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diff --git a/2484-h/2484-h.htm b/2484-h/2484-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1727d4b --- /dev/null +++ b/2484-h/2484-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,14263 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The Boys' and Girls' Plutarch, by Plutarch + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Boys' and Girls' Plutarch, by Plutarch + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Boys' and Girls' Plutarch + Being Parts of The "Lives" of Plutarch + +Author: Plutarch + +Editor: John S. White + +Release Date: January 4, 2009 [EBook #2484] +Last Updated: February 7, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' PLUTARCH *** + + + + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer, and David Widger + + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' PLUTARCH + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + BEING PARTS OF THE "LIVES" OF PLUTARCH + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Plutarch + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h3> + Edited for Boys and Girls With Introductions By John S. White <br /><br /> + Head-Master Berkeley School + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> THESEUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> ROMULUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> COMPARISON OF THESEUS AND ROMULUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> LYCURGUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0005"> SOLON </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0006"> THEMISTOCLES </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0007"> CAMILLUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0008"> PERICLES </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0009"> DEMOSTHENES </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0010"> CICERO </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0011"> COMPARISON OF DEMOSTHENES AND CICERO </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0012"> ALCIBAIDES </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0013"> CORIOLANUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0014"> COMPARISON OF ALCIBIADES AND CORIOLANUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0015"> ARISTIDES </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0016"> CIMON </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0017"> POMPEY </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0018"> THE ENGINES OF ARCHIMEDES FROM THE LIFE OF + MARCELLUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0019"> DESCRIPTION OF CLEOPATRA FROM THE LIFE OF + ANTONY </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0020"> ANECDOTES FROM THE LIFE OF AGESILAUS, KING OF + SPARTA </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0021"> THE BROTHERS FROM THE LIFE OF TIMOLEON </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0022"> THE WOUND OF PHILOPOEMEN </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0023"> A ROMAN TRIUMPH FROM THE LIFE OF PAULUS + AEMILIUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0024"> THE NOBLE CHARACTER OF CAIUS FABRICIUS FROM + THE LIFE OF PYRRHUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0025"> FROM THE LIFE OF QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0026"> THE CRUELTY OF LUCIUS CORNELIUS SYLLA </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0027"> THE LUXURY OF LUCULLUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0028"> FROM THE LIFE OF SERTORIUS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0029"> THE SCROLL-FROM THE LIFE OF LYSANDER </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0030"> THE CHARACTER OF MARCUS CATO </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0031"> THE SACRED THEBAN BAND FROM THE LIFE OF + PELOPIDAS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0032"> FROM THE LIFE OF TITUS FLAMININUS, THE + CONQUEROR OF PHILIP </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0033"> ALEXANDER THE GREAT </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0034"> THE DEATH OF CAESAR </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + THESEUS + </h2> + <p> + As geographers crowd into the edges of their maps parts of the world which + they do not know about, adding notes in the margin to the effect that + beyond this lies nothing but sandy deserts full of wild beasts, + unapproachable bogs, Seythian ice, or frozen sea, so, in this great work + of mine, in which I have compared the lives of the greatest men with one + another, after passing through those periods which probable reasoning can + reach to and real history find a footing in, I might very well say of + those that are farther off, Beyond this there is nothing but prodigies and + fictions; the only inhabitants are the poets and inventors of fables; + there is no credit, or certainty any farther. Yet, after publishing an + account of Lycurgus the lawgiver and Numa the king, I thought I might, not + without reason, ascend as high as to Romulus, being brought by my history + so near to his time. Considering therefore with myself + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Whom shall I set so great a man face to face? + Or whom oppose? Who's equal to the place? +</pre> + <p> + (as Aeschylus expresses it), I found none so fit as he who peopled the + beautiful and far-famed city of Athens, to be set in opposition with the + father of the invincible and renowned city of Rome. Let us hope that Fable + may, in what shall follow, so submit to the purifying processes of Reason + as to take the character of exact history. We shall beg that we may meet + with candid readers, and such as will receive with indulgence the stories + of antiquity. + </p> + <p> + Theseus seemed to me to resemble Romulus in many particulars. Both of them + had the repute of being sprung from the gods. + </p> + <p> + Both warriors; that by all the world's allowed. + </p> + <p> + Both of them united with strength of body an equal vigor of mind; and of + the two most famous cities of the world, the one built in Rome, and the + other made Athens be inhabited. Neither of them could avoid domestic + misfortunes nor jealousy at home; but toward the close of their lives are + both of them said to have incurred great odium with their countrymen, if, + that is, we may take the stories least like poetry as our guide to truth. + </p> + <p> + Theseus was the son of Aegeus and Aethra. His lineage, by his father's + side, ascends as high as to Erechtheus and the first inhabitants of + Attica. By his mother's side, he was descended of Pelops, who was the most + powerful of all the kings of Peloponnesus. + </p> + <p> + When Aegeus went from the home of Aethra in Troezen to Athens, he left a + sword and a pair of shoes, hiding them under a great stone that had a + hollow in it exactly fitting them; and went away making her only privy to + it, and commanding her that, if, when their son came to man's estate, he + should be able to lift up the stone and take away what he had left there, + she should send him away to him with those things with all secrecy, and + with injunctions to him as much as possible to conceal his journey from + everyone; for he greatly feared the Pallantidae, who were continually + mutinying against him, and despised him for his want of children, they + themselves being fifty brothers, all sons of Pallas, the brother of + Aegeus. + </p> + <p> + When Aethra's son was born, some say that he was immediately named + Theseus, from the tokens which his father had put under the stone; others + that he received his name afterwards at Athens, when Aegeus acknowledged + him for his son. He was brought up under his grandfather Pittheus, and had + a tutor and attendant set over him named Connidas, to whom the Athenians, + even to this time, the day before the feast that is dedicated to Theseus, + sacrifice a ram, giving this honor to his memory upon much juster grounds + than to Silanio and Parrhasius, for making pictures and statues of + Theseus. There being then a custom for the Grecian youth, upon their first + coming to a man's estate, to go to Delphi and offer firstfruits of their + hair to the god, Theseus also went thither, and a place there to this day + is yet named Thesea, as it is said, from him. He clipped only the fore + part of his head, as Homer says the Abantes did. And this sort of tonsure + was from him named Theseis. The Abantes first used it, not in imitation of + the Arabians, as some imagine, nor of the Mysians, but because they were a + warlike people, and used to close fighting, and above all other nations, + accustomed to engage hand to hand; as Archilochus testifies in these + verses: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Slings shall not whirl, nor many arrows fly, + When on the plain the battle joins; but swords, + Man against man, the deadly conflict try, + As is the practice of Euboea's lords + Skilled with the spear.— +</pre> + <p> + Therefore, that they might not give their enemies a hold by their hair, + they cut it in this manner. They write also that this was the reason why + Alexander gave command to his captains that all the beards of the + Macedonians should be shaved, as being the readiest hold for an enemy. + </p> + <p> + Aethra for some time concealed the true parentage of Theseus, and a report + was given out by Pittheus that he was the son of Neptune; for the + Troezenians pay Neptune the highest veneration. He is their tutelar god, + to him they offer all their firstfruits, and in his honor stamp their + money with a trident. + </p> + <p> + Theseus displaying not only great strength of body, but equal bravery, and + a quickness alike and force of understanding, his mother Aethra, + conducting him to the stone, and informing him who was his true father, + commanded him to take from thence the tokens that Aegeus had left, and to + sail to Athens. He without any difficulty set himself to the stone and + lifted it up; but refused to take his journey by sea, though it was much + the safer way, and though his mother and grandfather begged him to do so. + For it was at that time very dangerous to go by land on the road to + Athens, no part of it being free from robbers and murderers. That age + produced a sort of men, in force of hand, and swiftness of foot, and + strength of body, excelling the ordinary rate, and wholly incapable of + fatigue; making use, however, of these gifts of nature to no good or + profitable purpose for mankind, but rejoicing and priding themselves in + insolence, and taking the benefit of their superior strength in the + exercise of inhumanity and cruelty, and in seizing, forcing, and + committing all manner of outrages upon everything that fell into their + hands; all respect for others, all justice, they thought, all equity and + humanity, though naturally lauded by common people, either out of want of + courage to commit injuries or fear to receive them, yet no way concerned + those who were strong enough to win for themselves. Some of these Hercules + destroyed and cut off in his passage through these countries, but some, + escaping his notice, while he was passing by, fled and hid themselves, or + else were spared by him in contempt of their abject submission; and after + that Hercules fell into misfortune, and, having slain Iphitus, retired to + Lydia, and for a long time was there slave to Omphale, a punishment which + he had imposed upon himself for the murder. Then, indeed, Lydia enjoyed + high peace and security, but in Greece and the countries about it the like + villainies again revived and broke out, there being none to repress or + chastise them. It was therefore a very hazardous journey to travel by land + from Athens to Peloponnesus; and Pittheus, giving him an exact account of + each of these robbers and villains, their strength, and the cruelty they + used to all strangers, tried to persuade Theseus to go by sea. But he, it + seems, had long since been secretly fired by the glory of Hercules, held + him in the highest estimation, and was never more satisfied than in + listening to any that gave an account of him; especially those that had + seen him, or had been present at any action or saying of his. So that he + was altogether in the same state of feeling as, in after ages, + Themistocles was, when he said that he could not sleep for the trophy of + Miltiades; entertaining such admiration for the virtues of Hercules that + in his dreams were all of that hero's actions, and in the day a continual + emulation stirred him up to perform the like. Besides, they were related, + being born of own cousins. For Aethra was daughter of Pittheus, and + Alcmena of Lysidice; and Lysidice and Pittheus were brother and sister, + children of Hippodamia and Pelpos. He thought it therefore a dishonorable + thing, and not to be endured, that Hercules should go out everywhere, and + purge both land and sea from the wicked men, and he should fly from the + like adventures that actually came his way; not showing his true father as + good evidence of the greatness of his birth by noble and worthy actions, + as by the tokens that he brought with him, the shoes and the sword. + </p> + <p> + With this mind and these thoughts, he set forward with a design to do + injury to nobody, but to repel and avenge himself of all those that should + offer any. And first of all, in a set combat he slew Periphtes, in the + neighborhood of Epidaurus, who used a club for his arms, and from thence + had the name of Corynetes, or the club-bearer; who seized upon him, and + forbade him to go forward in his journey. Being pleased with the club, he + took it, and made it his weapon, continuing to use it as Hercules did the + lion's skin, on whose shoulders that served to prove how huge a beast he + had killed; and to the same end Theseus carried about him this club; + overcome indeed by him, but now, in his hands, invincible. + </p> + <p> + Passing on further towards the Isthmus of Peloponnesus, he slew Sinnis, + often surnamed the Bender of Pines, after the same manner in which he + himself had destroyed many others before. And this he did without having + either practiced or ever learnt the art of bending these trees, to show + that natural strength is above all art. This Sinnis had a daughter of + remarkable beauty and stature, called Perigune, who, when her father was + killed, fled, and was sought after everywhere by Theseus; and coming into + a place overgrown with brushwood, shrubs, and asparagus-thorn, there, in a + childlike, innocent manner, prayed and begged them, as if they understood + her, to give shelter, with vows that if she escaped she would never cut + them down nor burn them. But Theseus calling upon her, and giving her his + promise that he would use her with respect, and offer no injury, she came + forth. Whence it is a family usage amongst the people called Ioxids, from + the name of her grandson, Ioxus, both male and female, never to burn + either shrubs or asparagus-thorn, but to respect and honor them. + </p> + <p> + The Crommyonian sow, which they called Phaea, was a savage and formidable + wild beast, by no means an enemy to be despised. Theseus killed her, going + out of his way on purpose to meet and engage her, so that he might not + seem to perform all his great exploits out of mere necessity; being also + of opinion that it was the part of a brave man to chastise villainous and + wicked men when attacked by them, but to seek out and overcome the more + noble wild beasts. Others relate that Phaea was a woman, a robber full of + cruelty, that lived in Crommyon, and had the name of Sow given her from + the foulness of her life and manners, and afterwards was killed by + Theseus. He slew also Sciron, upon the borders of Megara, casting him down + from the rocks, being, as most report, a notorious robber of all + passengers, and, as others add, accustomed out of insolence and + wantonness, to stretch forth his feet to strangers, commanding them to + wash them, and then while they did it, with a kick to send them down the + rock into the sea. + </p> + <p> + In Eleusis he killed Cercyon, the Arcadian, in a wrestling match. And + going on a little farther, in Erineus, he slew Damastes, otherwise called + Procrustes, forcing his body to the size of his own bed, as he himself was + used to do with all strangers; this he did in imitation of Hercules, who + always returned upon his assailants the same sort of violence that they + offered to him; sacrificed Busiris, killed Antaeus in wrestling, and + Cycnus in single combat, and Termerus by breaking his skull in pieces + (whence, they say, comes the proverb of "a Termerian mischief"), for it + seems Termerus killed passengers that he met by running with his head + against them. And so also Theseus proceeded with the same violence from + which they had inflicted upon others, justly suffering after the same + manner of their own injustice. + </p> + <p> + As he went forward on his journey, and was come as far as the River + Cephisus, some of the race of the Phytalidae met him and saluted him, and + upon his desire to use the purifications, then in custom, they performed + them with all the usual ceremonies, and having offered propitiatory + sacrifices to the gods, invited him and entertained him at their house, a + kindness which, in all his journey hitherto, he had not met. + </p> + <p> + On the eighth day of Cronius, now called Hecatombaeon, he arrived at + Athens, where he found the public affairs full of all confusion, and + divided into parties and factions. Aegeus also, and his whole private + family, laboring under the same distemper; for Medea, having fled from + Corinth, was living with him. She was first aware of Theseus, whom as yet + Aegeus did not know, and he being in years, full of jealousies and + suspicions, and fearing everything by reason of the faction that was then + in the city, she easily persuaded him to kill him by poison at a banquet, + to which he was to be invited as a stranger. He, coming to the + entertainment, thought it not fit to discover himself at once, but, + willing to give his father the occasion of first finding him out, the meat + being on the table, he drew his sword as if he designed to cut with it; + Aegeus, at once recognizing the token, threw down the cup of poison, and, + questioning his son, embraced him, and, having gathered together all his + citizens, owned him publicly before them, who, on their part, received him + gladly for the fame of his greatness and bravery. + </p> + <p> + The sons of Pallas, who were quiet, upon expectation of recovering the + kingdom after Aegeus's death, who was without issue, as soon as Theseus + appeared and was acknowledged the successor, highly resenting that Aegeus + first, as adopted son only of Pandion, and not at all related to the + family of Erechtheus, should be holding the kingdom, and that after him, + Theseus, a visitor and stranger, should be destined to succeed to it, + broke out into open war. And, dividing themselves into two companies, one + part of them marched openly from Sphettus, with their father, against the + city; the other, hiding themselves in the village of Gargettus, lay in + ambush, with a design to set upon the enemy on both sides. They had with + them a crier of the township of Agnus, named Leos, who discovered to + Theseus all the designs of the Pallentidae. He immediately fell upon those + that lay in amuscade, and cut them all off; upon tidings of which Pallas + and his company fled and were dispersed. + </p> + <p> + From hence they say is derived the custom among the people of the township + of Pallene to have no marriages or any alliance with the people of Agnus, + nor to suffer the criers to pronounce in their proclamations the words + used in all other parts of the country, Acouete Leoi (Hear ye people), + hating the very sound of Leo, because of the treason of Leos. + </p> + <p> + Theseus, longing to be in action, and desirous also to make himself + popular, left Athens to fight with the bull of Marathon, which did no + small mischief to the inhabitants of Tetrapolis. And, having overcome it, + he brought it alive in triumph through the city, and afterwards sacrificed + it to the Delphian Apollo. The story of Hecale, also, of her receiving and + entertaining Theseus in this expedition, seems to be not altogether void + of truth; for the townships round about, meeting upon a certain day, used + to offer a sacrifice, which they called Hecalesia, to Jupiter Hecaleius, + and to pay honor to Hecale, whom, by a diminutive name, they called + Hecalene, because she, while entertaining Theseus, who was quite a youth, + addressed him, as old people do, with similar endearing diminutives; and + having made a vow to Jupiter that he was going to the fight, that, if he + returned in safety, she would offer sacrifices in thanks of it, and dying + before he came back, she had these honors given her by way of return for + her hospitality, by the command of Theseus, as Philochorus tells us. + </p> + <p> + Not long afterwards came the third time from Crete the collectors of the + tribute which the Athenians paid them upon the following occasion. + Androgeus having been treacherously murdered in the confines of Attica, + not only Minos, his father, put the Athenians to extreme distress by a + perpetual war, but the gods also laid waste their country; both famine and + pestilence lay heavy upon them, and even their rivers were dried up. Being + told by the oracle that if they appeased and reconciled Minos, the anger + of the gods would cease and they should enjoy rest from the miseries they + labored under, they sent heralds, and with much supplication were at last + reconciled, entering into an agreement to send to Crete every nine years a + tribute of seven young men and as many virgins, as most writers agree in + stating; and the most poetical story adds that the Minotaur destroyed + them, or that, wandering in the Labyrinth, and finding no possible means + of getting out, they miserably ended their lives there, and that this + Minotaur was (as Euripides hath it) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + A mingled form, where two strange shapes combined, + And different natures, bull and man, were joined. +</pre> + <p> + Now when the time of the third tribute was come, and the fathers who had + any young men for their sons were to proceed by lot to the choice of those + that were to be sent, there arose fresh discontents and accusations + against Aegeus among the people, who were full of grief and indignation + that he, who was the cause of all their miseries, was the only person + exempt from the punishment; adopting and setting his kingdom upon a + foreign son, he took no thought, they said, of their destitution and loss + of their lawful children. These things sensibly affected Theseus, who, + thinking it but just not to disregard, but rather partake of, the + sufferings of his fellow citizens, offered himself for one without any + lot. All else were struck with admiration for the nobleness, and with love + for the goodness, of the act; and Aegeus, after prayers and entreaties, + finding him inflexible and not to be persuaded, proceeded to the choosing + of the rest by lot. Hellanicus, however, tells us that the Athenians did + not send the young men and virgins by lot, but that Minos himself used to + come and make his own choice, and pitched upon Theseus before all others; + according to the conditions agreed upon between, namely, that the + Athenians should furnish them with a ship, and that the young men who were + to sail with him should carry no weapon of war; but that if the Minotaur + was destroyed the tribute should cease. + </p> + <p> + On the two former occasions of the payment of the tribute, entertaining no + hopes of safety or return, they sent out the ship with a black sail, as to + unavoidable destruction; but now, Theseus encouraging his father and + speaking greatly of himself, as confident that he should kill the + Minotaur, he gave the pilot another sail, which was white, commanding him, + as he returned, if Theseus were safe, to make use of that; but if not, to + sail with the black one, and to hang out that sign of his misfortune. + Simonides says that the sail which Aegeus delivered to the pilot was not + white, but + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Scarlet, in the juicy bloom + Of the living oak-tree steeped. +</pre> + <p> + The lot being cast, and Theseus having received out of the Prytaneum those + upon whom it fell, he went to the Delphinium, and made an offering for + them to Apollo of his suppliant's badge, which was a bough of a + consecrated olive tree, with white wool tied about it. + </p> + <p> + Having thus performed his devotion, he went to sea, the sixth day of + Munychion, on which day even to this time the Athenians send their virgins + to the same temple to make supplication to the gods. It is farther + reported that he was commanded by the oracle at Delphi to make Venus his + guide, and to invoke her as the companion and conductress of his voyage, + and that, as he was sacrificing a she goat to her by the seaside, it was + suddenly changed into a he, and for this cause that goddess had the name + of Epitragia. + </p> + <p> + When he arrived at Crete, as most of the ancient historians as well as + poets tell us, having a clue of thread given him by Ariadne, who had + fallen in love with him, and being instructed by her now to use it so as + to conduct him through the windings of the Labyrinth, he escaped out of it + and slew the Minotaur, and sailed back, taking along with him Ariadne and + the young Athenian captives. Pherecydes adds that he bored holes in the + bottom of the Cretan ships to hinder their pursuit. Demon writes that + Taurus, the chief captain of Minos, was slain by Theseus at the mouth of + the port, in a naval combat, as he was sailing out for Athens. But + Philochorus gives us the story thus: That at the setting forth of the + yearly games by King Minos, Taurus was expected to carry away the prize, + as he had done before; and was much grudged the honor. His character and + manners made his power hateful, and he was accused, moreover, of too near + familiarity with Pasiphae, for which reason, when Theseus desired the + combat, Minos readily complied. And as it was a custom in Crete that the + women also should be admitted to the sight of these games, Ariadne, being + present, was struck with admiration of the manly beauty of Theseus, and + the vigor and address which he showed in combat, overcoming all that + encountered with him. Minos, too, being extremely pleased with him, + especially because he had overthrown and disgraced Taurus, voluntarily + gave up the young captives to Theseus, and remitted the tribute to the + Athenians. + </p> + <p> + There are yet many traditions about these things, and as many concerning + Ariadne, all inconsistent with each other. Some relate that she hung + herself, being deserted by Theseus. Others that she was carried away by + his sailors to the isle of Naxos, and married to Oenarus, priest of + Bacchus; and that Theseus left her because he fell in love with another, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "For Aegle's love was burning in his breast." +</pre> + <p> + Now Theseus, in his return from Crete, put in at Delos, and, having + sacrificed to the god of the island, dedicated to the temple the image of + Venus which Ariadne had given him, and danced with the young Athenians a + dance that, in memory of him, they say is still preserved among the + inhabitants of Delos, consisting in certain measured turnings and + returnings, imitative of the windings and twistings of the Labyrinth. And + this dance, as Dicaearchus writes, is called among the Delians, the Crane. + This he danced round the Ceratonian Altar, so called from its consisting + of horns taken from the left side of the head. They also say that he + instituted games in Delos, where he was the first that began the of giving + a palm to the victors. + </p> + <p> + When they were come near the coast of Attica, so great was the joy for the + happy success of their voyage, that neither Theseus himself nor the pilot + remembered to hang out the sail which should have been the token of their + safety to Aegeus, who, in despair at the sight, threw himself headlong + from a rock, and perished in the sea. But Theseus, being arrived at the + port of Phalerum, paid there the sacrifices which he had vowed to the gods + at his setting out to sea, and sent a herald to the city to carry the news + of his safe return. At his entrance, the herald found the people for the + most part full of grief for the loss of their king, others, as may well be + believed, as full of joy for the tidings that he brought, and eager to + welcome him and crown him with garlands for his good news, which he indeed + accepted of, but hung them upon his herald's staff; and thus returning to + the seaside before Theseus had finished his libation to the gods, he + stayed apart for fear of disturbing the holy rites, but, as soon as the + libation was ended, went up and related the king's death, upon the hearing + of which, with great lamentations and a confused tumult of grief, they ran + with all haste to the city. And from hence, they say, it comes that at + this day, in the feast of Oschoporia, the herald is not crowned, but his + staff, and all who are present at the libation cry out "eleleu, iou, iou," + the first of which confused sounds is commonly used by men in haste, or at + a triumph, the other is proper to people in consternation or disorder of + mind. + </p> + <p> + Theseus, after the funeral of his father, paid his vows to Apollo the + seventh day of Pyanepsion; for on that day the youth that returned with + him safe from Crete made their entry into the city. They say, also, that + the custom of boiling pulse at this feast is derived from hence; because + the young men that escaped put all that was left of their provision + together, and, boiling it in one common pot, feasted themselves with it, + and ate it all up together. Hence, also, they carry in procession an olive + branch bound about with wool (such as they then made use of in their + supplications), which they call Eiresione, crowned with all sorts of + fruits, to signify that scarcity and barrenness was ceased, singing in + their procession this song: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Eiresione brings figs, and Eiresione brings loaves; + Bring us honey in pints, and oil to rub on our bodies, + And a strong flagon of wine, for all to go mellow to bed on. +</pre> + <p> + The ship wherein Theseus and the youth of Athens returned had thirty oars, + and was preserved by the Athenians down even to the time of Demetrius + Phalereus, for they took away the old planks as they decayed, putting in + new and stronger timber in their place, insomuch that this ship became a + standing example among the philosophers, for the logical question as to + things that grow; one side holding that the ship remained the same, and + the other contending that it was not the same. + </p> + <p> + Now, after the death of his father Aegeus, forming in his mind a great and + wonderful design, he gathered together all the inhabitants of Attica into + one town, and made them one people of one city, whereas before they lived + dispersed, and were not easy to assemble upon any affair, for the common + interest. Nay, the differences and even wars often occurred between them, + which he by his persuasions appeased, going form township to township, and + from tribe to tribe. And those of a more private and mean condition + readily embracing such good advice, to those of greater power he promised + a commonwealth without monarchy, a democracy, or people's government, in + which he should only be continued as their commander in war and the + protector of their laws, all things else being equally distributed among + them;—and by this means brought a part of them over to his proposal. + The rest, fearing his power, which was already grown very formidable, and + knowing his courage and resolution, chose rather to be persuaded than + forced into a compliance. He then dissolved all the distant state-houses, + council halls, and magistracies, and built one common state-house (the + Prytaneum) and council hall on the site of the present upper town, and + gave the name of Athens to the whole state, ordaining a common feast and + sacrifice, which he called Panathenaea, or the sacrifice of all the united + Athenians. He instituted also another sacrifice, called Metoecia, or Feast + of Migration, which is yet celebrated on the sixteenth day of + Hecatombaeon. Then, as he had promised, he laid down his regal power and + proceeded to order a commonwealth, entering upon this great work not + without advice from the gods. For having sent to consult the oracle of + Delphi concerning the fortune of his new government and city, he received + this answer: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Son of the Pitthean maid, + To your town the terms and fates + My father gives of many states. + Be not anxious or afraid: + The bladder will not fail to swim + On the waves that compass him. +</pre> + <p> + Which oracle, they say, one of the sibyls long after did in a manner + repeat to the Athenians, in this verse: + </p> + <p> + The bladder may be dipt, but not be drowned. + </p> + <p> + Farther yet designing to enlarge his city, he invited all strangers to + come and enjoy equal privileges with the natives, and it is said that the + common form, "Come hither all ye people," was the words that Theseus + proclaimed when he thus set up a commonwealth, in a manner, for all + nations. Yet he did not suffer his state, by the promiscuous multitude + that flowed in, to be turned into confusion and be left without any order + or degree, but was the first that divided the commonwealth into three + distinct ranks, the noblemen, the husbandmen, and artificers. To the + nobility he committed the care of religion, the choice of magistrates, the + teaching and dispensing of the laws, and interpretation and direction in + all sacred matters; the whole city being, as it were, reduced to an exact + equality, the nobles excelling the rest in honor, the husbandmen in + profit, and the artifices in number. And that Theseus was the first, who, + as Aristotle says, out of an inclination to popular government, parted + with the regal power, Homer also seems to testify, in his catalogue of + ships, where he gives the name of "People" to the Athenians only. + </p> + <p> + He also coined money, and stamped it with the image of an ox, either in + memory of the Marathonian bull, or of Taurus, whom he vanquished, or else + to put his people in mind to follow husbandry; and from this coin came the + expression so frequent among the Greeks, as a thing being worth ten or a + hundred oxen. After this he joined Megara to Attica, and erected that + famous pillar on the isthmus, which bears an inscription of two lines, + showing the bounds of the two countries that meet there. On the east side + the inscription is,-"Peloponnesus there, Ionia here," And on the west + side,-"Peloponnesus here, Ionia there." + </p> + <p> + He also instituted the games, in emulation of Hercules, being ambitious + that as the Greeks, by that hero's appointment, celebrated the Olympian + games to the honor of Jupiter, so, by his institution, they should + celebrate the Isthmian to the honor of Neptune. At the same time he made + an agreement with the Corinthians, that they should allow those that came + from Athens to the celebration of the Isthmian games as much space of + honor before the rest to behold the spectacle in as the sail of the ship + that brought them thither, stretched to its full extent, could cover; so + Hellenicus and Andro of Halicarnassus have established. + </p> + <p> + Concerning his voyage into the Euxine Sea, Philochorus and some others + write that he made it with Hercules, offering him his service in the war + against the Amazons, and had Antiope given him for the reward of his + valor; but the greater number, of whom are Pherecides, Hellanicus, and + Herodorus, with a navy under his own command, and took the Amazon + prisoner,—the more probable story, for we do not read that any + other, of all those that accompanied him in this action, took any Amazon + prisoner. Bion adds, that, to take her, he had to use deceit and fly away; + for the Amazons, he says, being naturally lovers of men, were so far from + avoiding Theseus when he touched upon their coasts, that they sent him + presents to his ship; but he, having invited Antiope, who brought them, to + come aboard, immediately set sail and carried her away. An author named + Menecrates, that wrote the History of Nicaea in Bithynia, adds, that + Theseus, having Antiope aboard his vessel, cruised for some time about + those coasts, and that there were in the same ship three young men of + Athens, that accompanied him in his voyage, all brothers, whose names were + Euneos, Thoas, and Soloon. The last of these fell desperately in love with + Antiope; and escaping the notice of the rest, revealed the secret only to + one of his most intimate acquaintance, and employed him to disclose his + passion to Antiope. She rejected his pretences with a very positive + denial, yet treated the matter with much gentleness and discretion, and + made no complaint to Theseus of anything that had happened; but Soloon, + the thing being desperate, leaped into a river near the seaside and + drowned himself. As soon as Theseus was aquainted with his death, and his + unhappy love that was the cause of it, he was extremely distressed, and, + in the height of his grief, an oracle which he had formerly received at + Delphi came into his mind; for he had been commanded by the priestess of + Apollo Pythius, that, wherever in a strange land he was most sorrowful and + under the greatest affliction, he should build a city there, and leave + some of his followers to be governors of the place. For this cause he + there founded a city, which he called, from the name of Apollo, + Pythopolis, and, in honor of the unfortunate youth, he named the river + that runs by it Soloon, and left the two surviving brothers intrusted with + the care of the government and laws, joining with them Hermus, one of the + nobility of Athens, from whom a place in the city is called the House of + Hermus; though by an error in the accent it has been taken for the House + of Hermes, or Mercury, and the honor that was designed to the hero, + transferred to the god. + </p> + <p> + This was the origin and cause of the Amazonian invasion of Attica, which + would seem to have been no slight or womanish enterprise. For it is + impossible that they should have placed their camp in the very city, and + joined battle close by the Pnyx and the hill called Museum, unless, having + first conquered the country round about, they had thus with impunity + advanced to the city. That they made so long a journey by land, and passed + the Cimmerian Bosphorus when frozen, as Hellanicus writes, is difficult to + be believed. That they encamped all but in the city is certain, and may be + sufficiently confirmed by the names that the places thereabout yet retain, + and the graves and the monuments of those that fell the battle. Both + armies being in sight, there was a long pause and doubt on each side which + should give the first onset; at last Theseus, having sacrificed to Fear, + in obedience to the command of an oracle he had received, gave them + battle, in which action a great number of the Amazons were slain. At + length, after four months, a peace was concluded between them by the + mediation of Hippolyta (for so this historian calls the Amazon whom + Theseus married, and not Antiope), though others write that she was slain + with a dart by Molpadia, while fighting by Theseus's side, and that the + pillar which stands by the temple of Olympian Earth was erected to her + honor. Nor is it to be wondered at, that in events of such antiquity, + history should be in disorder. This is as much as is worth telling + concerning the Amazons. + </p> + <p> + The celebrated friendship between Theseus and Pirithous is said to have + been begun as follows: The fame of the strength and valor of Theseus being + spread through Greece, Pirithous was desirous to make a trial and proof of + it himself, and to this end seized a herd of oxen which belonged to + Theseus, and was driving them away from Marathon, and, when news was + brought that Theseus pursued him in arms, he did not fly, but turned back + and went to meet him. But as soon as they had viewed one another, each so + admired the gracefulness and beauty, and was seized with such a respect + for the courage of the other, that they forgot all thoughts of fighting; + and Pirithous, first stretching out his hand to Theseus, bade him be judge + in this case himself, and promised to submit willingly to any penalty he + should impose. But Theseus not only forgave him all, but entreated him to + be his friend and brother in arms; and they ratified their friendship by + oaths. After this Pirithous married Deidamia, and invited Theseus to the + wedding, entreating him to come and see his country, and make acquaintance + with the Lapithae; he had at the same time invited the Centaurs to the + feast, who, growing hot with wine and beginning to be insolent and wild, + the Lapithae took immediate revenge upon them, slaying many of them upon + the place, and afterwards, having overcome them in battle, drove the whole + race of them out of their country, Theseus all along taking the part of + the Lapithae, and fighting on their side. + </p> + <p> + Theseus was now fifty years old, as Hellanicus states, when he carried off + Helen, who was yet too young to be married. Some writers, to take away + this accusation of one of the greatest crimes laid to his charge, say that + he did not steal away Helen himself, but that Idas and Lynceus brought her + to him, and committed her to his charge, and that, therefore, he refused + to restore her at the demand of Castor and Pollux; or, indeed, they say + her own father, Tyndarus, had sent her to be kept by him, for fear of + Enarophorus, the son of Hippocoon, who would have carried her away by + force when she was yet a child. But the most probable account, and that + which has witnesses on its side, is this: Theseus and Pirithous went both + together to Sparta, and, having seized the young lady as she was dancing + in the temple of Diana Orthia, fled away with her. There were presently + men in arms sent to pursue, but they followed no farther than to Tegea; + and Theseus and Pirithous being now out of danger, having passed through + Peloponnesus, made an agreement between themselves, that he to whom the + lot should fall should have Helen to his wife, but should be obliged to + assist in procuring another for his friend. The lot fell upon Theseus, who + conveyed her to Aphidnae, not being yet marriageable, and delivered her to + one of his allies, called Aphidnus, and having sent his mother, Aethra, + after to take care of her, desired him to keep them so secretly that none + might know where they were; which done, to return the same service to his + friend Pirithous, he accompanied him in his journey to Epirus, in order to + steal away the king of the Molossians' daughter. The king, his own name + being Aidoneus, or Pluto, called his wife Proserpina, and his daughter + Cora, and a great dog which he kept Cerberus, with whom he ordered all + that came as suitors to his daughter to fight, and promised her to him + that should overcome the beast. But having been informed that the design + of Pirithous and his companion was not to court his daughter, but to force + her away, he caused them both to be seized, and threw Pirithous to be torn + to pieces by the dog, and put Theseus into prison, and kept him. + </p> + <p> + About this time Menetheus, the son of Peteus, grandson of Orneus, and + great-grandson to Erechtheus, the first man that is recorded to have + affected popularity and ingratiated himself with the multitude, stirred up + and exasperated the most eminent men of the city, who had long borne a + secret grudge to Theseus, conceiving that he had robbed them of their + several little kingdoms and lordships, and, having pent them all up in one + city, was using them as his subjects and slaves. He put also the meaner + people into commotion, telling them, that, deluded with a mere dream of + liberty, though indeed they were deprived both of that and their proper + homes and religious usages, instead of many good and gracious kings of + their own, they had given themselves up to be lorded over by a newcomer + and a stranger. Whilst he was thus busied in infecting the minds of the + citizens, the war that Castor and Pollux brought against Athens came very + opportunity to farther the sedition he had been promoting, and some say + that he by his persuasions was wholly the cause of their invading the + city. At their first approach they committed no acts of hostility, but + peaceably demanded their sister Helen; but the Athenians returning answer + that they neither had her nor knew where she was disposed of, they + prepared to assault the city, when Academus, having, by whatever means, + found it out, disclosed to them that she was secretly kept at Aphidnea. + For which reason he was both highly honored during his life by Castor and + Pollux, and the Lacedaemonians, when often in after times they made + excursions into Attica, and destroyed all the country round about, spared + the Academy for the sake of Academus. + </p> + <p> + Hercules, passing by the Molossians, was entertained in his way by + Aidoneus the king, who, in conversation, accidentally spoke of the journey + of Theseus and Pirithous into his country, of what they had designed to + do, and what they were forced to suffer. Hercules was much grieved for the + inglorious death of the one and the miserable condition of the other. As + for Pirithous, he thought it useless to complain; but begged to have + Theseus released for his sake, and obtained that favor from the king. + Theseus, being thus set at liberty, returned to Athens, where his friends + were not wholly suppressed, and dedicated to Hercules all the sacred + places which the city had set apart for himself, changing their names from + Thesea to Herculea, four only excepted, as Philochorus writes. And wishing + immediately to resume the first place in the commonwealth, and manage the + state as before, he soon found himself involved in factions and troubles; + those who long had hated him had now added to their hatred contempt; and + the minds of the people were so generally corrupted, that, instead of + obeying commands with silence, they expected to be flattered into their + duty. He had some thoughts to have reduced them by force, but was + overpowered by demagogues and factions. And at last, despairing of any + good success of his affairs in Athens, he sent away his children privately + to Euboea, commending them to the care of Elephenor, the son of Chalcodon; + and he himself, having solemnly cursed the people of Athens in the village + of Gargettus, in which there yet remains the place called Araterion, or + the place of cursing, sailed to Scyros, where he had lands left him by his + father, and friendship, as he thought, with those of the island. Lycomedes + was then king of Scyros. Theseus, therefore, addressed himself to him, and + desired to have his lands put into his possession, as designing to settle + and dwell there, though others say that he came to beg his assistance + against the Athenians. But Lycomedes, either jealous of the glory of so + great a man, or to gratify Menestheus, having led him up to the highest + cliff of the island, on pretense of showing him from thence the lands that + he desired, threw him headlong down from the rock and killed him. Others + say he fell down of himself by a slip of his foot, as he was walking + there, according to his custom, after supper. At that time there was no + notice taken, nor were any concerned for his death, but Menestheus quietly + possessed the kingdom of Athens. His sons were brought up in a private + condition, and accompanied Elephenor to the Trojan war, but, after the + decease of Menestheus in that expedition, returned to Athens, and + recovered the government. But in succeeding ages, beside several other + circumstances that moved the Athenians to honor Theseus as a demigod, in + the battle which was fought at Marathon against the Medes, many of the + soldiers believed they saw an apparition of Theseus in arms, rushing on at + the head of them against the barbarians. And after the Median war, Phaedo + being archon of Athens, the Athenians, consulting the oracle at Delphi, + were commanded to gather together the bones of Theseus, and, laying them + in some honorable place, keep them as sacred in the city. But it was very + difficult to recover these relics, or so much as to find out the place + where they lay, on account of the inhospitable and savage temper of the + barbarous people that inhabited the island. Nevertheless, afterwards, when + Cimon took the island (as is related in his life), and had a great + ambition to find the place where Theseus was buried, he, by chance, spied + an eagle upon a rising ground pecking with her beak and tearing up the + earth with her talons, when on the sudden it came into his mind, as it + were by some divine inspiration, to dig there, and search for the bones of + Theseus. There were found in that place a coffin of a man of more than + ordinary size, and a brazen spear-head, and a sword lying by it, all which + he took aboard his galley and brought with him to Athens. Upon which the + Athenians, greatly delighted, went out to meet and receive the relics with + splendid procession and with sacrifices, as if it were Theseus himself + returning alive to the city. He lies interred in the middle of the city, + near the present gymnasium. His tomb is a sanctuary and refuge for slaves, + and all those of mean condition that fly from the persecution of men in + power, in memory that Theseus while he lived was an assister and protector + of the distressed, and never refused the petitions of the afflicted that + fled to him. The chief and most solemn sacrifice which they celebrate to + him is kept on the eighth day of Pyanepsion, on which he returned with the + Athenian young men from Crete. Besides which, they sacrifice to him on the + eighth day of every month, either because he returned from Troezen the + eighth day of Hecatombaeon, as Diodorus the geographer writes, or else + thinking that number to be proper to him, because he was reputed to be + born of Neptune, because they sacrifice to Neptune on the eighth day of + every month. The number eight being the first cube of an even number, and + the double of the first square, seemed to be am emblem of the steadfast + and immovable power of this god, who from thence has the names of + Asphalius and Gaeiochus, that is, the establisher and stayer of the earth. