liberally profuse +in commending both the ancients and his contemporaries, as any one +may see in his writings. He called Aristotle a river of flowing +gold, and said of Plato's Dialogues, that if Jupiter were to +speak, it would be in language like theirs. He used to call +Theophrastus his special luxury. And being asked which of +Demosthenes's orations he liked best, he answered, "The longest." +And as for the eminent men of his own time, either in eloquence or +philosophy, there was not one of them whom he did not, by writing +or speaking favorably of him, render more illustrious. + +An example of his love of praise is the way in which sometimes, to +make his orations more striking, he neglected decorum and dignity. +When Munatius, who had escaped conviction by his advocacy, +immediately prosecuted his friend Sabinus, he said in the warmth +of his resentment, "Do you suppose you were acquitted for your own +merits, Munatius, or was it not that I so darkened the case, that +the court could not see your guilt?" When from the Rostra he had +made a eulogy on Marcus Crassus, with much applause, and within a +few days after again as publicly reproached him, Crassus called to +him, and said, "Did not you yourself two days ago, in this same +place, commend me?" "Yes," said Cicero, "I exercised my eloquence +in declaiming upon a bad subject." At another time, Crassus had +said that no one of his family had ever lived beyond sixty years +of age, and afterwards denied it, and asked, "What should put it +into my head to say so?" "It was to gain the people's favor," +answered Cicero; "you knew how glad they would be to hear it." +When Vatinius, who had swellings in his neck, was pleading a +cause, he called him the tumid orator; and having been told by +some one that Vatinius was dead, on hearing soon after that he was +alive, he said, "may the rascal perish, for his news not being +true." + +Upon Caesar's bringing forward a law for the division of the lands +in Campania amongst the soldiers, many in the senate opposed it; +amongst the rest, Lucius Gellius, one of the oldest men in the +house, said it should never pass whilst he lived. "Let us postpone +it," said Cicero, "Gellius does not ask us to wait long." There +was a man of the name of Octavius, suspected to be of African +descent. He once said, when Cicero was pleading, that he could not +hear him; "yet there are holes," said Cicero, "in your ears." When +Metellus Nepos told him that he had ruined more as a witness than +he had saved as an advocate, "I admit," said Cicero, "that I have +more truth than eloquence." To a young man who was suspected of +having given a poisoned cake to his father, and who talked largely +of the invectives he meant to deliver against Cicero, "Better +these," replied he, "than your cakes." Publius Sextius, having +amongst others retained Cicero as his advocate in a certain cause, +was yet desirous to say all for himself, and would not allow +anybody to speak for him; when he was about to receive his +acquittal from the judges, and the ballots were passing, Cicero +called to him, "make haste, Sextius, and use your time; to-morrow +you will be nobody." He cited Publius Cotta to bear testimony in a +certain cause, one who affected to be thought a lawyer, though +ignorant and unlearned; but when Cotta had said, "I know nothing +at all about the matter," Cicero answered: "You think, perhaps, we +are asking you about a point of law." When Marcus Appius, in the +opening of some speech in a court of justice, said that his friend +had desired him to employ industry, eloquence, and fidelity in +that cause, Cicero asked, "And how have you had the heart not to +accede to any one of his requests?" + +One Clodius, whom Cicero had vehemently opposed in an important +trial, having got himself chosen one of the tribunes, immediately +attacked Cicero, endeavoring to incite everybody against him. The +common people he gained over with popular laws; to each of the +consuls he decreed large provinces, to Piso, Macedonia, and to +Gabinius, Syria. Of the three men then in greatest power, Crassus +was Cicero's open enemy, Pompey indifferently made advances to +both, and Caesar was going with an army into Gaul. To him, though +not his friend, Cicero applied, requesting an appointment as one +of his lieutenants in the province. Caesar accepted him, and +Clodius, perceiving that Cicero would thus escape his tribunician +authority, professed to be inclinable to a reconciliation, made +always a favorable mention of him, and addressed him with kind +expressions, as one who felt no hatred or ill-will, but who merely +wished to urge his complaints in a moderate and friendly way. By +these artifices, he so freed Cicero of all his fears, that he +resigned his appointment to Caesar, and betook himself again to +political affairs. At which Caesar being exasperated, joined the +party of Clodius against him, and wholly alienated Pompey from +him; he also himself declared in a public assembly of the people, +that he did not think Lentulus and Cethegus, with their +accomplices, were fairly and legally put to death without being +brought to trial. And this, indeed, was the crime charged upon +Cicero, and this impeachment he was summoned to answer. And so, as +an accused man, and in danger for the result, he changed his +dress, and went round with his hair untrimmed, in the attire of a +suppliant, to beg the people's grace. But Clodius met him in every +corner, having a band of abusive and daring fellows about him, who +derided Cicero for his change of dress and his humiliation, and +often, by throwing dirt and stones at him, interrupted his +supplication to the people. + +However, first of all, almost the whole equestrian order changed +their dress with him, and no less than twenty thousand young +gentlemen followed him with their hair untrimmed, and supplicating +with him to the people. And then the senate met, to pass a decree +that the people should change their dress as in time of public +sorrow. But the consuls opposing it, and Clodius with armed men +besetting the senate-house, many of the senators ran out, crying +aloud and tearing their clothes. But this sight moved neither +shame nor pity; Cicero must either fly or determine it by the +sword with Clodius. He entreated Pompey to aid him, who on purpose +had gone out of the way, and was staying at his country-house in +the Alban hills; and first he sent his son-in-law Piso to +intercede with him, and afterwards set out to go himself. But +Pompey being informed, would not stay to see him, being ashamed at +the remembrance of the many conflicts in the commonwealth which +Cicero had undergone in his behalf, and how much of his policy he +had directed for his advantage. But being now Caesar's son-in-law, +at his instance he had set aside all former kindness, and, +slipping out at another door, avoided the interview. Thus being +forsaken by Pompey, and left alone to himself, he fled to the +consuls. Gabinius was rough with him, as usual, but Piso spoke +more courteously, desiring him to yield for a while to the fury of +Clodius, and to await a change of times, and to be now, as before, +his country's savior from the peril of these troubles and +commotions which Clodius was exciting. + +Cicero, receiving this answer, consulted with his friends. +Lucullus advised him to stay, as being sure to prevail at last; +others to fly, because the people would soon desire him again, +when they should have enough of the rage and madness of Clodius. +This last Cicero approved. But first he took a statue of Minerva, +which had been long set up and greatly honored in his house, and +carrying it to the capitol, there dedicated it, with the +inscription, "To Minerva, Patroness of Rome." And receiving an +escort from his friends, about the middle of the night he left the +city, and went by land through Lucania, intending to reach Sicily. + +But as soon as it was publicly known that he was fled, Clodius +proposed to the people a decree of exile, and by his own order +interdicted him fire and water, prohibiting any within five +hundred miles in Italy to receive him into their houses. Most +people, out of respect for Cicero, paid no regard to this edict, +offering him every attention, and escorting him on his way. But at +Hipponium, a city of Lucania, now called Vibo, one Vibius, a +Sicilian by birth, who, amongst may other instances of Cicero's +friendship, had been made head of the state engineers when he was +consul, would not receive him into his house, sending him word +that he would appoint a place in the country for his reception. +Caius Vergilius, the praetor of Sicily, who had been on the most +intimate terms with him, wrote to him to forbear coming into +Sicily. Cicero, thoroughly disheartened at these things, went to +Brundusium, whence he put forth with a prosperous wind, but a +contrary gale blowing from the sea carried him back to Italy the +next day. He put again to sea, and having reached Dyrrachium, on +his coming to shore there, it is reported that an earthquake and a +convulsion in the sea happened at the same time, signs which the +diviners said intimated that his exile would not be long, for +these were prognostics of change. Although many visited him with +respect, and the cities of Greece contended with each other in +honoring him, he yet continued disconsolate, like an unfortunate +lover, often casting his looks back upon Italy; and, indeed, he +had become more humiliated and dejected by his misfortunes than +any one could have expected in a man who had devoted so much of +his life to study and learning. And yet he often desired his +friends not to call him orator, but philosopher, because he had +made philosophy his business, and had only used rhetoric as an +instrument for attaining his objects in public life. + +Clodius, having thus driven away Cicero, fell to burning his farm- +buildings and villas, and afterwards his city house, and built on +the site of it a temple to Liberty. The rest of his property he +exposed for sale by daily proclamation, but nobody came to buy. By +this course he became formidable to the noble citizens, and, being +followed by the commonalty, whom he had filled with insolence and +licentiousness, he began at last to try his strength against +Pompey, some of whose arrangements in the countries he conquered, +he attacked. The disgrace of this made Pompey begin to reproach +himself for his cowardice in deserting Cicero, and, changing his +mind, he now wholly set himself with his friends to contrive his +return. And when Clodius opposed it, the senate made a vote that +no public measure should be ratified or passed by them till Cicero +was recalled. But when Lentulus was consul, the commotions grew so +high upon this matter, that the tribunes were wounded in the +Forum, and Quintus, Cicero's brother, was left as dead, lying +unobserved amongst the slain. The people began to change in their +feelings; and Annius Milo, one of their tribunes, was the first +who had the courage to summon Clodius to trial for acts of +violence. Many of the common people in Rome and the neighboring +cities formed a party with Pompey, who headed them in person, +drove Clodius out of the Forum, and summoned the people to pass +their vote. And, it is said, the people never passed any suffrage +more unanimously than this. The senate, also, striving to outdo +the people, sent letters of thanks to those cities which had +received Cicero with respect in his exile, and decreed that his +house and his country-places, which Clodius had destroyed, should +be rebuilt at the public charge. + +Thus Cicero returned sixteen months after his exile, and the +cities were so glad, and the people so zealous to meet him, that +his boast, that Italy had brought him on her shoulders home to +Rome, was rather less than the truth. And Crassus himself, who had +been his enemy before his exile, went voluntarily to meet him, and +was reconciled, as he said, to please his son Publius, who was +Cicero's affectionate admirer. + +Cicero had not been long at Rome, when, taking the opportunity of +Clodius's absence, he went, with a great company, to the capitol, +and there tore and defaced the tribunician tables, in which were +recorded the acts done in the time of Clodius. And on Clodius +calling him in question for this, he answered, that he, being of +the patrician order, had obtained the office of tribune against +the law, and, therefore, nothing done by him was valid. Cato was +displeased at this, and opposed Cicero, not that he commended +Clodius, but rather disapproved of his whole administration; yet, +he contended, that it was an irregular and violent course for the +senate to vote the illegality of so many decrees and acts, +including those of Cato's own government in Cyprus and at +Byzantium. This occasioned a breach between Cato and Cicero, +which, though it did not come to open enmity, made a more reserved +friendship between them. + +After this, Milo killed Clodius, and, being arraigned for the +murder, he procured Cicero for his advocate. The senate, fearing +lest the questioning of so eminent and high-spirited a citizen as +Milo might disturb the peace of the city, committed the +superintendence of this and of the other trials to Pompey, who +should undertake to maintain the security alike of the city and of +the courts of justice. Pompey, therefore, went in the night, and +occupying the high grounds about it, surrounded the Forum with +soldiers. Milo, fearing lest Cicero, being disturbed by such an +unusual sight, should conduct his cause the less successfully, +persuaded him to come in a litter into the Forum, and there rest +till the judges had taken their seats, and the court was filled. +For Cicero, it seems, not only wanted courage in arms, but, in his +speaking also, began with timidity, and in many cases scarcely +left off trembling and shaking when he had got thoroughly into the +current and the substance of his speech. Once when he had to +defend Licinius Murena against the prosecution of Cato, being +eager to outdo Hortensius, who had made his plea with great +applause, he took so little rest the night before, and was so +disordered with thought and over-watching, that he spoke much +worse than usual. And so now, on quitting his litter to commence +the cause of Milo, at the sight of Pompey, encamped, as it were, +with his troops, and seeing arms shining round about the Forum, he +was so confounded that he could hardly begin his speech, for the +trembling of his body and hesitancy of his tongue; whereas Milo, +meantime, was so bold and intrepid in his demeanor, that he +disdained either to let his hair grow, or to put on the mourning +habit. And this, indeed, seems to have been the principal cause of +his condemnation. And Cicero was thought not so much to have shown +timidity for himself, as anxiety about his friend. + +When the outbreak between Caesar and Pompey came, Cicero wavered +painfully between both, for he writes in his epistles, "To which +side should I turn? Pompey has the fair and honorable plea for +war; and Caesar, on the other hand, has managed his affairs +better, and is more able to secure himself and his friends. So +that I know whom I should fly from, not whom I should fly to." But +when Trebatius, one of Caesar's friends, by letter signified to +him that Caesar thought it was his most desirable course to join +his side, but if he considered himself too old a man for this, he +would do better to retire into Greece, and stay quietly there, out +of the way of either party, Cicero, wondering that Caesar had not +written himself, replied angrily that he should do nothing +unbecoming his past life. + +But as soon as Caesar had marched into Spain, he immediately +sailed away to join Pompey. And he was welcomed by all but Cato; +who, taking him privately aside, chid him for coming to Pompey. As +for himself, he said, it would have been indecent to forsake that +part in the commonwealth which he had chosen from the beginning; +but Cicero might have been more useful to his country and friends, +if, remaining neutral, he had attended and used his influence to +moderate the result, instead of coming hither to make himself, +without reason or necessity, an enemy to Caesar, and a partner in +such great dangers. By this language, Cicero's feelings were +altered, and partly, also, because Pompey made no great use of +him. Although he was himself really the cause of it, by his not +denying that he was sorry he had come, by his deprecating Pompey's +resources, finding fault underhand with his counsels, and +continually indulging in jests and sarcastic remarks on his +fellow-soldiers. + +After the battle of Pharsalia was over, at which he was not +present for want of health, and Pompey had fled, Cato, having +considerable forces and a great fleet at Dyrrachium, would have +had Cicero commander-in-chief, according to law, and the +precedence of his consular dignity. But on his refusing the +command, and wholly declining to take part in their plans for +continuing the war, he was in the greatest danger of being killed, +young Pompey and his friends calling him traitor, and drawing +their swords upon him; only that Cato interposed, and with +difficulty rescued and brought him out of the camp. + +Afterwards, arriving at Brundusium, he tarried there some time in +expectation of Caesar, who was delayed by his affairs in Asia and +Egypt. And when it was told him that he had arrived at Tarentum, +and was coming thence by land to Brundusium, he hastened towards +him, not altogether without hope, and yet in some fear of making +experiment of the temper of an enemy and conqueror in the presence +of many witnesses. But there was no necessity for him either to +speak or do anything unworthy of himself; for Caesar, as soon as +he saw him coming a good way before the rest of the company, went +forward to meet him, saluted him, and, leading the way, conversed +with him alone for some furlongs. And from that time on he +continued to treat him with honor and respect, so that, when +Cicero wrote an oration in praise of Cato, Caesar, in writing an +answer to it, took occasion to commend Cicero's own life and +eloquence, comparing him to Pericles and Teramenes. Cicero's +oration was called "Cato"; Caesar's, "Anti-Cato." + +So also, it is related that when Quintus Ligarius was prosecuted +for having been in arms against Caesar, and Cicero had undertaken +his defence, Caesar said to his friends, "Ligarius, without +question, is a wicked man and an enemy. But why might we not as +well once more hear a speech from Cicero?" yet when Cicero began +to speak, he wonderfully moved him, and proceeded in his speech +with such varied pathos, and such a charm of language, that the +color of Caesar's countenance often changed, and it was evident +that all the passions of his soul were in commotion. And when at +length, the orator touched upon the Pharsalian battle, he was so +affected that his whole frame trembled and some of the papers he +held dropped out of his hands. And thus he was overpowered, and +acquitted Ligarius. + +Henceforth, the commonwealth being changed into a monarchy, Cicero +withdrew himself from public affairs, and employed his leisure in +instructing those young men that wished, in philosophy; and by the +near intercourse he thus had with some of the noblest and highest +in rank, he again began to possess great influence in the city. +The work which he set himself to do was to compose and translate +philosophical dialogues and to render logical and physical terms +into the Roman idiom. For he it was, as it is said, who first or +principally gave Latin names to technical Greek terms, which, +either by metaphors or other means of accommodation, he succeeded +in making intelligible to the Romans. For his recreation, he +exercised his dexterity in poetry, and when he was set to it, +would make five hundred verses in a night. He spent the greatest +part of his time at his country-house near Tusculum. + +He had a design, it is said, of writing the history of his +country, combining with it much of that of Greece, and +incorporating in it all the stories and legends of the past that +he had collected. But his purposes were interfered with by various +public and various private unhappy occurrences and misfortunes; +for most of which he was himself in fault. For first of all, he +put away his wife, Terentia, by whom he had been neglected in the +time of the war, and sent away destitute of necessaries for his +journey; neither did he find her kind when he returned into Italy, +for she did not join him at Brundusium, where he staid a long +time, and would not allow her young daughter, who undertook so +long a journey, decent attendance, or the requisite expenses; +besides, she left him a naked and empty house, and yet had +involved him in many and great debts. These were alleged as the +fairest reasons for the divorce. But Terentia, who denied them +all, had the most unmistakable defence furnished her by her +husband himself, who not long after married a young maiden for the +love of her beauty, as Terentia upbraided him; or as Tiro, his +emancipated slave, has written, for her riches, to discharge his +debts. For the young woman was very rich, and Cicero had the +custody of her estate, being left guardian in trust; and being in +debt many myriads of money, he was persuaded by his friends and +relations to marry her, notwithstanding their disparity of age, +and to use her money to satisfy his creditors. Antony, who +mentions this marriage in his answer to the Phillippics, +reproaches him for putting away a wife with whom he had lived to +old age; adding some happy strokes of sarcasm on Cicero's +domestic, inactive, unsoldier-like habits. Not long after this +marriage, his daughter died at Lentulus's house, to whom she had +been married after the death of Piso, her former husband. The +philosophers from all parts came to comfort Cicero; for his grief +was so excessive, that he put away his newly-married wife, because +she seemed to be pleased at the death of Tullia. + +He had no concern in the design that was now forming to kill +Caesar, although, in general, he was Brutus's confidant. + +But as soon as the act was committed by Brutus and Cassius, and +the friends of Caesar had assembled, so that there was danger of +another civil war, Antony, being consul, convened the senate, and +made a short address recommending concord. And Cicero, following +with various remarks such as the occasion called for, persuaded +the senate to imitate the Athenians, and decree an amnesty for +what had been done in Caesar's case, and to bestow provinces on +Brutus and Cassius. But neither of these things took effect. For +as soon as the common people, who were naturally inclined to pity, +saw the dead body of Caesar borne through the market-place, and +Antony showing his clothes stained with blood, and pierced through +in every part with swords, they were enraged to such a degree of +frenzy, that they made a search for the murderers, and with +firebrands in their hands ran to their houses to burn them. + +Antony at this was in exultation, and every one was alarmed at the +prospect that he would make himself sole ruler, and Cicero more +than any one else. For Antony, seeing his influence reviving in +the commonwealth, and knowing how closely he was connected with +Brutus, was ill-pleased to have him in the city. Besides, there +had been some former jealousy between them, occasioned by the +difference of their manners. Cicero, fearing the event, was +inclined to go as lieutenant with Dolabella into Syria. But +Hirtius and Pansa, consuls-elect as successors of Antony, good men +and lovers of Cicero, entreated him not to leave them, undertaking +to put down Antony if he would stay in Rome. And he, neither +distrusting wholly, nor trusting them, let Dolabella go without +him, promising Hirtius that he would go and spend his summer at +Athens, and return again when he entered upon his office. So he +set out on his journey; but some delay occurring in his passage, +new intelligence, as often happens, came suddenly from Rome, that +Antony had made an astonishing change, and was managing the public +affairs in harmony with the will of the senate, and that there +wanted nothing but his presence to bring things to a happy +settlement. Therefore, blaming himself for his cowardice, he +returned to Rome, and was not deceived in his hopes at the +beginning. For such multitudes flocked out to meet him, that the +compliments and civilities which were paid him at the gates, and +at this entrance into the city, took up almost a whole day's time. + +On the morrow, Antony convened the senate, and summoned Cicero +thither. But he kept his bed, pretending to be ill from his +journey; but the true reason seemed to be the fear of some design +against him, upon a suspicion and intimation given him on his way +to Rome. Antony, however, showed great offence at the affront, and +sent soldiers, commanding them to bring him or burn his house; but +many interceding and supplicating for him, he was contented to +accept sureties. Ever after when they met, they passed one another +in silence, and continued on their guard, till the younger Caesar +(Augustus), coming from Apollonia, entered on the first Caesar's +inheritance, and was engaged in a dispute with Antony about two +thousand five hundred myriads of money, which Antony detained from +the estate. + +Upon this, Philippus, who married the mother, and Marcellus, who +married the sister of young Caesar, came with the young man to +Cicero, and agreed with him that Cicero should give them the aid +of his eloquence and political influence with the senate and +people, and Caesar give Cicero the defence of his riches and arms. +For the young man had already a great party of the soldiers of +Caesar about him. And Cicero's readiness to join him was founded, +it is said, on some yet stronger motives; for it seems, while +Pompey and Caesar were yet alive, Cicero, in his sleep, had +fancied himself engaged in calling some of the sons of the +senators into the capitol, Jupiter, according to the dream, being +about to declare one of them the chief ruler of Rome. The +citizens, running up with curiosity, stood about the temple, and +the youths, sitting in their purple-bordered robes, kept silence. +On a sudden the doors opened, and the youths, arising one by one +in order, passed round the god, who reviewed them all, and, to +their sorrow, dismissed them; but when this one was passing by, +the god stretched forth his right hand and said, "O ye Romans, +this young man, when he shall be lord of Rome, shall put an end to +all your civil wars." It is said that Cicero formed from his dream +a distinct image of the youth, and retained it afterwards +perfectly, but did not know who it was. The next day, going down +into the Campus Martius, he met the boys returning from their +gymnastic exercises, and the first was he, just as he had appeared +to him in his dream. Being astonished at it, he asked him who were +his parents. And it proved to be this young Caesar, whose father +was a man of no great eminence, Octavius, and his mother, Attia, +Caesar's sister's daughter; for which reason, Caesar, who had no +children, made him by will the heir of his house and property. +From that time, it is said that Cicero studiously noticed the +youth whenever he met him, and he as kindly received the civility; +and by fortune he happened to be born when Cicero was consul. + +These were the reasons spoken of; but it was principally Cicero's +hatred of Antony, and a temper unable to resist honor, which +fastened him to Caesar, with the purpose of getting the support of +Caesar's power for his own public designs. For the young man went +so far in his court to him, that he called him Father; at which +Brutus was so highly displeased, that, in his epistles to Atticus +he reflected on Cicero saying, it was manifest, by his courting +Caesar for fear of Antony, he did not intend liberty to his +country, but an indulgent master to himself. Notwithstanding, +Brutus took Cicero's son, then studying philosophy at Athens, gave +him a command, and employed him in various ways, with a good +result. Cicero's own power at this time was at the greatest height +in the city, and he did whatsoever he pleased; he completely +overpowered and drove out Antony, and sent the two consuls, +Hirtius and Pansa, with an army, to reduce him; and, on the other +hand, persuaded the senate to allow Caesar the lictors and ensigns +of a praetor, as though he were his country's defender. But after +Antony was defeated in battle, and the two consuls slain, the +armies united, and ranged themselves with Caesar. And the senate, +fearing the young man, and his extraordinary fortune, endeavored +by honors and gifts, to call off the soldiers from him, and to +lessen his power; professing there was no further need of arms, +now Antony was put to flight. + +This gave Caesar a fright, and he privately sent friends to +entreat Cicero to procure the consular dignity for them both +together; saying that he should manage the affair as he pleased, +should have the supreme power, and govern the young man who was +only desirous of name and glory. + +And now, more than at any other time, Cicero let himself be +carried away and deceived, though an old man, by the persuasions +of a boy. He joined him in soliciting votes, and procured the +good-will of the senate, not without blame at the time on the part +of his friends; and he, too, soon enough after, saw that he had +ruined himself, and betrayed the liberty of his country. For the +young man, once established, and possessed of the office of +consul, bade Cicero farewell; and reconciling himself with Antony +and Lepidus, joined his power with theirs, and divided the +government, like a piece of property, with them. Thus united, they +made a schedule of above two hundred persons who were to be put to +death. But the greatest contention in all their debates was on the +question of Cicero's case. Antony would come to no conditions, +unless he should be the first man to be killed. Lepidus held with +Antony, and Caesar opposed them both. They met secretly and by +themselves, for three days together, near the town of Bononia. The +spot was not far from the camp, with a river surrounding it. +Caesar, it is said, contended earnestly for Cicero the first two +days; but on the third day he yielded, and gave him up. The terms +of their mutual concessions were these; that Caesar should desert +Cicero, Lepidus his brother Paulus, and Antony, Lucius Caesar, his +uncle by his mother's side. Thus they let their anger and fury +take from them the sense of humanity, and demonstrated that no +beast is more savage than man, when possessed with power +proportioned to his rage. + +While these things were contriving, Cicero was with his brother at +his country-house near Tusculum; whence, hearing of the +proscriptions, they determined to pass to Astura, a villa of +Cicero's near the sea, and to take shipping from there for +Macedonia to Brutus, of whose strength in that province news had +already been heard. They traveled together in their separate +litters, overwhelmed with sorrow; and often stopping on the way +till their litters came together, condoled with one another. But +Quintus was the more disheartened, when he reflected on his want +of means for his journey; for, as he said, he had brought nothing +with him from home. And even Cicero himself had but a slender +provision. It was judged therefore most expedient that Cicero +should make what haste he could to fly, and Quintus return home to +provide necessaries, and thus resolved, they mutually embraced, +and parted with many tears. + +Quintus, within a few days after, was betrayed by his servants to +those who came to search for him, and slain, together with his +young son. But Cicero was carried to Astura, where, finding a +vessel, he immediately went on board of her, and sailed as far as +Circaeum with a prosperous gale; but when the pilots resolved +immediately to set sail from there, whether he feared the sea, or +did not wholly lose faith in Caesar, he went on shore, and passed +by land a hundred furlongs, as if he was going to Rome. But losing +resolution and changing his mind, he again returned to the sea, +and there spent the night in fear and perplexity. Sometimes he +resolved to go into Caesar's house privately, and there kill +himself upon the altar of his household gods, to bring divine +vengeance upon him; but the fear of torture restrained him. And +after passing through a variety of confused and uncertain +counsels, at last he let his servants carry him by sea to Capitae, +where he had a house, an agreeable place to retire to in the heat +of summer, when the Etesian winds are so pleasant. + +There was at that place a chapel of Apollo, not far from the sea- +side, from which a flight of crows rose with a great noise, and +made towards Cicero's vessel as it rowed to land, and lighting on +both sides of the yard, some croaked, others pecked the ends of +the ropes. This was looked upon by all as an evil omen; and, +therefore, Cicero went again ashore, and entering his house, lay +down upon his bed to compose himself at rest. Many of the crows +settled about the window, making a dismal cawing; but one of them +alighted upon the bed where Cicero lay covered up, and with its +bill, little by little pecked off the clothes from his face. His +servants, seeing this, blamed themselves that they should stay to +be spectators of their master's murder, and do nothing in his +defence, while the brute creatures came to assist and take care of +him in his undeserved affliction; and therefore, partly by +entreaty, partly by force, they took him up, and carried him in +his litter toward the sea-side. + +But in the meantime the assassins had come with a band of +soldiers--Herennius, a centurion, and Popillius, a tribune, whom +Cicero had formerly defended when prosecuted for the murder of his +father. Finding the door shut, they broke them open, and when +Cicero did not appear and those within said they did not know +where he was, it is stated that a youth, who had been educated by +Cicero in the liberal arts and sciences, an emancipated slave of +his brother Quintus, Philologus by name, informed the tribune that +the litter was on its way to the sea through the close and shady +walks. The tribune, taking a few with him, ran to the place where +he was to come out. And Cicero, perceiving Herennius running in +the walks, commanded his servants to set down the litter; and +stroking his chin, as he used to do, with his left hand, he looked +steadfastly upon his murderers, his person covered with dust, his +beard and hair untrimmed, and his face worn with his troubles. So +that the greatest part of those that stood by covered their faces +whilst Herennius slew him. And thus was he murdered, stretching +forth his neck out of the litter, being now in his sixty-fourth +year. Herennius cut off his head, and, by Antony's command, his +hands also, by which his Philippics were written; for so Cicero +styled those orations he wrote against Antony, and so they are +called to this day. + +When these members of Cicero were brought to Rome, Antony was +holding an assembly for the choice of public officers; and when he +heard it, and saw them, he cried out, "Now let there be an end of +our proscriptions." He commanded his head and hands to be fastened +up over the Rostra, where the orators spoke; a sight which the +Roman people shuddered to behold, and they believed they saw there +not the face of Cicero, but the image of Antony's own soul. + +A long time after, Augustus, when visiting one of his daughter's +sons, found him with a book of Cicero's in his hand. The boy for +fear endeavored to hide it under his gown; but Caesar took it from +him, and turning over a great part of the book standing, gave it +to him again, and said, "My child, this was a learned man, and a +lover of his country." And immediately after he had vanquished +Antony, being then consul, he made Cicero's son his colleague in +the office; and, under that consulship, the senate took down all +the statues of Antony, and abolished all the other honors that had +been given him, and decreed that none of that family should +thereafter bear the name of Marcus; and thus the final acts of the +punishment of Antony were, by the divine powers, devolved upon the +family of Cicero. + + + +COMPARISON OF DEMOSTHENES AND CICERO + +These are the most memorable circumstances recorded in history of +Demosthenes and Cicero which have come to our knowledge. But, +omitting an exact comparison of their respective faculties in +speaking, yet this seems fit to be said: That Demosthenes, to make +himself a master in rhetoric, applied all the faculties he had, +natural or acquired, wholly that way; that he far surpassed in +force and strength of eloquence in political and judicial speaking +all his contemporaries, in grandeur and majesty all the +panegyrical orators, and in accuracy and science all the logicians +and rhetoricians of his day; that Cicero was highly educated, and +by his diligent study became a most accomplished general scholar +in all these branches, having left behind him numerous +philosophical treatises of his own on Academic principles; as, +indeed, even in his written speeches, both political and judicial, +we see him continually trying to show his learning by the way. And +one may discover the different temper of each of them in their +speeches. For Demosthenes's oratory was, without all embellishment +and jesting, wholly composed for real effect and seriousness; not +smelling of the lamp, as Pytheas scoffingly said, but of the +temperance, thoughtfulness, austerity, and grave earnestness of +his temper. Whereas, Cicero's love of mockery often ran him into +scurrility; and in his love of laughing away serious arguments in +judicial cases by jests and facetious remarks, with a view to the +advantage of his clients, he paid too little regard to what was +decent. We are told that Cicero, being consul, undertook the +defence of Murena against Cato's prosecution; and, by way of +bantering Cato, made a long series of jokes upon the absurd +paradoxes, as they are called, of the Stoic sect. When loud +laughter passed from the crowd to the judges, Cato, with a quiet +smile, said to those that sat next to him, "My friends, what an +amusing consul we have." + +And, indeed, Cicero was by natural temper very much disposed to +mirth and pleasantry, and always appeared with a smiling and +serene countenance. But Demosthenes had constant care and +thoughtfulness in his look, and a serious anxiety which he seldom, +if ever, laid aside; and, therefore, was accounted by his enemies, +as he himself confessed, morose and ill-mannered. + +Also, it is very evident, out of their several writings, that +Demosthenes never touched upon his own praises but decently and +without offence when there was need of it, and for some weightier +end. But Cicero's immeasurable boasting of himself in his orations +argues him guilty of an uncontrollable appetite for distinction, +his cry being evermore that "Arms should give place to the gown, +and the soldier's laurel to the tongue." And at last we find him +extolling not only his deeds and actions, but his orations, as +well those that were only spoken, as those that were published. + +It is necessary for a political leader to be an able speaker; but +it is an ignoble thing for any man to admire the glory of his own +eloquence. And, in this matter, Demosthenes had a more than +ordinary gravity and magnificence of mind, for he considered his +talent in speaking nothing more than a mere accomplishment and +matter of practice, the success of which must depend greatly on +the good-will and candor of his hearers, and regarded those who +pride themselves on such accounts to be men of a low and petty +disposition. + +The power of persuading and governing the people did, indeed, +equally belong to both, so that those who had armies and camps at +command stood in need of their assistance; as Chares, Diopithes, +and Leosthenes did that of Demosthenes, and Pompey and young +Caesar of Cicero's, as the latter himself admits in his Memoirs +addressed to Agrippa and Maecenas. But what are thought and +commonly said most to demonstrate and try the tempers of men, +namely, authority and place, by moving every passion, and +discovering every frailty, these are things which Demosthenes +never received; nor was he ever in a position to give such proof +of himself, having never obtained any eminent office, nor led any +of those armies into the field against Philip which he raised by +his eloquence. Cicero, on the other hand, was sent quaestor into +Sicily, and proconsul into Cilicia and Cappadocia, at a time when +avarice was at the height, and the commanders and governors who +were employed abroad, as though they thought it a mean thing to +steal, set themselves to seize by open force; so that it seemed no +heinous matter to take bribes, but he that did it most moderately +was in good esteem. And yet he, at this time, gave the most +abundant proofs alike of his contempt of riches and of his +humanity and good-nature. And at Rome, when he was created consul +in name, but indeed received sovereign and dictatorial authority +against Catiline and his conspirators, he attested the truth of +Plato's prediction, that then only would the miseries of states be +at an end, when by a happy fortune supreme power, wisdom, and +justice should be united in one. + +It is said, to the reproach of Demosthenes, that his eloquence was +mercenary; that he privately made orations for Phormion and +Apollodorus, though adversaries in the same cause; that he was +charged with moneys received from the king of Persia, and +condemned for bribes from Harpalus. And should we grant that all +those (and they are not few) who have made these statements +against him have spoken what is untrue, yet we cannot assert that +Demosthenes was not the character to look without desire on the +presents offered him out of respect and gratitude by royal +persons. But that Cicero refused, from the Sicilians when he was +quaestor, from the king of Cappadocia when he was proconsul, and +from his friends at Rome when he was in exile, many presents, +though urged to receive them, has been said already. + +Moreover, Demosthenes's banishment was infamous, upon conviction +for bribery; Cicero's very honorable, for ridding his country of a +set of villains. Therefore, when Demosthenes fled from his +country, no man regarded it; for Cicero's sake the senate changed +their habit, and put on mourning, and would not be persuaded to +make any act before Cicero's return was decreed. Cicero, however, +passed his exile idly in Macedonia. But the very exile of +Demosthenes made up a great part of the services he did for his +country; for he went through the cities of Greece, and everywhere, +as we have said, joined in the conflict on behalf of the Greeks, +driving out the Macedonian ambassadors, and approving himself a +much better citizen than Themistocles and Alcibiades did in a +similar fortune. And, after his return, he again devoted himself +to the same public service, and continued firm in his opposition +to Antipater and the Macedonians. Whereas Laelius reproached +Cicero in the senate for sitting silent when Caesar, a beardless +youth, asked leave to come forward, contrary to the law, as a +candidate for the consulship; and Brutus, in his epistles, charges +him with nursing and rearing a greater and more heavy tyranny than +that they had removed. + +Finally, Cicero's death excites our pity; for an old man to be +miserably carried up and down by his servants, flying and hiding +himself from that death which was, in the course of nature, so +near at hand; and yet at last to be murdered. Demosthenes, though +he seemed to supplicate a little at first, yet, by his preparing +and keeping the poison by him, demands our admiration; and still +more admirable was his using it. When the temple of the god no +longer afforded him a sanctuary, he took refuge, as it were, at a +mightier altar, freeing himself from arms and soldiers, and +laughing to scorn the cruelty of Antipater. + + + +ALCIBAIDES + +Alcibiades, it is supposed, was descended from Ajax, by his +father's side; and by his mother's side from Alcmaeon. Dinomache, +his mother, was the daughter of Megacles. His father (Clinias) +having fitted out a galley at his own expense, gained great honor +in the seafight at Artemisium, and was afterwards slain in the +battle of Coronea, fighting against the Boeotians. The friendship +which Socrates felt for him has much contributed to his fame; and +though we have no account from any writer concerning the mother of +Nicias or Demosthenes, of Lamachus or Phormion, of Thrasybulus or +Theramenes, notwithstanding these were all illustrious men of the +same period, yet we know even the nurse of Alcibiades, that her +country was Lacedaemon, and her name Amycla; and that Zopyrus was +his teacher and attendant; the one being recorded by Antisthenes, +and the other by Plato. + +It is not, perhaps, material to say anything of the beauty of +Alcibiades, only that it bloomed with him in all the ages of his +life, in his infancy, in his youth, and in his manhood; and, in +the peculiar character becoming to each of these periods, gave +him, in every one of them a grace and a charm. +What Euripides says, that +"Of all fair things the autumn, too, is fair," +is by no means universally true. But it happened so with +Alcibiades, amongst few others, by reason of his happy +constitution and natural vigor of body. It is said that his +lisping, when he spoke, became him well, and gave a grace and +persuasiveness to his rapid speech. Aristophanes takes notice of +it in the verses in which he jests at Theorus: "How like a colax +he is," says Alcibiades, meaning a corax*; on which it is +remarked, +"How very happily he lisped the truth," +(*This fashionable Attic lisp, or careless articulation, turned +the sound r into l. Colax, a flatterer; corax, a crow.) + +His conduct displayed many inconsistencies, not unnaturally, in +accordance with the many wonderful vicissitudes of his fortunes; +but, among the many strong passions of his real character, the +most powerful of all was his ambition for superiority, which +appears in several anecdotes told of him while he was a child. +Once being hard pressed in wrestling, and fearing to be thrown, he +got the hand of his antagonist to his mouth, and bit it with all +his force; and when the other loosed his hold presently, and said, +"You bite, Alcibiades, like a woman." "No," replied he, "like a +lion." Another time, when playing at dice in the street, being +then only a child, a loaded cart came that way, just as it was his +turn to throw; at first he called to the driver to stop, because +he was about to throw in the way over which the cart would pass; +but when the man paid him no attention, and was driving on, the +rest of the boys divided and sprang away; but Alcibiades threw +himself on his face before the cart, and, stretching himself out, +bade the carter pass on now if we would. The man was so startled +that he put back his horses, while all that saw it were terrified, +and, crying out, ran to assist Alcibiades. When he began to study, +he obeyed all his other masters fairly well, but refused to learn +upon the flute, as a thing unbecoming a free citizen; saying that +to play upon the lute or the harp does not in any way disfigure a +man's body or face, but one is hardly to be known by his most +intimate friends, when playing on the flute. Besides, one who +plays on the harp may speak or sing at the same time; but the use +of the flute stops the mouth, intercepts the voice, and prevents +all articulation. "Therefore," said he, "let the Theban youths +pipe, who do not know how to speak, but we Athenians, as our +ancestors have told us, have Athena for our patroness, and Apollo +for our protector, one of whom threw away the flute, and the other +stripped the Flute-player of his skin." Thus, between raillery and +good earnest, Alcibiades kept not only himself but others from +learning, as it presently became the talk of the young boys, how +Alcibiades despised playing on the flute, and ridiculed those who +studied it. In consequence of which, it ceased to be reckoned +amongst the liberal accomplishments, and became generally +neglected. + +It was manifest that the many well-born persons who were +continually seeking his company, and making court to him, were +attracted and captivated by his extraordinary beauty only. But the +affection which Socrates entertained for him is a great evidence +of the natural noble qualities and good disposition of the boy, +which Socrates, detected under his personal beauty; and fearing +that his wealth and station, and the great number both of +strangers and Athenians who flattered and caressed him, might at +last corrupt him, resolved, if possible, to interpose, and +preserve so hopeful a plant from perishing in the flower, before +its fruit came to perfection. For never did fortune surround a man +with so many of those things which we vulgarly call goods, or so +protect him from every weapon of philosophy, and fence him from +every access of free and searching words, as she did Alcibiades; +who, from the beginning, was exposed to the flatteries of those +who sought merely his gratification, such as might well unnerve +him, and indispose him to listen to any real adviser or +instructor. Yet such was the happiness of his genius, that he +selected Socrates from the rest, and admitted him, while he drove +away the wealthy and the noble who made court to him. In a little +time, they grew intimate and Alcibiades, listening now to language +entirely free from every thought of unmanly fondness and silly +displays of affection, found himself with one who sought to la +open to him the deficiencies of his mind and repress his vain and +foolish arrogance, and +"Dropped like the craven cock his conquered wing." +He esteemed these endeavors of Socrates as most truly a means +which the gods made use of for the care and preservation of youth, +and it was a matter of general wonder, when people saw him joining +Socrates in his meals and his exercises, living with him in the +same tent, while he was reserved and rough to all others who made +their addresses to him. + +He behaved in the same manner to all others who courted him, +except one stranger, who, as the story is told, having but a small +estate, sold it all for about a hundred staters, which he +presented to Alcibiades, and besought him to accept. Alcibiades, +smiling and well pleased at the thing, invited him to supper, and, +after a very kind entertainment, gave him his gold again, +requiring him, moreover, not to fail to be present the next day, +when the public revenue was offered to farm, and to outbid all +others. The man would have excused himself, because the contract +was so large, and would cost many talents; but Alcibiades, who at +that time a private pique against the existing farmers of the +revenue threatened to have him beaten if he refused. The next +morning, the stranger, coming to the market-place, offered a +talent more that the existing rate; upon which the farmers, +enraged and consulting together, called upon him to name his +sureties, concluding that he could find none. The poor man, being +startled at the proposal, began to retire; but ALCIBAIDES, +standing at a distance, cried out to the magistrates, "Set my name +down, he is a friend of mine; I will be security for him." When +the other bidders heard this, they perceived that all their +contrivance was defeated; for their way was, with the profits for +the second year to pay the rent for the year preceding; so that, +not seeing any other way to extricate themselves out of the +difficulty, they began to treat with the stranger, and offered him +a sum of money. Alcibiades would not suffer him to accept of less +than a talent; but when that was paid down, he commanded him to +relinquish the bargain, having by this device relieved his +necessity. + +Though Socrates had many power rivals, yet the natural good +qualities of Alcibiades gave his affection the mastery. His words +overcame him so much, as to draw tears from his eyes, and to +disturb his very soul. Yet sometimes he would abandon himself to +flatteries, when they proposed to him varieties of pleasure, and +would desert Socrates; who, then, would pursue him, as if he had +been a fugitive slave. He despised every one else, and had no +reverence or awe for any but him. But as iron which is softened by +the fire grows hard with the cold, and all its parts are closed +again; so, as often as Socrates observed Alcibiades to be misled +by luxury or pride he reduced and corrected him by his addresses, +and made him humble and modest, by showing him in how many things +he was deficient, and how very far from perfection in virtue. + +When he was past his childhood, he went once to a grammar-school, +and asked the master for one of Homer's books; and when he made +answer that he had nothing of Homer's, Alcibiades gave him a blow +with his fist, and went away. Another schoolmaster telling him +that he had a copy of Homer corrected by himself; "Why?" said +Alcibiades, "do you employ your time in teaching children to read? +You, who are able to amend Homer, may well undertake to instruct +men." + +When he was very young, he was a soldier in the expedition against +Potidaea, where Socrates lodged in the same tent with him, and +stood next to him in battle. Once there happened a sharp skirmish, +in which they both behaved with signal bravery; but Alcibiades +receiving a wound, Socrates threw himself before him to defend +him, and beyond any question saved him and his arms from the +enemy, and so in all justice might have challenged the prize of +valor. But the generals appearing eager to adjudge the honor to +Alcibiades, because of his rank, Socrates, who desired to increase +his thirst after glory of a noble kind, was the first to give +evidence for him, and pressed them to crown, and to decree to him +the complete suit of armor. Afterwards, in the battle of Delium, +when the Athenians were routed and Socrates with a few others was +retreating on foot, Alcibiades, who was on horseback, observed it, +and would not pass on, but stayed to shelter him from the danger, +and brought him safely off, though the enemy pressed hard upon +them, and cut off many. + +He gave a box on the ear to Hipponicus, the father of Callias, +whose birth and wealth made him a person of great influence and +repute. And this he did unprovoked by any passion or quarrel +between them, but only because, in a frolic, he had agreed with +his companions to do it. People were justly offended at this +insolence, when it became known through the city; but early the +next morning, Alcibiades went to his house and knocked at the +door, and, being admitted to him, took off his outer garment, and +presenting his naked body, desired him to scourge and chastise him +as he pleased. Upon this Hipponicus forgot all his resentment, and +not only pardoned him, but soon after gave him his daughter +Hipparete in marriage. + +Alcibiades had a dog which cost him seventy minas, and was very +large and handsome. His tail, which was his principal ornament, he +caused to be cut off, and an acquaintance exclaiming at him for +it, and telling him that all Athens was sorry for the dog, and +cried out against him for this action, he laughed and said, "Just +what I wanted has happened, then, I wished the Athenians to talk +about this, that they might not say something worse of me." + +It is said that the first time he came into the assembly was upon +occasion of a largess of money which he made to the people. This +was not done by design, but as he passed along he heard a shout, +and inquired the cause; and having learned that there was a gift- +making to the people, he went in among them and gave money also. +The multitude thereupon applauding him, and shouting, he was so +transported at it, that he forgot a quail which he had under his +robe, and the bird, being frightened at the noise,, flew off; upon +which the people made louder acclamations than before, and many of +them started up to pursue the bird; and Antiochus, a pilot, caught +it and restored it to him, for which he was ever after a favorite +with Alcibiades. + +He had great advantages for entering public life; his noble birth, +his riches, the personal courage he had shown in divers battles, +and the multitude of his friends and dependents, threw open, so to +say, folding doors for his admittance. But he did not consent to +let his power with the people rest on any thing, rather than on +his own gift of eloquence. That he was a master in the art of +speaking, the comic poets bear him witness; and the most eloquent +of public speakers, in his oration against Midias, allows that +Alcibiades, among other perfections, was a most accomplished +orator. + +His expenses in horses kept for the public games, and in the +number of his chariots, were matters of great observation; never +did any one but he, either private person king, send seven +chariots to the Olympic games. And to have carried away at once +the first, the second, and the fourth prize, as Thucydides says, +or the third, as Euripides relates it, outdoes every distinction +that was ever thought of in that kind. + +The emulation displayed by the deputations of various states, in +the presents which they made to him, rendered this success yet +more illustrious. The Ephesians erected a tent for him, adorned +magnificently; the city of Chios furnished him with provender for +his horses and with great numbers of beasts for sacrifice; and the +Lesbians sent him wine and other provisions for the many +entertainments which he made. + +As soon as he began to intermeddle in the government, which was +when he was very young, he quickly lessened the credit of all who +aspired to the confidence of the people, except Phaeax and Nicias, +who alone could contest with him. Nicias was arrived at a mature +age, and was esteemed their first general. Phaeax was but a rising +statesman like Alcibiades; he was descended from noble ancestors, +but was his inferior in many other things, but principally in +eloquence. + +Alcibiades was not less disturbed at the distinction which Nicias +gained among the enemies of Athens, than at the honors which the +Athenians themselves paid to him. It was commonly said in Greece, +that the war in the Peloponnesus was begun by Pericles, and that +Nicias made an end of it, and the peace was generally called the +peace of Nicias. Alcibiades was extremely annoyed at this, and +being full of envy, set himself to break the league. First, +therefore observing that the Argives as well out of fear as hatred +to the Lacedaemonians, sought for protection against them, he gave +them a secret assurance of alliance with Athens. He exclaimed +fiercely against Nicias, and accused him of many things, which +seemed probable enough: as that, when he was general, he made no +attempt himself to capture their enemies that were shut up in the +isle of Sphacteria, but, when they were afterwards made prisoners +by others, he procured their release and sent them back to the +Lacedaemonians, only to get favor with them. + +It happened, at the very time when Nicias was by these arts +brought into disgrace with the people, that ambassadors arrived +from Lacedaemon, who, at their first coming, said what seemed very +satisfactory, declaring that they had full powers to arrange all +matters in dispute upon fair and equal terms. The council received +their propositions, and the people was to assemble on the morrow +to give them audience. Alcibiades grew very apprehensive of this, +and contrived to gain a secret conference with the ambassadors. +When they were met, he said: "What is it you intend, you men of +Sparta? If you expect to obtain equal terms from the Athenians, +and would not have things extorted from you contrary to your +inclinations, begin to treat with he people upon some reasonable +articles, not avowing yourselves plenipotentiaries; and I will be +ready to assist you, out of good-will to the Lacedaemonians." When +he had said this, he gave them his oath for the performance of +what he promised, and by this way drew them from Nicias to rely +entirely upon himself, and left them full of admiration of the +discernment and sagacity they had seen in him. the next day, when +the people were assembled and the ambassadors introduced, +Alcibiades, with great apparent courtesy, demanded of them: With +what powers they had come? They made answer that they had not come +as plenipotentiaries. + +Instantly upon that, Alcibiades, with a loud voice, as though he +had received and not done the wrong, began to call them dishonest +prevaricators, and to urge that such men could not possibly come +with a purpose to say or do anything that was sincere. The council +was incensed, the people were in a rage, and Nicias, who knew +nothing of the deceit and the imposture, was in the greatest +confusion, equally surprised and ashamed at such a change in the +men. so thus the Lacedaemonian ambassadors were utterly rejected, +and Alcibiades was declared general, who presently united the +Argives, the Eleans, and the people of Mantinea, into a +confederacy with the Athenians. + +No man commended the method by which Alcibiades effected all this, +yet it was a great political feat thus to divide and shake almost +all Peloponnesus, and to combine so many men in arms against the +Lacedaemonians in one day before Mantinea; and, moreover, to +remove the war and the danger so far from the frontier of the +Athenians, that even success would profit the enemy but little, +should they be conquerors, whereas, if they were defeated, Sparta +itself was hardly safe. + +But with all these words and deeds, and with all this sagacity and +eloquence, he intermingled exorbitant luxury and wantonness in his +eating and drinking and dissolute living; wore long purple robes +like a woman, which dragged after him as he went through the +market-place; caused the planks of his galley to be cut away, that +so he might lie the softer, his bed not being placed on the +boards, but hanging upon girths. His shield, again, which was +richly gilded, had not the usual ensigns of the Athenians, but a +Cupid, holding a thunderbolt in his hand, was painted upon it. The +sight of all this made the people of good repute in the city feel +disgust and abhorrence and apprehension also, at his free-living, +and his contempt of law, as things monstrous in themselves, and +indicating designs of usurpation. Aristophanes has well expressed +the people's feeling towards him:-- + + "They love, and hate, and cannot do without him." + +And still more strongly, under a figurative expression, + + "Best rear no lion in your state, 't is true; + But treat him like a lion if you do." + +The truth is, his liberalities, his public shows, and other +munificence to the people, which were such as nothing could +exceed, the glory of his ancestors, the force of his eloquence, +the grace of his person, his strength of body, joined with his +great courage and knowledge in military affairs, prevailed upon +the Athenians to endure patiently his excesses, to indulge him in +many things, and, according to their habit, to give the softest +names to his faults, attributing them to youth and good nature. +As, for example, he kept Agatharcus, the painter, a prisoner till +he had painted his whole house, but then dismissed him with a +reward. He publicly struck Taureas, who exhibited certain shows in +opposition to him, and contended with him for the prize. When +Aristophon, the artist, had drawn Nemea sitting and holding +Alcibiades in her arms, the multitude seemed pleased with the +piece, and thronged to see it, but elder people did not relish it, +but looked on these things as enormities, and movements toward +tyranny. So that it was not said amiss by Archestratus, that +Greece could not support a second Alcibiades. Once, when +Alcibiades succeeded well in an oration which he made, and the +whole assembly attended upon him to do him honor, Timon, the +misanthrope, did not pass slightly by him, nor avoid him, as he +did others, but purposely met him, and, taking him by the hand, +said, "Go on boldly, my son, and increase in credit with the +people, for thou wilt one day bring them calamities enough." Some +that were present laughed at the saying, and some reviled Timon; +but there were others upon whom it made a deep impression. + +The Athenians, even in the lifetime of Pericles, had already cast +a longing eye upon Sicily; but did not attempt any thing till +after his death. Then, under pretence of aiding their +confederates, they sent succor upon all occasions to those who +were oppressed by the Syracusans, preparing the way for sending +over a greater force. But Alcibiades was the person who inflamed +this desire of theirs to the height, and prevailed with them no +longer to proceed secretly, and little by little, in their design, +but to sail out with a great fleet, and undertake at once to make +themselves masters of the island. He possessed the people with +great hopes, and he himself entertained yet greater; and the +conquest of Sicily, which was the utmost bound of their ambition, +was but the mere outset of his expectation. Nicias endeavored to +divert the people from the expedition, by representing to them +that the taking of Syracuse would be a work of great difficulty; +but Alcibiades dreamed of nothing less than the conquest of +Carthage and Libya and by the accession of these conceiving +himself at once made master of Italy and of Peloponnesus, seemed +to look upon Sicily as little more than a magazine for the war. +The young men were soon elevated with these hopes, and listened +gladly to those of riper years, who talked wonders of the +countries they were going to; so that you might see great numbers +sitting in the wrestling grounds and public places, drawing on the +ground the figure of the island and the situation of Libya and +Carthage. + +Together with Alcibiades, Nicias, much against his will, was +appointed general: and he endeavored to avoid the command, not the +less on account of his colleague. But the Athenians thought the +war would proceed more prosperously, if they did not send +Alcibiades free from all restraint, but tempered his heat with the +caution of Nicias. This they chose the rather to do, because +Lamachus, the third general, though he was of mature years, yet in +several battles had appeared no less hot and rash than Alcibiades +himself. +When all things were fitted for the voyage, many unlucky omens +appeared. The mutilation of the images of Mercury, most of which, +in one night, had their faces all disfigured, terrified many +persons who were wont to despise most things of that nature. Alike +enraged and terrified at the thing, looking upon it to proceed +from a conspiracy of persons who designed some commotions in the +state, the council, as well as the assembly of the people, which +was held frequently in a few days' space, examined diligently +every thing that might administer ground for suspicion. During +this examination, Androcles, one of the demagogues, produced +slaves and strangers before them, who accused Alcibiades and some +of his friends of defacing other images in the same manner, and of +having profanely acted the sacred mysteries at a drunken meeting. +The people were highly exasperated and incensed against Alcibiades +upon this accusation. But when they perceived that all the seamen +designed for Sicily were for him, and the soldiers declared that +they had undertaken this distant maritime expedition for the sake +of Alcibiades, and that, if he was ill-used, they would all go +home; they let him set sail at once, and decided that when the war +should be at an end, he might then in person make his defence +according to the laws. + +Alcibiades perceived the malice of this postponement, and, +appearing in the assembly, represented that it was monstrous for +him to be sent with the command of so large an army, when he lay +under such accusations and calumnies. But he could not prevail +with the people, who commanded him to sail immediately. So he +departed, together with the other generals, having with them near +140 galleys, 5,100 men at arms, and about 1,300 archers, slingers, +and light-armed men, and all the other provisions corresponding. + +Arriving on the coast of Italy, he landed at Rhegium, and there +stated his views of the manner in which they ought to conduct the +war. He was opposed by Nicias; but Lamachus being of his opinion, +they sailed for Sicily forthwith, and took Catana. This was all +that was done while he was there, for he was soon after recalled +by the Athenians to abide his trial. At first, as we before said, +there were only some slight suspicions advanced against +Alcibiades. But afterwards, in his absence, his enemies attacked +him more violently, and confounded together the breaking the +images with the profanation of the mysteries, as though both had +been committed in pursuance of the same conspiracy for changing +the government. The truth is, his accusers alleged nothing against +him which could be positively proved. One of them, being asked how +he knew the men who defaced the images, replied, that he saw them +by the light of the moon, making a palpable misstatement, for it +was just new moon when the act was committed. This made all men of +understanding cry out upon the thing; but the people were as eager +as ever to receive further accusations. And, in conclusion, they +sent the galley named the Salaminian to recall Alcibiades. But +they expressly commanded those that were sent, to use no violence, +nor seize upon his person, but address themselves to him in the +mildest terms, requiring him to follow them to Athens in order to +abide his trial, and clear himself before the people. For they +feared mutiny and sedition in the army in an enemy's country, +which indeed it would have been easy for Alcibiades to effect, if +he had wished it. For the soldiers were dispirited upon his +departure, expecting for the future tedious delays, and that the +war would be drawn out into a lazy length by Nicias, when +Alcibiades, who was the spur to action, was taken away. For though +Lamachus was a soldier, and a man of courage, poverty deprived him +of authority and respect in the army. Alcibiades, just upon his +departure, prevented Messena from falling into the hands of the +Athenians. There were some in that city who were upon the point of +delivering it up, but he, knowing the persons, gave information to +some friends of the Syracusans, and so defeated the whole +contrivance. When he arrived at Thurii, he went on shore, and +concealing himself there, escaped those who searched after him. +But to one who knew him, and asked him if he durst not trust his +own native country, he made answer, "In every thing else, yes; but +in a matter that touches my life, I would not even my own mother, +lest she might by mistake throw in the black ball instead of the +white." When, afterwards, he was told that the assembly had +pronounced judgment of death against him, all he said was "I will +make them feel that I am alive." + +The information against him was framed in this form:-- +"Thessalus lays information that Alcibiades has committed a crime +against the goddesses Ceres and Proserpine, by representing in +derision the holy mysteries, and showing them to his companions in +his own house." + +He was condemned as contumacious upon his not appearing, his +property confiscated, and it was decreed that all the priests and +priestesses should solemnly curse him. + +Alcibiades, lying under these heavy decrees and sentences, when he +fled from Thurii, passed over into Peloponnesus, and remained some +time at Argos. But being there in fear of his enemies and seeing +himself utterly hopeless of return to his native country, he sent +to Sparta, desiring safe conduct, and assuring them that he would +make them amends by his future services for all the mischief he +had done them while he was their enemy. The Spartans giving him +the security he desired, he went eagerly, was well received, and, +at his very first coming, succeeded in inducing them, without any +further caution or delay, to send aid to the Syracusans; and so +roused and excited them, that they forthwith despatched Gylippus +into Sicily, to crush the forces which the Athenians had in +Sicily. A second point was, to renew the war upon the Athenians at +home. But the third thing, and the most important of all, was to +make them fortify Decelea, which above everything reduced and +wasted the resources of the Athenians. + +The renown which he earned by these public services was equaled by +the admiration he attracted to his private life; he captivated and +won over everybody by his conformity to Spartan habits. People who +saw him wearing his hair close cut, bathing in cold water, eating +coarse meal, and dining on black broth, doubted, or rather could +not believe, that he ever had a cook in his house, or had ever +seen a perfumer, or had worn a mantle of Milesian purple. For he +had, as it was observed, this peculiar talent for gaining men's +affections, that he could at once comply with and really enter +into their habits and ways of life, and change faster than the +chameleon. One color, indeed, they say the chameleon cannot +assume; it cannot make itself appear white; but Alcibiades, +whether with good men or with bad, could adapt himself to his +company, and equally wear the appearance of virtue or vice. At +Sparta, he was devoted to athletic exercises, was frugal and +reserved; in Ionia, luxurious, gay, and indolent; in Thrace, +always drinking; in Thessaly, ever on horseback; and when he lived +with Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap, he exceeded the Persians, +themselves in magnificence and pomp. Not that his natural +disposition changed so easily, nor that his real character was so +very variable, but whenever he was sensible that by pursuing his +own inclinations he might give offence to those with whom he had +occasion to converse, he transformed himself into any shape and +adopted any fashion, that he observed to be most agreeable to +them. So that to have seen him at Lacedaemon, a man, judging by +the outward appearance, would have said, "'T is not Achilles' son, +but he himself, the very man" that Lycurgus designed to form. + +After the defeat which the Athenians received in Sicily, +ambassadors were despatched to Sparta at once from Chios and +Lesbos and Cyzicus, to signify their purpose of revolting from the +Athenians. But the Lacedaemonians, at the persuasion of +Alcibiades, chose to assist Chios before all others. He himself, +also, went instantly to sea, procured the immediate revolt of +almost all Ionia, and, co-operating with the Lacedaemonian +generals, did great mischief to the Athenians. But King Agis was +his enemy, and impatient of his glory, as almost every enterprise +and every success was ascribed to Alcibiades. Others, also, of the +most powerful and ambitious amongst the Spartans, were possessed +with jealousy of him, and, at last, prevailed with the magistrates +in the city to send orders into Ionia that he should be killed. +Alcibiades, however, had secret intelligence of this, and, in +apprehension of the result, while he communicated all affairs to +the Lacedaemonians, yet took care not to put himself into their +power. At last he retired to Tissaphernes, the satrap of the king +of Persia, for his security, and immediately became the first and +most influential person about him. For this barbarian, not being +himself sincere, but a lover of guile and wickedness, admired his +address and wonderful subtlety. And, indeed, the charm of daily +intercourse with him was more than any character could resist or +any disposition escape. Even those who feared and envied him could +not but have a sort of kindness for him, when they saw him and +were in his company. So that Tissaphernes, otherwise a cruel +character, and, above all other Persians, a hater of the Greeks, +was yet so won by the flatteries of Alcibiades, that he set +himself even to exceed him in responding to them. +The most beautiful of his parks, containing salubrious streams and +meadows, where he had built pavilions, and places of retirement +royally and exquisitely adorned, received by his direction the +name of Alcibiades, and was always so called and so spoken of. + +Thus Alcibiades, quitting the interests of the Spartans, whom he +could no longer trust, because he stood in fear of Agis, +endeavored to do them ill offices, and render them odious to +Tissaphernes, who, by his means, was hindered from assisting them +vigorously, and from finally ruining the Athenians. For his advice +was to furnish them but sparingly with money, and so wear them +out, and consume them insensibly; when they had wasted their +strength upon one another, they would both become ready to submit +to the king. + +At that time the whole strength of the Athenians was in Samos. +Their fleet maintained itself here, and issued from these head- +quarters to reduce such as had revolted, and protect the rest of +their territories; in one way or other still contriving to be a +match for their enemies at sea. What they stood in fear of, was +Tissaphernes and the Phoenician fleet of one hundred and fifty +galleys, which was said to be already under sail; if those came, +there remained then no hopes for the commonwealth of Athens. +Understanding this, Alcibiades sent secretly to the chief men of +the Athenians, who were then at Samos, giving them hopes, that he +would make Tissaphernes their friend; he was willing, he implied, +to do some favor, not to the people, nor in reliance upon them, +but to the better citizens, if only, like brave men, they would +make the attempt to put down the insolence of the people, and, by +taking upon them the government, would endeavor to save the city +from ruin. All of them gave a ready ear to the proposal made by +Alcibiades, except Phrynichus of the township of Dirades, +despatched Pisander to Athens to attempt a change of government, +and to encourage the aristocratical citizens to take upon +themselves the government, and overthrow the democracy, +representing to them, that, upon these terms, Alcibiades would +procure them the friendship and alliance of Tissaphernes. + +Those who were at Samos set sail for the Piraeus; and, sending for +Alcibiades declared him general. He, however, in that juncture did +not, as it might have been thought a man would, on being suddenly +exalted by the favor of a multitude, think himself under an +obligation to gratify and submit to all the wishes of those who, +from a fugitive and an exile, had created him general of so great +an army and given him the command of such a fleet. But, as became +a great captain, he opposed himself to the precipitate resolutions +which their rage led them to, and, by restraining them from the +great error they were about to commit, unequivocally saved the +commonwealth. For if they had then sailed to Athens, all Ionia and +the islands and the Hellespont would have fallen into the enemies' +hands without opposition, while the Athenians, involved in civil +war, would have been fighting with one another within the circuit +of their own walls. It was Alcibiades alone, or, at least, +principally, who prevented all this mischief; for he not only used +persuasion to the whole army, and showed them the danger, but +applied himself to them, one by one, entreating some, and +constraining others. He was much assisted, however, by Thrasybulus +of Stiria, who, having the loudest voice, as we are told, of all +the Athenians, went along with him and cried out to those who were +ready to go. A second great service which Alcibiades did for them +was his undertaking that the Phoenician fleet, which the +Lacedaemonians expected to be sent to them by the king of Persia, +should either come in aid of the Athenians, or otherwise should +not come at all. And now the people in the city not only desired, +but commanded Alcibiades to return home from his exile. He, +however, desired not to owe his return to the mere grace and +commiseration of the people, and resolved to come back, not with +empty hands, but with glory and after some service done. To this +end, he sailed from Samos with a few ships, and cruised on the sea +of Cnidos and about the isle of Cos; but receiving intelligence +there that Mindarus, the Spartan admiral, had sailed with his +whole army into the Hellespont, and that the Athenians had +followed him, he hurried back to succor the Athenian commanders, +and, by good fortune, arrived with eighteen galleys at a critical +time. For both the fleets having engaged near Abydos, the fight +between them had lasted till night, the one side having the +advantage on one quarter, and the other on another. Upon his first +appearance, both sides formed a false impression; the enemy was +encouraged, and the Athenians terrified. But Alcibiades suddenly +raised the Athenian ensign in the admiral ship, and fell upon +those galleys of the Peloponnesians which had the advantage and +were in pursuit. He soon put these to flight, and followed them so +close that he forced them on shore, and broke the ships in pieces, +the sailors abandoning them and swimming away, in spite of all the +efforts of Pharnabazus, who had come down to their assistance by +land, and did what he could to protect them from the shore. In +fine, the Athenians, having taken thirty of the enemy's ships, and +recovered all their own, erected a trophy. After the gaining of so +glorious a victory his vanity made him eager to show himself to +Tissaphernes, and, having furnished himself with gifts and +presents, and an equipage suitable to his dignity, he set out to +visit him. But the thing did not succeed as he had imagined, for +Tissaphernes had long been suspected by the Lacedaemonians, and +was afraid to fall into disgrace with his king upon that account, +therefore thinking that Alcibiades had arrived very opportunely, +he immediately caused him to be seized and sent away prisoner to +Sardis; fancying, by this act of injustice, to clear himself from +all former imputations. + +But about thirty days after, Alcibiades escaped from his keepers, +and, having got a horse, fled to Clazomenae, where he procured +Tissaphernes additional disgrace by professing that he was a party +to his escape. From there he sailed to the Athenian camp, and, +being informed that Mindarus and Pharnabazus were together at +Cyzicus, he made a speech to the soldiers, telling them that sea- +fighting, land-fighting, and, by the gods, fighting against +fortified cities too, must be all one for them, as, unless they +conquered everywhere, there was no money for them. As soon as he +got them on ship-board, he hastened to Proconnesus and gave +command to seize all the small vessels they met, and guard them +safely in the interior of the fleet, that the enemy might have no +notice of his coming; and a great storm of rain, accompanied with +thunder and darkness, which happened at the same time, contributed +much to the concealment of his enterprise. Indeed, it was not only +undiscovered by the enemy, but the Athenians themselves were +ignorant of it, for he commanded them suddenly on board, and set +sail when they had abandoned all intention of it. As the darkness +presently passed away, the Peloponnesian fleet were seen riding +out at sea in front of the harbor of Cyzicus. Fearing, if they +discovered the number of his ships, they might endeavor to save +themselves by land, he commanded the rest of the captains to +slacken, and follow him slowly, whilst he, advancing with forty +ships, showed himself to the enemy and provoked them to fight. The +enemy, being deceived as to their numbers, despised them, and, +supposing they were to contend with those only, made ready and +began the fight. But as soon as they were engaged, they perceived +the other part of the fleet coming down upon them, at which they +were so terrified that they fled immediately. Upon that, +Alcibiades, breaking through the midst of them with twenty of his +best ships, hastened to the shore, disembarked, and pursued those +who abandoned their ships and fled to land, and made a great +slaughter of them. Mindarus and Pharnabazus, coming to their +succor were utterly defeated. Mindarus was slain fighting +valiantly; Pharnabazus saved himself by flight. The Athenians slew +great numbers of their enemies, won much spoil, and took all their +ships. They also made themselves masters of Cyzicus, which was +deserted by Pharnabazus, and destroyed its Peloponnesian garrison, +and thereby not only secured to themselves the Hellespont, but by +force drove the Lacedaemonians out of all the rest of the sea. +They intercepted some letters written to the ephors, which gave an +account of this fatal overthrow, after their short, Iaconic +manner. "Our hopes are at an end. Mindarus is slain. The men are +starving. We know not what to do." + +And now Alcibiades began to desire to see his native country +again, or rather to show his fellow-citizens a person who had +gained so many victories for them. He set sail for Athens, the +ships that accompanied him being adorned with great numbers of +shields and other spoils, and towing after them many galleys taken +from the enemy, and the ensigns and ornaments of many others which +he had sunk and destroyed; all of them together amounting to two +hundred. Little credit, perhaps, can be given to what Duris the +Samian, who professed to be descended from Alcibiades, adds, that +Chrysogonus, who had gained a victory at the Pythian games, played +upon his flute for the galleys, whilst the oars kept time with the +music; and that Callippides, the tragedian, attired in his +buskins, his purple robes, and other ornaments used in the +theatre, gave the word to the rowers, and that the admiral's +galley entered into the port with a purple sail. It is not +credible, that one who had returned from so long an exile, and +such a variety of misfortunes, should come to his countrymen in +the style of revelers breaking up from a drinking-party. On the +contrary, he entered the harbor full of fear, nor would he venture +to go on shore, till, standing on the deck, he saw Euryptolemus, +his cousin, and others of his friends and acquaintance, who were +ready to receive him, and invited him to land. As soon as he was +landed, the multitude who came out to meet him scarcely appeared +to see any of the other captains, but came in throngs about +Alcibiades, and saluted him with loud acclamations, and followed +him; those who could press near him crowned him with garlands, and +they who could not come up so close yet stayed to behold him afar +off, and the old men pointed him out to the young ones. +Nevertheless, this public joy was mixed with some tears, and the +present happiness was diminished by the remembrance of the +miseries they had endured. They made reflections, that they could +not have so unfortunately miscarried in Sicily, if they had left +the management of their affairs and the command of their forces, +to Alcibiades, since, upon his undertaking the administration, +when they were absolutely driven from the sea, and could scarcely +defend the suburbs of their city by land, and at the same time, +were miserably distracted with intestine factions, he had raised +them up from this low and deplorable condition, and had not only +restored them to their ancient dominion of the sea, but had also +made them everywhere victorious over their enemies on land. + +The people being summoned to an assembly, Alcibiades came in among +them, and first bewailed and lamented his own sufferings, and, in +general terms complaining of the usage he had received, imputed +all to his hard fortune, and some ill genius that attended him: +then he spoke at large of their prospects, and exhorted them to +courage and good hope. The people crowned him with crowns of gold, +and created him general, both at land and sea, with absolute +power. They also made a decree that his estate should be restored +to him, and that the Eumolpiadae and the holy heralds should +absolve him from the curses which they had solemnly pronounced +against him by the sentence of the people. All the rest obeyed, +but Theodorus, the high-priest, excused himself, "For," said he, +"if he is innocent, I never cursed him." + +Certainly, if ever man was ruined by his own glory, it was +Alcibiades. For his continual success had produced such an idea of +his courage and conduct, that, if he failed in anything he +undertook, it was imputed to his neglect, and no one would believe +it was through want of power. For they thought nothing was too +hard for him, if he went about it in good earnest. Now, having +departed with a fleet of one hundred ships for the reduction of +Chios, and of the rest of Ionia, the people grew impatient that +things were not effected as fast and as rapidly as they could wish +for them. They never considered how extremely money was wanting, +and that, having to carry on war with an enemy who had supplies of +all things from a great king, he was often forced to quit his +armament, in order to procure money and provisions for the +subsistence of his soldiers. This very thing gave occasion for the +last accusation which was made against him. For Lysander, being +sent from Lacedaemon with a commission to be admiral of their +fleet, and being furnished by Cyrus with a great sum of money, +gave every sailor four obols a day, whereas before thy had but +three. Alcibiades could hardly allow his men three obols, and +therefore was obliged to go into Caria to furnish himself with +money. He left the care of the fleet, in his absence, to +Antiochus, an experienced seaman, but rash and inconsiderate, who +had express orders from Alcibiades not to engage, though the enemy +provoked him. But he slighted and disregarded these directions to +such a degree that, having made ready his own galley and another, +he stood for Ephesus, where the enemy lay, and, as he sailed +before the heads of their galleys, used every provocation +possible, both in words and deeds. Lysander manned out a few ships +and pursued him. But all the Athenian ships coming in to his +assistance, Lysander, also, brought up his whole fleet, which +gained an entire victory. He slew Antiochus himself, took many men +and ships, and erected a trophy. + +As soon as Alcibiades heard this news, he returned to Samos, and +loosing from thence with his whole fleet, came and offered battle +to Lysander. But Lysander, content with the victory he had gained, +would not stir. Amongst others in the army who hated Alcibiades, +Thrasybulus, the son of Thrason, was his particular enemy, and +went purposely to Athens to accuse him, and to exasperate his +enemies in the city against him. Addressing the people, he +represented that Alcibiades had ruined their affairs and lost +their ships by mere self-conceited neglect of his duties, +committing the government of the army, in his absence, to men who +gained his favor by drinking and scurrilous talking, whilst he +wandered up and down at pleasure to raise money, giving himself up +to every sort of luxury in Abydos and Ionia, at a time when the +enemy's navy were on the watch close at hand. It was also objected +to him, that he had fortified a castle near Bisanthe in Thrace, +for a safe retreat for himself, as one that either could not, or +would not, live in his own country. The Athenians gave credit to +these informations, and showed the resentment and displeasure +which they had conceived against him, by choosing other generals. + +As soon as Alcibiades heard of this, he immediately forsook the +army, afraid of what might follow; and, collecting a body of +mercenary soldiers, made war upon his own account against those +Thracians who called themselves free, and acknowledged no king. By +this means he amassed for himself considerable treasure, and, at +the same time, secured the bordering Greeks from the incursions of +the barbarians. Tydeus, Menander, and Adimantus, the newly made +generals, were at that time posted at Aegospotami, with all the +ships which the Athenians had left. Whence they used to go out +every morning, offer battle to Lysander, who lay near Lampsacus, +and, returning back again, lie all the rest of the day, carelessly +and without order, in contempt of the enemy. Alcibiades, who was +not far off, did not think so lightly of their danger, nor neglect +to let them know it, but, mounting his horse, came to the +generals, and represented to them that they had chosen a very +inconvenient station, where there was no safe harbor, and where +they were distant from any town; so that they were constrained to +send for their necessary provisions as far as Sestos. He also +pointed out to them their carelessness in suffering the soldiers, +when they went ashore, disperse and wander up and down at their +pleasure, while the enemy's fleet under the command of one +general, and strictly obedient to discipline, lay so very near +them. He advised them to remove the fleet to Sestos. But the +admirals not only disregarded what he said, but Tydeus, with +insulting expressions, commanded him to be gone saying, that now +not he, but others, had the command of the forces. The event, soon +made it evident how rightly he had judged of the errors which the +Athenians were committing. For Lysander fell upon them on a +sudden, when they least suspected it, with such fury that Conon +alone, with eight galleys, escaped him; all the rest, about two +hundred, he took and carried away, together with three thousand +prisoners, whom he put to death. And within a short time after, he +took Athens itself, burnt all the ships which he found there, +demolished their long walls, and established the rule of the +Thirty Tyrants. + +After this, Alcibiades, standing in dread of the Lacedaemonians, +who were now masters both at sea and land, retired into Bithynia. +He sent there great treasure before him, took much with him, but +left much more in the castle where he had before resided. But he +lost a great part of his wealth in Bithynia, being robbed by some +Thracians who lived in those parts, and thereupon determined to go +to the court of Artaxerxes, not doubting but that the king, if he +would make trial of his abilities, would find him not inferior to +Themistocles, besides being recommended by a more honorable cause. +For he went, not as Themistocles did, to offer his service against +his fellow-citizens, but against their enemies, and to implore the +king's aid for the defence of his country. The Athenians, in the +meantime, miserably afflicted at their loss of empire and liberty, +acknowledged and bewailed their former errors and follies, and +judged this second ill-usage of Alcibiades to be of all the most +inexcusable. For he was rejected, without any fault committed by +himself; and only because they were incensed against his +subordinate for having shamefully lost a few ships, they were much +more shamefully deprived the commonwealth of its most valiant and +accomplished general. + +Critias finally represented to Lysander that the Lacedaemonians +could never securely enjoy the dominion of Greece, till the +Athenian democracy was absolutely destroyed; and though now the +people of Athens seemed quietly and patiently to submit to so +small a number of governors, yet so long as Alcibiades lived, the +knowledge of this fact would never suffer them to acquiesce in +their present circumstances. + +Yet Lysander could not be prevailed upon by these representation, +till at last he received secret orders from the magistrates of +Lacedaemon, expressly requiring him to get Alcibiades despatched: +whether it was that they feared his energy and boldness in +undertaking what was hazardous, or that it was done to gratify +king Agis. Upon receipt of this order, Lysander sent a messenger +away to Pharnabazus, desiring him to put it in execution. +Alcibiades resided at that time in a small village in Phrygia. +Those who were sent to assassinate him had not courage enough to +enter the house, but surrounded it first, and set it on fire. +Alcibiades, as soon as he perceived it, wrapped his cloak about +his left arm, and holding his naked sword in his right, cast +himself into the middle of the fire, and escaped securely through +it, before his clothes were burnt. The barbarians, as soon as they +saw him, retreated, and none of them durst engage with him, but +standing at a distance, they slew him with their darts and arrows. + + + +Coriolanus + +The patrician house of the Marcii in Rome produced many men of +distinction, and among the rest, Ancus Marcius, grandson to Numa +by his daughter, and king after Tulus Hostillus. Of the same +family were also Publius and Quintus Marcius, which two conveyed +into the city the best and most abundant supply of water they have +at Rome. But Caius Marcius, of whom I now write, being left an +orphan, and brought up under the widowhood of his mother, has +shown us by experience, that, although the early loss of a father +may be attended with other disadvantages, yet it can hinder none +from being either virtuous or eminent in the world, and that it is +no obstacle to true goodness and excellence. Those who saw with +admiration how proof his nature was against pleasure, hardships, +and the allurements of gain, while allowing to that universal +firmness of his the respective names of temperance, fortitude, and +justice, yet, in the life of the citizen and the statesman, could +not but be offended at the severity and ruggedness of his +deportment, and with his overbearing, haughty, and imperious +temper. + +Those were times at Rome in which that kind of worth was most +esteemed which displayed itself in military achievements; one +evidence of which we find in the Latin word for virtue, which is +properly equivalent to many courage. But Marcius, having a more +passionate inclination than any of that age for feats of war, +began from his very childhood to handle arms; and feeling that +adventitious implements and artificial arms would be of small use +to such as have not their natural weapons well prepared for +services, he so exercised and inured his body to all sorts of +activity and accouter, that, besides the lightness of a racer, he +had a weight in close seizures and wrestlings with an enemy, from +which it was hard for anybody to disengage himself; so that his +competitors at home in displays of bravery, loath to own +themselves inferior in that respect, were wont to ascribe their +deficiencies to his strength of body, which they said no +resistance and no fatigue could exhaust. + +The first time he went out to the wards, being yet a stripling, +was when Tarquinius Superbus, who had been king of Rome and was +afterwards expelled, after many unsuccessful attempts now entered +upon his last effort, and proceeded to hazard all as it were upon +a single throw. A great number of the Latins and other people of +Italy joined their forces, and were marching with him toward the +city, to procure his restoration; not, however, so much out of a +desire to serve and oblige Tarquin, as to gratify their own fear +and envy at the increase of the Roman greatness, which they were +anxious to check. The armies met and engaged in a decisive battle, +in the vicissitudes of which, Marcius, while fighting bravely in +the dictator's presence, saw a Roman soldier struck down at a +little distance, and immediately stepped in before him, and slew +his assailant. The general, after having gained the victory, +crowned him for this act with a garland of oak branches; it being +the Roman custom thus to adorn those who had saved the life of a +citizen; whether the law intended some special honor to the oak, +in memory of the Arcadians, a people the oracle had made famous by +the name of acorn-eaters; or, the oak wreath, being sacred to +Jupiter, the guardian of the city, might, therefore be thought a +proper ornament for one who preserved a citizen. And the oak, in +truth, is the tree which bears the most and the prettiest of any +that grow wild, and is the strongest of all that are under +cultivation; its acorns were the principal diet of the first +mortals, and the honey found in it gave them drink. + +In this battle it is stated that Castor and Pollux appeared, and, +immediately after the battle, were seen at Rome just by the +fountain where their temple now stands, with their horses foaming +with sweat, and told the news of the victory of the people in the +Forum. The fifteenth of July, being the day of this conquest, +became consequently a solemn holiday sacred to the Twin Brothers. + +It may be observed, in general, that when young men arrive early +at fame and repute, if they are of a nature but slightly touched +with emulation, this early attainment is apt to extinguish their +thirst and satiate their small appetite; whereas the first +distinctions of more solid and weighty characters only stimulate +and quicken them, and take them away, like a wind, in the pursuit +of honor; they look upon these marks and testimonies to their +virtue not as a recompense received for what they have already +done, but as a pledge given by themselves of what they will +perform hereafter, ashamed now to forsake or underlive the credit +they have won, or, rather, not to exceed and obscure all that is +gone before by the lustre of their following actions. Marcius, +having a spirit of this noble make, was ambitious always to +surpass himself, and did nothing, how extraordinary soever, but he +thought he was bound to outdo it at the next occasion; and ever +desiring to give continual fresh instances of his prowess, he +added one exploit to another, and heaped up trophies upon +trophies, so as to make it a matter of contest also among his +commanders, the latter still vying with the earlier, which should +pay him the greatest honor and speak highest in his commendation. +Of all the numerous wars and conflicts in those days, there was +not one from which he returned without laurels and rewards. And, +whereas others made glory the end of their daring, the end of his +glory was his mother's gladness; the delight we took to hear him +praised and to see him crowned, and her weeping for joy in his +embraces, rendered him, in his own thoughts, the most honored and +most happy person in the world. Epaminondas is similarly said to +have acknowledged his feeling, that it was the greatest felicity +of his whole life that his father and mother survived to hear of +his successful generalship and his victory at Leuctra. And he had +the advantage, indeed, to have both his parents partake with him, +and enjoy the pleasure of his good fortune. But Marcius, believing +himself bound to pay his mother Volumnia all that gratitude and +duty which would have belonged to his father, had he also been +alive, could never satiate himself in his tenderness and respect +to her. He took a wife, also, at her request and wish, and +continued, even after he had children, to live with his mother, +without parting families. + +The repute of his integrity and courage had, by this time, gained +him considerable influence and authority in Rome, when the senate, +favoring the wealthier citizens, began to be at variance with the +common people, who made sad complaints of the rigorous and inhuman +usage they received from the money-lenders. + +There had been frequent assemblies of the whole senate within a +small compass of time about this difficulty, but without any +definite result; the poor commonality, therefore, perceiving there +was likely to be no redress of their grievances, collected in a +body, and, encouraging each other in their resolution, forsook the +city with one accord, and seizing the hill which is now called the +Holy Mount, sat down by the river Anio, without committing any +sort of violence or seditious outrage, but merely exclaiming, as +they went along, that they had this long time past been expelled +from the city by the cruelty of the rich; that Italy would +everywhere afford them the benefit of air and water and a place of +burial, which was all they could expect in the city, unless it +were perhaps, the privilege of being wounded and killed in time of +war for the defence of their creditors. The senate apprehending +the consequences, sent the most moderate and popular men of their +own order to treat with them. + +Menenius Agrippa, their chief spokesman, after much entreaty to +the people, concluded, at length, with this celebrated fable: "It +once happened, that all the other members of a man mutinied +against the stomach, which they accused as the only idle, +uncontributing part in the whole body, while the rest were put to +hardships and the expense of much labor to minister to its +appetites. The stomach, however, merely ridiculed the silliness of +the members, who appeared not to be aware that the stomach +certainly does receive the general nourishment, but only to return +it again, and redistribute it amongst the rest. Such is the case," +he said, "citizens, between you and the senate. The counsels and +plans that are there duly digested, secure to all of you, your +proper benefit and support." + +A reconciliation ensued, the senate acceding to the request of the +people for the annual election of five protectors for those in +need of succor, the same that are now called the tribunes of the +people; and the first two they pitched upon were Junius Brutus and +Sicinnius Vellutus, their leaders in the secession. + +The city being thus united, the commons stood presently to their +arms, and followed their commanders. + +The Romans were now at war with the Volscian nation, whose +principal city was Corioli; when, therefore, Cominius the consul +had invested this important place, the rest of the Volscians, +fearing it would be taken, mustered up whatever force they could +from all parts, to relieve it, designing to give the Romans battle +before the city, and so attack them on both sides. Cominius, to +avoid this inconvenience, divided his army, marching himself with +one body to encounter the Volscians on their approach from +without, and leaving Titus Lartius, one of the bravest Romans of +his time, to command the other and continue the siege. Those +within Corioli, despising now the smallness of their number, made +a sally upon them, and prevailed at first, and pursued the Romans +into their trenches. Here it was that Marcius, flying out with a +slender company, and cutting those in pieces that first enraged +him, obliged the other assailants to slacken their speed; and +then, with loud cries, called upon the Romans to renew the battle. +For he had, what Cato thought a great point in a soldier, not only +strength of hand and stroke, but also a voice and look that of +themselves were a terror to an enemy. Some of his own party now +rallying and making up to him, the enemies soon retreated; but +Marcius, not content to see them draw off and retire, pressed hard +upon the rear, and drove them, as they fled away in haste, to the +very gates of their city; where, perceiving the Romans to fall +back from their pursuit, beaten off by the multitude of darts +poured in upon them from the walls, and that none of his followers +had the hardiness to think of falling in pell-mell among the +fugitives and so entering a city full of enemies in arms, he, +nevertheless, stood and urged them to the attempt, crying out, +that fortune had not opened Corioli, not so much to shelter the +vanquished, as to receive the conquerors. Seconded by a few that +were willing to venture with him, he bore along through the crowd, +made good his passage, and thrust himself into the gate through +the midst of them, nobody at first daring to resist him. But when +the citizens, on looking about, saw that a very small number had +entered, they now took courage, and came up and attacked them. A +combat ensued of the most extraordinary description, in which +Marcius, by strength of hand, swiftness of foot, and daring of +soul, overpowered every one that he assailed, succeeded in driving +the enemy to seek refuge, for the most part, in the interior of +the town, while the remainder submitted, and threw down their +arms; thus affording Lartius abundant opportunity to bring in the +rest of the Romans with ease and safety. + +Corioli being thus surprised and taken, the greater part of the +soldiers employed themselves in spoiling and pillaging it, while +Marcius indignantly reproached them, and exclaimed that it was a +dishonorable and unworthy thing, when the consul and their fellow- +citizens had now perhaps encountered the other Volscians, and were +hazarding their lives in battle, basely to mis-spend the time in +running up and down for booty, and, under a pretence of enriching +themselves, keep out of danger. Few paid him any attention, but, +putting himself at the head of these, he took the road by which +the consul's army had marched before him, encouraging his +companions, and beseeching them, as they went along, not to give +up, and praying often to the gods, too, that he might be so happy +as to arrive before the fight was over, and come seasonably up to +assist Cominius, and partake in the peril of the action. + +It was customary with the Romans of that age, when they were +moving into battle array, and were on the point of taking up their +bucklers, and girding their coats about them, to make at the same +time an unwritten will, or verbal testament, and to name who +should be their heirs, in the hearing of three or four witnesses. +In this precise posture Marcius found them at his arrival, the +enemy having advanced within view. + +They were not a little disturbed by his first appearance, seeing +him covered with blood and sweat, and attended with a small train; +but when he hastily made up to the consul with gladness in his +looks, giving him his hand, and recounting to him how the city had +been taken, and when they saw Cominius also embrace and salute +him, every one took fresh heart; those that were near enough +hearing, and those that were at a distance guessing, what had +happened; and all cried out to be led to battle. First, however, +Marcius desired to know of him how the Volscians had arrayed their +army, and where they had placed their best men, and on his +answering that he took the troops of the Activates in the centre +to be their prime warriors, than would yield to none in bravery, +"Let me then demand and obtain of you," said Marcius, "that we may +be posted against them." The consul granted the request, with much +admiration of his gallantry. And when the conflict began by the +soldiers darting at each other, and Marcius sallied out before the +rest the Volscians opposed to him were not able to make head +against him; wherever he fell in, he broke their ranks, and made a +lane through them; but the parties turning again, and enclosing +him on each side with their weapons, the consul, who observed the +danger he was in, despatched some of the choicest men he had for +his rescue. The conflict then growing warm and sharp about +Marcius, and many falling dead in a little space, the Romans bore +so hard upon the enemies, and pressed them with such violence, +that they forced them at length to abandon their ground, and to +quit the field. And, going now to prosecute the victory, they +besought Marcius, tired out with his toils, and faint and heavy +through the loss of blood, that he would retire to the camp. He +replied, however, that weariness was not for conquerors, and +joined with them in the pursuit. The rest of the Volscian army was +in like manner defeated, great numbers killed, and no less taken +captive. + +The day after, when Marcius, with the rest of the army, presented +themselves at the consul's tent, Cominius rose, and having +rendered all due acknowledgment to the gods for the success of +that enterprise, turned next to Marcius, and first of all +delivered the strongest encomium upon his rare exploits, of which +he had partly been an eye-witness himself, in the late battle, and +had partly learned from the testimony of Lartius. And then he +required him to choose a tenth part of all the treasure and horses +and captives that had fallen into their hands, before any division +should be made to others; besides which, he made him the special +present of a horse with trappings and ornaments, in honor of his +actions. The whole army applauded; Marcius, however, stepped +forth, and declaring his thankful acceptance of the horse and his +gratification at the praises of his general, said, that all other +things which he could only regard rather as mercenary advantages +than any significations of honor, he must waive, and should be +content with the ordinary proportion of such rewards. "I have +only," said he "one special grace to beg, and this I hope you will +not deny me. There was a certain hospitable friend of mine among +the Volscians, a man of probity and virtue, who is become a +prisoner, and from former wealth and freedom is now reduced to +servitude. Among his many misfortunes let my intercession redeem +him from the one of being sold as a common slave." Such a refusal +and such a request on the part of Marcius were followed with yet +louder acclamations; and he had many more admirers of this +generous superiority to avarice, than of the bravery he had shown +in battle. The very persons who conceived some envy and despite to +see him so specially honored, could not but acknowledge, that one +who so nobly could refuse reward, was beyond others worth to +receive it; and were more charmed with that virtue which made him +despise advantage, than with any of those former actions that had +gained him his title to it. It is a higher accomplishment to use +money well than to use arms; but not to need it is more noble than +to use it. + +When the noise of approbation and applause ceased, Cominius, +resuming, said, "It is idle, fellow-soldiers, to force those other +gifts of ours on one who is unwilling to accept them; let us, +therefore, give him one of such a kind that he cannot well reject +it; let us pass a vote, I mean, that he shall hereafter be called +Coriolanus, unless you think that his performance at Corioli has +itself anticipated any such resolution." Hence, therefore, he had +his third name of Coriolanus, making it all the plainer that Gaius +was a personal proper name, and the second, or surname, Marcius, +one common to his house and family; the third being a subsequent +addition which used to be imposed either from particular act or +fortune, bodily characteristic, or good quality of the bearer. + +Not long after Marcius stood for the consulship. It was usual for +candidates for office to solicit personally the citizens, +presenting themselves in the forum with the toga on alone, and no +tunic under it; either to promote their supplications by the +humility of their dress, or that such as had received wounds might +more readily display those marks of their fortitude. + +Marcius, therefore, as the fashion of candidates was, showing the +scars and gashes that were still visible on his body, from the +many conflicts in which he had signalized himself during a service +of seventeen years together, the people were affected at this +display of merit, and told one another that they ought in common +modesty to create him consul. But when the day of election had +come, and Marcius appeared in the forum with a pompous train of +senators attending him, and the patricians all seemed to be +exerting greater effort than they had ever done before on a +similar occasion, the commons then fell off again from the +kindness they had conceived for him, and in the place of their +late benevolence, began to feel something of indignation and envy; +passions assisted by the fear they entertained, that if a man of +such aristocratic temper, and so influential among the patricians, +should be invested with the power which that office would give +him, he might employ it to deprive the people of all that liberty +which was yet left them. In conclusion, they rejected Marcius. Two +other names were announced, to the great mortification of the +senators, who felt as if the indignity reflected rather upon +themselves than on Marcius. He, for his part, could not bear the +affront with any patience. He had always indulged his temper, and +had regarded the proud and contentious element of human nature as +a sort of nobleness and magnanimity; reason and discipline had not +imbued him with that solidity and equanimity which enter so +largely into the virtues for the statesman. He had never learned +how essential it is for any one who undertakes public business, +and desires to deal with mankind, to avoid above all things that +self-will, which, as Plato says, belongs to the family of +solitude; and to pursue, above all things, that capacity so +generally ridiculed, of submission to ill-treatment. Marcius, +straightforward and direct, stand together, and come in to their +assistance. The assembly met, and soon became tumultuous. The sum +of what Marcius had spoken, having been reported to the people, +excited them to such fury, that they were ready to break in upon +the senate. The tribunes prevented this, by laying all the blame +on Coriolanus, and they accordingly cited him to come before them, +and defend himself. + +He came, therefore, as it were, to make his apology, and clear +himself; in which belief the people kept silence, and gave him a +quiet hearing. But when instead of the submissive and deprecatory +language expected from him, he began to use not only an offensive +kind of freedom, seeming rather to accuse than apologize, but as +well by the tone of his voice as the expression of his +countenance, displayed a security that was not far from disdain +and contempt of them, the whole multitude then became angry, and +gave evident signs of impatience and disgust; and Sicinnius, the +most violent of the tribunes, after a little private conference +with his colleagues, proceeded solemnly to pronounce before them +all, that Marcius was condemned to die by the tribunes of the +people, and bid the Aediles take him to the Tarpeian rock, and +without delay throw him headlong from the precipice. When they, +however, in compliance with the order, came to seize upon his +body, many, even of the plebeian party, felt it to be a horrible +and extravagant act; the patricians, meantime, wholly beside +themselves with distress and horror, hurried with cries to the +rescue; and persuaded them not to despatch him by any sudden +violence, but refer the cause to the general suffrage of the +people. But when the people met together, the tribunes, contrary +to all former practice, extorted first, that votes should be +taken, not by centuries, but tribes; a change, by which the +rabble, that had no respect for honesty and justice, would be sure +to carry it against those who were rich and well known, and +accustomed to serve the state in war. In the next place, whereas +they had engaged to prosecute Marcius upon no other head but that +of tyranny, which could never be made out against him, they +relinquished this plea, and urged instead, his language in the +senate against an abatement of the price of corn, and for the +overthrow of the tribunician power; adding further, as a new +impeachment, the distribution that was made by him of the spoil +and booty he had taken from the Antiates, when he overran their +country, which he had divided among those that had followed him, +whereas it ought rather to have been brought into the public +treasure; which last accusation did, they say, more discompose +Marcius than all the rest, as he had not anticipated he should +ever be questioned on that subject, and, therefore, was less +provided with any satisfactory answer to it on the sudden. And +when, by way of excuse, he began to magnify the merits of those +who had been partakers with him in the action, those that had +stayed at home, being more numerous than the other, interrupted +him with the outcries. In conclusion, when they came to vote, a +majority of three tribes condemned him; the penalty being +perpetual banishment. + +Marcius himself, was neither stunned nor humiliated. In mien, +carriage, and countenance, he bore the appearance of entire +composure, and while all his friends were full of distress, seemed +the only man that was not touched with his misfortune. On his +return home, after saluting his mother and his wife, who were in +tears and full of loud lamentations, and exhorting them to +moderate the sense they had of his calamity, he proceeded at once +to the city gates, whither all the nobility came to attend him; +and not taking anything with him, or making any request to the +company, he departed from them, having only three or four clients +with him. He continued solitary for a few days in a place in the +country, distracted with a variety of counsels, such as rage and +indignation suggested to him; and proposing to himself no +honorable or useful end, but only how he might best satisfy his +revenge on the Romans, he resolved at length to arouse a heavy war +against them from their nearest neighbors. He determined, first to +make trial of the Volscians, whom he knew to be still vigorous and +flourishing, both in men and treasure, and he imagined their force +and power was not so much abated, as their spite and anger +increased, by the late overthrows they had received from the +Romans. + +There was a man of Antium, called Tullus Aufidius, who, for his +wealth and bravery and the splendor of his family, had the respect +and privilege of a king among the Volscians, but whom Marcius knew +to have a particular hostility to himself, above all other Romans. +Frequent menaces and challenges had passed in battle between them, +and those exchanges of defiance to which their hot and eager +emulation is apt to prompt young soldiers had added private +animosity to their national feelings of opposition. Yet for all +this, considering Tullus to have a certain generosity of temper, +and knowing that no Volscian, so much as he, desired an occasion +to requite upon the Romans the evils they had done, he put on a +dress which completely disguised him and thus, like Ulysses,-- + +He entered the town of his mortal foes. + +His arrival at Antium was about evening, and though several met +him in the streets, yet he passed along without recognition, and +went directly to the house of Tullus, and entering undiscovered, +went up to the fire-hearth, and seated himself there without +speaking a work, covering up his head. Those of the family could +not but wonder, and yet they were afraid either to raise or +question him, for there was a certain air of majesty both in his +posture and silence, but they recounted to Tullus, then at supper, +the strangeness of this accident. He immediately rose from table +and came in, and asked him who he was, and for what business he +came there; and then Marcius, unmuffling himself, and pausing +awhile said, "If you cannot yet call me to mind, Tullus, or do not +believe your eyes concerning me, I must of necessity be my own +accuser. I am Gaius Marcius, the author of so much mischief to the +Volscians; of which, were I seeking to deny it, the surname of +Coriolanus I now bear would be a sufficient evidence against me. +The one recompense I received for all the hardships and perils I +have gone through, was the title that proclaims my enmity to your +nation, and this is the only thing which is still left me. Of all +other advantages, I have been stripped and deprived by the envy of +the Roman people, and the cowardice and treachery of the +magistrates and those of my own order. I am driven out as an +exile, and become an humble suppliant at your hearth, not so much +for safety and protection (should I have come hither, had I been +afraid to die?), as to seek vengeance against those that expelled +me; which, methinks, I have already obtained, by putting myself +into your hands. If, therefore, you have really a mind to attack +your enemies, make use of that affliction you see me in to assist +the enterprise, and convert my personal infelicity into a common +blessing to the Volscians; as I am likely to be more serviceable +in fighting for than against you, with the advantage, which I now +possess, of knowing all the secrets of the enemy that I am +attacking." + +Tullus, on hearing this, was extremely rejoiced, and giving him +his right hand, exclaimed, "rise, Marcius, and be of good courage; +it is a great happiness you bring to Antium, in the present you +make us of yourself; expect everything that is good from the +Volscians." he then proceeded to feast and entertain him with +every display of kindness, and for several days after they were in +close deliberation together on the prospects of a war. + +Although the Volscians had sworn to a truce of arms for the space +of two years, the Romans themselves soon furnished them with a +pretence, by making proclamation, out of some jealousy or +slanderous report, at an exhibition of games, that all the +Volscians who had come to see them should depart from the city +before sunset. some affirm that this was a contrivance of Marcius, +who sent a man privately to the consuls, falsely to accuse the +Volscians of intending to fall upon the Romans during the games, +and to set the city on fire. This public affront aroused their +hostility to the Romans; and Tullus, perceiving it, took advantage +of it, aggravating the fact, and working on their indignation, +till he persuaded them, at last, to despatch ambassadors to Rome, +requiring the Romans to restore that part of their country and +those towns which they had taken from the Volscian in the late +war. When the Romans heard the message, they indignantly replied, +that the Volscians were the first that took up arms, but the +Romans would be the last to lay them down. This answer being +brought back, Tullus called a general assembly of the Volscians; +and the voted passing for a war, he then proposed that they should +call in Marcius, laying aside the remembrance of former grudges, +and assuring themselves that the services they should now receive +from him as friend and associate, would abundantly outweigh any +harm or damage he had done them when he was their enemy. Marcius +was accordingly summoned, and having made his entrance, and spoken +tot he people, won their good opinion of his capacity, his skill, +counsel, and boldness, not less by his present words than by his +past actions. They joined him in commission with Tullus, to have +full power as general of their forces in all that related to the +war. And he, fearing lest the time that would be requisite to +bring all the Volscians together in full preparation might be so +long as to lose him the opportunity of action, left order with the +chief persons and magistrates for the city to provide other +things, while he himself, prevailing upon the readiest to assemble +and march out with him as volunteers without staying to be +enrolled, made a sudden inroad into the Roman confines, when +nobody expected him, and possessed himself of so much booty, that +the Volscians found they had more than they could either carry +away or use in the camp. The abundance of provision which he +gained, and the waste and havoc of the country which he made, +were, however, the smallest results of that invasion; the great +mischief he intended, and his special object in all, was to +increase at Rome the suspicions entertained of the patricians, and +to make them upon worse terms with the people. With this view, +while despoiling all the fields and destroying the property of +other men, he took special care to preserve their farms and lands +untouched, and would not allow his soldiers to ravage there, or +seize upon any thing which belonged to them. Hence the quarrels +broke out afresh, and rose to a greater height than ever; the +senators reproaching those of the commonalty with their late +injustice to Marcius; while the plebeians, on their side, did not +hesitate to accuse them of having, out of spite and revenge, +solicited him to this enterprise, and thus, when others were +involved in the miseries of a war by their means, they sat like +unconcerned spectators furnished with a guardian abroad of their +fortunes, in the very person of the public enemy. After this +incursion and exploit, which was of great advantage to the +Volscians, since they learned by it to be more courageous and to +despise their enemy, Marcius drew them off, and returned in +safety. + +But when the whole strength of the Volscians was brought together +into the field, with great expedition, it appeared so considerable +a body, that they agreed to leave part in garrison, for the +security of their towns, and with the other part to march against +the Romans. Marcius now desired Tullus to choose which of the two +charges would be most agreeable to him. Tullus answered, that +since he knew Marcius to be equally valiant with himself, and far +more fortunate, he would have him take the command of those that +were going out to the war, while he made it his care to defend +their cities at home, and provide all conveniences for the army +abroad. Marcius thus reinforced, and much stronger than before, +moved first towards the city called Circaeum, a Roman colony. He +received its surrender, and did the inhabitants no injury; passing +thence, he entered and laid waste the country of the Latins, where +he expected the Romans would meet him, as the Latins were their +confederates and allies, and had often sent to demand succor from +them. the people, however, on their part, showing little +inclination for the service, and the consuls themselves being +unwilling to run the hazard of a battle, when the time of their +office was almost ready to expire, they dismissed the Latin +ambassadors without any effect; so that Marcius, finding no army +to oppose him, marched up to their cities, and, having taken by +force Toleria, Lavici, Peda, and Bols, all of which offered +resistance, not only plundered their houses, but made a prey +likewise of their persons. Meantime, he showed particular regard +for all such as came over to his party, and, for fear they might +sustain any damage against his will, encamped them at the greatest +distance he could, and wholly abstained from their property. + +After, however, he had made himself master of Bols, a town not +above ten miles from Rome, where he found great treasure, and put +almost all the adults to the sword; the other Volscians that were +ordered to stay behind and protect their cities, hearing of his +achievements and success, had not patience to remain any longer at +home, but came hastening in their arms to Marcius, saying that he +alone was their general and the sole commander they would own; +with all this, his name and renown spread throughout all Italy, +and universal wonder prevailed at the sudden and mighty revolution +in the fortunes for two nations which the loss and the accession +of a single man had effected. + +All at Rome was in great disorder; they were utterly averse from +fighting, and spent their whole time in cabals and disputes and +reproaches against each other; until news was brought that the +enemy had laid close siege to Lavinium, where were the images and +sacred things of their tutelar gods, and whence they derived the +origin of their nations, that being the first city which Aeneas +built in Italy. These tidings produced a change as universal as it +was extraordinary in the thoughts and inclinations of the people, +but occasioned a yet stranger revulsion of feeling among the +patricians. The people now were for repealing the sentence against +Marcius, and calling him back into the city; whereas the senate, +being assembled to consider the decree, opposed and finally +rejected the proposal, either out of the mere humor of opposing +the people in whatever they should desire, or because they were +unwilling, perhaps, that he should owe his restoration to their +kindness. When Marcius heard of this, he was more exasperated than +ever, and, quitting the siege of Lavinium, marched furiously +towards Rome, and encamped at a place called the Cluilian ditches, +about five miles from the city. The nearness of his approach did, +indeed, create much terror and disturbance, yet it also ended +their dissensions for the present; as nobody now, whether consul +or senator, durst any longer contradict the people in their design +of recalling Marcius. + +It was therefore, unanimously agreed by all parties, that +ambassadors should be despatched, offering him return to his +country, and desiring him to free them from the terrors and +distresses of ;the war. The persons sent by the senate with this +message were chosen out of his kindred and acquaintance, who +naturally expected a very kind reception at their first interview; +in which, however, they were much mistaken. Being led through the +enemy's camp, they found him sitting in state amid the chief men +of the Volscians, looking insupportably proud ;and arrogant. He +bade them declare the cause of their coming, which they did in the +most gently terms, and with a behavior suitable to their language. +When they had made an end of speaking, he returned them a sharp +answer, full of bitterness and angry resentment, as to what +concerned himself, and the ill usage he had received from them; +but as general of the Volscians, he demanded restitution of the +cities and the lands which had been seized upon during the late +war, and that the same rights and franchises should be granted +them at Rome, which had been before accorded to the Latins; since +there could be no assurance that a peace would be firm and lasting +without just conditions on both sides. He allowed them thirty days +to consider and resolve. + +The ambassadors having departed; he withdrew his forces from the +Roman territory. Those of the Volscians who had long envied his +reputation, and could not endure to see the influence he had with +the people, laid hold of this as a matter of complaint against +him. Among them was Tullus himself, not for any wrong done him +personally by Marcius, but through the weakness incident to human +nature. He could not help feeling mortified to find his own glory +totally obscured, and himself overlooked and neglected now by the +Volscians, who had so great an opinion of their new leader. Yet +Marcius spent no part of the time idly, but attacked the +confederates of the enemy, ravaged their land, and took from them +seven great and populous cities in that interval. The Romans, in +the meanwhile, durst not venture out to their relief; but were +utterly fearful, and showed no more disposition or capacity for +action, than if their bodies had been struck with a palsy, and +become destitute of sense and motion. But when the thirty days +were expired, and Marcius appeared again with his whole army, they +sent another embassy to beseech him that he would moderate his +displeasure, and would withdraw the Volscian army, and then make +any proposals he thought best for both parties, but if it were his +opinion that the Volscians ought to have any favor shown them, +upon laying down their arms they might obtain all they could in +reason desire. + +The reply of Marcius was, that he should make no answer to this as +a general of the Volscians, but in the quality still for a roman +citizen, he would advise them to return to him before three days +were at an end, with a ratification of his previous demands. + +When the ambassadors came back, and acquainted the senate with the +answer, seeing the whole state now threatened as it were by a +tempest, a decree was made, that the whole order of their priests +should go in full procession to Marcius with their pontifical +array, and the dress and habit which they respectively used in +their several functions, and should urge him, as before, to +withdraw his forces, and then treat with his countrymen in favor +of the Volscians. He granted nothing at all, nor so much as +expressed himself more mildly; but without capitulating or +receding, bade them once for all choose whether they would yield +or fight, since the old terms were the only terms of peace. In +this great perplexity, the roman women went, some to other +temples, but the greater part, and the ladies of highest rank, tot +he altar of Jupiter Capitolinus. Among these suppliants was +Valeria, sister to the great Poplicola, who happily lighting, not +without divine guidance, on the right expedient, rose, and bade +the others rise, and went directly with them to the house of +Volumnia, the mother of Marcius. And coming in and finding her +sitting with her daughter-in-law, and with her little +grandchildren on her lap, Valeria, then surrounded by her +companions, spoke in the name of them all:-- + +"We, O Volumnia, and Vergilia, are come as women to women, to +request a thing on which our own and the common safety depends, +and which, if you consent to it, will raise our glory above that +of the daughters of the Sabines, who won over their fathers and +their husbands from mortal enmity to peace and friendship. Arise +and come with us to Marcius; join in our supplication, for your +country's sake." + +The words of Valeria were seconded by the acclamations of the +other women, to which Volumnia made answer:- + +"I and Vergilia, my countrywomen, have an equal share with you all +in the common miseries, and we have the additional sorrow, which +is wholly ours, that we have lost the merit and good fame of +Marcius, and see his person confined, rather than protected by the +arms of the enemy. Make use, however, of our service; and lead us, +if you please, to him; we are able, if nothing more, at least to +spend our last breath in making suit to him for our country." + +Having spoken thus, she took Vergilia by the hand, and the young +children, and so accompanied them to the Volscian camp. so +lamentable a sight much affected the enemies themselves, who +viewed them in respectful silence. Marcius, seeing the party of +women advance, came down hastily to meet them, saluting his mother +first, and embracing her a long time, and then his wife and +children, sparing neither tears nor cares, but suffering himself +to be borne away and carried headlong, as it were, but the +impetuous violence of his passion. + +when he had satisfied himself, and observed that his mother +Volumnia was desirous to say something, the Volscian council being +first called in, he heard her to the following effect: "Our dress +and our very persons, my son, might tell you, though we should say +nothing ourselves, in how forlorn a condition we have lived at +home since your banishment and absence from us; and now consider +with yourself, whether we may not pass for the most unfortunate of +all women, to have that sight, which should be the sweetest that +we could see, converted, through I know not what fatality, to one +of all others the most formidable and dreadful, --Volumnia to +behold her son, and Vergilia her husband, in arms against the +walls of Rome. As for myself, if I cannot prevail with you to +prefer amity and concord to quarrel and hostility, and to be the +benefactor to both parties, rather than the destroyer of one of +them, be assured of this, that you shall not be able to reach your +country, unless you trample first upon the corpse of her that +brought you into life. For it will be ill in me to loiter in the +world till the day com wherein I shall see a child of mine, either +led in triumph by his own countrymen, or triumphing over them." + +Marcius listened to his mother while she spoke, without answering +her a word; and Volumnia, seeing him stand mute also for a long +time after she had ceased, resumed: "O my son, what is the meaning +of this silence? Is it wrong to gratify a mother in a request like +this? You have punished your country already; you have not yet +paid your debt to me." Having said this, she threw herself down at +his feet, as did also his wife and children; upon which Marcius, +crying out, "O mother! what is it you have done to me?" raised her +from the ground, and pressing her right hand with more than +ordinary vehemence said, "You have gained a victory, fortunate +enough for the Romans, but destructive to your son; whom you, +though none else, have defeated." And after a little private +conference with his mother and his wife, he went them back again +to Rome, as they desired of him. + +the next morning, he broke up his camp, and led the Volscians +homeward, variously affected with what he had done. None, however, +opposed his commands; they all obediently followed him, though +rather from admiration of his virtue, than any regard they now had +to his authority. The Roman people, meantime began to crown +themselves with garlands and prepare for sacrifice, as they were +wont to do upon tidings brought of an signal victory. But the joy +and transport of the whole city was chiefly remarkable in the +honors and marks of affection paid to the women, as well by the +senate as the people in general; every one declaring that they +were, beyond all question, the instruments of the public safety. +And the senate having passed a decree that whatsoever they would +ask in the way of an a favor or honor should be allowed and done +for them by the magistrates, they demanded simply that a temple +might be erected to the Goddess Fortuna, the expense of which they +offered to defray out of their own contributions, if the city +would be at the cost of sacrifices, and other matters pertaining +to the due honor of the gods, out of the common treasury. The +senate, much commending their public spirit, caused the temple to +be built and a statue set up in it at the public charge; they +however, made up a sum among themselves, for a second image of +Fortune, which the Romans say utter these words as they were putt +it up "Blessed of ;the gods, O women, is your gift." + +When Marcius came back to Antium, Tullus, who thoroughly hated and +greatly feared him, proceeded at once to contrive how he might +immediately despatch him; as, if he escaped now, he was never +likely to give him such another advantage. Having, therefore, got +together and suborned several partisans against him, he required +Marcius to resign his charge, and give the Volscians an account of +his administration. + +An assembly was called, and popular speakers, as had been +concerted, came forward to exasperate and incense the multitude; +but when Marcius stood up to answer, even the most tumultuous part +of the people became quiet on a sudden, and out of reverence +allowed him to speak without the least disturbance; while all the +better people, and such as were satisfied with a peace, made it +evident by their whole behavior, that they would give him a +favorable hearing, and judge and pronounce according to equity. + +For these reasons, the conspirators judged it prudent not to test +the general feeling; but the boldest of their faction fell upon +Marcius in a body, and slew him there, none of those that were +present offering to defend him. But it quickly appeared that the +action was in nowise approved of by the majority of the Volscians, +who hurried out of their several cities to show respect to his +corpse; to which they gave honorable interment, adorning his +sepulchre with arms and trophies, as the monument of a noble hero +and a famous general. When the Romans heard tidings of his death, +they gave no other signification either of honor or of anger +toward him, but simply granted the request of the women, that they +might put themselves into mourning and bewail him for ten months, +as the usage was upon the loss of a father or a son or a brother; +that being the period fixed for the longest lamentation by the +laws of Numa Pompilius. + +Marcius was no sooner deceased, than the Volscians felt the need +of his assistance. They quarreled first with the Aequians, their +confederates and friends, about the appointment of the general of +their joint forces, and carried their dispute to the length of +bloodshed and slaughter; and were then defeated by the Romans in a +pitched battle, where not only Tullus lost his life, but the +flower of their whole army was cut to pieces; so that they were +forced to submit and accept of peace upon very dishonorable terms, +becoming subjects of Rome, and pledging themselves to submission. + + + +COMPARISON OF ALCIBIADES AND CORIOLANUS + +Having described all their actions that seem to deserve +commemoration, their military ones, we may say, incline the +balance very decidedly upon neither side. They both, in pretty +equal measure, displayed on numerous occasions the daring and +courage of the soldier, and the skill and foresight of the +general; unless, indeed, the fact that Alcibiades was victorious +and successful in many contests both by sea and land, ought to +gain him the title of a more complete commander. That so long as +they remained and held command in their respective countries, they +eminently sustained, and when they were driven into exile, yet +more eminently damaged the fortunes of those countries, is common +to both. All the sober citizens felt disgust at the petulance, the +low flattery, and base seductions which Alcibiades, in his public +life, allowed himself to employ with the view of winning the +people's favor; and the ungraciousness, pride, and oligarchical +haughtiness which Marcius, on the other hand, displayed in his, +were the abhorrence of the Roman populace. + +Marcius, according to our common conceptions of his character, was +undoubtedly simple and straightforward; Alcibiades, unscrupulous +as a public man, and false. He is more especially blamed for the +dishonorable and treacherous way in which, as Thucydides relates, +he imposed upon the Lacedaemonian ambassadors, and disturbed the +continuance of the peace. yet this policy, which engaged the city +again in way, nevertheless placed it in a powerful and formidable +position, by the accession, which Alcibiades obtained for it, of +the alliance of Argos and Mantinea. And Coriolanus also, Dionysius +relates, used unfair means to excite war between the Romans and +the Volscians, in the false report which he spread about the +visitors at the Games; and the motive of this action seems to make +it the worse for the two; since it was not done, like the other, +out of ordinary political jealousy, strife and competition. simply +to gratify anger, from which as Ion says, no one ever yet got any +return, he threw whole districts of Italy into confusion, and +sacrificed to his passion against his country numerous innocent +cities. It is true, indeed, that Alcibiades, by his resentment, +was the occasion of great disasters to his country, but he +relented as soon as he found their feelings to be changed; and +after he was driven out a second time, so far from taking pleasure +in the errors and inadvertencies of their commanders, or being +indifferent to the danger they were thus incurring, he did the +very thing that Aristides is so highly commended for doing to +Themistocles: he came to the generals who were his enemies, and +pointed out to them what they ought to do. Coriolanus, on the +other hand, first all attacked the whole body of his countrymen, +though only one portion of them had done him any wrong, while the +other, the better and nobler portion, had actually suffered, as +well as sympathized, with him. And, secondly, by the obduracy with +which he resisted numerous embassies and supplications, addressed +in propitiation of his person anger, he showed that it had been to +destroy and overthrow, not to recover and regain his country, that +he had excited bitter and implacable hostilities against. There +is, indeed, one distinction that may be drawn. Alcibiades, it may +be said, was not safe among the Spartans, and had the inducements +at once of fear and of hatred to lead him again to Athens; whereas +Marcius could not honorably have left the Volscians, when they +were behaving so well to him: he, in the command of their forces +and the enjoyment of their entire confidence, was in a very +different position from Alcibiades, whom the Lacedaemonians did +not so much wish to adopt into their service, as to use, and then +abandon. Driven about from house to house in the city, and from +general to general in the camp, the latter had no resort but to +place himself in the hands of Tissaphernes; unless we are to +suppose that his object in courting favor with him was to avert +the entire destruction of his native city, whither he wished +himself to return. + +As regards money, Alcibiades, we are told, was often guilty of +procuring it by accepting bribes, and spent it in luxury and +dissipation. Coriolanus declined to receive it, even when pressed +upon him by his commanders as an honor; and one great reason for +the odium he incurred with the populace in the discussions about +their debts was, that he trampled upon the poor, not for money's +sake, but out of pride and insolence. + +Antipater, in a letter written upon the death of Aristotle the +philosopher, observes, "Amongst his other gifts he had that of +persuasiveness," and the absence of this in the character of +Marcius made all his great actions and noble qualities +unacceptable to those whom they benefited: pride, and self-will, +the consort, as Plato calls it, of solitude, made him +insufferable. With the skill which Alcibiades, on the contrary, +professed to treat every one in the way most agreeable to him, we +cannot wonder that all his successes were attended with the most +exuberant favor and honor; his very errors, at times, being +accompanied by something of grace and felicity. And so, in spite +of great and frequent hurt that he had done the city, he was +repeatedly appointed to office and command; while Coriolanus stood +in vain for a place which his great services had made his due. + +Alcibiades never professed to deny that it was pleasant to him to +be honored and distasteful to him to be overlooked; and, +accordingly, he always tried to place himself upon good terms with +all that he met; Coriolanus' pride forbade him to pay attentions +to those who could have promoted his advancement, and yet his love +of distinction made him feel hurt and angry when he was +disregarded. Such are the faulty parts of his character, which in +all other respects was a noble one. For his temperance, +continence, and probity, he might claim to be compared with the +best and purest of the Greeks; not in any sort of kind with +Alcibiades, the least scrupulous and most entirely careless of +human beings in all these points. + + + +Aristides + +Aristides, the son of Lysimachus, was of the tribe Antiochis, and +township of Alopece. Being the friend and supporter of that +Clisthenes, who settled the government after the expulsion of the +tyrants, and emulating and admiring Lycurgus the Lacedaemonian +above all politicians, he adhered to the aristocratical principles +of government; and had Themistocles, son to Neocles, his adversary +on the side of the populace. Some say that, when boys together, +they were always at variance in all their words and actions, +serious as well as playful. One was ready, venturesome, and +subtle, engaging readily and eagerly in everything; the other of a +staid and settled temper, intent on the exercise of justice, not +admitting any degree of falsity, indecorum, or trickery, even at +his play. Ariston of Ceos says that the first origin of enmity +which rose to so great a height, was a love affair; they were +rivals for the affection of the beautiful Stesilaus of Ceos, and +were passionate beyond moderation, and did not lay aside their +animosity when the beauty that had excited it passed away; but +carried their heats and differences into public business. + +Themistocles joined an association of partisans, and fortified +himself with considerable strength; so that when some one told him +that if he were impartial, he would make a good magistrate, "I +wish," replied he, "I may never sit on that tribunal where my +friends shall not plead a greater privilege than strangers." + +But Aristides walked alone on his path in politics being unwilling +to go with associates in ill doing, or to cause them vexation by +not gratifying their wishes. + +When he had once opposed Themistocles in some measures that were +expedient, and had got the better of him, he could not refrain +from saying, when he left the assembly, that unless they sent +Themistocles and himself to the barathrum,(a pit into which the +dead bodies of malefactors were thrown) there could be no safety +for Athens. Another time, when urging some proposal upon the +people, although there was much opposition to it, yet he was +gaining the day; but just as the president of the assembly was +about to put it to the vote, perceiving by what had been said in +debate the inexpediency of his advice, he let it fall. He often +brought in his bills by other persons, lest Themistocles, thought +party spirit against him, should be any hindrance to the good of +the public. + +In all the vicissitudes of public affairs, the constancy he showed +was admirable, not being elated with honors, and demeaning himself +sedately in adversity. Once, at the recital of these verses of +Aeshcylus in the theatre, relating to Amphiaraus, + +For not at seeming just, but being so +He aims; and from his depth of soil below, +Harvest of wise and prudent counsels grow, + +the eyes of all the spectators were turned upon Aristides, as if +this virtue in an especial manner belonged to him. + +He was a most determined champion of justice, not only against +feelings of friendship and favor, but wrath and malice. + +Thus it is reported of him that prosecuting one who was his enemy, +when the judges after accusation refused to hear the criminal, and +were proceeding immediately to pass sentence upon him, he rose in +haste from his seat and joined in petition with him for a hearing, +and that he might enjoy the privilege of the law. Another time, +judging between two private persons, when the one declared his +adversary had very much injured Aristides; "Tell me rather, good +friend," he said, "what wrong he has done you: for it is your +cause, not my own, which I now sit judge of." Being chosen to the +charge of the public revenue, he made it appear, that not only +those of his time, but the preceding officers, had alienated much +treasure, and especially Themistocles: + +Well known he was an able man to be, +But with his fingers apt to be too free. + +Therefore, Themistocles associating several persons against +Aristides, and impeaching him when he gave in his accounts, caused +him to be condemned of robbing of the public; so Idomeneus states; +but the best and chief men of the city much resented it, so that +he was not only exempted from the fine imposed upon him, but again +called to the same employment. Pretending now to repent of his +former practice, and carrying himself with more remissness, he +became acceptable to such as pillaged the treasury, by not +detecting or calling them to an exact account. So that those who +had their fill of the public money began highly to applaud +Aristides, and sued to the people, to have him once more chosen +treasurer. But when they were upon the point of election, he +reproved the Athenians in these words: "When I discharged my +office well and faithfully, I was insulted and abused; but now +that I have countenanced the public thieves in a variety of +malpractices, I am considered an admirable patriot. I am more +ashamed, therefore, of this present honor than of the former +sentence; and I pity your condition, with whom is more +praiseworthy to oblige bad men than to preserve the revenue of +public. " + +When Datis was sent by Darius under pretense of punishing the +Athenians for their burning of Sardis, but in reality to reduce +the Greeks under his dominion, and had landed at Marathon and laid +waste the country, among the ten commanders appointed by the +Athenians for the war, Miltiades was of the greatest name; but the +second place, both for reputation and power, was possessed by +Aristides: and when his opinion to join battle was added to that +of Miltiades, it did much to incline the balance. Every leader by +his day having the command in chief, when it came to Aristides' +turn, he delivered it into the hands of Miltiades, showing his +fellow officers, that it is not dishonorable to obey and follow +wise and able men, but, on the contrary, noble and prudent. So +appeasing their rivalry, and bringing them to acquiesce in the +best advice, he confirmed Miltiades in the strength of undivided +and unmolested authority. And now every one, yielding his day of +command, looked for orders only to him. During the fight the main +body of the Athenians being the hardest pressed, the barbarians, +for a long time, making opposition there against the tribes +Leontis and Antiochis, Themistocles and Aristides being ranged +together, fought valiantly; the one being of the tribe Leontis, +the other of the Antiochis. But, after they had beaten the +barbarians back to their ships, and perceived that they did sail +for the isles, but were driven in by the force of se and wind +towards the country of Attica, fearing lest they should take the +city, they hurried away thither with nine tribes, and reached it +the same day. + +Of all the virtues of Aristides, the common people were most +affected with his justice, because of its continual and common +use; and thus, although of mean fortune and ordinary birth, he +possessed himself of the most kingly and divine appellation of +Just; which kings, however, and tyrants have never sought after; +but have taken delight to be surnamed besiegers of cities, +thunderers, conquerors, eagles and hawks; affecting, it seems, the +reputation which proceeds from power and violence, rather than +that of virtue. + +Aristides, therefore, had at first the fortune to be beloved for +this surname, but at length envied. Especially when Themistocles +spread a rumor amongst the people, that, by determining and +judging all matters privately, he had destroyed the courts of +judicature, and was secretly making way for a monarchy in his own +person, without the assistance of guards. Moreover, the spirit of +the people, now grown high, and confident with their late victory, +naturally entertained feelings of dislike to all of more than +common fame and reputation. Coming together, therefore, from all +parts into the city, they banished Aristides by the ostracism, +giving their jealousy of his reputation the name of fear of +tyranny. For ostracism was not the punishment of any criminal act, +but was speciously said to be the mere depression and humiliation +of excessive greatness and power; and was in fact a gentle relief +and mitigation of envious feeling, which was thus allowed to vent +itself in inflicting no intolerable injury, only a ten years' +banishment. But after it came be exercised upon base and +villainous fellows, they desisted from it; Hyperbolus, being the +last whom they banished by the ostracism. + +The cause of Hyperbolus's banishment is said to have been this. +Alcibiades and Nicias, men that bore the greatest sway in the +city, were of different factions. As the people, therefore, were +about to vote the ostracism, and obviously to decree it against +one of them, consulting together and uniting their parties, they +contrived the banishment of Hyperbolus. Upon which the people, +being offended, as if some contempt or affront was put upon the +thing, left off and quite abolished it. It was performed, to be +short, in this manner. Every one taking an ostracon, that is, a +sherd, a piece of earthenware, wrote upon it the citizen's he +would have banished, and carried it to a certain part of the +market-place surrounded with wooden rails. First, the magistrates +numbered all the sherds in gross (for if there were less than six +thousand, the ostracism was imperfect); then, laying every name by +itself, they pronounced him whose name was written by the largest +number, banished for ten years, with the enjoyment of his estate. +As, therefore, they were writing the names on the sherds, it is +reported that an illiterate clownish fellow, giving Aristides his +sherd, supposing him a common citizen, begged him write Aristides +upon it; and he being surprised and asking if Aristides had ever +done him any injury, "None at all," said he, "neither know I the +man; but I am tired of hearing him everywhere called the Just." +Aristides, hearing this, is said to have made no reply, but +returned the sherd with his own name inscribed. At his departure +from the city, lifting up his hands to heaven, he made a prayer +(the reverse, it would seem, of that of Achilles), that the +Athenians might never have any occasion which should constrain +them to remember Aristides. + +But three years afterwards, when Xerxes was marching through +Thessaly and Boeotia into the country of Attica, they repealed the +law, and decreed the return of the banished: chiefly fearing lest +Aristides might join himself to the enemy, and bring over many of +his fellow-citizens to the party of the barbarians; much mistaking +the man, who, already before the decree, was exerting himself to +excite and encourage the Greeks to the defense of their liberty. + +After the battle of Salamis, Xerxes, much terrified, immediately +hastened to the Hellespont. But Mardonius was left with the most +serviceable