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ROMULUS + </h2> + <p> + From whom, and for what reason, the city of Rome, a name so great in + glory, and famous in the mouths of all men, was so first called, authors + do not agree. + </p> + <p> + But the story which is most believed and has the greatest number of + vouchers in general outline runs thus: the kings of Alba reigned in lineal + descent from Aeneas, and the succession devolved at length upon two + brothers, Numitor and Amulius. Amulius proposed to divide things into two + equal shares, and set as equivalent to the kingdom the treasure and gold + that were brought from Troy. Numitor chose the kingdom; but Amulius, + having the money, and being able to do more with that than Numitor, took + his kingdom from with great ease, and, fearing lest his daughter might + have children who would supplant him, made her a Vestal, bound in that + condition forever to live a single and maiden life. This lady some call + Ilia, others Rhea, and others Silvia; however, not long after, contrary to + the established laws of the Vestals, she had two sons of more than human + size and beauty, whom Amulius, becoming yet more alarmed, commanded a + servant to take and cast away; this man some call Faustulus, others say + Faustulus was the man who brought them up. He put the children, however, + in a small trough, and went towards the river with a design to cast them + in; but seeing the waters much swollen and coming violently down, was + afraid to go nearer, and, dropping the children near the bank, went away. + The river overflowing, the flood at last bore up the trough, and, gently + wafting it, landed them on a smooth piece of ground, which they now call + Cermanus, formerly Germanus, perhaps from "Germani," which signifies + brothers. + </p> + <p> + While the infants lay here, history tells us, a she-wolf nursed them, and + a woodpecker constantly fed and watched them. These creatures are esteemed + holy to the god Mars; the woodpecker the Latins still especially worship + and honor. Which things, as much as any, gave credit to what the mother of + the children said, that their father was the god Mars. + </p> + <p> + Meantime Faustulus, Amulius's swineherd, brought up the children without + any man's knowledge; or, as those say who wish to keep closer to + probabilities, with the knowledge and secret assistance of Numitor; for it + is said, they went to school at Gabii, and were well instructed in + letters, and other accomplishments befitting their birth. And they were + called Romulus and Remus (from "ruma", the dug), because they were found + suckling the wolf. In their very infancy, the size and beauty of their + bodies intimated their natural superiority; and when they grew up, they + both proved brave and manly, attempting all enterprises that seemed + hazardous, and showing in them a courage altogether undaunted. But Romulus + seemed rather to act by counsel, and to show the sagacity of a statesman, + and in all his dealings with their neighbors, whether relating to feeding + of flocks or to hunting, gave the idea of being born rather to rule than + to obey. To their comrades and inferiors they were therefore dear; but the + king's servants, his bailiffs and overseers, as being in nothing better + men than themselves, they despised and slighted, nor were the least + concerned at their commands and menaces. They used honest pastimes and + liberal studies, not esteeming sloth and idleness honest and liberal, but + rather such exercises as hunting and running, repelling robbers, taking of + thieves, and delivering the wronged and oppressed from injury. For doing + such things, they became famous. + </p> + <p> + A quarrel occurring betwixt Numitor's and Amulius's cowherds, the latter, + not enduring the driving away of their cattle by the others, fell upon + them and put them to flight, and rescued the greatest part of the prey. At + which Numitor being highly incensed, they little regarded it, but + collected and took into their company a number of needy men and runaway + slaves,—acts which looked like the first stages of rebellion. It so + happened, that when Romulus was attending a sacrifice, being fond of + sacred rites and divination, Numitor's herdsmen, meeting with Remus on a + journey with few companions, fell upon him, and, after some fighting, took + him prisoner, carried him before Numitor, and there accused him. Numitor + would not punish him himself, fearing his brother's anger, but went to + Amulius and desired justice, as he was Amulius's brother and was affronted + by Amulius's servants. The men of Alba likewise resenting the thing, and + thinking he had been dishonorably used, Amulius was induced to deliver + Remus up into Numitor's hands, to use him as he thought fit. He therefore + took and carried him home, and, being struck with admiration of the + youth's person, in stature and strength of body exceeding all men, and + perceiving in his very countenance the courage and force of his mind, + which stood unsubdued and unmoved by his present circumstances, and + hearing further that all the enterprises and actions of his life were + answerable to what he saw of him, but chiefly, as it seemed, a divine + influence aiding and directing the first steps that were to lead to great + results, out of the mere thought of his mind, and casually, as it were, he + put his hand upon the fact, and, in gentler terms and with a kind aspect, + to inspire him with confidence and hope, asked him who he was, and whence + he was derived. He, taking heart, spoke thus: "I will hide nothing from + you, for you seem to be of a more princely temper than Amulius, in that + you give a hearing and examine before you punish, while he condemns before + the cause is heard. Formerly, then, we (for we are twins) thought + ourselves the sons of Faustulus and Larentia, the king's servants; but + since we have been accused and aspersed with calumnies, and brought in + peril of our lives here before you, we hear great things of ourselves, the + truth of which my present danger is likely to bring to the test. Our birth + is said to have been secret, our fostering and nurture in our infancy + still more strange; by birds and beasts, to whom we were cast out, we were + fed—by the milk of a wolf, and the morsels of a woodpecker, as we + lay in a little trough by the side of the river. The trough is still in + being, and is preserved, with brass plates round it, and an inscription in + letters almost effaced, which may prove hereafter unavailing tokens to our + parents when we are dead and gone." Numitor, upon these words, and + computing the dates by the young man's looks, slighted not the hope that + flattered him, but considered how to come at his daughter privately (for + she was still kept under restraint), to talk with her concerning these + matters. + </p> + <p> + Faustulus, hearing Remus was taken and delivered up, called on Romulus to + assist in his rescue, informing him then plainly of the particulars of his + birth—not but he had before given hints of it—and told as much + as an attentive man might make no small conclusions from; he himself, full + of concern and fear of not coming in time, took the trough, and ran + instantly to Numitor; but giving a suspicion to some of the king's sentry + at his gate, and being gazed upon by them and perplexed with their + questions, he let it be seen that he was hiding the trough under his + cloak. By chance there was one among them who was at the exposing of the + children, and was one employed in the office; he, seeing the trough and + knowing it by its make and inscription, guessed at the business, and, + without further delay, telling the king of it, brought in the man to be + examined. Faustulus, hard beset, did not show himself altogether proof + against terror; nor yet was he wholly forced out of all: confessed indeed + the children were alive, but lived, he said, as shepherds, a great way + from Alba; he himself was going to carry the trough to Ilia, who had often + greatly desired and handle it, for a confirmation of her hopes of her + children. As men generally do who are troubled in mind and act either in + fear or passion, it so fell out Amulius now did; for he sent in haste as a + messenger, a man, otherwise honest and friendly to Numitor, with commands + to learn from Numitor whether any tidings were come to him of the + children's being alive. He, coming and seeing how little Remus wanted of + being received into the arms and embraces of Numitor, both gave him surer + confidence in his hope, and advised them, with all expedition, to proceed + to action; himself too joining and assisting them, and indeed, had they + wished it, the time would not have let them demur. For Romulus was now + come very near, and many of the citizens, out of fear and hatred of + Amulius, were running out to join him; besides, he brought great forces + with him, dividing into companies, each of an hundred men, every captain + carrying a small bundle of grass and shrubs tied to a pole. The Latins + call such bundles "manipuli," and from hence it is that in their armies + still they call their captains "manipulares." Remus rousing the citizens + within to revolt, and Romulus making attacks from without, the tyrant, not + knowing either what to do, or what expedient to think of for his security, + in this perplexity and confusion was taken and put to death. This + narrative, for the most part given by Fabius and Diocles of Peparethos, + who seem to be the earliest historians of the foundation of Rome, is + suspected by some because of its dramatic and fictitious appearance; but + it would not wholly be disbelieved, if men would remember what a poet + Fortune sometimes shows herself, and consider that the Roman power would + hardly have reached so high a pitch without a divinely ordered origin, + attended with great and extraordinary circumstances. + </p> + <p> + Amulius now being dead and matters quietly disposed, the two brothers + would neither dwell in Alba without governing there, nor take the + government into their own hands during the life of their grandfather. + Having therefore delivered the dominion up into his hands, and paid their + mother befitting honor, they resolved to live by themselves, and build a + city in the same place where they were in their infancy brought up. This + seems the most honorable reason for their departure; though perhaps it was + necessary, having such a body of slaves and fugitives collected about + them, either to come to nothing by dispersing them, or if not so, then to + live with them elsewhere. For that the inhabitants of Alba did not think + fugitives worthy of being received and incorporated as citizens among them + plainly appears from the matter of the women, an attempt made not + wantonly, but of necessity, because they could not get wives by good-will. + For they certainly paid unusual respect and honor to those whom they thus + forcibly seized. + </p> + <p> + Not long after the first foundation of the city, they opened a sanctuary + of refuge for all fugitives, which they called the temple of the god + Asylaeus, where they received and protected all, delivering none back, + neither the servant to his master, the debtor to his creditor, nor the + murderer into the hands of the magistrate, saying it was a privileged + place, and they could so maintain it by an order of the holy oracle; + insomuch that the city grew presently very populous, for, they say, it + consisted at first of no more than a thousand houses. But of that + hereafter. + </p> + <p> + Their minds being fully bent upon building, there arose presently a + difference about the place where. Romulus chose what was called Roma + Quadrata, or the Square Rome, and would have the city there. Remus laid + out a piece of ground on the Aventine Mount, well fortified by nature, + which was from him called Remonium, but now Rignarium. Concluding at last + to decide the contest by a divination from a flight of birds, and placing + themselves apart at some distance, Remus, they say, saw six vultures, and + Romulus double the number; others say Remus did truly see his number, and + that Romulus feigned his, but, when Remus came to him, that then he did, + indeed, see twelve. Hence it is that the Romans, in their divinations from + birds, chiefly regard the vulture, though Herodorus Ponticus relates that + Hercules was always very joyful when a vulture appeared to him upon any + occasion. For it is a creature the least hurtful of any, pernicious + neither to corn, fruit-tree, nor cattle; it preys only on carrion, and + never kills or hurts any living thing; and as for birds, it touches not + them, though they are dead, as being of its own species, whereas eagles, + owls, and hawks mangle and kill their own fellow-creatures; yet, as + Aeschylus says,— + </p> + <p> + What bird is clean that preys on fellow bird? + </p> + <p> + Besides, all other birds are, so to say, never out of our eyes; they let + themselves be seen of us continually; but a vulture is a very rare sight, + and you can seldom meet with a man that has seen their young; their rarity + and infrequency has raised a strange opinion in some, that they come to us + from some other world; as soothsayers ascribe a divine origination to all + things not produced either of nature or of themselves. + </p> + <p> + When Remus knew the cheat, he was much displeased; and as Romulus was + casting up a ditch, where he designed the foundation of the city wall, he + turned some pieces of the work to ridicule, and obstructed others: at + last, as he was in contempt leaping over it, some say Romulus himself + struck him, others Celer, one of his companions; he fell, however, and in + the scuffle Faustulus also was slain, and Plistinus, who, being + Faustulus's brother, story tells us, helped to bring up Romulus. Celer + upon this fled instantly into Tuscany, and from him the Romans call all + men that are swift of foot Celeres; and because Quintus Metellus, at his + father's funeral, in a few days' time gave the people a show of + gladiators, admiring his expedition in getting it ready, they gave him the + name of Celer. + </p> + <p> + Romulus, having buried his brother Remus, together with his two + foster-fathers, on the mount Remonia, set to building his city; and sent + for men out of Tuscany, who directed him by sacred usages and written + rules in all the ceremonies to be observed, as in a religious rite. First, + they dug a round trench about that which is now the Comitium, or Court of + Assembly and into it solemnly threw the first-fruits of all things either + good by custom or necessary by nature; lastly, every man taking a small + piece of earth of the country from whence he came, they all threw them in + promiscuously together. This trench they call, as they do the heavens, + Mundus; making which their centre, they described the city in a circle + round it. Then the founder fitted to a plough, a bronze ploughshare, and, + yoking together a bull and a cow, drove himself a deep line or furrow + round the bounds; while the business of those that followed after was to + see that whatever earth was thrown up should be turned all inwards towards + the city, and not to let any clod lie outside. With this line they + described the wall, and called it, by a contradiction, Pomoerium, that is, + "post murum," after or beside the wall; and where they designed to make a + gate, there they took out the share, carried the plough over, and left a + space; for which reason they consider the whole wall as holy, except where + the gates are; for had they adjudged them also sacred, they could not, + without offence to religion, have given free ingress and egress for the + necessaries of human life, some of which are in themselves unclean. + </p> + <p> + As for the day they began to build the city, it is universally agreed to + have been the twenty-first of April, and that day the Romans annually keep + holy, calling it their country's birthday. At first, they say, they + sacrificed no living creatures on this day, thinking it fit to preserve + the feast of their country's birthday pure and without stain of blood. Yet + before ever the city was built, there was a feast of herdsmen and + shepherds kept on this day, which went by the name of Palilia. The Roman + and Greek months have now little or no agreement; they say, however, the + day on which Romulus began to build was quite certainly the thirtieth of + the month, at which time there was an eclipse of the sun which they + conceive to be that seen by Antimachus, the Teian poet, in the third year + of the sixth Olympiad. In the times of Varro the philosopher, a man deeply + read in Roman history, lived one Tarrutius, his familiar acquaintance, a + good philosopher and mathematician, and one, too, that out of curiosity + had studied the way of drawing schemes and tables, and was thought to be a + proficient in the art; to him Varro propounded to cast Romulus's nativity, + even to the first day and hour, making his deductions from the several + events of the man's life which he should be informed of, exactly as in + working back a geometrical problem; for it belonged, he said, to the same + science both to foretell a man's life by knowing the time of his birth, + and also to find out his birth by the knowledge of his life. This task + Tarrutius undertook, and first looking into the actions and casualties of + the man, together with the time of his life and manner of his death, and + then comparing all these remarks together, he very confidently and + positively pronounced that Romulus was born the twenty-first day of the + month Thoth, about sun-rising; and that the first stone of Rome was laid + by him the ninth day of the month Pharmuthi, between the second and third + hour. For the fortunes of cities as well as of men, they think, have their + certain periods of time prefixed, which may be collected and foreknown + from the position of the stars at their first foundation. But these and + the like relations may perhaps not so much take and delight the reader + with their novelty and curiosity as offend him by their extravagance. + </p> + <p> + The city now being built, Romulus enlisted all that were of age to bear + arms into military companies, each company consisting of three thousand + footmen and three hundred horse. These companies were called legions, + because they were the choicest and most select of the people for fighting + men. The rest of the multitude he called the people; an hundred of the + most eminent he chose for counselors; these he styled patricians, and + their assembly the senate, which signifies a council of elders. + </p> + <p> + In the fourth month after the city was built, as Fabius writes, the + adventure of stealing the women was attempted. It would seem that, + observing his city to be filled by a confluence of foreigners, few of whom + had wives, and that the multitude in general, consisting of a mixture of + mean and obscure men, fell under contempt, and seemed to be of no long + continuance together, and hoping farther, after the women were appeased, + to make this injury in some measure an occasion of confederacy and mutual + commerce with the Sabines, Romulus took in his hand this exploit after + this manner. First, he gave it out that he had found an altar of a certain + god hid under ground, perhaps the equestrian Neptune, for the altar is + kept covered in the Circus Maximus at all other times, and only at + horse-races is exposed to public view. Upon discovery of this altar, + Romulus, by proclamation, appointed a day for a splendid sacrifice, and + for public games and shows, to entertain all sorts of people; many flocked + thither, and he himself sat in front, amidst his nobles, clad in purple. + Now the signal for their falling on was to be whenever he rose and + gathered up his robe and threw it over his body; his men stood all ready + armed, with their eyes intent upon him, and when the sign was given, + drawing their swords and falling on with a great shout, they stole away + the daughters of the Sabines, the men themselves flying without any let or + hindrance. Some say there were but thirty taken, and from Curiae or + Fraternities were named; but Valerius Antias says five hundred and twenty + seven, Juba, six hundred and eighty-three. + </p> + <p> + It continues a custom at this very day for the bride not of herself to + pass her husband's threshold, but to be lifted over, in memory that the + Sabine virgins were carried in by violence, and did not go in of their own + free will. Some say, too, the custom of parting the bride's hair with the + head of a spear was in token their marriages began at first by war and + acts of hostility. + </p> + <p> + The Sabines were a numerous and martial people, but lived in small, + unfortified villages, as it befitted, they thought, a colony of the + Lacedaemonians to be bold and fearless; nevertheless, seeing themselves + bound by such hostages to their good behavior, and being solicitous for + their daughters, they sent ambassadors to Romulus with fair and equitable + requests, that he would return their young women and recall that act of + violence, and afterwards, by persuasion and lawful means, seek friendly + correspondence between both nations. Romulus would not part with the young + women, yet proposed to the Sabines to enter into an alliance with them; + upon which point some consulted and demurred long, but Acron, king of the + Ceninenses, a man of high spirit and a good warrior, who had all along a + jealousy of Romulus's bold attempts, and considering particularly from + this exploit upon the women that he was growing formidable to all people, + and indeed insufferable, were he not chastised, first rose up in arms, and + with a powerful army advanced against him. Romulus likewise prepared to + receive him; but when they came within sight and viewed each other, they + made a challenge to fight a single duel, the armies standing by under + arms, without participation. And Romulus, making a vow to Jupiter, if he + should conquer, to carry himself, and dedicate his adversary's armor to + his honor, overcame him in combat, and, a battle ensuing, routed his army + also, and then took his city; but did those he found in it no injury, only + commanded them to demolish the place and attend him to Rome, there to be + admitted to all the privileges of citizens. And indeed there was nothing + did more advance the greatness of Rome, than that she did always unite and + incorporate those whom she conquered into herself. Romulus, that he might + perform his vow in the most acceptable manner to Jupiter, and withal make + the pomp of it delightful to the eye of the city, cut down a tall oak + which he saw growing in the camp, which he trimmed to the shape of a + trophy, and fastened on it Acron's whole suit of armor disposed in proper + form; then he himself, girding his clothes about him, and crowning his + head with a laurel-garland, his hair gracefully flowing, carried the + trophy resting erect upon his right shoulder, and so marched on, singing + songs of triumph, and his whole army following after, the citizens all + receiving him with acclamations of joy and wonder. The procession of this + day was the origin and model of all after triumphs. But the statues of + Romulus in triumph are, as may be seen in Rome, all on foot. + </p> + <p> + After the overthrow of the Ceninensians, the other Sabines still + protracting the time in preparations, the people of Fidenae, Crustumerium, + and Antemna, joined their forces against the Romans; they in like manner + were defeated in battle, and surrendered up to Romulus their cities to be + seized, their lands and territories to be divided, and themselves to be + transplanted to Rome. All the lands which Romulus acquired he distributed + among the citizens, except only what the parents of the stolen virgins + had; these he suffered to possess their own. The rest of the Sabines, + enraged thereat, choosing Tatius their captain, marched straight against + Rome. The city was almost inaccessible, having for its fortress that which + is now the Capitol, where a strong guard was placed, and Tarpeius their + captain. But Tarpeia, daughter to the captain, coveting the golden + bracelets she saw them wear, betrayed the fort into the Sabines' hands, + and asked, in reward of her treachery, the things they wore on their left + arms. Tatius conditioning thus with her, in the night she opened one of + the gates and received the Sabines in. And truly Antigonus, it would seem, + was not solitary in saying he loved betrayers, but hated those who had + betrayed; nor Caesar, who told Rhymitalces the Thracian that he loved the + treason, but hated the traitor; but it is the general feeling of all who + have occasion for wicked men's services, as people have for the poison of + venomous beasts; they are glad of them while they are of use, and abhor + their baseness when it is over. And so did Tatius behave towards Tarpeia, + for he commanded the Sabines, in regard to their contract, not to refuse + her the least part of what they wore on their left arms; and he himself + first took his bracelet off his arm, and threw that, together with his + buckler, at her; and all the rest following, she, being borne down and + quite buried with the multitude of gold and their shields, died under the + weight and pressure of them; Tarpeius also himself, being prosecuted by + Romulus, was found guilty of treason, and that part of the Capitol they + still call the Tarpeian Rock, from which they used to cast down + malefactors. + </p> + <p> + The Sabines being possessed of the hill, Romulus, in great fury, bade them + battle, and Tatius was confident to accept it. There were many brief + conflicts, we may suppose, but the most memorable was the last, in which + Romulus having received a wound on his head by a stone, and being almost + felled to the ground by it, and disabled, the Romans gave way, and, being + driven out of the level ground, fled towards the Palatium. Romulus, by + this time recovering from his wound a little, turned about to renew the + battle, and, facing the fliers, with a loud voice encouraged them to stand + and fight. But being overborne with numbers, and nobody daring to face + about, stretching out his hands to heaven, he prayed to Jupiter to stop + the army, and not to neglect but maintain the Roman cause, now in extreme + danger. The prayer was no sooner made than shame and respect for their + king checked many; the fears of the fugitives changed suddenly into + confidence. The place they first stood at was where now is the temple of + Jupiter Stator (which may be translated the Stayer); there they rallied + again into ranks, and repulsed the Sabines to the place called now Regia, + and to the temple of Vesta; where both parties, preparing to begin a + second battle, were prevented by a spectacle, strange to behold, and + defying description. For the daughters of the Sabines, who had been + carried off, came running, in great confusion, some on this side, some on + that, with miserable cries and lamentations, like creatures possessed, in + the midst of the army, and among the dead bodies, to come at their + husbands and their fathers, some with their young babes in their arms, + others their hair loose about their ears, but all calling, now upon the + Sabines, now upon the Romans, in the most tender and endearing words. + Hereupon both melted into compassion, and fell back, to make room for them + betwixt the armies. The sight of the women carried sorrow and + commiseration upon both sides into the hearts of all, but still more their + words, which began with expostulation and upbraiding, and ended with + entreaty and supplication. + </p> + <p> + "Wherein," say they, "have we injured or offended you, as to deserve such + sufferings, past and present? We were ravished away unjustly and violently + by those whose now we are; that being done, we were so long neglected by + our fathers, our brothers, and countrymen, that time, having now by the + strictest bonds united us to those we once mortally hated, has made it + impossible for us not to tremble at the danger and weep at the death of + the very men who once used violence to us. You did not come to vindicate + our honor, while we were virgins, against our assailants; but do come now + to force away wives from their husbands and mothers from their children, a + succor more grievous to its wretched objects than the former betrayal and + neglect of them. Which shall we call the worst, their love-making or your + compassion? If you were making war upon any other occasion, for our sakes + you ought to withhold your hands from those to whom we have made you + fathers-in-law and grandsires. If it be for our own cause, then take us, + and with us your sons-in-law and grandchildren. Restore to us our parents + and kindred, but do not rob us of our children and husbands. Make us not, + we entreat you, twice captives." Having spoken many such words as these, + and earnestly praying, a truce was made, and the chief officers came to a + parley; the women, in the meantime, brought and presented their husbands + and children to their fathers and brothers; gave those that wanted, meat + and drink, and carried the wounded home to be cured, and showed also how + much they governed within doors, and how indulgent their husbands were to + them, in demeaning themselves towards them with all kindness and respect + imaginable. Upon this, conditions were agreed upon, that what women + pleased might stay where they were, exempt from all drudgery and labor but + spinning; that the Romans and Sabines should inhabit the city together; + that the city should be called Rome, from Romulus; but the Romans, + Quirites, from the country of Tatius; and that they both should govern and + command in common. The place of the ratification is still called Comitium, + from "coire," to meet. + </p> + <p> + The city thus being doubled in number, an hundred of the Sabines were + elected senators, and the legions were increased to six thousand foot and + six hundred horse; then they divided the people into three tribes: the + first, from Romulus, named Ramnenses; the second, from Tatius, Tatienses; + the third, Luceres, from the "lucus," or grove, where the Asylum stood, + whither many fled for sanctuary, and were received into the city. And that + they were just three, the very name of "tribe" and "tribune" seems to + show. Then they constituted many things in honor to the women, such as to + give them the way wherever they met them; to speak no ill word in their + presence; that their children should wear an ornament about their necks + called the "bulla" (because it was like a bubble), and the "praetexta," a + gown edged with purple. + </p> + <p> + The princes did not immediately join in council together, but at first + each met with his own hundred; afterwards all assembled together. Tatius + dwelt where now the temple of Moneta stands, and Romulus, close by the + steps, as they call them, of the Fair Shore, near the descent from the + Mount Palatine to the Circus Maximus. There, they say, grew the holy + cornel tree, of which they report that Romulus once, to try his strength, + threw a dart from the Aventine Mount, the staff of which was made of + cornel, which struck so deep into the ground that no one of many that + tried could pluck it up; and the soil, being fertile, gave nourishment to + the wood, which sent forth branches, and produced a cornel-stock of + considerable bigness. This did posterity preserve and worship as one of + the most sacred things; and therefore, walled it about; and if to any one + it appeared not green nor flourishing, but inclining to pine and wither, + he immediately made outcry to all he met, and they, like people hearing of + a house on fire, with one accord would cry for water, and run from all + parts with bucketfuls to the place. But when Gaius Caesar they say, was + repairing the steps about it, some of the laborers digging too close, the + roots were destroyed, and the tree withered. + </p> + <p> + The Sabines adopted the Roman months, of which whatever is remarkable is + mentioned in the Life of Numa. Romulus, on the other hand, adopted their + long shields, and changed his own armor and that of all the Romans, who + before wore round targets of the Argive pattern. Feasts and sacrifices + they partook of in common, not abolishing any which either nation observed + before, and instituting several new ones. This, too, is observable as a + singular thing in Romulus, that he appointed no punishment for real + parricide, but called all murder so, thinking the one an accursed thing, + but the other a thing impossible; and for a long time, his judgement + seemed to have been right; for in almost six hundred years together, + nobody committed the like in Rome; Lucius Hostius, after the wars of + Hannibal, is recorded to have been the first parricide. Let thus much + suffice concerning these matters. + </p> + <p> + In the fifth year of the reign of Tatius, some of his friends and kinsmen, + meeting ambassadors coming from Laurentum to Rome, attempted on the road + to take away their money by force, and, upon their resistance, killed + them. So great a villany having been committed, Romulus thought the + malefactors ought at once to be punished, but Tatius shuffled off and + deferred the execution of it; and this one thing was the beginning of an + open quarrel betwixt them; in all other respects they were very careful of + their conduct, and administered affairs together with great unanimity. The + relations of the slain, being debarred of lawful satisfaction by reason of + Tatius, fell upon him as he was sacrificing with Romulus at Lavinium, and + slew him; but escorted Romulus home, commending and extolling him for just + a prince. Romulus took the body of Tatius, and buried it very splendidly + in the Aventine Mount. + </p> + <p> + The Roman cause daily gathering strength, their weaker neighbors shrunk + away, and were thankful to be left untouched; but the stronger, out of + fear or envy, thought they ought not to give away to Romulus, but to curb + and put a stop to his growing greatness. The first were the Veientes, a + people of Tuscany, who had large possessions, and dwelt in a spacious + city; they took occasion to commence a war, by claiming Fidenae as + belonging to them. But being scornfully retorted upon by Romulus in his + answers, they divided themselves into two bodies; with one they attacked + the garrison of Fidenae, the other marched against Romulus; that which + went against Fidenae got the victory, and slew two thousand Romans; the + other was worsted by Romulus, with the loss of eight thousand men. A fresh + battle was fought near Fidenae, and here all men acknowledge the day's + success to have been chiefly the work of Romulus himself, who showed the + highest skill as well as courage, and seemed to manifest a strength and + swiftness more than human. But what some write, that, of fourteen thousand + that fell that day, above half were slain by Romulus's own hand, verges + too near to fable, and is, indeed, simply incredible: since even the + Messenians are thought to go too far in saying that Aristomenes three + times offered sacrifices for the death of a hundred enemies, + Lacedaemonians, slain by himself. The army being thus routed, Romulus, + suffering those that were left to make their escape, led his forces + against the city; they, having suffered such great losses, did not venture + to oppose, but, humbly suing him, made a league and friendship for an + hundred years; surrendering also a large district of land called + Septempagium, that is, the seven parts, as also their salt-works upon the + river, and fifty noblemen for hostages. He made his triumph for this on + the Ides of October, leading, among the rest of his many captives, the + general of the Veientes, an elderly man, but who had not, it seemed, acted + with the prudence of age; whence even now, in sacrifices for victories, + they led an old man through the market-place to the Capitol, appareled in + purple, with a bulla, or child's toy, tied to it, and the crier cries, + "Sardians to be sold;" for the Tuscans are said to be a colony of the + Sardians, and the Veientes are a city of Tuscany. + </p> + <p> + This was the last battle Romulus ever fought; afterwards he, as most, nay + all men, very few excepted, do, who are raised by great and miraculous + good-haps of fortune to power and greatness, so, I say, did he: relying + upon his own great actions and growing of a haughtier mind, he forsook his + popular behavior for kingly arrogance, odious to the people; to whom in + particular the state which he assumed was hateful. For he dressed in + scarlet, with the purple-bordered robe over it; he gave audience on a + couch of slate, having always about him some young men called "Celeres," + from their swiftness in doing commissions. He suddenly disappeared on the + Nones of July, as they call the month which was then Quintilis, leaving + nothing of certainty to be related of his death; the senators suffered the + people not to search, or busy themselves about the matter, but commanded + them to honor and worship Romulus as one taken up to the gods, and about + to be to them, in the place of a good prince, now a propitious god. The + multitude, hearing this, went away believing and rejoicing in hopes of + good things from him; but there were some, who, canvassing the matter in a + hostile temper, accused the patricians, as men that persuaded the people + to believe ridiculous tales, when they were the murderers of the king. + </p> + <p> + Things being in this disorder, one, they say, of the patricians, of noble + family and approved good character, and a faithful and familiar friend of + Romulus himself, having come with him from Alba, Julius Proculus by name, + presented himself in the forum; and taking a most sacred oath, protested + before them all, that, as he was travelling on the road, he had seen + Romulus coming to meet him, looking taller and comelier than ever, dressed + in shining and flaming armor; and he, being affrighted at the apparition, + said, "Why, O king, or for what purpose, have you abandoned us to unjust + and wicked surmises, and the whole city to bereavement and endless + sorrow?" and that he made answer, "It pleased the gods, O Proculus, that + we, who came from them, should remain so long a time amongst men as we + did; and, having built a city to be the greatest in the world for empire + and glory, should again return to heaven. But farewell; and tell the + Romans, that, by the exercise of temperance and fortitude, they shall + attain the height of human power; we will be to you the propitious god + Quirinus." This seemed credible to the Romans, upon the honesty and oath + of the relator, and laying aside all jealousies and detractions, they + prayed to Quirinus and saluted him as a god. + </p> + <p> + This is like some of the Greek fables of Aristeas the Proconnesian, and + Cleomedes the Astypalaean; for they say Aristeas died in a fuller's + workshop, and his friends, coming to look for him, found his body + vanished; and that some presently after, coming from abroad, said they met + him travelling towards Croton. And that Cleomedes, being an + extraordinarily strong and gigantic man, but also wild and mad, committed + many desperate freaks; and at last, in a schoolhouse, striking a pillar + that sustained the roof with his fist, broke it in the middle, so that the + house fell and destroyed the children in it; and being pursued, he fled + into a great chest, and, shutting to the lid, held it so fast that many + men, with their united strength, could not force it open; afterwards, + breaking the chest to pieces, they found no man in it alive or dead. + </p> + <p> + And many such improbabilities do your fabulous writers relate, deifying + creatures naturally mortal; for though altogether to disown a divine + nature in human virtue were impious and base, so again to mix heaven with + earth is ridiculous. Let us believe with Pindar, that + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + All human bodies yield to Death's decree: + The soul survives to all eternity. +</pre> + <p> + For that alone is derived from the gods, thence comes, and thither + returns. + </p> + <p> + It was in the fifty-fourth year of his age and the thirty-eighth of his + reign that Romulus, they tell us, left the world. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + COMPARISON OF THESEUS AND ROMULUS + </h2> + <p> + Both Theseus and Romulus were by nature meant for governors; yet neither + lived up to the true character of a king, but fell off, and ran, the one + into popularity, the other into tyranny, falling both into the same fault + out of different passions. For a ruler's first end is to maintain his + office, which is done no less by avoiding what is unfit than by observing + what is suitable. Whoever is either too remiss or too strict is no more a + king or a governor, but either a demagogue or a despot, and so becomes + either odious or contemptible to his subjects. Though certainly the one + seems to be the fault of easiness and good-nature, the other of pride and + severity. + </p> + <p> + But Romulus has, first of all, one great plea, that his performances + proceeded from very small beginnings; for both the brothers, being thought + servants and the sons of swineherds, before becoming freemen themselves + gave liberty to almost all the Latins, obtaining at once all the most + honorable titles, as, destroyers of their country's enemies, preservers of + their friends and kindred, princes of the people, founders of cities; not + removers, like Theseus, who raised and compiled only one house out of + many, demolishing many cities bearing the names of ancient kings and + heroes. Romulus, indeed, did the same afterwards, forcing his enemies to + deface and ruin their own dwellings, and to sojourn with their conquerors; + but at first, not by removal, or increase of an existing city, but by + foundation of a new one, he obtained himself lands, a country, a kingdom, + wives, children, and relations. And, in so doing, he killed or destroyed + nobody, but benefited those that wanted houses and homes, and were willing + to be of a society and become citizens. Robbers and malefactors he slew + not; but he subdued nations, he overthrew cities, he triumphed over kings + and commanders. As to Remus, it is doubtful by whose hand he fell; it is + generally imputed to others. His mother he clearly retrieved from death, + and placed his grandfather, who was brought under base and dishonorable + vassalage, on the ancient throne of Aeneas, to whom he did voluntarily + many good offices, but never did him harm even inadvertently. But Theseus, + in his forgetfulness and neglect of the command concerning the flag, can + scarcely, methinks, by any excuses, or before the most indulgent judges, + avoid the imputation of parricide. And, indeed, one of the Attic writers, + perceiving it to be very hard to make an excuse for this, feigns that + Aegeus, at the approach of the ship, running hastily to the Acropolis to + see what news there was, slipped and fell down; as if he had no servants, + or none would attend him on his way to the shore. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LYCURGUS + </h2> + <p> + Those authors who are most worthy of credit deduce the genealogy of + Lycurgus, the lawgiver of Sparta, as follows: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Aristodemus. + | + Patrocles. + | + Sous. + | + Eurypon. + | + Eunomus. + | + _________________________________________________ + Polydectes by his first wife. Lycurgus by Dionassa his second. +</pre> + <p> + Sous certainly was the most renowned of all his ancestors, under whose + conduct the Spartans made slaves of the Helots, and added to their + dominions, by conquest, a good part of Arcadia. There goes a story of this + king Sous, that, being besieged by the Clitorians in a dry and stony place + so that he could come at no water, he was at last constrained to agree + with them upon these terms, that he would restore to them all his + conquests, provided that himself and all his men should drink of the + nearest spring. After the usual oaths and ratifications, he called his + soldiers together, and offered to him that would forbear drinking, his + kingdom for a reward; and when not a man of them was able to forbear, in + short, when they had all drunk their fill, at last comes king Sous himself + to the spring, and, having sprinkled his face only, without swallowing one + drop, marches off in the face of his enemies, refusing to yield up his + conquests, because himself and all his men had not, according to the + articles, drunk of their water. + </p> + <p> + Although he was justly had in admiration on this account, yet his family + was not surnamed from him, but from his son Eurypon (of whom they were + called Eurypontids); the reason of which was that Eurypon relaxed the + rigor of the monarchy, seeking favor and popularity with the many. They, + after this first step, grew bolder; and the succeeding kings partly + incurred hatred with their people by trying to use force, or, for + popularity's sake and through weakness, gave way; and anarchy and + confusion long prevailed in Sparta, causing, moreover, the death of the + father of Lycurgus. For as he was endeavoring to quell a riot, he was + stabbed with a butcher's knife, and left the title of king to his eldest + son Polydectes. + </p> + <p> + He, too, dying soon after, the right of succession (as every one thought) + rested in Lycurgus; and reign he did for a time, but declared that the + kingdom belonged to the child of his sister-in-law the queen, and that he + himself should exercise the regal jurisdiction only as his guardian; the + Spartan name for which office is prodicus. Soon after, an overture was + made to him by the queen, that she would herself in some way destroy the + infant, upon condition that he would marry her when he came to the crown. + Abhorring the woman's wickedness, he nevertheless did not reject her + proposal, but, making show of closing with her, despatched the messenger + with thanks and expressions of joy, with orders that they should bring the + boy baby to him, wheresoever he were, and whatsoever doing. It so fell out + that when he was at supper with the principal magistrates, the queen's + child was presented to him, and he, taking him into his arms, said to + those about him, "Men of Sparta, here is a king born unto us;" this said, + he laid him down in the king's place, and named him Charilaus, that is, + the joy of the people; because that all were transported with joy and with + wonder at his noble and just spirit. His reign had lasted only eight + months, but he was honored on other accounts by the citizens, and there + were more who obeyed him because of his eminent virtues, than because he + was regent to the king and had the royal power in his hands. Some, + however, envied and sought to impede his growing influence while he was + still young; chiefly the kindred and friends of the queen-mother, who + pretended to have been dealt with injuriously. Her brother Leonidas, in a + warm debate which fell out betwixt him and Lycurgus, went so far as to + tell him to his face that he was well assured that ere long he should see + him king; suggesting suspicions and preparing the way for an accusation of + him, as though he had made away with his nephew, if the child should + chance to fail, though by a natural death. Words of the like import were + designedly cast abroad by the queen-mother and her adherents. + </p> + <p> + Troubled at this, and not knowing what it might come to, he thought it his + wisest course to avoid their envy by a voluntary exile, and to travel from + place to place until his nephew came to marriageable years, and, by having + a son, had secured the succession. Setting sail, therefore, with this + resolution, he first arrived at Crete, where, having considered their + several forms of government, and got an acquaintance with the principal + men amongst them, some of their laws he very much approved of, and + resolved to make use of them in his own country; a good part he rejected + as useless. Amongst the persons there the most renowned for their learning + and their wisdom in state matters was one Thales, whom Lycurgus, by + importunities and assurances of friendship, persuaded to go over to + Lacedaemon; where, though by his outward appearance and his own profession + he seemed to be no other than a lyric poet, in reality he performed the + part of one of the ablest lawgivers in the world. The very songs which he + composed were exhortations to obedience and concord, and the very measure + and cadence of the verse, conveying impressions of order and tranquillity, + had so great an influence on the minds of the listeners that they were + insensibly softened and civilized, insomuch that they renounced their + private feuds and animosities, and were reunited in a common admiration of + virtue. So that it may truly be said that Thales prepared the way for the + discipline introduced by Lycurgus. + </p> + <p> + From Crete he sailed to Asia, with design, as is said, to examine the + difference betwixt the manners and rules of life of the Cretans, which + were very sober and temperate, and those of the Ionians, a people of + sumptuous and delicate habits, and so to form a judgment; just as + physicians do by comparing healthy and diseased bodies. Here he had the + first sight of Homer's works, in the hands, we may suppose, of the + posterity of Creophylus; and, having observed that the few loose + expressions and actions of ill example which are to be found in his poems + were much outweighed by serious lessons of state and rules of morality, he + set himself eagerly to transcribe and digest them into order, as thinking + they would be of good use in his own country. They had, indeed, already + obtained some slight repute amongst the Greeks, and scattered portions, as + chance conveyed them, were in the hands of individuals; but Lycurgus first + made them really known. + </p> + <p> + The Egyptians say that he took a voyage into Egypt, and that, being much + taken with their way of separating the soldiery from the rest of the + nation, he transferred it from them to Sparta; a removal from contact with + those employed in low and mechanical occupations giving high refinement + and beauty to the state. Some Greek writers also record this. But as for + his voyages into Spain, Africa, and the Indies, and his conferences there + with the Gymnosophists, the whole relation, as far as I can find, rests on + the single credit of the Spartan Aristocrates, the son of Hipparchus. + </p> + <p> + Lycurgus was much missed at Sparta, and often sent for, "For kings indeed + we have," they said, "who wear the marks and assume the titles of royalty, + but as for the qualities of their minds, they have nothing by which they + are to be distinguished from their subjects;" adding that in him alone was + the true foundation of sovereignty to be seen, a nature made to rule, and + a genius to gain obedience. Nor were the kings themselves averse to see + him back, for they looked upon his presence as a bulwark against the + insolencies of the people. + </p> + <p> + Things being in this posture at his return, he applied himself, without + loss of time, to a thorough reformation, and resolved to change the whole + face of the commonwealth; for what could a few particular laws and a + partial alteration avail? He must act as wise physicians do, in the case + of one who labors under a complication of diseases,—by force of + medicines reduce and exhaust him, change his whole temperament, and then + set him upon a totally new regimen of diet. Having thus projected things, + away he goes to Delphi to consult Apollo there; which having done, and + offered his sacrifice, he returned with that renowned oracle, in which he + is called beloved of God, and rather God than man: that his prayers were + heard, that his laws should be the best, and the commonwealth which + observed them the most famous in the world. Encouraged by these things, he + set himself to bring over to his side the leading men of Sparta, exhorting + them to give him a helping hand in his great undertaking: he broke it + first to his particular friends, and then by degrees gained others, and + animated them all to put his design in execution. When things were ripe + for action, he gave order to thirty of the principal men of Sparta to be + ready armed at the market-place at break of day, to the end that he might + strike a terror into the opposite party. Hermippus hath set down the names + of twenty of the most eminent of them: but the name of him whom Lycurgus + most confided in, and who was of most use to him both in making his laws + and putting them in execution, was Arthmiadas. Things growing to a tumult, + king Charilaus, apprehending that it was a conspiracy against his person, + took sanctuary in the temple of Athena of the Brazen House; but, being + soon after undeceived, and having taken an oath of them that they had no + designs against him, he quitted his refuge, and himself also entered into + the confederacy with them; of so gentle and flexible a disposition he was, + to which Archelaus, his brother-king, alluded, when, hearing him extolled + for his goodness, he said: "Who can say he is anything but good? he is so + even to the bad." + </p> + <p> + Amongst the many changes and alterations which Lycurgus made, the first + and of greatest importance was the establishment of the senate, which, + having a power equal to the kings' in matters of great consequence, and, + as Plato expresses it, allaying and qualifying the fiery genius of the + royal office, gave steadiness and safety to the commonwealth. For the + state, which before had no firm basis to stand upon, but leaned one while + towards an absolute monarchy, when the kings had the upper hand, and + another while towards a pure democracy, when the people had the better, + found in this establishment of the senate a central weight, like ballast + in a ship, which always kept things in a just equilibrium; the + twenty-eight always adhering to the kings so far as to resist democracy, + and, on the other hand, supporting the people against the establishment of + absolute monarchy. As for the determinate number of twenty-eight, + Aristotle states that it so fell out because two of the original + associates, for want of courage, fell off from the enterprise; but + Sphaerus assures us that there were but twenty-eight of the confederates + at first; perhaps there is some mystery in the number, which consists of + seven multiplied by four, and is the first of perfect numbers after six, + being, as that is, equal to all its parts. For my part, I believe Lycurgus + fixed upon the number of twenty-eight, that, the two kings being reckoned + amongst them, they might be thirty in all. So eagerly set was he upon this + establishment, that he took the trouble to obtain an oracle about it from + Delphi; and the Rhetra (or sacred ordinance) runs thus: "After that you + have built a temple to Jupiter Hellanius, and to Minerva Hellania, and + after that you have phyle'd the people into phyles, and obe'd them into + obes, you shall establish a council of thirty elders, the leaders + included, and shall, from time to time, assemble the people betwixt Babyca + and Cnacion, there propound and put to the vote. The commons have the + final voice and decision." By phyles and obes are meant the divisions of + the people; by the leaders, the two kings; Aristotle says Cnacion is a + river, and Babyca a bridge. Betwixt this Babyca and Cnacion, their + assemblies were held, for they had no council-house or building to meet + in. Lycurgus was of opinion that ornaments were so far from advantaging + them in their councils, that they were rather an hindrance, by diverting + their attention from the business before them to statues and pictures, and + roofs curiously fretted, the usual embellishments of such places amongst + the other Greeks. The people then being thus assembled in the open air, it + was not allowed to any one of their order to give his advice, but only + either to ratify or reject what should be propounded to them by the king + or senate. + </p> + <p> + After the creation of the thirty senators, his next task, and, indeed, the + most hazardous he ever undertook, was the making of a new division of + their lands. For there was an extreme inequality amongst them, and their + state was overloaded with a multitude of indigent and necessitous persons, + while its whole wealth had centred upon a very few. To the end, therefore, + that he might expel from the state arrogance and envy, luxury and crime, + and those yet more inveterate diseases of want and superfluity, he + obtained of them to renounce their properties, and to consent to a new + division of the land, and that they should live all together on an equal + footing; merit to be their only road to eminence, and the disgrace of + evil, and credit of worthy acts, their one measure of difference between + man and man. + </p> + <p> + Upon their consent to these proposals, proceeding at once to put them into + execution, he divided the country of Laconia in general into thirty + thousand equal shares, and the part attached to the city of Sparta into + nine thousand; these he distributed among the Spartans, as he did the + others to the country citizens. A lot was so much as to yield, one year + with another, about seventy bushels of grain for the master of the family, + and twelve for his wife, with a suitable proportion of oil and wine. And + this he thought sufficient to keep their bodies in good health and + strength; superfluities they were better without. It is reported, that, as + he returned from a journey shortly after the division of the lands, in + harvest time, the ground being newly reaped, seeing the stacks all + standing equal and alike, he smiled, and said to those about him, + "Methinks all Laconia looks like one family estate just divided among a + number of brothers." + </p> + <p> + Not contented with this, he resolved to make a division of their movables + too, that there might be no odious distinction or inequality left amongst + them; but finding that it would be very dangerous to go about it openly, + he took another course, and defeated their avarice by the following + stratagem: he commanded that all gold and silver coin should be called in, + and that only a sort of money made of iron should be current, a great + weight and quantity of which was worth but very little; so that to lay up + a hundred or two dollars there was required a pretty large closet, and, to + remove it, nothing less than a yoke of oxen. With the diffusion of this + money, at once a number of vices were banished from Lacedaemon; for who + would rob another of such a coin? Who would unjustly detain or take by + force, or accept as a bribe, a thing which it was not easy to hide, nor a + credit to have, nor indeed of any use to cut in pieces? For when it was + just red-hot, they quenched it in vinegar, and by that means spoilt it, + and made it almost incapable of being worked. + </p> + <p> + In the next place, he declared an outlawry of all needless and superfluous + arts; but here he might almost have spared his proclamation; for they of + themselves would have gone with the gold and silver, the money which + remained being not so proper payment for curious work; for, being of iron, + it was scarcely portable, neither, if they should take the pains to export + it, would it pass amongst the other Greeks, who ridiculed it so there was + now no more means of purchasing foreign goods and small wares; merchants + sent no shiploads into Laconian ports; no rhetoric-master, no itinerant + fortune-teller, or gold or silversmith, engraver, or jeweler, set foot in + a country which had no money; so that luxury, deprived little by little of + that which fed and fomented it, wasted to nothing, and died away of + itself. For the rich had no advantage here over the poor, as their wealth + and abundance had no road to come abroad by, but were shut up at home + doing nothing. And in this way they became excellent artists in common + necessary things; bedsteads, chairs, and tables, and such like staple + utensils in a family, were admirably well made there; their cup, + particularly, was very much in fashion, and eagerly sought for by + soldiers, as Critias reports; for its color was such as to prevent water, + drunk upon necessity and disagreeable to look at, from being noticed; and + the shape of it was such that the mud stuck to the sides, so that only the + purer part came to the drinker's mouth. For this, also, they had to thank + their lawgiver, who, by relieving the artisans of the trouble of making + useless things, set them to show their skill in giving beauty to those of + daily and indispensable use. + </p> + <p> + The third and most masterly stroke of this great lawgiver, by which he + struck a yet more effectual blow against luxury and the desire of riches, + was the ordinance he made that they should all eat in common, of the same + bread and same meat, and of kinds that were specified, and should not + spend their lives at home, laid on costly couches at splendid tables, + delivering themselves up into the hands of their tradesmen and cooks, to + fatten them in corners, like greedy brutes, and to ruin not their minds + only but their very bodies, which, enfeebled by indulgence and excess, + would stand in need of long sleep, warm bathing, freedom from work, and, + in a word, of as much care and attendance as if they were continually + sick. It was certainly an extraordinary thing to have brought about such a + result as this, but a greater yet to have taken away from wealth, as + Theophrastus observes, not merely the property of being coveted, but its + very nature of being wealth. For the rich, being obliged to go to the same + table with the poor, could not make use of or enjoy their abundance, nor + so much as please their vanity by looking at or displaying it. So that the + common proverb, that Plutus, the god of riches, is blind, was nowhere in + all the world literally verified but in Sparta. There, indeed, he was not + only blind, but, like a picture, without either life or motion. Nor were + they allowed to take food at home first, and then attend the public + tables, for everyone had an eye upon those who did not eat and drink like + the rest, and reproached them with being dainty and effeminate. + </p> + <p> + This last ordinance in particular exasperated the wealthier men. They + collected in a body against Lycurgus, and from ill words came to throwing + stones, so that at length he was forced to run out of the market-place, + and make to sanctuary to save his life; by good-hap he outran all + excepting one Alcander, a young man otherwise not ill accomplished, but + hasty and violent, who came up so close to him, that, when he turned to + see who was near him, he struck him upon the face with his stick, and put + out one of his eyes. Lycurgus, so far from being daunted and discouraged + by this accident, stopped short and showed his disfigured face and eye + beat out to his countrymen; they, dismayed and ashamed at the sight, + delivered Alcander into his hands to be punished, and escorted him home, + with expressions of great concern for his ill usage. Lycurgus, having + thanked them for their care of his person, dismissed them all, excepting + only Alcander; and, taking him with him into his house, neither did nor + said anything severe to him, but dismissing those whose place it was, bade + Alcander to wait upon him at table. The young man, who was of an ingenuous + temper, did without murmuring as he was commanded; and, being thus + admitted to live with Lycurgus, he had an opportunity to observe in him, + beside his gentleness and calmness of temper, an extraordinary sobriety + and an indefatigable industry, and so, from an enemy, became one of his + most zealous admirers, and told his friends and relations that Lycurgus + was not that morose and ill-natured man they had formerly taken him for, + but the one mild and gentle character of the world. And thus did Lycurgus, + for chastisement of his fault, make of a wild and passionate young man one + of the discreetest citizens of Sparta. + </p> + <p> + In memory of this accident, Lycurgus built a temple to Minerva. Some + authors, however, say that he was wounded, indeed, but did not lose his + eye from the blow; and that he built the temple in gratitude for the cure. + Be this as it will, certain it is, that, after this misadventure, the + Lacedaemonians made it a rule never to carry so much as a staff into their + public assemblies. + </p> + <p> + But to return to their public repasts. They met by companies of fifteen, + more or less, and each of them stood bound to bring in monthly a bushel of + meal, eight gallons of wine, five pounds of cheese, two pounds and a half + of figs, and some very small sum of money to buy flesh or fish with. + Besides this, when any of them made sacrifice to the gods, they always + sent a dole to the common hall; and, likewise, when any of them had been + a-hunting, he sent thither a part of the venison he had killed; for these + two occasions were the only excuses allowed for supping at home. The + custom of eating together was observed strictly for a great while + afterwards; insomuch that king Agis himself, after having vanquished the + Athenians, sending for his commons at his return home, because he desired + to eat privately with his queen, was refused them by the polemarchs; and + when he resented this refusal so much as to omit next day the sacrifice + due for a war happily ended, they made him pay a fine. + </p> + <p> + They used to send their children to these tables as to schools of + temperance; here they were instructed in state affairs by listening to + experienced statesmen; here they learnt to converse with pleasantry, to + make jests without scurrility, and take them without ill humor. In this + point of good breeding, the Lacedaemonians excelled particularly, but if + any man were uneasy under it, upon the least hint given there was no more + to be said to him. It was customary also for the eldest man in the company + to say to each of them, as they came in, "Through this" (pointing to the + door), "no words go out." When any one had a desire to be admitted into + any of these little societies, he was to go through the following + probation: each man in the company took a little ball of soft bread, which + they were to throw into a deep basin, that a waiter carried round upon his + head; those that liked the person to be chosen dropped their ball into the + basin without altering its figure, and those who disliked him pressed it + betwixt their fingers, and made it flat; and this signified as much as a + negative voice. And if there were but one of these flattened pieces in the + basin, the suitor was rejected, so desirous were they that all the members + of the company should be agreeable to each other. The basin was called + caddichus, and the rejected candidate had a name thence derived. Their + most famous dish was the black broth, which was so much valued that the + elderly men fed only upon that, leaving what flesh there was to the + younger. + </p> + <p> + They say that a certain king of Pontus, having heard much of this black + broth of theirs, sent for a Lacedaemonian cook on purpose to make him + some, but had no sooner tasted it than he found it extremely bad, which + the cook observing, told him, "Sir, to make this broth relish, you should + have bathed yourself first in the river Eurotas." + </p> + <p> + After drinking moderately, every man went to his home without lights, for + the use of them was, on all occasions, forbid, to the end that they might + accustom themselves to march boldly in the dark. Such was the common + fashion of their meals. + </p> + <p> + Lycurgus would never reduce his laws into writing; nay, there is a Rhetra + expressly to forbid it. For he thought that the most material points, and + such as most directly tended to the public welfare, being imprinted on the + hearts of their youth by a good discipline, would be sure to remain, and + would find a stronger security, than any compulsion would be, in the + principles of action formed in them by their best lawgiver, education. + </p> + <p> + One, then, of the Rhetras was, that their laws should not be written; + another is particularly leveled against luxury and expensiveness, for by + it it was ordained that the ceilings of their houses should only be + wrought by the axe, and their gates and doors smoothed only the saw. + Epaminondas's famous dictum about his own table, that "Treason and a + dinner like this do not keep company together," may be said to have been + anticipated by Lycurgus. Luxury and a house of this kind could not well be + companions. For a man must have a less than ordinary share of sense that + would furnish such plain and common rooms with silver-footed couches and + purple coverlets and gold and silver plate. Doubtless he had good reason + to think that they would proportion their beds to their houses, and their + coverlets to their beds, and the rest of their goods and furniture to + these. It is reported that King Leotychides, the first of that name, was + so little used to the sight of any other kind of work, that, being + entertained at Corinth in a stately room, he was much surprised to see the + timber and ceilings so finely carved and paneled, and asked his host + whether the trees grew so in his country. + </p> + <p> + A third ordinance or Rhetra was that they should not make war often, or + long, with the same enemy, lest they should train and instruct them in + war, by habituating them to defend themselves. And this is what Agesilaus + was much blamed for a long time after; it being thought that, by his + continual incursions into Boeotia, he made the Thebans a match for the + Lacedaemonians; and therefore Antalcidas, seeing him wounded one day, said + to him that he was very well paid for taking such pains to make the + Thebans good soldiers, whether they would or no. These laws were called + the Rhetras, to intimate that they were divine sanctions and revelations. + </p> + <p> + In order to the good education of their youth (which, as I said before, he + thought the most important and noblest work of a lawgiver), he took in + their case all the care that was possible; he ordered the maidens to + exercise themselves with wrestling, running, throwing the quoit, and + casting the dart, to the end that they might have strong and healthy + bodies. + </p> + <p> + It was not in the power of the father to dispose of his child as he + thought fit; he was obliged to carry it before certain "triers" at a place + called Lesche; these were some of the elders of the tribe to which the + child belonged; their business it was carefully to view the infant, and, + if they found it stout and well made, they gave order for its rearing, and + allotted to it one of the nine thousand shares of land above mentioned for + its maintenance; but if they found it puny and ill-shaped, ordered it to + be taken to what was called the Apothetae, a sort of chasm under Taygetus; + as thinking it neither for the good of the child itself, nor for the + public interest, that it should be brought up, if it did not, from the + very outset, appear made to be healthy and vigorous. Upon the same + account, the women did not bathe the new-born children with water, as is + the custom in all other countries, but with wine, to prove the temper and + complexion of their bodies; from a notion they had that epileptic and + weakly children faint and waste away upon their being thus bathed, while, + on the contrary, those of a strong and vigorous habit acquire firmness and + get a temper by it like steel. There was much care and art, too, used by + the nurses; they had no swaddling bands; the children grew up free and + unconstrained in limb and form, and not dainty and fanciful about their + food; nor afraid in the dark, or of being left alone; without any + peevishness or ill humor or crying. Upon this account, Spartan nurses were + often bought up, or hired by people of other countries. + </p> + <p> + Lycurgus was of another mind; he would not have masters bought out of the + market for his young Spartans, nor such as should sell their pains; nor + was it lawful, indeed, for the father himself to raise his children after + his own fancy; but as soon as they were seven years old they were to be + enrolled in certain companies and classes, where they all lived under the + same order and discipline, doing their exercises and taking their play + together. Of these he who showed the most conduct and courage was made + captain; they had their eyes always upon him, obeyed his orders, and + underwent patiently whatsoever punishment he inflicted; so that the whole + course of their education was one continued exercise of a ready and + perfect obedience. The old men, too, were spectators of their + performances, and often raised quarrels and disputes among them, to have a + good opportunity of finding out their different characters, and of seeing + which would be valiant, which a coward, when they should come to more + dangerous encounters. Reading and writing they gave them, just enough to + serve their turn; their chief care was to make them good subjects, and to + teach them to endure pain and conquer in battle. To this end, as they grew + in years, their discipline was proportionally increased; their heads were + close-clipped; they were accustomed to go barefoot, and for the most part + to play naked. + </p> + <p> + After they were twelve years old they were no longer allowed to wear any + under-garment; they had one coat to serve them a year; their bodies were + hard and dry, with but little acquaintance of baths and unguents; these + human indulgences they were allowed only on some few particular days in + the year. They lodged together in little bands upon beds made of the + rushes which grew by the banks of the river Eurotas, which they were to + break off with their hands without a knife; if it were winter, they + mingled some thistledown with their rushes, which it was thought had the + property of giving warmth. + </p> + <p> + Besides all this, there was always one of the best and most honest men in + the city appointed to undertake the charge and governance of them; he + again arranged them into their several bands, and set over each of them + for their captain the most temperate and bold of those they called Irens, + who were usually twenty years old, two years out of boyhood; and the + eldest of the boys, again, were Mell-Irens, as much as to say, "who would + shortly be men." This young man, therefore, was their captain when they + fought, and their master at home, using them for the offices of his house; + sending the oldest of them to fetch wood, and the weaker and less able, to + gather salads and herbs, and these they must either go without or steal; + which they did by creeping into the gardens, or conveying themselves + cunningly and closely into the eating-houses; if they were taken in the + act, they were whipped without mercy, for thieving so ill and awkwardly. + They stole, too, all other meat they could lay their hands on, looking out + and watching all opportunities, when people were asleep or more careless + than usual. If they were caught, they were not only punished with + whipping, but hunger, too, being reduced to their ordinary allowance, + which was but very slender, and so contrived on purpose, that they might + set about to help themselves, and be forced to exercise their energy and + address. + </p> + <p> + So seriously did the Lacedaemonian children go about their stealing, that + a youth, having stolen a young fox and hid it under his coat, suffered it + to tear out his very bowels with its teeth and claws, and died upon the + place, rather than let it be seen. What is practised to this very day in + Lacedaemon is enough to gain credit to this story, for I myself have seen + several of the youths endure whipping to death at the foot of the altar of + Diana surnamed Orthia. + </p> + <p> + The Iren, or under-master, used to stay a little with them after supper, + and one of them he bade to sing a song, to another he put a question which + required an advised and deliberate answer; for example, Who was the best + man in the city? What he thought of such an action of such a man? They + accustomed them thus early to pass a right judgment upon persons and + things, and to inform themselves of the abilities or defects of their + countrymen. If they had not an answer ready to the question, Who was a + good or who an ill-reputed citizen? they were looked upon as of a dull and + careless disposition, and to have little or no sense of virtue and honor; + besides this, they were to give a good reason for what they said, and in + as few words and as comprehensive as might be; he that failed of this, or + answered not to the purpose, had his thumb bit by his master. + </p> + <p> + They taught them, also, to speak with a natural and graceful raillery, and + to comprehend much matter of thought in few words. For Lycurgus, who + ordered, as we saw, that a great piece of money should be but of an + inconsiderable value, on the contrary would allow no discourse to be + current which did not contain in few words a great deal of useful and + curious sense; children in Sparta, by a habit of long silence, came to + give just and sententious answers; for, indeed, loose talkers seldom + originate many sensible words. King Agis, when some Athenian laughed at + their short swords, and said that the jugglers on the stage swallowed them + with ease, answered him, "We find them long enough to reach our enemies + with;" and as their swords were short and sharp, so, it seems to me, were + their sayings. They reach the point and arrest the attention of the + hearers better than any others. Lycurgus himself seems to have been short + and sententious, if we may trust the anecdotes of him; as appears by his + answer to one who by all means would set up democracy in Lacedaemon. + "Begin, friend," said he, "and set it up in your family." Another asked + him why he allowed of such mean and trivial sacrifices to the gods. He + replied, "That we may always have something to offer to them." Being asked + what sort of martial exercises or combats he approved of, he answered, + "All sorts, except that in which you stretch out your hands." + </p> + <p> + Of their dislike to talkativeness, the following apophthegms are evidence. + King Leonidas said to one who held him in discourse upon some useful + matter, but not in due time and place, "Much to the purpose, sir, + elsewhere." King Charilaus, the nephew of Lycurgus, being asked why his + uncle had made so few laws, answered, "Men of few words require but few + laws." When one blamed Hecataeus the sophist because that, being invited + to the public table, he had not spoken one word all supper-time, + Archidamidas answered in his vindication, "He who knows how to speak, + knows also when." + </p> + <p> + The sharp, and yet not ungraceful, retorts which I mentioned may be + instanced as follows. Demaratus, being asked in a troublesome manner by an + importunate fellow, Who was the best man in Lacedaemon? answered at last, + "He, sir, that is the least like you." Some, in company where Agis was, + much extolled the Eleans for their just and honorable management of the + Olympic games; "Indeed," said Agis, "they are highly to be commended if + they can do justice one day in five years." + </p> + <p> + We may see their character, too, in their very jests. For they did not + throw them out at random, but the very wit of them was grounded upon + something or other worth thinking about. For instance, one, being asked to + go hear a man who exactly counterfeited the voice of a nightingale, + answered, "Sir, I have heard the nightingale itself." Another, having read + the following inscription upon a tomb,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Seeking to quench a cruel tyranny, + They, at Selinus, did in battle die, +</pre> + <p> + said, it served them right; for instead of trying to quench the tyranny + they should have let it burn out. A lad, being offered some game-cocks + that would die upon the spot, said he cared not for cocks that would die, + but for such as would live and kill others. In short, their answers were + so sententious and pertinent, that one said well that intellectual, much + more truly than athletic, exercise was the Spartan characteristic. + </p> + <p> + Nor was their instruction in music and verse less carefully attended to + than their habits of grace and good breeding in conversation. And their + very songs had a life and spirit in them that inflamed and possessed men's + minds with an enthusiasm and ardor for action; the style of them was plain + and without affectation; the subject always serious and moral; most + usually it was in praise of such men as had died in defence of their + country, or in derision of those that had been cowards; the former they + declared happy and glorified; the life of the latter they described as + most miserable and abject. There were also vaunts of what they would do, + and boasts of what they had done, varying with the various ages, as, for + example, they had three choirs in their solemn festivals, the first of the + old men, the second of the young men, and the last of the children; the + old men began thus: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + We once were young, and brave and strong; +</pre> + <p> + the young men answered them, singing, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + And we're so now, come on and try; +</pre> + <p> + the children came last and said, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + But we'll be strongest by and by. +</pre> + <p> + Before they engaged in battle, the Lacedaemonians abated a little the + severity of their manners in favor of their young men, suffering them to + curl and adorn their hair, and to have costly arms, and fine clothes; and + were well pleased to see them, like proud horses, neighing and pressing to + the course. And therefore, as soon as they came to be well grown, they + took a great deal of care of their hair, to have it parted and trimmed, + especially against a day of battle, pursuant to a saying recorded of their + lawgiver, that a large head of hair added beauty to a good face, and + terror to an ugly one. + </p> + <p> + The senate, as I said before, consisted of those who were Lycurgus's chief + aiders and assistants in his plan. The vacancies he ordered to be supplied + out of the best and most deserving men past sixty years old. The manner of + their election was as follows: the people being called together, some + selected persons were locked up in a room near the place of election, so + contrived that they could neither see nor be seen, but could only hear the + noise of the assembly without; for they decided this, as most other + affairs of moment, by the shouts of the people. This done, the competitors + were not brought in and presented all together, but one after another by + lot, and passed in order through the assembly without speaking a word. + Those who were locked up had writing-tables with them, in which they + recorded and marked each shout by its loudness, without knowing in favor + of which candidate each of them was made, but merely that they came first, + second, third, and so forth. He who was found to have the most and loudest + acclamations was declared senator duly elected. + </p> + <p> + When he perceived that his more important institutions had taken root in + the minds of his countrymen, that custom had rendered them familiar and + easy, that his commonwealth was now grown up and able to go alone, then, + as Plato somewhere tells us the Maker of the world, when first he saw it + existing and beginning its motion, felt joy, even so Lycurgus, viewing + with joy and satisfaction the greatness and beauty of his political + structure, now fairly at work and in motion, conceived the thought to make + it immortal too, and as far as human forecast could reach, to deliver it + down unchangeable to posterity. He called an extraordinary assembly of all + the people, and told them that he now thought everything reasonably well + established, both for the happiness and the virtue of the state; but that + there was one thing still behind, of the greatest importance, which he + thought not fit to impart until he had consulted the oracle; in the + meantime, his desire was that they would observe the laws without even the + least alteration until his return, and then he would do as the god should + direct him. They all consented readily, and bade him hasten his journey; + but, before he departed, he administered an oath to the two kings, the + senate, and the whole commons, to abide by and maintain the established + form of polity until Lycurgus should come back. This done, he set out for + Delphi, and, having sacrificed to Apollo, asked him whether the laws he + had established were good and sufficient for a people's happiness and + virtue. The oracle answered that the laws were excellent, and that the + people, while it observed them, should live in the height of renown. + Lycurgus took the oracle in writing, and sent it over to Sparta, and, + having sacrificed a second time to Apollo, and taken leave of his friends + and his son, he resolved that the Spartans should not be released from the + oath they had taken, and that he would, of his own act, close his life + where he was. He was now about that age in which life was still tolerable, + and yet might be quitted without regret. Everything, moreover, about him + was in a sufficiently prosperous condition. He, therefore, made an end of + himself by a total abstinence from food; thinking it a statesman's duty to + make his very death, if possible, an act of service to the state, and even + in the end of his life to give some example of virtue and effect some + useful purpose. Nor was he deceived in his expectations, for the city of + Lacedaemon continued the chief city of all Greece for the space of five + hundred years, in strict observance of Lycurgus's laws; in all which time + there was no manner of alteration made, during the reign of fourteen + kings, down to the time of Agis, the son of Archidamus. + </p> + <p> + King Theopompus, when one said that Sparta held up so long because their + kings could command so well, replied, "Nay, rather because the people know + so well how to obey." For people do not obey, unless rulers know how to + command; obedience is a lesson taught by commanders. A true leader himself + creates the obedience of his own followers; as it is the greatest + attainment in the art of riding to make a horse gentle and tractable, so + is it of the science of government to inspire men with a willingness to + obey. + </p> + <p> + It is reported that when the bones were brought home to Sparta his tomb + was struck with lightning, an accident which befell no eminent person but + himself and Euripides. But Aristocrates, the son of Hipparchus, says that + he died in Crete, and that his Cretan friends, in accordance with his own + request, when they had burned his body, scattered the ashes into the sea, + for fear lest, if his relics should be transported to Lacedaemon, the + people might pretend to be released from their oaths, and make innovations + in the government. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0005" id="link2H_4_0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SOLON + </h2> + <p> + SOLON, as Hermippus writes, when his father had ruined his estate in doing + benefits and kindnesses to other men, though he had friends enough that + were willing to contribute to his relief, yet was ashamed to be beholden + to others, since he was descended from a family who were accustomed to do + kindnesses rather than receive them; and therefore applied himself to + merchandise in his youth; though others assure us that he traveled rather + to get learning and experience than to make money. It is certain that he + was a lover of knowledge, for when he was old he would say that he + </p> + <p> + Each day grew older, and learnt something new. + </p> + <p> + But that he accounted himself rather poor than rich is evident from the + lines, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Some wicked men are rich, some good are poor, + We will not change our virtue for their store; + Virtue's a thing that none can take away, + But money changes owners all the day. +</pre> + <p> + It is stated that Anacharsis and Solon and Thales were familiarly + acquainted, and some have quoted parts of their discourse; for, they say, + Anacharsis, coming to Athens, knocked at Solon's door and told him that + he, being a stranger, was come to be his guest, and contract a friendship + with him; and Solon replying; "It is better to make friends at home," + Anacharsis replied, "Then you that are at home make friendship with me." + Solon, somewhat surprised at the readiness of the repartee, received him + kindly, and kept him some time with him, being already engaged in public + business and the compilation of his laws; which when Anacharsis + understood, he laughed at him for imagining the dishonesty and + covetousness of his countrymen could be restrained by written laws, which + were like spiders' webs, and would catch, it is true, the weak and poor, + but easily be broken by the mighty and rich. To this Solon rejoined that + men keep their promises when neither side can get anything by the breaking + of them; and he would so fit his laws to the citizens, that all should + understand it was more eligible to be just than to break the laws. But the + event rather agreed with the conjecture of Anacharsis than Solon's hope. + Anacharsis, being once at the assembly, expressed his wonder that in + Greece wise men spoke and fools decided. + </p> + <p> + Now, when the Athenians were tired with a tedious and difficult war that + they conducted against the Megarians for the island Salamis, and made a + law that is should be death for any man, by writing or speaking, to assert + that the city ought to endeavor to recover it, Solon, vexed at the + disgrace, and perceiving thousands of the youth wished for somebody to + begin, but did not dare to stir first for fear of the law, counterfeited a + distraction, and by his own family it was spread about the city that he + was mad. He then secretly composed some elegiac verses, and getting them + by heart, that it might seem extempore, ran out into the market-place with + a cap upon his head, and, the people gathering about him, got upon the + herald's stand, and sang that elegy which begins thus:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I am a herald come from Salamis the fair, + My news from thence my verses shall declare. +</pre> + <p> + The poem is called "Salamis"; it contains a hundred verses, very elegantly + written. When it had been sung, his friends commended it, and especially + Pisistratus exhorted the citizens to obey his directions; insomuch that + they recalled the law, and renewed the war under Solon's conduct. The + popular take is, that with Pisistratus he sailed to Colias, and, finding + the women, according to the custom of the country there, sacrificing to + Ceres, he sent a trusty friend to Salamis, who should pretend himself a + renegade, and advise them, if they desired to seize the chief Athenian + women, to come with him at once to Colias; the Megarians presently sent + off men in the vessel with him, and Solon, seeing it put off from the + island, commanded the women to be gone, and some beardless youths, dressed + in their clothes, their shoes, and caps, and privately armed with daggers, + to dance and play near the shore till the enemies had landed and the + vessel was in their power. Things being thus ordered, the Megarians were + allured with the appearance, and, coming to the shore, jumped out, eager + who should first seize a prize, so that not one of them escaped; and the + Athenians set sail for the island and took it. + </p> + <p> + For this Solon grew famed and powerful; but his advice in favor of + defending the oracle at Delphi, to give aid, and not to suffer the + Cirrhaeans to profane it, but to maintain the honor of the god, got him + most repute among the Greeks: for upon his persuasion the Amphictyons + undertook the war. + </p> + <p> + Now the Cylonian pollution had a long time disturbed the commonwealth, + ever since the time when Megacles the archon persuaded the conspirators + with Cylon that took sanctuary in Athena's temple to come down and stand + to a fair trial. And they, tying a thread to the image, and holding one + end of it, went down to the tribunal; but when they came to the temple of + the Furies, the thread broke of its own accord, upon which, as if the + goddess had refused them protection, they were seized by Megacles and the + other magistrates; as many as were without the temples were stoned, those + that fled for sanctuary were butchered at the altar, and only those + escaped who made supplication to the wives of the magistrates. + </p> + <p> + The Athenians, now the Cylonian sedition was over and the polluted gone + into banishment, fell into their old quarrels about the government, there + being as many different parties as there were diversities in the country. + The Hill quarter favored democracy; the Plain, oligarchy; and those that + lived by the Sea-side stood for a mixed sort of government, and so + hindered either of the parties from prevailing. And the disparity of + fortune between the rich and the poor at that time also reached its + height; so that the city seemed to be in a truly dangerous condition, and + no other means for freeing it from disturbances and settling it to be + possible but a despotic power. + </p> + <p> + Then the wisest of the Athenians, perceiving Solon was of all men the only + one not implicated in the troubles, that he had not joined in the + exactions of the rich, and was not involved in the necessities of the + poor, pressed him to succor the commonwealth and compose the differences. + Solon, reluctantly at first, engaged in state affairs, being afraid of the + pride of one party and the greediness of the other; he was chosen archon, + however, after Philombrotus, and empowered to be an arbitrator and + lawgiver; the rich consenting because he was wealthy, the poor because he + was honest. There was a saying of his current before the election, that + when things are even there never can be war, and this pleased both + parties, the wealthy and the poor; the one conceiving him to mean, when + all have their fair proportion; the other, when all are absolutely equal. + Thus, there being great hopes on both sides, the chief men pressed Solon + to take the government into his own hands, and, when he was once settled, + manage the business freely and according to his pleasure; and many of the + commons, perceiving it would be a difficult change to be effected by law + and reason, were willing to have one wise and just man set over the + affairs; and some say that Solon had this oracle from Apollo: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Take the mid-seat, and be the vessel's guide; + Many in Athens are upon your side. +</pre> + <p> + From which it is manifest that he was a man of great reputation before he + gave his laws. The several mocks that were put upon him for refusing the + power, he records in these words: + </p> + <p> + Solon surely was a dreamer, and a man of simple mind; When the gods would + give him fortune, he of his own will declined; When the new was full of + fishes, over-heavy thinking it, He declined to haul it up, through want of + heart and want of wit. Had but I that chance of riches and of kingship for + one day, I would give my skin for flaying, and my house to die away. + </p> + <p> + Thus he makes the many and the low people speak of him. Yet, though he + refused the government, he did not show himself mean and submissive to the + powerful, nor make his laws to pleasure those that chose him. For the + first thing which he settled was, that what debts remained should be + forgiven, and no man, for the future, should engage the body of his debtor + for security. Though some, as Androtion, affirm that the debts were not + canceled, but the interest only lessened, which sufficiently pleased the + people; so that they named this benefit the Seisacthea, together with the + enlarging of their measures, and raising the value of their money; for he + made a pound, which before passed for seventy-three drachmas, go for a + hundred; so that, though the number of pieces in the payment was equal, + the value was less; which proved a considerable benefit to those that were + to discharge great debts, and no loss to the creditors. + </p> + <p> + While he was designing this, a most vexatious thing happened; for when he + had resolved to take off the debts, and was considering the proper form + and fit beginning for it, he told some of his friends, Conon, Clinias, and + Hipponicus, in whom he had a great deal of confidence, that he would not + meddle with the lands, but only free the people from their debts; upon + which, they, using their advantage, made haste and borrowed some + considerable sums of money, and purchased some large farms; and when the + law was enacted, they kept the possessions, and would not return the + money; which brought Solon into great suspicion and dislike, as if he + himself had not been abused, but was concerned in the contrivance. But he + presently stopped this suspicion, by releasing his own debtors of five + talents (for he had lent so much), according to the law; others, as + Polyzelus the Rhodian, say fifteen. + </p> + <p> + Soon becoming sensible of the good that was done, the people laid by their + grudges, made a public sacrifice, and chose Solon to new-model and make + laws for the commonwealth, giving him the entire power over everything, + their magistracies, their assemblies, courts, and councils; that he should + appoint the number, times of meeting, and what estate they must have that + could be capable of these, and dissolve or continue any of the present + constitutions, according to his pleasure. + </p> + <p> + First, then, he repealed all Draco's laws, except those concerning + homicide, because they were too severe and the punishments too great; for + death was appointed for almost all offences, insomuch that those that were + convicted of idleness were to die, and those that stole a cabbage or an + apple to suffer even as villains that committed sacrilege or murder. So + that Demades, in after time, was thought to have said very happily, that + Draco's laws were written not with ink, but blood; and he himself, being + once asked why he made death the punishment of most offences, replied: + "Small ones deserve that, and I have no higher for the greater crimes." + </p> + <p> + Next, Solon, being willing to continue the magistracies in the hands of + the rich men, and yet receive the people into the other part of the + government, took an account of the citizens' estates, and those that were + worth five hundred measures of fruits, dry and liquid, he placed in the + first rank; those that could keep a horse, or were worth three hundred + measures, were made the second class; those that had two hundred measures, + were in the third; and all the other were called Thetes, who were not + admitted to any office, but could come to the assembly, and act as jurors; + which at first seemed nothing, but afterward was found an enormous + privilege, as almost every matter of dispute came before them in this + latter capacity. Besides, it is said that he was obscure and ambiguous in + the wording of his laws, on purpose to increase the honor of his courts; + for since their differences could not be adjusted by the letter, they + would have to bring all their causes to the judges, who thus were in a + manner masters of the laws. Of this equalization he himself makes mention + in this manner: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Such power I gave the people as might do, + Abridged not what they had, now lavished new. + Those that were great in wealth and high in place, + My counsel likewise kept from all disgrace. + Before them both I held my shield of might, + And let not either touch the other's right. +</pre> + <p> + When he had constituted the Areopagus of those who had been yearly + archons, of which he himself was a member therefore, observing that the + people, now free from their debts, were unsettled and imperious, he formed + another council of four hundred, a hundred out of each of the four tribes, + which was to inspect all matters before they were propounded to the + people, and to take care that nothing but what had been first examined + should be brought before the general assembly. The upper council, or + Areopagus, he made inspectors and keepers of the laws, conceiving that the + commonwealth, held by these two councils like anchors, would be less + liable to be tossed by tumults, and the people be more at quiet. Such is + the general statement that Solon instituted the Areopagus. + </p> + <p> + Amongst his other laws, one is very peculiar and surprising, which + disfranchises all who stand neuter in a sedition; for it seems he would + not have any one remain insensible and regardless of the public good, but + at once join with the good party and those that have the right upon their + side, assist and venture with them, rather than keep out of harm's way and + watch who would get the better. + </p> + <p> + Another commendable law of Solon's is that which forbids men to speak evil + of the dead. + </p> + <p> + Since the country has but few rivers, lakes, or large springs, and many + used wells which they had dug, there was a law made, that, where there was + a public well within a hippicon, that is, four furlongs, all should draw + at that; but then it was farther off, they should try and procure a well + of their own; and, if they had dug ten fathoms deep and could find no + water, they had liberty to fetch a pitcherful of four gallons and a half + in a day from their neighbors'; for he thought it prudent to make + provision against want, but not to supply laziness. He showed skill in his + orders about planting, for any one that would plant another tree was not + to set it within five feet of his neighbor's field; but if a fig or an + olive, not within nine, for their roots spread farther, nor can they be + planted near all sorts of trees without damage, for they draw away the + nourishment, and in some cases are noxious by their effluvia. He that + would dig a pit or a ditch was to dig it at the distance of its own depth + from his neighbor's ground; and he that would raise stocks of bees was not + to place them within three hundred feet of those which another had already + raised. + </p> + <p> + He permitted only oil to be exported, and those that exported any other + fruit, the archon was solemnly to curse, or else pay an hundred drachmas + (a drachma was about twenty cents.) himself; and this law was written in + his first table, and, therefore, let none think it incredible, as some + affirm, that the exportation of figs was once unlawful. He made a law + also, concerning hurts and injuries from beasts, in which he commands the + master of any dog that bit a man to deliver him up with a log about his + neck four and a half feet long-a happy device for men's security. + </p> + <p> + All his laws he established for an hundred years, and wrote them on wooden + tables or rollers, named axones, which might be turned round in oblong + cases; some of their relics were in my time still to be seen in the + Prytaneum, or common hall, at Athens. These, as Aristotle states, were + called cyrbes, and there is a passage of Cratinus the comedian, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + By Solon, and by Draco, if you please, + Whose Cyrbes make the fires that parch our peas. +</pre> + <p> + But some say those are properly cyrbes, which contain laws concerning + sacrifices and the rites of religion, and all the other axones. The + council all jointly swore to confirm the laws, and every one of the + Thesmothetae vowed for himself at the stone in the market-place, that, if + he broke any of the statutes, he would dedicate a golden statue, as big as + himself, at Delphi. + </p> + <p> + Now when these laws were enacted, and some came to Solon every day, to + commend or dispraise them, and to advise, if possible, to leave out, or + put in something, and many criticised, and desired him to explain, and + tell the meaning of such and such a passage, he, to escape all + displeasure, it being a hard thing, as he himself says, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + In great affairs to satisfy all sides, +</pre> + <p> + As an excuse for traveling, bought a trading vessel and, having obtained + leave for ten years' absence, departed, hoping that by that time his laws + would have become familiar. + </p> + <p> + His first voyage was for Egypt, and he lived, as he himself says, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Near Nilus' mouth, by fair Canopus' shore, +</pre> + <p> + And spent some time in study with Psenophis of Heliopolis, and Sonchis the + Saite, the most learned of all the priests; from whom, as Plato says, + getting knowledge of the Atlantic story, he put it into a poem, and + proposed to bring it to the knowledge of the Greeks. From thence he sailed + to Cyprus, where he was made much of by Philocyprus, one of the kings + there, who had a small city built by Demophon, Theseus's son, near the + river Clarius, in a strong situation, but incommodious and uneasy of + access. Solon persuaded him, since there lay a fair plain below, to + remove, and build there a pleasanter and more spacious city. And he stayed + himself, and assisted in gathering inhabitants, and in fitting it both for + defence and convenience of living; insomuch that many flocked to + Philocyprus, and the other kings imitated the design; and, therefore, to + honor Solon, he called the city Soli. + </p> + <p> + That Solon should discourse with Croesus, some think not agreeable with + chronology; but I cannot reject so famous and well-attested a narrative, + and, what is more, so agreeable to Solon's temper, and so worthy his + wisdom and greatness of mind, because, forsooth, it does not agree with + some chronological canons, which thousands have endeavored to regulate, + and yet, to this day, could never bring their differing opinions to any + agreement. They say, therefore, that Solon, coming to Croesus at his + request, was in the same condition as an inland man when first he goes to + see the sea; for as he fancies every river he meets with to be the ocean, + so Solon, as he passed through the court, and saw a great many nobles + richly dressed, and proudly attended with a multitude of guards and + footboys, thought every one to be the king, till he was brought to + Croesus, who was decked with every possible rarity and curiosity, in + ornaments of jewels, purple, and gold, that could make a grand and + gorgeous spectacle of him. Now when Solon came before him, and seemed not + at all surprised, nor gave Croesus those compliments he expected, but + showed himself to all discerning eyes to be a man that despised the + gaudiness and petty ostentation of it, he commanded them to open all his + treasure houses, and carry him to see his sumptuous furniture and + luxuries, though Solon did not wish it; he could judge of him well enough + by the first sight of him; and, when he returned from viewing all, Croesus + asked him if ever he had known a happier man than he. And when Solon + answered that he had known one Tellus, a fellow-citizen of his own, and + told him that this Tellus had been an honest man, had had good children, a + competent estate, and died bravely in battle for his country, Croesus took + him for an ill-bred fellow and a fool, for not measuring happiness by the + abundance of gold and silver, and preferring the life and death of a + private and mean man before so much power and empire. He asked him + however, again, if, besides Tellus, he knew any other man more happy. And + Solon replying, Yes, Cleobis and Biton, who were loving brothers, and + extremely dutiful sons to their mother, and, when the oxen delayed her, + harnessed themselves to the wagon, and drew her to Juno's temple, her + neighbors all calling her happy, and she herself rejoicing; then, after + sacrificing and feasting, they went to rest, and never rose again, but + died in the midst of their honor a painless and tranquil death. "What," + said Croesus, angrily, "and dost not thou reckon us amongst the happy men + at all?" Solon, unwilling either to flatter or exasperate him more, + replied, "The gods, O king, have given the Greeks all other gifts in + moderate degree; and so our wisdom, too, is a cheerful and a homely, not a + noble and kingly, wisdom; and this, observing the numerous misfortunes + that attend all conditions, forbids us to grow insolent upon our present + enjoyments, or to admire any man's happiness that may yet, in course of + time, suffer change. For the uncertain future has yet to come, with every + possible variety of fortune; and him only to whom the divinity has + continued happiness unto the end, we call happy; to salute as happy one + that is still in the midst of life and hazard, we think as little safe, + and conclusive as to crown and proclaim as victorious the wrestler that is + yet in the ring." After this, he was dismissed, having given Croesus some + pain, but no instruction. + </p> + <p> + Aesop, who wrote the fables, being then at Sardis upon Croesus's + invitation, and very much esteemed, was concerned that Solon was so + ill-received, and gave him this advice: "Solon, let your converse with + kings be either short or seasonable." "Nay, rather," replied Solon, + "either short or reasonable." So at this time Croesus despised Solon; but + when he was overcome by Cyrus, had lost his city, was taken alive, + condemned to be burnt, and laid bound upon the pile before all the + Persians and Cyrus himself, he cried out as loud as he possibly could + three times, "O Solon!" and Cyrus being surprised, and sending some to + inquire what man or god this Solon was, whom alone he invoked in this + extremity, Croesus told him the whole story, saying, "He was one of the + wise men of Greece, whom I sent for, not to be instructed, or to learn + anything that I wanted, but that he should see and be a witness of my + happiness; the loss of which was, it seems, to be a greater evil than the + enjoyment was a good; for when I had them they were goods only in opinion, + but now the loss of them has brought upon me intolerable and real evils. + And he, conjecturing from what then was, this that now is, bade me look to + the end of my life, and not rely and grow proud upon uncertainties." When + this was told Cyrus, who was a wiser man than Croesus, and saw in the + present example Solon's maxim confirmed, he not only freed Croesus from + punishment, but honored him as long as he lived; and Solon had the glory, + by the same saying, to save one king and instruct another. + </p> + <p> + When Solon was gone, the citizens began to quarrel; Lycurgus headed the + Plain; Megacles, the son of Alcmaeon, those of the Sea-side; and + Pisistratus the Hill-party, in which were the poorest people, the Thetes, + and greatest enemies to the rich; insomuch that, though the city still + used the new laws, yet all looked for and desired a change of government, + hoping severally that the change would be better for them, and put them + above the contrary faction. Affairs standing thus, Solon returned, and was + reverenced by all, and honored; but his old age would not permit him to be + as active, and to speak in public, as formerly; yet, by privately + conferring with the heads of the factions, he endeavored to compose the + differences, Pisistratus appearing the most tractable; for he was + extremely smooth and engaging in his language, a great friend to the poor, + and moderate in his resentments; and what nature had not given him, he had + the skill to imitate; so that he was trusted more than the others, being + accounted a prudent and orderly man, one that loved equality, and would be + an enemy to any that moved against the present settlement. Thus he + deceived the majority of people; but Solon quickly discovered his + character, and found out his design before any one else; yet did not hate + him upon this, but endeavored to humble him, and bring him off from his + ambition, and often told him and others, that if any one could banish the + passion for preeminence from his mind, and cure him of his desire of + absolute power, none would make a more virtuous man or a more excellent + citizen. Thespis, at this time, beginning to act tragedies, and the thing, + because it was new, taking very much with the multitude, though it was not + yet made a matter of competition, Solon, being by nature fond of hearing + and learning something new, and now, in his old age, living idly, and + enjoying himself, indeed, with music and with wine, went to see Thespis + himself, as the ancient custom was, act; and after the play was done, he + addressed him, and asked him if he was not ashamed to tell so many lies + before such a number of people; and Thespis replying that it was no harm + to say or do so in play, Solon vehemently struck his staff against the + ground: "Ay," said he, "if we honor and commend such play as this, we + shall find it some day in our business." + </p> + <p> + Now when Pisistratus, having wounded himself, was brought into the + market-place in a chariot, and stirred up the people, as if he had been + thus treated by his opponents because of his political conduct, and a + great many were enraged and cried out, Solon, coming close to him, said, + "This, O son of Hippocrates, is a bad copy of Homer's Ulysses; you do, to + trick your countrymen, what he did to deceive his enemies." After this, + the people were eager to protect Pisistratus, and met in an assembly, + where one Ariston made a motion that they should allow Pisistratus fifty + clubmen for a guard to his person. Now, the people, having passed the law, + were not nice with Pisistratus about the number of his clubmen, but took + no notice of it, though he enlisted and kept as many as he would, until he + seized the Acropolis. When that was done, and the city in an uproar, + Megacles, with all his family, at once fled; But Solon, though he was now + very old, and had none to back him, yet came into the market-place and + made a speech to the citizens, partly blaming their inadvertency and + meanness of spirit, and in part urging and exhorting them not thus tamely + to lose their liberty; and likewise then spoke that memorable saying, + that, before, it was an easier task to stop the rising tyranny, but now + the greater and more glorious action to destroy it, when it was begun + already, and had gathered strength. But all being afraid to side with him, + he returned home, and, taking his arms, he brought them out and laid them + in the porch before his door, with these words: "I have done my part to + maintain my country and my laws," and then be busied himself no more. + </p> + <p> + But Pisistratus, having got the command, so extremely courted Solon, so + honored him, obliged him, and sent to see him, that Solon gave him his + advice, and approved many of his actions; for he retained most of Solon's + laws, observed them himself, and compelled his friends to obey. And he + added other laws, one of which is that the maimed in the wars should be + maintained at the public charge, following Solon's example in this, who + had decreed it in the case of one Thersippus, that was maimed. + </p> + <p> + Solon lived after Pisistratus seized the government a long time. But the + story that his ashes were scattered about the island Salamis is too + strange to be easily believed, or be thought anything but a mere fable; + and yet it is given, among other good authors, by Aristotle the + philosopher. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0006" id="link2H_4_0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THEMISTOCLES + </h2> + <p> + The birth of Themistocles was somewhat too obscure to do him honor. His + father, Neocles, was not of the distinguished people of Athens, but of the + township of Phrearrhi; and by his mother's side, as it is reported, he was + low-born. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "I am not of the noble Grecian race, + I'm poor Abrotonon, and born in Trace; + Let the Greek women scorn me, if they please, + I was the mother of Themistocles." +</pre> + <p> + From his youth he was of a vehement and impetuous nature, of a quick + apprehension, and a strong and aspiring bent for action and great affairs, + the holidays and intervals in his studies he did not spend in play or + idleness, as other children, but would be always inventing or arranging + some oration or declamation to himself, the subject of which was generally + the excusing of accusing of his companions, so that his master would often + say to him, "You, my boy, will be nothing small, but great one way or + other, for good and else for bad." he received reluctantly and carelessly + instructions given him to improve his manners and behavior, or to teach + him any pleasing or graceful accomplishment, but whatever was said to + improve him in sagacity, or in management of affairs, he would give + attention to beyond one of years, from confidence in his natural + capacities for such things. + </p> + <p> + In the first essays of his youth he was not regular nor happily balanced; + he allowed himself to follow mere natural character, which, without the + control of reason and instruction, is apt to hurry, upon either side, into + sudden and violent courses, and very often to break away and determine + upon the worst; as he afterwards owned himself, saying that the wildest + colts make the best horses, if they only get properly trained and broken + in. + </p> + <p> + Yet it is evident that his mind was early imbued with the keenest interest + in public affairs, and the most passionate ambition for distinction. It is + said that Themistocles was so transported with the thoughts of glory, and + so inflamed with the passion for great actions, that, though he was still + young when the battle of Marathon was fought against the Persian, upon the + skillful conduct of the general, Miltiades, being everywhere talked about, + he was observed to be thoughtful and reserved; he passed the nights + without sleep, and avoided all his usual places of recreation, and to + those how wondered at the change, and inquired the reason of it, he gave + the answer that "the trophy of Miltiades would not let him sleep." And + when others were of opinion that the battle of Marathon would be an end to + the war, Themistocles thought that it was but the beginning of far greater + conflict, and for these, to the benefit of Greece, he kept himself in + continual readiness, and his city also in proper training, foreseeing from + far before what would happen. + </p> + <p> + And, first of all, the Athenians being accustomed to divide amongst + themselves the revenue proceeding from the silver mines at Laurium, he was + the only man that durst propose to the people that this distribution + should cease, and that with the money, ships should be built to make war + against the Aeginetans, who were the most flourishing people in all + Greece, and by the number of their ships held the sovereignty of the sea; + and Themistocles thus, little by little, turned and drew the city down + towards the sea, in the belief that, whereas by land they were not a match + for their next neighbors, with their ships they might be able to repel the + Persian and command Greece; thus, as Plato says, from steady soldiers he + turned them into mariners and seamen tossed about the sea, and gave + occasion for the reproach against him, that he took away from the + Athenians the spear and the shield, and bound them to the bench and the + oar. He was well liked by the common people, would salute every particular + citizen by his own name, and always showed himself a just judge in + questions of business between private men; he said to Simonides, the poet + of Ceos, who desired something of him when he was commander of the army + that was no reasonable, "Simonides, you would be no good poet if you wrote + false measure, nor should I be a good magistrate if for favor I made false + law." + </p> + <p> + Gradually growing to be great, and winning the favor of the people, he at + last gained the day with his faction over that of Aristides, and procured + his banishment by ostracism. When the kind of Persia was now advancing + against Greece, and sent messengers into Greece, with an interpreter, to + demand earth and water, as an acknowledgement of subjection, Themistocles, + by the consent of the people, seized upon the interpreter, and put him to + death, for presuming to publish the barbarian orders and decrees in the + Greek language; and having taken upon himself the command of the Athenian + forces, he immediately endeavored to persuade the citizens to leave the + city, and to embark upon their galleys, and meet with the Persians at a + great distance from Greece. + </p> + <p> + When the contingents met at the straits of Artemisium, the Greeks would + have the Lacedaemonians to command, and Eurybiades to be their admiral; + but the Athenians, who surpassed all the rest together in number of + vessels, would not submit to come after any other, till Themistocles, + perceiving the danger of this contest, yielded his own command to + Eurybiades, and got the Athenians to submit, persuading them that if in + this war they behaved themselves like men, he would answer for it after + that, that the Greeks, of their own will, would submit to their command. + </p> + <p> + Though the fights between the Greeks and Persians in the straits of Euboea + were not so important as to make any final decision of the war, yet the + experience which the Greeks obtained in them was of great advantage; for + thus, by actual trial and in real danger, they found out, that neither + number of ships, or riches and ornaments, nor boasting shouts, nor + barbarous songs of victory, were any way terrible to men that knew how to + fight, and were resolved to come hand to hand with their enemies. This, + Pindar appears to have seen, and says justly enough of the fight at + Artemisium, that + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + There the sons of Athens set + The stone that freedom stands on yet. +</pre> + <p> + For the first step towards victory undoubtedly is to gain courage. + Artemisium is in Euboea, beyond the city of Histiaea, a sea-beach open to + the north; there is small temple there, dedicated to Diana, surnamed of + the Dawn, and trees about it, around which again stand pillars of white + marble; and if rub them with your hand, they send forth both the smell and + color of saffron. + </p> + <p> + But when news came from Thermopylae to Artemisium, informing that that + king Leonidas was slain, and that Xerxes had made himself master of all + the passages by land, they returned back to the interior of Greece. Xerxes + had already passed through Doris and invaded the country of Phocis, and + was burning and destroying the cities of the Phocians, yet the Greeks sent + them no relief; and, though the Athenians earnestly desired them to meet + the Persians in Boeotia, before they could come into Attica, as they + themselves had come forward by sea at Artemisium, they gave no ear to + their request, being wholly intent upon Peloponnesus, and resolved to + gather all their forces together within the Isthmus, and to build a wall + from sea to sea in that narrow neck of land; so that the Athenians were + enraged to see themselves betrayed, and at the same time afflicted and + dejected at their own destitution. For to fight alone against such a + numerous army was to no purpose, and the only expedient now left them was + to leave their city and cling to their ships; which the people were very + unwilling to submit to, imagining that it would signify little now to gain + a victory, and not understanding how there could be deliverance any longer + after they had once forsaken the temples of their gods and exposed the + tombs and monuments of their ancestors to the fury of their enemies. + </p> + <p> + Themistocles, being at a loss, and not able to draw the people over to his + opinion by any human reason, set his machines to work, as in a theatre, + and employed prodigies and oracles. The serpent of Athena, kept in the + inner part of her temple, disappeared; the priests gave it out to the + people and declared, by the suggestion of Themistocles, that the goddess + had left the city, and taken her flight before them towards the sea. And + he often urged them with the oracle which bade them "trust to walls of + wood," showing them that walls of wood could signify nothing else but + ships; and that the island of Salamis was termed in it not miserable or + unhappy, but had the epithet of divine, for that it should one day be + associated with a great good fortune of the Greeks. At length his opinion + prevailed, and he obtained a decree that the city should be committed to + the protection of Athena, "queen of Athens"; that they who were of age to + bear arms should embark, and that each should see to sending away his + children, women, and slaves where he could. This decree being confirmed, + most of the Athenians removed their parents, wives, and children to + Troezen, where they were received with eager good-will by the Troezenians, + who passed a vote that they should be maintained at the public charge. + </p> + <p> + Among the great actions of Themistocles at this crisis, the recall of + Aristides was not the least, for, before the war, he had been ostracized + by the party which Themistocles headed, and was in banishment; but now, + perceiving that the people regretted his absence, and were fearful that he + might go over to the Persians to revenge himself, and thereby ruin the + affairs of Greece, Themistocles proposed a decree that those who were + banished for a time might return again, to give assistance by word and + deed to the cause of Greece with the rest of their fellow citizens. + </p> + <p> + Eurybiades, by reason of the greatness of Sparta, was admiral of the Greek + fleet, but yet was faint-hearted in time of danger, and willing to weigh + anchor and set sail for the Isthmus of Corinth, near which the land army + lay encamped; which Themistocles, resisted; and this was the occasion of + the well-known words, when Eurybiades, to check his impatience, told him + that at the Olympic games they that start up before the rest are lashed. + "And they," replied Themistocles, "that are left behind are not crowned." + Some say that while Themistocles was thus speaking things upon the deck, + an owl was seen flying to the right hand of the fleet, which came and sat + upon the top of the mast; and this happy omen so far disposed the Greeks + to follow his advice, that they presently prepared to fight. Yet, when the + enemy's fleet was arrived at the haven of Phalerum, upon the coast of + Attica, and with the number of their ships concealed all the shore, and + when they saw the king himself in person come down with his land army to + the sea-side, with all his forces united, then the good counsel of + Themistocles was soon forgotten, and the Peloponnesians cast their eyes + again towards the Isthmus, and took it very ill if any one spoke against + their returning home; and, resolving to depart that night, the pilots had + order what course to steer. + </p> + <p> + Themistocles, in great distress that the Greeks should return, and lost + the advantage of the narrow seas and strait passage, and slip home very + one to his own city, considered with himself, and contrived that stratagem + which was carried out by Sicinnus. This Sicinnus was a Persian captive, + but a great lover of Themistocles, and the attendant of his children. Upon + this occasion he sent him privately to Xerxes, commanding him to tell the + king that Themistocles, the admiral of the Athenians, having espoused his + interest, wished to be the first to inform him that the Greeks were ready + to make their escape, and that he counseled him to hinder their flight, to + set upon them while they were in this confusion and at a distance from + their land army, and thereby destroy all their forces by sea. Xerxes was + very joyful at this message, and received it as from one who wished him + all that was good, and immediately issued instructions to the commanders + of his ships that they should instantly set out with two hundred galleys + to encompass all the islands, and enclose all the straits and passages, + that none of the Greeks might escape, and that they should afterward + follow with the rest of their fleet at leisure. This being done, + Aristides, the son of Lysimachus, was the first man that perceived it, and + went to the test of Themistocles, not out of any friendship, for he had + been formerly banished by his means, as has been related, but to inform + him how they were encompassed by their enemies. Themistocles, knowing the + generosity of Aristides, and much struck by his visit at that time, + imparted to him all that he had transacted by Sicinnus, and entreated him + that, as he would be more readily believed among the Greeks, he would make + use of his credit to help to induce them to stay and fight their enemies + in the narrow seas. Aristides applauded Themistocles, and went to the + other commanders and captains of the galleys and encouraged them to + engage; yet they did not perfectly assent to him till a galley of Tenos, + which deserted from the Persians, of which Panaetius was commander, came + in, while they were still doubting, and confirmed the news that all the + straits and passages were beset; and then their rage and fury, as well as + their necessity, provoked them all to fight. + </p> + <p> + As soon as it was day, Xerxes placed himself high up, to view his fleet, + as Acestodorus writes, in the confines of Megara, upon those hills which + are called the Horns, where he sat in a chair of gold, with many + secretaries about him to write down all that was done in the fight. + </p> + <p> + The number of the enemy's ships the poet Aeschylus gives in his tragedy + called the Persians, as on his certain knowledge, in the following words: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Xerxes, I know, did into battle lead + One thousand ships; of more than usual speed + Seven and two hundred. So is it agreed. +</pre> + <p> + The Athenians had a hundred and eighty; in every ship eighteen men fought + upon the deck, four of whom were archers and the rest men-at-arms. + </p> + <p> + As Themistocles had fixed upon the most advantageous place, so, with no + less sagacity, he chose the best time of fighting; for he would not run + the prows of his galleys against the Persians, nor begin the fight till + the time of day was come when there regularly blows in a fresh breeze from + the open sea, and brings in with it a strong swell into the channel; this + was no inconvenience to the Greek ships, which were low-built, and little + above the water, but did much hurt to the Persians, which had high sterns + and lofty decks, and were heavy and cumbrous in their movements, as it + presented them broadside to the quick charges of the Greeks, who kept + their eyes upon the motions of Themistocles, as their best example, and + more particularly because, opposed to his ship, Ariamenes, admiral to + Xerxes, a brave man, and by far the best and worthiest of the king's + brothers, was seen throwing darts and shooting arrows from his huge + galley, as from the walls of a castle. Aminias the Decelean and Sosicles + the Pedian, who sailed in the same vessel, upon the ships meeting stem to + stem, and transfixing each the other with their brazen prows, so that they + were fastened together, when Ariamenes attempted to board theirs, ran at + them with their pikes, and thrust him into the sea; his body, as it + floated amongst other shipwrecks, was discovered by Artemisia, and carried + to Xerxes. + </p> + <p> + The first man that took a ship was Lycomedes the Athenian, captain of a + galley, who cut down its ensign, and dedicated it to Apollo the + Laurel-crowned. And as the Persians fought in a narrow sea, and could + bring but part of their fleet to fight, and fell foul of one another, the + Greeks thus equaled them in strength, and fought with them till the + evening, forced them back, and obtained, as says Simonides, that noble and + famous victory, than which neither amongst the Greeks nor barbarians was + ever known more glorious exploit on the seas; by the joint valor, indeed, + and zeal of all who fought, but most by the wisdom and sagacity of + Themistocles. + </p> + <p> + After this sea-fight, Xerxes, enraged at his ill-fortune, attempted, by + casting great heaps of earth and stones into the sea, to stop up the + channel and to make a dam, upon which he might lead his land forces over + into the island of Salamis. + </p> + <p> + Themistocles, being desirous to try the opinion of Aristides, told him + that he proposed to set sail for the Hellespont, to break the bridge of + ships, so as to shut up, he said, Aisa a prisoner within Europe; but + Aristides, disliking the design, said: "We have hitherto fought with an + enemy who has regarded little else but his pleasure and luxury; but if we + shut him up within Greece, and drive him to necessity, he that is master + of such great forces will no longer sit quietly with an umbrella of gold + over his head, looking upon the fight for his pleasure; but he will be + resolute, and attempt all things. Therefore, it is noways our interest, + Themistocles," he said, "to take away the bridge that is already made, but + rather to build another, if it were possible, that he might make his + retreat with the more expedition." To which Themistocles answered: "If + this be requisite, we must immediately use all diligence, art, and + industry, to rid ourselves of him as soon as may be;" and to this purpose + he found out among the captives one named Arnaces, whom he sent to the + king, to inform him that the Greeks, being now victorious by sea, had + decreed to sail to the Hellespont, where the boasts were fastened + together, and destroy the bridge; but that Themistocles, being concerned + for the king, revealed this to him, that he might hasten toward the + Asiatic seas, and pass over into his own dominions; and in the meantime + would cause delays, and hinder the confederates from pursuing him. Xerxes + no sooner heard this than, being very much terrified, he proceeded to + retreat out of Greece with all speed. The prudence of Themistocles and + Aristides in this was afterward more fully understood at the battle of + Plataea, where Mardonius, with a very small fraction of the forces of + Xerxes, put the Greeks in danger of losing all. + </p> + <p> + Herodotus writes that, of all the cities of Greece, Aegina was held to + have performed the best service in the war; while all single men yielded + to Themistocles, though, out of envy, unwillingly; and when they returned + to the entrance of Peloponnesus, where the several commanders delivered + their suffrages at the altar, to determine who was most worthy, every one + gave the first vote for himself and the second for Themistocles. The + Lacedaemonians carried him with them to Sparta, where, giving the rewards + of valor to Eurybiades, and of wisdom and conduct to Themistocles, they + crowned him with olive, presented him with the best chariot in the city, + and sent three hundred young men to accompany him to the confines of their + country. And at the next Olympic games, when Themistocles entered the + course, the spectators took no further notice of those who were competing + for the prizes, but spent the whole day in looking upon him, showing him + to the strangers, admiring him, and applauding him by clapping their + hands, and other expressions of joy, so that he himself, much gratified, + confessed to his friends that he then reaped the fruit of all his labors + for the Greeks. + </p> + <p> + He was, indeed, by nature, a great lover of honor, as is evident from the + anecdotes recorded of him. When chosen admiral by the Athenians, he would + not quite conclude any single matter of business, either public or + private, but deferred all till the day they were to set sail, that, by + dispatching a great quantity of business all at once, and having to met a + great variety of people, he might make an appearance of greatness and + power. Viewing the dead bodies cast up by the sea, he perceived bracelets + and necklaces of gold about them, yet passed on, only showing them to a + friend that followed him, saying, "Take you these things, for you are not + Themistocles." He aid to Antiphates, a handsome young man, "Time, young + man, has taught us both a lesson." He said that the Athenians did not + honor him or admire him, but made, as it were, a sort of plane-tree of + him; sheltered themselves under him in bad weather, and as soon as it was + fine, plucked his leaves and cut his branches. When a Seriphian told him + that he had not obtained this honor by himself, but by the greatness of + his city, he replied: "You speak truth; I should never have been famous if + I had been of Seriphus; nor you, had you been of Athens." Laughing at his + own son, who got his mother, and by his mother's means, his father also to + indulge him, he told him that he had the most power of any one is Greece: + "For the Athenians command the rest of Greece, I command the Athenians, + your mother commands me, and you command your mother." Of the two who made + love to his daughter, he preferred the man of worth to the one who was + rich, saying he desired a man without riches, rather than riches without a + man. + </p> + <p> + When the citizens of Athens began to listen willingly to those who + traduced and reproached him, he was forced, with somewhat obnoxious + frequency, to put them in mind of the great services he had performed. And + he yet more provoked the people by building a temple to Diana with the + epithet of Aristobule, or Diana of Best Counsel; intimating thereby that + he had given the best counsel, not only to the Athenians, but to all + Greece. At length the Athenians banished him, making use of the ostracism + to humble his eminence and authority, as they ordinarily did with all whom + they thought too powerful, or, by their greatness, disproportionate to the + equality thought requisite in a popular government. For the ostracism was + instituted, not so much to punish the offender as to mitigate and pacify + the violence of the envious, who delighted to humble eminent men, and who, + by fixing this disgrace upon them, might vent some part of their rancor. + </p> + <p> + Themistocles being banished from Athens, while he stayed at Argos the + detection of Pausanias happened. And after Pausanias was put to death, + letters and writings were found which rendered Themistocles suspected, and + his enemies among the Athenians accused him. In answer to the malicious + detractions of his enemies, he merely wrote to the citizens urging that he + who was always ambitious to govern, and not of a character or a + disposition to serve, would never sell himself and his country into + slavery to a barbarous and hostile nation. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding this, the people, being persuaded by his accuser, set + officers to take him and bring him away to be tried before a council of + the Greeks; but, having timely notice of it, he passed over into the + island of Corcyra, where the state was under obligations to him; for, + being chosen as arbitrator in a difference between them and the + Corinthians, he decided the controversy by ordering the Corinthians to pay + down twenty talents, and declaring the town and island of Leucas a joint + colony from both cities. From thence he fled into Epirus, and, the + Athenians and Lacedaemonians still pursuing him, he threw himself upon + chances of safety that seemed all but desperate. For he fled fro refuge to + Admetus, kind of the Molossians, who had formerly made some request to the + Athenians when Themistocles was in the height of his authority, and had + been disdainfully used and insulted by him, and had let it appear plain + enough that could he lay hold of him he would take his revenge. Yet in + this misfortune, Themistocles, fearing the recent hatred of his neighbors + and fellow-citizens more than the old displeasure of the king, put himself + at his mercy, and became an humble suppliant to Admetus, after a peculiar + manner, different from the custom of other countries. For taking the + king's son, who was then a child, in his arms, he laid himself down at his + hearth, this being the most sacred and only manner of supplication, among + the Molossians, which was not to be refused. + </p> + <p> + Thucydides says, that, passing over land to the Aegean Sea, he took shop + at Pydna in the bay of Thermae, not being known to any one in the ship, + till, being terrified to see the vessel driven by the winds near to Naxos, + which was then besieged by the Athenians, he made himself known to the + master and pilot, and, partly entreating them, partly threatening, he + compelled them to bear off and stand out to sea, and sail forward toward + the coast of Aisa. + </p> + <p> + When he arrived at Cyme, and understood that all along the coast many laid + in wait for him (the king of Persia having offered by public proclamation + two hundred talents to him that should take him), he fled to Aegae, a + small city of the Aeolians, where no one knew him but only his host + Nicogenes, who was the richest man in Aeolia, and well known to the great + men of Inner Asia. There Themistocles, going to bed, dreamed that he saw a + snake coil itself up upon his belly, and so creep to his neck; then, as + soon as it touched his face, it turned into an eagle, which spread its + wings over him, and took him up and flew away with him a great distance; + then there appeared a herald's golden wand, and upon this at last it set + him down securely, after infinite terror and disturbance. + </p> + <p> + His departure was effected by Nicogenes by the following artifice: the + barbarous nations, and among them the Persians especially, are extremely + jealous, severe, and suspicious about their wives, whom they keep so + strictly that no one ever sees them abroad; they spend their lives shut up + within doors, and, when they take a journey, are carried in close tenets, + curtained in on all sides, and set upon a wagon. Such a traveling carriage + being prepared for Themistocles, they hid him in it, and carried him on + his journey, and told those whom they met or spoke with upon the road that + they were conveying a young Greek woman out of Ionia to a nobleman at + court. + </p> + <p> + When he was introduced to the king, and had paid his reverence to him, he + stood silent, till the king commanding the interpreter to ask him who he + was, he replied: "O king, I am Themistocles the Athenian, driven into + banishment by the Greeks. The evils I have done to the Persians are + numerous; but my benefits to them yet greater, in withholding the Greeks + from pursuit, so soon as the deliverance of my own country allowed me to + show kindness also to you. I come with a mind suited to my present + calamities; prepared alike for favors and for anger; to welcome your + gracious reconciliation, and to deprecate your wrath. Take my own + countrymen for witnesses of the services I have done for Persia, and make + use of this occasion to show the world your virtue, rather than to satisfy + your indignation. If you save me, you will save your suppliant; if + otherwise, you will destroy an enemy of the Greeks." + </p> + <p> + In the morning, calling together the chief of his court, he had + Themistocles brought before him, who expected no good of it. Yet, when he + came into the presence, and again fell down, the king saluted him, and + spake to him kindly, telling him he was now indebted to him two hundred + talents; for it was just and reasonable that he should receive the reward + which was proposed to whosoever should bring Themistocles; and promising + much more, and encouraging him, he commanded him to speak freely what he + would concerning the affairs of Greece. Themistocles replied, that a man's + discourse was like to a rich Persians carpet, the beautiful figures and + patterns of which can only be shown by spreading and extending it out; + when it is contracted and folded up, they are obscured and lost; and, + therefore, he desired time. The king being pleased with the comparison, + and bidding him take what time he would, he desired a year; in which time, + having learnt the Persian language sufficiently, he spoke with the king by + himself without the help of an interpreter; the king invited him to + partake of his own pastimes and recreations both at home and abroad, + carrying him with him a-hunting, and made him his intimate so far that he + permitted him to see the queen-mother, and converse frequently with her. + By the king's command, he also was made acquainted with the Magian + learning. + </p> + <p> + They relate, also, how Themistocles, when he was in great prosperity, and + courted by many, seeing himself splendidly served at his table, turned to + his children and said: "Children, we had been undone if we had not been + undone." Most writers say that he had three cities given him—Magnesia, + Myus and Lampsacus—to maintain him in bread, meat and wine; and some + add two more, the city of Palaescepsis, to provide him with clothes, and + Percote, with bedding and furniture for his house. + </p> + <p> + He lived quietly in his own house in Magnesia, where for a long time he + passed his days in great security, being courted by all, and enjoying rich + presents, and honored equally with the greatest persons in the Persian + empire; the king, at that time, not minding his concerns with Greece, + being taken up with the affairs of Inner Aisa. + </p> + <p> + But when Egypt revolted, being assisted by the Athenians, and the Greek + galleys roved about as far as Cyprus and Cilicia, and Cimon had made + himself master of the seas, the king turned his thoughts thither, and, + bending his mind chiefly to resist the Greeks, and to cheek the growth of + their power against him, began to raise forces, and send out commanders, + and to dispatch messengers to Themistocles at Magnesia, to put him in mind + of his promise, and to summon him to act against the Greeks. Yet this did + not increase his hatred nor exasperate him against the Athenians, but, + being ashamed to sully the glory of his former great actions, and of his + many victories and trophies, he determined to put a conclusion to his + life, agreeable to its previous course. He sacrificed to the gods, and + invited his friends; and having entertained them and shaken hands with + them, drank bull's blood, as is the usual story; as others state, a + poison, producing instant death; and ended his days in the city of + Magnesia, having lived sixty-five years, most of which he had spent in + politics and in the wars, in government and command. The king, being + informed of the cause and manner of his death, admired him the more than + ever, and continued to show kindness to his friends and relations. + </p> + <p> + The Magnesians possess a splendid sepulchre of Themistocles, placed in the + middle of their market-place. And various honors and privileges were + granted to the kindred of Themistocles at Magnesia, which were observed + down to our times, and were enjoyed by another Themistocles of Athens, + with whom I had an intimate acquaintance and friendship in the house of + Ammonius the philosopher. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0007" id="link2H_4_0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CAMILLUS + </h2> + <p> + Among the many remarkable things that are related of Furius Camillus, it + seems singular that he, who continually was in the highest commands, and + obtained the greatest successes, was five times chosen dictator, triumphed + four times, and was styled a second founder of Rome, yet never was so much + as once consul. The reason of which was the state and temper of the + commonwealth at that time; for the people, being at dissension with the + senate, refused to return consuls, but they instead elected other + magistrates, called military tribunes, who acted, indeed, with full + consular power, but were thought to exercise a less obnoxious amount of + authority, because it was divided among a larger number. + </p> + <p> + The house of the Furii was not, at that time, of any considerable + distinction; he, by his own acts, first raised himself to honor, serving + under Postumius Tubertus, dictator, in the great battle against the + Aequians and Volscians. For, riding out from the rest of the army, and in + the charge receiving a would in his thigh, he for all that did not quit + the fight, but, letting the dart drag in the would, and engaging with the + bravest of the enemy, put them to flight; for which action, among other + rewards bestowed on him, he was created censor, an office in those days of + great repute and authority. During his censorship one very good act of his + is recorded, that, whereas the wars had made many widows, he obliged such + as had no wives, some by fair persuasion, others by threatening to set + fines on their heads, to take them in marriage; another necessary one, in + causing orphans to be rated, who before were exempted from taxes, the + frequent wars requiring more than ordinary expenses to maintain them. + What, however, pressed them most was the siege of Veii. Some call this + people Veientani. This was the head city of Tuscany, not inferior to Rome + either in number of arms or multitude of soldiers, insomuch that, + presuming on her wealth and luxury, and priding herself upon her + refinement and sumptuousness, she engaged in many honorable contests with + the Romans for glory and empire. But now they had abandoned their former + ambitious hopes, having been weakened by great defeats, so that, having + fortified themselves with high and strong walls, and furnished the city + with all sorts of weapons offensive and defensive, as likewise with corn + and all manner of provisions, they cheerfully endured a siege, which, + though tedious to them, was no less troublesome and distressing to the + besiegers. For the Romans, having never been accustomed to stay away from + home except in summer, and for no great length of time, and constantly to + winter at home, were then first compelled by the tribunes to build forts + in the enemy's country, and, raising strong works about their camp, to + join winter and summer together. And now the seventh year of the war + drawing to an end, the commanders began to be suspected as too slow and + remiss in driving on the siege, insomuch that they were discharged and + others chosen for the war, among whom was Camillus, then second time + tribune. But at present he had no hand in the siege, the duties that fell + by lot to him being to make war upon the Faliscans and Capenates, who, + taking advantage of the Romans being occupied on all hands, had carried + ravages into their country, and through all the Tuscan war, given them + much annoyance, but were now reduced by Camillus, and with great loss shut + up within their walls. + </p> + <p> + And now, in the very heat of the war, a strange phenomenon in the Alban + lake, which, in the absence of any known cause and explanation by natural + reasons, seemed as great a prodigy as the most incredible that are + reported, occasioned great alarm. It was the beginning of autumn, and the + summer now ending had, to all observation, been neither rainy nor much + troubled with southern winds; and of the many lakes, brooks, and springs + of all sorts with which Italy abounds, some were wholly dried up, others + had very little water in them; all the rivers, as is usual in summer, ran + in a very low and hollow channel. But the Alban lake, which is fed by no + other waters but its own, and is on all sides encircled with fruitful + mountains, without any cause, unless it were divine, began visibly to rise + and swell, increasing to the feet of the mountains, and by degrees + reaching the level of the very tops of some of them, and all this without + any waves or agitation. At first it was the wonder of shepherds and + herdsmen; but when the earth, which, like a great dam, held up the lake + from falling into the lower grounds, through the quantity and weight of + water was broken down, and in a violent stream it ran through the ploughed + fields and plantations to discharge itself in the sea, it not only struck + terror into the Romans, but was thought by all the inhabitants of Italy to + portend some extraordinary event. But the greatest talk of it was in the + camp that besieged Veii, so that in the town itself, also, the occurrence + became known. + </p> + <p> + As in long sieges it commonly happens that both parties on both sides meet + often and converse with one another, so it chanced that a Roman had gained + much confidence and familiarity with one of the besieged, a man versed in + ancient prophecies, and of repute for more than ordinary skill in + divination. The Roman, observing him to be overjoyed at the story of the + lake, and to mock at the siege, told him that this was not the only + prodigy that of late had happened to the Romans; others more wonderful yet + than this had befallen them, which he was willing to communicate to him, + that he might the better provide for his private interests in these public + distempers. The man greedily embraced the proposal, expecting to hear some + wonderful secrets; but when, little by little, he had led him on in + conversation, and insensibly drawn him a good way from the gates of the + city, he snatched him up the middle, being stronger than he, and, by the + assistance of others who came running from the camp, seized and delivered + him to the commanders. The man, reduced to this necessity, and sensible + now that destiny was not to be avoided, discovered to them the secret + oracle of Veii, that it was not possible the city should be taken until + the Alban lake, which now broke forth and had found out new passages, was + drawn back from that course, and so diverted that it could not mingle with + the sea. The senate, having heard and satisfied themselves about the + matter, decreed to send to Delphi, to ask counsel of the god. The + messengers returned with the answer that the Alban water, if possible, + they should keep from the sea, and shut it up in its ancient bounds; but + if that was not to be done, then they should carry it off by ditches and + trenches into the lower grounds, and so dry it up; which message being + delivered, the priests performed what related to the sacrifices, and the + people went to work and turned the water. + </p> + <p> + And now the senate, in the tenth year of the war, taking away all other + commands, created Camillus dictator, who chose Cornelius Scipio for his + general of horse, and, having made vows, marched into the country of the + Faliscans, and in a great battle overthrew them and the Capenates, their + confederates; afterwards he turned to the siege of Veii, and finding that + to take it by assault would prove a difficult and hazardous attempt, + proceeded to cut mines under ground, the earth about the city being easy + to break up, and allowing such depth for the works as would prevent their + being discovered by the enemy. This design going on in a hopeful way, he + openly gave assaults to the enemy, to keep them to the walls, until they + that worked underground in the mines might, without being perceived, + arrive within the citadel, close to the temple of Juno, which was the + greatest and most honored in all the city. It is said that the prince of + the Tuscans was at that very time at sacrifice, and that the priest, after + he had looked into the entrails of the beast, cried out with a loud voice + that the gods would give the victory to those that should complete those + offerings; and that the Romans who were in the mines, hearing the words, + immediately pulled down the floor, and, ascending with noise, and clashing + of weapons, frightened away the enemy, and, snatching up the entrails, + carried them to Camillus. But this may look like a fable. The city, + however, being taken by storm, and the soldiers busied in pillaging and + gathering an infinite quantity of riches and spoil, Camillus, from the + high tower viewing what was done, at first wept for pity; and when the + bystanders congratulated him upon his success, he lifted up his hands to + heaven, and broke out into this prayer: "O most mighty Jupiter, and ye + gods that are judges of good and evil actions, ye know that not without + just cause, but constrained by necessity, we have been forced to revenge + ourselves on the city of our unrighteous and wicked enemies. But if, the + the vicissitude of things, there by any calamity due, to counter-balance + this great felicity, I beg that it may be diverted from the city and army + of the Romans, and fall, with as little hurt as may be, upon my own head." + Having said these words, and just turning about (as the custom of the + Romans is to turn to the right after adoration or prayer), he stumbled and + fell, to the astonishment of all that were present. But, recovering + himself presently from the fall, he told them that he had received what he + had prayed for, a small mischance, in compensation for the greatest good + fortune. + </p> + <p> + Camillus, however, whether puffed up with the greatness of his achievement + in conquering a city that was the rival of Rome, and held out a ten years' + siege, or exalted with the felicitations of those that were about him, + assumed to himself more than became a civil and legal magistrate; among + other things, in the pride and haughtiness of triumph, driving through + Rome in a chariot drawn with four white horses, which no general either + before or since ever did; for the Romans consider such a mode of + conveyance to be sacred and specially set apart to the king and father of + the gods. This alienated the hearts of his fellow-citizens, who were not + accustomed to such pomp and display. + </p> + <p> + The second pique they had against him was his opposing the law by which + the city was to be divided; for the tribunes of the people brought forward + a motion that the people and senate should be divided into two parts, one + of which should remain at home, the other, as the lot should decide, + remove to the new-taken city. By which means they should not only have + much more room, but, by the advantage of two great and magnificent cities, + be better able to maintain their territories and their fortunes in + general. The people, therefore, who were numerous and indigent, greedily + embraced it, and crowded continually to the forum, with tumultuous demands + to have it put to the vote. But the senate and the noblest citizens, + judging the proceedings of the tribunes to tend rather to a destruction + than a division of Rome, greatly averse to it, went to Camillus for + assistance, who, fearing the result if it came to a direct contest, + contrived to occupy the people with other business, and so staved it off. + He thus became unpopular. + </p> + <p> + And now the tribunes of the people again resuming their motion for the + division of the city, the war against the Faliscans luckily broke out, + giving liberty to the chief citizens to choose what magistrates they + pleased, and to appoint Camillus military tribune, with five colleagues; + affairs then requiring a commander of authority and reputation, as well as + experience. And when the people had ratified the election, he marched with + his forces into the territories of the Faliscans, and laid siege to + Falerii, a well-fortified city, and plentifully stored with all + necessaries of war. And although he perceived it would be so small work to + take it, and no little time would be required for it, yet he was willing + to exercise the citizens and keep them abroad, that they might have no + leisure, idling at home, to follow the tribunes in factions and seditions: + a very common remedy, indeed, with the Romans, who thus carried off, like + good physicians, the ill humors of their commonwealth. The Falerians (The + Falerians, in this narrative, are the people of the town; the Faliscans, + the nation in general.), trusting in the strength of their city, which was + well fortified on all sides, made so little account of the siege, that + all, with the exception of those that guarded the walls, as in times of + peace, walked about the streets in their common dress; the boys went to + school, and were led by their master to play and exercise about the town + walls; for the Falerians, like the Greeks, used to have a single teacher + for many pupils, wishing their children to live and be brought up from the + beginning in each others company. + </p> + <p> + This schoolmaster, designing to betray the Falerians by their children, + led them out every day under the town wall, at first but a little way, + and, when they had exercised, brought them home again. Afterwards by + degrees he drew them farther and farther, till by practice he had made + them bold and fearless, as if no danger was about them; and at last, + having got them all together, he brought them to the outposts of the + Romans, and delivered them up, demanding to be led to Camillus. Where + being come, and standing in the middle, he said that he was the master and + teacher of these children, but, preferring his favor before all other + obligations, he had come to deliver up his charge to him, and, in that, + the whole city. When Camillus had heard him out, he was astounded at the + treachery of the act, and, turning to the standers-by observed that, "War, + indeed, is of necessity attended with much injustice and violence! Certain + laws, however, all good men observe even in war itself, nor is victory so + great an object as to induce us to incur for its sake obligations for base + and impious acts. A great general should rely on his own virtue, and not + other men's vices." Which said, he commanded the officers to tear off the + man's clothes, and bind his hands behind him and give the boys rods and + scourges, to punish the traitor and drive him back to the city. By this + time the Falerians had discovered the treachery of the schoolmaster, and + the city, as was likely, was full of lamentations and cries for their + calamity, men and women of worth running in distraction about the walls + and gates; when, behold, the boys came whipping their master on, naked and + bound, calling Camillus their preserver and god and father; so that it + struck not only the parents, but the rest of the citizens, with such + admiration and love of Camillus's justice, that, immediately meeting in + assembly, they sent ambassadors to him, to resign whatever they had to his + disposal. Camillus sent them to Rome, where, being brought into the + senate, they spoke to this purpose: that the Romans, preferring justice + before victory, had taught them rather to embrace submission than liberty; + they did not so much confess themselves to be inferior in strength as they + must acknowledge them to be superior in virtue. The senate remitted the + whole matter to Camillus, to judge and order as he thought fit; who, + taking a sum of money of the Falerians, and making a peace with the whole + nation of Faliscans, returned home. + </p> + <p> + But the soldiers, who had expected to have the pillage of the city, when + they came to Rome empty-handed railed against Camillus among their + fellow-citizens, as a hater of the people, and one that grudged all + advantage to the poor. The People were exasperated against him. Gathering, + therefore, together his friends and fellow-soldiers, and such as had borne + command with him, a considerable number in all, he besought them that they + would not suffer him to be unjustly overborne by shameful accusations, and + left the mock and scorn of his enemies. His friends, having advised and + consulted among themselves, made answer, that, as to the sentence, they + did not see how they could help him, but that they would contribute to + whatsoever fine should be set upon him. Not able to endure so great an + indignity, he resolved in his anger to leave the city and go into exile; + and so, having taken leave of his wife and son, he went silently to the + gate of the city, and, there stopping and turning round, stretched out his + hands to the Capitol, and prayed to the gods, that if, without any fault + of his own, but merely through the malice and violence of the people, he + was driven out into banishment, the Romans might quickly repent of it; and + that all mankind might witness their need for the assistance, and desire + for the return, of Camillus. + </p> + <p> + And there is not a Roman but believes that immediately upon the prayers of + Camillus a sudden judgment followed, and that he received a revenge for + the injustice done unto him, which was very remarkable, and noised over + the whole world: such a punishment visited the city of Rome, an era of + such loss and danger and disgrace so quickly succeeded; whether it thus + fell out by fortune, or it be the office of god not to see injured virtue + go unavenged. + </p> + <p> + The first token that seemed to threaten some mischief to ensure was the + death of the censor Julius; for the Romans have a religious reverence for + the office of a censor, and esteem it sacred. The second was, that, just + before Camillus went into exile, Marcus Caedicius, a person of no great + distinction, nor of the rank of senator, but esteemed a good and + respectable man, reported to the military tribunes a thing worthy their + consideration: that, going along the night before in the street called the + New Way, and being called by somebody in a loud voice, he turned about, + but could see no one, but heard a voice greater than human, which said + these words, "Go, Marcus Caedicius, and early in the morning tell the + military tribunes that they are shortly to expect the Gauls." But the + tribunes made a mock and sport with the story, and a little after came + Camillus's banishment. + </p> + <p> + The Gauls are of the Celtic race, and are reported to have been compelled + by their numbers to leave their country, which was insufficient to sustain + them all, and to have gone in search of other homes. And being, many + thousands of them, young men able to bear arms, and carrying with them a + still greater number of women and young children, some of them, passing + the Riphaean mountains, fell upon the Northern Ocean, and possessed + themselves of the farthest parts of Europe; others, seating themselves + between the Pyrenean mountains and the Alps, lived there a considerable + time, near to the Senones and Celtorii; but, afterwards tasting wine, + which was then first brought them out of Italy, they were all so much + taken with the liquor, and transported with the hitherto unknown delight, + that, snatching up their arms and taking their families along with them, + they marched directly to the Alps, to find out the country which yielded + such fruit, pronouncing all others barren and useless. He that first + brought wine among them and was the chief instigator of their coming into + Italy is said to have been one Aruns, A Tuscan, a man of noble extraction. + </p> + <p> + At their first coming they at once possessed themselves of all that + country which anciently the Tuscans inhabited, reaching from the Alps to + both the seas, as the names themselves testify; for the North of Adriatic + Sea is named from the Tuscan city Adria, and that to the south the Tuscan + Sea simply. The whole country is rich in fruit trees, has excellent + pasture, and is well watered with river. It had eighteen large and + beautiful cities, well provided with all the means for industry and + wealth, and all the enjoyments and pleasures of life. The Gauls cast out + the Tuscans, and seated themselves in them. + </p> + <p> + The Gauls at this time were besieging Clusium, a Tuscan city. The + Clusinians sent to the Romans for succor, desiring them to interpose with + the barbarians by letters and ambassadors. The Romans, perceiving that + Brennus, the leader of the Gauls, was not to be treated with, went into + Clusium and encouraged the inhabitants to make a sally with them upon the + barbarians, which they did either to try their strength or to show their + own. The sally being made, and the fight growing hot about the walls, one + of the Fabii, Quintus Ambustus, who had come as an ambassador, being well + mounted, and setting spurs to his horse, made full against a Gaul, a man + of huge bulk and stature, whom he saw riding out at a distance from the + rest. At the first he was not recognized, through the quickness of the + conflict and the glittering of the armor, that precluded any view of him; + but when he had overthrown the Gaul, and was going to gather the spoils, + Brennus knew him; and invoking the gods to be witnesses that, contrary to + the known and common law of nations, which is holily observed by all + mankind, he who had come as an ambassador had now engaged in hostility + against him, he drew off his men, and, bidding Clusium farewell, led his + army directly against Rome. + </p> + <p> + Whilst the barbarians were hastening with all speed, the military tribunes + brought the Romans into the field to be ready to engage them, being not + inferior to the Gauls in number (for they were no less than forty thousand + foot), but most of them raw soldiers, and such as had never handled a + weapon before. Besides, they had wholly neglected all religious usages, + had not obtained favorable sacrifices, nor made inquiries of the prophets, + natural in danger and before battle. No less did the multitude of + commanders distract and confound their proceedings; frequently before, + upon less occasions, they had chosen a single leader, with the title of + dictator, being sensible of what great importance it is in critical times + to have the solders united under one general with the entire and absolute + control placed in his hands. Add to all, the remembrance of Camillus's + treatment, which made it now seem a dangerous thing for officers to + command without humoring their solders. In this condition they left the + city, and encamped by the river Allia, about ten miles from Rome, and not + far from the place where it falls into the Tiber; and here the Gauls came + upon them, and, after a disgraceful resistance, devoid of order and + discipline, they were miserably defeated. The left wing was immediately + driven into the river, and there destroyed; the right had less damage by + declining the shock, and from the low ground getting to the tops of the + hills, from whence most of them afterwards dropped into the city; the + rest, as many as escaped, the enemy being weary of the slaughter, stole by + night to Veii, giving up Rome and all that was in it for lost. + </p> + <p> + This battle was fought about the summer solstice, the moon being at full, + the very same day in which the sad disaster of the Fabii had happened, + when three hundred of that name were at one time cut off by the Tuscans. + </p> + <p> + And now, after the battle, had the Gauls immediately pursued those that + fled, there had been no remedy but Rome must have wholly been ruined, and + all those who remained in it utterly destroyed; such was the terror that + those who escaped the battle brought with them into the city, and with + such distraction and confusion were they themselves in turn infected. But + the Gauls, not imagining their victory to be so considerable, and + overtaken with the present joy, fell to feasting and dividing the spoil, + by which means they gave leisure to those who were for leaving the city to + make their escape, and to those that remained, to anticipate and prepare + for their coming. + </p> + <p> + On the third day after the battle, Brennus appeared with his army at the + city, and, finding the gates wide open and no guards upon the walls, first + began to suspect it was some design or stratagem, never dreaming that the + Romans were in so desperate a condition. But when he found it to be so + indeed, he entered at the Colline gate, and took Rome, in the three + hundred and sixtieth year, or a little more, after it was built. + </p> + <p> + Brennus having taken possession of Rome, set a strong guard about the + Capitol, and, going himself down into the forum, was there struck with + amazement at the sight of so many men sitting in such order and silence, + observing that they neither rose at his coming, nor so much as changed + color or countenance, but remained without fear or concern, leaning upon + their staves, and sitting quietly, looking at each other. The Gauls, for a + great while, stood wondering at the strangeness of the sight, not daring + to approach or touch them, taking them for an assembly of superior beings. + But when one, bolder than the rest, drew near to Marcus Papirius, and, + putting forth his hand, gently touched his chin and stroked his long + beard, Papirius with his staff struck him a severe blow on the head; upon + which the barbarian drew his sword and slew him. This was the introduction + to the slaughter; for the rest, following his example, set upon them all + and killed them, and dispatched all others that came in their way; and so + went on to the sacking and pillaging of the houses, which they continued + for many days ensuing. + </p> + <p> + Camillus then sojourned in the city of Ardea, having, ever since his + leaving Rome, sequestered himself from all business, and taken to a + private life; but now he began to rouse up himself, and consider not how + to avoid or escape the enemy, but to find out an opportunity to be + revenged upon them. And perceiving that the Ardeatians wanted not men, but + rather enterprise, through the inexperience and timidity of their + officers, he began to speak with the young men, first to the effect that + they ought not to ascribe the misfortune of the Romans to the courage of + their enemy, nor attribute the losses they sustained by rash counsel to + the conduct of men who had no title to victory: the event had been only an + evidence of the power of fortune. When he found the young men embraced the + thing, he went to the magistrates and council of the city, and, having + persuaded them also, he mustered all that could bear arms, and drew them + up within the the walls, that they might not be perceived by the enemy, + who was near; who, having scoured the country, and now returned heavy + laden with booty, lay encamped in the plains in a careless and negligent + posture, so that, with the night ensuing upon debauch and drunkenness, + silence prevailed through all the camp. When Camillus learned this from + his scouts, he drew out the Ardeatians, and in the dead of the night, + passing in silence over the ground that lay between, came up to their + works, and, commanding his trumpets to sound and his men to shout and + halloo, he struck terror into them from all quarters; while drunkenness + impeded and sleep retarded their movements. A few whom fear had sobered, + getting into some order, for awhile resisted; and so died with their + weapons in their hands. But the greatest part of them, buried in wine and + sleep, were surprised without their arms, and dispatched; and as many of + them as by the advantage of the night got out of the camp were the next + day found scattered abroad and wandering in the fields, and were picked up + by the horse that pursued them. + </p> + <p> + The fame of this action soon flew through the neighboring cities, and + stirred up the young men from various quarters to come and join themselves + with him. But none were so much concerned as those Romans who escaped in + the battle of Allia, and were now at Veii, thus lamenting with themselves, + "O heavens, what a commander has Providence bereaved Rome of, to honor + Ardea with his actions! And that city, which brought forth and nursed so + great a man, is lost and gone, and we, destitute of a leader and shut up + within strange walls, sit idle, and see Italy ruined before our eyes. + Come, let us send to the Ardeatians to have back our general, or else, + with weapons in our hands, let us go thither to him." To this they all + agreed, and sent to Camillus to desire him to take the command; but he + answered that he would not until they that were in the Capitol should + legally appoint him. When this answer was returned, they admired the + modesty and tempter of Camillus; but they could not tell how to find a + messenger to carry the intelligence to the Capitol, or rather, indeed, it + seemed altogether impossible for any one to get to the citadel whilst the + enemy was in full possession of the city. But among the young men there + was one Pontius Cominius, of ordinary birth, but ambitious of honor, who + proffered himself to run the hazard, and took no letters with him to those + in the Capitol, lest, if he were intercepted, the enemy might learn the + intentions of Camillus; but, putting on a poor dress and carrying corks + under, he boldly traveled the greatest part of the way by day, and came to + the city when it was dark; the bridge he could not pass, as it was guarded + by the barbarians; so that taking his clothes, which were neither many nor + heavy, and binding them about his head, he laid his body upon the corks, + and, swimming with them, got over to the city. And avoiding those quarters + where he perceived the enemy was awake, which he guessed at by the lights + and noise, he went to the Carmental gate, where there was greatest + silence, and where the hill of the Capitol is steepest, and rises with + craggy and broken rock. By this way he got up, though with much + difficulty, by the hollow of the cliff, and presented himself to the + guards, saluting them, and telling them his name; he was taken in, and + carried to the commanders. And a senate being immediately called, he + related to them in order the victory of Camillus, which they had not heard + of before, and the proceedings of the soldiers, urging them to confirm + Camillus in the command, as on him alone all their fellow-countrymen + outside the city would rely. Having heard and consulted of the matter, the + senate declared Camillus dictator, and sent back Pontius the same way that + he came, who, with the same success as before, got through the enemy + without being discovered, and delivered to the Romans outside the decision + of the senate, who joyfully received it. Camillus, on his arrival, found + twenty thousand of them ready in arms; with which forces, and those + confederates he brought along with him, he prepared to set upon the enemy. + </p> + <p> + But at Rome some of the barbarians passing by chance near the place at + which Pontius by night had got into the Capitol, spied in several places + marks of feet and hands, where he had laid hold and clambered, and places + where the plants that grew to the rock had been rubbed off, and the earth + had slipped, and went accordingly and reported it to the king, who, coming + in person, and viewing it, for the present said nothing, but in the + evening, picking out such of the Gauls as were nimblest of body, and by + living in the mountains were accustomed to climb, he said to them, "The + enemy themselves have shown us a way how to come at them; where it was + easy for one man to get up, it will not be hard for many, one after + another; nay, when many shall undertake it, they will be aid and strength + to each other. Rewards and honors shall be bestowed on every man as he + shall acquit himself." + </p> + <p> + When the king had thus spoken, the Gauls cheerfully undertook to perform + it, and in the dead of night a good party of them together, with great + silence, began to climb the rock, clinging to the precipitous and + difficult ascent, which yet upon trial offered a way to them, and proved + less difficult than they had expected. So that the foremost of them having + gained the top of all, and put themselves into order, they all but + surprised the outworks, and mastered the watch, who were fast asleep; for + neither man nor dog perceived their coming. But there were sacred geese + kept near the temple of Juno, which at other times were plentifully fed, + but now, by reason that corn and all other provisions were grown scarce + for all, were in but a poor condition. The creature is by nature of quick + sense, and apprehensive of the least noise, so that these, being moreover + watchful through hunger, and restless, immediately discovered the coming + of the Gauls, and, running up and down with the noise and cackling, they + raised the whole camp; while the barbarians, on the other side, perceiving + themselves discovered, no longer endeavored to conceal their attempt, but + with shouting and violence advanced to the assault. The Romans, every one + in haste snatching up the first weapon that came to hand, did what they + could on the sudden occasion. Manlius, a man of consular dignity, of + strong body and great spirit, was the first that made head against them, + and, engaging with two of the enemy at once, with his sword cut off the + right arm of one just as he was lifting up his blade to strike, and, + running his target full in the face of the other, tumbled him headlong + down the steep rock; then mounting the rampart, and there standing with + others that came running to his assistance, drove down the rest of them, + who, indeed, to begin with, had not been many, and did nothing worthy of + so bold an attempt. The Romans, having thus escaped this danger, early in + the morning took the captain of the watch and