part of the army, about three hundred thousand men, +and was a formidable enemy, confident in his infantry, and writing +messages of defiance to the Greeks: "You have overcome by sea men +accustomed to fight on land and unskilled at the oar; but there +lies now the open country of Thessaly; and the plains of Boeotia +offer a broad and worthy field for brave men, either horse or +foot, to contend in." + +But he sent privately to the Athenians, both by letter and word of +mouth from the king, promising to rebuild their city, to give them +a vast sum of money, and constitute them lords of all Greece on +condition they would not engage in the war. The Lacedaemonians +receiving news of this, and fearing, dispatched an embassy to the +Athenians, entreating that they would send their wives and +children to Sparta, and receive support from them for their +superannuated. For, being despoiled both of their city and +country, the people were suffering extreme distress. Having given +audience to the ambassadors, they returned an answer, upon the +motion of Aristides, worthy of the highest admiration; declaring, +that they forgave their enemies if they thought all things +purchasable by wealth, than which they knew nothing of greater +value; but that they felt offended at the Lacaemonians, for +looking only to their present poverty, without any remembrance of +their valor and magnanimity, and offering them their victuals, to +fight in the cause of Greece. Aristides made this proposal, +brought back the ambassadors into the assembly, and charged them +to tell the Lacaemonians that all the treasure on earth or under +it was of less value with the people of Athens than the liberty of +Greece. And, showing the sun to those who came from Mardonius," as +long as that retains the same course, so long," said he, "shall +the citizens of Athens wage war with the Persians for the country +which has been wasted, and the temples that have been profaned and +burnt by them." Moreover, he proposed a decree, that the priests +should anathematize him who sent any herald to the Medes, or +deserted the alliance of Greece. + +When Mardonius made a second incursion into the country of Attica, +the people passed over again into the isle of Salamis. Aristides +himself went to Lacedaemon, and reproved them for the delay and +neglect in abandoning Athens once more to the barbarians; and +demanded their assistance for that part of Greece which was not +yet lost. The Ephori, hearing this, made show of sporting all day, +and of carelessly keeping holy day (for they were then celebrating +the Hyacinthian festival), but in the night, selecting five +thousand Spartans, each of whom was attended by seven Helots, they +sent them forth unknown to those from Athens. And when Aristides +again reprehended them, they told him in derision that he either +doted or dreamed, for the army was already at Oresteum, in their +march towards the strangers; as they called the Persians. +Aristides answered that they jested unreasonably, deluding their +friends, instead of their enemies. + +Being chosen general for the war, he repaired to Plataea, with +eight thousand Athenians, where Pausanias, general-issimo of all +Greece, joined him with the Spartans; and the forces of the other +Greeks came in to them. The encampment of the barbarians extended +all along the bank of the river Asopus, their numbers being so +great, there was no enclosing them all, but their baggage and most +valuable things were surrounded with a square bulwark, each side +of which was the length of ten furlongs. + +The Tegeatans, contesting the post of honor with the Athenians, +demanded, that according to custom, the Lacedaemonians being +ranged on the right wing of the battle, they might have the left, +alleging several matters in commendation of their ancestors. The +Athenians being indignant at the claim, Aristides came forward and +said: "To contend with the Tegeatans for noble descent and valor, +the present time permits not: but this we say to you, O you +Spartans, and you the rest of the Greeks, that place neither takes +away nor contributes courage: we shall endeavor by maintaining the +post you assign us, to reflect no dishonor on our former +performances. For we are come, not to differ with our friends, but +to fight our enemies; not to extol our ancestors, but to behave as +valiant men. This battle will manifest how much each city, +captain, and private soldier is worth to Greece." The council of +war, upon this address, decided for the Athenians, and gave them +the other wing of the battle. + +At this juncture, Mardonius made trial of the Grecian courage, by +sending his whole number of horse, in which he thought himself +much the stronger, against them, while they were all, except the +Megarians, encamped at the foot of Mount Cithaeron, in strong and +rocky places. They being three thousand in number, had pitched +their tents on the plain, where the cavalry charged and made +inroads upon them from all sides. They sent, therefore, in haste +to Pausanias, demanding relief, not being able alone to sustain +the great numbers of the barbarians. Pausanias, hearing this, and +perceiving the tents of the Megarians almost hidden by the +multitude of darts and arrows, and themselves driven together into +a narrow space, was at a loss how to aid them with his battalions +of heavy-armed Lacedaemonians. He asked, therefore, as a test of +emulation and love of distinction, to the commanders and captains +who were around him, if any would voluntarily take upon the +defense and succor of the Megarians. + +The rest being backward, Aristides undertook the enterprise for +the Athenians, and sent Olympiodorus, the most valiant of his +inferior officers, with three hundred chosen men and some archers +under his command. These were soon in readiness, and running upon +the enemy, as soon as it was perceived by Masistius, who commanded +the cavalry of the barbarians, a man of wonderful courage and of +extraordinary bulk and comeliness of person, he turned his steed +and made towards them. They sustained the shock and joined battle +with him, as though by this encounter they were to try the success +of the whole war. But after Masistius's horse received a wound, +and flung him, and he falling, could hardly raise himself through +the weight of his armor, the Athenians pressed upon him with +blows, but could not easily get at his person, armed as he was, +breast, head, and limbs all over, with gold and brass and iron; +but one of them at last, running a javelin under the visor of his +helmet, slew him; and the rest of the Persians, leaving the body, +fled. The greatness of the Greek success was known, not by the +multitude of the slain, (for an inconsiderable number were +killed), but by the sorrow the barbarians expressed. For they +shaved themselves, their horses, and mules for the death of +Masistius, and filled the plain with howling and lamentation; +having lost a person, who, next to Mardonius himself, was by far +the chief among them, both for valor and authority. + +After this skirmish of the horse, they kept from fighting a long +time; for the soothsayers, by the sacrifices, foretold the victory +both to Greeks and Persians, if they stood upon the defensive part +only, but if they became aggressors, the contrary. At length +Mardonious, when he had but a few days' provision, and the Greek +forces were increasing continually, impatient of delay, determined +to lie still no longer, but passing Asopus by daybreak, to fall +unexpectedly upon the Greeks. This he signified the night before +to the captains of his host. But about midnight, a certain +horseman stole into the Greek camp, and coming to the watch, +desired them to summon Aristides, the Athenian, to him. He came +speedily, and the stranger said: "I am Alexander, king of the +Macedonians, and have come here through the greatest danger in the +world for the goodwill I bear you, lest a sudden onset should +dismay you, so as to behave in the fight worse than usual. For to- +morrow Mardonius will give you battle, urged, not by any hope of +success or courage, but by want of victuals: for the prophets +prohibit him from the battle, the sacrifices and oracles being +unfavorable; but the army is in despondency and consternation; and +necessity forces him to try his fortune, or sit still and endure +the last extremity of want." Alexander, thus saying, entreated +Aristides to take notice and remember him, but not tell any other. +But he replied that it was not fair conceal to the matter from +Pausanias (because he was general); as for any others he would +keep it secret from them till the battle was fought; but if the +Greeks obtained the victory, that then no one should be ignorant +of Alexander's goodwill and kindness towards them. After this, the +king of the Macedonians rode back again, and Aristides went to +Pausanias's tent and told him; and they sent for the rest of the +captains and gave orders that the army should be in battle array. + +Meantime, day came upon them; and Mardonious having his army in +array, fell upon the Lacedaemonians with great shouting and noise +of barbarous people, as if they were not about to join battle, but +crush the Greeks in their flight- a thing which very nearly came +to pass. For Pausanius, perceiving what was done, made a halt, and +commanded every one to put themselves in order for the battle; but +through the disturbance he was in, on account of the sudden +approach of the enemy, he forgot to give the signal to the Greeks +in general. Whence it was, that they did not come immediately, or +in a body, to their assistance, but by small companies and +straggling, when the fight was already begun. Pausanias, offering +sacrifice, could not procure favorable omens, and so commanded the +Lacedaemonians to set down their shields at their feet and wait +quietly await for his directions, making no resistance to any of +their enemies. At this time, Callicrates, who, we are told, was +the most comely man in the army, being shot with an arrow and upon +the point of expiring, said that he did not lament his death (for +he came from home to lay down his life in defense of Greece) but +that he died without action. While Pausanias was thus in the act +of supplication, the sacrifices appeared propitious, and the +soothsayers foretold victory. The word being given, the +Lacedaemonian battalion of foot seemed, on the sudden, like some +fierce animal, setting up his bristles, and betaking himself to +the combat; and the barbarians perceived that they encountered +with men who would fight to the death. Therefore, holding their +wicker shields before them, they shot their arrows amongst the +Lacedaemonians. But they, keeping together in the order of a +phalanx, and falling upon their enemies forced their shields out +of their hands, and, striking with their pikes at the breasts and +faces of the Persians, overthrew many of them; they, however, fell +neither unrevenged nor without courage. For taking hold of the +spears with their bare hands, they broke many of them, and betook +themselves with effect to the sword; and making use of their +falchions and scimitars, and wresting the Lacedaemonians' shields +from them, and grappling with them, for a long time stood their +ground. + +Meanwhile, the Athenians were standing still, waiting for the +Lacedaemonians to come up. But when they heard a great noise as of +men engaged in fight, and a messenger came from Pausanias to +inform them of what was going on, they made haste to their +assistance. And as they passed through the plain to the place +where the noise was, the recreant Greeks, who took part with the +enemy, came upon them. Aristides, as soon as he saw them, going a +considerable space before the rest, cried out to them, by the +guardian gods of Greece, not to enter the fight, and be no +impediment to those who were going to succor the defenders of +Greece. But when he perceived that they gave no attention to him, +and had prepared themselves for the battle, then turning from the +present relief of the Lacedaemonians, he engaged with them, being +five thousand in number. But the greatest part soon gave way and +retreated, as the barbarians were also put to flight. + +The battle being thus divided, the Lacedaemonians first beat off +the Persians; and a Spartan, named Arimnestus, slew Mardonius by a +blow on the head with a stone, as the oracle in the temple of +Amphiaraus had foretold to him. For Mardonius sent a Lydian +thither, and another person, a Carian, to the cave of Trophonius. +The latter, the priest of the oracle answered in his own language. +But to the Lydian sleeping in the temple of Amphiaraus, it seemed +that a minister of the divinity stood before him and commanded him +to be gone; and on his refusing to do it, flung a great stone at +his head, so that he thought himself slain with the blow. Such is +the story. + +Of three hundred thousand of the enemy, forty thousand only are +said to have escaped with Artabazus; while on the Greeks' side +there perished in all thirteen hundred and sixty; of whom fifty- +two were Athenians, all of the tribe Aeantis, that fought, says +Clidemus, with the greatest courage of all; and for this reason +the men of this tribe used to offer sacrifice for the victory, as +enjoined by the oracle, at the public expense; ninety-one were +Lacedaemonians, and sixteen Tegeatans. They engraved upon the +altar this inscription: + +The Greeks, when by their courage and their might, +They had repelled the Persian in the fight, +The common altar of freed Greece to be, +Reared this to Jupiter who guards the free. + +The battle of Plataea was fought on the fourth day of the month +Boedromion, on which day there is still a convention of the Greeks +at Plataea, and the Plateans still offer sacrifice for the victory +to "Jupiter of freedom." + +After this, the Athenians, not yielding the honor of the day to +the Lacedaemonians, nor consenting that they should erect a +trophy, peace was well-nigh destroyed by a dissension among the +armed Greeks; but Aristides, by soothing and counseling the +commanders, especially Leocrates and Myronides, pacified and +persuaded them to leave the thing to the decision of the Greeks. +Cleocritus of Corinth rising up, made people think he would ask +the palm for the Corinthians (for next to Sparta and Athens, +Corinth was in greatest estimation); but he delivered his opinion, +to the general admiration, in favor of the Plataeans; and +counseled to take away all contention by giving them the reward +and the glory of the victory, whose being honored could be +distasteful to neither party. This being said, first Aristides +gave consent in the name of the Athenians, and Pausanias then, for +the Lacedaemonians. So, being reconciled, they set apart eighty +talents for the Plateans, with which they built the temple and +dedicated the image to Minerva, and adorned the temple with +pictures, which even to this very day retain their lustre. But the +Lacedaemonians and Athenians each erected a trophy apart by +themselves. On their consulting the oracle about offering +sacrifice, Apollo answered that they should dedicate an altar to +Jupiter of freedom, but should not sacrifice till they had +extinguished the fires throughout the country, as having been +defiled by the barbarians, and had kindled unpolluted fire at the +common altar at Delphi. The magistrates of Greece, therefore, went +forthwith and compelled such as had fire to put it out; and +Euchidas, a Plataean, promising to fetch fire with all possible +speed, from the altar of the god, ran to Delphi, and having +sprinkled and purified his body, crowned himself with laurel; and +taking the fire from the altar ran back to Plataea, arriving +before sunset, and performing in one day a journey of a thousand +furlongs; and saluting his fellow-citizens and delivering them the +fire, he immediately fell down and a short time after expired. +Then the Plataeans, taking him up, interred him in the temple of +Diana Euclia, setting this inscription over him: "Euchidas ran to +Delphi and back again in one day." + +A general assembly of all the Greeks being called, Aristides +proposed a decree, that the deputies and religious representatives +of the Greek states should assemble annually at Plataea, and every +fifth year celebrate the Eleutheria, or games of freedom. And that +there should be a levy upon all Greece, for the war against the +barbarians, of ten thousand spearmen, one thousand horse, and a +hundred sail of ships; but the Plateans to be exempt, and sacred +to the service of the gods, offering sacrifice for the welfare of +Greece. These things being ratified, the Plateans undertook the +performance of annual sacrifice to such as were slain and buried +in that place; which they still perform in the following manner. +On the sixteenth day of Maemacterion they make their procession, +which, beginning by break of day, is led by a trumpeter sounding +for onset; then follow chariots loaded with myrrh and garlands; +and then a black bull; then come the young men of free birth +carrying libations of wine and milk in large two-handed vessels, +and jars of oil and precious ointments, none of servile condition +being permitted to have any hand in this ministration, because the +men died in defense of freedom; after all comes the chief +magistrate of Plataea (for whom it is unlawful at other times for +him either to touch iron, or wear any other colored garment but +white), at that time appareled in a purple robe; and taking a +water-pot out of the city record-office, he proceeds, bearing a +sword in his hand, through the middle of the town to the +sepulchres. Then drawing water out of a spring, he washes and +anoints the monuments, and sacrificing the bull upon a pile of +wood, and making supplication to Jupiter and Mercury of the earth, +invites those valiant men who perished in the defense of Greece, +to the banquet and the libations of blood. After this, mixing a +bowl of wine, and pouring out for himself, he says, "I drink to +those who lost their lives for the liberty of Greece." These +solemnities the Plataeans observe to this day. + +Theophrastus tells us that Aristides was, in his own private +affairs, and those of his own fellow-citizens, rigorously just, +but that in public matters he acted often in accordance with his +country's policy, which demanded, sometimes, not a little +injustice. It is reported of him that he said in a debate, upon +the motion of the Samians for removing the treasure from Delos to +Athens, contrary to the league, that the thing indeed was not +just, but was expedient. + +In fine, having established the dominion of his city over so many +people, he himself remained indigent; and always delighted as much +in the glory of being poor, as in that of his trophies; as is +evident from the following story. Callias, the torch-bearer was +related to him: and was prosecuted by his enemies in a capital +cause, in which, after they had slightly argued the matters on +which they indicted him, they proceeded, beside the point, to +address the judges: "You know," said they, "Aristides, the son of +Lysimachus, who is the admiration of all Greece. In what a +condition do you think his family is at his house, when you see +him appear in public in such a threadbare cloak? Is it not +probable that one, who, out of doors, goes thus exposed to the +cold, must want food and other necessaries at home? Callias, the +wealthiest of the Athenians, does nothing to relieve either him or +his wife and children in their poverty, though he is his own +cousin, and has made use of him in many cases, and often reaped +advantage by his interest with you." But Callias, perceiving that +the judges were particularly moved by this, and were exasperated +against him, called in Aristides, who testified that when Callias +offered him divers presents, and entreated him to accept them, he +had refused, answering, that it became him better to be proud of +his poverty than Callias of his wealth. On Aristides deposing +these facts in favor of Callias, there was not one who heard them +that went way desirous rather to be poor like Aristides, than rich +as Callias. Thus Aeschines, the scholar of Socrates, writes. But +Plato declares, that of all the great and renowned men in the city +of Athens, he was the only one worthy of consideration; for while +Themistocles, Cimon, and Pericles filled the city with porticoes, +treasure, and many other vain things, Aristides guided his public +life by the rule of justice. He showed his moderation very plainly +in his conduct toward Themistocles himself. For though +Themistocles had been his adversary in all his undertakings, and +was the cause of his banishment, yet when he afforded a similar +opportunity of revenge, being accused by the city, Aristides bore +him no malice; but while Alcmaeon, Cimon, and many others were +prosecuting and impeaching him, Aristides alone, neither did, nor +said any evil against him, and no more triumphed over his enemy in +his adversity, than he had envied him his prosperity. + +Some say Aristides died in Pontus, during a voyage upon the +affairs of the public. Others say that he died of old age at +Athens, being in great honor and veneration among his fellow- +citizens. + +His monument is to be seen at Phalerum, which they say was built +for him by the city, he not having left enough even to defray +funeral charges. And it is stated, that his two daughters were +publicly married out of the prytaneum, or state-house, by the +city, which decreed each of them three thousand drachmas for her +portion; and that upon his son Lysimachus, the people bestowed a +hundred minas of money, and as many acres of planted land, and +ordered him besides, upon the motion of Alcibiades, four drachmas +a day. + + + +CIMON + +Cimon was the son of Miltiades and Hegesipyle, who was by birth a +Thracian, and daughter to the king Olorus. By this means the +historian Thucydides was his kinsman by the mother's side; for his +father's name also, in remembrance of this common ancestor, was +Olorus, and he was the owner of the gold mines in Thrace, and met +his death, it is said, by violence, in Scapte Hyle, a district of +Thrace. Cimon was left an orphan very young, with his sister +Elpinice, who was also young and unmarried. And at first he had +but an indifferent reputation, being looked upon as disorderly in +his habits, fond of drinking, and resembling his grandfather, also +called Cimon, in character, whose simplicity got him the surname +of Coalemus the simpleton. Stesimbrotus of Thasos, who lived about +the same time with Cimon, reports of him that he had little +acquaintance either with music, or any of the other liberal +studies and accomplishments, then common among the Greeks; that he +had nothing whatever of the quickness and the ready speech of his +countrymen in Attica; that he had great nobleness and candor in +his disposition, and in his character in general, resembled rather +a native of Peloponnesus, than of Athens; as Euripides describes +Hercules: -- + + ----Rude And unrefined, for great things, well-endued; + +for this may fairly be added to the character which Stesimbrotus +has given of him. + +Almost all the points of Cimon's character were noble and good. He +was as daring as Miltiades, and not inferior to Themistocles in +judgment, and was incomparably more just and honest than either of +them. Fully their equal in all military virtues, in the ordinary +duties of a citizen at home he was immeasurably their superior. +And this, too, when he was very young, his years not strengthened +by any experience. For when Themistocles, upon the Median +invasion, advised the Athenians to forsake their city and their +country, and to carry all their arms on shipboard, and fight the +enemy by sea, in the straits of Salamis; when all the people stood +amazed at the confidence and rashness of this advice, Cimon was +seen, the first of all men, passing with a cheerful countenance +through the Ceramics, on his way with his companions to the +citadel, carrying a bridle in his hand to offer to the goddess, +intimating that there was no more need of horsemen now, but of +mariners. There, after he had paid his devotions to the goddess, +and offered up the bridle, he took down one of the bucklers that +hung upon the walls of the temple, and went down to the port; by +this example giving confidence to many of the citizens. He was +also of a fairly handsome person, according to the poet Ion, tall +and large, and let his thick and curly hair grow long. After he +had acquitted himself gallantly in this battle of Salamis, he +obtained great repute among the Athenians, and was regarded with +affection, as well as admiration. He had many who followed after +him, and bade him aspire to actions not less famous than his +father's battle of Marathon. And when he came forward in political +life, the people welcomed him gladly, being now weary of +Themistocles; in opposition to whom, and because of the frankness +and easiness of his temper, which was agreeable to every one, they +advanced Cimon to the highest employments in the government. The +man that contributed most to his promotion was Aristides, who +early discerned in his character his natural capacity, and +purposely raised him, that he might be a counterpoise to the craft +and boldness of Themistocles. After the Medes had been driven out +of Greece, Cimon was sent out as admiral, when the Athenians had +not yet attained their dominion by sea, but still followed +Pausanias and the Lacedaemonians; and his fellow-citizens under +his command were highly distinguished, both for the excellence of +their discipline, and for their extraordinary zeal and readiness. +And further, perceiving that Pausanias was carrying on secret +communications with the barbarians, and writing letters to the +king of Persia to betray Greece, and, puffed up with authority and +success, was treating the allies haughtily, and committing many +wanton injustices, Cimon, taking advantage, by acts of kindness to +those who were suffering wrong, and by his general humane bearing, +robbed him of the command of the Greeks, before he was aware, not +by arms, but by his mere language and character. Cimon, +strengthened with the accession of the allies, went as general +into Thrace. For he was told that some great men among the +Persians, of the king's kindred, being in possession of Eion, a +city situated upon the river Strymon, infested the neighboring +Greeks. First he defeated these Persians in battle, and shut them +up within the walls of their town. Then he fell upon the Thracians +of the country beyond the Strymon, because they supplied Eion with +victuals, and driving them entirely out of the country, took +possession of it as conqueror, by which means he reduced the +besieged to such straits, that Butes, who commanded there for the +king, in desperation set fire to the town, and burned himself, his +goods, and all his relations, in one common flame. By this means, +Cimon got the town, but no great booty; as the barbarians had not +only consumed themselves in the fire, but the richest of their +effects. However, he put the country into the hands of the +Athenians, a most advantageous and desirable situation for a +settlement. For this action, the people permitted him to erect the +stone Mercuries, upon the first of which was this inscription:-- + +Of bold and patient spirit, too, were those Who, where the Strymon +under Eion flows, With famine and the sword, to utmost need +Reduced at last the children of the Mede. + +Upon the second stood this:-- + +The Athenians to their leaders this reward For great and useful +service did accord; Others hereafter, shall, from their applause, +Learn to be valiant in their country's cause. + +And upon the third, the following:-- + +With Atreus' sons, this city sent of yore Divine Menestheus to the +Trojan shore; Of all the Greeks, so Homer's verses say, The ablest +man an army to array; So old the title of her sons the name Of +chiefs and champions in the field to claim. + +Though the name of Cimon is not mentioned in these inscriptions, +yet his contemporaries considered them to be the very highest +honors to him; as neither Miltiades nor Themistocles ever received +the like. When Miltiades claimed a garland, Sochares of Decelea +stood up in the midst of the assembly and opposed it, using words +which, though ungracious, were received with applause by the +people. "When you have gained a victory by yourself, Miltiades, +then you may ask to triumph so too." + +One mark of Cimon's great favor with the people, was the judgment, +afterwards so famous upon the tragic poets. Sophocles, still a +young man, had just brought forward his first plays; opinions were +much divided, and the spectators had taken sides with some heat. +So, to determine the case, Apsephion, who was at that time Archon, +would not cast lots who should be judges; but when Cimon, and his +brother commanders with him, came into the theatre, after they had +performed the usual rites to the god of the festival, he would not +allow them to retire, but came forward and made them swear, being +ten in all, one from each tribe, the usual oath; and so being +sworn judges, he made them sit down to give sentence. The +eagerness for victory grew all the warmer, from the ambition to +get the suffrages of such honorable judges. And the victory was at +last adjudged to Sophocles, which Aeschylus is said to have taken +so ill, that he left Athens shortly after, and went in anger to +Sicily, where he died, and was buried near the city of Gela. + +Ion relates that when he was a young man, and had recently come +from Chios to Athens, he chanced to sup with Cimon, at Laomedon's +house. After supper, when they had, according to custom, poured +out wine to the honor of the gods, Cimon was desired by the +company to give them a song, which he did with sufficient success, +and received the commendations of the company, who remarked on his +superiority to Themistocles, who, on a like occasion, had declared +he had never learnt to sing, or to play, and only knew how to make +a city rich and powerful. After talking of things incident to such +entertainments, they entered upon the particulars of the several +actions for which Cimon had been famous. And when they were +mentioning the most signal, he told them they had omitted one, +upon which he valued himself most for address and good +contrivance. He gave this account of it. When the allies had taken +a great number of the barbarians prisoners in Sestos and +Byzantium, they gave him the preference to divide the booty; he +accordingly put the prisoners in one lot, and the spoils of their +rich attire and jewels in the other. This the allies complained of +as an unequal division; but he gave them their choice to take +which lot they would, saying that the Athenians should be content +with that which they refused. Herophytus of Samos advised them to +take the ornaments for their share, and leave the slaves to the +Athenians; and Cimon went away, and was much laughed at for his +ridiculous division. For the allies carried away the golden +bracelets, and armlets, and collars, and purple robes, and the +Athenians had only the naked bodies of the captives, which they +could make no advantage of, being unused to labor. But a little +while after, the friends and kinsmen of the prisoners coming from +Lydia and Phrygia, redeemed every one his relations at a high +ransom; so that by this means Cimon got so much treasure that he +maintained his whole fleet of galleys with the money for four +months; and yet there was some left to lay up in the treasury at +Athens. + +Cimon now grew rich, and what he gained from the barbarians with +honor, he spent yet more honorably upon the citizens. For he +pulled down all the enclosures of his gardens and grounds, that +strangers, and the needy of his fellow-citizens, might gather of +its fruits freely. At home, he kept a table, plain, but sufficient +for a considerable number, to which any poor townsman had free +access, and so might support himself without labor, with his whole +time left free for public duties. Aristotle states, however, that +this reception did not extend to all the Athenians, but only to +his own fellow townsmen, the Laciadae.* Besides this, he always +went attended by two or three young companions, very well clad; +and if he met with an elderly citizen in a poor habit, one of +these would change clothes with the decayed citizen, which was +looked upon as very nobly done. He enjoined them, likewise, to +carry a considerable quantity of coin about them, which they were +to convey silently into the hands of the better class of poor men, +as they stood by them in the market-place. This, Cratinus, the +poet, speaks of in one of his comedies, the Archilochi:-- + +For I, Metrobius too, the scrivener poor, +Of ease and comfort in my age secure, +By Greece's noblest son in life's decline, +Cimon, the generous-hearted, the divine, +Well-fed and feasted hoped till death to be, +Death which, alas! has taken him ere me. + +Gorgias the Leontine gives him this character, that he got riches +that he might use them, and used them that he might get honor by +them. And Critias, one of the thirty tyrants, makes it, in his +elegies, his wish to have + +The Scopads' wealth, and Cimon's nobleness, +And king Agesilaus's success. + +Lichas, we know, became famous in Greece, only because on the days +of the sports, when the young boys ran naked, he used to entertain +the strangers that came to see these diversions. But Cimon's +generosity outdid all the old Athenian hospitality and good- +nature. For though it is the city's just boast that their +forefathers taught the rest of Greece to sow corn, and how to use +springs of water, and to kindle fire, yet Cimon, by keeping open +house for his fellow-citizens, and giving travelers liberty to eat +the fruits which the several seasons produced in his land, seemed +to restore to the world that community of goods, which mythology +says existed in the reign of Saturn. Those who object to him that +he did this to be popular, and gain the applause of the vulgar, +are confuted by the constant tenor of the rest of his actions, +which all ended to uphold the interests of the nobility and the +Spartan policy, of which he gave instances, when, together with +Aristides, he opposed Themistocles, who was advancing the +authority of the people beyond its just limits, and resisted +Ephialtes, who to please the multitude, was for abolishing the +jurisdiction of the court of Areopagus. And when all the men of +his time, except Aristides and Ephialtes, enriched themselves out +of the public money, he still kept his hands clean and untainted, +and to his last day never acted or spoke for his own private gain +or emolument. They tell us that Rhoesaces, a Persian, who had +traitorously revolted from the king his master, fled to Athens, +and there, being harassed by sycophants who were still accusing +him to the people, he applied himself to Cimon for redress, and to +gain his favor, laid down in his doorway two cups, the one full of +gold, and the other of silver Darics. Cimon smiled and asked him +whether he wished to have Cimon's hired service or his friendship. +He replied, his friendship. "If so," said he, "take away these +pieces, for being your friend, when I shall have occasion for +them, I will send and ask for them." + +The allies of the Athenians began now to be weary of war and +military service, willing to have repose, and to look after their +husbandry and traffic. For they saw their enemies driven out of +the country, and did not fear any new vexations from them. They +still paid the tax they were assessed at, but did not send men and +galleys, as they had done before. This the other Athenian generals +wished to constrain them to, and by judicial proceedings against +defaulters, and penalties which they inflicted on them, made the +government uneasy, and even odious. But Cimon practiced a contrary +method; he forced no man to go that was not willing, but of those +that desired to be excused from service he took money and vessels +unmanned, and let them yield to the temptation of staying at home, +to attend to their private business. Thus they lost their military +habits, and luxury and their own folly quickly changed them into +unwarlike husbandmen and traders; while Cimon, continually +embarking large numbers of Athenians on board his galleys, +thoroughly disciplined them in his expeditions, and ere long made +them the lords of their own paymasters. The allies, whose +indolence maintained them, while they thus went sailing about +everywhere, and incessantly bearing arms and acquiring skill, +began to fear and flatter them, and found themselves after a while +allies no longer, but unwittingly become tributaries and slaves. + +Nor did any man ever do more than Cimon did to humble the pride of +the Persian king. He was not content with ridding Greece of him; +but following close at his heels, before the barbarians could take +breath and recover themselves, what with his devastations, and his +forcible reduction of some places and the revolts and voluntary +accession of others, in the end, from Ionia to Pamphylia, all Asia +was clear of Persian soldiers. Word being brought him that the +royal commanders were lying in wait upon the coast of Pamphylia, +with a numerous land army, and a large fleet, he determined to +make the whole sea on this side the Chelidonian islands so +formidable to them that they should never dare to show themselves +in it; and setting off from Cnidos and the Triopian headland, with +two hundred galleys, which had been originally built with +particular care by Themistocles, for speed and rapid evolutions, +and to which he now gave greater width and roomier decks along the +sides to move to and fro upon, so as to allow a great number of +full-armed soldiers to take part in the engagements and fight from +them, he shaped his course first of all against the town of +Phaselis, which, though inhabited by Greeks, yet would not quit +the interests of Persia, but denied his galleys entrance into +their port. Upon this he wasted the country, and drew up his army +to their very walls; but the soldiers of Chios, who were then +serving under him, being ancient friends to the Phaselites, +endeavoring to propitiate the general in their behalf, at the same +time shot arrows into the town, to which were fastened letters +conveying intelligence. At length he concluded peace with them, +upon the conditions that they should pay down ten talents, and +follow him against the barbarians. The Persian admiral lay waiting +for him with the whole fleet at the mouth of the river Eurymedon, +with no design to fight, but expecting a reinforcement of eighty +Phoenician ships on their way from Cyprus. Cimon, aware of this, +put out to sea, resolved, if they would not fight a battle +willingly, to force them to it. The barbarians, seeing this, +retired within the mouth of the river to avoid being attacked; but +when they saw the Athenians come upon them, notwithstanding their +retreat, they met them with six hundred ships, as Phanodemus +relates, but according to Ephorus, with three hundred and fifty. +However, they did nothing worthy such mighty forces, but +immediately turned the prows of their galleys toward the shore, +where those that came first threw themselves upon the land, and +fled to their army drawn up thereabout, while the rest perished +with their vessels, or were taken. By this, one may guess at their +number, for though a great many escaped out of the fight, and a +great many others were sunk, yet two hundred galleys were taken by +the Athenians. + +When their land army drew toward the seaside, Cimon was in +suspense whether he should venture to try and force his way on +shore; as he should thus expose his Greeks, wearied with slaughter +in the first engagement, to the swords of the barbarians, who were +all fresh men, and many times their number. But seeing his men +resolute, and flushed with victory, he bade them land, though they +were not yet cool from their first battle. As soon as they touched +ground, they set up a shout and ran upon the enemy, who stood firm +and sustained the first shock with great courage, so that the +fight was a hard one, and some of the principal men of the +Athenians in rank and courage were slain. At length, though with +much ado, they routed the barbarians, and killing some, took +others prisoners, and plundered all their tents and pavilions, +which were full of rich spoil. Cimon, liked a skilled athlete at +the games, having in one day carried off two victories, wherein he +surpassed that of Salamis by sea, and that of Plataea by land, was +encouraged to try for yet another success. News being brought that +the Phoenician succors, in number eighty sail, had come in sight +at Hydrum, he set off with all speed to find them, while they as +yet had not received any certain account of the larger fleet, and +were in doubt what to think; so that thus surprised, they lost all +their vessels, and most of their men with them. This success of +Cimon so daunted the king of Persia, that he presently made that +celebrated peace, by which he engaged that his armies should come +no nearer the Grecian sea than the length of a horse's course; and +that none of his galleys or vessels of war should appear between +the Cyanean and Chelidonian isles. In the collection which +Craterus made of the public acts of the people, there is a draft +of this treaty given. + +The people of Athens raised so much money from the spoils of this +war, which were publicly sold, that, besides other expenses, and +raising the south wall of the citadel, they laid the foundation of +the long walls, not, indeed, finished till at a later time, which +were called the Legs. And the place where they built them being +soft and marshy ground, they were forced to sink great weights of +stone and rubble to secure the foundation, and did all this out of +the money Cimon supplied them with. + +It was he, likewise, who first embellished the upper city with +those fine and ornamental places of exercise and resort, which +they afterward so much frequented and delighted in. He set the +market-place with plane trees; and the Academy, which was before a +bare, dry, and dirty spot, he converted into a well-watered grove, +with shady alleys to walk in, and open courses for races. + +When the Persians who had made themselves masters of the +Chersonese, so far from quitting it, called in the people of the +interior of Thrace to help them against Cimon, whom they despised +for the smallness of his forces, he set upon them with only four +galleys, and took thirteen of theirs; and having driven out the +Persians, and subdued the Thracians, he made the hole Chersonese +the property of Athens. Next, he attacked the people of Thasos, +who had revolted from the Athenians; and, having defeated them in +a fight at sea, where he captured thirty-three of their vessels, +he took their own by siege, and acquired for the Athenians all the +mines of gold on the opposite coast, and the territory dependent +on Thasos. + +This opened him a fair passage into Macedon, so that he might, it +was thought, have acquired a good portion of that country, and +because he neglected the opportunity, he was suspected of +corruption, and of having been bribed off by king Alexander. So, +by the combination of his adversaries, he was accused of being +false to his country. In his defence he told the judges, that he +had always shown himself in his public life the friend, not, like +other men, of rich Ionians and Thessalonians, to be courted, and +to receive presents, but of the Lacedaemonians; for as he admired, +so he wished to imitate, the plainness of their habits, their +temperance, and simplicity of living, which he preferred to any +sort of riches; but that he always had been, and still was proud +to enrich his country with the spoils of her enemies. Pericles +proved the mildest of his prosecutors, and rose up but once all +the while, almost as a matter of form, to plead against him. Cimon +was acquitted. + +In his public life after this, he continued, while at home, to +control the common people, who would have trampled upon the +nobility, and drawn all the power and sovereignty to themselves. +But when he afterwards was sent out to war, the multitude broke +loose, as it were, and overthrew all the ancient laws and customs +they had hitherto observed, and, chiefly at the instigation of +Ephialtes, withdrew the cognizance of almost all causes from the +Areopagus; so that all jurisdiction now being transferred to them, +the government was reduced to a perfect democracy, and this by the +help of Pericles, who was already powerful, and had pronounced in +favor of the common people. + +He was indeed a favorer of the Lacedaemonians even from his youth, +and gave the names of Lacedaemonius and Eleus to his two sons, +twins. + +Cimon was countenanced by the Lacedaemonians in opposition to +Themistocles, whom they disliked; and while he was yet very young, +they endeavored to raise and increase his credit in Athens. This +the Athenians perceived at first with pleasure, and the favor the +Lacedaemonians showed him was in various ways advantageous to them +and their affairs; as at that time they were just rising to power, +and were occupied in winning the allies to their side. So they +seemed not at all offended with the honor and kindness showed to +Cimon, who then had the chief management of all the affairs of +Greece, and was acceptable to the Lacedaemonians, and courteous to +the allies. But afterwards the Athenians, grown more powerful, +when they saw Cimon so entirely devoted to the Lacedaemonians, +began to be angry, for he would always in speeches prefer them to +the Athenians, and upon every occasion, when he would reprimand +them for a fault, or incite them to emulation, he would exclaim, +"The Lacedaemonians would not do thus." This raised the +discontent, and got him in some degree the hatred of the citizens; +but that which ministered chiefly to the accusation against him +fell out upon the following occasion. + +In the fourth year of the reign of Archidamus, the son of +Zeuxidamus, king of Sparta, there happened in the country of +Lacedaemon, the greatest earthquake that was known in the memory +of ma; the earth opened into chasms, and the mountain Taygetus was +so shaken that some of the rocky points of it fell down, and +except five houses, all the town of Sparta was shattered to +pieces. They say that a little before any motion was perceived, as +the young men and the boys just grown up were exercising +themselves together in the middle of the portico, a hare, of a +sudden, started out just by them, which the young men, though all +naked and daubed with oil, ran after for sport. No sooner were +they gone from the place, than the gymnasium fell down upon the +boys who had stayed behind, and killed them all. Their tomb is to +this day called Sismatias.