flung him down the rock upon + the heads of their enemies, and to Manlius for his victory voted a reward, + intended more for honor than advantage, bringing him, each man of them, as + much as he received for his daily allowance, which was half a pound of + bread and one eighth of a pint of wine. + </p> + <p> + Henceforward, the affairs of the Gauls were daily in a worse and worse + condition; they wanted provisions, being withheld from foraging through + fear of Camillus, and sickness also was amongst them, occasioned by the + number of carcasses that lay in heaps unburied. Neither, indeed, were + things on that account any better with the besieged, for famine increased + upon them, and despondency with not hearing anything of Camillus, it being + impossible to send any one to him, the city was so guarded by the + barbarians. Things being in this sad condition on both sides, a motion of + treaty was made at first by some of the outposts, as they happened to + speak with one another; which being embraced by the leading men, + Sulpicius, tribune of the Romans, came to a parley with Brennus, in which + it was agreed that the Romans laying down a thousand weight of gold, the + Gauls upon the receipt of it should immediately quit the city and + territories. The agreement being confirmed by oath on both sides, and the + gold brought forth, the Gauls used false dealing in the weights, secretly + at first, but afterwards openly pulled back and disturbed the balance; at + which the Romans indignantly complaining, Brennus in a scoffing and + insulting manner pulled off his sword and belt, and threw them both into + the scales; and when Sulpicius asked what that meant, "What should it + mean," says he, "but woe to the conquered?" which afterwards became a + proverbial saying. + </p> + <p> + Whilst this difference remained still unsettled, both amongst themselves + and with the Gauls, Camillus was at the gates with his army; and, having + learned what was going on, commanded the main body of his forces to follow + slowly after him in good order, and himself with the choicest of his men + hastening on, went at once to the Romans; where all giving way to him, and + receiving him as their sole magistrate, with profound silence and order, + he took the gold out of the scales, and delivered it to his officers, and + commanded the Gauls to take their weights and scales and depart; saying + that is was customary with the Romans to deliver their country with iron, + not with gold. And when Brennus began to rage, and say that he was + unjustly dealt with in such a breach of contract, Camillus answered that + it was never legally made, and the agreement of no force or obligation; + for that himself being declared dictator, and there being no other + magistrate by law, the engagement had been made with men who had no power + to enter into it; but now they might say anything they had to urge, for he + had come with full power by law to grant pardon to such as should ask it, + or inflict punishment on the guilty, if they did not repent. At this, + Brennus broke into violent anger, and an immediate quarrel ensued; both + sides drew their swords and attacked, but in confusion, as could not + otherwise be amongst houses, and in narrow lanes and places where it was + impossible to form any order. But Brennus, presently recollecting himself, + called off his men, and, with the loss of a few only, brought them to + their camp; and, rising in the night with all his forces, left the city, + and advancing about eight miles, encamped upon the way to Gabii. As soon + as day appeared, Camillus came up with him, splendidly armed himself, and + his soldier full o courage and confidence; and there engaging with him in + a sharp conflict, which lasted a long while, overthrew his army with great + slaughter, and took their camp. Of those that fled, some were presently + cut off by the pursuers; other, and these were the greatest number, + dispersed hither and thither, and were despatched by the people that came + sallying out from the neighboring towns and villages. + </p> + <p> + Thus Rome was strangely taken, and more strangely recovered, having been + seven whole months in the possession of the barbarians, who entered her a + little after the Ides of July, and were driven out about the Ides of + February following. Camillus triumphed, as he deserved, having saved his + country that was lost, and brought the city so to say, back again to + itself. For those that had fled abroad, together with their wives and + children, accompanied him as he rode in; and those who had been shut up in + the capitol, and were reduced almost to the point of perishing with + hunger, went out to meet him, embracing each other as they met, and + weeping for joy, and, though the excess of the present pleasure, scarcely + believing in its truth. + </p> + <p> + It was a hard task, amidst so much rubbish, to discover and re-determine + the consecrated places; but by the zeal of Camillus, and the incessant + labor of the priest, it was at last accomplished. But when it came also to + rebuilding the city, which was wholly demolished, despondency seized the + multitude, and a backwardness to engage in a work for which they had no + materials. The senate, therefore, fearing a sedition, would not suffer + Camillus, though desirous, to lay down his authority within the year, + though no other dictator had ever held it above six months. + </p> + <p> + Camillus thought good to refer the matter of rebuilding to general + deliberation, and himself spoke largely and earnestly in behalf of his + country, as also may others. At last, calling to Lucius Lucretius, whose + place it was to speak first, he commanded him to give his sentence, and + the rest as they followed, in order. Silence being made, and Lucretius + just about to begin, by chance a centurion, passing by outside with his + company of the day-guard, called out with a loud voice to the + ensign-bearer to halt and fix his standard, for this was the best place to + stay in. This voice, coming in that moment of time, and that crisis of + uncertainty and anxiety for the future, was taken as a direction what was + to be done; so that Lucretius, assuming an attitude of devotion, gave + sentence in concurrence with the gods, as he said, as likewise did all + that followed. Even among the common people it created a wonderful change + of feeling: every one now cheered and encouraged his neighbor, and set + himself to the work, proceeding in it, however, not by any regular lines + or divisions, but every one pitching upon that plot of ground which came + next to hand, or best pleased his fancy; by which haste and hurry in + building they constructed their city in narrow and ill-designed lanes, and + with houses huddled together one upon another; for it is said that within + the compass of the year the whole city was raised up anew, both in its + public walls and private buildings. + </p> + <p> + And now they had scarcely got a breathing time from their trouble when a + new war came upon them; and the Aequians, and the Tuscans besieged + Sutrium, their confederate city. Camillus, being the third time chosen + dictator, armed not only those under, but also those over, the age of + service; and taking a large circuit around the mountain Maecius, + undiscovered by the enemy, lodged his army on their rear, and then by many + fires gave notice of his arrival. The besieged, encouraged by this, + prepared to sally forth and join battle; but the Latins and Volscians, + fearing this exposure to any enemy on both sides, drew themselves within + their works, and fortified their camp with a strong palisade of trees on + every side, resolving to wait for more supplies from home, and expecting, + also, the assistance of the Tuscans, their confederate. Camillus, + detecting their object, and fearing to be reduced to the same position to + which he had brought them, namely, to be besieged himself, resolved to + lose no time; and finding their rampart was all of timber, and observing + that a strong wind constantly at sun-rising blew off from the mountains, + after having prepared a quantity of combustibles, about break of day he + drew forth his forces, commanding a part with their missiles to assault + the enemy with noise and shouting on the other quarter, whilst he, with + those that were to fling in the fire, went to that side of the enemy's + camp to which the wind usually blew, and there waited his opportunity. + When the skirmish was begun, and the sun risen, and a strong wind set in + from the mountains, he gave the signal of onset; and, heaping in an + immense quantity of fiery matter, filled all their rampart with it, so + that the flame being fed by the close timber and wooden palisades, went on + and spread into all quarters. The Latins, having nothing ready to keep it + off or extinguish it, when the camp was now almost full of fire, were + driven back within a very small compass, and at last forced by necessity + to come into their enemy's hands, who stood before the works ready armed + and prepared to receive them; of these very few escaped, while those that + stayed in the camp were all a prey to the fire, until the Romans, to gain + the pillage, extinguished it. + </p> + <p> + These things performed, Camillus, leaving his son Lucius in the camp to + guard the prisoners and secure the booty, passed into the enemy's country, + where, having taken the city of the Aequians and reduced the Volscians to + obedience, he then immediately led his army to Sutrium, not having heard + what had befallen the Sutrians, but making haste to assist them, as if + they were still in danger and besieged by the Tuscans. They, however, had + already surrendered their city to their enemies, and destitute of all + things, with nothing left but their clothes, and bewailing their + misfortune. Camillus himself was struck with compassion, and perceiving + the soldiers weeping, and commiserating their case, while the Sutrians + hung about and clung to them, resolved not to defer revenge, but that very + day to lead his army to Sutrium; conjecturing that the enemy, having just + taken a rich and plentiful city, without an enemy left within it, nor any + from without to be expected, would be found abandoned to enjoyment, and + unguarded. Neither did his opinion fail him: he not only passed through + their country without discovery, but came up to their very gates and + possessed himself of the walls, not a man being left to guard them, but + their whole army scattered about in the houses, drinking and making merry. + Nay, when at last they did perceive that the enemy had seized the city, + they were so overloaded with meat and wine that few were able so much as + to endeavor to escape, but either waited shamefully for their death within + doors,or surrendered themselves to the conqueror. Thus the city of the + Sutrians was twice taken in one day; and they who were in possession lost + it, and they who had lost regained it, alike by the means of Camillus. For + all which actions he received a triumph which brought him no less honor + and reputation than the two former ones; for those citizens who before + most regarded him with an evil eye, and ascribed his successes to a + certain luck rather than real merit, were compelled by these last acts of + his to allow the whole honor to his great abilities and energy. + </p> + <p> + Of all he adversaries and enviers of his glory, Marcus Manlius was the + most distinguished, he who first drove back the Gauls when they made their + night attack upon the Capitol, and who for that reason had been named + Capitolinus. This man, affecting the first place in the commonwealth, and + not able by noble ways to outdo Camillus's reputation, took that ordinary + course toward usurpation of absolute power, namely, to gain the multitude, + those of them especially that were in debt; defending some by pleading + their causes against their creditors, rescuing others by force, and not + suffering the law to proceed against them; insomuch that in a short time + he got great numbers of indigent people about him, whose tumults and + uproars in the forum struck terror into the principal citizens. After that + Quintius Capitolinus, who was made dictator to suppress these disorders, + had committed Manlius to prison, the people immediately changed their + apparel, a thing never done but in great and public calamities, and the + senate, fearing some tumult, ordered him to be released. He, however, when + set at liberty, changed not his course, but was rather the more insolent + in his proceedings,filling the whole city with faction and sedition. They + chose, therefore, Camillus again military tribune; and a day being + appointed for Manlius to answer to his charge, the prospect from the place + where his trial was held proved a great impediment to his accusers; for + the very spot where Manlius by night fought with the Gauls overlooked the + forum from the Capitol, so that, stretching forth his hands that way, and + weeping, he called to their remembrance his past actions, raising + compassion in all that beheld him. Insomuch that the judges were at a loss + what to do, and several times adjourned the trial, unwilling to acquit him + of the crime, which was sufficiently proved, and yet unable to execute the + law while his noble action remained, as it were, before their eyes. + Camillus, considering this, transferred the court outside the gates to the + Peteline Grove, from whence there is no prospect of the Capitol Here his + accuser went on with his charge, and his judges were capable of + remembering the duly resenting his guilty deeds. He was convicted, carried + to the Capitol, and flung headlong from the rock; so that one and same + spot was thus the witness of his greatest glory, and monument of his most + unfortunate end. The Romans, besides, razed his house, and built there a + temple to the goddess they call Moneta, ordaining for the future that none + of the patrician order should ever dwell on the Capitoline. + </p> + <p> + And now Camillus, being called to his sixth tribuneship, desired to be + excused, as being aged, and perhaps not unfearful of the malice of + fortune, and those reverses which seem to ensue upon great prosperity. But + the most apparent pretence was the weakness of his body, for he happened + at that time to be sick; the people, however, would admit of no excuses, + but, crying that they wanted not his strength for horse or for foot + service, but only his counsel and conduct, constrained him to undertake + the command, and with one of his fellow-tribunes to lead the army + immediately against the enemy. These were the Praenestines and Volscians, + who, with large forces, were laying waste the territory of the Roman + confederates. Having marched out with his army, he sat down and encamped + near the enemy, meaning himself to protract the war, or if there should + come any necessity or occasion of fighting, in the meantime to regain his + strength, but Lucius Furius, his colleague, carried away with the desire + of glory, was not to e held in, but, impatient to give battle, inflamed + the inferior officers of the army with the same eagerness; so that + Camillus, fearing he might seem out of envy to be wishing to rob the young + man of the glory of a noble exploit, consented, though unwillingly, that + he should draw out the forces, whilst himself, by reason of weakness, + stayed behind with a few in the camp. Lucius, engaging rashly, was + discomfited, when Camillus, perceiving the Romans to give ground and fly, + could not contain himself, but, leaping from his bed, with those he had + about him ran to meet them at the gates of the camp, making his way + through the flyers to oppose the pursuers; so that those who had got + within the camp turned back at once and followed him, and those that came + flying from without made head again and gathered about him, exhorting one + another not to forsake their general. Thus the enemy, for that time, was + stopped in his pursuit. The next day Camillus, drawing out his forces and + joining battle with them, overthrew them by main force, and, following + close upon them, entered pell-mell with them into their camp, and took it, + slaying the greatest part of them. Afterwards, having heard that the city + of Satricum was taken by the Tuscans, and the inhabitants, all Romans, put + to the sword, he sent home to Rome the main body of his forces and + heaviest-armed, and, taking with him the lightest and most vigorous + soldiers, set suddenly upon the Tuscans, who were in the possession of the + city, and mastered them, slaying some and expelling the rest; and so, + returning to Rome with great spoils, gave signal evidence of their + superior wisdom, who, not mistrusting the weakness and age of a commander + endowed with courage and conduct, had rather chosen him who was sickly and + desirous to be excused, than young men who were forward and ambitious to + command. + </p> + <p> + When, therefore, the revolt of the Tusculans was reported, they gave + Camillus the charge of reducing them, choosing one of his five colleagues + to go with him. And when every one was eager for the place, contrary to + the expectation of all, he passed by the rest and chose Lucius Furius, the + very same man who lately, against the judgment of Camillus, had rashly + hazarded and nearly lost a battle; willing, at it should seem, to + dissemble that miscarriage, and free him from the shame of it. The + Tusculans, hearing of Camillus's coming against them, made a cunning + attempt at revoking their act of revolt; their fields, as in times of + highest peace, were full of ploughmen and shepherds; their gates stood + wide open, and their children were being taught in the schools; of the + people, such as were tradesmen, he found in their workshops, busied about + their several employments, and the better sort of citizens walking in the + public places in their ordinary dress; the magistrates hurried about to + provide quarters for the Romans, as if they stood in fear of no danger and + were conscious of no fault. Which arts, though they could not dispossess + Camillus of the conviction he had of their treason, yet induced some + compassion for their repentance; he commanded them to go to the senate and + deprecate their anger, and joined himself as an intercessor in their + behalf, so that their city was acquitted of all guilt and admitted to + Roman citizenship. These were the most memorable actions of his sixth + tribuneship. + </p> + <p> + After these things, Licinius Stolo raised a great sedition in the city, + and brought the people to dissension with the senate, contending, that of + two consuls one should be chosen out of the commons, and not both out of + the patricians. Tribunes of the people were chosen, but the election of + consuls was interrupted and prevented by the people. And as this absence + of any supreme magistrate was leading to yet further confusion, Camillus + was the fourth time created dictator by the senate, sorely against the + people's will, and not altogether in accordance with his own; he had + little desire for a conflict with men whose past services entitles them to + tell him that he had achieved far greater actions in war along with them + than in politics with the patricians, who, indeed, had only put him + forward now out of envy; that, if successful, he might crush the people, + or, failing, be crushed himself. However, to provide as good a remedy as + he could for the present, knowing the day on which the tribunes of the + people intended to prefer the law, he appointed it by proclamation for a + general muster, and called the people from the forum into the Campus, + threatening to set heavy fines upon such as should not obey. On the other + side, the tribunes of the people met his threats by solemnly protesting + they would fine him fifty thousand drachmas of silver, if he persisted in + obstructing the people from giving their suffrages for the law. Whether it + were, then, that he feared another banishment or condemnation, which would + ill become his age and past great actions, or found himself unable to stem + the current of the multitude, which ran strong and violent, he betook + himself, for the present, to his house, and afterwards, for some days + together, professing sickness, finally laid down his dictatorship. The + senate created another dictator; who, choosing Stolo, leader of the + sedition, to be his general of horse, suffered that law to be enacted and + ratified, which was most grievous to the patricians, namely that no person + whatsoever should possess above five hundred acres of land. Stolo was much + distinguished by the victory he had gained; but, not long after was found + himself to possess more than he had allowed to others, and suffered the + penalties of his own law. + </p> + <p> + And now the contention about election of consuls coming on (which was the + main point and original cause of the dissension, and had throughout + furnished most matter of division between the senate and the people), + certain intelligence arrived, that the Gauls again, proceeding from the + Adriatic Sea, were marching in vast number upon Rome. On the very heels of + the report followed manifest acts also of hostility; the country through + which they marched was all wasted, and such as by flight could not make + their escape to Rome were dispersing and scattering among the mountains. + The terror of this war quieted the sedition; nobles and commons, senate + and people together, unanimously chose Camillus the fifth time dictator; + who, though very aged, not wanting much of fourscore years, yet, + considering the danger and necessity of his country, did not, as before, + pretend sickness, or depreciate his own capacity, but at once undertook + the charge, and enrolled soldiers. And, knowing that the great force of + the barbarians lay chiefly in their swords, with which they laid about + them in a rude and inartificial manner, hacking and hewing the head and + shoulders, he caused head-pieces entire of iron to be made for most of his + men, smoothing and polishing the outside, that the enemy's swords, + lighting upon them, might either slide off or be broken; and fitted also + their shields with a little rim of brass, the wood itself not being + sufficient to bear off the blows. Besides, he taught his soldiers to use + their long javelins in close encounter, and, by bringing them under their + enemy's swords, to receive their strokes upon them. + </p> + <p> + When the Gauls drew near, about the river Anio, dragging a heavy camp + after them, and loaded with infinite spoil, Camillus drew forth his + forces, and planted himself upon a hill of easy ascent, and which had many + dips in it, with the object that the greatest part of his army might lie + concealed, and those who appeared might be thought to have betaken + themselves, through fear, to those upper grounds. And the more to increase + this opinion in them, he suffered them, without any disturbance, to spoil + and pillage even to his very trenches, keeping himself quiet within his + works, which were well fortified; till, at last, perceiving that part of + the enemy were scattered about the country foraging, and that those that + were in the camp did nothing day and night but drink and revel, in the + night time he drew up his lightest-armed men, and sent them out before to + impede the enemy while forming into order, and to harass them when they + should first issue out of the their camp; and early in the morning brought + down his main body, and set them in battle array in the lower round, + numerous and courageous army, not, as the barbarians had supposed, an + inconsiderable and fearful division. The first thing that shook the + courage of the Gauls was, that their enemies had, contrary to their + expectation, the honor of being aggressors. In the next place, the + light-armed men, falling upon them before they could get into their usual + order or range themselves in their proper squadrons, so disturbed and + pressed upon them, that they were obliged to fight at random, without any + order at all. But at last, when Camillus brought on his heavy-armed + legions, the barbarians, with their swords drawn, went vigorously to + engage them; the Romans, however, opposing their javelins, and receiving + the force of their blows on those parts of the defences which were well + guarded with steel, turned the edge of their weapons, beingmade of a soft + and ill-tempered metal, so that their swords bent and doubled up in their + hands; and their shields were pierced through and through, and grew heavy + with the javelins that stuck upon them. And thus forced to quit their own + weapons, they endeavored to take advantage of those of their enemies, laid + hold of the javelins with their hands, and tried to pluck them away. But + the Romans, perceiving them now naked and defenceless, betook themselves + to their swords, which they so well used, that in a little time great + slaughter was made in the foremost ranks, while the rest fled over all + parts of the level country; the hills and upper grounds Camillus had + secured beforehand, and their camp they knew it would not be difficult for + the enemy to take, as, through confidence of victory, they had left it + unguarded. This fight, it is stated, was thirteen years after the sacking + of Rome; and from henceforward the Romans took courage, and surmounted the + apprehensions they had hitherto entertained of the barbarians, whose + previous defeat they had attributed rather to pestilence and a concurrence + of mischances than to their own superior valor. And, indeed, this fear had + been formerly so great, that they made a law, that priests should be + excused from service in war, unless in an invasion from the Gauls. + </p> + <p> + This was the last military action that Camillus ever performed; for the + voluntary surrender of the city of the Velitrani was but a mere accessory + to it. But the greatest of all civil contests, and the hardest to be + managed, was still to be fought out against the people; who, returning + home full of victory and success, insisted, contrary to established law, + to have one of the consuls chosen out of their own body. The senate + strongly opposed it, and would not suffer Camillus to lay down his + dictatorship, thinking, that, under the shelter of his great name and + authority, they should be better able to contend for the power of the + aristocracy. But when Camillus was sitting upon the tribunal, dispatching + public affairs, an officer, sent by the tribunes of the people, commanded + him to rise and follow him, laying his and upon him, as ready to seize and + carry him away; upon which, such a noise and tumult as was never heard + before, filled the whole forum; some that were about Camillus thrusting + the officer from the bench, and the multitude below calling out to him to + bring Camillus down. Being at a loss what to do in these difficulties, he + yet laid not down his authority, but, taking the senators along with him, + he went to the senate-house; but before he entered, besought the gods that + they would bring these troubles to a happy conclusion, solemnly vowing, + when the tumult was ended, to build a temple to Concord. A great conflict + of opposite opinions arose in the senate; but, at last, the most moderate + and most acceptable to the people prevailed, and consent was given, that + of two consuls, one should be chosen from the commonalty. When the + dictator proclaimed this determination of the senate to the people, at the + moment pleased and reconciled with the senate, as they could not well + otherwise be, they accompanied Camillus home with all expressions and + acclamations of joy; and the next day, assembling together, they voted a + temple of Concord to be built, according to Camillus's vow, facing the + assembly and the forum; and to the feasts, called the Latin holidays, they + added one day more, making four in all; and ordained that, on the present + occasion the whole people of Rome should sacrifice with garlands on their + heads. + </p> + <p> + In the election of consuls held by Camillus, Marcus Aemilius was chosen of + the patricians, and Lucius Sextius the first of the commonalty; and this + was the last of all Camillus's actions. In the year following, a + pestilential sickness infected Rome, which, besides an infinite number of + the common people, swept away most of the magistrates, among whom was + Camillus; whose death cannot be called premature, if we consider his great + age, or greater actions, yet was he more lamented than all the rest put + together that then died of that distemper. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0008" id="link2H_4_0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PERICLES + </h2> + <p> + We are inspired by acts of virtue with an emulation and eagerness that may + lead on to imitation. In other things there does not immediately follow + upon the admiration and liking of the thing done, any strong desire of + doing the like. Nay, many times, on the very contrary, when we are pleased + with the work, we slight and set little by the workman or artist himself, + as, for instance, in perfumes and purple dyes, we are taken with the + things themselves well enough, but do not think dyers and perfumers + otherwise than low and sordid people. It was not said amiss by + Antisthenes, when people told him that one Ismenias was an excellent + piper, "It may be so, but he is a wretched human being, otherwise he would + not have been an excellent piper." And King Philip, to the same purpose, + told his son Alexander, who once at a merry meeting played a piece of + music charmingly and skillfully, "Are you not ashamed, my son, to play so + well?" For it is enough for a king or prince to find leisure sometimes to + hear others sing, and he does the muses quite honor enough when he pleases + to be but present, while others engage in such exercises and trials of + skill. + </p> + <p> + He who busies himself in mean occupations produces, in the very pains he + takes about things of little or no use, an evidence against himself of his + negligence and indisposition to what is really good. Nor did any generous + and ingenuous young man, at the sight of the statue of Jupiter at Pisa, + ever desire to be a Phidias, or, on seeing that of Juno at Argos, long to + be a Polycletus, or feel induced by his pleasure in their poems to wish to + be an Anacreon or Pliletas or Archilochus. But virtue, by the bare + statement of its actions, can so affect men's minds as to create at once + both admiration of the things done and desire to imitate the doers of + them. The goods of fortune we would possess and would enjoy; those of + virtue we long to practice and exercise; we are content to receive the + former from others, the latter we wish others to experience from us. + </p> + <p> + And so we have thought fit to spend our time and pains in writing of the + lives of famous persons; and have composed this tenth book upon that + subject, containing the life of Pericles, and that of Fabius Maximus, who + carried on the war against Hannibal, men alike, as in their other virtues + and good parts, so especially in their mild and upright temper and + demeanor, and in that capacity to bear the cross-grained humors of their + fellow-citizens and colleagues in office which made them both most useful + and serviceable to the interests of their countries. Whether we take a + right aim at our intended purpose, it is left to the reader to judge by + what he shall find here. + </p> + <p> + Pericles was of the tribe of Acamantis, and the township Cholargus, of the + noblest birth both on his father's and mother's side. Xanthippus, his + father, who defeated the king of Persia's generals in the battle at + Mycale, took to Wife Agariste, the grandchild of Clisthenes, who drove out + the sons of Pisistratus, and nobly put and end to their tyrannical + usurpation, and moreover made a body of laws, and settled a model of + government admirably tempered and suited for the harmony and safety of the + people. + </p> + <p> + Pericles in other respects was perfectly formed physically, only his head + was somewhat longish and out of proportion. For which reason almost all + the images and statues that were made of him have the head covered with a + helmet, the workmen not apparently being willing to expose him. The poets + of Athens called him "Schinocephalos," or squill-head, from "schinos," a + squill, or sea-onion. + </p> + <p> + Pericles was a hearer of Zeno, the Eliatic, who treated of natural + philosophy in the same manner as Parmenides did, but had also perfected + himself in an art of his own for refuting and silencing opponents in + argument; as Timon of Phlius describes it,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Also the two-edged tongue of mighty Zeno, who, + Say what one would, could argue it untrue. +</pre> + <p> + But he saw most of Pericles, and furnished him most especially with a + weight and grandeur of sense, superior to all arts of popularity, and in + general gave him his elevation and sublimity of purpose and of character, + was Anaxagoras of Clazomenae; whom the men of those times called by the + name of Nous, that is mind, or intelligence, whether in admiration of the + great and extraordinary gift he displayed for the science of nature, or + because he was the first of the philosophers who did not refer the first + ordering of the world to fortune or chance, nor to necessity or + compulsion, but to a pure, unadulterated intelligence, which in all other + existing mixed and compound things acts as a principle of discrimination, + and of combination of like with like. + </p> + <p> + For this man, Pericles entertained an extraordinary esteem and admiration, + and, filling himself with this lofty and, as they call it, up-in-the-air + sort of thought, derived hence not merely, as was natural, elevation of + purpose and dignity of language, raised far above the base and dishonest + buffooneries of mob-eloquence, but, besides this, a composure of + countenance, and a serenity and calmness in all his movements, which no + occurrence whilst he was speaking could disturb, a sustained and even tone + of voice, and various other advantages of a similar kind, which produced + the greatest effect on his hearers. Once, after being reviled and + ill-spoken of all day long in his own hearing by some abandoned fellow in + the open market-place where he was engaged in the despatch of some urgent + affair, he continued his business in perfect silence, and in the evening + returned home composedly, the man still dogging him at the heels, and + pelting him all the way with abuse and foul language; and stopping into + his house, it being by this time dark, he ordered one of hi servants to + take a light and to go along with the man and see him safe home. + </p> + <p> + Nor were these the only advantages which Pericles derived from + Anaxagoras's acquaintance; he seems also to have become, by his + instructions, superior to that superstition with which an ignorant wonder + at appearances, for example, in the heavens, possesses the minds of people + unacquainted with their causes, eager for the supernatural, and excitable + through an inexperience which the knowledge of natural causes removes, + replacing wild and timid superstition by the good hope and assurance of an + intelligent piety. + </p> + <p> + There is a story that once Pericles had brought to him from a country farm + of his, a ram's head with one horn, and that Lampon, the diviner, upon + seeing the horn grow strong and solid out of the midst of the forehead, + gave it as his judgement that, there being at that time two potent + factions, parties, or interests in the city, the one of Thucydides and the + other of Pericles, the government would come about to that one of them in + whose ground or estate this token or indication of fate had shown itself. + But that Anaxagoras, cleaving the skull in sunder, showed to the + bystanders that the brain had not filled up its natural place, but being + oblong, like an egg, had collected from all parts of the vessel which + contained it, in a point to that place from whence the root of the horn + took its rise. And that, for the time, Anaxagoras was much admired for his + explanation by those that were present; and Lampon no less a little while + after, when Thucydides was overpowered, and the whole affairs of the state + and government came into the hands of Pericles. + </p> + <p> + Pericles, while yet but a young man, stood in considerable apprehension of + the people, as he was thought in face and figure to be very like the + tyrant Pisitratus, and those of great age remarked upon the sweetness of + his voice, and his volubility and rapidity in speaking, and were struck + with amazement at the resemblance. But when Aristides was now dead, and + Themosticles driven out, and Cimon was for the most part kept abroad by + the expeditions he made in parts out of Greece, Pericles, seeing things in + this posture, now advanced and took his side, not with the rich and few, + but with the many and poor, contrary to his natural bent, which was far + from democratical; but, most likely, fearing he might fall under suspicion + of aiming at arbitrary power, and seeing Cimon on the side of the + aristocracy, and much beloved by the better and more distinguished people, + he joined the party of the people, with a view at once both to secure + himself and procure means against Cimon. + </p> + <p> + He immediately entered, also, on quite a new course of life and management + of his time. For he was never seen to walk in any street but that which + led to the market-place and the council-hall, and he avoided invitations + of friends to supper, and all friendly visits and intercourse whatever; in + all the time he had to do with the public, which was not a little, he was + never known to have gone to any of his friends to a supper, except that + once when his near kinsman Euryptolemus married, he remained present till + the ceremony of the drink-offering, and then immediately rose from the + table and went his way. For these friendly meetings are very quick to + defeat any assumed superiority, and in intimate familiarity an exterior of + gravity is hard to maintain. Real excellence, indeed, is best recognized + when most openly looked into; and in really good men, nothing which meets + the eyes of external observers so truly deserves their admiration, as + their daily common life does that of their nearer friends. Pericles, + however, to avoid any feeling of commonness, or any satiety on the part of + the people, presented himself at intervals only, not speaking on every + business, nor at all times coming into the assembly, but, as Critoaus + says, reserving himself, like the Salaminian galley, for great occasions, + while matters of lesser importance were despatched by friends or other + speakers under his direction. And of this number we are told Ephialtes + made one, who broke the power of the council of Areopagus, giving the + people, according to Plato's expression, so copious and so strong a + draught of liberty, that, growing wild and unruly, like an unmanageable + horse, it, as the comic poets say,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "—got beyond all keeping in, + Champing at Euboea, and among the islands leaping in." +</pre> + <p> + The style of speaking most consonant to his form of life and the dignity + of his views he found, so to say, in the tones of that instrument with + which Anaxagoras had furnished him; of his teaching he continually availed + himself, and deepened the colors of rhetoric with the dye of natural + science. + </p> + <p> + A saying of Thucydides, the son of Melesias, stands on record, spoken by + him by way of pleasantry upon Pericles's dexterity. Thucydides was one of + the noble and distinguished citizens, and had been his greatest opponent; + and, when Archidamus, the king of the Lacedaemonians, asked him whether he + or Pericles were the better wrestler, he made this answer: "When I," said + he, "have thrown him and given him a fair fall, he by persisting that he + had no fall, gets the better of me, and makes the bystanders, in spite of + their own eyes, believe him." + </p> + <p> + The rule of Pericles has been described as an aristocratical government, + that went by the name of a democracy, but was, indeed, the supremacy of a + single great man; while many say, that by him the common people were first + encouraged and led on to such evils as appropriations of subject + territory, allowances for attending theatres, payments for performing + public duties, and by these bad habits were, under the influence of his + public measures, changed from a sober, thrifty people, that maintained + themselves by their own labors, to lovers of expense, intemperance, and + license. + </p> + <p> + At the first, as has been said, when he set himself against Cimon's great + authority, he did caress the people. Finding himself come short of his + competitor in wealth and money, by which advantages the other was enabled + to take care of the poor, inviting every day some one or other of the + citizens that was in want to supper, and bestowing clothes on the aged + people, and breaking down the hedges and enclosures of his grounds, that + all that would might freely gather what fruit they pleased. Pericles, thus + outdone in popular arts, turned to the distribution of the public moneys; + and in a short time having bought the people over, what with moneys + allowed for shows and for service on juries, and what with the other forms + of pay and largess, he made use of them against the council of Areopagus, + and directed the exertions of his party against this council with such + success, that most of those causes and matters which had been formerly + tried there, were removed from its cognizance; Cimon, also, was banished + by ostracism as a favorer of the Lacedaemonians and a hater of the people, + though in wealth and noble birth he was among the first, and had won + several most glorious victories over the barbarians, and had filled the + city with money and spoils of war. So vast an authority had Pericles + obtained among the people. + </p> + <p> + The ostracism was limited by law to ten years; but the Lacedaemonians, in + the meantime, entering with a great army into the territory of Tanagra, + and the Athenians going out against the Cimon, coming from his banishment + before his time was out, put himself in arms and array with those of his + fellow-citizens that were of his own tribe, and desired by his deeds to + wipe off the suspicion of his favoring the Lacedaemonians, by venturing + his own person along with his countrymen. But Pericles's friends, + gathering in a body, forced him to retire as a banished man. For which + cause also Pericles seems to have exerted himself more than in any other + battle, and to have been conspicuous above all for his exposure of himself + to danger. All Cimon's friends, also, to a man, fell together side by + side, whom Pericles had accused with him of taking part with the + Lacedaemonians. Defeated in this battle on their own frontiers, and + expecting a new and perilous attack with return of spring, the Athenians + now felt regret and sorrow for the loss of Cimon, and repentance for their + expulsion of him. Pericles, being sensible of their feelings, did not + hesitate or delay to gratify it, and himself made the motion for recalling + him home. He, upon his return, concluded a peace betwixt the two cities; + for the Lacedaemonians entertained as kindly feelings towards him as they + did the reverse towards Pericles and the other popular leaders. + </p> + <p> + Cimon, while he was admiral, ended his days in the Isle of Cyprus. And the + aristocratical party, seeing that Pericles was already before this grown + to be the greatest and foremost man of all the city, but nevertheless + wishing there should be somebody set up against him, to blunt and turn the + edge of his power, that it might not altogether prove a monarchy, put + forward Thucydides of Alopece, a discreet person, and a near kinsman of + Cimon's, to conduct the opposition against him. And so Pericles, at that + time more than at any other, let loose the reins to the people, and made + his policy subservient to their pleasure, contriving continually to have + some great public show or solemnity, some banquet, or some procession or + other in the town to please them, coaxing his countrymen like children, + with such delights and pleasures as were not, however, unedifying. Besides + that, every year he sent out threescore galleys, on board of which there + went numbers of the citizens, who were in pay eight months, at the same + time learning and practicing the art of seamanship. + </p> + <p> + He sent, moreover, a thousand of them into the Chersonese as planters, to + share the land among them by lot, and five hundred more into the isle of + Naxos, and half that number to Andros, a thousand into Thrace to dwell + among the Bisaltae, and others into Italy, when the city Sybaris, which + now was called Thurii, was to be repeopled. And this he did to ease and + discharge the city of an idle, and, by reason of their idleness, a busy, + meddling crowd of people; and at the same time to meet the necessities and + restore the fortunes of the poor townsmen, and to intimidate, also, and + check their allies from attempting any change, by posting such garrisons, + as it were, in the midst of them. + </p> + <p> + That which gave most pleasure and ornament to the city of Athens, and the + greatest admiration and even astonishment to all strangers, and that which + now is Greece's only evidence that the power she boasts of and her ancient + wealth are no romance or idle story, was his construction of the public + and sacred buildings. + </p> + <p> + The materials were stone, brass, ivory, gold, ebony, and cypress-wood; the + artisans that wrought and fashioned them were smiths and carpenters, + moulders, founders and braziers, stone-cutters, dyers, goldsmiths, + ivory-workers, painters, embroiderers, turners; those again that conveyed + them to the town for use, merchants and mariners and ship-masters by sea; + and by land, cartwrights, cattle-breeders, wagoners, rope-makers, + flax-workers, shoe-makers and leather-dressers, road-makers, miners. And + every trade in the same nature, as a captain in an army has his particular + company of soldiers under him, had its own hired company of journeymen and + laborers belonging to it banded together as in array, to be as it were the + instrument and body for the performance of the service of these public + works distributed plenty through every age and condition. + </p> + <p> + As then grew the works up, no less stately in size than exquisite in form, + the workmen striving to outvie the material and the design with the beauty + of their workmanship, yet the most wonderful thing of all was the rapidity + of their execution. Undertakings, any one of which singly might have + required, they thought, for their completion, several successions and ages + of men, were every one of them accomplished in the height and prime of one + man's political service. Although they say, too, that Zeuxis once, having + heard Agatharchus, the painter, boast of despatching his work with speed + and ease, replied, "I take a long time." For ease and speed in doing a + thing do not give the work lasting solidity or exactness of beauty; the + expenditure of time allowed to a man's pains beforehand for the production + of a thing is repaid by way of interest with a vital force for its + preservation when once produced. For which reason Pericles's works are + especially admired, as having been made quickly, to last long. For every + particular piece of his work was immediately, even at that time, for its + beauty and elegance, antique; and yet in its vigor and freshness looks to + this day as if it were just executed. There is a sort of bloom of newness + upon those works of his, preserving them from the touch of time, as if + they had some perennial spirit and undying vitality mingled in the + composition of them. + </p> + <p> + Phidias had the oversight of all the works, and was surveyor-general, + though upon the various portions other great masters and workmen were + employed. For Callicrates and Ictinus built the Parthenon; the chapel at + Eleusis, where the mysteries were celebrated, was begun by Coroebus, who + erected the pillars that stand upon the floor or pavement, and joined them + to the architraves; and after his death Metagenes of Xypete added the + frieze and the upper line of columns; Xenocles of Cholargus roofed or + arched the lantern on the top of the temple of Castor and Pollux; and the + long wall, which Socrates says he himself heard Pericles propose to the + people, was undertaken by Callicrates. + </p> + <p> + The Odeum, or music-room, which in its interior was full of seats and + ranges of pillars, and outside had its roof made to slope and descend from + one single point at the top, was constructed, we are told, in imitation of + the king of Persia's Pavilion; this likewise by Pericles's order; which + Cratinus again, in his comedy called The Thracian Women, made an occasion + of raillery,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + So, we see here, + Jupiter Long-pate Pericles appear, + Since ostracism time he's laid aside his head, + And wears the new Odeum in its stead. +</pre> + <p> + Perils, also eager for distinction, then first obtained the decree for a + contest in musical skill to be held yearly at the Panathenaea, and he + himself, being chosen judge, arranged the order and method in which the + competitors should sing and play on the flute and the harp. And both at + that time, and at other times also, they sat in this music-room to see and + hear all such trials of skill. + </p> + <p> + The propylaea, or entrances to the Acropolis, were finished in five years' + time, Mnesicles being the principal architect. A strange accident happened + in the course of building, which showed that the goddess was not averse to + the work, but was aiding and co-operating to bring it to perfection. One + of the artificers, the quickest and the handiest workmen among them all, + with a slip of his foot, fell down from a great height, and lay in a + miserable condition, the physician having no hopes of his recovery. When + Pericles was in distress about this, Athenia appeared to him at night in a + dream, and ordered a course of treatment which he applied, and in a short + time, and with great ease, cured the man. And upon this occasion it was + that he set up a brass statue of Athena, surnamed Health, in the citadel + near the altar, which they say was there before. But it was Phidias who + wrought the goddess's image in gold, and he has his name inscribed on the + pedestal as the workman of it; and indeed the whole work in a manner was + under his charge, and he had, as we have said already, the oversight over + all the artists and workmen, through Pericles's friendship for him. + </p> + <p> + When the orators, who sided with Thucydides and his party, were at one + time crying out, as their custom was, against Pericles, as one who + squandered away public money and made havoc of the state revenues, he rose + in the open assembly and put the question to the people, whether they + thought that he had laid out much; and saying, "Too much, a great deal," + "Then," said he, "since it is so, let the cost not go to your account, but + to mine; and let the inscription upon the buildings stand in my name." + When they heard him say thus, whether it were out of a surprise to see the + greatness of his spirit, or out of emulation of the glory of the works, + they cried aloud, bidding him to spend on, and lay out what he thought fit + from the public purse, and to spare no cost, till all were finished. + </p> + <p> + At length, coming to a final contest with Thucydides, which of the two + should ostracize the other out of the country, and, having gone through + this peril, he threw his antagonist out, and broke up the confederacy that + had been organized against him. So that now all schism and division being + at an end, and the city brought to evenness and unity, he got all Athens + and all affairs that pertained to the Athenians into his own hands, their + tributes, their armies and their galleys, the islands, the sea, and their + wide-extended power, partly over other Greeks and partly over barbarians, + and all that empire which they possessed, founded and fortified upon + subject nations and royal friendships and alliances. + </p> + <p> + After this he was no longer the same man he had been before, nor as tame + and gentle and familiar as formerly with the populace, so as readily to + yield to their pleasures and to comply with the desires of the multitude, + as a steersman shifts with the winds. Quitting that loose, remiss, and, in + some cases, licentious court of the popular will, he turned those soft and + flowery modulations to the austerity of aristocratical and regal rule; + but, employing this uprightly and undeviatingly for the country's best + interests, he was able generally to lead the people along, with their own + will and consent, by persuading and showing them what was to be done. + </p> + <p> + The source of this predominance was not barely his power of language, but, + as Thucydides the historian assures us, the reputation of his life, and + the confidence felt in his character; his manifest freedom from every kind + of corruption, and superiority to all considerations of money. + Notwithstanding he had made the city of Athens, which was great of itself, + as great and rich as can be imagined, and though he were himself in power + and interest more than equal to many kings and absolute rulers, who some + of them also bequeathed by will their power to their children, he for his + part, did not make the patrimony his father left him greater than it was + by one drachma. + </p> + <p> + Teleclides says the Athenians had surrendered to him— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The tributes of the cities, and, with them, the cities, too, to do + with them as he pleases, and undo; + To build up, if he likes, stone walls around a town; and again, if + so he likes, to pull them down; + Their treaties and alliances, power, empire, peace, and war, their + wealth and their success forevermore. +</pre> + <p> + Nor was all this the luck of some happy occasion; nor was it the mere + bloom and grace of a policy that flourished for a season; but having for + fifty-five years together maintained the first place among statesmen, in + the exercise of one continuous unintermitted command in the office, to + which he was annually reelected, of General, he preserved his integrity + unspotted; though otherwise he was not altogether idle or careless in + looking after his pecuniary advantage; his paternal estate, which of right + belonged to him, he so ordered that it might neither through negligence be + wasted or lessened, nor yet, being so full of business as he was, cost him + any great trouble or time with taking care of it; and put it into such a + way of management as he thought to be most easy for himself, and the most + exact. All his yearly products and profits he sold together in a lump, and + supplied his household needs afterward by buying everything that he or his + family wanted out of the market. Upon which account, his children, when + they grew to age, were not well pleased with his management; since there + was not there, as is usual in a great family and a plentiful estate, + anything to spare, or over and above; but all that went out or came in, + all disbursements and all receipts, proceeded as it were by number and + measure. His manager in all this was a single servant, Evangelus by name, + a man either naturally gifted or instructed by Pericles so as to excel + every one in this art of domestic economy. + </p> + <p> + The Lacedaemonians beginning to show themselves troubled at the growth of + the Athenian power, Pericles, on the other hand, to elevate the people's + spirit yet more, and to raise them to the thought of great actions, + proposed a decree to summon all the Greeks in what part soever, whether of + Europe or Asia, every city, little as well as great, to send their + deputies to Athens to a general assembly or convention, there to consult + and advise concerning the Greek temples which the barbarians had burnt + down; and also concerning the navigation of the sea, that they might + henceforward all of them pass to and fro and trade securely, and be at + peace among themselves. + </p> + <p> + Nothing was effected, nor did the cities meet by their deputies, as was + desired; the Lacedaemonians, as it is said, crossing the design underhand, + and the attempt being disappointed and baffled first in Peloponnesus. I + thought fit, however, to introduce the mention of it, to show the spirit + of the man and the greatness of his thoughts. + </p> + <p> + In his military conduct he gained a great reputation for wariness; he + would not by his good-will engage in any fight which had much uncertainty + or hazard; he did not envy the glory of generals whose rash adventures + fortune favored with brilliant success, however they were admired by + others; nor did he think them worthy his imitation, but always used to say + to his citizens that, so far as lay in his power, they should continue + immortal, and live forever. Seeing Tolmides, the son of Tolmaeus, upon the + confidence of his former successes, and flushed with the honor his + military actions had procured him, making preparation to attack the + Boeotians in their own country, when there was no likely opportunity, and + that he had prevailed with the bravest and most enterprising of the youth + to enlist themselves as volunteers in the service, who besides his other + force made up a thousand, he endeavored to withhold him, and advised him + against it in the public assembly, telling him in a memorable saying of + which still goes about, that, if he would not take Pericles's advice, yet + he would not do amiss to wait and be ruled by time, the wisest counselor + of all. This saying, at that time, was but slightly commended; but, within + a few days after, when news was brought that Tolmides himself had been + defeated and slain in