* Archidamus, by the present danger made +apprehensive of what might follow, and seeing the citizens intent +upon removing the most valuable of their goods out of their +houses, commanded an alarm to be sounded, as if an enemy were +coming upon them, in order that they should collect about him in a +body, with arms. It was this alone that saved Sparta at that time, +for the Helots had come together from the country about, with +design of surprising the Spartans, and overpowering those whom the +earthquake had spared. But finding them armed and well prepared, +they retired into the towns and openly made war with them, gaining +over a number of the Laconians of the country districts; while at +the same time the Messenians, also, made an attack upon the +Spartans, who therefore despatched Periclidas to Athens to solicit +succor, of whom Aristophanes says in mockery that he came and + +In a red jacket, at the altars seated, +With a white face, for men and arms entreated. + +This Ephialtes opposed, protesting that they ought not to raise up +or assist a city that was a rival to Athens; but that being down, +it were best to keep her so, and let the pride and arrogance of +Sparta be trodden under. But Cimon, as Critias says, preferring +the safety of Lacedaemon to the aggrandizement of his own country, +so persuaded the people, that he soon marched out with a large +army to their relief. Ion records, also, the most successful +expression which he used to move the Athenians. "They ought not to +suffer Greece to be lamed, nor their own city to be deprived of +her yoke fellow." + +In his return from aiding the Lacedaemonians, he passed with his +army through the territory of Corinth; whereupon Lachartus +reproached him for bringing his army into the country, without +first asking leave of the people. For he that knocks at another +man's door ought not to enter the house till the master gives him +leave. "But you, Corinthians, O Lachartus," said Cimon, "did not +knock at the gates of the Cleonaeans and Megarians, but broke them +down and entered by force, thinking that all places should be open +to the stronger." And having thus rallied the Corinthian, he +passed on with his army. Some time after this, the Lacedaemonians +sent a second time to desire succor of the Athenians against the +Messenians and Helots, who had seized upon Ithome. But when they +came, fearing their boldness and gallantry, of all that came to +their assistance, they sent them only back, alleging that they +were designing innovations. The Athenians returned home, enraged +at this usage, and vented their anger upon all those who were +favorers of the Lacedaemonians; and seizing some slight occasion, +they banished Cimon for ten years, which is the time prescribed to +those that are banished by the ostracism. In the mean time, the +Lacedaemonians, on their return after freeing Delphi from the +Phocians, encamped their army at Tanagra, whither the Athenians +presently marched with design to fight them. + +Cimon also, came thither armed and ranged himself among those of +his own tribe, which was the Oeneis, desirous of fighting with the +rest against the Spartans; but the council of five hundred being +informed of this, and frightened at it, his adversaries crying out +that he would disorder the army, and bring the Lacedaemonians to +Athens, commanded the officers not to receive him. Wherefore Cimon +left the army, conjuring Euthippus, the Anaphylstian, and the rest +of his companions, who were most suspected as favoring the +Lacedaemonians, to behave themselves bravely against their +enemies, and by their actions make their innocence evident to +their countrymen. These, being in all a hundred, took the arms of +Cimon, and followed his advice; and making a body by themselves, +fought so desperately with the enemy, that they were all cut off, +leaving the Athenians deep regret for the loss of such brave men, +and repentance for having so unjustly suspected them. Accordingly, +they did not long retain their severity toward Cimon, partly upon +remembrance of his former services, and partly, perhaps, induced +by the juncture of the times. For being defeated at Tanagra in a +great battle, and fearing the Peloponnesians would come upon them +at the opening of the spring, they recalled Cimon by a decree, of +which Pericles himself was author. So reasonable were men's +resentments in those times, and so moderate their anger, that it +always gave way to the public good. Even ambition, the least +governable of all human passions, could then yield to the +necessities of the State. + +Cimon, as soon as he returned, put an end to the war, and +reconciled the two cities. Peace thus established, seeing the +Athenians impatient of being idle, and eager for the honor and +aggrandizement of war, lest they should set upon the Greeks +themselves, or with so many ships cruising about the isles and +Peloponnesus, they should give occasions for intestine wars, or +complaints of their allies against them, he equipped two hundred +galleys, with design to make an attempt upon Egypt and Cyprus; +purposing, by this means, to accustom the Athenians to fight +against the barbarians, and enrich themselves honestly by +despoiling those who were the natural enemies to Greece. But when +all things were prepared, and the army ready to embark, Cimon had +this dream. It seemed to him that there was a furious female dog +barking at him, and, mixed with the barking, a kind of human voice +uttered these words: + +Come on, for thou shalt shortly be +A pleasure to my whelps and me. + + This dream was hard to interpret, yet Astyphilus of Posidonia, a +man skilled in divinations, and intimate with Cimon, told him that +his death was presaged by this vision, which he thus explained. A +dog is enemy to him he barks at; and one is always most a pleasure +to one's enemies, when one is dead; the mixture of human voice +with barking signifies the Medes, for the army of the Medes is +mixed up of Greeks and barbarians. After this dream, as he was +sacrificing to Bacchus, and the priest cutting up the victim, a +number of ants, taking up the congealed particles of the blood, +laid them about Cimon's great toes. This was not observed for a +good while, but at the very time when Cimon spied it, the priest +came and showed him the liver of the sacrifice imperfect, wanting +that part of it called the head. But he could not then recede from +the enterprise, so he set sail. Sixty of his ships he sent toward +Egypt; with the rest he went and fought the king of Persia's +fleet, composed of Phoenician and Cilician galleys, recovered all +the cities thereabout, and threatened Egypt; designing no less +than the entire ruin of the Persian empire. And the more because +he was informed that Themistocles was in great repute among the +barbarians, having promised the king to lead his army, whenever he +should make war upon Greece. But Themistocles, it is said, +abandoning all hopes of compassing his designs, very much out of +the despair of overcoming the valor and good-fortune of Cimon, +died a voluntary death. Cimon, intent on great designs, which he +was now to enter upon, keeping his navy about the isle of Cyprus, +sent messengers to consult the oracle of Jupiter Ammon upon some +secret matter. For it is not known about what they were sent, and +the god would give them no answer, but commanded them to return +again, for Cimon was already with him. Hearing this, they returned +to sea, and as soon as they came to the Grecian army, which was +then about Egypt, they understood that Cimon was dead; and +computing the time of the oracle, they found that his death had +been signified, he being then already with the gods. + +He died, some say, of sickness, while besieging Citium, in Cyprus; +according to others, of a wound he received in a skirmish with the +barbarians. When he perceived that he was going to die, he +commanded those under his charge to return, and by no means to let +the news of his death be known by the way; this they did with such +secrecy that they all came home safe, and neither their enemies +nor the allies knew what had happened. Thus, as Phanodemus +relates, the Grecian army was, as it were, conducted by Cimon +thirty days after he was dead. But after his death there was not +one commander among the Greeks that did any thing considerable +against the barbarians, and instead of uniting against their +common enemies, the popular leaders and partisans of war animated +them against one another to such a degree, that none could +interpose their good offices to reconcile them. And while, by +their mutual discord, they ruined the power of Greece, they gave +the Persians time to recover breath, and repair all their losses. +It is true, indeed, Agesilaus carried the arms of Greece into +Asia, but it was a long time afterwards; there were some brief +appearances of a war against the king's lieutenants in the +maritime provinces, but they all quickly vanished; before he could +perform any thing of moment, he was recalled by fresh civil +dissensions and disturbances at home. So that he was forced to +leave the Persian king's officers to impose what tribute they +pleased on the Greek cities in Asia, the confederates and allies +of the Lacedaemonians. Whereas, in the time of Cimon, not so much +as a letter-carrier, or a single horseman, was ever seen to come +within four hundred furlongs of the sea. + +The monuments, called Cimonian to this day, in Athens, show that +his remains were conveyed home, yet the inhabitants of the city +Citium pay particular honor to a certain tomb which they call the +tomb of Cimon, according to Nausicrates the rhetorician, who +states that in a time of famine, when the crops of their land all +failed, they sent to the oracle, which commanded them not to +forget Cimon, but give him the honors of a superior being. + + + +POMPEY + +The people of Rome appear, from the first, to have been affected +towards Pompey, much in the same manner as Prometheus, in +Aeschylus, was towards Hercules, when after that hero had +delivered him from his chains, he says-- + +The sire I hated, but the son I loved. + +For never did the Romans entertain a stronger and more rancorous +hatred for any general than for Strabo, the father of Pompey. +While he lived, indeed, they were afraid of his abilities as a +soldier, for he had great talents for war; but upon his death, +which happened by a stroke of lightning, they dragged his corpse +from the bier, on the way to the funeral pile, and treated it with +the greatest indignity. On the other hand, no man ever experienced +from the same Romans an attachment more early begun, more +disinterested in all the stages of his prosperity, or more +constant and faithful in the decline of his fortune, than Pompey. + +The sole cause of their aversion to the father was his insatiable +avarice; but there were many causes of their affection for the +son; his temperate way of living, his application to martial +exercises, his eloquent and persuasive address, his strict honor +and fidelity, and the easiness of access to him upon all +occasions; for no man was ever less importunate in asking favors, +or more gracious in conferring them. When he gave, it was without +arrogance; and when he received, it was with dignity. + +In his youth he had a very engaging countenance, which spoke for +him before he opened his lips. Yet that grace of aspect was not +attended with dignity, and amidst his youthful bloom there was a +venerable and princely air. His hair naturally curled a little +before; which, together with the shining moisture and quick turn +of his eye, produced a stronger likeness to Alexander the Great +than that which appeared in the statues of that prince. + +As to the simplicity of his diet, there is a remarkable saying of +his upon record. In a great illness, when his appetite was almost +gone, the physician ordered him a thrush. His servants, upon +inquiry, found there was not one to be had for money, for the +season was passed. They were informed, however, that Lucullus had +them all the year in his menageries. This being reported to +Pompey, he said, "Does Pompey's life depend upon the luxury of +Lucullus?" Then, without any regard to the physician, he ate +something that was easy to be had. + +After the death of Cinna, Carbo, a tyrant still more savage, took +the reins of government. It was not long, however, before Sylla +returned to Italy, to the great satisfaction of most of the +Romans, who, in their present unhappy circumstances, thought the +change of their master no small advantage. + +Pompey, at the age of twenty-three, without a commission from any +superior authority, erected himself into a general; and having +placed his tribunal in the most public part of the great city of +Auximum, enlisted soldiers and appointed tribunes, centurions, and +other officers, according to the established custom. He did the +same in all the neighboring cities; for the partisans of Carbo +retired and gave place to him; and the rest were glad to range +themselves under his banners. So that in a little time he raised +three complete legions, and furnished himself with provisions, +beasts of burden, carriages; in short, with the whole apparatus of +war. + +In this form he moved towards Sylla, not by hasty marches, nor as +if he wanted to conceal himself; for he stopped by the way to +harass the enemy; and attempted to draw off from Carbo all the +parts of Italy through which he passed. At last, three generals of +the opposite party, Carinna, Caelius, and Brutus, came against him +all at once, not in front, or in one body, but they hemmed him in +with their three armies, in hopes to demolish him entirely. + +Pompey, far from being terrified, assembled all his forces, and +charged the army of Brutus at the head of his cavalry. The Gaulish +horse on the enemy's side sustained the first shock; but Pompey +attacked the foremost of them, who was a man of prodigious +strength, and brought him down with a push of his spear. The rest +immediately fled and threw the infantry into such disorder that +the whole was soon put to flight. This produced so great a quarrel +among the three generals, that they parted and took separate +routes. In consequence of which, the cities, concluding that the +fears of the enemy had made them part, adopted the interest of +Pompey. + +Not long after, Scipio the consul advanced to engage him. But +before the infantry were near enough to discharge their lances, +Scipio's soldiers saluted those of Pompey, and came over to them. +Scipio, therefore, was forced to fly. At last, Carbo sent a large +body of cavalry against Pompey, near the river Arsis. He gave them +so warm a reception, that they were soon broken, and in the +pursuit drove them upon impracticable ground; so that finding it +impossible to escape, they surrendered themselves with their arms +and horses. + +Sylla had not yet been informed of these transactions; but upon +the first news of Pompey's being engaged with so many adversaries, +and such respectable generals, he dreaded the consequence, and +marched with all expedition to his assistance. Pompey, having +intelligence of his approach, ordered his officers to see that the +troops were armed and drawn up in such a manner as to make the +handsomest and most gallant appearance before the commander-in- +chief. For he expected great honours from him, and he obtained +greater. Sylla no sooner saw Pompey advancing to meet him, with an +army in excellent condition, both as to age and size of the men, +and the spirits which success had given them, than he alighted; +and upon being saluted of course by Pompey as Imperator, he +returned his salutation with the same title: though no one +imagined that he would have honoured a young man not yet admitted +into the senate with a title for which he was contending with the +Scipios and the Marii. The rest of his behavior was as respectable +as that in the first interview. He used to rise up and uncover his +head, whenever Pompey came to him; which he was rarely observed to +do for any other, though he had a number of persons of distinction +about him. + +While Pompey was in Sicily, he received a decree of the senate, +and letters from Sylla, in which he was commanded to cross over to +Africa and to carry on the war with the utmost vigor against +Domitius, who had assembled a much more powerful army than that +which Marius carried not long before from Africa to Italy, when he +made himself master of Rome, and from a fugitive became a tyrant. +Pompey soon finished his preparation for this expedition; and +leaving the command in Sicily to Memmius, his sister's husband, he +set sail with one hundred and twenty armed vessels, and eight +hundred store-ships, laden with provisions, arms, money, and +machines of war. Part of his fleet landed at Utica, and part at +Carthage: immediately after which seven thousand of the enemy came +over to him; and he had brought with him six legions complete. + +On his arrival he met with a whimsical adventure. Some of his +soldiers, it seems, found a treasure, and rest of the troops +concluded that the place was full of money, which the +Carthaginians had hid there in some time of public distress. +Pompey, therefore could make no use of them for several days, as +they were searching for treasures; and he had nothing to do but +walk about and amuse himself with the sight of so many thousands +digging and turning up the ground. At last, they gave up the +point, and bade him lead them wherever be pleased, for they were +sufficiently punished for their folly. + +Domitius advanced to meet him, and put his troops in order of +battle. There happened to be a channel between them, craggy and +difficult to pass. Moreover, in the morning it began to rain, and +the wind blew violently; insomuch that Domitius, not imagining +there would be any action that day, ordered his army to retire. +But Pompey looked upon this as his opportunity, and he passed the +defile with the utmost expedition. The enemy stood upon their +defence, but it was in a disorderly and tumultuous manner, and the +resistance they made was neither general nor uniform. Besides the +wind and rain beat in their faces. The storm incommoded the +Romans, too, for they could not well distinguish each other. Nay, +Pompey himself was in danger of being killed by a soldier, who +asked him the pass-word, and did not receive a speedy answer. At +length, however, he routed the enemy with great slaughter; not +above three thousand of them escaping out of twenty thousand. The +soldiers then saluted Pompey, Imperator, but he said he would not +accept that title while the enemy's camp stood untouched; +therefore, if they chose to confer such an honor upon him, they +must first make themselves masters of the intrenchments. + +At that instant they advanced with great fury against them. Pompey +fought without his helmet, for fear of such an accident as he had +just escaped. The camp was taken, and Domitius slain; in +consequence of which most of the cities immediately submitted, and +rest were taken by assault. He took Iarbas, one of the +confederates of Domitius, prisoner, and bestowed his crown on +Hiempsal. Advancing with the same tide of fortune, and while his +army had all the spirits inspired by success, he entered Numidia, +in which he continued his march for several days, and subdued all +that came in his way. Thus he revived the terror of the Roman +name, which the barbarians had begun to disregard. Nay, he chose +not to leave the savage beasts in the deserts without giving them +a specimen of the Roman valor and success. Accordingly he spent a +few days in hunting lions and elephants. The whole time he passed +in Africa, they tell us, was not above forty days; in which he +defeated the enemy, reduced the whole country, and brought the +affairs of its kings under proper regulations, though he was only +in his twenty-fourth year. + +Upon his return to Utica, he received letters from Sylla, in which +he was ordered to send home the rest of his army, and to wait +there with one legion only for a successor. This gave him a great +deal of uneasiness, which he kept to himself, but the army +expressed their indignation aloud; insomuch that when he entreated +them to return to Italy, they launched out into abusive terms +against Sylla, and declared they would never abandon Pompey, or +suffer him to trust a tyrant. At first, he endeavored to pacify +them with mild representations; and when he found those had no +effect, he descended from the tribunal, and retired to his tent in +tears. However, they went and took him thence, and paced him again +upon the tribunal, where they spent a great part of the day; they +insisting that he should stay and keep the command, and he in +persuading them to obey Sylla's orders, and to form no new +faction. At last, seeing no end of their clamors and importunity, +he assured them, with an oath, that he would kill himself, if they +attempted to force him. And even this hardly brought them to +desist. + +The first news that Sylla heard was, that Pompey had revolted; +upon which he said to his friends, "Then it is my fate to have to +contend with boys in my old age." This he said, because Marius, +who was very young, had brought him into so much trouble and +danger. But when he received true information of the affair, and +observed that all the people flocked out to receive Pompey to +conduct him home with marks of great regard, he resolved to exceed +them in his regards, if possible. He, therefore, hastened to meet +him, and embracing him in the most affectionate manner, saluted +him aloud by the surname of Magnus, or The Great; at the same time +he ordered all about him to give him the same appellation. Others +say, it was given him by the whole army in Africa, but did not +generally obtain till it was authorized by Sylla. It is certain, +he was the last to take it himself, and he did not make use of it +till a long time after, when he was sent into Spain with the +dignity of pro-consul against Sertorius. Then he began to write +himself in his letters in all his edicts, Pompey the Great; for +the world was accustomed to the name, and it was no longer +invidious. In this respect we may justly admire the wisdom of the +ancient Romans, who bestowed on their great men such honorable +names and titles, not only for military achievements, but for the +great qualities and arts which adorn civil life. + +When Pompey arrived at Rome, he demanded a triumph, in which he +was opposed by Sylla. The latter alleged that the laws did not +allow that honor to any person who was not either consul or +praetor. Hence it was that the first Scipio, when he returned +victorious from greater wars and conflicts with the Carthaginians +in Spain, did not demand a triumph; for he was neither consul nor +praetor. He added, that if Pompey, who was yet little better than +a beardless youth, and who was not of age to be admitted into the +senate, should enter the city in triumph, it would bring an odium +both upon the dictator's power, and those honors of his friend. +These arguments Sylla insisted on, to show him that he would not +allow of his triumph, and that, in case he persisted, he would +chastise his obstinacy. + +Pompey, not in the least intimidated, bade him consider, that more +worshiped the rising than the setting sun; intimating that his +power was increasing, and Sylla's upon the decline. Sylla did not +hear well what he said, but perceiving by the looks and gestures +of the company that they were struck with the expression, he asked +what it was. When he was told it, he admired the spirit of Pompey +and cried, "Let him triumph! Let him triumph!" + +There is no doubt that he might then have been easily admitted a +senator, if he had desired it; but his ambition was to pursue +honor in a more uncommon track. It would have been nothing +strange, if Pompey had been a senator before the age fixed for it; +but it was a very extraordinary instance of honor to lead up a +triumph before he was a senator. And it contributed not a little +to gain him the affections of the multitude; the people were +delighted to see him, after his triumph, class with the equestrian +order. + +The power of the pirates had its foundation in Cilicia. Their +progress was the more dangerous, because at first it was little +taken notice of. In the Mithridatic war they assumed new +confidence and courage, on account of some services they had +rendered the king. After this, the Romans being engaged in civil +wars at the very gates of their capital, the sea was left +unguarded, and the pirates by degrees attempted higher things; +they not only attacked ships, but islands, and maritime towns. +Many persons, distinguished for their wealth, their birth, and +their capacity, embarked with them, and assisted in the +depredations, as if their employment had been worthy the ambition +of men of honor. They had in various places arsenals, ports, and +watch-towers, all strongly fortified. Their fleets were not only +extremely well manned, supplied with skillful pilots, and fitted +for their business by their lightness and celerity; but there was +a parade of vanity about them more mortifying than their strength, +in gilded sterns, purpose canopies, and plated oars; as if they +took a pride and triumphed in their villainy. Music resounded, and +drunken revels were exhibited on every coast. Here generals were +made prisoners; there the cities the pirates had taken were paying +their ransom; all to the great disgrace of the Roman power. The +number of their galleys amounted to one thousand, and the cities +they were masters of to four hundred. + +Temples which had stood inviolably sacred till that time, they +plundered. They ruined the temple of Apollo at Claros, that of the +Cabiri in Samothrace, of Ceres at Hermione, of Aesculapius at +Epidaurus, those of Neptune in the Isthmus, at Taenarus and in +Calauria, those of Apollo at Actium and in the isle of Leucas, +those of Juno at Samos, Argos, and the promontory of Lacinium. + +They likewise offered strange sacrifices; those of Olympus I mean; +and they celebrated certain secret mysteries, among which those of +Mithra continue to this day, being originally instituted by them. +They not only insulted the Romans at sea but infested the great +roads, and plundered the villas near the coast; they carried off +Sextilius and Bellinus, two praetors, in their purple robes, which +all their servants and lictors. They seized the daughter of +Antony, a man who had been honored with a triumph, as she was +going to her country house, and he was forced to pay a large +ransom for her. + +But the most contemptible circumstance of all was, that when they +had taken a prisoner, and he cried out that he was a Roman, and +told them his name, they pretended to be struck with terror, smote +their thighs, and fell upon their knees to ask him pardon. The +poor man, seeing them thus humble themselves before him, thought +them in earnest, and said he would forgive them; for some were so +officious as to put on his shoes, and others to help him on with +his gown, that his quality might no more be mistaken. When they +had carried on this farce, and enjoyed it for some time, they let +a ladder down into the sea, and bade him go in peace; and if he +refused to do it, they pushed him off the deck, and drowned him. + +Their power extended over the whole Tuscan sea, so that the Romans +found their trade and navigation entirely cut off. The consequence +of which was, that their markets were not supplied, and they had +reason to apprehend a famine. This at last led them to send Pompey +to clear the sea of pirates. Gabinius, one of Pompey's intimate +friends, proposed the decree, which created him not admiral, but +monarch, and invested him with absolute power. The decree gave him +the empire of the sea as far as the Pillars of Hercules, and of +the land for 400 furlongs from the coasts. There were few parts of +the Roman empire which this commission did not take in; and the +most considerable of the barbarous nations, and most powerful +kings, were moreover comprehended in it. Besides this he was +empowered to choose out of the senators fifteen lieutenants, to +act under him in such districts, and with such authority as he +should appoint. He was to take from the quaestors, and other +public receivers, what money he pleased, and equip a fleet of two +hundred sail. The number of marine forces, of mariners and rowers, +was left entirely to his discretion. + +When this decree was read in the assembly, the people received it +with inconceivable pleasure. The most respectable part of the +senate saw, indeed, that such an absolute and unlimited power was +above envy, but they considered it as a real object of fear. They +therefore all, except Caesar, opposed its passing into a law. He +was for it, not out of regard for Pompey, but to insinuate himself +into the good graces of the people, which he had long been +courting. The rest were very severe in the expressions against +Pompey; and one of the consuls venturing to say, "If he imitates +Romulus, he will not escape his fate," was in danger of being +pulled in pieces by the populace. + +It is true, when Catulus rose up to speak against the law, out of +reverence for his person they listened to him with great +attention. After he had freely given Pompey the honor that was his +due, and said much in his praise, he advised them to spare him, +and not to expose such a man to so many dangers; "for where will +you find another," said he, "if you lose him?" They answered with +one voice, "Yourself." Finding his arguments had no effect, he +retired. Then Roscius mounted the rostrum, but not a man would +give ear to him. However he made signs to them with his fingers, +that they should not appoint Pompey alone, but give him a +colleague. Incensed at the proposal, they set up such a shout, +that a crow, which was flying over the forum, was stunned with the +force of it, and fell down among the crowd. Hence we may conclude, +that when birds fall on such occasions, it is not because the air +is so divided with the shock as to leave a vacuum, but rather +because the sound strikes them like a blow, when it ascends with +force, and produces so violent an agitation. + +The assembly broke up that day without coming to any resolution. +When the day came that they were to give their suffrages, Pompey +retired into the country; and, on receiving information that the +decree was passed, he returned to the city by night, to prevent +the envy which the multitudes of people coming to meet him would +have excited. Next morning at break of day he made his appearance, +and attended the sacrifice. After which, he summoned an assembly, +and obtained a grant of almost as much more as the first decree +had given him. He was empowered to fit out 500 galleys, and to +raise an army of 120,000 foot, and 5,000 horse. Twenty-four +senators were selected, who had all been generals or praetors, and +were appointed his lieutenants; and he had two quaestors given +him. As the price of provisions fell immediately, the people were +greatly pleased, and it gave them occasion to say that the very +name of Pompey had terminated the war. + +However, in pursuance of his charge, he divided the whole +Mediterranean into thirteen parts, appointing a lieutenant for +each, and assigning him a squadron. By thus stationing his fleet +in all quarters, he enclosed the pirates as it were in a net, took +great numbers of them, and brought them into harbor. Such of their +vessels as had dispersed and made off in time, or could escape the +general chase, retired to Cilicia, like so many bees into a hive. +Against these he proposed to go himself, with sixty of his best +galleys; but first he resolved to clear the Tuscan sea, and the +coasts of Africa, Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily, of all piratical +adventurers; which he effected in forty days, by his own +indefatigable endeavors and those of his lieutenants. But, as the +consul Piso was indulging his malignity at home, in wasting his +stores and discharging his seamen, he sent his fleet round to +Brundusium, and went himself by land through Tuscany to Rome. + +As soon as the people were informed of his approach, they went in +crowds to receive him, in the same manner as they had done a few +days before, to conduct him on his way. Their extraordinary joy +was owing to the speed with which he had executed his commission, +so far beyond all expectation, and to the superabundant plenty +which reigned in the markets. For this reason Piso was in danger +of being deposed from the consulship, and Gabinius had a decree +ready drawn up for that purpose; but Pompey would not suffer him +to propose it. On the contrary, his speech to the people was full +of candor and moderation; and when he had provided such things as +he wanted, he went to Brundusium, and put to sea again. Though he +was straightened for time, and in his haste sailed by many cities +without calling, yet he stopped at Athens. He entered the town and +sacrificed to the gods; after which he addressed the people, and +then prepared to reembark immediately. As he went out of the gate +he observed two inscriptions, each comprised in one line. + +That within the gate was: + +But know thyself a man, and be a god. + +That without: + +We wish'd, we saw; we loved, and we adored. + +Some of the pirates, who yet traversed the seas, made their +submission; and as he treated them in a humane manner, when he had +them and their ships in his power, others entertained hope of +mercy, and avoiding the other officers, surrendered themselves to +Pompey, together with their wives and children. He spared them +all; and it was principally by their means that he found out and +took a number who were guilty of unpardonable crimes, and +therefore had concealed themselves. + +Still, however, there remained a great number, and indeed the most +powerful part of these corsairs, who sent their families, +treasures, and all useless hands, into castles and fortified towns +upon Mount Taurus. Then they manned their ships, and waited for +Pompey at Coracesium, in Cilicia. A battle ensued, and the pirates +were defeated; after which they retired into the fort. But they +had not been long besieged before they capitulated, and +surrendered themselves, together with the cities and islands which +they had conquered and fortified, and which by their works as well +as situation were almost impregnable. Thus the war was finished, +and whole force of the pirates destroyed, within three months at +the farthest. + +Besides the other vessels, Pompey took ninety ships with beaks of +brass; and the prisoners amounted to 20,000. He did not choose to +put them to death, and at the same time he thought it wrong to +suffer them to disperse, because they were not only numerous, but +warlike and necessitous, and therefore would probably knit again +and give future trouble. He reflected, that man by nature is +neither a savage nor an unsocial creature; and when he becomes so, +it is by vices contrary to nature; yet even then he may be +humanized by changing his place of abode, and accustoming him to a +new manner of life; as beasts that are naturally wild put off +their fierceness when they are kept in a domestic way. For this +reason he determined to remove the pirates to a great distance +from the sea, and bring them to taste the sweets of civil life, by +living in cities, and by the culture of the ground. He placed some +of them in the little towns of Cilicia, which were almost +desolate, and which received them with pleasure, because at the +same time he gave them an additional proportion of lands. He +repaired the city of Soli, which had lately been dismantled and +deprived of its inhabitants by Tigranes, king of Armenia, and +peopled it with a number of these corsairs. The remainder, which +was a considerable body, he planted in Dyma, a city of Achaia, +which, though it had a large and fruitful territory, was in want +of inhabitants. + +Pompey, having secured the sea from Phoenicia to the Bosphorus, +marched in quest of Mithridates, who had an army of 30,000 foot +and 2,000 horse, but durst not stand an engagement. That prince +was in possession of a strong and secure post upon a mountain, +which he quitted upon Pompey's approach, because it was destitute +of water. Pompey encamped in the same place; and conjecturing, +from the nature of the plants and the crevices in the mountain, +that springs might be found, he ordered a number of wells to be +dug, and the camp was in a short time plentifully supplied with +water. He was not a little surprised that this did not occur to +Mithridates during the whole time of his encampment there. + +After this, Pompey followed him to his new camp, and drew a line +of circumvallation round him. Mithridates stood a siege of forty- +five days, after which he found means to steal off with his best +troops, having first killed all the sick, and such as could be of +no service. Pompey overtook him near the Euphrates, and encamped +over against him; but fearing he might pass the river unperceived, +he drew out his troops at midnight. At that time Mithridates is +said to have had a dream prefigurative of what was to befall him. +He thought he was upon the Pontic Sea, sailing with a favorable +wind, and in sight of the Bosphorus; so that he felicitated his +friends in the ship, like a man perfectly safe, and already in +harbor. But suddenly he beheld himself in the most destitute +condition, swimming upon a piece of wreck. While he was in all the +agitation which this dream produced, his friends awaked him, and +told him that Pompey was at hand. He was now under a necessity of +fighting for his camp, and his generals drew up the forces with +all possible expedition. + +Pompey, seeing them prepared, was loth to risk a battle in the +dark. He thought it sufficient to surround them, so as to prevent +their flight; and what inclined him still more to wait for +daylight, was the consideration that his troops were much better +than the enemy's. However, the oldest of his officers entreated +him to proceed immediately to the attack, and at last prevailed. +It was not indeed very dark; for the moon, though near her +setting, gave light enough to distinguish objects. But it was a +great disadvantage to the king's troops, that the moon was so low, +and on the backs of the Romans; because she projected their +shadows so far before them, that the enemy could form no just +estimate of the distances, but thinking them at hand, threw their +javelins before they could do the least execution. + +The Romans, perceiving their mistake, advanced to the charge with +all the alarm of voices. The enemy were in such a consternation, +that they made not the least stand, and, in their flight, vast +numbers were slain. They lost above 10,000 men, and their camp was +taken. As for Mithridates, he broke through the Romans with 800 +horses, in the beginning of the engagement. That corps, however, +did not follow him far before they dispersed, and left him with +only three of his people. + +The pursuit of Mithridates was attended with great difficulties; +for he concealed himself among the nations settled about the +Bosphorus and the Palus Maeotis. Besides, news was brought to +Pompey that the Albanians had revolted, and taken up arms again. +The desire of revenge determined him to march back, and chastise +them. But it was with infinite trouble and danger that he passed +the Cyrnus again, the barbarians having fenced it on their side +with palisades all along the banks. And when he was over, he had a +large country to traverse, which afforded no water. This last +difficulty he provided against by filling 10,000 bottles; and +pursuing his march, he found the enemy drawn up on the banks of +the river Abas, to the number of 60,000 foot and 12,000 horse, but +many of them ill-armed, and provided with nothing of the defensive +kind but skins of beasts. + +They were commanded by the king's brother, named Cosis; who, at +the beginning of the battle, singled out Pompey, and rushing in +upon him, struck his javelin into the joints of his breastplate. +Pompey in return run him through with his spear, and laid him dead +on the spot. It is said that the Amazons came to the assistance of +the barbarians from the mountains near the river Thermodon, and +fought in this battle. The Romans, among the plunder of the field, +did, indeed, meet with bucklers in the form of a half-moon, and +such buskins as the Amazons wore; but there was not the body of a +woman found among the dead. They inhabit that part of Mount +Caucasus which stretches toward the Hyrcanian Sea, and are not +next neighbors to the Albanians; for Gelae and Leges lie between; +but they meet that people, and spend two months with them every +year on the banks of the Thermodon; after which they retire to +their own country. + +Pompey had advanced near to Petra, and encamped, and was taking +some exercise on horseback without the trenches, when messengers +arrived from Pontus; and it was plain they brought good news, +because the points of their spears were crowned with laurel. The +soldiers seeing this, gathered about Pompey, who was inclined to +finish his exercise before he opened the packet; but they were so +earnest in their entreaties, that they prevailed upon him to +alight and take it. He entered the camp with it in his hand; and +as there was no tribunal ready, and the soldiers were too +impatient to raise one of turf, which the common method, they +piled a number of pack-saddles one upon the other, upon which +Pompey mounted, and gave them this information: "Mithridates is +dead. He killed himself upon the revolt of his son Pharnaces. And +Pharnaces has seized all that belonged to his father; which he +declares he has done for himself and Romans." + +At this news the army, as might be expected, gave a loose rein to +their joy, which they expressed in sacrifices to the gods, and in +reciprocal entertainments, as if 10,000 of their enemies had been +slain in Mithridates. Pompey having thus brought the campaign and +the whole war to a conclusion so happy, and so far beyond his +hopes, immediately quitted Arabia, traverses the provinces between +that and Galatia with great rapidity, and soon arrived at Amisus. +There he found many presents from Pharnaces, and several corpses +of the royal family, among which was that of Mithridates. As for +Pompey, he would not see the body, but to propitiate the avenging +Nemesis, sent it to Sinope. However, he looked upon and admired +the magnificence of his habit, and the size and beauty of his +arms. The scabbard of his sword cost four hundred talents, and the +diadem was of most exquisite workmanship. + +Pompey having thoroughly settled the affairs of Asia, hoped to +return to Italy the greatest and happiest of men. + +People talked variously at Rome concerning his intentions. Many +disturbed themselves at the thought that he would march with his +army immediately to Rome and make himself sole and absolute master +there. Crassus took his children and money, and withdrew; whether +it was that he had some real apprehensions, or rather that he +chose to countenance the calumny, and add force to the sting of +envy; the latter seems the more probable. But Pompey had no sooner +set foot in Italy, than he called an assembly of his soldiers, +and, after a kind and suitable address, ordered them to disperse +in their respective cities, and attend to their own affairs till +his triumph, on which occasion they were to repair to him again. + +Pompey's triumph was so great, that though it was divided into two +days, the time was far from being sufficient for displaying what +was prepared to be carried in procession; there remained still +enough to adorn another triumph. At the head of the show appeared +the titles of the conquered nations: Pontus, Armenia, Cappadocia, +Paphlagonia, Media, Colchis, the Iberians, the Albanians, Syria, +Cilicia, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Palestine, Judaea, Arabia, the +pirates subdued both by sea and land. In these countries, it was +mentioned that there were not less than 1,000 castles and 900 +cities captured, 800 galleys taken from the pirates, and 39 +desolate cities repeopled. On the face of the tablets it appeared +besides, that whereas the revenues of the Roman empire before +these conquests amounted but to 50,000,000 drachmas, by the new +acquisitions they were advanced to 85,000,000; and that Pompey had +brought into the public treasury in money, and in gold and silver +vessels, the value of 20,000 talents; besides what he had +distributed among the soldiers, of whom he that received least had +1,500 drachmas to his share. The captives who walked in the +procession (not the mention the chiefs of the pirates) were the +son of Tigranes, king of Armenia, together with his wife and +daughter; Zosima, the wife of Tigranes himself; Aristobulus, king +of Judaea; the sister of Mithridates, with her five sons, and some +Scythian women. The hostages of the Albanians and Iberians, and of +the king of Commagene also appeared in the train; and as many +trophies were exhibited as Pompey had gained victories, either in +person or by his lieutenants, the number of which was not small. + +But the most honorable circumstance, and what no other Roman could +boast, was that his third triumph was over the third quarter of +the world, after his former triumphs had been over the other two. +Others before him had been honored with three triumphs; but his +first triumph was over Africa, his second over Europe, and his +third over Asia; so that the three seemed to declare him conqueror +of the world. + +Those who desire to make the parallel between him and Alexander +agree in all respects, tell us he was at this time not quite +thirty-four, whereas, in fact, he was entering upon his fortieth +year. (It should be the forty-sixth year. Pompey was born in the +beginning of the month of August, in the year of Rome 647, and his +triumph was in the same month in the year of Rome 692.) Happy it +had been for him, if he had ended his days while he was blessed +with Alexander's good fortune! The rest of his life, every +instance of success brought its proportion of envy, and every +misfortune was irretrievable. + +In the meantime the wars in Gaul lifted Caesar to the first sphere +of greatness. The scene of action was at a great distance from +Rome, and he seemed to be wholly engaged with the Belgae, the +Suevi, and the Britons; but his genius all the while was privately +at work among the people of Rome, and he was undermining Pompey in +his most essential interests. His war with the barbarians was not +his principal object. He exercised his army, indeed, in those +expeditions, as he would have done his own body, in hunting and +other diversions of the field, by which he prepared them for +higher conflicts, and rendered them not only formidable but +invincible. + +The gold and silver, and other rich spoils which he took from the +enemy in great abundance, he sent to Rome; and by distributing +them freely among the aediles, praetors, consuls, and their wives, +he gained a great party. Consequently when he passed the Alps and +wintered at Lucca, among the crowd of men and women, who hastened +to pay their respects to him, there were two hundred senators, +Pompey and Crassus of the number; and there were no fewer than one +hundred and twenty proconsuls and praetors, whose faces were to be +seen at the gates of Caesar. He made it his business in general to +give them hopes of great things, and his money was at their +devotion; but he entered into a treaty with Crassus and Pompey, by +which it was agreed that they should apply for the consulship, and +that Caesar should assist them, by sending a great number of his +soldiers to vote at the election. As soon as they were chosen, +they were to share the provinces, and take the command of armies, +according to their pleasure, only confirming Caesar in the +possession of what he had for five years more. + +Crassus, upon the expiration of his consulship, repaired to his +province. Pompey remaining at Rome, opened his theatre; and to +make the dedication more magnificent, exhibited a variety of +gymnastic games, entertainments of music, and battles with wild +beasts, in which were killed 500 lions; but the battle of +elephants afforded the most astonishing spectacle. (Dio says the +elephants fought with armed men. There were no less than eighteen +of them; and he adds, that some of them seemed to appeal, with +piteous cries to the people; who, in compassion, saved their +lives. If we may believe him, an oath had been taken before they +left Africa, that no injury should be done them.) These things +gained him the love and admiration of the public; but he incurred +their displeasure again, by leaving his provinces and armies +entirely to his friends and lieutenants, and roving about Italy +with his wife from one villa to another. The strong attachment of +Julia appeared on the occasion of an election of aediles. The +people came to blows, and some were killed so near Pompey that he +was covered with blood, and forced to change his clothes. There +was a great crowd and tumult about his door, when his servants +went home with a bloody robe; and Julia, happening to see it, +fainted away and was with difficulty restored. Shortly after Julia +died, and the alliance which had rather covered than restrained +the ambition of the two great competitors for power was now no +more. To add to the misfortune, news was brought soon after that +Crassus was slain by the Parthians; and in him another great +obstacle to a civil war was removed. Out of fear of him, they had +both kept some measures with each other. But when fortune had +carried off the champion who could take up the conqueror, we may +say with the comic poet-- + + +High spirits of emprise +Elates each chief; they oil their brawny limbs, +and dip their hands in dust. + +So little able is fortune to fill the capacities of the human +mind; when such a weight of power, and extent of command, could +not satisfy the ambition of two men. They had heard and read that +the gods had divided the universe into three shares, +(Plutarch alludes here to a passage in the fifteenth book of the +Iliad, +where Neptune says to Iris-- +Assign'd by lot our triple rule we know; +Infernal Pluto sways the shades below; +O'er the wide clouds, and o'er the starry plain, +Ethereal Jove extends his high domain; +My court beneath the hoary waves I keep, +And hush the roarings of the sacred deep.) + +and each was content with that which fell to his lot, and yet +these men could not think the Roman empire sufficient for two of +them. Such anarchy and confusion took place that numbers began to +talk boldly of setting up a dictator. Cato, now fearing he should +be overborne, was of opinion that it were better to give Pompey +some office whose authority was limited by law, than to intrust +him with absolute power. Bibulus, though Pompey's declared enemy, +moved in full senate, that he should be appointed sole consul. +"For by that means," said he, "the commonwealth will either +recover from her disorder, or, if she must serve, will serve a man +of the greatest merit." The whole house was surprised at the +motion; and when Cato rose up, it was expected he would oppose it. +A profound silence ensued, and he said, he should never have been +the first to propose such an expedient, but as it was proposed by +another, he thought it advisable to embrace it; for he thought any +kind of government better than anarchy, and knew no man fitter to +rule than Pompey, in a time of so much trouble. The senate came +into his opinion, and a decree was issued, that Pompey should be +appointed sole consul, and that if he should have need of a +colleague, he might choose one himself, provided it were not +before the expiration of two months. + +Pompey being declared sole consul by the Interrex Sulpitius, made +his compliments to Cato, acknowledged himself much indebted to his +support, and desired his advice and assistance in the cabinet, as +to the measures to be pursued in his administration. Cato made +answer, that Pompey was not under the least obligation to him; for +what he had said was not out of regard to him, but to his country. +"If you apply to me," continued he, "I shall give you my advice in +private; if not, I shall inform you of my sentiments in public." +Such was Cato, and the same on all occasions. + +Pompey then went into the city, and married Cornelia, the daughter +of Metellus Scipio. She was a widow, having been married, when +very young, to Publius the son of Crassus, who was lately killed +in the Parthian expedition. This woman had many charms beside her +beauty. She was well versed in polite literature; she played upon +the lyre, and understood geometry; and she had made considerable +improvements by the precepts of philosophy. What is more, she had +nothing of that petulance and affectation which such studies are +apt to produce in women of her age. And her father's family and +reputation were unexceptionable. + +Pompey's confidence made him so extremely negligent, that he +laughed at those who seemed to fear the war. And when they said if +Caesar should advance in a hostile manner to Rome, they did not +see what forces they had to oppose him, he bade them, with an open +and smiling countenance, give themselves no pain: "For, if in +Italy," said he, "I do but stamp upon the ground, an army will +appear." + +Meantime Caesar was exerting himself greatly. He was now at no +great distance from Italy, and not only sent his soldiers to vote +in the elections, but by private pecuniary applications, corrupted +many of the magistrates. Paulus the consul was of the number, and +he had one thousand five hundred talents for changing sides. So +also was Curio, one of the tribunes of the people, for whom he +paid off an immense debt, and Mark Antony, who, out of friendship +for Curio, had stood engaged with him for the debt. + +It is said, that when one of Caesar's officers, who stood before +the senate-house, waiting the issue of the debates, was informed +that they would not give Caesar a longer term in his command, he +laid his hand on his sword, and said, "But this shall give it." +Indeed, all the preparations of his general tended that way; +though Curio's demands in behalf of Caesar seemed more plausible. +He proposed, that either Pompey should likewise be obliged to +dismiss his forces, or Caesar suffered to keep his. "If they are +both reduced to a private station," said he, "they will agree upon +reasonable terms; or, if each retains his respective power, they +will be satisfied. But he who weakens the one, without doing the +same by the other, must double that force which he fears will +subvert the government." + +But now news was brought that Caesar was marching directly towards +Rome with all his forces. The last circumstance, indeed, was not +true. He advanced with only three hundred horse and five thousand +foot; the rest of his forces were on the other side of the Alps, +and he would not wait for them, choosing rather to put his +adversaries in confusion by a sudden and unexpected attack, than +to fight them when better prepared. When he came to the river +Rubicon, which was the boundary of his province, he stood silent a +long time, weighing with himself the greatness of his enterprise. +At last, like one who plunges down from the top of a precipice +into a gulf of immense depth, he silenced his reason, and shut his +eyes against the danger; and crying out in the Greek language, +"The die is cast," he marched over with his army. + +Upon the first report of this at Rome, the city was in greater +disorder and astonishment than had ever been known. + +All Italy was in motion, with the stir of the coming storm. Those +who lived out of Rome fled to it from all quarters, and those who +lived in it abandoned it as fast. These saw, that in such a +tempestuous and disorderly state of affairs, the well disposed +part of the city wanted strength, and that the ill disposed were +so refractory that they could not be managed by the magistrates. +The terrors of the people could not be removed, and no one would +suffer Pompey to lay a plan of action for himself. According to +the passion wherewith each was actuated, whether fear, sorrow, or +doubt, they endeavored to inspire him with the same; insomuch that +he adopted different measures the same day. He could gain no +certain intelligence of the enemy's motions, because every man +brought him the report he happened to take up, and was angry if it +did not meet with credit. + +Pompey at last caused it to be declared by a formal edict, that +the commonwealth was in danger, and no peace was to be expected. +After which, he signified that he should look upon those who +remained in the city as the partisans of Caesar; and then quitted +it in the dusk of the evening. The consuls also fled, without +offering the sacrifices which their customs required before a war. +However, in this great extremity, Pompey could not but be +considered as happy in the affections of his countrymen. Though +many blamed the war, there was not a man who hated the general. +Nay, the number of those who followed him, out of attachment to +his person, was greater than that of the adventurers in the cause +of liberty. + +A few days after, Caesar arrived at Rome. When he was in +possession of the city, he behaved with great moderation in many +respects, and composed in a good measure the minds of its +remaining inhabitants. + +Pompey, who was the master of Brundusium, and had a sufficient +number of transports, desired the consuls to embark without loss +of time, and sent them before him with thirty cohorts to +Dyrrhachium. But at the same time he sent his father-in-law Scipio +and his son Cnaeus into Syria, to provide ships of war. He had +well secured the gates of the city, and planted the lightest of +his slingers and archers upon the walls; and having now ordered +the Brundusians to keep within doors, he caused a number of +trenches to be cut, and sharp stakes to be driven into them, and +then covered with earth, in all the streets, except two which led +down to the sea. In three days all his other troops were embarked +without interruption; and then he suddenly gave the signal to +those who guarded the walls; in consequence of which, they ran +swiftly down to the harbor, and got on board. Thus having his +whole complement, he set sail, and crossed the sea to Dyrrhachium. + +When Caesar came and saw the walls left destitute of defence, he +concluded that Pompey had taken to flight, and in his eagerness to +pursue, would certainly have fallen upon the sharp stakes in the +trenches, had not the Brundusians informed him of them. He then +avoided the streets, and took a circuit round the town, by which +he discovered that all the vessels had weighed anchor, except two +that had not many soldiers aboard. + +This manoeuvre of Pompey was commonly reckoned among the greatest +act of generalship. Caesar, however, could not help wondering, +that his adversary, who was in possession of a fortified town, and +expected his forces from Spain, and at the same time was master of +them, should give up Italy in such a manner. + +Caesar thus made himself master of all Italy in sixty days without +the least bloodshed, and he would have been glad to have gone +immediately in pursuit of Pompey. But as he was in want of +shipping, he gave up that design for the present, and marched to +Spain, with an intent to gain Pompey's forces there. + +In the meantime Pompey assembled a great army; and at sea he was +altogether invincible. For he had five hundred ships of war, and +the number of his lighter vessels was still greater. As for his +land forces, he had seven thousand horse, the flower of Rome and +Italy, all men of family, fortune, and courage. His infantry, +though numerous, was a mixture of raw, undisciplined soldiers; he +therefore exercised them during his stay at Beroea, where he was +by no means idle, but went through the exercises of a soldier, as +if he had been in the flower of his age. It inspired his troops +with new courage, when they saw Pompey the Great, at the age of +fifty-eight, going through the whole military discipline, in heavy +armor, on foot; and then mounting his horse, drawing his sword +with ease when at full speed, and as dexterously sheathing it +again. As to the javelin, he threw it not only with great +exactness, but with such force that few of the young men could +dart it to a greater distance. + +Many kings and princes repaired to his camp; and the number of +Roman officers who had commanded armies was so