battle near Coronea, and that many brave citizens + had fallen with him, it gained him great repute as well as good-will among + the people, for wisdom and for love of his countrymen. + </p> + <p> + But of all his expeditions, that to the Chersonese gave most satisfaction + and pleasure, having proved the safety of the Greeks who inhabited there. + For not only by carrying along with him a thousand fresh citizens of + Athens he gave new strength and vigor to the cities, but also by belting + the neck of land, which joins the peninsula to the continent, with + bulwarks and forts from sea to sea, he put a stop to the inroads of the + Thracians, who lay all about the Chersonese, and closed the door against a + continual and grievous war, with which that country had been long + harassed, lying exposed to the encroachments and influx of barbarous + neighbors, and groaning under the evils of a predatory population both + upon and within its borders. + </p> + <p> + Entering also the Euxine Sea with a large and finely equipped fleet, he + obtained for the Greek cities any new arrangements they wanted, and + entered into friendly relations with them; and to the barbarous nations, + and kings and chiefs round about them, displayed the greatness of the + power of the Athenians, their perfect ability and confidence to sail + wherever they had a mind, and to bring the whole sea under his control. He + left the Sinopians thirteen ships of war, with soldiers under the command + of Lamachus, to assist them against Timesileus the tyrant; and, when he + and his accomplices had been thrown out, obtained a decree that six + hundred of the Athenians that were willing should sail to Sinope and plant + themselves there with the Sinopians, sharing among them the houses and + land which the tyrant and his party had previously held. + </p> + <p> + But in other things he did not comply with the giddy impulses of the + citizens, nor quit his own resolutions to follow their fancies, when, + carried away with the thought of their strength and great success, they + were eager to interfere again in Egypt, and to disturb the king of + Persia's maritime dominions. Nay, there were a good many who were, even + then, possessed with that unblest and unauspicious passion for Sicily, + which afterward the orators of Alciabes's party blew up into a flame. + There were some also who dreamt of Tuscany and of Carthage, and not + without plausible reason in their present large dominion and the + prosperous course of their affairs. + </p> + <p> + But Pericles curbed this passion for foreign conquest, and unsparingly + pruned and cut down their ever-busy fancies for a multitude of + undertakings, and directed their power for the most part to securing and + consolidating what they had already got, supposing it would be quite + enough for them to do, if they could keep the Lacedaemonians in check; to + whom he entertained all along a sense of opposition; which, as upon many + other occasions, he particularly showed by what he did in the time of the + holy war. The Lacedaemonians, having gone with an army to Delphi, restored + Apollo's temple, which the Phocians had got into their possession, to the + Delphians; immediately after their departure, Pericles, with another army, + came and restored it to the Phocians. And the Lacedaemonians having + engraven the record of their privilege of consulting the oracle before + others, which the Delphians gave them, upon the forehead of the brazen + wolf which stands there, he, also, having received from the Phocians the + like privilege for the Athenians, had it cut upon the same wolf of brass, + on his right side. + </p> + <p> + When Pericles, in giving up his accounts, stated a disbursement of ten + talents, as laid out upon fit occasion, the people, without any question, + nor troubling themselves to investigate the mystery, freely allowed it. + And some historians, in which number is Theophtastus the philosopher, have + given it as a truth that Pericles every year used to send privately the + sum of ten talents to Sparta, with which he complimented those in office, + to keep off the war; not to purchase peace either, but time, that he might + prepare at leisure, and be the better able to carry on war hereafter. + </p> + <p> + After this, having made a truce between the Athenians and Lacedaemonians + for thirty years, he ordered, by public decree, the expedition against the + Isle of Samos, on the ground, that, when they were bid to leave off their + war with the Milesians, they had not complied. For the two states were at + war for the possession of Priene; and the Samians, getting the better, + refused to lay down their arms and to have the controversy betwixt them + decided by arbitration before the Athenians. Pericles, therefore, fitting + out a fleet, went and broke up the oligarchal government at Samos, and, + taking fifty of the principal men of the town as hostages, and as many of + their children, sent them to the Isle of Lemnos, there to be kept, though + he had offers, as some relate, of a talent apiece for himself from each + one of the hostages, and of many other presents from those who were + anxious not to have a democracy. Moreover, Pissuthnes the Persian, one of + the king's lieutenants, bearing some good-will to the Samians, sent him + ten thousand pieces of gold to excuse the city. Pericles, however, would + receive none of all this; but after he had taken that course with the + Samians which he thought fit, and set up a democracy among them, sailed + back to Athens. + </p> + <p> + But they, however, immediately revolted, Pissuthnes having privily got + away their hostages for them, and provided them with means for war. + Whereupon Pericles came out with a fleet a second time against them, and + found them not idle nor slinking away, but manfully resolved to try for + the dominion of the sea. The issue was, that, after a sharp sea-fight + about the island called Tragia, Pericles obtained a decisive victory, + having with forty-four ships routed seventy of the enemy's, twenty of + which were carrying soldiers. + </p> + <p> + Together with his victory and pursuit, having made himself master of the + port, he laid siege to the Samians, and blocked them up, who yet, one way + or other, still ventured to make sallies, and fight under the city walls. + But after another greater fleet from Athens had arrived, and the Samians + were now shut up with a close leaguer on every side, Pericles, taking with + him sixty galleys, sailed out into the main sea, with the intention, as + most authors give the account, to meet a squadron of Phoenician ships that + were coming for the Samians' relief, and to fight them at as great a + distance as could be from the island; but, as Stesimbrotus says, with a + design of putting over to Cyprus; which does not seem to be probable. But + whichever of the two was his intent, it seems to have been a + miscalculation. For on his departure, Melissus, the son of Ithagenes, a + philosopher, being at that time general in Samos, despising either the + small number of ships that were left or the inexperience of the + commanders, prevailed with the citizens to attack the Athenians. And the + Samians having won the battle and taken several of the men prisoners, and + disabled several of the ships, were masters of the sea, and brought into + port all necessities they wanted for the war, which they had not before. + Aristotle says, too, that Pericles himself had been once before this + worsted by the Milissus in a sea-fight. + </p> + <p> + The Samians, that they might requite an affront which had before been put + upon them, branded the Athenians whom they took prisoners, in their + foreheads, with the figure of an owl. For so the Athenians had marked them + before with a Samaena, which is a sort of ship, low and flat in the prow, + so as to look snub-nosed, but wide and large and well-spread in the hold, + by which it both carries a large cargo and sails well. And so it was + called, because the first of that kind was seen at Samos, having been + built by order of Polycrates the tyrant. These brands upon the Samians' + foreheads, they say, are the allusion in the passage of Aristophanes, + where he says,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + For, oh, the Samians are a lettered people. +</pre> + <p> + Pericles, as soon as news was brought to him of the disaster that had + befallen his army, made all the haste he could to come in to their relief, + and having defeated Melissus, who bore up against him, and put the enemy + to flight, he immediately proceeded to hem them in with a wall, resolving + to master them and take the town, rather with some cost and time than with + the wounds and hazards of his citizens. But as it was a hard matter to + keep back the Athenians, who were vexed at the delay, and were eagerly + bent to fight, he divided the whole multitude into eight parts, and + arranged by lot that that part which had the white bean should have leave + to feast and take their ease, while the other seven were fighting. And + this is the reason, they say, that people, when at any time they have been + merry, and enjoyed themselves, call it white day, in allusion to this + white bean. + </p> + <p> + Ephorus, the historian, tells us besides, that Pericles made use of + engines of battery in this siege, being much taken with the curiousness of + the invention, with the aid and presence of Artemon himself, the engineer, + who, being lame, used to be carried about in a litter, where the works + required his attendance, and for that reason was called Periphoretus. But + Heraclides Ponticus disproves this out of Anacreon's poems, where mention + is made of this Artemon Periphoretus several ages before the Samian war, + or any of these occurrences. And he says that Artemon, being a man who + loved his ease, and had a great apprehension of danger, for the most part + kept close within doors, having two of his servants to hold a brazen + shield over his head, that nothing might fall upon him from above; and if + he were at any time forced upon necessity to go abroad, that he was + carried about in a little hanging-bed, close to the very ground, and that + for this reason he was called Periphoretus. + </p> + <p> + In the ninth month, the Samians surrendering themselves and delivering up + the town, Pericles pulled down their walls, and seized their shipping, and + set a fine of a large sum upon them, part of which they paid down at once, + and they agreed to bring in the rest by a certain time, and gave hostages + for security. Pericles, however, after the reduction of Samos, returning + back to Athens, took care that those who died in the war should be + honorably buried, and made a funeral harangue, as the custom is, in their + commendation at their graves, for which he gained great admiration. As he + came down from the stage on which he spoke, all the women except Elpinice, + the aged sister of Cimon, came out and complimented him, taking him by the + hand, and crowning him with garlands and ribbons, like a victorious + athlete in the games. + </p> + <p> + After this was over, the Peloponnesian war beginning to break out in full + tide, he advised the people to send help to the Corcyraeans, who were + attacked by the Corinthians, and to secure to themselves an island + possessed of great naval resources, since the Peloponnesians were already + all but in actual hostilities against them. Archidamus, the king of the + Lacedaemonians, endeavoring to bring the greater part of the complaints + and matters in dispute to a fair determination, and to pacify and allay + the heats of the allies, it is very likely that the war would not upon any + other grounds of quarrel have fallen upon the Athenians, could they have + been prevailed upon to be reconciled with the inhabitants of Megara. + </p> + <p> + The true occasion of the quarrel is not easy to find out. The worst motive + of all, which is confirmed by most witnesses, is to the following effect. + Phidias the Moulder had, as has before been said, undertaken to make the + statue of Athena. Now he, being admitted to friendship with Pericles, and + a great favorite of his, had many enemies upon this account, who envied + and maligned him; and they, to make trial in a case of his what kind of + judges the commons would prove, should there be occasion to bring Pericles + himself before them, having tampered with Menon, one who had been a + workman with Phidias, stationed him in the marketplace, with a petition + desiring public security upon his discovery and impeachment of Phidias. + The people admitting the man to tell his story, and, the prosecution + proceeding in the assembly, there was nothing of theft or cheat proved + against him; for Phidias, from the very first beginning, by the advice of + Pericles, had so wrought and wrapt the gold that was used in the work + about the statue, that they might take it all off and make out the just + weight of it, which Pericles at that time bade the accusers do. But the + repudiation of his works was what brought envy upon Phidias, especially + that where he represents the fight of the Amazons upon the goddesses' + shield, he had introduced a likeness of himself as a bald old man holding + up a great stone with both hands, and had put in a very fine + representation of Pericles fighting with an Amazon. And the position of + the hand, which holds out the spear in front of the face, was ingeniously + contrived to conceal in some degree the likeness, which, meantime, showed + itself on either side. + </p> + <p> + Phidias then was carried away to Prison, and there died of a disease; but, + as some say, of poison administered by the enemies of Pericles, to raise a + slander, or a suspicion at least, as though he had procured it. The + informer Menon, upon Glycon's proposal, the people made free from payment + of taxes and customs, and ordered the generals to take care that nobody + should do him any hurt. And Pericles, finding that in Phidias's case he + had miscarried with the people, being afraid of impeachment, kindled the + war, which hitherto had lingered and smothered, and blew it up into a + flame; hoping, by that means, to disperse and scatter these complaints and + charges, and to allay their jealousy; the city usually throwing herself + upon him alone, and trusting to his sole conduct, upon the urgency of + great affairs and public dangers, by reason of his authority and the sway + he bore. + </p> + <p> + These are given out to have been the reasons which induced Pericles not to + suffer the people of Athens to yield to the proposals of the + Lacedaemonians; but their truth is uncertain. + </p> + <p> + The Lacedaemonians, therefore, and their allies, with a great army, + invaded the Athenian territories, under the conduct of king Archidamus, + and laying waste the country, marched on as far as Acharnae, and there + pitched their camp, presuming that the Athenians would never endure that, + but would come out and fight them for their country's and their honor's + sake. But Pericles looked upon it as dangerous to engage in battle, to the + risk of the city itself, against sixty thousand men-at-arms of + Peloponnesians and Boeotians; for so many they were in number that made + the inroad at first; and he endeavored to appease those who were desirous + to fight, and were grieved and discontented to see how things went, and + gave them good words, saying, that "trees, when they are lopped and cut, + grow up again in a short time, but men, being once lost, cannot easily be + recovered." He did not convene the people into an assembly, for fear lest + they should force him to act against his judgement; and many of his + enemies threatened and accursed him for doing as he did, and many made + songs and lampoons upon him, which were sung about the town to his + disgrace, reproaching him with the cowardly exercise of his office of + general, and the tame abandonment of everything to the enemy's hands. + </p> + <p> + Cleon, also, already was among his assailants, making use of the feeling + against him as a step to the leadership of the people, as appears in the + anapaestic verses of Hermippus. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Satyr-king, instead of swords, + Will you always handle words? + Very brave indeed we find them, + But a Teles lurks behind them. +</pre> + <p> + (Teles was apparently some notorious coward.) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Yet to gnash your teeth you're seen, + When the little dagger keen, + Whetted every day anew, + Of sharp Cleon touches you. +</pre> + <p> + Pericles, however, was not at all moved by any attacks, but took all + patiently, and submitted in silence to the disgrace they threw upon him + and the ill-will they bore him; and, sending out a fleet of a hundred + galleys to Peloponnesus, he did not go along with it in person, but stayed + behind, that he might watch at home and keep the city under his own + control, till the Peloponnesians broke up their camp and were gone. Yet to + soothe the common people, jaded and distressed with the war, he relieved + them with distributions of public moneys, and ordained new divisions of + subject land. For having turned out all the people of Aegina, he parted + the island among the Athenians, according to lot. Some comfort, also, and + ease in their miseries, they might receive from what their enemies + endured. For the fleet, sailing round the Peloponnesus, ravaged a great + deal of the country, and pillaged and plundered the towns and smaller + cities; and by land he himself entered with an army the Megarian country, + and made havoc of it all. Whence it is clear that the Peloponnesians, + though they did the Athenians much mischief by land, yet suffering as much + themselves from them by sea, would not have protracted the war to such a + length, but would quickly have given it over, as Pericles at first + foretold they would, had not some divine power crossed human purposes. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, the pestilential disease, or plague, seized upon the + city, and ate up all the flour and prime of their youth and strength. Upon + occasion of which the people, distempered and afflicted in their souls, as + well as in their bodies, were utterly enraged like madmen against + Pericles, and, like patients grown delirious, sought to lay violent hands + on their physician, or, as it were, their father. + </p> + <p> + Finding the Athenians ill affected and highly displeased with him, he + tried and endeavored what he could to appease and re-encourage them. But + he could not pacify or allay their anger nor persuade or prevail with them + anyway, til they freely passed their votes upon him, resumed their power, + took away his command from him, and fined him in a sum of money. + </p> + <p> + After this, public troubles were soon to leave him unmolested; the people, + so to say, discharged their passion in their stroke, and lost their stings + in the wound. But his domestic concerns were in an unhappy condition, many + of his friends and acquaintance having died in the plague time, and those + of his family having long since been in disorder and in a kind of mutiny + against him. For the eldest of his sons, Xanthippus by name, being + naturally prodigal, and marrying a young and expensive wife, was highly + offended at his father's economy in making him but a scanty allowance, by + little and little at a time. He sent therefore, to a friend one day, and + borrowed some money of him in his father Pericles's name, pretending it + was by his order. The man coming afterward to demand the debt, Pericles + was so far from yielding to pay it, that he entered an action against him. + Upon which the young man, Xanthippus, thought himself so ill used and + disobliged, that he openly reviled his father; telling first, by way of + ridicule, stories about his conversations at home, and the discourses he + had with the sophists and scholars that came to his house. As for + instance, how one who was a practicer of the five games of skill, * having + with a dart or javelin unawares against his will struck and killed + Epitimus the Pharsalian, his father spent a whole day with Protagoras in a + serious dispute, whether the javelin, or the man that threw it, or the + masters of the games who appointed these sports, were, according to the + strictest and best reason, to be accounted the cause of this mischance. + And in general, this difference of the young man's with his father, in the + breach betwixt them, continued never to be healed or made up til his + death. For Xanthippus died in the plague time of the sickness. At which + time Pericles also lost his sister, and the greatest part of his relations + and friends, and those who had been most useful and serviceable to him in + managing the affairs of state. However, he did not shrink or give in on + these occasions, nor betray or lower his high spirit and even the + greatness of his mind under all his misfortunes; he was not even so much + as seen to weep or to mourn, or even attend the burial of his friends or + relations, till at last he lost his only remaining son. Subdued by this + blow, yet striving still, as far as he could, to maintain his principle, + and yet to preserve and keep up the greatness of his soul, when he came, + however, to perform the ceremony of putting a garland of flowers on the + head of the corpse, he was vanquished by his passion at the sight, so that + he burst into exclamations, and shed copious tears, having never done any + such thing in all his life before. + </p> + <p> + The city having made trial of other generals for the conduct of war, and + orators for business of state, when they found there was no one who was of + weight enough for such a charge, or of authority sufficient to be trusted + with so great a command, regretted the loss of him, and invited him again + to address and advise them, and to resume the office of general. He, + however, lay at home in dejection and mourning; but was persuaded by + Alcibiades and others of his friends to come abroad and show himself to + the people; who having, upon his appearance, made their acknowledgements, + and apologized for their untowardly treatment of him, he undertook the + public affairs once more. + </p> + <p> + About this time, it seems, the plague seized Pericles, not with sharp and + violent fits, as it did others that had it, but with a dull and lingering + distemper, attended with various changes and alterations, leisurely, by + little and little, wasting the strength of his body, and undermining the + noble faculties of his soul. + </p> + <p> + When he was now near his end, the best of citizens and those of his + friends who were left alive, sitting about him, were speaking of the + greatness of his merit, and his power, and reckoning up his famous actions + and the number of his victories; there were no less than nine trophies + which, as their chief commander and conqueror of their enemies, he had set + up, for the honor of the city. They talked thus among themselves, as + though he were unable to understand or mind what they said, but had now + lost his consciousness. He had listened, however, all the while, and + attended to all, and speaking out among them, said, that he wondered they + should commend and take notice of things which were as much owing to + fortune as to anything else, and had happened to many other commanders, + and, at the same time, should not speak or make mention of that which was + the most excellent and greatest thing of all. "For," said he, "no Athenian + through my means, ever wore mourning." + </p> + <p> + He was indeed a character deserving our high admiration, not only for his + equable and mild temper, which all along, in the many affairs of his life, + and the great animosities which he incurred, he constantly maintained; but + also for the high spirit and feeling which made him regarded the noblest + of all his honors, that, in the exercise of such immense power, he never + had gratified his envy or his passion, nor ever had treated any enemy as + irreconcilably opposed to him. And to me it appears that this one thing + gives an otherwise childish and arrogant title a fitting and becoming + significance; so dispassionate a temper, a life so pure and unblemished, + in the height of power and place, might well be called "Olympian," in + accordance with our conceptions of divine beings, to whom, as the natural + of all good and of nothing evil, we ascribe the rule and government of the + world. + </p> + <p> + The course of public affairs after his death produced a quick and speedy + sense of the loss of Pericles. Those who, while they live, resented his + great authority, as that which eclipsed themselves, presently after + quitting the stage, making trial of other orators and demagogues, readily + acknowledged that there never had been in nature such a disposition as his + was, more moderate and reasonable in the height of that state he took upon + him, or more grave and impressive in the mildness which he used. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0009" id="link2H_4_0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + DEMOSTHENES + </h2> + <p> + Whoever it was, Sosius, that wrote the poem in honor of Alcibiades, upon + his winning the chariot-race at the Olympian Games, whether it was + Euripedes, as is most commonly thought, or some other person he tells us, + that to a man's being happy it is pre-eminently requisite that he should + be born in "some famous city." + </p> + <p> + But if anybody undertakes to write a history, that has to be collected + from materials gathered by observation and the reading of works not easy + to be got in all places, nor written always in his own language, but many + of them foreign and dispersed in other hands, for him, undoubtedly, it is + above all things most necessary, to reside in some city of good note, + devoted to liberal arts, and populous; where he may have plenty of all + sorts of books, and upon inquiry may hear and inform himself of such + particulars as, having escaped the pens of writers, are more faithfully + preserved in the memories of men. + </p> + <p> + But for me, I live in a little town, where I am willing to continue, lest + it should grow less; and having had no leisure, while I was in Rome and + other parts of Italy, to practice myself in the Roman language, on account + of public business and of those who came to be instructed by me in + philosophy, it was very late, and in the decline of my age, before I + applied myself to the reading of Latin authors. But to appreciate the + graceful and ready pronunciation of the Roman tongue, to understand the + various figures and connection of words, and such other ornaments, in + which the beauty of speaking consists, is, I doubt not, an admirable and + delightful accomplishment; but it requires a degree of practice and study + which is not easy, and will better suit those who have more leisure, and + time enough yet before them for the occupation. + </p> + <p> + And so in this book of my Parallel Lives, in giving an account of + Demosthenes and Cicero, my comparison of their natural dispositions and + their characters will be formed upon their actions and their lives as + statesmen, and I shall not pretend to criticise their orations one against + the other, to show which of the two was the more charming or the more + powerful speaker. For there, as Ion says, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + We are but like a fish upon dry land. +</pre> + <p> + The divine power seems originally to have designed Demosthenes and Cicero + upon the same plan, giving them many similarities in their natural + characters, as their passion for distinction and their love of liberty in + civil life, and their want of courage in dangers and war, and at the same + time also to have added many accidental resemblances. I think there can + hardly be found two other orators, who, from small and obscure beginnings, + became so great and mighty; who both contested with kings and tyrants; + both lost their daughters, were driven out of their country, and returned + with honor; who, flying from thence again, were both seized upon by their + enemies, and at last ended their lives with the liberty of their + countrymen. So that if we were to suppose that there had been a trial of + skill between nature and fortune, as there is sometimes between artists, + it would be hard to judge, whether that succeeded best in making them + alike in their dispositions and manners, or this, in the coincidences of + their lives. We will speak of the eldest first. + </p> + <p> + Demosthenes, the father of Demosthenes, was a citizen of good rank and + quality, as Theopompus informs us, surnamed the Sword-maker, because he + had a large workhouse, and kept servants skilful in that art at work. + Demosthenes, when only seven years old, was left by his father in affluent + circumstances, the whole value of his estate being little short of fifteen + talents, but was wronged by his guardians, part of his fortune being + embezzled by them, and the rest neglected; insomuch that even his teachers + were defrauded of their salaries. This was the reason that he did not + obtain the liberal education that he should have had; besides that on + account of weakness and delicate health, his mother would not let him + exert himself, and his teachers forebore to urge him. He was meagre and + sickly from the first, and hence had the nickname of Batalus, given him, + it is said, by the boys, in derision of his appearance; Batalus being a + certain enervated flute-player, in ridicule of whom Antiphanes wrote a + play. + </p> + <p> + The first occasion of his eager inclination to oratory, they say, was + this. Callistratus, the orator, was to plead in open court for Oropus, and + the expectation of the issue of that cause was very great, as well for the + ability of the orator, who was then at the height of his reputation, as + also for the fame of the action itself. Therefore, Demosthenes, having + heard the tutors and schoolmasters agreeing among themselves to be present + at this trial, with much importunity persuades his tutor to take him along + with him to the hearing; who, having some acquaintance with the + doorkeepers, procured a place where the boy might sit unseen, and hear + what was said. Callistratus having got the day, and being much admired, + the boy began to look upon his glory with emulation, observing how he was + courted on all hands, and attended on his way by the multitude; but his + wonder was more than all excited by the power of his eloquence, which + seemed able to subdue and win over any thing. From this time, therefore, + bidding farewell to other sorts of learning and study, he now began to + exercise himself, and to take pains in declaiming, as one that meant to be + himself also an orator. He made use of Isaeus as his guide to the art of + speaking, though Isocrates at that time was giving lessons; whether, as + some say, because he was an orphan, and was not able to pay Isocrates his + appointed fee of ten minae, or because he preferred Isaeus's speaking, as + being more business-like and effective in actual use. + </p> + <p> + As soon, therefore, as he was grown up to man's estate, he began to go to + law with his guardians, and to write orations against them; who, in the + meantime, had recourse to various subterfuges and pleas for new trials, + and Demosthenes, though he was thus, as Thucydides says, taught his + business in dangers, and by his own exertions was successful in his suit, + was yet unable for all this to recover so much as a small fraction of his + patrimony. He only attained some degree of confidence in speaking, and + some competent experience in it. And having got a taste of the honor and + power which are acquired by pleadings, he now ventured to come forth, and + to undertake public business. And, as it is said of Laomedon, the + Orchomenian, that by advice of his physician, he used to run long + distances to keep off some disease of his spleen, and by that means + having, through labor and exercise, framed the habit of his body, he + betook himself to the great garland games, and became one of the best + runners at the long race; so it happened to Demosthenes, who, first + venturing upon oratory for the recovery of his own private property, by + this acquired ability in speaking, and at length, in public business, as + it were in the great games, came to have the pre-eminence of all + competitors in the assembly. But when he first addressed himself to the + people, he met with great discouragements, and was derided for his strange + and uncouth style, which was cumbered with long sentences and tortured + with formal arguments to a most harsh and disagreeable excess. Besides, he + had, it seems, a weakness in his voice, a perplexed and indistinct + utterance and a shortness of breath, which, by breaking and disjointing + his sentences, much obscured the sense and meaning of what he spoke. So + that in the end, being quite disheartened, he foresook the assembly; and + as he was walking carelessly and sauntering about the Piraeus, Eunomus, + the Thriasian, then a very old man, seeing him, upbraided him, saying that + his diction was very much like that of Pericles, and that he was wanting + to himself through cowardice and meanness of spirit, neither bearing up + with courage against popular outcry, nor fitting his body for action, but + suffering it to languish through mere sloth and negligence. + </p> + <p> + Another time, when the assembly had refused to hear him, and he was going + home with his head muffled up, taking it very heavily, they relate that + Satyrus, the actor followed him, and being his familiar acquaintance, + entered into conversation with him. To whom Demosthenes bemoaned, that + although he had been the most industrious of all the pleaders, and had + spent almost the whole strength and vigor of his body in that employment, + he could not yet find any acceptance with the people, while drunken sots, + mariners, and illiterate fellows were heard, and had the hustings for + their own. "You say true, Demosthenes," replied Satyrus, "but I will + quickly remedy the cause of all this, if you will repeat to me some + passage out of Euripides or Sophocles." When Demosthenes had pronounced + one, Satyrus presently taking it up after him, gave the same passage, in + his rendering of it, such a new form, by accompanying it with the proper + mien and gesture, that to Demosthenes it seemed quite another thing. By + this being convinced how much grace and ornament language acquires from + action, he began to esteem it a small matter, and as good as nothing for a + man to exercise himself in declaiming, if he neglected enunciation and + delivery. Hereupon he built himself a place under ground to study in + (which was still remaining in our time), and hither he would come + constantly every day to form his action, and to exercise his voice; and + here he would continue, oftentimes without intermission, two or three + months together, shaving one half of his head, so that for shame he might + not go abroad, though he desired it never so much. + </p> + <p> + Nor was this all, but he also made his conversation with people abroad, + his common speech, and his business, subservient to his studies, taking + from hence occasions and arguments as matter to work upon. For as soon as + he was parted from his company, down he would go at once into his study, + and run over everything in order that had passed, and the reasons that + might be alleged for and against it. Any speeches, also, that he was + present at, he would go over again with himself, and reduce into periods; + and whatever others spoke to him, or he to them, he would correct, + transform, and vary in several ways. Hence it was, that he was looked upon + as a person of no great natural genius, but one who owed all the power and + ability he had in speaking to labor and industry. He was very rarely heard + to speak off-hand, but though he were by name frequently called upon by + the people, as he sat in the assembly, yet he would not rise unless he had + previously considered the subject, and come prepared for it. So that many + of the popular pleaders used to make it a jest against him; and Pytheas + once, scoffing at him, said that his arguments smelt of the lamp. To which + Demosthenes gave the sharp answer, "It is true, indeed, Pytheas, that your + lamp and mine are not conscious of the same things." To others, however, + he would not deny it, but would admit frankly enough, that he neither + entirely wrote his speeches beforehand, nor yet spoke wholly extempore. + And he would affirm, that it was the more truly popular act to use + premeditation, such preparation being a kind of respect to the people. + </p> + <p> + How then, some may say, was it, that Aeschines speaks of him as a person + much to be wondered at for his boldness in speaking? And, when Lamachus, + the Myrinaean, had written a panegyric upon king Philip and Alexander, in + which he uttered many things in reproach of the Thebans and Olynthians, + and at the Olympic Games recited it publicly, Demosthenes, then rising up, + and recounting historically and demonstratively what benefits and + advantages all Greece had received from the Thebans and Chalcidians, and + on the contrary, what mischiefs the flatterers of the Macedonians had + brought upon it, so turned the minds of all that were present that the + sophist, in alarm at the outcry against him, secretly made his way out of + the assembly. But Demosthenes, it would seem, regarded the reserve and + sustained manner of Pericles, and his forbearing to speak on the sudden, + or upon every occasion, as being the things to which he principally owed + his greatness, and this he followed, and endeavored to imitate, neither + wholly neglecting the glory which present occasion offered, nor yet + willing too often to expose his faculty to the mercy of chance. For, in + fact, the orations which were spoken by him had much more of boldness and + confidence in them than those that he wrote. Eratosthenes says that often + in his speaking he would be transported into a kind of ecstasy, and + Demetrius, that he uttered the famous metrical adjuration to the people, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + By the earth, the springs, the rivers, and the streams, +</pre> + <p> + as a man inspired, and beside himself. One of the comedians calls him a + rhopoperperethras—a loud declaimer about petty matters; from rhopos, + small wares, and perperos, a loud talker; and another scoffs at him for + the use of antithesis:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + And what he took, took back; a phrase to please + The very fancy of Demosthenes. +</pre> + <p> + Unless, indeed, this also is meant by Antiphanes for a jest upon the + speech on Halonesus, which Demosthenes advised the Athenians not to take + at Philip's hands, but to take back. + </p> + <p> + All, however, used to consider Demades, in the mere use of his natural + gifts, an orator impossible to surpass, and that in what he spoke on the + sudden, he excelled all the study and preparation of Demosthenes. And + Ariston, the Chian, has recorded a judgment which Theophrastus passed upon + the orators; for being asked what kind of orator he accounted Demosthenes, + he answered, "Worthy of the city of Athens;" and then, what he thought of + Demades, he answered, "Above it." And the same philosopher reports, that + Polyeuctus, the Sphettian, one of the Athenian politicians about that + time, was wont to say that Demosthenes was the greatest orator, but + Phocion the ablest, as he expressed the most sense in the fewest words. + And, indeed, it is related, that Demosthenes himself, as often as Phocion + stood up to plead against him, would say to his acquaintance, "Here comes + the knife to my speech." Yet it does not appear whether he had this + feeling for his powers of speaking, or for his life and character, and + meant to say that one word or nod from a man who was really trusted, would + go further than a thousand lengthy periods from others. + </p> + <p> + Demetrius, the Phalerian, tells us, that he was informed by Demosthenes + himself, when old, that the ways he made use of to remedy his natural + bodily infirmities and defects were such as these: his inarticulate and + stammering pronunciation he overcame and rendered more distinct by + speaking with pebbles in his mouth; his voice he disciplined by declaiming + and reciting speeches or verses when he was out of breath, while running + or going up steep places; and that in his house he had a large + looking-glass, before which he would stand and go through his exercises. + It is told that some one once came to request his assistance as a pleader, + and related how he had been assaulted and beaten. "I am sure," said + Demosthenes, "nothing of the kind can have happened to you." Upon which + the other, raising his voice, exclaimed loudly, "What, Demosthenes, + nothing has been done to me?" "Ah," replied Demosthenes, "now I hear the + voice of one that has been injured and beaten." Of so great consequence + towards the gaining of belief did he esteem the tone and action of the + speaker. When a thief, who had the nickname of the Brazen, was attempting + to upbraid him for sitting up late, and writing by candlelight, "I know + very well," said he, "that you had rather have all lights out; and wonder + not, O ye men of Athens, at the many robberies which are committed, since + we have thieves of brass and walls of clay." + </p> + <p> + His first entering into public business was about the time of the Phocian + war. But the object which he chose for himself in the commonwealth was + noble and just, the defence of the Greek against Philip; and in this he + behaved himself so worthily that he soon grew famous, and excited + attention everywhere for his eloquence and courage in speaking. He was + admired through all Greece, the king of Persia courted him, and by Philip + himself he was more esteemed than all the other orators. His very enemies + were forced to confess that they had to do with a man of mark; for such a + character even Aeschines and Hyperides give him, where they accuse and + speak against him. + </p> + <p> + Demosthenes would never turn aside or prevaricate, either in word or deed. + Panaetius, the philosopher, said, that most of his orations were written, + as if they were to prove this one conclusion: that only what is honest and + virtuous is to be chosen; as that of the Crown, that against Aristocrates, + that for the Immunities, and the Philippics; in all which he persuades his + fellow-citizens to pursue not that which seems most pleasant, easy, or + profitable; but declares over and over again, that they ought in the first + place to prefer that which is just and honorable, before their own safety + and preservation. + </p> + <p> + Excepting only Phocion, he far surpassed, even in his life and manners, + the other orators of his time. None of them addressed the people so + boldly; he attacked the faults, and opposed himself to the unreasonable + desires of the multitude, as may be seen in his orations. Theopompus + writes, that the Athenians having by name selected Demosthenes, and called + upon him to accuse a certain person, he refused to do it; upon which the + assembly being all in an uproar, he rose up and said, "Your counselor, + whether you will or no, O ye men of Athens, you shall always have me; but + a sycophant or false accuser, I shall never be." And his conduct in the + case of Antiphon was perfectly aristocratical; whom, after he had been + acquitted in the assembly, he took and brought before the court of + Areopagus, and, setting at naught the displeasure of the people, convicted + him there of having promised Philip to burn the arsenal; whereupon the man + was condemned by that court, and suffered for it. He accused, also, + Theoris, the priestess, among other misdemeanors, of having instructed and + taught the slaves to deceive and cheat their masters, for which the + sentence of death was passed upon her, and she was executed. + </p> + <p> + It was evident, even in time of peace, what course Demosthenes would steer + in the commonwealth; for whatever was done by the Macedonian, he + criticised and found fault with, and upon all occasions was stirring up + the people of Athens, and inflaming them against him. Therefore, in the + court of Philip, no man was so much talked of, or of so great account as + he; and when he came thither, as one of the ten ambassadors who was sent + into Macedonia, his speech was answered with most care and exactness. But + in other respects, Philip entertained him not so honorably as the rest, + neither did he show him the same kindness and civility with which he + applied himself to the party of Aeschines and Philocrates. So that, when + the others commended Philip for his able speaking, his beautiful person, + nay, and also for his good companionship in drinking, Demosthenes could + not refrain from cavilling at these praises; the first, he said, was a + quality which might well enough become a rhetorician, the second a woman, + and the last was only the property of a sponge; no one of them was the + proper commendation of a prince. + </p> + <p> + Not long after, he undertook an embassy through the States of Greece, + which he solicited and so far incensed against Philip, that a few only + excepted, he brought them all into a general league. So that, besides the + forces composed of the citizens themselves, there was an army consisting + of fifteen + </p> + <p> + thousand foot and two thousand horse, and the money to pay these strangers + was levied and brought in with great cheerfulness. On which occasion it + was, says Theophrastus, on the allies requesting that their contributions + for the war might be ascertained and stated, Crobylus, the orator, made + use of the saying, "War can't be fed at so much a day." Now was all Greece + up in arms, and in great expectation what would be the event. The + Euboeans, the Achaeans, the Corinthians, the Megarians, the Leucadians, + and Corcyraeans, their people and their cities, were all joined together + in a league. But the hardest task was yet behind, left for Demosthenes, to + draw the Thebans into this confederacy with the rest. Their country + bordered next upon Attica, they had great forces for the war, and at that + time they were accounted the best soldiers of all Greece, but it was no + easy matter to make them break with Philip, who by many good offices, had + so lately obliged them in the Phocian war; especially considering how the + subjects of dispute and variance between the two cities were continually + renewed and exasperated by petty quarrels, arising out of the proximity of + their frontiers. + </p> + <p> + But after Philip, puffed up with his good success at Amphissa, on a sudden + surprised Elatea and possessed himself of Phocis, the Athenians were in a + great consternation, none durst venture to rise up to speak, all were at a + loss, and the whole assembly was in silence and perplexity. In this + extremity of affairs, Demosthenes was the only man who appeared, his + counsel to them being alliance with the Thebans. And having in other ways + encouraged the people, and, as his manner was, raised their spirits up + with hopes, he, with some others was sent ambassador to Thebes. To oppose + him, as Marsyas says, Philip also sent thither his envoys. Now the + Thebans, in their consultations, were well enough aware what suited best + with their own interest, but every one had before his eye the terrors of + war, and their losses in the Phocian troubles were still recent: but such + was the force and power of the orator, fanning up their courage, and + firing their emulation, that, casting away every thought of prudence, + fear, or obligation, in a sort of divine possession, they chose the path + of honor, to which his words invited them. And this success, thus + accomplished by an orator, was thought to be so glorious and of such + consequence, that Philip immediately sent heralds to treat and petition + for a peace: all Greece was aroused, and up in arms to help. And the + commanders-in-chief, not only of Attica, but of Boeotia, applied + themselves to Demosthenes, and observed his directions. He managed all the + assemblies of the Thebans, no less than those of the Athenians; he was + beloved both by the one and by the other, and exercised the same supreme + authority with both; and that not by unfair means, or without just cause, + but it was no more than was due to his merit. + </p> + <p> + But there was, it should seem, some divinely-ordered fortune, + commissioned, in the revolution of things, to put a period at this time to + the liberty of Greece, which opposed and thwarted all their actions, and + by many signs foretold what should happen. Such were the sad predictions + uttered by the Pythian priestess, and this old oracle cited out of the + Sibyl's verses: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The battle on Thermodon that shall be + Safe at a distance I desire to see, + Far, like an eagle, watching in the air. + Conquered shall weep, and conqueror perish there. +</pre> + <p> + This Thermodon, they say, is a little rivulet here in our country in + Chaeronea, running into the Cephisus. But we know of none that is so + called at the present time; and can only conjecture that the streamlet + which is now called Haemon, and runs by the Temple of Hercules, where the + Greeks were encamped, might perhaps in those days be called Thermodon. + </p> + <p> + But of Demosthenes it is said, that he had such great confidence in the + Greek forces, and was so excited by the sight of the courage and + resolution of so many brave men ready to engage the enemy, that he would + by no means endure they should give any heed to oracles, or hearken to + prophecies, but gave out that he suspected even the prophetess herself, as + if she had been tampered with to speak in favor of Philip. He put the + Thebans in mind of Epaminondas, the Athenians of Pericles, who always took + their own measures and governed their actions by reason, looking upon + things of this kind as mere pretexts for cowardice. Thus far, therefore, + Demosthenes acquitted himself like a brave man. But in the fight he did + nothing honorable, nor was his performance answerable to his speeches. For + he fled, deserting his place disgracefully, and throwing away his arms, + not ashamed, as Pytheas observed, to belie the inscription written on his + shield, in letters of gold, "With good fortune." + </p> + <p> + In the meantime Philip, in the first moment of victory, was so transported + with joy, that he grew extravagant, and going out, after he had drunk + largely, to visit the dead bodies, he chanted the first words of the + decree that had been passed on the motion of Demosthenes, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The motion of Demosthenes, Demosthenes's son, + + dividing it metrically into feet, and marking the beats. +</pre> + <p> + But when he came to himself, and had well considered the danger he was + lately under, he could not forbear from shuddering at the wonderful + ability and power of an orator who had made him hazard his life and empire + on the issue of a few brief hours. The fame of it also reached even to the + court of Persia, and the king sent letters to his lieutenants, commanding + them to supply Demosthenes with money, and to pay every attention to him, + as the only man of all the Greeks who was able to give Philip occupation + and find employment for his forces near home, in the troubles of Greece. + </p> + <p> + At this time, however, upon the ill success which now happened to the + Greeks, those of the contrary faction in the commonwealth turned upon + Demosthenes, and took the opportunity to frame several informations and + indictments against him. But the people not only acquitted him of these + accusations, but continued towards him their former respect, and when the + bones of those who had been slain at Chaeronea were brought home to be + solemnly interred, Demosthenes was the man they chose to make the funeral + oration. The speech, therefore, was spoken by Demosthenes. But the + subsequent decrees he would not allow to be passed in his own name, but + made use of those of his friends, one after another, looking upon his own + as unfortunate and inauspicious; till at length he took courage again + after the death of Philip, who did not long outlive his victory at + Chaeronea. And this, it seems, was that which was foretold in the last + verse of the oracle, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Conquered shall weep, and conqueror perish there. +</pre> + <p> + Demosthenes had secret intelligence of the death of Philip, and laying + hold of this opportunity to prepossess the people with courage and better + hopes for the future, he came into the assembly with a cheerful + countenance, pretending to have had a dream that presaged some great good + fortune for Athens; and, not long after, arrived the messengers who + brought the news of Philip's death. No sooner had the people received it, + but immediately they offered sacrifice to the gods, and decreed that + Pausanias should be presented with a crown. Demosthenes appeared publicly + in a rich dress, with a chaplet on his head, though it were but the + seventh day since the death of his daughter, as is said by Aeschines, who + upbraids him upon this account, and rails at him as one void of natural + affection towards his children. Whereas, Aeschines rather betrays himself + to be of a poor spirit, if he really means to make wailings and + lamentation the only signs of a gentle and affectionate nature. I must + commend the behavior of Demosthenes, who leaving tears and lamentations + and domestic sorrows to the women, made it his business to attend to the + interests of the commonwealth. + </p> + <p> + But now to return to my narrative. The cities of Greece were inspirited + once more by the efforts of Demosthenes to form a league together. The + Thebans, whom he had provided with arms, set upon their garrison, and slew + many of them; the Athenians made preparations to join their forces with + them; Demosthenes ruled supreme in the popular assembly, and wrote letters + to the Persian officers who commanded under the king in Asia, inciting + them to make war upon the Macedonian, calling him child and simpleton. But + as soon as Alexander had settled matters in his own country, and come in + person with his army into Boeotia, down fell the courage of the Athenians, + and Demosthenes was hushed; the Thebans, deserted by them, fought by + themselves, and lost their city. After which, the people of Athens, all in + distress and great perplexity, resolved to send ambassadors to Alexander, + and amongst others, made choice of Demosthenes for one; but his heart + failing him for fear of the king's anger, he returned back from Cithaeron, + and left the embassy. In the mean time, Alexander sent to Athens, + requiring eight of the orators to be delivered up to him,—Demosthenes, + Polyeuctus, Ephialtes, Lycurgus, Moerocles, Demon, Callisthenes, and + Charidemus. It was upon this occasion that Demosthenes related to them the + fable in which the sheep are said to deliver up their dogs to the wolves; + himself and those who with him contended for the people's safety, being, + in his comparison, the dogs that defended the flock, and Alexander "the + Macedonian arch wolf." He further told them, "As we see corn-dealers sell + their whole stock by a few grains of wheat which they carry about with + them in a dish, as a sample of the rest, so you, by delivering up us, who + are but a few, do at the same time unawares surrender up yourselves all + together with us." The Athenians were deliberating, and at a loss what to + do, when Demades, having agreed with the persons whom Alexander had + demanded, for five talents, undertook to go ambassador, and to intercede + with the king for them; and, whether it was that he relied on his + friendship and kindness, or that he hoped to find him satiated, as a lion + glutted with slaughter, he certainly went, and prevailed with him both to + pardon the men, and to be reconciled to the city. + </p> + <p> + So he and his friends, when Alexander went away, were great men, and + Demosthenes was quite put aside. Yet when Agis, the Spartan, made his + insurrection, he also for a short time attempted a movement in his favor; + but he soon shrunk back again, as the Athenians would not take any part in + it, and, Agis being slain, the Lacedaemonians were vanquished. During this + time it was that the indictment against Ctesiphon, concerning the Crown, + was brought to trial. The action was commenced a little before the battle + in Chaeronea, when Chaerondas was archon, but it was not proceeded with + till about ten years after, Aristophon being then archon. Never was any + public cause more celebrated than this, alike for the fame of the orators, + and for the generous courage of the judges, who, though at that time the + accusers of Demosthenes, were in the height of power, and supported by all + the favor of the Macedonians, yet would not give judgment against him, but + acquitted him so honorably, that Aeschines did not obtain the fifth part + of their suffrages on his side, so that, immediately after, he left the + city, and spent the rest of his life in teaching rhetoric about the island + of Rhodes, and upon the continent in Ionia. + </p> + <p> + It was not long after that Harpalus fled from Alexander, and came to + Athens out of Asia; knowing himself guilty of many misdeeds into which his + love of luxury had led him, and fearing the king, who was now grown + terrible even to his best friends. Yet this man had no sooner addressed + himself to the people, and delivered up his goods, his ships, and himself + to their disposal, but the other orators of the town had their eyes + quickly fixed upon his money, and came in to his assistance, persuading + the Athenians to receive and protect their suppliant. Demosthenes at first + gave advice to chase him out of the country, and to beware lest they + involved their city in a war upon an unnecessary and unjust occasion. But + some few days after, as they were taking an account of the treasure, + Harpalus, perceiving how