great, that it was +sufficient to make up a complete senate. Labienus, who had been +honored with Caesar's friendship, and served under him in Gaul, +now joined Pompey. + +Caesar had now made himself master of Pompey's forces in Spain, +and though it was not without a battle, he dismissed the officers, +and incorporated the troops with his own. After this, he passed +the Alps again, and marched through Italy to Brundusium, where he +arrived at the time of the winter solstice. There he crossed the +sea, and landed at Oricum; from whence he dispatched Vibullius, +one of Pompey's friends, whom he had brought prisoner thither, +with proposals of a conference between him and Pompey, in which +they should agree to disband their armies within three days, renew +their friendship, confirm it with solemn oath, and then both +return to Italy. Pompey took this overture for another snare, and +therefore drew down in haste to the sea, and secured all the forts +and places of strength for land forces, as well as all the ports +and other commodious stations for shipping; so that there was not +a wind that blew, which did not bring him either provisions, or +troops, or money. On the other hand, Caesar was reduced to such +straits, both by sea and land, that he was under the necessity of +seeking a battle. Accordingly, he attacked Pompey's intrenchments, +and bade him defiance daily. In most of these attacks and +skirmishes he had the advantage; but one day was in danger of +losing his whole army. Pompey fought with so much valor, that he +put Caesar's whole detachment to flight, after having killed two +thousand men upon the spot; but was either unable or afraid to +pursue his blow, and enter their camp with them. Caesar said to +his friends on this occasion, "This day the victory had been the +enemy's had their general known how to conquer." + +Pompey's troops, elated with this success, were in great haste to +come to a decisive battle. Nay, Pompey himself seemed to give in +to their opinions by writing to the kings, the generals, and +cities, in his interest, in the style of a conqueror. Yet all this +while he dreaded the issue of a general action, believing it much +better, by length of time, by famine and fatigue, to tire out men +who had been ever invincible in arms, and long accustomed to +conquer when they fought together. Besides, he knew the +infirmities of age had made them unfit for the other operations of +war, for long marches and countermarches, for digging trenches and +building forts, and that, therefore, they wished for nothing so +much as a battle. Pompey, with all these arguments, found it no +easy matter to keep his army quiet. + +After this last engagement, Caesar was in such want of provisions, +that he was forced to decamp, and he took his way through +Athamania into Thessaly. This added so much to the high opinion +Pompey's soldiers had of themselves, that it was impossible to +keep them within bounds. They cried out with one voice, "Caesar is +fled." Some called upon the general to pursue; some to pass over +into Italy. Others sent their friends and servants to Rome, to +engage homes near the forum, for the convenience of soliciting the +great offices of state. And not a few went of their own accord to +Cornelia, who had been privately lodged in Lesbos, to congratulate +her upon the conclusion of the war. + +While he thus softly followed the enemy's steps, a complaint was +raised against him, and urged with much clamor, that he was not +exercising his generalship upon Caesar, but upon the Senate and +the whole commonwealth, in order that he might forever keep the +command in his hands, and have those for his guards and servants +who had a right to govern the world. Domitius Aenobarbus, to +increase the odium, always called him Agamemnon, or king of kings. +Favonius piqued him no less with a jest, than others by their +unseasonable severity; he went about crying, "My friends, we shall +eat no figs in Tusculum this year." + +These and many other like sallies of ridicule had such an effect +upon Pompey, who was ambitious of being spoken well of by the +world, and had too much deference for the opinions of his friends, +that he gave up his own better judgment, to follow them in the +career of their false hopes and prospects. A thing which would +have been unpardonable in the pilot or master of a ship, much more +in the commander-in-chief of so many nations and such numerous +armies. He had often commended the physician who gives no +indulgence to the whimsical longings of his patients, and yet he +humored the sickly cravings of his army, and was afraid to give +them pain, though necessary for the preservation of their life and +being. For who can say that army was in a sound and healthy state, +when some of the officers went about the camp canvassing for the +offices of consul and praetor; and others, namely, Spinther, +Domitius, and Scipio, were engaged in quarrels and cabals about +Caesar's high-priesthood, as if their adversary had been only a +Tigranes, a king of Armenia, or a prince of the Nabathaeans; and +not that Caesar and that army who had stormed one thousand cities, +subdued above three hundred nations, gained numberless battles of +the Germans and Gauls, taken one million prisoners, and killed as +many fairly in the field. Notwithstanding all this, they continued +loud and tumultuous in their demands of a battle; and when they +came to the plains of Pharsalia, forced Pompey to call a council +of war. Lebienus, who had the command of the cavalry, rose up +first, and took an oath, that he would not return from the battle, +till he had put the enemy to flight. All the other officers swore +the same. + +The night following, Pompey had this dream. He thought he entered +his own theatre, and was received with loud plaudits; after which, +he adorned the temple of Venus the Victorious with many spoils. +This vision, on one side, encouraged him, and on the other alarmed +him. He was afraid that Caesar, who was a descendant of Venus, +would be aggrandized at his expense. Besides, a panic (A Panic was +so called, from the terror which the god Pan is said to have +struck the enemies of Greece with, at the battle of Marathon.) +fear ran through the camp, the noise of which awakened him. And +about the morning watch, over Caesar's camp, where everything was +perfectly quiet, there suddenly appeared a great light, from which +a stream of fire issued in the form of a torch, and fell upon that +of Pompey. Caesar himself says he saw it as he was going his +rounds. + +Caesar was preparing, at break of day, to march to Scotusa; his +soldiers were striking their tents, and the servants and beasts of +burden were already in motion, when his scouts brought +intelligence that they had seen arms handed about in the enemy's +camp, and perceived a noise and bustle, which indicated an +approaching battle. After these, others came and assured him that +the first ranks were drawn up. + +Upon this Caesar said: "The long-wished day is come, on which we +shall fight with men, and not with want and famine." Then he +immediately ordered the red mantle to be put up before his +pavilion, which, among the Romans, is the signal of a battle. The +soldiers no sooner beheld it, than they left their tents as they +were, and ran to arms with loud shouts, and every expression of +joy. And when the officers began to put them in order of battle, +each man fell into his proper rank as quietly, and with as much +skill and ease, as a chorus in a tragedy. + +Pompey placed himself in his right wing over against Antony, and +his father-in-law, Scipio, in the centre, opposite Domitius +Calvinus. His left wing was commanded by Lucius Domitius, and +supported by the cavalry; for they were almost all ranged on that +side, in order to break in upon Caesar, and cut off the tenth +legion, which was accounted the bravest in his army, and in which +he used to fight in person. Caesar, seeing the enemy's left wing +so well guarded with horse, and fearing the excellence of their +armor, sent for a detachment of six cohorts from the body of the +reserve, and placed them behind the tenth legion, with orders not +to stir before the attack, lest they should be discovered by the +enemy; but when the enemy's cavalry had charged, to make up +through the foremost ranks, and then not to discharge their +javelins at a distance, as brave men generally do in their +eagerness to come to sword in hand, but to reserve them till they +came to close fighting, and to push them forward into the eyes and +faces of the enemy. "For those fair young dancers," said he, "will +never stand the steel aimed at their eyes, but will fly to save +their handsome faces." + +While Caesar was thus employed, Pompey took a view on horseback of +the order of both armies; and finding that they enemy kept their +ranks with the utmost exactness, and quietly waited for the signal +of battle, while his own men, for want of experience, were +fluctuating and unsteady, he was afraid they would be broken up on +the first onset. He therefore commanded the vanguard to stand firm +in their ranks, and in that close order to receive the enemy's +charge. Caesar condemned this measure, as not only tending to +lessen the vigor of the blows, which is always greatest in the +assailants, but also to damp the fire and spirit of the men; +whereas those who advance with impetuosity, and animate each other +with shouts, are filled with an enthusiastic valor and superior +ardor. + +Caesar's army consisted of twenty-two thousand men, and Pompey's +was something more than twice that number. When the signal was +given on both sides, and the trumpets sounded a charge, each +common man attended only to his own concern. But some of the +principal Romans and Greeks, who only stood and looked on, when +the dreadful moment of action approached, could not help +considering to what the avarice and ambition of two men had +brought the Roman Empire. The same arms on both sides, the troops +marshalled in the same manner, the same standards; in short, the +strength and flower of one and the same city turned upon itself! +What could be a stronger proof of the blindness and infatuation of +human nature, when carried away by its passions? Had they been +willing to enjoy the fruits of their labors in peace and +tranquillity, the greatest and best part of the world was their +own. Or, if they must have indulged their thirst of victories and +triumphs, the Parthians and Germans were yet to be subdued. +Scythia and India yet remained; together with a very plausible +color for their lust of new acquisitions, the pretence of +civilizing barbarians. And what Scythian horse, what Parthian +arrows, what Indian treasures, could have resisted seventy +thousand Romans, led on by Pompey and Caesar, with whose names +those nations had long been acquainted! Into such a variety of +wild and savage countries had these two generals carried their +victorious arms! Whereas now they stood threatening each other +with destruction; not sparing even their own glory, though to it +they sacrificed their country, but prepared, one of them, to lose +the reputation of being invincible, which hitherto they had both +maintained. So that the alliance which they had contracted by +Pompey's marriage to Julia, was from the first only an artful +expedient; and her charms were to form a self-interested compact, +instead of being the pledge of a sincere friendship. + +The plain of Pharsalia was now covered with men, and horses and +arms; and the signal of battle being given on both sides, the +first on Caesar's side who advanced to the charge was Caius +Crastinus, who commanded a corps of one hundred and twenty men, +and was determined to make good his promise to his general. He was +the first man Caesar saw when he went out of the trenches in the +morning; and upon Caesar's asking him what he thought of the +battle, he stretched out his hand, and answered in a cheerful +tone, "You will gain a glorious victory, and I shall have your +praise this day, either alive or dead." In pursuance of this +promise, he advanced the foremost, and many following to support +him, he charged into the midst of the enemy. They soon took to +their swords, and numbers were slain; but as Crastinus was making +his way forward, and cutting down all before him, one of Pompey's +men stood to receive him, and pushed his sword in at his mouth +with such force, that it went through the nape of his neck. +Crastinus thus killed, the fight was maintained with equal +advantage on both sides. + +Pompey did not immediately lead on his right wing, but often +directed his eyes to the left, and lost time in waiting to see +what execution his cavalry would do there. Meanwhile they had +extended their squadrons to surround Caesar, and prepared to drive +the few horse he had placed in front, back upon the foot. At that +instant Caesar gave the signal; upon which his cavalry retreated a +little; and the six cohorts, which consisted of 3000 men, and had +been placed behind the tenth legion, advanced to surround Pompey's +cavalry; and coming close up to them, raised the points of their +javelins, as they had been taught, and aimed them at the face. +Their adversaries, who were not experienced in any kind of +fighting, and had not the least previous idea of this, could not +parry or endure the blows upon their faces, but turned their +backs, or covered their eyes with their hands, and soon fled with +great dishonor. Caesar's men took no care to pursue them, but +turned their force upon the enemy's infantry, particularly upon +that wing, which, now stripped of its horse, lay open to the +attack on all sides. The six cohorts, therefore, took them in +flank, while the tenth legion charged them in front; and they, who +had hoped to surround the enemy, and now, instead of that, saw +themselves surrounded, made but a short resistance, and then took +to a precipitate flight. + +By the great dust that was raised, Pompey conjectured the fate of +his cavalry; and it is hard to say what passed in his mind at that +moment. He appeared like a man moonstruck and distracted; and +without considering that he was Pompey the Great, or speaking to +any one, he quitted the ranks, and retired step by step toward his +camp--a scene which cannot be better painted than in these verses +of Homer: (In the eleventh book of the Iliad, where he is speaking +of the flight of Ajax before Hector.) + +But partial Jove, espousing Hector's part, +Shot heaven-bred horror through the Grecian's heart; +Confused, unnerv'd in Hector's presence grown, +Amazed he stood with terrors not his own. +O'er his broad back his moony shield he threw, +And, glaring round, by tardy steps withdrew. + +In this condition he entered his tent, where he sat down, and +uttered not a word, till at last, upon finding that some of the +enemy entered the camp with the fugitives, he said, "What! Into my +camp, too!" After this short exclamation, he rose up, and dressing +himself in a manner suitable to his fortune, privately withdrew. +All the other legions fled; and a great slaughter was made in the +camp, of the servants and others who had the care of the tents. +But Asinius Pollio, who then fought on Caesar's side, assures us, +that of the regular troops there were not above six thousand men +killed. (Caesar says, that in all there were fifteen thousand +killed, and twenty-four thousand taken prisoners.) + +Upon the taking of the camp, there was a spectacle which showed, +in strong colors, the vanity and folly of Pompey's troops. All the +tents were crowned with myrtle; the beds were strewn with flowers; +the tables covered with cups, and bowls of wine set out. In short, +everything had the appearance of preparations for feasts and +sacrifices, rather than for men going out to battle. To such a +degree had their vain hopes corrupted them, and with such a +senseless confidence they took to the field! + +When Pompey had got at a little distance from the camp, he quitted +his horse. He had very few people about him; and, as he saw he was +not pursued, he went softly on, wrapped up in such thoughts as we +may suppose a man to have, who had been used for thirty-four years +to conquer and carry all before him, and now in his old age first +came to know what it was to be defeated and to fly. We may easily +conjecture what his thoughts must be, when in one short hour he +had lost the glory and the power which had been growing up amidst +so many wars and conflicts; and he who was lately guarded with +such armies of horse and foot, and such great and powerful fleets, +was reduced to so mean and contemptible an equipage, that his +enemies, who were in search of him, could not know him. + +He passed by Larissa, and came to Tempe, where, burning with +thirst, he threw himself upon his face, and drank out of the +river; after which, he passed through the valley, and went down to +the sea-coast. There he spent the remainder of the night in a poor +fisherman's cabin. Next morning, about break of day, he went on +board a small river-boat, taking with him such of his company as +were freemen. The slaves he dismissed, bidding them go to Caesar, +and fear nothing. + +As he was coasting along, he saw a whip of burden just ready to +sail; the master of which was Peticius, a Roman citizen, who, +though not acquainted with Pompey, knew him by sight. Therefore, +without waiting for any further application, he took him up, and +such of his companions as he thought proper, and then hoisted +sail. The persons Pompey took with him, were the two Lentuli and +Favonius; and a little after, they saw king Deiotarus beckoning to +them with great earnestness from the shore, and took him up +likewise. The master of the ship provided them with the best +supper he could, and when it was almost ready, Pompey, for want of +a servant, was going to wash himself, but Favonius, seeing it, +stepped up, and both washed and anointed him. All the time he was +on board, he continued to wait upon him in all the offices of a +servant, even to the washing of his feet and providing his supper; +insomuch, that one who saw the unaffected simplicity and sincere +attachment with which Favonius performed these offices, cried out- +- + +The generous mind adds dignity +To every act, and nothing misbecomes it. + +Pompey, in the course of his voyage, sailed by Amphipolis, and +from thence steered for Mitylene, to take up Cornelia and his son. +As soon as he reached the island, he sent a messenger to the town +with news far different from what Cornelia expected. For, by the +flattering accounts which many officious persons had given her, +she understood that the dispute was decided at Dyrrhachium, and +that nothing but the pursuit of Caesar remained to be attended to. +The messenger, finding her possessed with such hopes, had not +power to make the usual salutations; but expressing the greatness +of Pompey's misfortunes by his tears rather than words, only told +her she must make haste if she had a mind to see Pompey with one +ship only, and that not his own. + +At this news Cornelia threw herself upon the ground, where she lay +a long time insensible and speechless. At last, coming to herself, +she perceived there was no time to be lost in tears and +lamentations, and therefore hastened through the town to the sea. +Pompey ran to meet her, and received her to his arms as she was +just going to fall. While she hung upon his neck, she thus +addressed him: "I see, my dear husband, your present unhappy +condition is the effect of my ill fortune, and not yours. Alas! +how are you reduced to one poor vessel, who, before your marriage +with Cornelia, traversed the sea with 500 galleys! Why did you +come to see me, and not rather leave me to my evil destiny, who +have loaded you, too, with such a weight of calamities? How happy +had it been for me to have died before I heard that Publius, my +first husband, was killed by the Parthians! How wise, had I +followed him to the grave, as I once intended! What have I lived +for since, but to bring misfortunes upon Pompey the Great?" + +Such, we are assured, was the speech of Cornelia; and Pompey +answered: "Till this moment, Cornelia, you have experienced +nothing but the smiles of fortune; and it was she who deceived +you, because she stayed with me longer than she commonly does with +her favorites. But, fated as we are, we must bear this reverse, +and make another trial of her. For it is no more improbable that +we may emerge from this poor condition and rise to great things +again, than it was that we should fall from great things into this +poor condition." + +Cornelia then sent to the city for her most valuable movables and +her servants. + +As soon as his wife and his friends were embarked, he set sail, +and continued his course without touching at any port, except for +water and provisions, till he came to Attalia, a city of +Pamphylia. There he was joined by some Cilician galleys; and +beside picking up a number of soldiers, he found in a little time +sixty senators about him. When he was informed that his fleet was +still entire, and that Cato was gone to Africa with a considerable +body of men which he had collected after their flight, he lamented +to his friends his great error, in suffering himself to be forced +into an engagement on land, and making no use of those forces, in +which he was confessedly stronger; nor even taking care to fight +near his fleet, that, in case of his meeting with a check on land, +he might have been supplied from the sea with another army, +capable of making head against the enemy. Indeed, we find no +greater mistake in Pompey's whole conduct, nor a more remarkable +instance of Caesar's generalship, than in removing the scene of +action to such a distance from the naval force. + +However, as it was necessary to undertake something with the small +means he had left, he sent to some cities, and sailed to others +himself, to raise money, and to get a supply of men for his ships. +But knowing the extraordinary celerity of the enemy's motions, he +was afraid he might be beforehand with him, and seize all that he +was preparing. He, therefore, began to think of retiring to some +asylum, and proposed the matter in council. They could not think +of any province in the Roman empire that would afford a safe +retreat; and when they cast their eyes on the foreign kingdoms, +Pompey mentioned Parthia as the most likely to receive and protect +them in their present weak condition, and afterwards to send them +back with a force sufficient to retrieve their affairs. Others +were of opinion it was proper to apply to Africa, and to Juba in +particular. But Theophanes of Lesbos observed it was madness to +leave Egypt, which was distant but three days' sail. Besides, +Ptolemy, who was growing towards manhood, had particular +obligations to Pompey on his father's account. As so it was +determined that they should seek for refuge in Egypt. Being +informed that Ptolemy was with his army at Pelusium, where he was +engaged in war with his sister, he proceeded thither, and sent a +messenger before him to announce his arrival, and to entreat the +king's protection. + +Ptolemy was very young, fourteen years of age, and Photinus, his +prime minister, called a council of his ablest officers; though +their advice had no more weight than he was pleased to allow it. +He ordered each, however, to give his opinion. But who can, +without indignation, consider that the fate of Pompey the Great +was to be determined by the wretch Photinus, by Theodotus, a man +of Chios, who was hired to teach the prince rhetoric, and by +Achillas, an Egyptian? For among the king's chamberlains and +tutors these had the greatest influence over him and were the +persons he most consulted. Pompey lay at anchor at some distance +from the place waiting the determination of this respectable +board; while he thought it beneath him to be indebted to Caesar +for his safety. The council were divided in their opinions, some +advising the prince to give him an honorable reception, and others +to send him an order to depart. But Theodotus, to display his +eloquence, insisted that both were wrong. "If you receive him," +said he, "you will have Caesar for your enemy, and Pompey for your +master. If you order him off, Pompey may one day revenge the +affront and Caesar resent your not having put him in his hands: +the best method, therefore, is to send for him and put him to +death. By this means you will do Caesar a favor, and have nothing +to fear from Pompey." He added with a smile, "Dead men do not +bite." + +This advice being approved of, the execution of it was committed +to Achillas. In consequence of which he took with him Septimius, +who had formerly been one of Pompey's officers, and Salvius, who +had also acted under him as a centurion, with three or four +assistants, and made up to Pompey's ship, where his principal +friends and officers had assembled to see how the affair went on. +When they perceived there was nothing magnificent in their +reception, nor suitable to the hopes which Theophanes had +conceived, but that a few men only in a fishing-boat came to wait +upon them, such want of respect appeared a suspicious +circumstance, and they advised Pompey, while he was out of the +reach of missive weapons, to get out to the main sea. + +Meantime, the boat approaching, Septimius spoke first, addressing +Pompey in Latin by the title of Imperator. Then Achillas saluted +him in Greek, and desired him to come into the boat, because the +water was very shallow towards the shore, and a galley must strike +upon the sands. At the same time they saw several of the king's +ships getting ready, and the shore covered with troops, so that if +they would have changed their minds it was then too late; besides, +their distrust would have furnished the assassins with a pretence +for their injustice. He therefore embraced Cornelia, who lamented +his sad exit before it happened; and ordered two centurions, one +of his enfranchised slaves, named Philip, and a servant called +Scenes, to get into the boat before him. When Achillas had hold of +his hand, and he was going to step in himself, he turned to his +wife and son, and repeated that verse of Sophocles-- + +Seek'st thou a tyrant's door? Then farewell freedom! +Though FREE as air before. + +These were the last words he spoke to them. + +As there was a considerable distance between the galley and the +shore, and he observed that not a man in the boat showed him the +least civility, or even spoke to him, he looked at Septimius, and +said, "Methinks, I remember you to have been my fellow-soldier;" +but he answered only with a nod, without testifying any regard or +friendship. A profound silence again taking place, Pompey took out +a paper, in which he had written a speech in Greek that he +designed to make to Ptolemy, and amused himself with reading it. + +When they approached the shore, Cornelia, with her friends in the +galley, watched the event with great anxiety. She was a little +encouraged, when she saw a number of the king's great officers +coming down to the strand, in all appearance to receive her +husband and do him honor. But the moment Pompey was taking hold of +Philip's hand, to raise him with more ease, Septimius came behind, +and ran him through the body; after which Salvius and Achillas +also drew their swords. Pompey took his robe in both hands and +covered his face, and without saying or doing the least thing +unworthy of him, submitted to his fate, only uttering a groan, +while they despatched him with many blows. He was then just fifty- +nine years old, for he was killed the day after his birthday. + +Cornelia, and her friends in the galley, upon seeing him murdered, +gave a shriek that was heard to the shore, and weighed anchor +immediately. Their flight was assisted by a brisk gale, as they +got out more to sea; so that the Egyptians gave up their design of +pursuing them. The murderers having cut off Pompey's head, threw +the body out of the boat naked, and left it exposed to all who +were desirous of such a sight. Philip stayed till their curiosity +was satisfied, and then washed the body with sea-water, and +wrapped it in one of his own garments, because he had nothing else +at hand. The next thing was to look out for wood for the funeral +pile; and casting his eyes over the shore, he spied the old +remains of a fishing-boat; which, though not large, would make a +sufficient pile for a poor naked body that was not quite entire. + +While he was collecting the pieces of plank and putting them +together, an old Roman, who had made some of his first campaigns +under Pompey, came up and said to Philip, "Who are you that are +preparing the funeral of Pompey the Great?" Philip answered, "I am +his freedman." "But you shall not," said the old Roman, "have this +honor entirely to yourself. As a work of piety offers itself, let +me have a share in it; that I may not absolutely repent my having +passed so many years in a foreign country; but, to compensate many +misfortunes, may have the consolation of doing some of the last +honors to the greatest general Rome ever produced." In this manner +was the funeral of Pompey conducted. + +Such was the end of Pompey the Great. As for Caesar, he arrived +not long after in Egypt, which he found in great disorder. When +they came to present the head, he turned from it, and the person +that brought it, as a sight of horror. He received the seal, but +it was with tears. The device was a lion holding a sword. The two +assassins, Achillas and Photinus, he put to death; and the king, +being defeated in battle, perished in the river. Theodotus, the +rhetorician, escaped the vengeance of Caesar, by leaving Egypt; +but he wandered about a miserable fugitive, and was hated wherever +he went. At last, Marcus Brutus, who killed Caesar, found the +wretch, in his province of Asia, and put him to death, after +having made him suffer the most exquisite tortures. The ashes of +Pompey were carried to Cornelia, who buried them in his lands near +Alba. (Langhorne has well remarked that Pompey has, in all +appearance, and in all consideration of his character, had less +justice done him by historians than any other man of his time. His +popular humanity, his military and political skills, his prudence +(which he sometimes unfortunately gave up), his natural bravery +and generosity, his conjugal virtues, which (though sometimes +impeached) were both naturally and morally great; his cause, which +was certainly, in its original interests, the cause of Rome; all +these circumstances entitled him to a more distinguished and more +respectable character than any of his historians have thought +proper to afford him.) + + + +The Engines of Archimedes from the life of Marcellus + +Marcellus now moved with his whole army to Syracuse, and, camping +near the wall, proceeded to attack the city both by land and by +sea. The land forces were conducted by Appius: Marcellus, with +sixty galleys, each with five rows of oars, furnished with all +sorts of arms and missiles, and a huge bridge of planks laid upon +eight ships chained together, upon which was carried the engine to +cast stones and darts, assaulted the walls, relying on the +abundance and magnificence of his preparations, and on his own +previous glory; all which, however, were, it would seem, but +trifles for Archimedes and his machines. + +These machines he had designed and contrived, not as matters of +any importance, but as mere amusements in geometry; in compliance +with King Hiero's desire and request, some little time before, +that he should reduce to practice some part of his admirable +speculations in science, and by accommodating the theoretical +truth to sensation and ordinary use, bring it more within the +appreciation of people in general. Eudoxus and Archytas had been +the originators of this far-famed and highly prized art of +mechanics, which they employed as an elegant illustration of +geometrical truths, and as a means of sustaining experimentally, +to the satisfaction of the senses, conclusions too intricate for +proof by words and diagrams. As, for example, to solve the +problem, so often required in constructing geometrical figures, +given the two extreme, to find the two mean lines of a proportion, +both these mathematicians had recourse to the aid of instruments, +adapting to their purpose certain curves and sections of lines. +(The 'mesolabes or mesalabium, was the name by which this +instrument was commonly known.) But what with Plato's indignation +at it, and his invectives against it as the mere corruption and +annihilation of the one good of geometry,--which was thus +shamefully turning its back upon the unembodied objects of pure +intelligence to recur to sensation, and to ask help (not to be +obtained without haste subservience and depravation) from matter; +so it was that mechanics came to be separated from geometry, and, +being repudiated and neglected by philosophers, took its place as +a military art. Archimedes, however, in writing to King Hiero, +whose friend and near relation he was, had stated, that given the +force, any weight might be moved, and even boasted, we are told, +relying on the strength of demonstration, that if there were +another earth, by going into it he could remove this. Hiero being +struck with amazement at this, and entreating him to make good +this problem by actual experiment, and show some great weight +moved by a small engine, he fixed accordingly upon a ship of +burden out of the king's arsenal, which could not be drawn out of +the dock without great labor and many men; and, loading her with +many passengers and a full freight, sitting himself the while far +off, with no great endeavor, but only holding the head of the +pulley in his hand and drawing the cord by degrees, he drew the +ship in a straight line, as smoothly and evenly as if she had been +in the sea. The king, astonished at this, and convinced of the +power of the art, prevailed upon Archimedes to make him engines +accommodated to all the purposes, offensive and defensive, of a +siege. These the king himself never made use of, because he spent +almost all his life in a profound quiet, and the highest +influence. But the apparatus was, in a most opportune time, ready +at hand for the Syracusans, and with it also the engineer himself. + +When, therefore, the Romans assaulted the walls in two places at +once, fear and consternation stupefied the Syracusans, believing +that nothing was able to resist that violence and those forces. +But when Archimedes began to ply his engines, he at once shot +against the land forces all sorts of missile weapons, and immense +masses of stone that came down with incredible noise and violence, +against which no man could stand; for they knocked down those upon +whom they fell, in heaps, breaking all their ranks and files. In +the mean time huge poles thrust out from the walls over the ships, +sunk some by the great weights which they let down from on high +upon them; others they lifted up into the air by an iron hand or +beak like a crane's beak, and, when they had drawn them up by the +prow, and set them on end upon the poop, they plunged them to the +bottom of the sea; or else the ships, drawn by engines within, and +whirled about, were dashed against steep rocks that stood jutting +out under the walls, with great destruction of the soldiers that +were aboard them. A ship was frequently lifted up to a great +height in the air (a dreadful thing to behold), and was rolled to +and fro, and kept swinging, until the mariners were all thrown +out, when at length it was dashed against the rocks, or let fall. +In the meantime, Marcellus himself brought up his engine upon the +bridge of ships, which was called "Sambuca," from some resemblance +it had to an instrument of music, but while it was as yet +approaching the wall, there was discharged at it a piece of rock +of ten talents' weight, then a second and a third, which, striking +upon it with immense force and with a noise like thunder, broke +all its foundations to pieces, shook out all its fastenings, and +completely dislodged it from the bridge. So Marcellus, doubtful +what counsel to pursue, drew off his ships to a safer distance, +and sounded a retreat to his forces on land. They then took a +resolution of coming up under the walls, if it were possible, in +the night; thinking that as Archimedes used ropes stretched at +length in playing his engines, the soldiers would now be under the +shot, and the darts would, for want of sufficient distance to +throw them, fly over their heads without effect. But he, it +appeared, had long before framed for such occasion engines +accommodated to any distance, and shorter weapons; and had made +numerous small openings in the walls, through which, with engines +of a shorter range, unexpected blows were inflicted on the +assailants. Thus, when they who thought to deceive the defenders +came close up to the walls, instantly a shower of darts and other +missile weapons was again cast upon them. And when stones came +tumbling down perpendicularly upon their heads, and, as it were, +the whole wall shot out arrows at them, they retired. And now, +again, as they were going off, arrows and darts of a longer range +inflicted a great slaughter among them, and their ships were +driven one against another; while they themselves were not able to +retaliate in any way; for Archimedes had fixed most of his engines +immediately under the wall. The Romans, seeing that infinite +mischiefs overwhelmed them from no visible means, began to think +they were fighting with the gods. + +Yet Marcellus escaped unhurt, and, deriding his own artificers and +engineers, exclaimed "What! Must we give up fighting with this +geometrical Briareus, who plays pitch and toss with our ships, +and, with the multitude of darts which he showers at a single +moment upon us, really outdoes the hundred-handed giants of +mythology?" The rest of the Syracusans were but the body of +Archimedes' designs, one soul moving and governing all; for, +laying aside all other arms, with his alone they infested the +Romans, and protected themselves. In fine, when such terror had +seized upon the Romans, that, if they did but see a little rope or +a piece of wood from the wall, they instantly cried out, "There it +is again! Archimedes is about to let fly another engine at us," +and turned their backs and fled, Marcellus desisted from conflicts +and assaults, putting all his hope in a long siege. Yet Archimedes +possessed so high a spirit, so profound a soul, and such treasures +of scientific knowledge, that though these inventions had now +obtained him the renown of more than human sagacity, he yet would +not deign to leave behind him any commentary or writing on such +subjects; but, repudiating as sordid and ignoble the whole trade +of engineering, and every sort of art that lends itself to mere +use and profit, he placed his whole affection and ambition in +those purer speculations where there can be no reference to the +vulgar needs of life; studies, the superiority of which to all +others is unquestioned, and in which the only doubt can be, +whether the beauty and grandeur of the subjects examined, or the +precision and cogency of the methods and means of proof, most +deserve our admiration. It is not possible to find in all geometry +more difficult and intricate questions, or more simple and lucid +explanations. Some ascribe this to his natural genius; while +others think that incredible effort and toil produced these +apparently easy and unlabored results. No amount of investigation +of yours would succeed in attaining the proof, and yet, once seen, +you immediately believe you would have discovered it; by so smooth +and so rapid a path he leads you to the conclusion required. And +thus it ceases to be incredible that (as is commonly told of him), +the charm of his familiar and domestic Siren made him forget his +food and neglect his person, to such a degree that when he was +occasionally carried by absolute violence to bathe, or have his +body anointed, he used to trace geometrical figures in the ashes +of the fire, and diagrams in the oil on his body, being in a state +of entire preoccupation, and, in the truest sense, divinely +possessed with his love and delight in science. His discoveries +were numerous and admirable; and he is said to have requested his +friends and relations that when he was dead, they would place over +his tomb a cylinder containing a sphere, inscribing it with the +ratio of three to two which the containing solid bears to the +contained. + + + +Description of Cleopatra from the Life of Antony + +When Antony was making preparation for the Parthian war, he sent +to command Cleopatra to make her personal appearance in Cilicia, +to answer the accusation, that she had given great assistance, in +the late wars, to Cassius. Dellius, who was sent on this message, +had no sooner seen her face, and remarked her adroitness and +subtlety in speech, than he felt convinced that Antony would not +so much as think of giving any molestation to a woman like this; +on the contrary, she would be the first in favor with him. So he +set himself at once to pay his court to the Egyptia, and gave her +his advice, "to go," in the Homeric style, to Cilicia, "in her +best attire," and bade her fear nothing from Antony, the gentlest +and the kindest of soldiers. She had some faith in the words of +Dellius, but more in her own attractions, which, having formerly +recommended her to Caesar and the young Gnaeus Pompey, she did not +doubt might prove yet more successful with Antony. Their +acquaintance was with her when a girl, young, and ignorant of the +world, but she was to meet Antony in the time of life when women's +beauty is most splendid, and their intellects are in full +maturity, for she was now about twenty-eight years of age. She +made great preparation for her journey, of money, gifts, and +ornaments of value, such as so wealthy a kingdom might afford, but +she brought with her her surest hopes in her own magic arts and +charms. + +She received several letters, both from Antony and from his +friends, to summon her, but she paid no attention to these orders; +and at last, as if in mockery of them, she came sailing up the +river Cydnus, in a barge with gilded stern and outspread sails of +purple, while oars of silver beat time to the music of flutes and +fifes and harps. She herself lay stretched along under a canopy of +cloth of gold, dressed as Venus in a picture, and beautiful young +boys, like painted Cupids, stood on each side to fan her. Her +maids were dressed like Sea Nymphs and Graces, some steering at +the rudder, some working at the ropes. The perfumes diffused +themselves from the vessel to the shore, which was covered with +multitudes, part following the galley up the river on either bank, +part running out of the city to see the sight. The market-place +was quite emptied, and Antony at last was left alone sitting upon +the tribunal; while the word went through all the multitude, that +Venus had come to feast with Bacchus, for the common good of Asia. +On her arrival, Antony sent to invite her to supper. She thought +it fitter he should come to her; so, willing to show his good- +humor and courtesy, he complied, and went. He found the +preparations to receive him magnificent beyond expression, but +nothing so admirable as the great number of lights; for on a +sudden there were let down all together so great numbers of +branches with lights in them so ingeniously disposed, some in +squares, and some in circles, that the whole thing was a spectacle +that has seldom been equaled for beauty. + +The next day, Antony invited her to supper, and was very desirous +to outdo her as well in magnificence as contrivance; but he found +he was altogether beaten in both, and was so well convinced of it, +that he was himself the first to jest and mock at his poverty of +wit, and his rustic awkwardness. She, perceiving that his raillery +was broad and gross, and savored more of the soldier than the +courtier, rejoined in the same taste, and fell into it at once, +without any sort of reluctance or reserve. For her actual beauty, +it is said, was not in itself so remarkable that none could be +compared with her, or that no one could see her without being +struck by it, but the contact of her presence, if you lived with +her, was irresistible; the attraction of her person, joining with +the charm of her conversation, and the character that attended all +she said or did, was something bewitching. It was a pleasure +merely to hear the sound of her voice, with which, like an +instrument of many strings, she could pass from one language to +another; so that there were few of the barbarian nations that she +answered by an interpreter; to most of them she spoke herself, as +to the Aethiopians, Troglodytes, Hebrews, Arabians, Syrians, +Medes, Parthians, and many others, whose language she had learnt; +which was all the more surprising, because most of the kings her +predecessors scarcely gave themselves the trouble to acquire the +Egyptian tongue, and several of them quite abandoned the +Macedonian. + +Antony was so captivated by her that, leaving his troops assembled +in Mesopotamia, and ready to enter Syria, he suffered himself to +be carried away by her to Alexandria, there to keep holiday, like +a boy, in play and diversion, squandering and fooling away in +enjoyments that most costly, as Antiphon says, of all valuable, +time. They had a sort of company, to which they gave a particular +name, calling it that of the "Inimitable Livers." The members +entertained one another daily in turn, with an extravagance of +expenditure beyond measure or belief. Philotas, a physician of +Amphissa, who was at that time a student of medicine in +Alexandria, used to tell my grandfather, Lamprias, that, having +some acquaintance with one of the royal cooks, he was invited by +him, being a young man, to come and see the sumptuous preparations +for supper. So he was taken into the kitchen, where he admired the +prodigious variety of all things; but particularly, seeing eight +wild boars roasting whole, he exclaimed, "Surely you have a great +number of guests." The cook laughed at his simplicity, and told +him there were not more than twelve to sup, but that every dish +was to be served up just roasted to a turn, and if anything was +but one minute ill-timed, it was spoiled; "And," said he, "maybe +Antony will sup just now, maybe not this hour, maybe he will call +for wine, or begin to talk, and will put it off. So that," he +continued, "not one, but many suppers must be had in readiness, as +it impossible to guess at his hour." + +Plato admits four sorts of flattery, but Cleopatra had a thousand. +Were Antony serious or disposed to mirth, she had at any moment +some new delight or charm to meet his wishes. She played at dice +with him, drank with him, hunted with him; and when he exercised +in arms, she was there to see. At night she would go rambling with +him to disturb and torment people at their doors and windows, +dressed like a servant-woman, for Antony also went in servant's +disguise, and from these expeditions he often came home very +scurvily answered, and sometimes even beaten severely, though most +people guessed who it was. It would be trifling without end to be +particular in his follies, but his fishing must not be forgotten. +He went out one day to angle with Cleopatra, and, being so +unfortunate as to catch nothing in the presence of the queen, he +gave secret orders to the fishermen to dive under water, and put +fishes that had been already taken upon his hooks; and these he +drew so fast that the Egyptian perceived it. But, feigning great +admiration, she told everybody how dexterous Antony was, and +invited them next day to come and see him again. So, when a number +of them had come on board the fishing boats, as soon as he had let +down his hook, one of her servants was beforehand with his divers, +and fixed upon his hook a salted fish from Pontus. Antony, feeling +his line give, drew up the prey, and when, as may be imagined, +great laughter ensued, Cleopatra said, "Leave the fishing-rod, +general, to us poor sovereigns of Pharos and Canopus; your game is +cities, provinces, and kingdoms." + + + +Anecdotes from the Life of Agesilaus, King of Sparta + +Agesilaus is said to have been a little man, of a contemptible +presence; but the goodness of his humor, and his constant +cheerfulness and playfulness of temper, always free from anything +of moroseness or haughtiness, made him more attractive, even to +his old age, than the most beautiful and youthful men of the +nation. Theophrastus writes, that the Ephors laid a fine upon +Archidamus for marrying a little wife, "For," said they, "she will +bring us a race of kinglets, instead of kings." + +Agesilaus was excessively fond of his children; and it is to him +the story belongs, that when they were little ones, he used to +make a horse of a stick, and ride with them; and being caught at +this sport by a friend, he desired him not to mention it, till he +himself should be the father of children. + +When the Mantineans revolted from Thebes to Sparta, and +Epaminondas understood that Agesilaus had come to their assistance +with a powerful army, he privately in the night quitted his +quarters at Tegea, and unknown to the Mantineans, passing by +Agesilaus, marched toward Sparta, insomuch that he failed very +little of taking it empty and unarmed. Agesilaus had intelligence +sent him by Euthynus, the Thespian, as Callisthenes says, but +Xenophon says by a Cretan, and immediately despatched a horseman +to Lacedaemon, to apprise them of it, and to let them know that he +was hastening to them. Shortly after his arrival the Thebans +crossed the Eurotas. They made an assault upon the town, and were +received by Agesilaus with great courage, and with exertions +beyond what was to be expected at his years. For he did not now +fight with that caution and cunning which he formerly made use of, +but put all upon a desperate push; which, though not his usual +method, succeeded so well, that he rescued the city out of the +very hand s of Epaminondas, and forced him to retire, and, at the +erection of a trophy, was able, in the presence of their wives and +children, to declare that the Lacedaemonians had nobly paid their +debt to their country, and particularly his son Archidamus, who +had that day made himself illustrious, both by his courage and +agility of body, rapidly passing about by the short lanes to every +endangered point, and everywhere maintaining the town against the +enemy with but few to help him. Isadas, too, the son of Phoebidas, +must have been, I think, the admiration of the enemy as well as of +his friends. He was a youth of remarkable beauty and stature, in +the very flower of the most attractive time of life, when the boy +is just rising into the man. He had no arms upon him, and scarcely +clothes; he had just anointed himself at home, when, upon the +alarm, without further waiting, in that undress, he snatched a +spear in one hand, and a sword in the other, and broke his way +through the combatants to the enemies, striking at all he met. He +received no wound, whether it were that a special divine care +rewarded his valor with an extraordinary protection, or whether +his shape being so large and beautiful, and his dress so unusual, +they thought him more than a man. The Ephors gave him a garland; +but as soon as they had done so, they fined him a thousand +drachma, for going out to battle unarmed. + + + +The Brothers from the Life of Timoleon + +Timoleon had an older brother, whose name was Timophanes, who was +every way unlike him, being indiscreet and rash and infected by +the suggestions of some friends and foreign soldiers, whom he kept +always about him, with a passion for absolute power. He seemed to +have a certain force and vehemence in all military service, and +even to delight in dangers, and thus he took much with the people, +and was advanced to the highest charges as a vigorous and +effective warrior; in the obtaining of which offices and +promotions Timoleon much assisted him, helping to conceal or at +least to extenuate his errors, embellishing by his praise whatever +was commendable in him, and setting off his good qualities to the +best advantage. + +It happened once in the battle fought by the Corinthians against +the forces of Argos and Cleonae, that Timoleon served among the +infantry, when Timophanes, commanding their cavalry, was brought +into extreme danger; for his horse being wounded fell forward, and +threw him headlong amidst the enemies, while part of his +companions dispersed at once in a panic, and the small number that +remained, bearing up against a great multitude, had much ado to +maintain any resistance. As soon, therefore, as Timoleon was aware +of the accident, he ran hastily to his brother's rescue, and +covering the fallen Timophanes with his buckler, after having +received an abundance of darts and several strokes by the sword +upon his body and his armor, he at length with much difficulty +obliged the enemies to retire, and brought off his brother alive +and safe. But when the Corinthians, for fear of losing their city +a second time, as they had once before, by admitting their allies, +made a decree to maintain four hundred mercenaries for its +security, and gave Timophanes the command over them, he, +abandoning all regard for honor and equity, at once proceeded to +put into execution his plans for making himself absolute, and +bringing the place under his own power; and having cut off many +principal citizens, uncondemned and without trial, who were most +likely to hinder his design, he declared himself tyrant of +Corinth; a procedure that infinitely afflicted Timoleon, to whom +the wickedness of such a brother appeared to be his own reproach +and