much he was pleased with a cup of Persian + manufacture, and how curiously he surveyed the sculpture and fashion of + it, desired him to poise it in his hand, and consider the weight of the + gold. Demosthenes, being amazed to feel how heavy it was asked him what + weight it came to. "To you," said Harpalus, smiling, "it shall come with + twenty talents." And presently after, when night drew on, he sent him the + cup with so many talents. Harpalus, it seems, was a person of singular + skill to discern a man's covetousness by the air of his countenance, and + the look and movement of his eyes. For Demosthenes could not resist the + temptation, but admitting the present, like an armed garrison, into the + citadel of his house, he surrendered himself up to the interest of + Harpalus. The next day he came into the assembly with his neck swathed + about with wool and rollers, and when they called on him to rise up and + speak, he made signs as if he had lost his voice. But the wits, turning + the matter to ridicule, said that certainly the orator had been seized + that night with no other than a silver quinsy. And soon after, the people, + becoming aware of the bribery, grew angry, and would not suffer him to + speak, or make any apology for himself, but ran him down with noise; and + one man stood up and cried out, "What, ye men of Athens, will you not hear + the cup-bearer?" So at length they banished Harpalus out of the city; and + fearing lest they should be called to account for the treasures which the + orators had purloined, they made a strict inquiry, going from house to + house. + </p> + <p> + Demosthenes resisted the inquisition, and proposed a decree to refer the + business to the court of Areopagus, and to punish those whom that court + should find guilty. But being himself one of the first whom the court + condemned, when he came to the bar, he was fined fifty talents, and + committed to prison; where, out of shame of the crime for which he was + condemned, and through the weakness of his body, growing incapable of + supporting the confinement, he made his escape, by the carelessness of + some and by the connivance of others of the citizens. He did not show much + fortitude in his banishment, spending his time for the most part in Aegina + and Troezen, and, with tears in his eyes, looking towards the country of + Attica. The young men that came to visit and converse with him, he + deterred from meddling with state affairs, telling them, that if at first + two ways had been proposed to him, the one leading to the speaker's stand + and the assembly, the other going direct to destruction, and he could have + foreseen the many evils which attend those who deal in public business, + such as fears, envies, calumnies, and contentions, he would certainly have + taken that which led straight on to his death. + </p> + <p> + But now happened the death of Alexander, while Demosthenes was in this + banishment which we have been speaking of. And the Greeks were once again + up in arms, encouraged by the brave attempts of Leosthenes, who was then + drawing a circumvallation about Antipater, whom he held close besieged in + Lamia. Pytheas, therefore, the orator, and Callimedon, called the Crab, + fled from Athens, and taking sides with Antipater, went about with his + friends and ambassadors to keep the Greeks from revolting and taking part + with the Athenians. But, on the other side, Demosthenes, associating + himself with the ambassadors that came from Athens, used his utmost + endeavors and gave them his best assistance in persuading the cities to + fall unanimously upon the Macedonians, and to drive them out of Greece. + With this conduct the people of Athens were so well pleased, that they + decreed the recall of Demosthenes from banishment. The decree was brought + in by Demon the Paeanian, cousin to Demosthenes. So they sent him a ship + to Aegina, and he landed at the port of Piraeus, where he was met and + joyfully received by all the citizens, not so much as an Archon or a + priest staying behind. And Demetrius, the Magnesian, says, that he lifted + up his hands towards heaven, and blessed this day of his happy return, as + far more honorable than that of Alcibiades; since he was recalled by his + countrymen, not through any force or constraint put upon them, but by + their own good-will and free inclinations. There remained only his + pecuniary fine, which, according to law, could not be remitted by the + people. But they found out a way to elude the law. It was a custom with + them to allow a certain quantity of silver to those who were to furnish + and adorn the altar for the sacrifice of Jupiter Soter. This office, for + that turn, they bestowed on Demosthenes, and for the performance of it + ordered him fifty talents, the very sum in which he was condemned. + </p> + <p> + Yet it was no long time that he enjoyed his country after his return, the + attempts of the Greeks being soon all utterly defeated. And in the month + of Pyanepsion following Demosthenes died after this manner. + </p> + <p> + Upon the report that Antipater was coming to Athens, Demosthenes with his + party took their opportunity to escape privily out of the city; but + sentence of death was, upon the motion of Demades, passed upon them by the + people. They dispersed themselves, flying some to one place, some to + another; and Antipater sent about his soldiers into all quarters to + apprehend them. Archias, formerly an actor, was their captain, and was + thence called the exile-hunter. This Archias finding Hyperides the orator, + Aristonicus and Himeraeus in Aegina, took them by force out of the temple + of Aeacus, whither they had fled for safety, and sent them to Antipater, + and put them all to death; and Hyperides, they say, had his tongue cut + out. + </p> + <p> + Demosthenes, he heard, had taken sanctuary at the temple of Neptune at + Calauria, and, crossing over thither in some light vessels, as soon as he + had landed himself, and the Thracian spear-men that came with him, he + endeavored to persuade Demosthenes to accompany him to Antipater, as if he + should meet with no hard usage from him. But Demosthenes, in his sleep the + night before, had a strange dream. It seemed to him that he was acting a + tragedy, and contended with Archias for the victory; and though he + acquitted himself well, and gave good satisfaction to the spectators, yet + for want of better furniture and provision for the stage, he lost the day. + And so, while Archias was discoursing to him with many expressions of + kindness, he sat still in the same posture, and looking up steadfastly + upon him, said: "O Archias, I am as little affected by your promises now + as I used formerly to be by your acting." Archias at this beginning to + grow angry and to threaten him, "Now," said Demosthenes, "you speak like + the genuine Macedonian oracle; before you were but acting a part. + Therefore forebear only a little, while I write a word or two home to my + family." Having thus spoken, he withdrew into the temple, and taking a + scroll, as if he meant to write, he put the reed into his mouth, and + biting it, as he was wont to do when he was thoughtful or writing, he held + it there for some time. Then he bowed down his head and covered it. The + soldiers that stood at the door, supposing all this to proceed from want + of courage and fear of death, in derision called him effeminate, and + faint-hearted, and coward. And Archias, drawing near, desired him to rise + up, and repeating the same kind things he had spoken before, he once more + promised him to make his peace with Antipater. But Demosthenes, perceiving + that now the poison had pierced and seized his vitals, uncovered his head, + and fixing his eyes upon Archias, "Now," said he, "as soon as you please + you may commence the part of Creon in the tragedy, and cast out this body + of mine unburied. But, O gracious Neptune, I, for my part, while I am yet + alive, arise up and depart out of this sacred place; though Antipater and + the Macedonians have not left so much as thy temple unpolluted." After he + had thus spoken and desired to be held up, because already he began to + tremble and stagger, as he was going forward, and passing by the altar, he + fell down, and with a groan gave up the ghost. + </p> + <p> + Ariston says that he took the poison out of a reed, as we have shown + before. And Eratosthenes also says that he kept the poison in a hollow + ring, which he wore about his arm. There are various other statements made + by the many authors who have related the story, but there is no need to + enter into their discrepancies; yet I must not omit what is said by + Demochares, the relation of Demosthenes, who is of opinion, it was not by + the help of poison that he met with no sudden and so easy a death, but + that by the singular favor and providence of the gods he was thus rescued + from the cruelty of the Macedonians. He died on the sixteenth of + Pyanepsion, the most sad and solemn day of the Thesmophoria, which the + women observe by fasting in the temple of the goddess. + </p> + <p> + Soon after his death, the people of Athens bestowed on him such honors as + he had deserved. They erected his statue of brass; they decreed that the + eldest of his family should be maintained in the Prytaneum; and on the + base of his statue was engraven the famous inscription,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Had you for Greece been strong, as wise you were, + The Macedonian had not conquered her. +</pre> + <p> + A little before we went to Athens, the following incident was said to have + happened. A soldier, being summoned to appear before his superior officer, + and answer to an accusation brought against him, put a little gold which + he had into the hands of Demosthenes's statue. The fingers of this statue + were folded one within another, and near it grew a small plane-tree, from + which many leaves, either accidentally blown thither by the wind, or + placed so on purpose by the man himself, falling together, and lying round + about the gold, concealed it for a long time. In the end, the soldier + returned, and found his treasure entire, and the fame of this incident was + spread abroad. And many ingenious persons of the city competed with each + other, on this occasion, to vindicate the integrity of Demosthenes, in + several epigrams which they made on the subject. + </p> + <p> + As for Demades, he did not long enjoy the new honors he now came in for, + divine vengeance for the death of Demosthenes pursuing him into Macedonia, + where he was justly put to death by those whom he had basely flattered. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0010" id="link2H_4_0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CICERO + </h2> + <p> + It is generally said that Helvia, the mother of Cicero, was well born; but + of his father nothing is reported but in extremes. For whilst some would + have him the son of a fuller, and educated in that trade, others carry + back the origin of his family to Tullus Attius, an illustrious king of the + Volscians, who waged war not without honor against the Romans. However, he + who first of that house was surnamed Cicero seems to have been a person + worthy to be remembered; since those who succeeded him not only did not + reject, but were fond of that name, though vulgarly made a matter of + reproach. For the Latins call a vetch Cicer, and a nick or dent at the tip + of his nose, which resembled the opening in a vetch, gave him the surname + of Cicero. + </p> + <p> + Cicero, whose story I am writing, is said to have replied with spirit to + some of his friends, who recommended him to lay aside or change the name + when he first stood for office and engaged in politics, that he would make + it his endeavor to render the name of Cicero more glorious than that of + the Scauri and Catuli. And when he was quaestor in Sicily, and was making + an offering of silver plate to the gods, and had inscribed his two names, + Marcus and Tullius, instead of the third, he jestingly told the artificer + to engrave the figure of a vetch by them. + </p> + <p> + Cicero was born on the third of January, the same day on which now the + magistrates of Rome pray and sacrifice for the emperor. As soon as he was + of an age to begin to have lessons, he became so distinguished for his + talent, and got such a name and reputation amongst the boys, that their + fathers would often visit the school, that they might see young Cicero, + and might be able to say that they themselves had witnessed the quickness + and readiness in learning for which he was renowned. And the more rude + among them used to be angry with their children, to see them, as they + walked together, receiving Cicero with respect into the middle place. And + being, as Plato would have the scholar-like and philosophical temper, + eager for every kind of learning, and indisposed to no description of + knowledge or instruction, he showed, however, a more peculiar propensity + to poetry; and there is a poem now extant, made by him when a boy, in + tetrameter verse, called Pontius Glaucus. And afterwards, when he applied + himself more curiously to these accomplishments, he had the name of being + not only the best orator, but also the best poet of Rome. And the glory of + his rhetoric still remains, notwithstanding the many new modes in speaking + since his time; but his verses are forgotten and out of all repute, so + many ingenious poets have followed him. + </p> + <p> + Leaving his juvenile studies, he became an auditor of Philo the Academic, + whom the Romans, above all the other scholars of Clitomachus, admired for + his eloquence and loved for his character. He also sought the company of + the Mucii, who were eminent statesmen and leaders in the senate, and + acquired from them a knowledge of the laws. For some short time he served + in arms under Sylla, in the Marsian war. But perceiving the commonwealth + running into factions, and from faction all things tending to an absolute + monarchy, he betook himself to a retired and contemplative life, and + conversing with the learned Greeks, devoted himself to study, till Sylla + had obtained the government. + </p> + <p> + At this time, Chrysogonus, Sylla's emancipated slave, having laid an + information about an estate belonging to one who was said to have been put + to death by proscription, had bought it himself for two thousand drachmas. + And when Roscius, the son and heir of the dead, complained, and + demonstrated the estate to be worth two hundred and fifty talents, Sylla + took it angrily to have his actions questioned, and preferred a process + against Roscius for the murder of his father, Chrysogonus managing the + evidence. None of the advocates durst assist him, but fearing the cruelty + of Sylla, avoided the cause. The young man, being thus deserted, came for + refuge to Cicero. Cicero's friends encouraged him, saying he was not + likely ever to have a fairer and more honorable introduction to public + life; he therefore undertook the defence, carried the cause, and got much + renown for it. + </p> + <p> + But fearing Sylla, he traveled into Greece, and gave it out that he did so + for the benefit of his health. And indeed he was lean and meagre, and had + such a weakness in his stomach that he could take nothing but a spare and + thin diet, and that not till late in the evening. His voice was loud and + good, but so harsh and ill-managed that in vehemence and heat of speaking + he always raised it to so high a tone, that there seemed to be reason to + fear for his health. + </p> + <p> + At Athens, he became a hearer of Antiochus of Ascalon, with whose fluency + and elegance of diction he was much taken, although he did not approve of + his innovations in doctrine. And Cicero made up his mind that if he should + be disappointed of any employment in the commonwealth, to retire from + pleading and politics, and pass his life quietly in the study of + philosophy. + </p> + <p> + But after he had received the news of Sylla's death, and his body, + strengthened again by exercise, had grown vigorous, and his voice was + rendered sweet and full to the ear, his friends at Rome earnestly + solicited him by letters to return to public affairs. He, therefore, again + prepared for use his orator's instrument of rhetoric, and summoned into + action his political faculties, diligently exercising himself in + declamations, and attending the most celebrated rhetoricians of the time. + He sailed from Athens for Asia and Rhodes. Among the Asian masters, he + conversed with Xenocles of Adramyttium, Dionysius of Magnesia, and + Menippus of Caria; at Rhodes, he studied oratory with Apollonius, the son + of Molon, and philosophy with Posidonius. Apollonius, we are told, not + understanding Latin, requested Cicero to declaim in Greek. He complied + willingly, thinking that his faults would thus be better pointed out to + him. After he finished, all his other hearers were astonished, and vied + with each other in praising him, but Apollonius showed no signs of + excitement while he was hearing him, and now, when he had finished, sat + musing for some time, without any remark. And when Cicero was discomposed + at this, he said, "You have my praise and admiration, Cicero, and Greece + my pity and commiseration, since those arts and that eloquence which are + the only glories that remain to her, will now be transferred by you to + Rome." + </p> + <p> + And now when Cicero, full of expectation, was again bent upon political + affairs, a certain oracle blunted the edge of his inclination; for + consulting the god of Delphi how he should attain most glory, the + Pythoness answered, "By making your own genius and not the opinion of the + people the guide of your life;" and therefore at first he passed his time + in Rome cautiously, and was very backward in pretending to public offices, + so that he was at that time in little esteem, and had got the names, so + readily given by low and ignorant people in Rome, of Greek and Scholar. + But when his own desire of fame and the eagerness of his father and + relations had made him take in earnest to pleading, he made no slow or + gentle advance to the first place, but shone out in full lustre at once, + and far surpassed all the advocates at the bar. At first, it is said, he + as well as Demosthenes, was defective in his delivery, and on that account + paid much attention to the instructions, sometimes of Roscius, the + comedian, and sometimes of Aesop, the tragedian. They tell of this Aesop, + that while representing in the theatre Atreus deliberating the revenge of + Thyestes, he was so transported beyond himself in the heat of action, that + he struck with his sceptre one of the servants, who was running across the + stage, so violently, that he laid him dead upon the place. And such + afterwards was Cicero's delivery, that it did not a little contribute to + render his eloquence persuasive. He used to ridicule loud speakers, saying + that they shouted because they could not speak, like lame men who get on + horseback because they cannot walk. And his readiness and address in wit + and sarcasm were thought to suit a pleader well. + </p> + <p> + He was appointed quaestor in a great scarcity of corn, and had Sicily for + his province, where, at first, he displeased many, by compelling them to + send in their provisions to Rome, yet after they had had experience of his + care, justice, and clemency, they honored him more than ever they did any + of their governors before. It happened, also, that some young Romans of + good and noble families, charged with neglect of discipline and misconduct + in military service, were brought before the praetor in Sicily. Cicero + undertook their defence, which he conducted admirably, and got them + acquitted. So returning to Rome with a great opinion of himself for these + things, a ludicrous incident befell him, as he tells us himself. Meeting + an eminent citizen in Campania, whom he accounted his friend, he asked him + what the Romans said and thought of his actions, as if the whole city had + been filled with the glory of what he had done. His friend asked him in + reply, "Where is it you have been, Cicero?" Utterly mortified and cast + down, he perceived that the report of his actions had sunk into the city + of Rome as into an immense ocean, without any visible effect or result in + reputation. + </p> + <p> + On beginning to apply himself more resolutely to public business, he + remarked it as unreasonable that artificers, using vessels and instruments + inanimate, should know the name, place, and use of every one of them, and + yet the statesman, whose instruments for carrying out public measures are + men, should be negligent and careless in the knowledge of persons. And so + he not only acquainted himself with the names, but also knew the very + place where every one of the more eminent citizens dwelt, what lands he + possessed, his friends and his neighbors, and when he traveled on any road + in Italy, he could readily name and show the estates and seats of his + acquaintances. Having a small competency for his own expenses, it was much + wondered at that he took neither fees nor gifts from his clients, and + especially, that he did not do so when he undertook the prosecution of + Verres. This Verres, who had been praetor of Sicily, and stood charged by + the Sicilians with many evil practices during his government there, Cicero + succeeded in getting condemned, not by speaking, but, as it were, by + holding his tongue. For the praetors, favoring Verres, had deferred the + trial by several adjournments to the last day, in which it was evident + there could not be sufficient time for the advocates to be heard, and the + cause brought to an issue. Cicero, therefore, came forward, and said there + was no need of speeches; and after producing and examining witnesses, he + required the judges to proceed to sentence. Many witty sayings are on + record, as having been used by Cicero on the occasion. When a man named + Caecilius, one of the freed slaves, who was said to be given to Jewish + practices, would have put by the Sicilians, and undertaken the prosecution + of Verres himself, Cicero asked, "What has a Jew to do with swine?" verres + being the Roman word for a boar. And when Verres began to reproach Cicero + with effeminate living, "You ought," replied he, "to use this language at + home, to your sons;" Verres having a son who had fallen into disgraceful + courses. Hortensius, the orator, not daring directly to undertake the + defence of Verres, was yet persuaded to appear for him at the laying on of + the fine, and received an ivory sphinx for his reward; and when Cicero, in + some passage of his speech, obliquely reflected on him, and Hortensius + told him he was not skilful in solving riddles, "No," said Cicero, "and + yet you have the Sphinx in your house!" + </p> + <p> + Verres was thus convicted; though Cicero, who set the fine at seventy-five + myriads, lay under the suspicion of being corrupted by bribery to lessen + the sum. But the Sicilians, in testimony of their gratitude, came and + brought him all sorts of presents from the island, when he was aedile; of + which he made no private profit himself, but used their generosity only to + reduce the public price of provisions. + </p> + <p> + He had a very pleasant seat at Arpi, he had also a farm near Naples, and + another near Pompeii, but none were of any great value. The portion of his + wife, Terentia, amounted to ten myriads, and he had a bequest valued at + nine myriads of denarii: upon these he lived in a liberal but temperate + style, with the learned Greeks and Romans that were his familiars. He + rarely, if at any time, sat down to meat till sunset, and that not so much + on account of business as for his health and the weakness of his stomach. + He was otherwise in the care of his body nice and delicate, appointing + himself, for example, a set number of walks and rubbings. And after this + manner managing the habit of his body, he brought it in time to be + healthful, and capable of supporting many great fatigues and trials. His + father's house he made over to his brother, living himself near the + Palatine Hill, that he might not give the trouble of long journeys to + those that made suit to him. And, indeed, there were not fewer daily + appearing at his door, to do their court to him, than there were that came + to Crassus for his riches, or to Pompey for his power among the soldiers, + these being at that time the two men of the greatest repute and influence + in Rome. Nay, even Pompey himself used to pay court to Cicero, and + Cicero's public actions did much to establish Pompey's authority and + reputation in the state. + </p> + <p> + Numerous distinguished competitors stood with him for the praetor's + office; but he was chosen before them all, and managed the decision of + causes with justice and integrity. It is related that Licinius Macer, a + man himself of great power in the city, and supported also by the + assistance of Crassus, was accused before him of extortion, and that, in + confidence on his own interest and the diligence of his friends, whilst + the judges were debating about the sentence, he went to his house, where + hastily trimming his hair and putting on a clean gown, as already + acquitted, he was setting off again to go to the Forum; but at his hall + door meeting Crassus, who told him that he was condemned by all the votes, + he went in again, threw himself upon his bed, and died immediately. This + verdict was considered very creditable to Cicero, as showing his careful + management of the courts of justice. + </p> + <p> + Yet he was preferred to the consulship no less by the nobles than the + common people for the good of the city; and both parties jointly assisted + his promotion, for the following reasons. The change of government made by + Sylla, which at first seemed a senseless one, by time and usage had now + come to be considered by the people no unsatisfactory settlement. But + there were some that endeavored to alter and subvert the whole present + state of affairs, not from any good motives, but for their own private + gain; and Pompey being at this time employed in the wars with the kings of + Pontus and Armenia, there was no sufficient force at Rome to suppress any + attempts at a revolution. These people had for their head a man of bold, + daring, and restless character, Lucius Catiline, who was accused, besides + other great offences, of killing his own brother; and fearing to be + prosecuted at law, he persuaded Sylla to set his brother down, as though + he were yet alive, amongst those that were to be put to death by + proscription. This man the profligate citizens choosing for their captain, + gave faith to one another, amongst other pledges, by sacrificing a man and + eating of his flesh; and a great part of the young men of the city were + corrupted by him, he providing for every one pleasures and drink, and + profusely supplying the expense of their debauches. Etruria, moreover, had + all been excited to revolt, as well as a great part of Gaul within the + Alps. But Rome itself was in the most dangerous inclination to change on + account of the unequal distribution of wealth and property, those of + highest rank and greatest spirit having impoverished themselves by shows, + entertainments, running for office, and sumptuous buildings, and the + riches of the city had thus fallen into the hands of mean and low-born + persons. So that it required but a slight impetus to set all in motion, it + being in the power of any daring man to overturn a sickly commonwealth. + </p> + <p> + Catiline, however, being desirous of procuring a strong position to carry + out his designs, stood for the consulship, and had great hopes of success, + thinking he should be appointed, with Caius Antonius as his colleague, who + was a man fit to lead neither in a good cause nor in a bad one, but might + be a valuable accession to another's power. The greater part of the good + and honest citizens apprehending these things, put Cicero upon standing + for the consulship; whom the people readily receiving, Catiline was put + by, so that he and Caius Antonius were chosen, although amongst the + competitors he was the only man descended from the father of the + equestrian, and not of the senatorial, order. + </p> + <p> + Though the designs of Catiline were not yet publicly known, yet + considerable trouble immediately followed Cicero's entrance upon the + consulship. For, on the one side, those who were disqualified by the laws + of Sylla from holding any public offices, being neither inconsiderable in + power nor in number, came forward as candidates and entreated the people; + on the other hand, the tribunes of the people proposed laws to the same + purpose, constituting a commission of ten persons, with unlimited powers, + in whom as supreme governors should be vested the right of selling the + public lands of all Italy and Syria and Pompey's new conquests, of judging + and banishing whom they pleased, of planting colonies, of taking money out + of the treasury, and of levying and paying what soldiers should be though + needful. And several of the nobility favored this law, but especially + Caius Antonius, Cicero's colleague, in hopes of being one of the ten. But + what gave the greatest fear to the nobles was, that he was thought privy + to the conspiracy of Catiline, and not to dislike it because of his great + debts. + </p> + <p> + Cicero, endeavoring in the first place to provide a remedy against this + danger, procured a decree assigning to Antonius the province of Macedonia, + he himself declining that of Gaul, which was offered to him. And this + piece of favor so completely won over Antonius, that he was ready to + second, like a hired player, whatever Cicero said for the good of the + country. And now, having made his colleague tame and tractable, he could + with greater courage attack the conspirators. Therefore, in the senate, + making an oration against the law of the ten commissioners, he so + confounded those who proposed it, that they had nothing to reply. + </p> + <p> + For Cicero, it may be said, was the one man, above all others, who made + the Romans feel how great a charm eloquence lends to what is good, and how + invincible justice is if it be well presented. An incident occurred in the + theatre, during his consulship, which showed what his speaking could do. + Formerly the knights of Rome were mingled in the theatre with the common + people, and took their places amongst them just as it happened; but when + Marcus Otho became praetor he distinguished them from the other citizens, + and appointed them special seats, which they still enjoy as their place in + the theatre. This the common people took as an indignity done to them, + and, therefore, when Otho appeared in the theatre they hissed him; the + knights, on the contrary, received him with loud clapping. The people + repeated and increased their hissing; the knights continued their + clapping. Upon this, turning upon one another, they broke out into + insulting words, so that the theatre was in great disorder. Cicero, being + informed of it, came himself to the theatre, and summoning the people into + the temple of Bellona, he so effectually chid and chastised them for it, + that, again returning into the theatre, they received Otho with loud + applause, contending with the knights as to who should give him the + greatest demonstrations of honor and respect. + </p> + <p> + The conspirators with Catiline, at first cowed and disheartened, began + presently to take courage again. And assembling together, they exhorted + one another boldly to undertake the design before Pompey's return. But the + old soldiers of Sylla were Catiline's chief stimulus to action. They had + been disbanded all about Italy, but the greatest number and the fiercest + of them lay scattered among the cities of Etruria entertaining themselves + with dreams of new plunder and rapine among the hoarded riches of Italy. + These, having for their leader Manlius, who had served with distinction in + the wars under Sylla, joined themselves to Catiline, and came to Rome to + assist him with their suffrages at the election. For he again aspired for + the consulship, having resolved to kill Cicero in a tumult at the + elections. The divine powers seemed to give intimation of the coming + troubles, by earthquakes, thunderbolts and strange appearances. Nor was + human evidence wanting, certain enough in itself, though not sufficient to + convict the noble and powerful Catiline. Therefore Cicero, deferring the + day of election, summoned Catiline into the senate, and questioned him as + to the charges made against him. Catiline, believing there were many in + the senate desirous of change, and to give a specimen of himself to the + conspirators present, returned an audacious answer. "What harm," said he, + "when I see two bodies, the one lean and consumptive with a head, the + other one great and strong without one, if I put a head to that body which + wants one?" This covert representation of the senate and the people + excited yet greater apprehensions in Cicero. He put on armor, and was + attended from his house by the noble citizens in a body; and a number of + the young men went with him into the Plain. Here, designedly letting his + tunic slip partly off from his shoulders, he showed his armor underneath, + and discovered his danger to the spectators, who, being much moved at it, + gathered around about him for his defence. At length, Catiline was by + general suffrage again put by, and Silanus and Murena chosen consuls. + </p> + <p> + Not long after this, Catiline's soldiers got together in a body in + Etruria, and began to form themselves into companies, the day appointed + for the design being near at hand. About midnight, some of the principal + and most powerful citizens of Rome, Marcus, Crassus, Marcus Marcellus, and + Scipio Metellus went to Cicero's house, where, knocking at the gate, and + calling up the porter, they commanded him to awake Cicero, and tell him + they were there. The business was this: Crassus's porter after supper had + delivered to him letters brought by an unknown person. Some of them were + directed to others, but one to Crassus, without a name; this only Crassus + read, which informed him that there was a great slaughter intended by + Catiline, and advised him to leave the city. The others he did not open, + but went with them immediately to Cicero, being affrighted at the danger, + and to free himself of the suspicion he lay under for his familiarity with + Catiline. Cicero, considering the matter, summoned the senate at break of + day. The letters he brought with him, and delivered them to those to whom + they were directed, commanding them to read them publicly; they all alike + contained an account of the conspiracy. And when Quintus Arrius, a man of + praetorian dignity, recounted to them, how soldiers were collecting in + companies in Etruria, and Manlius was stated to be in motion with a large + force, hovering about those cities, in expectation of intelligence from + Rome, the senate made a decree to place all in the hands of the consuls, + who should undertake the conduct of everything, and do their best to save + the state. This was not a common thing, but only done by the senate in + cases of imminent danger. + </p> + <p> + After Cicero had received this power, he committed all affairs outside to + Quintus Metellus; but the management of the city he kept in his own hands. + Such a numerous attendance guarded him every day when he went abroad that + the greater part of the forum was filled with his train when he entered + it. Catiline, impatient of further delay, resolved himself to break forth + and go to Manlius; but he commanded Marcius and Cethegus to take their + swords and go early in the morning to Cicero's gates, as if only intending + to salute him, and then to fall upon him and slay him. A noble lady, + Fulvia, coming by night, discovered this to Cicero, bidding him beware of + Cethegus and Marcius. They came by break of day, and being denied + entrance, made an outcry and disturbance at the gates, which excited all + the more suspicion. But Cicero, going forth, summoned the senate into the + temple of Jupiter Stator, which stands at the end of the Sacred Street, + going up to the Palatine. And when Catiline with others of his party also + came, as though intending to make his defence, none of the senators would + sit by him, but all of them left the bench where he had placed himself. + And when he began to speak, they interrupted him with outcries. At length, + Cicero, standing up, commanded him to leave the city; for, since one + governed the commonwealth with words, the other with arms, it was + necessary that there should be a wall betwixt them. Catiline, therefore, + immediately left the town, with three hundred armed men; and assuming, + like a magistrate, the rods, axes, and military ensigns, he went to + Manlius, and having got together a body of near twenty thousand men, with + these he marched to the several cities, endeavoring to persuade or force + them to revolt. It being now come to open war, Antonius was sent forth to + fight him. + </p> + <p> + The remainder of those in the city whom he had corrupted, Cornelius + Lentulus kept together and encouraged. He had the surname Sura, and was a + man of a noble family, but a dissolute liver, who for his debauchery was + formerly turned out of the senate, and was now holding the office of + praetor for the second time, as the custom is with those who desire to + regain the dignity of senator. It is said that he got the surname Sura + upon this occasion; being quaestor in the time of Sylla, he had lavished + away and consumed a great quantity of the public moneys, at which Sylla, + being provoked, called him to give an account in the senate. He appeared + with great coolness and contempt, and said he had no account to give, but + they might take this, holding up the calf of his leg, as boys do at ball, + when they have missed. Upon which he was surnamed Sura, sura being the + Roman word for the calf of the leg. Being at another time prosecuted at + law, and having bribed some of the judges, he escaped by only two votes, + and complained of the needless expense he had gone to in paying for a + second, as one would have sufficed to acquit him. This man, such in his + own nature, and now inflamed by Catiline, false prophets and + fortune-tellers had also corrupted with vain hopes, quoting to him + fictitious verses and oracles, and proving from the Sibylline prophecies + that there were three of the name Cornelius designed by fate to be + monarchs of Rome; two of whom, Cinna and Sylla, had already fulfilled the + decree, and that divine fortune was now advancing with the gift of + monarchy for the remaining third Cornelius; and that therefore he ought by + all means to accept it, and not lose opportunity by delay, as Catiline had + done. + </p> + <p> + Lentulus, therefore, designed no mean or trivial matter, for he had + resolved to kill the whole senate, and as many other citizens as he could, + to fire the city, and spare nobody, except Pompey's children, intending to + seize and keep them as pledges of his reconciliation with Pompey. For + there was then a common report that Pompey was on his way homeward from + his great expedition. The night appointed for the design was one of the + Saturnalia; swords, flax, and sulphur they carried and hid in the house of + Cethegus; and providing one hundred men, and dividing the city into as + many parts, they had allotted to every one singly his proper place, so + that in a moment, many kindling the fire, the city might be in a flame all + together. Others were appointed to stop up the aqueducts, and to kill + those who should endeavor to carry water to put it out. While these plans + were preparing, it happened that there were two ambassadors from the + Allobroges staying in Rome; a nation at that time in a distressed + condition, and very uneasy under the Roman government. These Lentulus and + his party, judging useful instruments to move Gaul to revolt, admitted + into the conspiracy, and they gave them letters to their own magistrates, + and letters to Catiline; in those they promised liberty, in these they + exhorted Catiline to set all slaves free, and to bring them along with him + to Rome. They sent also to accompany them to Catiline, one Titus, a native + of Croton, who was to carry those letters to him. + </p> + <p> + These counsels of inconsidering men, who conversed together over their + wine, Cicero watched with sober industry and forethought, and with most + admirable sagacity, having several emissaries abroad, who observed and + traced with him all that was done, and keeping also a secret + correspondence with many who pretended to join in the conspiracy. He thus + knew all the discourse which passed between them and the strangers; and + lying in wait for them by night, he took the Crotonian with his letters, + the ambassadors of the Allobroges acting secretly in concert with him. + </p> + <p> + By break of day, he summoned the senate into the temple of Concord, where + he read the letters and examined the informers. Junius Silanus further + stated that several persons had heard Cethegus say that three consuls and + four praetors were to be slain; Piso, also, a person of consular dignity, + testified other matters of like nature; and Caius Sulpicius, one of the + praetors, being sent to Cethegus's house, found there a quantity of darts + and of armor, and a still greater number of swords and daggers, all + recently whetted. At length, the senate, decreeing indemnity to the + Crotonian upon his confession of the whole matter, Lentulus was convicted, + abjured his office (for he was then praetor), and put off his robe edged + with purple in the senate, changing it for another garment more agreeable + to his present circumstances. He, thereupon, with the rest of his + confederates present, was committed to the charge of the praetors in free + custody. + </p> + <p> + It being evening, and the common people in crowds expecting without, + Cicero went forth to them, and told them what was done, and then, attended + by them, went to the house of a friend and near neighbor; for his own was + taken up by the women, who were celebrating with secret rites the feast of + the goddess whom the Romans call the Good, and the Greeks, the Women's + goddess. For a sacrifice is annually performed to her in the consul's + house, either by his wife or mother, in the presence of the vestal + virgins. And having got into his friend's house privately, a few only + being present, he began to deliberate how he should treat these men. The + severest and the only punishment fit for such heinous crimes, he was + somewhat shy and fearful of inflicting, as well from the clemency of his + nature, as also lest he should be thought to exercise his authority too + insolently, and to treat too harshly men of the noblest birth and most + powerful friendships in the city; and yet, if he should use them more + mildly, he had a dreadful prospect of danger from them. For there was no + likelihood that, if they suffered less than death, they would be + reconciled, but, rather, adding new rage to their former wickedness, they + would rush into every kind of audacity, while he himself, whose character + for courage already did not stand very high with the multitude, would be + thought guilty of the greatest cowardice and want of manliness. + </p> + <p> + While Cicero was in doubt what course to take, a portent happened to the + women in their sacrificing. For on the altar, where the fire seemed wholly + extinguished, a great and bright flame issued forth from the ashes of the + burnt wood; at which others were affrighted, but the holy virgins called + to Terentia, Cicero's wife, and bade her hasten to her husband, and + command him to execute what he had resolved for the good of his country, + for the goddess had sent a great light to the increase of his safety and + glory. Terentia, therefore, as she was otherwise in her own nature neither + tender-hearted nor timorous, but a woman eager for distinction (who, as + Cicero himself says, would rather thrust herself into his public affairs + than communicate her domestic matters to him), told him these things, and + excited him against the conspirators. So also did Quintus his brother, and + Publius Nigidius, one of his philosophical friends, whom he often made use + of in his most weighty affairs of state. + </p> + <p> + The next day, a debate arising in the senate about the punishment of the + men, Silanus, being the first who was asked his opinion, said, it was fit + that they should be all sent to prison, and there suffer the utmost + penalty. With him all agreed in order till it came to Caius Caesar, who + was afterwards dictator. He was then but a young man, and only at the + outset of his career, but had already directed his hopes and policy to + that course by which he afterwards changed the Roman state into a + monarchy. + </p> + <p> + When it came Caesar's turn to give his opinion, he stood up and proposed + that the conspirators should not be put to death, but their estates + confiscated, and their persons confined in such cities in Italy as Cicero + should approve, there to be kept in custody till Catiline was conquered. + To this sentence, as it was the most moderate, and he that delivered it a + most powerful speaker, Cicero himself gave no small weight, for he stood + up and, turning the scale on either side, spoke in favor partly of the + former, partly of Caesar's sentence. And all Cicero's friends, judging + Caesar's sentence most expedient for Cicero, because he would incur the + less blame if the conspirators were not put to death, chose rather the + latter; so that Silanus, also, changing his mind, retracted his opinion, + and said he had not declared for capital, but only the utmost punishment, + which to a Roman senator is imprisonment. The first man who spoke against + Caesar's motion was Catulus Lutatius. Cato followed, and so vehemently + urged in his speech the strong suspicion about Caesar himself, and so + filled the senate with anger and resolution, that a decree was passed for + the execution of the conspirators. But Caesar opposed the confiscation of + their goods, not thinking it fair that those who had rejected the mildest + part of his sentence should avail themselves of the severest. And when + many insisted upon it, he appealed to the tribunes, but they would do + nothing; till Cicero himself yielding, remitted that part of the sentence. + </p> + <p> + After this, Cicero went out with the senate to the conspirators; they were + not all together in one place, but the several praetors had them, some + one, some another, in custody. And first he took Lentulus from the + Palatine, and brought him by the Sacred Street, through the middle of the + market-place, a circle of the most eminent citizens encompassing and + protecting him. The people, affrighted at what was doing, passed along in + silence, especially the young men; as if, with fear and trembling, they + were undergoing a rite of initiation into some ancient, sacred mysteries + of aristocratic power. Thus passing from the market-place, and coming to + the gaol, he delivered Lentulus to the officer, and commanded him to + execute him; and after him Cethegus, and so all the rest in order, he + brought and delivered up to execution. And when he saw many of the + conspirators in the market-place, still standing together in companies, + ignorant of what was done, and waiting for the night, supposing the men + were still alive and in a possibility of being rescued, he called out in a + loud voice, and said, "They did live"; for so the Romans, to avoid + inauspicious language, name those that are dead. + </p> + <p> + It was now evening, when he returned from the market-place to his own + house, the citizens no longer attending him with silence, nor in order, + but receiving him, as he passed, with acclamations and applauses, and + saluting him as the savior and founder of his country. A bright light + shone through the streets from the lamps and torches set up at the doors, + and the women showed lights from the tops of the houses, to honor Cicero, + and to behold him returning home with a splendid train of the principal + citizens; amongst whom were many who had conducted great wars, celebrated + triumphs, and added to the possessions of the Roman empire, both by sea + and land. These, as they passed along with him, acknowledged to one + another, that though the Roman people were indebted to several officers + and commanders of that age for riches, spoils, and power, yet to Cicero + alone they owed the safety and security of all these, for delivering them + from so great and imminent a danger. For though it might seem no wonderful + thing to prevent the design, and punish the conspirators, yet to defeat + the greatest of all conspiracies with so little disturbance, trouble, and + commotion, was very extraordinary. For the greater part of those who had + flocked in to Catiline, as soon as they heard of the fate of Lentulus and + Cethegus, forsook him, and he himself, with his remaining forces, joining + battle with Antonius, was destroyed with his army. + </p> + <p> + And yet there were some who were very ready both to speak ill of Cicero, + and to do him hurt for these actions; and they had for their leaders some + of the magistrates of the ensuing year, as Caesar, who was one of the + praetors, and Metellus and Bestia, the tribunes. These, entering upon + their office some few days before Cicero's consulate expired, would not + permit him to make any address to the people, but, throwing the benches + before the Rostra, hindered his speaking, telling him he might, if he + pleased, make the oath of withdrawal from office, and then come down + again. Cicero, accordingly, accepting the conditions, came forward to make + his withdrawal; and silence being made, he recited his oath, not in the + usual, but in a new and peculiar form, namely, that he had saved his + country, and preserved the empire; the truth of which oath all the people + confirmed with theirs. Caesar and the tribunes, all the more exasperated + by this, endeavored to create him further trouble, and for this purpose + proposed a law for calling Pompey home with his army, to put an end to + Cicero's usurpation. But it was a very great advantage for Cicero and the + whole commonwealth that Cato was at that time one of the tribunes. For he, + being of equal power with the rest, and of greater reputation, could + oppose their designs. He easily defeated their other projects, and, in an + oration to the people, so highly extolled Cicero's consulate, that the + greatest honors were decreed him, and he was publicly declared the Father + of his Country, which title he seems to have obtained, the first man who + did so, when Cato applied it to him in this address to the people. + </p> + <p> + At this time, therefore, his authority was very great in the city; but he + created himself much envy, and offended very many, not by any evil action, + but because he was always lauding and magnifying himself. For neither + senate, nor assembly of the people, nor court of judicature could meet, in + which he was not heard to talk of Catiline and Lentulus. Indeed, he filled + his books and writings with his own praises, to such an excess as to + render a style, in itself most pleasant and delightful, nauseous and + irksome to his hearers. This ungrateful humor, like a disease, always + clove to him. Still, though fond of his own glory, he was very free from + envying others, but was, on the contrary, most liberally profuse in + commending both the ancients and his contemporaries, as any one may see in + his writings. He called Aristotle a river of flowing gold, and said of + Plato's Dialogues, that if Jupiter were to speak, it would be in language + like theirs. He used to call Theophrastus his special luxury. And being + asked which of Demosthenes's orations he liked best, he answered, "The + longest." And as for the eminent men of his own time, either in eloquence + or philosophy, there was not one of them whom he did not, by writing or + speaking favorably of him, render more illustrious. + </p> + <p> + An example of his love of praise is the way in which sometimes, to make + his orations more striking, he neglected decorum and dignity. When + Munatius, who had escaped conviction by his advocacy, immediately + prosecuted his friend Sabinus, he said in the warmth of his resentment, + "Do you suppose you were acquitted for your own merits, Munatius, or was + it not that I so darkened the case, that the court could not see your + guilt?" When from the Rostra he had made a eulogy on Marcus Crassus, with + much applause, and within a few days after again as publicly reproached + him, Crassus called to him, and said, "Did not you yourself two days ago, + in this same place, commend me?" "Yes," said Cicero, "I exercised my + eloquence in declaiming upon a bad subject." At another time, Crassus had + said that no one of his family had ever lived beyond sixty years of age, + and afterwards denied it, and asked, "What should put it into my head to + say so?" "It was to gain the people's favor," answered Cicero; "you knew + how glad they would be to hear it." When Vatinius, who had swellings in + his neck, was pleading a cause, he called him the tumid orator; and having + been told by some one that Vatinius was dead, on hearing soon after that + he was alive, he said, "may the rascal perish, for his news not being + true." + </p> + <p> + Upon Caesar's bringing forward a law for the division of the lands in + Campania amongst the soldiers, many in the senate opposed it; amongst the + rest, Lucius Gellius, one of the oldest men in the house, said it should + never pass whilst he lived. "Let us postpone it," said Cicero, "Gellius + does not ask us to wait long." There was a man of the name of Octavius, + suspected to be of African descent. He once said, when Cicero was + pleading, that he could not hear him; "yet there are holes," said Cicero, + "in your ears." When Metellus Nepos told him that he had ruined more as a + witness than he had saved as an advocate, "I admit," said Cicero, "that I + have more truth than eloquence." To a young man who was suspected of + having given a poisoned cake to his father, and who talked largely of the + invectives he meant to deliver against Cicero, "Better these," replied he, + "than your cakes." Publius Sextius, having amongst others retained Cicero + as his advocate in a certain cause, was yet desirous to say all for + himself, and would not allow anybody to speak for him; when he was about + to receive his acquittal from the judges, and the ballots were passing, + Cicero called to him, "make haste, Sextius, and use your time; to-morrow + you will be nobody." He cited Publius Cotta to bear testimony in a certain + cause, one who affected to be thought a lawyer, though ignorant and + unlearned; but when Cotta had said, "I know nothing at all about the + matter," Cicero answered: "You think, perhaps, we are asking you about a + point of law." When Marcus Appius, in the opening of some speech in a + court of justice, said that his friend had desired him to employ industry, + eloquence, and fidelity in that cause, Cicero asked, "And how have you had + the heart not to accede to any one of his requests?" + </p> + <p> + One Clodius, whom Cicero had vehemently opposed in an important trial, + having got himself chosen one of the tribunes, immediately attacked + Cicero, endeavoring to incite everybody against him. The common people he + gained over with popular laws; to each of the consuls he decreed large + provinces, to Piso, Macedonia, and to Gabinius, Syria. Of the three men + then in greatest power, Crassus was Cicero's open enemy, Pompey + indifferently made advances to both, and Caesar was going with an army + into Gaul. To him, though not his friend, Cicero applied, requesting an + appointment as one of his lieutenants in the province. Caesar accepted + him, and Clodius, perceiving that Cicero would thus escape his tribunician + authority, professed to be inclinable to a reconciliation, made always a + favorable mention of him, and addressed him with kind expressions, as one + who felt no hatred or ill-will, but who merely wished to urge his + complaints in a moderate and friendly way. By these artifices, he so freed + Cicero of all his fears, that he resigned his appointment to Caesar, and + betook himself again to political affairs. At which Caesar being + exasperated, joined the party of Clodius against him, and wholly alienated + Pompey from him; he also himself declared in a public assembly of the + people, that he did not think Lentulus and Cethegus, with their + accomplices, were fairly and legally put to death without being brought to + trial. And this, indeed, was the crime charged upon Cicero, and this + impeachment he was summoned to answer. And so, as an accused man, and in + danger for the result, he changed his dress, and went round with his hair + untrimmed, in the attire of a suppliant, to beg the people's grace. But + Clodius met him in every corner, having a band of abusive and daring + fellows about him, who derided Cicero for his change of dress and his + humiliation, and often, by throwing dirt and stones at him, interrupted + his supplication to the people. + </p> + <p> + However, first of all, almost the whole equestrian order changed their + dress with him, and no less than twenty thousand young gentlemen followed + him with their hair untrimmed, and supplicating with him to the people. + And then the senate met, to pass a decree that the people should change + their dress as in time of public sorrow. But the consuls opposing it, and + Clodius with armed men besetting the senate-house, many of the senators + ran out, crying aloud and tearing their clothes. But this sight moved + neither shame nor pity; Cicero must either fly or determine it by the + sword with Clodius. He entreated Pompey to aid him, who on purpose had + gone out of the way, and was staying at his country-house in the Alban + hills; and first he sent his son-in-law Piso to intercede with him, and + afterwards set out to go himself. But