calamity. He undertook to persuade him by reasoning to desist +from that wild and unhappy ambition, and bethink himself how he +could make the Corinthians some amends, and find out an expedient +to remedy the evils he had done them. When his single admonition +was rejected and contemned by him, he made a second attempt, +taking with him Aeschylus his kinsman, brother to the wife of +Timophanes, and a certain diviner, that was his friend, whom +Theopompus in his history calls Satyrus. This company coming to +his brother, all three of them surrounded and earnestly importuned +him upon the same subject, that now at length he would listen to +reason and be of another mind. But when Timophanes began first to +laugh at the men's simplicity, and presently broke out into rage +and indignation against them, Timoleon stepped aside from him and +stood weeping with his face covered, while the other two, drawing +out their swords, despatched him in a moment. + +When the rumor of this act was spread about, the better and more +generous of the Corinthians highly applauded Timoleon for the +hatred of wrong and the greatness of soul that had made him, +though of a gentle disposition and full of love and kindness for +his family, think the obligations to his country stronger than the +ties of consanguinity, and prefer that which is good and just +before gain and interest and his own particular advantage. For the +same brother, who with so much bravery had been saved by him when +he fought valiantly in the cause of Corinth, he had now as nobly +sacrificed for enslaving her afterward by a base and treacherous +usurpation. But when he came to understand how heavily his mother +took it, and that she likewise uttered the saddest complaints and +most terrible imprecations against him, he went to satisfy and +comfort her, but he found that she would not endure so much as to +look upon him, but caused her doors to be shut that he might have +no admission into her presence, and with grief at this he grew so +disordered in mind and disconsolate, that he determined to put an +end to his perplexity with his life, by abstaining from all manner +of sustenance. But through the care and diligence of his friends, +who were very persistent with him, and added force to their +entreaties, he promised at last that he would endure living, +provided it might be in solitude, and remote from company; so +that, quitting all civil transactions and commerce with the world, +for a long while after his first retirement he never came into +Corinth, but wandered up and down the fields, full of anxious and +tormenting thoughts, and for almost twenty years did not offer to +concern himself in any honorable or public action. + + + +The Wound of Philopoemen + +Cleomenes, king of the Lacedaemonians, surprised Megalopolis by +night, forced the guards, broke in, and seized the market-place. + +Awhile after, king Antigonus coming down to succor the Achaeans, +they marched with their united forces against Cleomenes; who, +having seized the avenues, lay advantageously posted on the hills +of Sellasia. Antigonus drew up close by him, with a resolution to +force him in his strength. Philopoemen, with his citizens, was +that day placed among the horse, next to the Illyrian foot, a +numerous body of bold fighters, who completed the line of battle, +forming, together with the Achaeans, the reserve. Their orders +were to keep their ground, and not engage till they should see a +red coat lifted up on the point of a spear from the other wing, +where the king fought in person. The Achaeans obeyed their order +and stood fast; but the Illyrians were led on by their commanders +to the attack. Euclidas, the brother of Cleomenes; seeing the foot +thus severed from the horse, detached the best of his light-armed +men, commanding them to wheel about and charge the unprotected +Illyrians in the rear. This charge put things into confusion, and +Philopoemen, considering that those light-armed men could be +easily repelled, went first to the king's officers to make them +sensible of what the occasion required. But when they did not mind +what he said, slighting him as a hare-brained fellow (as indeed he +was not yet of any repute sufficient to give credit to a proposal +of such importance). he charged with his own citizens, and at the +first encounter disordered, and soon after put the troops to +flight with great slaughter. Then, to encourage the king's army +further, to bring them all upon the enemy while he was in +confusion, he quitted his horse, and fighting with extreme +difficulty in his heavy horseman's dress, in rough, uneven ground, +full of water-courses and hollows, had both his thighs struck +through with a thonged javelin. It was thrown with great force, so +that the head came out on the other side, and made a severe though +not a mortal wound. There he stood awhile, as if he had been +shackled, unable to move. The fastening which joined the thong to +the javelin made it difficult to get it drawn out, nor would +anybody about him venture to do it. But the fight being now at the +hottest, and likely to be quickly decided, he was transported with +the desire of partaking in it, and struggled and strained so +violently, setting one leg forward, the other back, that at last +he broke the shaft in two, and thus got the pieces pulled out. +Being in this manner set at liberty he caught up his sword, and +running through the midst of those who were fighting in the first +ranks, animated his men, and set them afire with emulation. +Antigonus, after the victory, asked the Macedonians, to try them, +how it happened that the cavalry had charged without orders before +the signal? and when they answered that they were forced to it +against their wills by a young man of Megalopolis, who had fallen +in before it was time, Antigonus replied, smiling, "That young man +acted like an experienced commander." + + + +A Roman Triumph from the Life of Paulus Aemilius + +Paulus Aemilius, advanced in years, being nearly threescore, yet +vigorous in his own person, and rich in valiant sons and sons-in- +law, besides a great number of influential relations and friends, +all of whom joined in urging him to yield to the desires of the +people, who called him to the consulship. He at first manifested +some shyness of the people, and withdrew himself from their +importunity, professing reluctance to hold office; but, when they +daily came to his doors, urging him to come forth to the place of +election, and pressing him with noise and clamor, he acceded to +their request. When he appeared amongst the candidates, it did not +look as if it were to sue for the consulship, but to bring victory +and success, that he came down into the Campus; with such hopes +and such gladness did they all receive him there, unanimously +choosing him a second time consul; nor would they suffer the lots +to be cast, as was usual, to determine which province should fall +to his share, but immediately decreed him the command of the +Macedonian war. It is told, that when he had been proclaimed +general against Perseus, and was honorably accompanied home by +great numbers of people, he found his daughter Tertia, a very +little girl, weeping, and taking her to him asked her why she was +crying. She, catching him about the neck and kissing him, said, "O +father, do you not know that Perseus is dead?" meaning a little +dog of that name who had been brought up in the house with her; to +which Aemilius replied, "Good fortune, my daughter; I embrace the +omen." Thus Cicero, the orator, relates in his book on divination. + +* * * * + +The triumph of Aemilius over Perseus was performed in this manner. + +The people erected scaffolds in the Forum, in the circuses, as +they call their buildings, for horse-races, and in all other parts +of the city where they could best behold the show. The spectators +were clad in white garments; all the temples were open, and full +of garlands and perfumes; the ways were cleared and kept open by +numerous officers, who drove back all who crowded into or ran +across the main avenue. This triumph lasted three days. On the +first, which was scarcely long enough for the sight, were to be +seen the statues, pictures, and colossal images, which were taken +from the enemy, drawn upon two hundred and fifty chariots. On the +second, was carried in a great many wagons the finest and richest +armor of the Macedonians, both of brass and steel, all newly +polished and glittering; the pieces of which were piled up and +arranged purposely with the greatest art, so as to seem to be +tumbled in heaps carelessly and by chance; helmets were thrown +upon shields, coats of mail upon greaves; Cretan targets, and +Thracian bucklers and quivers of arrows, lay huddled amongst +horses' bits, and through these there appeared the points of naked +swords, intermixed with long Macedonian sarissas. All these arms +were fastened together with just so much looseness that they +struck against one another as they were drawn along, and made a +harsh and alarming noise, so that, even as spoils of a conquered +enemy, they could not be beheld without dread. After these wagons +loaded with armor, there followed three thousand men who carried +the silver that was coined, in seven hundred and fifty vessels, +each of which weighed three talents, and was carried by four men. +Others brought silver bowls and goblets and cups, all disposed in +such order as to make the best show, and all curious as well for +their size as the solidity of their embossed work. + +On the third day, early in the morning, first came the trumpeters, +who did not sound as they were wont in a procession or solemn +entry, but such a charge as the Romans use when they encourage the +soldiers to fight. Next followed young men wearing frocks with +ornamented borders, who led to the sacrifice a hundred and twenty +stalled oxen, with their horns gilded, and their heads adorned +with ribbons and garlands; and with these were boys that carried +basins for libation, of silver and gold. After this was brought +the gold coin, which was divided into vessels that weighed three +talents, like those that contained the silver; they were in number +seventy-seven. These were followed by those that brought the +consecrated bowl which Aemilius had caused to be made, that +weighed ten talents, and was set with precious stones. Then were +exposed to view the cups of Antigonus and Seleucus, and those of +the Thericlean make (Thericles, according to the more probable +supposition, was a Corinthian potter: the first maker of a +particular kind of cup, which long continued to bear his name.) +and all the gold plate that was used at Perseus' table. Next to +these came Perseus' chariot, in which his armor was placed, and on +that his diadem. And, after a little intermission, the king's +children were led captives, and with them a train of their +attendants, masters, and teachers, all shedding tears, and +stretching out their hands to the spectators, and making the +children themselves also beg and entreat their compassion. There +were two sons and a daughter whose tender age made them but little +sensible of the greatness of their misery, which very +insensibility of their condition rendered it the more deplorable; +insomuch that Perseus himself was scarcely regarded as he went +along, whilst pity fixed the eyes of the Romans upon the infants; +many of them could not forbear tears, and all beheld the sight +with a mixture of sorrow and pleasure, until the children had +passed. + +After his children and their attendants came Perseus himself, clad +all in black, and wearing the boots of his country; and looking +like one altogether stunned and deprived of reason, through the +greatness of his misfortunes. Next followed a great company of his +friends and familiars, whose countenances were disfigured with +grief, and who let the spectators see, by their tears and their +continual looking upon Perseus, that it was his fortune they so +much lamented, and that they were regardless of their own. Perseus +sent to Aemilius to entreat that he might not be led in pomp, but +be left out of the triumph; who, deriding, as was but just, his +cowardice and fondness of life, sent him this answer, that as for +that, it had been before, and was now, in his own power; giving +him to understand that the disgrace could be avoided by death; +which the faint-hearted man not having the spirit for, and made +effeminate by I know not what hopes, allowed himself to appear as +a part of his own spoils. After these were carried four hundred +crowns, all made of gold, sent from the cities by their respective +deputations to Aemilius, in honor of his victory. Then he himself +came, seated on a chariot magnificently adorned (a man well worthy +to be looked at, even without these ensigns of power), dressed in +a robe of purple, interwoven with gold, and holding a laurel +branch in his right hand. All the army, in like manner, with +boughs of laurel in their hands, divided into their bands and +companies, followed the chariot of their commander; some singing +verses, according to the usual custom, mingled with raillery; +others, songs of triumph, and the praise of Aemilius's deeds; who, +indeed, was admired and accounted happy by all men, and unenvied +by every one that was good; except so far as it seems the province +of some god to lessen that happiness which is too great and +inordinate, and so to mingle the affairs of human life that no one +should be entirely free from calamities; but, as we read in +Homer*, only those should think themselves truly blessed to whom +fortune has given an equal share of good and evil. + +* "Grief is useless; cease to lament," Achilles to Priam, his +suppliant for the body of Hecor. "For thus have the gods appointed +for mortal men; that they should live in vexation, while the gods +themselves are untroubled. Two vessels are set upon the threshold +of Zeus, of the gifts that he dispenses; one of evil things, the +other of good; he who receives from both at the hand of thundering +Zeus, meets at one time with evil, and at another with good; he +who receives from only one, is a miserable wretch." + + + +The Noble Character of Caius Fabricius from the life of Pyrrhus + +Caius Fabricius, a man of highest consideration among the Romans +as an honest man and a good soldier, but extremely poor, went upon +an embassy to Pyrrhus to treat about prisoners that had been +taken. Pyrrhus received him with much kindness, and privately +would have persuaded him to accept of his gold, not for any evil +purpose, but as a mark of respect and hospitable kindness. Upon +Fabricius's refusal, he pressed him no further, but the next day, +having a mind to discompose him, as he had never seen an elephant +before, he commanded one of the largest, completely armed, to be +placed behind the hangings, as they were talking together. This +being done, at a given signal the hanging was drawn aside, and the +elephant, raising his trunk over the head of Fabricius, made a +horrid and ugly noise. He gently turned about and, smiling, said +to Pyrrhus, "neither your money yesterday, nor this beast today +make any impression upon me." At supper, amongst all sorts of +things that were discoursed of, but more particularly Greece and +the philosophers there, Cineas, by accident, had occasion to speak +of Epicurus, and explained the opinions his followers hold about +the gods and the commonwealth, and the object of life, who place +the chief happiness of man in pleasure, and decline public affairs +as an injury and disturbance of a happy life, and remove the gods +afar off both from kindness or anger, or any concern for us at +all, to a life wholly without business and flowing in pleasures. +Before he had done speaking, Fabricius cried out to Pyrrhus, "O +Hercules! may Pyrrhus and the Samnites entertain themselves with +this sort of opinions as long as they are at war with us." +Pyrrhus, admiring the wisdom and gravity of the man, was the more +transported with desire to make friendship instead of war with the +city, and entreated him, personally, after the peace should be +concluded, to accept of living with him as the chief of his +ministers and generals. Fabricius answered quietly, "Sir, this +will not be for your advantage, for they who now honor and admire +you, when they have had experience of me, will rather choose to be +governed by me, than by you." And Pyrrhus received his answer +without any resentment or tyrannic passion; nay, among his friends +he highly commended the great mind of Fabricius, and intrusted the +prisoners to him alone, on condition that if the senate should not +vote a peace, after they had conversed with their friends and +celebrated the festival of Saturn, they should be remanded. And, +accordingly, they were sent back after the holidays; death being +decreed for any that stayed behind. + +After this, when Fabricius had taken the consulate, a person came +with a letter to the camp written by the king's principal +physician, offering to take Pyrrhus off by poison, and so end the +war without further hazard to the Romans, if he might have a +reward proportional to his service. Fabricius, despising the +villany of the man, and disposing the other consul to the same +opinion, sent despatches immediately to Pyrrhus to caution him +against the treason. His letter was to this effect: "Caius +Fabricius and Quintus Aemilius, consuls of the Romans, to Pyrrhus +the king, health. You seem to have made a bad judgement both of +your friends and your enemies; you will understand by reading this +letter sent to us, that you are at war with honest men, and trust +villains and knaves. Nor do we disclose this out of any favor to +you, but lest your ruin might bring a reproach upon us, as if we +had ended the war by treachery because not able to do it by +force." When Pyrrhus had read the letter, and made inquiry into +the treason, he punished the physician, and as an acknowledgement +to the Romans sent to Rome the prisoners without ransom. But they, +regarding it as at once too great a kindness from an enemy, and +too great a reward for not doing a mean act to accept their +prisoners so, released in return an equal number of the Tarentines +and Samnites, but would admit of no debate of alliance or peace +until Pyrrhus had removed his arms and forces out of Italy, and +sailed back to Epirus with the same ships that brought him over. + + + +From The Life of Quintus Fabius Maximus + +Hannibal was within five miles of Tarentum, when he was informed +that the town had been taken by Fabius. He said openly, "Rome, +then, has also got a Hannibal; as we won Tarentum, so have we lost +it." And, in private with some of his confidants, he told them, +for the first time, that he always thought it difficult, but now +he held it impossible, with the forces he then had, to master +Italy. + +Upon this success, Fabius had a triumph decreed him at Rome, much +more splendid than his first; they looked upon him now as a +champion who had learned to cope with his antagonist, and could +now easily foil his arts and prove his best skill ineffectual. +And, indeed the army of Hannibal was at this time partly worn out +with continual action, and partly weakened and become dissolute +with over abundance and luxury. Marcus Livius, who was governor of +Tarentum when it was betrayed to Hannibal, and had then retired +into the citadel, which he kept till the town was retaken, was +annoyed at these honors and distinctions, and, on one occasion, +openly declared in the senate, that by his resistance, more than +by any actions of Fabius, Tarentum had been recovered; on which +Fabius laughingly replied: "What you say is very true, for if +Marcus Livius had not lost Tarentum, Fabius Maximus had never +recovered it." The people, among other marks of gratitude, gave +his son the consulship of the next year; shortly after whose +entrance upon his office, there being some business on foot about +provision for the war, his father, either on account of age and +infirmity, or perhaps out of design to try his son, came up to him +on horseback. While he was still at a distance, the young consul +observed it, and bade one of his lictors command his father to +alight, and tell him that, if he had any business with the consul, +he should come on foot. The bystanders seemed offended at the +imperiousness of the son towards a father so venerable for his age +and his authority, and turned their eyes in silence towards +Fabius. He, however, instantly alighted from his horse, and with +open arms came up, almost running, and embracing him said, "Yes, +my son, you do well, and understand what authority you have +received, and over whom you are to use it. This was the way by +which we and our forefathers advanced the dignity of Rome, +preferring ever her honor and service to our own fathers and +children." + +And, in fact, it is told that the great-grandfather of Fabius, who +was undoubtedly the greatest man of Rome in his time, both in +reputation and authority, who had been five times consul, and had +been honored with several triumphs for victories obtained by him, +took pleasure in serving as lieutenant under his own son, when he +went as consul to his command. And when afterwards his son had a +triumph bestowed upon him for his good service, the old man +followed his triumphant chariot, on horseback, as one of his +attendants; and made it his glory, that while he really was, and +was acknowledged to be, the greatest man in Rome, and held a +father's full power over his son, he yet submitted himself to the +law and the magistrate. + + + +The Cruelty of Lucius Cornelius Sylla + +Sylla's general personal appearance may be known by his statues; +only his blue eyes, of themselves extremely keen and glaring, were +rendered all the more forbidding and terrible by the complexion of +his face, in which white was mixed with rough blotches of fiery +red. Hence, it is said, he was surnamed Sylla, and in allusion to +it one of the scurrilous jesters at Athens made the verse upon +him, + +Sylla is a mulberry sprinkled o'er with meal. + +Sylla being wholly bent upon slaughter, filled the city with +executions without number or limit, many wholly uninterested +persons falling a sacrifice to private enmity, through his +permission and indulgence to his friends. At last Caius Metellus, +one of the younger men, made bold in the senate to ask him what +end there was of these evils, and at what point he might be +expected to stop? "We do ask you," said he, "to pardon any whom +you have resolved to destroy, but to free from doubt those whom +you are pleased to save." Sylla answering, that he knew not as yet +whom to spare, he asked: "Will you then tell us whom you will +punish?" This Sylla said he would do. These last words, some +authors say, were spoken not by Metellus, but by Afidius, one of +Sylla's fawning companions. Immediately upon this, without +communicating with any magistrates, Sylla proscribed eighty +persons, and notwithstanding the general indignation, after one +day's respite, he posted two hundred and twenty more, and on the +third again, as many. In an address to the people on this +occasion, he told them he had put up as many names as he could +think of; those which had escaped his memory, he would publish at +a future time. He issued an edict likewise, making death the +punishment of humanity, proscribing any who should dare to receive +and cherish a proscribed person, without exception to brother, +son, or parents. And to him who should slay any one proscribed +person, he ordained two talents' reward, even were it a slave who +had killed his master, or a son his father. And what was thought +most unjust of all, he caused the attainder to pass upon their +sons, and sons' sons, and made open sale of all their property. +Nor did the proscription prevail only at Rome, but throughout all +the cities of Italy the effusion of blood was such that neither +sanctuary of the gods nor hearth of hospitality nor ancestral home +escaped. Men were butchered in the embraces of their wives, +children in the arms of their mothers. Those who perished through +public animosity, or private enmity, were nothing in comparison to +the numbers of those who suffered for their riches. Even the +murderers began to say, that "his fine house killed this man, a +garden that, a third, his hot baths." Quintus Aurelius, a quiet, +peaceable man, and one who thought all his part in the common +calamity consisted in condoling with the misfortunes of others, +coming into the forum to read the list, and finding himself among +the proscribed, cried out, "Woe is me, my Alban farm has informed +against me." He had not gone far, before he was despatched by a +ruffian, sent on that errand. + +In the meantime, Marius, on the point of being taken, killed +himself; and Sylla, coming to Praeneste, at first proceeded +judicially against each particular person, till at last, finding +it a work of too much time, he cooped them up together in one +place, to the number of twelve thousand men, and gave order for +the execution of them all, save his own host (The friend, that is, +with whom he always stayed when he happened to be at Praeneste, +his 'xenos;' a relationship much regarded to the Greek and Roman +world) alone excepted. But he, brave man, telling him he could not +accept the obligation of life from the hands of one who had been +the ruin of his country, went in among the rest, and submitted +willingly to the stroke. + + + +The Luxury of Lucullus + +Lucullus' life, like the Old comedy, presents us at the +commencement with acts of policy and of war, and at the end offers +nothing but good eating and drinking, feastings, and revelings, +and mere play. For I give no higher name to his sumptuous +buildings, porticos and baths, still less to his paintings and +sculptures, and all his industry about these curiosities, which he +collected with vast expense, lavishly bestowing all the wealth and +treasure which he got in the war upon them, insomuch that even +now, with all the advance of luxury, the Lucullean gardens are +counted the noblest the emperor has. Tubero, the stoic, when he +saw his buildings at Naples, where he suspended the hills upon +vast tunnels, brought in the sea for moats and fish-ponds round +his house, and pleasure-houses in the waters, called him Xerxes in +a gown. He had also fine seats in Tusculum, belvederes, and large +open balconies for men's apartments, and porticos to walk in, +where Pompey coming to see him, blamed him for making a house +which would be pleasant in summer, but uninhabitable in winter; +whom he answered with a smile, "You think me, then, less provident +than cranes and storks, not to change my home with the season." +When a praetor, with great expense and pains, was preparing a +spectacle for the people, and asked him to lend him some purple +robes for the performers in a chorus, he told him he would go home +and see, and if he had any, would let him take them; and the next +day asking how many he wanted, and being told that a hundred would +suffice, bade him take twice as many: on which the poet Horace +observes, that a house is indeed a poor one, where the valuables +unseen and unthought of do not exceed all those that meet the eye. + +Lucullus' daily entertainments were ostentatiously extravagant, +not only in purple coverlets, and plate adorned with precious +stones, and dancings, and interludes, but with the greatest +diversity of dishes and the most elaborate cookery, for the vulgar +to admire and envy. It was a happy thought of Pompey in his +sickness, when his physician prescribed a thrush for his dinner, +and his servants told him that in summer time thrushes were not to +be found anywhere but in Lucullus' fattening coops, that he would +not suffer them to fetch one thence, but observed to his +physician, "So if Lucullus had not been an epicure, Pompey had not +lived," and ordered something else that could easily be got to be +prepared for him. Cato was his friend and connection, but, +nevertheless, so hated his life and habits, that when a young man +in the senate made a long and tedious speech in praise of +frugality and temperance, Cato got up and said, "How long do you +mean to go making money like Crassus, living like Lucullus, and +talking like Cato?" + +It is plain from the anecdotes on record of him, that Lucullus was +not only pleased with, but even gloried in his way of living. For +he is said to have feasted several Greeks upon their coming to +Rome day after day, who, out of a true Grecian principle, being +ashamed, and declining the invitation, where so great an expense +was every day incurred for them, he with a smile said to them, +"Some of this, indeed, my Grecian friends, is for your sakes, but +more for that of Lucullus." Once when he supped alone, there being +only one course, and that but moderately furnished, he called his +steward and reproved him, who, professing to have supposed that +there would be no need of any great entertainment, when nobody was +invited, was answered, "What, did you not know, then, that today +Lucullus was to dine with Lucullus?" This being much spoken of +about the city, Cicero and Pompey one day met him loitering in the +forum, the former his intimate friend and familiar, and, though +there had been some ill-will between Pompey and him about the +command in the war, still they used to see each other and converse +on easy terms together. Cicero accordingly saluted him, and asked +him whether today was a good time for asking a favor of him, and +on his answering, "Very much so," and begging to hear what it was, +Cicero said, "then we should like to dine with you today, just on +the dinner that is prepared for yourself." Lucullus being +surprised, and requesting a day's time, they refused to grant it, +and would not allow him to talk with his servants, for fear he +should give orders for more than was appointed before. But this +they consented to, that before their faces he might tell his +servant, that today he would sup in "the Apollo" (for so one of +his best dining-rooms was called), and by this evasion he +outwitted his guests. For every room, as it seems, had its own +assessment of expenditure, dinner at such a price, and all else in +accordance; so that the servants, on knowing where he would dine, +knew also how much was to be expended, and in what style and form +dinner was to be served. The expense for the Apollo was fifty +thousand drachmas, and such a sum being that day laid out, the +greatness of the cost did not so much amaze Pompey and Cicero, as +the rapidity of the outlay. One might believe that Lucullus +thought his money really captive and barbarian, so wantonly and +contumeliously did he treat it. + +His furnishing of a library, however, deserves praise and record, +for he collected very many choice manuscripts; and the use they +were put to was even more magnificent than the purchase, the +library being always open, and the walks and reading rooms about +it free to all Greeks, whose delight it was to leave their other +occupations and hasten thither as to the habitation of the Muses, +there walking about, and diverting one another. He himself often +passed his hours there, disputing with the learned in the walks, +and giving his advice to statesmen who required it, insomuch that +his house was altogether a home, and in a manner, a Greek +prytaneum for those that visited Rome. + + +From the Life of Sertorius the Roman who endeavored to establish a +separate government for himself in Spain + +Sertorius was highly honored for his introducing discipline and +good order among the Spaniards, for he altered their furious and +savage manner of fighting, and brought them to make use of the +Roman armor, taught them to keep their ranks, and observe signals +and watchwords; and out of a confused horde of thieves and +robbers, he constituted a regular, well-disciplined army. He +bestowed silver and gold upon them liberally to gild and adorn +their helmets, he had their shields worked with various figures +and designs, he brought them into the mode of wearing flowered and +embroidered cloaks and coats, and by supplying money for these +purposes, and joining with them in all improvements, he won the +hearts of all. That, however, which delighted them most, was the +care that he took of their children. He sent for all the boys of +noblest parentage out of all their tribes, and placed them in the +great city of Osca, where he appointed masters to instruct them in +the Grecian and Roman learning, that when they came to be men, +they might, as he professed, be fitted to share with him in +authority, and in conducting the government, although under this +pretext he really made them hostages. However, their fathers were +wonderfully pleased to see their children going daily to the +schools in good order, handsomely dressed in gowns edged with +purple, and that Sertorius paid for their lessons, examined them +often, distributed rewards to the most deserving, and gave them +the golden bosses to hang around their necks, which the Romans +called "bullae." + +All the cities on this side of the river Ebro finally united their +forces under his command, and his army grew very great, for they +flocked together and flowed in upon him from all quarters. But +when they continually cried out to attack the enemy, and were +impatient of delay, their inexperienced, disorderly rashness +caused Sertorius much trouble, who at first strove to restrain +them with reason and good counsel, but when he perceived them +refractory and unseasonably violent, he gave way to their +impetuous desires, and permitted them to engage with the enemy, in +such a way that they might be repulsed, yet not totally routed, +and so become more obedient to his commands for the future. This +happening as he had anticipated, he soon rescued them, and brought +them safe into his camp. And after a few days, being willing to +encourage them again, when he had called all his army together, he +caused two horses to be brought into the field, one an old, +feeble, lean animal, the other a lusty, strong horse, with a +remarkably thick and long tail. Near the lean one he placed a +tall, strong man, and near the strong, young horse a weak, +despicable-looking fellow; and at a given signal the strong man +took hold of the weak horse's tail with both his hands, and drew +it to him with his whole force, as if he would pull it off; the +other, the weak man, in the meantime, set to work to pluck off +hair by hair the great horse's tail. And when the strong man had +given trouble enough to himself in vain, and sufficient diversion +to the company, and had abandoned his attempt, whilst the weak, +pitiful fellow in a short time and with little pains had left not +a hair on the great horse's tail, Sertorius arose and said to his +army, "You see, fellow-soldiers, that perseverance is more +prevailing than violence, and that many things which cannot be +overcome when they are together, yield readily when taken little +by little. Assiduity and persistence are irresistible, and in time +overthrow and destroy the greatest powers. Time being the +favorable friend and assistant of those who use their judgment to +await his occasions, and the destructive enemy of those who are +unseasonably urging and pressing forward." + +Of all his remarkable exploits, none raised greater admiration +than that which he put in practice against the Characitanians. +These are a people beyond the river Tagus, who inhabit neither +cities nor towns, but live in a vast, high hill, within the deep +dens and caves of the rocks, the mouths of which all open towards +the north. The country below is of a soil resembling a light clay, +so loose as easily to break into powder, and is not firm enough to +bear any one that treads upon it, and if you touch it in the +least, it flies about like ashes or unslaked lime. In any danger +of war, these people enter their caves, and carrying in their +booty and prey along with them, stay quietly within, secure from +every attack. And when Sertorius, leaving Metellus some distance +off, had placed his camp near this hill, they slighted and +despised him, imagining that he retired into these parts to escape +being overthrown by the Romans. And whether out of anger and +resentment, or out of his unwillingness to be thought to fly from +his enemies, early in the morning he rode up to view the situation +of the place. But finding there was no way to come at it, as he +rode about, threatening them in vain and disconcerted, he took +notice that the wind raised the dust and carried it up towards the +caves of the Characitanians, and the northerly wind, which some +call Caecias, prevailing most in those parts, coming up out of +moist plains or mountains covered with snow, at this particular +time, in the heat of summer, being further supplied and increased +by the melting of the ice in the northern regions, blew a +delightful, fresh gale, cooling and refreshing the Characitanians +and their cattle all the day long. Sertorius, considering well all +circumstances in which either the information of the inhabitants, +or his own experience had instructed him, commanded his soldiers +to shovel up a great quantity of this light, dusty earth, to heap +it together, and make a mound of it over against the hill in which +these barbarous people lived, who, imagining that all this +preparation was for raising a mound to get at them, only mocked +and laughed at it. However, he continued the work till the +evening, and brought his soldiers back into their camp. The next +morning a gentle breeze at first arose, and moved the lightest +parts of the earth, and dispersed it about as the chaff before the +wind; but when the sun got higher, and the strong, northerly wind +had covered the hills with the dust, the soldiers came and turned +this mound of earth over and over, and broke the hard clods in +pieces, whilst others on horseback rode through it backward and +forward, and raised a cloud of dust into the air; then with the +wind the whole of it was carried away and blown into the dwellings +of the Characitanians, all lying open to the north. And there +being no other vent or breathing-place than that through which the +Caecias rushed in upon them, it quickly blinded their eyes, and +filled their lungs, and all but choked them, whilst they strove to +draw in the rough air mingled with dust and powdered earth. Nor +were they able, with all they could do, to hold out more than two +days, but surrendered on the third, adding, by their defeat, not +so much to the power of Sertorius, as to his renown, in proving +that he was able to conquer places by art, which were impregnable +by the force of arms. + + +The Scroll-From the Life of Lysander + +The scroll is made up thus: when the Ephors send an admiral or +general on his way, they take two round pieces of wood, both +exactly of a length and thickness, and cut even to one another; +they keep one themselves, and the other the give to the person +they send forth; and these pieces of wood they call Scytales. +When, therefore, they have occasion to communicate any secret or +important matter, making a scroll of parchment long and narrow +like a leathern thong, they roll it about their own staff of wood, +leaving no space void between, but covering the surface of the +staff with the scroll all over. When they have done this, they +write what they please on the scroll, as it is wrapped about the +staff; and when they have written, they take off the scroll, and +send it to the general without the wood. He, when he has received +it, can read nothing of the writing, because the words and letters +are not connected, but all broken up; but taking his own staff, he +winds the slip of the scroll about it, so that this folding, +restoring all the parts into the same order that they were in +before, and putting what comes first into connection with what +follows, brings the whole consecutive contents to view round the +outside. And this scroll is called a _staff_, after the name of +the wood, as a thing measured is by the name of the measure. + + + +The Character of Marcus Cato + +Marcus Cato grew so powerful by his eloquence that he was commonly +called the Roman Demosthenes; but his manner of life was yet more +famous and talked of. For oratorical skill was, as an +accomplishment, commonly studied and sought after by all young +men; but he was a rare man who would cultivate the old habits of +bodily labor, or prefer a light supper, and a breakfast which +never saw the fire; or be in love with poor clothes and a homely +lodging, or could set his ambition rather on doing without +luxuries than on possessing them. For now the state, unable to +keep its purity by reason of its greatness, and having so many +affairs, and people from all parts under its government, was fain +to admit many mixed customs, and new examples of living. With +reason, therefore, everybody admired Cato, when they saw others +sink under labors, and grow effeminate by pleasures, but beheld +him unconquered by either; and that, too, not only when he was +young and desirous of honor, but also when old and gray-headed, +after a consulship and triumph; like some famous victor in the +games, persevering in his exercise and maintaining his character +to the very last. He himself says, that he never wore a suit of +clothes which cost more than a hundred drachmas; and that, when he +was general and consul, he drank the same wine which his workmen +did; and that the meat or fish which was bought in the market for +his dinner, did not cost above thirty 'asses.' All which was for +the sake of the commonwealth, that his body might be the hardier +for the war. Having a piece of embroidered Babylonian tapestry +left him, he sold it; because none of his farm-houses were so much +as plastered. Nor did he ever buy a slave for above fifteen +hundred drachmas; as he did not seek for effeminate and handsome +ones, but able, sturdy workmen, horse-keepers, and cow-herds; and +these he thought ought to be sold again, when they grew old, and +no useless servants fed in a house. In short, he reckoned nothing +a good bargain, which was superfluous; but whatever it was, though +sold for a farthing, he would think it a great price, if you had +no need of it. + +Yet, in my judgment, it marks an over-rigid temper for a man to +take the work out of his servants as out of brute beasts, turning +them off and selling them in their old age. A kind-natured man +will keep even worn-out horses and dogs, and not only take care of +them when they are foals and whelps, but also when they are grown +old. The Athenians, when they built their Hecatompedon,* (*The +Parthenon; built on the site of an older temple which had borne +the name of Hecatompedon, or a "hundred feet long." The name was +retained for the new building.) turned those mules loose to feed +freely, which they had observed to have done the hardest labor. +One of these came once of itself to offer its service, and ran +along with, nay, went before, the teams which drew the wagons up +to the Acropolis, as if it would incite and encourage them to draw +more stoutly; upon which a vote was passed that the creature +should be kept at the public charge till it died. The graves of +Cimon's horses, which thrice won the Olympian races, are yet to be +seen close by his own monument. Old Xanthippus, too, the father of +Pericles, entombed his dogs which swam after his galley to +Salamis, when the people fled from Athens, on the top of a cliff, +which they call the dogs' tomb to this day. + +For his general temperance, however, and self-control, Cato really +deserves the highest admiration. For when he commanded the army, +he never took for himself, and those that belonged to him, more +than three bushels of wheat for a month, and somewhat less than a +bushel and a half a day of barley for his baggage-cattle. And when +he entered upon the government of Sardinia, where his predecessors +had been used to require tents, bedding, and clothes upon the +public account, and to charge the state heavily with the cost of +provisions and entertainments for a great train of servants and +friends, the difference he showed in his economy was something +incredible. There was nothing of any sort for which he put the +public to expense; he would walk, instead of taking a carriage to +visit the cities, with only one of the common town officers, who +carried his dress, and a cup to offer libation with. Yet on the +other hand, he showed most inflexible severity and strictness, in +what related to public justice, and was rigorous, and precise in +what concerned the ordinances of the commonwealth; so that the +Roman government never seemed more terrible, nor yet more mild, +than under his administration. + +His very manner of speaking seemed to have such a kind of idea +with it; for it was courteous, and yet forcible; pleasant, yet +overwhelming; facetious, yet austere; sententious, and yet +vehement: like Socrates, in the description of Plato, who seemed +outwardly to those about him to be but a simple, talkative, blunt +fellow; whilst at the bottom he was full of such gravity and +matter, as would even move tears, and touch the very hearts of his +auditors. Reproving on one occasion the sumptuous habits of the +Romans, he said: "It is hard to preserve a city, where a fish is +sold for more than an ox." He had a saying, also, that the Roman +people were like sheep; for they, when single, do not obey, but +when altogether in a flock, they follow their leaders: "So you," +said he, "when you have got together in a body let yourselves be +guided by those whom singly you would never think of being advised +by." + +The Romans having sent three ambassadors to Bithnia, of whom one +was gouty, another had his skull trepanned, and the other seemed +little better than a fool; Cato, laughing, gave out that the +Romans had sent an embassy, which had neither feet, head, nor +heart.* (*Both the Romans and the Greeks conceived of the region +of the heart, the chest, as the seat not of emotion, nor of will +and courage merely, but more especially of judgment, deliberation, +and practical sense. Thus the Greeks derived their word for moral +wisdom from Phren, the diaphragm, and the Romans by 'egregie +cordatus homo' meant a wise statesman.) + +Cato also said that in his whole life he most repented of three +things; one was, that he had trusted a secret to a woman; another +that he went by water when he might have gone by land; the third, +that he had remained one whole day without doing any business of +moment. + +He was a good father, an excellent husband to his wife, and an +extraordinary economist; and as he did not manage his affairs of +this kind carelessly, and as things of little moment, I think I +ought to record a little further whatever was commendable in him +in these points. He married a wife more noble than rich; being of +opinion that the rich and the high-born are equally haughty and +proud; but that those of noble blood would be more ashamed of base +things, and consequently more obedient to their husbands in all +that was fit and right. A man who beat his wife or child, laid +violent hands, he said, on what was most sacred; and a good +husband he reckoned worthy of more praise than a great senator; +and he admired the ancient Socrates for nothing so much, as for +having lived a temperate and contented life with a wife who was a +scold, and children who were half-witted. + +When his son began to come to years of discretion, Cato himself +would teach him to read, although he had a servant, a very good +grammarian, called Chilo, who taught many others; but he thought +not fit, as he himself said, to have his son reprimanded by a +slave, or pulled, it may be, by the ears when found tardy in his +lesson: nor would he have him owe to a servant the obligation of +so great a thing as his learning; he himself, therefore, taught +him his grammar, his law, and his gymnastic exercises. Nor did he +only show him, too, how to throw a dart, to fight in armor, and to +ride, but to box also and to endure both heat and cold, and to +swim over the most rapid and rough rivers. He says, likewise, that +he wrote histories, in large characters, with his own hand, that +so his son, without stirring out of the house, might learn to know +about his countrymen and forefathers: nor did he less abstain from +speaking any thing improper before his son, than if it had been in +the presence of the sacred virgins, called vestals. Nor would he +ever go into the bath with him; which seems indeed to have been +the common custom of the Romans. + +Thus, like an excellent work, Cato formed and fashioned his son to +virtue. + + + +The Sacred Theban Band from the Life of Pelopidas. + +Gorgidas, according to some, first formed the Sacred Band of three +hundred chosen men, to whom, as being a guard for the citadel, the +State allowed provision, and all things necessary for exercise: +and hence they were called the city band, as citadels of old were +usually called cities. Others say that it was composed of young +men attached to each other by personal affection, and a pleasant +saying of Pammenes is current, that Homer's Nestor was not well +skilled in ordering an army, when he advised the Greeks to rank +tribe and tribe, and family and family together, that + +"So tribe might tribe, and kinsmen kinsmen aid," + +but that he should have joined lovers and their beloved. For men +of the same tribe or family little value one another when dangers +press; but a band cemented by friendship grounded upon love, is +never to be broken, and invincible; since all, ashamed to be base +in sight of their beloved, willingly rush into danger for the +relief of one another. Nor can that be wondered at; since they +have more regard for their absent loving friends than for others +present; as in the instance of the man who, when his enemy was +going to kill him, earnestly requested him to run him through the +breast, that his lover might not blush to see him wounded in the +back. it is a tradition likewise, that Iolaus, who assisted +Hercules in his labors and fought at his side, was beloved of him; +and Aristotle observes, that even in his time, lovers plighted +their faith at Iolaus' tomb. It is likely, therefore, that this +band was called sacred on this account; as Plato calls a lover a +divine friend. It is stated that it was never beaten till the +battle at Chaeronea: and when Philip, after the fight, took a view +of the slain, and came to the place where the three hundred that +fought his phalanx lay dead together, he was filled with wonder, +and understanding that it was the band of lovers, he shed tears +and said, "Perish any man who suspects that these men either did +or suffered any thing that was base." + + + +From the Life of Titus Flamininus, The Conqueror of Philip + +Among the songs written after the battle of Cynos Cephalas (the +Dog-heads), was the following epigram, composed by Alcaeus in +mockery of Philip, exaggerating the number of the slain: + +Naked and tombless see, O passer-by +The thirty thousand men of Thessaly, +Slain by the Aetolians and the Latin band, +That came with Titus from Italia's land: +Alas for mighty Macedon! that day, +Swift as a roe, king Philip fled away. + +Titus himself thought more highly of his liberation of Greece than +of any other of his actions, as appears by the inscription upon +some silver targets, dedicated together with his own shield, to +Apollo at Delphi: + +Ye Spartan Tyndarids, twin sons of Jove, +Who in swift horsemanship have placed your love, +Titus, of great Aeneas' race, leaves this +In honor of the liberty of Greece. + +And a golden crown, also offered to Apollo, bore this inscription: + +This golden crown upon thy locks divine, +O blest Latona's son, was set to shine +By the great captain of the Aenean name +O Phoebus, grant the noble Titus fame! + +When the ambassadors of Antiochus were recounting to those of +Achaea, the various multitudes composing their royal master's +forces, and ran over a long catalogue of hard names, "I supped +once," said Titus, "with a friend, and could not forbear +expostulating with him at the number of dishes he had provided, +and said I wondered where he had furnished himself with such a +variety; 'Sir,' replied he, 'to confess the truth, it is all hog's +flesh differently cooked.' And so, men of Achaea, when you are +told of Antiochus' lancers, and pikemen, and foot-guards, I advise +you not to be surprised; since in fact they are all Syrians +differently armed." + +The Chalcidians, who owed their lives to Titus, dedicated to him +all the best and most magnificent of their sacred buildings, +inscriptions upon which, like the following, may be seen to this +day: THE PEOPLE DEDICATE THIS GYMNASIUM TO TITUS AND TO HERCULES; +so again: THE PEOPLE CONSECRATE THE DELPHINIUM TO TITUS AND TO +HERCULES; and what is yet more remarkable, even in our time, a +priest of Titus was formally elected and declared; and after +sacrifice and libation, they sang a set song, of which these are +the closing verses:-- + +The Roman Faith, whose aid of yore, +Our vows were offered to implore, +We worship now and evermore. +To Rome, to Titus, and to Jove, +O maidens, in the dances move. +Dances and Io-Paeans too +Unto the Roman Faith are due +O Savior Titus, and to you. + + + +ALEXANDER the Great + +It must be borne in mind that my design has been not to write +histories, but lives. And the most glorious exploits do not always +furnish us with the clearest discoveries of virtue or vice in men; +sometimes a matter of less moment, an expression or a jest, +informs us better of their characters and inclinations, than the +most famous sieges, the greatest armaments, or the bloodiest +battles whatsoever. Therefore as portrait-painters are more exact +in the lines and features of the face, in which the character is +seen, than in the other parts of the body, so I must be allowed to +give my more particular attention to the marks and indications of +the souls of men, in my portrayal of their lives. + +It is agreed on by all hands, that on the father's side, Alexander +descended from Hercules by Caranus, and from Aeacus by Neoptolemus +on the mother's side. His father Philip, being in Samothrace, when +he was quite young, fell in love there with Olympias, in company +with whom he was initiated in the religious ceremonies of the +country, and her father and mother being both dead, soon after, +with the consent of her brother Arymbas, he married her. + +Alexander was born on the sixth of Hecatombaeon, the same day that +the temple of Diana at Ephesus was burnt. The statues that gave +the best representation of Alexander's person, were those of +Lysippus, those peculiarities which many of his successors +afterwards and his friends used to affect to imitate,--the +inclination of his head a little on one side towards his left +shoulder, and his melting eye,--having been expressed by this +artist with great exactness. But Apelles, who drew him with +thunderbolts in his hand, made his complexion browner and darker +than it was naturally; for he was fair and of a light color, +passing into ruddiness in his face and upon his breast. His +temperance, as to all pleasures, was apparent in him in his very +childhood, as he was with much difficulty incited to them, and +always used them with great moderation; though in other things he +was extremely eager and vehement, and in his love of glory and the +pursuit of it, he showed a solidity of high spirit and magnanimity +far above his age. For he neither sought nor valued it upon every +occasion, as his father Philip did (who affected to show his +eloquence almost to a degree of pedantry, and took care to have +the victories of his racing chariots at the Olympic games engraved +on his coin), but when he was asked by some about him, whether he +would run a race in the Olympic games, as he was very swift- +footed, he answered, that he would, if he might have kings to run +with him. + +While he was yet very young, he entertained the ambassadors from +the king of Persia, in the absence of his father, and entering +much into conversation with them, gained so much upon them by his +affability, and the questions he asked them, which were far from +being childish or trifling (for he inquired of them the length of +the ways, the nature of the road into inner Asia, the character of +their king, how he carried himself toward his enemies, and what +forces he was able to bring into the field), that they were struck +with admiration of him, and looked upon the ability so much famed +of Philip, to be nothing in comparison with the forwardness and +high purpose that appeared thus early in his son. Whenever he +heard that Philip had taken any town of importance, or won any +signal victory, instead of rejoicing at it altogether, he would +tell his companions that his father would anticipate every thing, +and leave him and them no opportunities of performing great and +illustrious actions. For being more bent upon action and glory +than upon either pleasure or riches, he esteemed all that he +should receive from his father as a diminution of his own future +achievements; and would have chosen rather to succeed to a kingdom +involved in troubles and wars, which would have afforded him +frequent exercise of his courage, and a large field of honor, than +to one already flourishing and settled, where his inheritance +would be an inactive life, and the mere enjoyment of wealth and +luxury. + +The care of his education, as it might be presumed, was committed +to a great many attendants, preceptors, and teachers, over the +whole of whom Leonidas, a near kinsman of Olympias, a man of an +austere temper, presided, who did not indeed himself decline the +name of what in reality is a noble and honorable office, but in +general his dignity, and his near relationship, obtained him from +other people the title of Alexander's fosterfather and governor. +But he who took upon him the actual place and style of his +"pedagogue," was Lysimachus the Acarnanian. + +Philonicus the Thessalian brought the horse Bucephalas to Philip, +offering to sell him for thirteen talents; but when they went into +the field to try him, they found him so very vicious and +unmanageable, that he reared up when they endeavored to mount him, +and would not so much as endure the voice of any of Philip's +attendants. Upon which, as they were leading him away as wholly +useless and untractable, Alexander, who stood by, said, "What a +magnificent horse they lose, for want of address and boldness to +manage him!" Philip at first took no notice of what he said, but +when he heard him repeat the same thing several times, and +perceived that he was much vexed to see the horse sent away, he +said to him, "Do you reproach those who are older than yourself, +as if you knew more, and were better able to manage him than +they?" "I could manage this horse," replied he, "better than +others do." "And if you fail," said Philip, "what will you forfeit +for your rashness?" "I will pay," answered Alexander, "the whole +price of the horse." At this the whole company fell to laughing; +and as soon as the wager was settled amongst them, he immediately +ran to the horse, and taking hold of the bridle, turned him +directly towards the sun, having, it seems, observed that he was +disturbed at and afraid of the motion of his own shadow; then +letting him go forward a little, still keeping the reins in his +hand, and stroking him gently when he found him beginning to grow +eager and fiery, he let fall his upper garment softly, and with +one nimble leap securely mounted him, and when he was seated, +little by little drew in the bridle, and curbed him without either +striking or spurring him. Presently, when he found him free from +all rebelliousness, and only impatient for the course, he let him +go at full speed, inciting him now with a commanding voice, and +urging him also with his heel. Philip and his friends looked on at +first in silence and anxiety for the result, till seeing him turn +at the end of his career, and come back rejoicing and triumphing +for what he had performed, they all burst out into acclamations of +applause; and his father, shedding tears, it is said, for joy, +kissed him as he came down from his horse, and in his transport, +said, "O my son, seek out a kingdom worthy of thyself, for +Macedonia is too little for thee." + +After this, considering him to be of a temper easy to be led to +his duty by reason, but by no means to be compelled, he always +endeavored to persuade rather than to command or force him to any +thing; and now looking upon the instruction and tuition of his +youth to be of greater difficulty and importance, than to be +wholly trusted to the ordinary masters in music and poetry, and +the common school subjects, and to require, as Sophocles says, + + The bridle and the rudder too, + +he sent for Aristotle, the most learned and most celebrated +philosopher of his time, and rewarded him with a munificence +proportionable to and becoming the care he took to instruct his +son. For he repeopled his native city Stagira, which he had caused +to be demolished a little before, and restored all the citizens +who were in exile or slavery, to their habitations. As a place for +the pursuit of their studies and exercises, he assigned the temple +of the Nymphs, near Mieza, where, to this very day, they show you +Aristotle's stone seats, and the shady walks which he was wont to +frequent. It would appear that Alexander received from him not +only his doctrines of Morals, and of Politics, but also something +of those more abstruse and profound theories which these +philosophers, by the very names they gave them, professed to +reserve for oral communication to the initiated, and did not allow +many to become acquainted with. For when he was in Asia, and heard +Aristotle had published some treatises of that kind, he wrote to +him, using very plain language to him in behalf of philosophy, the +following letter: "Alexander to Aristotle greeting. You have not +done well to publish your books of oral doctrine, for what is +there now that we excel others in, if those things which we have +been particularly instructed in be laid open to all? For my part, +I assure you, I had rather excel others in the knowledge of what +is excellent, than in the extent of my power and dominion. +Farewell." And Aristotle, soothing this passion for pre-eminence, +speaks, in his excuse for himself, of these doctrines, as in fact +both published and not published. To tell the truth, his books on +metaphysics are written in a style which makes them useless for +ordinary teaching, and instructive only in the way of memoranda, +for those who have been already conversant with that sort of +learning. + +Doubtless also it was to Aristotle, that he owed the inclination +he had, not to the theory only, but also to the practice of the +art of medicine. For when any of his friends were sick, he would +often prescribe for them their course of diet, and medicines +proper to their disease, as we may find in his epistles. He was +naturally a great lover of all kinds of learning and reading; and +Onesicritus informs us, that he constantly laid Homer's Iliads, +according to the copy corrected by Aristotle, called "The casket +copy," with his dagger under his pillow, declaring that he +esteemed it a perfect portable treasure of all military virtue and +knowledge. When he was in the upper Asia, being destitute of other +books, he ordered Harpalus to send him some; who furnished him +with Philistus's History, a great many of the plays of Euripides, +Sophocles, and Aeschylus, and some dithyrambic odes, composed by +Telestes and Philoxenus. + +While Philip went on his expedition against the Byzantines, he +left Alexander, then sixteen years old, his lieutenant in +Macedonia, committing the charge of his seal to him; who, not to +sit idle, reduced the rebellious Maedi, and having taken their +chief town by storm, drove out the barbarous inhabitants, and +planting a colony of several nations in their room, called the +place after his own name, Alexandropolis. At the battle of +Chaeronea, which his father fought against the Greeks, he is said +to have been the first man that charged the Thebans' sacred band. +And even in my remembrance, there stood an old oak near the river +Cephisus, which people called Alexander's oak, because his tent +was pitched under it. And not far off are to be seen the graves of +the Macedonians who fell in that battle. This early bravery made +Philip so fond of him, that nothing pleased him more than to hear +his subjects call himself their general and Alexander their king. + +But later on, through an unfortunate marriage of Philip with +Cleopatra, the niece of Attalus, an estrangement grew up between +them. And not long after the brother of Alexander, Pausanias, +having had an insult done to him at the instance of Attalus and +Cleopatra, when he found he could get no reparation for his +disgrace at Philip's hands, watched his opportunity and murdered +him. + +Alexander was but twenty years old when his father was murdered, +and succeeded to a kingdom beset on all sides with great dangers, +and rancorous enemies. Hearing the Thebans were in revolt, and the +Athenians in correspondence with them, he immediately marched +through the pass of Thermopylae, saying that to Demosthenes, who +had called him a child while he was in Illyria, and a youth when +he was in Thessaly, he would appear a man before the walls of +Athens. + +When he came to Thebes, to show how willing he was to accept of +their repentance for what was past, he only demanded of them +Phoenix and Prothytes, the authors of the rebellion, and +proclaimed a general pardon to those who would come over to him. +But when the Thebans merely retorted by demanding Philotas and +Antipater to be delivered into their hands, he applied himself to +make them feel the last extremities of war. The Thebans defended +themselves with a zeal and courage beyond their strength, being +much outnumbered by their enemies. But when the Macedonian +garrison sallied out upon them from the citadel, they were so +hemmed in on all sides, that the greater part of them fell in the +battle; the city itself being taken by storm, was sacked and +razed, Alexander's hope being that so severe an example might +terrify the rest of Greece into obedience. So that, except the +priests, and a few who had heretofore been the friends and +connections of the Macedonians, the family of the poet Pindar, and +those who were known to have opposed the public vote for the war, +all the rest, to the number of thirty thousand, were publicly sold +for slaves; and it is computed that upwards of six thousand were +put to the sword. Among the other calamities that befell the city, +it happened that some Thracian soldiers having broken into the +house of a matron of high character and repute named Timoclea, +their captain, to satisfy his avarice, asked her if she knew of +any money concealed; to which she readily answered that she did, +and bade him follow her into a garden, where she showed him a +well, into which, she told him, upon the taking of the city she +had thrown what she had of most value. The greedy Thracian +presently stooping down to view the place where he thought the +treasure lay, she came behind him, and pushed him into the well, +and then flung great stones in upon him, till she had killed him. +After which, when the soldiers led her away bound to Alexander, +her very mien and gait showed her to be a woman of dignity and +high mind, not betraying the least sign of fear or astonishment. +And when the king asked her who she was, she said, "I am the +sister of Theagenes, who fought at the battle of Chaeronea with +your father, Philip, and fell there in command for the liberty of +Greece." Alexander was so surprised, both at what she had done, +and what she said, that he could not chose but give her and her +children their freedom to go whither they pleased. + +After this he received the Athenians into favor. Whether it were, +like the lion, that his passion was now satisfied, or that after +an example of extreme cruelty, he had a mind to appear merciful, +it happened well for the Athenians. Certain it is, too, that in +after-time he often repented of his severity to the Thebans, and +his remorse had such influence on his temper as to make him ever +after less rigorous to all others. And it was observed that +whatsoever any Theban, who had the good fortune to survive this +victory, asked of him, he was sure to grant without the least +difficulty. + +Soon after, the Greeks being assembled at the Isthmus, declared +their resolution of joining with Alexander in the war against the +Persians, and proclaimed him their general. While he stayed here, +many public ministers and philosophers came from all parts to +visit him, and congratulated him on his election, but contrary to +his expectation, Diogenes of Sinope, who then was living at +Corinth, thought so little of him, that instead of coming to +compliment him, he never so much as stirred out of the suburb +called the Cranium, where Alexander ran across him lying at full +length in the sun. When he saw so much company near him, he raised +himself a little, and vouchsafed to look upon Alexander; and when +he kindly asked him whether he wanted any thing, "Yes," said he, +"I would have you stand from between me and the sun." Alexander +was so struck at this answer, and surprised at the greatness of +the man, who had taken so little notice of him, that as he went +away, he told his followers who were laughing at the moroseness of +the philosopher, that if he were not Alexander, he would choose to +be Diogenes. + +His army consisted of about thirty thousand foot, and four +thousand horse; and Aristobulus says, he had not a fund of over +seventy talents for their pay, nor more than thirty days' +provision, if we may believe Duris. However narrow the beginnings +of so vast an undertaking might seem to be, yet he would not +embark his army until he had informed himself particularly what +means his friends had to enable them to follow him, and supplied +what they wanted, by giving good farms to some, a village to one, +and the revenue of some hamlet or harbor town to another. So that +at last he had portioned out or engaged almost all the royal +property; which giving Perdiccas an occasion to ask him what he +would leave himself, he answered, "My hopes." "Your soldiers," +replied Perdiccas, "will be your partners in those," and refused +to accept of the estate he had assigned him. + +With such vigorous resolutions, and his mind thus disposed, he +passed the Hellespont, and at Troy sacrificed to Minerva, and +honored the memory of the heroes who were buried there, with +solemn libations; especially Achilles, whose gravestone he +anointed, and with his friends, as the ancient custom is, ran +naked about his sepulchre, and crowned it with garlands, declaring +how happy he esteemed him, in having, while he lived, so faithful +a friend, and when he was dead, so famous a poet to proclaim his +actions. While he was viewing the rest of the antiquities and +curiosities of the place, being told he might see Paris's harp, if +he pleased, he said, he thought it not worth looking at, but he +should be glad to see that of Achilles, to which he used to sing +the glories and great actions of brave men. + +In the meantime Darius's captains having collected large forces, +were encamped on the further bank of the river Granicus, and it +was necessary to fight, as it were, in the gate of Asia for an +entrance into it. And when Parmenio advised him not to attempt +anything that day, because it was late, he told him that he should +disgrace the Hellespont, should he fear the Granicus. And so +without saying more, he immediately took the river with thirteen +troops of horse, and advanced against whole showers of darts +thrown from the steep opposite side, which was covered with armed +multitudes of the enemy's horse and foot, notwithstanding the +disadvantage of the ground and the rapidity of the stream; so that +the action seemed to have more of frenzy and desperation in it, +than of prudent conduct. However, he persisted obstinately to gain +the passage, and at last with much ado making his way up the +banks, which were extremely muddy and slippery, he had instantly +to join in a mere confused hand-to-hand combat with the enemy, +before he could draw up his men, who were still passing over, into +any order. For the enemy pressed upon him with loud and warlike +outcries; and charging horse against horse, with their lances, +after they had broken and spent these, they fell to it with their +swords. And Alexander, being easily known by his buckler, and a +large plume of white feathers on each side of his helmet, was +attacked on all sides, yet escaped without a wound, though his +cuirass was pierced by a javelin in one of the joinings. And +Rhoesaces and Spithridates, two Persian commanders, falling upon +him at once, he avoided one of them, and struck at Rhoesaces, who +had a good cuirass on, with such force, that his spear breaking in +his hand, he was glad to betake himself to his dagger. While they +were thus engaged, Spithridates came up on the other side of him, +and raising himself upon his horse, gave him such a blow with his +battle-axe on the helmet, that he cut off the crest of it, with +one of his plumes, and the helmet was only just so far strong +enough to save him, that the edge of the weapon touched the hair +of his head. But as he was about to repeat his stroke, Clitus, +called the black Clitus, prevented him, by running him through the +body with his spear. At the same time Alexander despatched +Rhoesaces with his sword. While the horse were thus dangerously +engaged, the Macedonian phalanx passed the river, and the foot on +each side advanced to fight. But the enemy hardly sustaining the +first onset, soon gave ground and fled, all but the mercenary +Greeks, who, making a stand upon a rising ground, desired quarter, +which Alexander, guided rather by passion than judgment, refused +to grant, and charging them himself first, had his horse (not +Bucephalas, but another) killed under him. And this obstinacy of +his to cut off these experienced, desperate men, cost him the +lives of more of his own soldiers than all the battle before, +besides those who were wounded. The Persians lost in this battle +twenty thousand foot, and two thousand five hundred horse. On +Alexander's side, Aristobulus says there were not over four and +thirty missing, of whom nine were foot-soldiers; and in memory of +them he caused as many statues of brass, of Lysippus's making, to +be erected. And that the Greeks might participate in the honor of +his victory, he sent a portion of the spoils home to them, +particularly to the Athenians three hundred bucklers, and upon all +the rest he ordered this inscription to be set: "Alexander the son +of Philip, and the Greeks, except the Lacedaemonians, won these +from the barbarians who inhabit Asia." All the plate and purple +garments, and other things of the same kind that he took from the +Persians, except a very small quantity which he reserved for +himself, he sent as a present to his mother. + +This battle presently made a great change of affairs to +Alexander's advantage. For Sardis itself, the chief seat of the +barbarians' power in the maritime provinces, and many other +considerable places, were surrendered to him; only Halicarnassus +and Miletus stood out, which he took by force, together with the +territory about them. After which he was a little unsettled in his +opinion how to proceed. Sometimes he thought it best to find out +Darius as soon as he could, and put all to the hazard of a battle; +at another time he looked upon it as a more prudent course to make +an entire reduction of the sea-coast, and not to seek the enemy +till he had first exercised his power here and made himself secure +of the resources of these provinces. While he was thus +deliberating what to do, it happened that a spring of water near +the city of Xanthus in Lycia, of its own accord swelled over its +banks, and threw up a copper plate upon the margin, in which was +engraven in ancient characters, that the time would come, when the +Persian empire should be destroyed by the Greeks. Encouraged by +this incident, he proceeded to reduce the maritime parts of +Cilicia and Phoenicia, and passed his army along the sea-coasts of +Pamphylia with such expedition that many historians have described +and extolled it with a height of admiration, as if it were no less +than a miracle, and an extraordinary effect of divine favor, that +the waves which usually come rolling in violently from the main, +and hardly ever leave so much as a narrow beach under the steep, +broken cliffs at any time uncovered, should on a sudden retire to +afford him passage. Menander, in one of his comedies, alludes to +this marvel when he says, + + + Was Alexander ever favored more? + Each man I wish for meets me at the door, + And should I ask for passage through the sea, + The sea, I doubt not, would retire for me. + +Then he subdued the Pisidians who made head against him, and +conquered the Phrygians, at whose chief city Gordium, which is +said to be the seat of the ancient Midas, he saw the famous +chariot fastened with cords made of the rind of the cornel-tree, +about which the inhabitants had a tradition, that for him who +should untie it, was reserved the empire of the world. Most +authors tell the story of Alexander, finding himself unable to +untie the knot, the ends of which were secretly twisted round and +folded up within it, cut it asunder with his sword. But +Aristobulus tells us it was easy for him to undo it, by only +pulling the pin out of the pole, to which the yoke was tied, and +afterwards drawing off the yoke itself from below. + +Darius was by this time upon his march from Susa, very confident, +in the number of his men, which amounted to six hundred thousand. +But Alexander was detained in Cilicia by a sickness, which some +say he contracted from his fatigues, others from bathing in the +river Cydnus, whose waters were exceedingly cold. None of his +physicians would venture to give him any remedies, they thought +his case so desperate, and were so afraid of the suspicions and +ill-will of the Macedonians if they should fail in the cure; till +Philip, the Acarnanian, seeing how critical his case was, but +relying on his own well-known friendship for him, resolved to try +the last efforts of his art, and rather hazard his own credit and +life, than suffer him to perish for want of physic, which he +confidently administered to him, encouraging him to take it +boldly, if he desired a speedy recovery, in order to prosecute the +war. At this very time, Parmenio wrote to Alexander from the camp, +bidding him have a care of Philip, as one who was bribed by Darius +to kill him, with great sums of money, and a promise of his +daughter in marriage. When he had perused the letter, he put it +under his pillow, without so much as showing it to any of his most +intimate friends, and when Philip came in with the potion, he took +it with great cheerfulness and assurance, giving him meantime the +letter to read. This was a spectacle well worth being present at, +to see Alexander take the draught, and Philip read the letter at +the same time, and then turn and look upon one another, but with +different sentiments; for Alexander's looks were cheerful and +open, to show his kindness to and confidence in his physician, +while the other was full of surprise and alarm at the accusation, +appealing to the gods to witness his innocence, sometimes lifting +up his hands to heaven, and then throwing himself down by the +bedside, and beseeching Alexander to lay aside all fear, and +follow his directions without apprehension. For the medicine at +first worked so strongly as to drive, as it were, the vital forces +into the interior; he lost his speech, and falling into a swoon, +had scarcely any sense or pulse left. However, in a very short +time, by Philip's means, his health and strength returned, and he +showed himself in public to the Macedonians, who were in continual +fear and dejection until they saw him abroad again. + +Darius, in the meantime marched into Cilicia, at the same time +that Alexander advanced into Syria to meet him; and missing one +another in the night, they both turned back again. Alexander, +greatly pleased with the event, made all the haste he could to +fight in the defiles, and Darius to recover his former ground, and +draw his army out of so disadvantageous a place. For now he began +to see his error in engaging himself too far in a country in which +the sea, the mountains, and the river Pinarus running through the +midst of it, would force him to divide his forces, render his +horse almost unserviceable, and only cover and support the +weakness of the enemy. Fortune was not kinder to Alexander in the +choice of the ground, than he was careful to improve it to his +advantage. For being much inferior in numbers, so far from +allowing himself to be outflanked, he stretched his right wing +much further out than the left wing of his enemies, and fighting +there himself in the very foremost ranks, put the barbarians to +flight. In this battle he was wounded in the thigh, Chares says by +Darius, with whom he fought hand to hand. But in the account which +he gave Antipater of the battle, though he owns he was wounded in +the thigh with a sword, though not dangerously, he does not +mention who it was that wounded him. + +Nothing was wanting to complete this victory, in which he +overthrew above a hundred and ten thousand of his enemies, but the +taking of the person of Darius, who escaped very narrowly by +flight. However, having captured his chariot and his bow, he +returned from pursuing him, and found his own men busy in +pillaging the barbarians' camp, which (though to disburden +themselves, they had left most of their baggage at Damascus) was +exceedingly rich. But Darius's tent, which was full of splendid +furniture, and quantities of gold and silver, they reserved for +Alexander himself, who after he had put off his arms, went to +bathe himself, saying, "Let us now cleanse ourselves from the +toils of war in the bath of Darius." "Not so," replied one of his +followers, "but in Alexander's rather; for the property of the +conquered is, and should be called, the conqueror's." Here, when +he beheld the bathing vessels, the water-pots, the pans, and the +ointment boxes, all of gold, curiously wrought, and smelt the +fragrant odors with which the whole place was exquisitely +perfumed, and from thence passed into a pavilion of great size and +height, where the couches and tables and preparations for an +entertainment were perfectly magnificent, he turned to those about +him and said, "This, it seems, is royalty." + +But as he was going to supper, word was brought him that Darius's +mother and wife and two unmarried daughters, being taken among the +rest of the prisoners, were all in mourning and sorrow upon the +sight of his chariot and bow, imagining him to be dead. After a +little he sent Leonnatus to them, to let them know Darius was not +dead, and that they need not fear any harm from Alexander, who +made war upon him only for dominion. But the noblest and most +royal part of their usage was, that he treated these illustrious +prisoners according to their virtue and character, not suffering +them to hear, or receive, or so much as to apprehend any thing +that was unbecoming. So that they seemed rather lodged in some +temple, or some holy chambers, where they enjoyed their privacy +sacred and uninterrupted, than in the camp of an enemy. Yet +Darius's wife was accounted the most beautiful princess then +living, as her husband the tallest and handsomest man of his time, +and the daughters were not unworthy of their parents. + +In his diet Alexander was most temperate, as appears, omitting +many other circumstances, by what he said to Ada, whom he adopted, +with the title of mother, and afterwards created queen of Caria. +For when she out of kindness sent him every day many curious +dishes, and sweetmeats, and would have furnished him with some +cooks and pastry-men, who were thought to have great skill, he +told her he wanted none of them, his preceptor, Leonidas, having +already given him the best, which were "a night march to prepare +for breakfast, and a moderate breakfast to create an appetite for +supper." Leonidas also, he added, used to open and search the +furniture of his chamber, and his wardrobe, to see if his mother +had left him any thing that was delicate or superfluous. He was +much less addicted to wine than was generally believed; that which +gave people occasion to think so of him was, that when he had +nothing else to do, he loved to sit long and talk, rather than +drink, and over every cup hold a long conversation. For when his +affairs called upon him, he would not be detained, as other +generals often were, either by wine, or sleep, nuptial +solemnities, spectacles, or any other diversion whatsoever; a +convincing argument of which is, that in the short time he lived, +he accomplished so many and so great actions. When he was free +from employment, after he was up, and had sacrificed to the gods, +he used to sit down to breakfast, and then spend the rest of the +day in hunting, or writing memoirs, giving decisions on some +military questions, or reading. In marches that required no great +haste, he would practice shooting as he went along, or to mount a +chariot, and alight from it in full speed. Sometimes, for sport's +sake, as his journals tell us, he would hunt foxes and go fowling. +When he came in for the evening, after he had bathed and was +anointed, he would call for his bakers and chief cooks, to know if +they had his dinner ready. He never cared to dine till it was +pretty late and beginning to be dark, and as wonderfully +circumspect at meals that every one who sat with him should be +served alike and with proper attention; and his love of talking, +as was said before, made him delight to sit long at his wine. And +no prince's conversation was ever so agreeable, yet he would at +times fall into a temper of ostentation and soldierly boasting, +which gave his flatterers a great advantage to ride him, and made +his better friends very uneasy. After such an entertainment, he +was wont to bathe, and then perhaps he would sleep till noon, and +sometimes all day long. He was so very temperate in his eating, +that when any rare fish or fruits were sent him, he would +distribute them among his friends, and often reserve nothing for +himself. His table, however, was always magnificent, the expense +of it still increasing with his good fortune, till it amounted to +ten thousand drachmas a day, to which sum he limited it, and +beyond this he would suffer none to lay out in any entertainment +where he himself was the guest. + +Among the treasures and other booty that was taken from Darius, +there was a very precious casket, which being brought to Alexander +for a great rarity, he asked those about him what they thought +fittest to be laid up in it; and when they had delivered their +various opinions, he told them he should keep Homer's Iliad in it. +Nor did Homer prove an unprofitable companion to him in his +expeditions. For, after he had become master of Egypt he +determined to found a great and populous city, and give to it his +own name. And when he had measured and staked out the ground with +the advice of the best architects, he chanced one night in his +sleep to see a wonderful vision; a gray-headed old man, of a +venerable aspect, appeared to stand by him, and pronounce these +verses: + + +An island lies, where loud the billows roar, +Pharos they call it, on the Egyptian shore. + +Alexander upon this immediately rose up and went to Pharos, which, +at that time, was an island lying a little above the Canobic mouth +of the river Nile, though it has now been joined to the main land +by a mole. As soon as he saw the commodious situation of the +place, it being a long neck of land, stretching like an isthmus +between large lagoons and shallow waters on one side, and the sea +on the other, the latter at the end of it making a spacious +harbor, he said, Homer, besides his other excellences, was a very +good architect, and ordered the plan of a city to be drawn out +answerable to the place. To do which, for want of chalk, the soil +being black, they laid out their lines with flour, taking in a +pretty large compass of ground in a semicircular figure, and +drawing into the inside of the circumference equal straight lines +from each end, thus giving it something of the form of a cloak or +cape. While he was pleasing himself with his design, on a sudden +an infinite number of great birds of several kinds, rising like a +black cloud out of the river and the lake, came and devoured every +morsel of the flour that had been used in setting out the lines; +at which omen even Alexander himself was troubled, till the augurs +restored his confidence again by telling him it was a sign that +the city he was about to build would not only abound in all things +within itself, but also be the nurse and feeder of many nations. + +The great battle of all that was fought with Darius, was not, as +most writers tell us, at Arbela, but at Gaugamela, which, in their +language, signifies the camel's house, forasmuch as one of their +ancient kings having escaped the pursuit of his enemies on a swift +camel, in gratitude to his beast settled him at this place, with +an allowance of certain villages and rents for his maintenance. It +came to pass that in the month Boedromion, about the beginning of +the Feast of Mysteries at Athens, there was an eclipse of the +moon, the eleventh night after which, the two armies being now in +view of one another, Darius kept his men in arms, and by +torchlight took a general review of them. But Alexander, while his +soldiers slept, spent the night before his tent with his diviner +Aristander, performing certain mysterious ceremonies, and +sacrificing to the god Fear. + +In the meanwhile the oldest of his commanders, and chiefly +Parmenio, when they beheld all the plain between Niphates and the +Gordyaean mountains shining with the lights and fires which were +made by the barbarians, and heard the uncertain and confused sound +of voices out of their camp, like the distant roaring of a vast +ocean, were so amazed at the thoughts of such a multitude, that +after some conference among themselves, they concluded it an +enterprise too difficult and hazardous for them to engage so +numerous an enemy in the day, and therefore meeting the king as he +came from sacrificing, besought him to attack Darius by night, +that the darkness might conceal the danger of the ensuing battle. +To this he gave them the celebrated answer, "I will not steal a +victory," which, though some at the time thought it a boyish and +inconsiderate speech, as if he played with danger, others regarded +as an evidence that the confided in his present condition, and +acted on a true judgment of the future, not wishing to leave +Darius, in case he were worsted, the pretext of trying his fortune +again, which he might suppose himself to have, if he could impute +his overthrow to the disadvantage of the night, as he did before +to the mountains, the narrow passages, and the sea. For while he +had such numerous forces and large dominions still remaining, it +was not any want of men or arms that could induce him to give up +the war, but only the loss of all courage and hope upon the +conviction of an undeniable and manifest defeat. + +After they were gone from him with this answer, he laid himself +down in his tent and slept the rest of the night more soundly than +was usual with him, to the astonishment of the commanders. Not +only before the battle, but in the height of the danger, he showed +himself great, and manifested the self-possession of a just +foresight and confidence. For the battle for some time fluctuated +and was dubious. The left wing, where Parmenio commanded, was so +impetuously charged by the Bactrian horse that it was disordered +and forced to give ground, at the same time that Mazaeus had sent +a detachment around to fall upon those who guarded the baggage, +which so disturbed Parmenio, that he sent messengers to acquaint +Alexander that the camp and baggage would be all lost unless he +immediately relieved the rear by a considerable reinforcement +drawn out of the front. This message being brought him just as he +was giving the signal to those about him for the onset, he bade +them tell Parmenio that he must have surely lost the use of his +reason, and had forgotten, in his alarm, that soldiers, if +victorious, become masters of their enemies' baggage; and if +defeated, instead of taking care of their wealth or their slaves, +have nothing more to do but to fight gallantly and die with honor. +When he had said this, he put on his helmet, having the rest of +his arms on before he came out of his tent, which were a coat of +the Sicilian make, girt close about him, and over that a +breastpiece of thickly quilted linen, which was taken among other +booty at the battle of Issus. The helmet, which was made by +Theophilus, though of iron, was so well wrought and polished, that +it was as bright as the most refined silver. To this was fitted a +gorget of the same metal, set with precious stones His sword, +which was the weapon he most used in fight, was given him by the +king of the Citieans, and was of an admirable temper and +lightness. The belt which he also wore in all engagements, was of +much richer workmanship than the rest of his armor. It was the +work of the ancient Helicon, and had been presented to him by the +Rhodians, as a mark of their respect to him. So long as he was +engaged in drawing up his men, or riding about to give orders or +directions, or to view them, he spared Bucephalas, who was now +growing old, and made use of another horse; but when he was +actually to fight, he sent for him again, and as soon as he was +mounted, commenced the attack. + +He made the longest address that day to the Thessalians and other +Greeks, who answered him with loud shouts desiring him to lead +them on against the barbarians, upon which he shifted his javelin +into his left hand, and with his right lifted up towards heaven, +besought the gods, as Callisthenes tells us, that if he was of a +truth the son of Jupiter, they would be pleased to assist and +strengthen the Grecians. At the same time the augur Aristander, +who had a white mantle about him, and a crown of gold on his head, +rode by and showed them an eagle that soared just over Alexander, +and directed his flight towards the enemy; which so animated the +beholders, that after mutual encouragements and exhortations, the +cavalry charged at full speed, and were followed in a mass by the +whole phalanx of the foot. But before they could well come to +blows with the first ranks, the barbarians shrunk back, and were +hotly pursued by Alexander, who drove those that fled before him +into the middle of the battle, where Darius himself was in person, +whom he saw from a distance over the foremost ranks, conspicuous +in the midst of his lifeguard, a tall and fine-looking man, drawn +in a lofty chariot, defended by an abundance of the best cavalry +who stood close in order about it, ready to receive the enemy. But +Alexander's approach was so terrible, forcing those who gave back +upon those who yet maintained their ground, that he beat down and +dispersed them almost all. Only a few of the bravest and +valiantest opposed the pursuit, who were slain in their king's +presence, falling in heaps upon one another, and in the very pangs +of death striving to catch hold of the horses. Darius now seeing +all was lost, that those who were placed in front to defend him +were broken and beaten back upon him, that he could not turn or +disengage his chariot without great difficulty, the wheels being +clogged and entangled among the dead bodies, which lay in such +heaps as not only stopped, but almost covered the horses, and made +them rear and grow so unruly, that the frighted charioteer could +govern them no longer, in this extremity was glad to quit his +chariot and his arms, and mounting, it is said, upon a mare that +had been taken from her foal, betook himself to flight. + +This battle being thus over, seemed to put a period to the Persian +empire; and Alexander, who was now proclaimed king of Asia, +returned thanks to the gods in magnificent sacrifices, and +rewarded his friends and followers with great sums of money, and +places, and governments of provinces. + +From here he marched through the province of Babylon, which +immediately submitted to him, and was much surprised at the sight +in one place where fire issues in a continuous stream, like a +spring of water, out of a cleft in the earth, and the stream of +naphtha, which, not far from this spot, flows out so abundantly as +to form a sort of lake. This naphtha, in other respects resembling +bitumen, is so subject to take fire, that before it touches the +flame, it will kindle at the very light that surrounds it, and +often inflame the intermediate air also. The barbarians, to show +the power and nature of it, sprinkled the street that led to the +king's lodgings with little drops of it, and when it was almost +night, stood at the further end with torches, which being applied +to the moistened places, the first at once taking fire, instantly, +as quick as a man could think of it, it caught from one end to +another, in such a manner that the whole street was one continuous +flame. + +Alexander, in his own letters, has given us an account of his war +with Porus. He says that two armies were separated by the river +Hydaspes, on whose opposite bank Porus continually kept his +elephants in order of battle, with their heads towards their +enemies, to guard the passage; that he, on the other hand, made +every day a great noise and clamor in his camp, to dissipate the +apprehensions of the barbarians; that one stormy, dark night he +passed the river, at a distance from the place where the enemy +lay, into a little island, with part of his foot, and the best of +his horse. Here there fell a most violent storm of rain +accompanied with lightning and whirlwinds, and although he saw +some of his men burnt and dying with the lightning, he +nevertheless quitted the island and made over to the other side. +Here, apprehending the multitude of the enemy, and to avoid the +shock of their elephants, he divided his forces, and attacked +their left wing himself, commanding Coenus to fall upon the right, +which was performed with good success. By this means both wings +being broken, the enemies fell back in their retreat upon the +centre, and crowded in upon their elephants. There rallying, they +fought a hand to hand battle, and it was the eighth hour of the +day before they were entirely defeated. + +Almost all the historians agree in relating that Porus was four +cubits and a span high, and that when he was upon his elephant, +which was of the largest size, his stature and bulk were so +answerable, that he appeared to be proportionably mounted, as a +horseman on his horse. This elephant, during the whole battle, +gave many singular proofs of sagacity and of particular care of +the king, whom as long as he was strong and in a condition to +fight, he defended with great courage, repeling those who set upon +him; and as soon as he perceived him overpowered with his numerous +wounds and the multitude of darts that were thrown at him, to +prevent his falling off, he softly knelt down and began to draw +out the darts with his proboscis. When Porus was taken prisoner, +and Alexander asked him how he expected to be used, he answered, +"As a king." And Alexander, accordingly, not only suffered him to +govern his own kingdom as satrap under himself, but gave him also +the additional territory of various independent tribes whom he +subdued. + +Some little time after the battle with Porus, Bucephalas died, as +most of the authorities state, under cure of his wounds, or as +Onesicritus says, of fatigue and age, being thirty years old. +Alexander was no less concerned at his death, than if he had lost +an old companion or an intimate friend, and built a city, which he +named Bucephalia, in memory of him, on the bank of the river +Hydaspes. + +Aristobulus tells us that Alexander died of a raging fever, +having, in a violent thirst, taken a copious draught of wine, upon +which he fell into delirium, and died on the thirtieth day of the +month Daesius. + +But the journals give the following record. On the eighteenth of +the month, he slept in the bathing-room on account of his fever. +The next day he bathed and removed into his chamber, and spent his +time in playing at dice with Medius. In the evening he bathed and +sacrificed, and ate freely, and had the fever on him through the +night. On the twenty-fourth he was much worse, and was carried out +of his bed to assist at the sacrifices, and gave order that the +general officers should wait within the court, whilst the inferior +officers kept watch without doors. On the twenty-fifth he was +removed to his palace on the other side the river, where he slept +a little, but his fever did not abate, and when the generals came +into his chamber, he was speechless, and continued so the +following day. The Macedonians, therefore, supposing he was dead, +came with great clamors to the gates, and menaced his friends so +that they were forced to admit them, and let them all pass through +unarmed along by his bedside. The same day Python and Seleucus +were despatched to the temple of Serapis to inquire if they should +bring Alexander thither, and were answered by the god, that they +should not remove him. On the twenty-eighth, in the evening, he +died. + + + +The Death of Caesar + +The place destined for the scene of this murder, in which the +senate met that day, was the same in which Pompey's statue stood, +and was one of the edifices which Pompey had raised and dedicated +with his theatre to the use of the public, plainly showing that +there was something of a supernatural influence which guided the +action, and ordered it to that particular place. Cassius, just +before the act, is said to have looked towards Pompey's statue, +and silently implored his assistance, though he had been inclined +to the doctrines of Epicurus. But this occasion and the instant +danger, carried him away out of all his reasonings, and filled him +for the time with a sort of inspiration. As for Antony, who was +firm to Caesar, and a strong man, Brutus Albinus kept him outside +the house, and delayed him with a long conversation contrived on +purpose. When Caesar entered, the senate stood up to show their +respect to him, and of Brutus's confederates, some came about his +chair and stood behind it, others met him, pretending to add their +petitions to those of Tillius Cimber, in behalf of his brother, +who was in exile; and they followed him with their joint +supplications till he came to his seat. When he had sat down, he +refused to comply with their requests, and upon their urging him +further, began to reproach them severally for their importunities, +when Tillius, laying hold of his robe with both his hands, pulled +it down from his neck, which was the signal for the assault. Casca +gave him the first cut, in the neck, which was not mortal nor +dangerous, coming, as it did, from one who at the beginning of +such a bold action was probably very much disturbed. Caesar +immediately turned about, and laid his hand upon the dagger and +kept hold of it. And both of them at the same time cried out, he +that received the blow, in Latin, "Vile Casca, what does this +mean?" and he that gave it, in Greek, to his brother, "Brother, +help!" Upon this first onset, those who were not privy to the +design were astounded, and their horror and amazement at what they +saw were so great, that they durst not fly nor assist Caesar, nor +so much as speak a word. But those who came prepared for the +business inclosed him on every side, with their naked daggers in +their hands. Which way soever he turned, he met with blows, and +saw their swords leveled at his face and eyes, and was +encompassed, like a wild beast in the toils, on every side. For it +had been agreed that they should each make a thrust at him, and +flesh themselves with his blood; for which reason Brutus also gave +him one stab in the groin. Some say that he fought and resisted +all the rest, shifting his body to avoid the blows, and calling +out for help, but that when he saw Brutus's sword drawn, he +covered his face with his robe and submitted, letting himself +fall, whether it were by chance, or that he was pushed in that +direction by his murderers, at the foot of the pedestal on which +Pompey's statue stood, and which was thus wet with his blood. So +that Pompey himself seemed to have presided, as it were, over the +revenge done upon his adversary, who lay here at his feet, and +breathed out his soul through his multitude of wounds, for they +say he received three and twenty. And the conspirators themselves +were many of them wounded by each other, whilst they all leveled +their blows at the same person. + +When Caesar's will was opened, and it was found that he had left a +considerable legacy to each one of the Roman citizens, and when +his body was seen carried through the marketplace all mangled with +wounds, the multitude could no longer contain themselves within +the bounds of tranquility and order, but heaped together a pile of +benches, bars, and tables, upon which they placed the corpse, and +setting fire to it, burnt it on them. Then they took brands from +the pile, and ran some to fire the conspirators, others up and +down the city, to find out the men and tear them to pieces, but +met, however, with none of them, they having taken effectual care +to secure themselves. + +Caesar died in his fifty-sixth year, not having survived Pompey +above four years. That empire and power which he had pursued +through the whole course of his life with so much hazard, he did +at last with much difficulty compass, but reaped no other fruits +from it than the empty name and invidious glory. But the great +genius which attended him through his lifetime, even after his +death remained as the avenger of his murder, pursuing through +every sea and land all those who were concerned in it, and +suffering none to escape, but reaching all who in any sort or kind +were either actually engaged in the fact, or by their counsels any +way promoted it. + +The most remarkable of mere human coincidences was that which +befell Cassius, who, when he was defeated at Philippi, killed +himself with the same dagger which he had made use of against +Caesar. The most signal preternatural appearances were the great +comet, which shone very bright for seven nights after Caesar's +death, and then disappeared, and the dimness of the sun, whose orb +continued pale and dull for the whole of that year, never showing +its ordinary radiance at its rising, and giving but a feeble heat. +The air consequently was damp and gross, for want of stronger rays +to open and rarefy it. The fruits, for that reason, never properly +ripened, and began to wither and fall off for want of heat, before +they were fully formed. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg The Boys' and Girls' Plutarch by John S. White + diff --git a/old/tbagp10.zip b/old/tbagp10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3e4ee46 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/tbagp10.zip |