Pompey being informed, would not + stay to see him, being ashamed at the remembrance of the many conflicts in + the commonwealth which Cicero had undergone in his behalf, and how much of + his policy he had directed for his advantage. But being now Caesar's + son-in-law, at his instance he had set aside all former kindness, and, + slipping out at another door, avoided the interview. Thus being forsaken + by Pompey, and left alone to himself, he fled to the consuls. Gabinius was + rough with him, as usual, but Piso spoke more courteously, desiring him to + yield for a while to the fury of Clodius, and to await a change of times, + and to be now, as before, his country's savior from the peril of these + troubles and commotions which Clodius was exciting. + </p> + <p> + Cicero, receiving this answer, consulted with his friends. Lucullus + advised him to stay, as being sure to prevail at last; others to fly, + because the people would soon desire him again, when they should have + enough of the rage and madness of Clodius. This last Cicero approved. But + first he took a statue of Minerva, which had been long set up and greatly + honored in his house, and carrying it to the capitol, there dedicated it, + with the inscription, "To Minerva, Patroness of Rome." And receiving an + escort from his friends, about the middle of the night he left the city, + and went by land through Lucania, intending to reach Sicily. + </p> + <p> + But as soon as it was publicly known that he was fled, Clodius proposed to + the people a decree of exile, and by his own order interdicted him fire + and water, prohibiting any within five hundred miles in Italy to receive + him into their houses. Most people, out of respect for Cicero, paid no + regard to this edict, offering him every attention, and escorting him on + his way. But at Hipponium, a city of Lucania, now called Vibo, one Vibius, + a Sicilian by birth, who, amongst may other instances of Cicero's + friendship, had been made head of the state engineers when he was consul, + would not receive him into his house, sending him word that he would + appoint a place in the country for his reception. Caius Vergilius, the + praetor of Sicily, who had been on the most intimate terms with him, wrote + to him to forbear coming into Sicily. Cicero, thoroughly disheartened at + these things, went to Brundusium, whence he put forth with a prosperous + wind, but a contrary gale blowing from the sea carried him back to Italy + the next day. He put again to sea, and having reached Dyrrachium, on his + coming to shore there, it is reported that an earthquake and a convulsion + in the sea happened at the same time, signs which the diviners said + intimated that his exile would not be long, for these were prognostics of + change. Although many visited him with respect, and the cities of Greece + contended with each other in honoring him, he yet continued disconsolate, + like an unfortunate lover, often casting his looks back upon Italy; and, + indeed, he had become more humiliated and dejected by his misfortunes than + any one could have expected in a man who had devoted so much of his life + to study and learning. And yet he often desired his friends not to call + him orator, but philosopher, because he had made philosophy his business, + and had only used rhetoric as an instrument for attaining his objects in + public life. + </p> + <p> + Clodius, having thus driven away Cicero, fell to burning his + farm-buildings and villas, and afterwards his city house, and built on the + site of it a temple to Liberty. The rest of his property he exposed for + sale by daily proclamation, but nobody came to buy. By this course he + became formidable to the noble citizens, and, being followed by the + commonalty, whom he had filled with insolence and licentiousness, he began + at last to try his strength against Pompey, some of whose arrangements in + the countries he conquered, he attacked. The disgrace of this made Pompey + begin to reproach himself for his cowardice in deserting Cicero, and, + changing his mind, he now wholly set himself with his friends to contrive + his return. And when Clodius opposed it, the senate made a vote that no + public measure should be ratified or passed by them till Cicero was + recalled. But when Lentulus was consul, the commotions grew so high upon + this matter, that the tribunes were wounded in the Forum, and Quintus, + Cicero's brother, was left as dead, lying unobserved amongst the slain. + The people began to change in their feelings; and Annius Milo, one of + their tribunes, was the first who had the courage to summon Clodius to + trial for acts of violence. Many of the common people in Rome and the + neighboring cities formed a party with Pompey, who headed them in person, + drove Clodius out of the Forum, and summoned the people to pass their + vote. And, it is said, the people never passed any suffrage more + unanimously than this. The senate, also, striving to outdo the people, + sent letters of thanks to those cities which had received Cicero with + respect in his exile, and decreed that his house and his country-places, + which Clodius had destroyed, should be rebuilt at the public charge. + </p> + <p> + Thus Cicero returned sixteen months after his exile, and the cities were + so glad, and the people so zealous to meet him, that his boast, that Italy + had brought him on her shoulders home to Rome, was rather less than the + truth. And Crassus himself, who had been his enemy before his exile, went + voluntarily to meet him, and was reconciled, as he said, to please his son + Publius, who was Cicero's affectionate admirer. + </p> + <p> + Cicero had not been long at Rome, when, taking the opportunity of + Clodius's absence, he went, with a great company, to the capitol, and + there tore and defaced the tribunician tables, in which were recorded the + acts done in the time of Clodius. And on Clodius calling him in question + for this, he answered, that he, being of the patrician order, had obtained + the office of tribune against the law, and, therefore, nothing done by him + was valid. Cato was displeased at this, and opposed Cicero, not that he + commended Clodius, but rather disapproved of his whole administration; + yet, he contended, that it was an irregular and violent course for the + senate to vote the illegality of so many decrees and acts, including those + of Cato's own government in Cyprus and at Byzantium. This occasioned a + breach between Cato and Cicero, which, though it did not come to open + enmity, made a more reserved friendship between them. + </p> + <p> + After this, Milo killed Clodius, and, being arraigned for the murder, he + procured Cicero for his advocate. The senate, fearing lest the questioning + of so eminent and high-spirited a citizen as Milo might disturb the peace + of the city, committed the superintendence of this and of the other trials + to Pompey, who should undertake to maintain the security alike of the city + and of the courts of justice. Pompey, therefore, went in the night, and + occupying the high grounds about it, surrounded the Forum with soldiers. + Milo, fearing lest Cicero, being disturbed by such an unusual sight, + should conduct his cause the less successfully, persuaded him to come in a + litter into the Forum, and there rest till the judges had taken their + seats, and the court was filled. For Cicero, it seems, not only wanted + courage in arms, but, in his speaking also, began with timidity, and in + many cases scarcely left off trembling and shaking when he had got + thoroughly into the current and the substance of his speech. Once when he + had to defend Licinius Murena against the prosecution of Cato, being eager + to outdo Hortensius, who had made his plea with great applause, he took so + little rest the night before, and was so disordered with thought and + over-watching, that he spoke much worse than usual. And so now, on + quitting his litter to commence the cause of Milo, at the sight of Pompey, + encamped, as it were, with his troops, and seeing arms shining round about + the Forum, he was so confounded that he could hardly begin his speech, for + the trembling of his body and hesitancy of his tongue; whereas Milo, + meantime, was so bold and intrepid in his demeanor, that he disdained + either to let his hair grow, or to put on the mourning habit. And this, + indeed, seems to have been the principal cause of his condemnation. And + Cicero was thought not so much to have shown timidity for himself, as + anxiety about his friend. + </p> + <p> + When the outbreak between Caesar and Pompey came, Cicero wavered painfully + between both, for he writes in his epistles, "To which side should I turn? + Pompey has the fair and honorable plea for war; and Caesar, on the other + hand, has managed his affairs better, and is more able to secure himself + and his friends. So that I know whom I should fly from, not whom I should + fly to." But when Trebatius, one of Caesar's friends, by letter signified + to him that Caesar thought it was his most desirable course to join his + side, but if he considered himself too old a man for this, he would do + better to retire into Greece, and stay quietly there, out of the way of + either party, Cicero, wondering that Caesar had not written himself, + replied angrily that he should do nothing unbecoming his past life. + </p> + <p> + But as soon as Caesar had marched into Spain, he immediately sailed away + to join Pompey. And he was welcomed by all but Cato; who, taking him + privately aside, chid him for coming to Pompey. As for himself, he said, + it would have been indecent to forsake that part in the commonwealth which + he had chosen from the beginning; but Cicero might have been more useful + to his country and friends, if, remaining neutral, he had attended and + used his influence to moderate the result, instead of coming hither to + make himself, without reason or necessity, an enemy to Caesar, and a + partner in such great dangers. By this language, Cicero's feelings were + altered, and partly, also, because Pompey made no great use of him. + Although he was himself really the cause of it, by his not denying that he + was sorry he had come, by his deprecating Pompey's resources, finding + fault underhand with his counsels, and continually indulging in jests and + sarcastic remarks on his fellow-soldiers. + </p> + <p> + After the battle of Pharsalia was over, at which he was not present for + want of health, and Pompey had fled, Cato, having considerable forces and + a great fleet at Dyrrachium, would have had Cicero commander-in-chief, + according to law, and the precedence of his consular dignity. But on his + refusing the command, and wholly declining to take part in their plans for + continuing the war, he was in the greatest danger of being killed, young + Pompey and his friends calling him traitor, and drawing their swords upon + him; only that Cato interposed, and with difficulty rescued and brought + him out of the camp. + </p> + <p> + Afterwards, arriving at Brundusium, he tarried there some time in + expectation of Caesar, who was delayed by his affairs in Asia and Egypt. + And when it was told him that he had arrived at Tarentum, and was coming + thence by land to Brundusium, he hastened towards him, not altogether + without hope, and yet in some fear of making experiment of the temper of + an enemy and conqueror in the presence of many witnesses. But there was no + necessity for him either to speak or do anything unworthy of himself; for + Caesar, as soon as he saw him coming a good way before the rest of the + company, went forward to meet him, saluted him, and, leading the way, + conversed with him alone for some furlongs. And from that time on he + continued to treat him with honor and respect, so that, when Cicero wrote + an oration in praise of Cato, Caesar, in writing an answer to it, took + occasion to commend Cicero's own life and eloquence, comparing him to + Pericles and Teramenes. Cicero's oration was called "Cato"; Caesar's, + "Anti-Cato." + </p> + <p> + So also, it is related that when Quintus Ligarius was prosecuted for + having been in arms against Caesar, and Cicero had undertaken his defence, + Caesar said to his friends, "Ligarius, without question, is a wicked man + and an enemy. But why might we not as well once more hear a speech from + Cicero?" yet when Cicero began to speak, he wonderfully moved him, and + proceeded in his speech with such varied pathos, and such a charm of + language, that the color of Caesar's countenance often changed, and it was + evident that all the passions of his soul were in commotion. And when at + length, the orator touched upon the Pharsalian battle, he was so affected + that his whole frame trembled and some of the papers he held dropped out + of his hands. And thus he was overpowered, and acquitted Ligarius. + </p> + <p> + Henceforth, the commonwealth being changed into a monarchy, Cicero + withdrew himself from public affairs, and employed his leisure in + instructing those young men that wished, in philosophy; and by the near + intercourse he thus had with some of the noblest and highest in rank, he + again began to possess great influence in the city. The work which he set + himself to do was to compose and translate philosophical dialogues and to + render logical and physical terms into the Roman idiom. For he it was, as + it is said, who first or principally gave Latin names to technical Greek + terms, which, either by metaphors or other means of accommodation, he + succeeded in making intelligible to the Romans. For his recreation, he + exercised his dexterity in poetry, and when he was set to it, would make + five hundred verses in a night. He spent the greatest part of his time at + his country-house near Tusculum. + </p> + <p> + He had a design, it is said, of writing the history of his country, + combining with it much of that of Greece, and incorporating in it all the + stories and legends of the past that he had collected. But his purposes + were interfered with by various public and various private unhappy + occurrences and misfortunes; for most of which he was himself in fault. + For first of all, he put away his wife, Terentia, by whom he had been + neglected in the time of the war, and sent away destitute of necessaries + for his journey; neither did he find her kind when he returned into Italy, + for she did not join him at Brundusium, where he staid a long time, and + would not allow her young daughter, who undertook so long a journey, + decent attendance, or the requisite expenses; besides, she left him a + naked and empty house, and yet had involved him in many and great debts. + These were alleged as the fairest reasons for the divorce. But Terentia, + who denied them all, had the most unmistakable defence furnished her by + her husband himself, who not long after married a young maiden for the + love of her beauty, as Terentia upbraided him; or as Tiro, his emancipated + slave, has written, for her riches, to discharge his debts. For the young + woman was very rich, and Cicero had the custody of her estate, being left + guardian in trust; and being in debt many myriads of money, he was + persuaded by his friends and relations to marry her, notwithstanding their + disparity of age, and to use her money to satisfy his creditors. Antony, + who mentions this marriage in his answer to the Phillippics, reproaches + him for putting away a wife with whom he had lived to old age; adding some + happy strokes of sarcasm on Cicero's domestic, inactive, unsoldier-like + habits. Not long after this marriage, his daughter died at Lentulus's + house, to whom she had been married after the death of Piso, her former + husband. The philosophers from all parts came to comfort Cicero; for his + grief was so excessive, that he put away his newly-married wife, because + she seemed to be pleased at the death of Tullia. + </p> + <p> + He had no concern in the design that was now forming to kill Caesar, + although, in general, he was Brutus's confidant. + </p> + <p> + But as soon as the act was committed by Brutus and Cassius, and the + friends of Caesar had assembled, so that there was danger of another civil + war, Antony, being consul, convened the senate, and made a short address + recommending concord. And Cicero, following with various remarks such as + the occasion called for, persuaded the senate to imitate the Athenians, + and decree an amnesty for what had been done in Caesar's case, and to + bestow provinces on Brutus and Cassius. But neither of these things took + effect. For as soon as the common people, who were naturally inclined to + pity, saw the dead body of Caesar borne through the market-place, and + Antony showing his clothes stained with blood, and pierced through in + every part with swords, they were enraged to such a degree of frenzy, that + they made a search for the murderers, and with firebrands in their hands + ran to their houses to burn them. + </p> + <p> + Antony at this was in exultation, and every one was alarmed at the + prospect that he would make himself sole ruler, and Cicero more than any + one else. For Antony, seeing his influence reviving in the commonwealth, + and knowing how closely he was connected with Brutus, was ill-pleased to + have him in the city. Besides, there had been some former jealousy between + them, occasioned by the difference of their manners. Cicero, fearing the + event, was inclined to go as lieutenant with Dolabella into Syria. But + Hirtius and Pansa, consuls-elect as successors of Antony, good men and + lovers of Cicero, entreated him not to leave them, undertaking to put down + Antony if he would stay in Rome. And he, neither distrusting wholly, nor + trusting them, let Dolabella go without him, promising Hirtius that he + would go and spend his summer at Athens, and return again when he entered + upon his office. So he set out on his journey; but some delay occurring in + his passage, new intelligence, as often happens, came suddenly from Rome, + that Antony had made an astonishing change, and was managing the public + affairs in harmony with the will of the senate, and that there wanted + nothing but his presence to bring things to a happy settlement. Therefore, + blaming himself for his cowardice, he returned to Rome, and was not + deceived in his hopes at the beginning. For such multitudes flocked out to + meet him, that the compliments and civilities which were paid him at the + gates, and at this entrance into the city, took up almost a whole day's + time. + </p> + <p> + On the morrow, Antony convened the senate, and summoned Cicero thither. + But he kept his bed, pretending to be ill from his journey; but the true + reason seemed to be the fear of some design against him, upon a suspicion + and intimation given him on his way to Rome. Antony, however, showed great + offence at the affront, and sent soldiers, commanding them to bring him or + burn his house; but many interceding and supplicating for him, he was + contented to accept sureties. Ever after when they met, they passed one + another in silence, and continued on their guard, till the younger Caesar + (Augustus), coming from Apollonia, entered on the first Caesar's + inheritance, and was engaged in a dispute with Antony about two thousand + five hundred myriads of money, which Antony detained from the estate. + </p> + <p> + Upon this, Philippus, who married the mother, and Marcellus, who married + the sister of young Caesar, came with the young man to Cicero, and agreed + with him that Cicero should give them the aid of his eloquence and + political influence with the senate and people, and Caesar give Cicero the + defence of his riches and arms. For the young man had already a great + party of the soldiers of Caesar about him. And Cicero's readiness to join + him was founded, it is said, on some yet stronger motives; for it seems, + while Pompey and Caesar were yet alive, Cicero, in his sleep, had fancied + himself engaged in calling some of the sons of the senators into the + capitol, Jupiter, according to the dream, being about to declare one of + them the chief ruler of Rome. The citizens, running up with curiosity, + stood about the temple, and the youths, sitting in their purple-bordered + robes, kept silence. On a sudden the doors opened, and the youths, arising + one by one in order, passed round the god, who reviewed them all, and, to + their sorrow, dismissed them; but when this one was passing by, the god + stretched forth his right hand and said, "O ye Romans, this young man, + when he shall be lord of Rome, shall put an end to all your civil wars." + It is said that Cicero formed from his dream a distinct image of the + youth, and retained it afterwards perfectly, but did not know who it was. + The next day, going down into the Campus Martius, he met the boys + returning from their gymnastic exercises, and the first was he, just as he + had appeared to him in his dream. Being astonished at it, he asked him who + were his parents. And it proved to be this young Caesar, whose father was + a man of no great eminence, Octavius, and his mother, Attia, Caesar's + sister's daughter; for which reason, Caesar, who had no children, made him + by will the heir of his house and property. From that time, it is said + that Cicero studiously noticed the youth whenever he met him, and he as + kindly received the civility; and by fortune he happened to be born when + Cicero was consul. + </p> + <p> + These were the reasons spoken of; but it was principally Cicero's hatred + of Antony, and a temper unable to resist honor, which fastened him to + Caesar, with the purpose of getting the support of Caesar's power for his + own public designs. For the young man went so far in his court to him, + that he called him Father; at which Brutus was so highly displeased, that, + in his epistles to Atticus he reflected on Cicero saying, it was manifest, + by his courting Caesar for fear of Antony, he did not intend liberty to + his country, but an indulgent master to himself. Notwithstanding, Brutus + took Cicero's son, then studying philosophy at Athens, gave him a command, + and employed him in various ways, with a good result. Cicero's own power + at this time was at the greatest height in the city, and he did whatsoever + he pleased; he completely overpowered and drove out Antony, and sent the + two consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, with an army, to reduce him; and, on the + other hand, persuaded the senate to allow Caesar the lictors and ensigns + of a praetor, as though he were his country's defender. But after Antony + was defeated in battle, and the two consuls slain, the armies united, and + ranged themselves with Caesar. And the senate, fearing the young man, and + his extraordinary fortune, endeavored by honors and gifts, to call off the + soldiers from him, and to lessen his power; professing there was no + further need of arms, now Antony was put to flight. + </p> + <p> + This gave Caesar a fright, and he privately sent friends to entreat Cicero + to procure the consular dignity for them both together; saying that he + should manage the affair as he pleased, should have the supreme power, and + govern the young man who was only desirous of name and glory. + </p> + <p> + And now, more than at any other time, Cicero let himself be carried away + and deceived, though an old man, by the persuasions of a boy. He joined + him in soliciting votes, and procured the good-will of the senate, not + without blame at the time on the part of his friends; and he, too, soon + enough after, saw that he had ruined himself, and betrayed the liberty of + his country. For the young man, once established, and possessed of the + office of consul, bade Cicero farewell; and reconciling himself with + Antony and Lepidus, joined his power with theirs, and divided the + government, like a piece of property, with them. Thus united, they made a + schedule of above two hundred persons who were to be put to death. But the + greatest contention in all their debates was on the question of Cicero's + case. Antony would come to no conditions, unless he should be the first + man to be killed. Lepidus held with Antony, and Caesar opposed them both. + They met secretly and by themselves, for three days together, near the + town of Bononia. The spot was not far from the camp, with a river + surrounding it. Caesar, it is said, contended earnestly for Cicero the + first two days; but on the third day he yielded, and gave him up. The + terms of their mutual concessions were these; that Caesar should desert + Cicero, Lepidus his brother Paulus, and Antony, Lucius Caesar, his uncle + by his mother's side. Thus they let their anger and fury take from them + the sense of humanity, and demonstrated that no beast is more savage than + man, when possessed with power proportioned to his rage. + </p> + <p> + While these things were contriving, Cicero was with his brother at his + country-house near Tusculum; whence, hearing of the proscriptions, they + determined to pass to Astura, a villa of Cicero's near the sea, and to + take shipping from there for Macedonia to Brutus, of whose strength in + that province news had already been heard. They traveled together in their + separate litters, overwhelmed with sorrow; and often stopping on the way + till their litters came together, condoled with one another. But Quintus + was the more disheartened, when he reflected on his want of means for his + journey; for, as he said, he had brought nothing with him from home. And + even Cicero himself had but a slender provision. It was judged therefore + most expedient that Cicero should make what haste he could to fly, and + Quintus return home to provide necessaries, and thus resolved, they + mutually embraced, and parted with many tears. + </p> + <p> + Quintus, within a few days after, was betrayed by his servants to those + who came to search for him, and slain, together with his young son. But + Cicero was carried to Astura, where, finding a vessel, he immediately went + on board of her, and sailed as far as Circaeum with a prosperous gale; but + when the pilots resolved immediately to set sail from there, whether he + feared the sea, or did not wholly lose faith in Caesar, he went on shore, + and passed by land a hundred furlongs, as if he was going to Rome. But + losing resolution and changing his mind, he again returned to the sea, and + there spent the night in fear and perplexity. Sometimes he resolved to go + into Caesar's house privately, and there kill himself upon the altar of + his household gods, to bring divine vengeance upon him; but the fear of + torture restrained him. And after passing through a variety of confused + and uncertain counsels, at last he let his servants carry him by sea to + Capitae, where he had a house, an agreeable place to retire to in the heat + of summer, when the Etesian winds are so pleasant. + </p> + <p> + There was at that place a chapel of Apollo, not far from the sea-side, + from which a flight of crows rose with a great noise, and made towards + Cicero's vessel as it rowed to land, and lighting on both sides of the + yard, some croaked, others pecked the ends of the ropes. This was looked + upon by all as an evil omen; and, therefore, Cicero went again ashore, and + entering his house, lay down upon his bed to compose himself at rest. Many + of the crows settled about the window, making a dismal cawing; but one of + them alighted upon the bed where Cicero lay covered up, and with its bill, + little by little pecked off the clothes from his face. His servants, + seeing this, blamed themselves that they should stay to be spectators of + their master's murder, and do nothing in his defence, while the brute + creatures came to assist and take care of him in his undeserved + affliction; and therefore, partly by entreaty, partly by force, they took + him up, and carried him in his litter toward the sea-side. + </p> + <p> + But in the meantime the assassins had come with a band of soldiers—Herennius, + a centurion, and Popillius, a tribune, whom Cicero had formerly defended + when prosecuted for the murder of his father. Finding the door shut, they + broke them open, and when Cicero did not appear and those within said they + did not know where he was, it is stated that a youth, who had been + educated by Cicero in the liberal arts and sciences, an emancipated slave + of his brother Quintus, Philologus by name, informed the tribune that the + litter was on its way to the sea through the close and shady walks. The + tribune, taking a few with him, ran to the place where he was to come out. + And Cicero, perceiving Herennius running in the walks, commanded his + servants to set down the litter; and stroking his chin, as he used to do, + with his left hand, he looked steadfastly upon his murderers, his person + covered with dust, his beard and hair untrimmed, and his face worn with + his troubles. So that the greatest part of those that stood by covered + their faces whilst Herennius slew him. And thus was he murdered, + stretching forth his neck out of the litter, being now in his sixty-fourth + year. Herennius cut off his head, and, by Antony's command, his hands + also, by which his Philippics were written; for so Cicero styled those + orations he wrote against Antony, and so they are called to this day. + </p> + <p> + When these members of Cicero were brought to Rome, Antony was holding an + assembly for the choice of public officers; and when he heard it, and saw + them, he cried out, "Now let there be an end of our proscriptions." He + commanded his head and hands to be fastened up over the Rostra, where the + orators spoke; a sight which the Roman people shuddered to behold, and + they believed they saw there not the face of Cicero, but the image of + Antony's own soul. + </p> + <p> + A long time after, Augustus, when visiting one of his daughter's sons, + found him with a book of Cicero's in his hand. The boy for fear endeavored + to hide it under his gown; but Caesar took it from him, and turning over a + great part of the book standing, gave it to him again, and said, "My + child, this was a learned man, and a lover of his country." And + immediately after he had vanquished Antony, being then consul, he made + Cicero's son his colleague in the office; and, under that consulship, the + senate took down all the statues of Antony, and abolished all the other + honors that had been given him, and decreed that none of that family + should thereafter bear the name of Marcus; and thus the final acts of the + punishment of Antony were, by the divine powers, devolved upon the family + of Cicero. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0011" id="link2H_4_0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + COMPARISON OF DEMOSTHENES AND CICERO + </h2> + <p> + These are the most memorable circumstances recorded in history of + Demosthenes and Cicero which have come to our knowledge. But, omitting an + exact comparison of their respective faculties in speaking, yet this seems + fit to be said: That Demosthenes, to make himself a master in rhetoric, + applied all the faculties he had, natural or acquired, wholly that way; + that he far surpassed in force and strength of eloquence in political and + judicial speaking all his contemporaries, in grandeur and majesty all the + panegyrical orators, and in accuracy and science all the logicians and + rhetoricians of his day; that Cicero was highly educated, and by his + diligent study became a most accomplished general scholar in all these + branches, having left behind him numerous philosophical treatises of his + own on Academic principles; as, indeed, even in his written speeches, both + political and judicial, we see him continually trying to show his learning + by the way. And one may discover the different temper of each of them in + their speeches. For Demosthenes's oratory was, without all embellishment + and jesting, wholly composed for real effect and seriousness; not smelling + of the lamp, as Pytheas scoffingly said, but of the temperance, + thoughtfulness, austerity, and grave earnestness of his temper. Whereas, + Cicero's love of mockery often ran him into scurrility; and in his love of + laughing away serious arguments in judicial cases by jests and facetious + remarks, with a view to the advantage of his clients, he paid too little + regard to what was decent. We are told that Cicero, being consul, + undertook the defence of Murena against Cato's prosecution; and, by way of + bantering Cato, made a long series of jokes upon the absurd paradoxes, as + they are called, of the Stoic sect. When loud laughter passed from the + crowd to the judges, Cato, with a quiet smile, said to those that sat next + to him, "My friends, what an amusing consul we have." + </p> + <p> + And, indeed, Cicero was by natural temper very much disposed to mirth and + pleasantry, and always appeared with a smiling and serene countenance. But + Demosthenes had constant care and thoughtfulness in his look, and a + serious anxiety which he seldom, if ever, laid aside; and, therefore, was + accounted by his enemies, as he himself confessed, morose and + ill-mannered. + </p> + <p> + Also, it is very evident, out of their several writings, that Demosthenes + never touched upon his own praises but decently and without offence when + there was need of it, and for some weightier end. But Cicero's + immeasurable boasting of himself in his orations argues him guilty of an + uncontrollable appetite for distinction, his cry being evermore that "Arms + should give place to the gown, and the soldier's laurel to the tongue." + And at last we find him extolling not only his deeds and actions, but his + orations, as well those that were only spoken, as those that were + published. + </p> + <p> + It is necessary for a political leader to be an able speaker; but it is an + ignoble thing for any man to admire the glory of his own eloquence. And, + in this matter, Demosthenes had a more than ordinary gravity and + magnificence of mind, for he considered his talent in speaking nothing + more than a mere accomplishment and matter of practice, the success of + which must depend greatly on the good-will and candor of his hearers, and + regarded those who pride themselves on such accounts to be men of a low + and petty disposition. + </p> + <p> + The power of persuading and governing the people did, indeed, equally + belong to both, so that those who had armies and camps at command stood in + need of their assistance; as Chares, Diopithes, and Leosthenes did that of + Demosthenes, and Pompey and young Caesar of Cicero's, as the latter + himself admits in his Memoirs addressed to Agrippa and Maecenas. But what + are thought and commonly said most to demonstrate and try the tempers of + men, namely, authority and place, by moving every passion, and discovering + every frailty, these are things which Demosthenes never received; nor was + he ever in a position to give such proof of himself, having never obtained + any eminent office, nor led any of those armies into the field against + Philip which he raised by his eloquence. Cicero, on the other hand, was + sent quaestor into Sicily, and proconsul into Cilicia and Cappadocia, at a + time when avarice was at the height, and the commanders and governors who + were employed abroad, as though they thought it a mean thing to steal, set + themselves to seize by open force; so that it seemed no heinous matter to + take bribes, but he that did it most moderately was in good esteem. And + yet he, at this time, gave the most abundant proofs alike of his contempt + of riches and of his humanity and good-nature. And at Rome, when he was + created consul in name, but indeed received sovereign and dictatorial + authority against Catiline and his conspirators, he attested the truth of + Plato's prediction, that then only would the miseries of states be at an + end, when by a happy fortune supreme power, wisdom, and justice should be + united in one. + </p> + <p> + It is said, to the reproach of Demosthenes, that his eloquence was + mercenary; that he privately made orations for Phormion and Apollodorus, + though adversaries in the same cause; that he was charged with moneys + received from the king of Persia, and condemned for bribes from Harpalus. + And should we grant that all those (and they are not few) who have made + these statements against him have spoken what is untrue, yet we cannot + assert that Demosthenes was not the character to look without desire on + the presents offered him out of respect and gratitude by royal persons. + But that Cicero refused, from the Sicilians when he was quaestor, from the + king of Cappadocia when he was proconsul, and from his friends at Rome + when he was in exile, many presents, though urged to receive them, has + been said already. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, Demosthenes's banishment was infamous, upon conviction for + bribery; Cicero's very honorable, for ridding his country of a set of + villains. Therefore, when Demosthenes fled from his country, no man + regarded it; for Cicero's sake the senate changed their habit, and put on + mourning, and would not be persuaded to make any act before Cicero's + return was decreed. Cicero, however, passed his exile idly in Macedonia. + But the very exile of Demosthenes made up a great part of the services he + did for his country; for he went through the cities of Greece, and + everywhere, as we have said, joined in the conflict on behalf of the + Greeks, driving out the Macedonian ambassadors, and approving himself a + much better citizen than Themistocles and Alcibiades did in a similar + fortune. And, after his return, he again devoted himself to the same + public service, and continued firm in his opposition to Antipater and the + Macedonians. Whereas Laelius reproached Cicero in the senate for sitting + silent when Caesar, a beardless youth, asked leave to come forward, + contrary to the law, as a candidate for the consulship; and Brutus, in his + epistles, charges him with nursing and rearing a greater and more heavy + tyranny than that they had removed. + </p> + <p> + Finally, Cicero's death excites our pity; for an old man to be miserably + carried up and down by his servants, flying and hiding himself from that + death which was, in the course of nature, so near at hand; and yet at last + to be murdered. Demosthenes, though he seemed to supplicate a little at + first, yet, by his preparing and keeping the poison by him, demands our + admiration; and still more admirable was his using it. When the temple of + the god no longer afforded him a sanctuary, he took refuge, as it were, at + a mightier altar, freeing himself from arms and soldiers, and laughing to + scorn the cruelty of Antipater. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0012" id="link2H_4_0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ALCIBAIDES + </h2> + <p> + Alcibiades, it is supposed, was descended from Ajax, by his father's side; + and by his mother's side from Alcmaeon. Dinomache, his mother, was the + daughter of Megacles. His father (Clinias) having fitted out a galley at + his own expense, gained great honor in the seafight at Artemisium, and was + afterwards slain in the battle of Coronea, fighting against the Boeotians. + The friendship which Socrates felt for him has much contributed to his + fame; and though we have no account from any writer concerning the mother + of Nicias or Demosthenes, of Lamachus or Phormion, of Thrasybulus or + Theramenes, notwithstanding these were all illustrious men of the same + period, yet we know even the nurse of Alcibiades, that her country was + Lacedaemon, and her name Amycla; and that Zopyrus was his teacher and + attendant; the one being recorded by Antisthenes, and the other by Plato. + </p> + <p> + It is not, perhaps, material to say anything of the beauty of Alcibiades, + only that it bloomed with him in all the ages of his life, in his infancy, + in his youth, and in his manhood; and, in the peculiar character becoming + to each of these periods, gave him, in every one of them a grace and a + charm. What Euripides says, that "Of all fair things the autumn, too, is + fair," is by no means universally true. But it happened so with + Alcibiades, amongst few others, by reason of his happy constitution and + natural vigor of body. It is said that his lisping, when he spoke, became + him well, and gave a grace and persuasiveness to his rapid speech. + Aristophanes takes notice of it in the verses in which he jests at + Theorus: "How like a colax he is," says Alcibiades, meaning a corax*; on + which it is remarked, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "How very happily he lisped the truth," + + (*This fashionable Attic lisp, or careless articulation, + turned the sound r into l. Colax, a flatterer; corax, a + crow.) +</pre> + <p> + His conduct displayed many inconsistencies, not unnaturally, in accordance + with the many wonderful vicissitudes of his fortunes; but, among the many + strong passions of his real character, the most powerful of all was his + ambition for superiority, which appears in several anecdotes told of him + while he was a child. Once being hard pressed in wrestling, and fearing to + be thrown, he got the hand of his antagonist to his mouth, and bit it with + all his force; and when the other loosed his hold presently, and said, + "You bite, Alcibiades, like a woman." "No," replied he, "like a lion." + Another time, when playing at dice in the street, being then only a child, + a loaded cart came that way, just as it was his turn to throw; at first he + called to the driver to stop, because he was about to throw in the way + over which the cart would pass; but when the man paid him no attention, + and was driving on, the rest of the boys divided and sprang away; but + Alcibiades threw himself on his face before the cart, and, stretching + himself out, bade the carter pass on now if we would. The man was so + startled that he put back his horses, while all that saw it were + terrified, and, crying out, ran to assist Alcibiades. When he began to + study, he obeyed all his other masters fairly well, but refused to learn + upon the flute, as a thing unbecoming a free citizen; saying that to play + upon the lute or the harp does not in any way disfigure a man's body or + face, but one is hardly to be known by his most intimate friends, when + playing on the flute. Besides, one who plays on the harp may speak or sing + at the same time; but the use of the flute stops the mouth, intercepts the + voice, and prevents all articulation. "Therefore," said he, "let the + Theban youths pipe, who do not know how to speak, but we Athenians, as our + ancestors have told us, have Athena for our patroness, and Apollo for our + protector, one of whom threw away the flute, and the other stripped the + Flute-player of his skin." Thus, between raillery and good earnest, + Alcibiades kept not only himself but others from learning, as it presently + became the talk of the young boys, how Alcibiades despised playing on the + flute, and ridiculed those who studied it. In consequence of which, it + ceased to be reckoned amongst the liberal accomplishments, and became + generally neglected. + </p> + <p> + It was manifest that the many well-born persons who were continually + seeking his company, and making court to him, were attracted and + captivated by his extraordinary beauty only. But the affection which + Socrates entertained for him is a great evidence of the natural noble + qualities and good disposition of the boy, which Socrates, detected under + his personal beauty; and fearing that his wealth and station, and the + great number both of strangers and Athenians who flattered and caressed + him, might at last corrupt him, resolved, if possible, to interpose, and + preserve so hopeful a plant from perishing in the flower, before its fruit + came to perfection. For never did fortune surround a man with so many of + those things which we vulgarly call goods, or so protect him from every + weapon of philosophy, and fence him from every access of free and + searching words, as she did Alcibiades; who, from the beginning, was + exposed to the flatteries of those who sought merely his gratification, + such as might well unnerve him, and indispose him to listen to any real + adviser or instructor. Yet such was the happiness of his genius, that he + selected Socrates from the rest, and admitted him, while he drove away the + wealthy and the noble who made court to him. In a little time, they grew + intimate and Alcibiades, listening now to language entirely free from + every thought of unmanly fondness and silly displays of affection, found + himself with one who sought to la open to him the deficiencies of his mind + and repress his vain and foolish arrogance, and "Dropped like the craven + cock his conquered wing." He esteemed these endeavors of Socrates as most + truly a means which the gods made use of for the care and preservation of + youth, and it was a matter of general wonder, when people saw him joining + Socrates in his meals and his exercises, living with him in the same tent, + while he was reserved and rough to all others who made their addresses to + him. + </p> + <p> + He behaved in the same manner to all others who courted him, except one + stranger, who, as the story is told, having but a small estate, sold it + all for about a hundred staters, which he presented to Alcibiades, and + besought him to accept. Alcibiades, smiling and well pleased at the thing, + invited him to supper, and, after a very kind entertainment, gave him his + gold again, requiring him, moreover, not to fail to be present the next + day, when the public revenue was offered to farm, and to outbid all + others. The man would have excused himself, because the contract was so + large, and would cost many talents; but Alcibiades, who at that time a + private pique against the existing farmers of the revenue threatened to + have him beaten if he refused. The next morning, the stranger, coming to + the market-place, offered a talent more that the existing rate; upon which + the farmers, enraged and consulting together, called upon him to name his + sureties, concluding that he could find none. The poor man, being startled + at the proposal, began to retire; but ALCIBAIDES, standing at a distance, + cried out to the magistrates, "Set my name down, he is a friend of mine; I + will be security for him." When the other bidders heard this, they + perceived that all their contrivance was defeated; for their way was, with + the profits for the second year to pay the rent for the year preceding; so + that, not seeing any other way to extricate themselves out of the + difficulty, they began to treat with the stranger, and offered him a sum + of money. Alcibiades would not suffer him to accept of less than a talent; + but when that was paid down, he commanded him to relinquish the bargain, + having by this device relieved his necessity. + </p> + <p> + Though Socrates had many power rivals, yet the natural good qualities of + Alcibiades gave his affection the mastery. His words overcame him so much, + as to draw tears from his eyes, and to disturb his very soul. Yet + sometimes he would abandon himself to flatteries, when they proposed to + him varieties of pleasure, and would desert Socrates; who, then, would + pursue him, as if he had been a fugitive slave. He despised every one + else, and had no reverence or awe for any but him. But as iron which is + softened by the fire grows hard with the cold, and all its parts are + closed again; so, as often as Socrates observed Alcibiades to be misled by + luxury or pride he reduced and corrected him by his addresses, and made + him humble and modest, by showing him in how many things he was deficient, + and how very far from perfection in virtue. + </p> + <p> + When he was past his childhood, he went once to a grammar-school, and + asked the master for one of Homer's books; and when he made answer that he + had nothing of Homer's, Alcibiades gave him a blow with his fist, and went + away. Another schoolmaster telling him that he had a copy of Homer + corrected by himself; "Why?" said Alcibiades, "do you employ your time in + teaching children to read? You, who are able to amend Homer, may well + undertake to instruct men." + </p> + <p> + When he was very young, he was a soldier in the expedition against + Potidaea, where Socrates lodged in the same tent with him, and stood next + to him in battle. Once there happened a sharp skirmish, in which they both + behaved with signal bravery; but Alcibiades receiving a wound, Socrates + threw himself before him to defend him, and beyond any question saved him + and his arms from the enemy, and so in all justice might have challenged + the prize of valor. But the generals appearing eager to adjudge the honor + to Alcibiades, because of his rank, Socrates, who desired to increase his + thirst after glory of a noble kind, was the first to give evidence for + him, and pressed them to crown, and to decree to him the complete suit of + armor. Afterwards, in the battle of Delium, when the Athenians were routed + and Socrates with a few others was retreating on foot, Alcibiades, who was + on horseback, observed it, and would not pass on, but stayed to shelter + him from the danger, and brought him safely off, though the enemy pressed + hard upon them, and cut off many. + </p> + <p> + He gave a box on the ear to Hipponicus, the father of Callias, whose birth + and wealth made him a person of great influence and repute. And this he + did unprovoked by any passion or quarrel between them, but only because, + in a frolic, he had agreed with his companions to do it. People were + justly offended at this insolence, when it became known through the city; + but early the next morning, Alcibiades went to his house and knocked at + the door, and, being admitted to him, took off his outer garment, and + presenting his naked body, desired him to scourge and chastise him as he + pleased. Upon this Hipponicus forgot all his resentment, and not only + pardoned him, but soon after gave him his daughter Hipparete in marriage. + </p> + <p> + Alcibiades had a dog which cost him seventy minas, and was very large and + handsome. His tail, which was his principal ornament, he caused to be cut + off, and an acquaintance exclaiming at him for it, and telling him that + all Athens was sorry for the dog, and cried out against him for this + action, he laughed and said, "Just what I wanted has happened, then, I + wished the Athenians to talk about this, that they might not say something + worse of me." + </p> + <p> + It is said that the first time he came into the assembly was upon occasion + of a largess of money which he made to the people. This was not done by + design, but as he passed along he heard a shout, and inquired the cause; + and having learned that there was a gift-making to the people, he went in + among them and gave money also. The multitude thereupon applauding him, + and shouting, he was so transported at it, that he forgot a quail which he + had under his robe, and the bird, being frightened at the noise, flew off; + upon which the people made louder acclamations than before, and many of + them started up to pursue the bird; and Antiochus, a pilot, caught it and + restored it to him, for which he was ever after a favorite with + Alcibiades. + </p> + <p> + He had great advantages for entering public life; his noble birth, his + riches, the personal courage he had shown in divers battles, and the + multitude of his friends and dependents, threw open, so to say, folding + doors for his admittance. But he did not consent to let his power with the + people rest on any thing, rather than on his own gift of eloquence. That + he was a master in the art of speaking, the comic poets bear him witness; + and the most eloquent of public speakers, in his oration against Midias, + allows that Alcibiades, among other perfections, was a most accomplished + orator. + </p> + <p> + His expenses in horses kept for the public games, and in the number of his + chariots, were matters of great observation; never did any one but he, + either private person king, send seven chariots to the Olympic games. And + to have carried away at once the first, the second, and the fourth prize, + as Thucydides says, or the third, as Euripides relates it, outdoes every + distinction that was ever thought of in that kind. + </p> + <p> + The emulation displayed by the deputations of various states, in the + presents which they made to him, rendered this success yet more + illustrious. The Ephesians erected a tent for him, adorned magnificently; + the city of Chios furnished him with provender for his horses and with + great numbers of beasts for sacrifice; and the Lesbians sent him wine and + other provisions for the many entertainments which he made. + </p> + <p> + As soon as he began to intermeddle in the government, which was when he + was very young, he quickly lessened the credit of all who aspired to the + confidence of the people, except Phaeax and Nicias, who alone could + contest with him. Nicias was arrived at a mature age, and was esteemed + their first general. Phaeax was but a rising statesman like Alcibiades; he + was descended from noble ancestors, but was his inferior in many other + things, but principally in eloquence. + </p> + <p> + Alcibiades was not less disturbed at the distinction which Nicias gained + among the enemies of Athens, than at the honors which the Athenians + themselves paid to him. It was commonly said in Greece, that the war in + the Peloponnesus was begun by Pericles, and that Nicias made an end of it, + and the peace was generally called the peace of Nicias. Alcibiades was + extremely annoyed at this, and being full of envy, set himself to break + the league. First, therefore observing that the Argives as well out of + fear as hatred to the Lacedaemonians, sought for protection against them, + he gave them a secret assurance of alliance with Athens. He exclaimed + fiercely against Nicias, and accused him of many things, which seemed + probable enough: as that, when he was general, he made no attempt himself + to capture their enemies that were shut up in the isle of Sphacteria, but, + when they were afterwards made prisoners by others, he procured their + release and sent them back to the Lacedaemonians, only to get favor with + them. + </p> + <p> + It happened, at the very time when Nicias was by these arts brought into + disgrace with the people, that ambassadors arrived from Lacedaemon, who, + at their first coming, said what seemed very satisfactory, declaring that + they had full powers to arrange all matters in dispute upon fair and equal + terms. The council received their propositions, and the people was to + assemble on the morrow to give them audience. Alcibiades grew very + apprehensive of this, and contrived to gain a secret conference with the + ambassadors. When they were met, he said: "What is it you intend, you men + of Sparta? If you expect to obtain equal terms from the Athenians, and + would not have things extorted from you contrary to your inclinations, + begin to treat with he people upon some reasonable articles, not avowing + yourselves plenipotentiaries; and I will be ready to assist you, out of + good-will to the Lacedaemonians." When he had said this, he gave them his + oath for the performance of what he promised, and by this way drew them + from Nicias to rely entirely upon himself, and left them full of + admiration of the discernment and sagacity they had seen in him. The next + day, when the people were assembled and the ambassadors introduced, + Alcibiades, with great apparent courtesy, demanded of them: With what + powers they had come? They made answer that they had not come as + plenipotentiaries. + </p> + <p> + Instantly upon that, Alcibiades, with a loud voice, as though he had + received and not done the wrong, began to call them dishonest + prevaricators, and to urge that such men could not possibly come with a + purpose to say or do anything that was sincere. The council was incensed, + the people were in a rage, and Nicias, who knew nothing of the deceit and + the imposture, was in the greatest confusion, equally surprised and + ashamed at such a change in the men. So thus the Lacedaemonian ambassadors + were utterly rejected, and Alcibiades was declared general, who presently + united the Argives, the Eleans, and the people of Mantinea, into a + confederacy with the Athenians. + </p> + <p> + No man commended the method by which Alcibiades effected all this, yet it + was a great political feat thus to divide and shake almost all + Peloponnesus, and to combine so many men in arms against the + Lacedaemonians in one day before Mantinea; and, moreover, to remove the + war and the danger so far from the frontier of the Athenians, that even + success would profit the enemy but little, should they be conquerors, + whereas, if they were defeated, Sparta itself was hardly safe. + </p> + <p> + But with all these words and deeds, and with all this sagacity and + eloquence, he intermingled exorbitant luxury and wantonness in his eating + and drinking and dissolute living; wore long purple robes like a woman, + which dragged after him as he went through the market-place; caused the + planks of his galley to be cut away, that so he might lie the softer, his + bed not being placed on the boards, but hanging upon girths. His shield, + again, which was richly gilded, had not the usual ensigns of the + Athenians, but a Cupid, holding a thunderbolt in his hand, was painted + upon it. The sight of all this made the people of good repute in the city + feel disgust and abhorrence and apprehension also, at his free-living, and + his contempt of law, as things monstrous in themselves, and indicating + designs of usurpation. Aristophanes has well expressed the people's + feeling towards him:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "They love, and hate, and cannot do without him." +</pre> + <p> + And still more strongly, under a figurative expression, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Best rear no lion in your state, 't is true; + But treat him like a lion if you do." +</pre> + <p> + The truth is, his liberalities, his public shows, and other munificence to + the people, which were such as nothing could exceed, the glory of his + ancestors, the force of his eloquence, the grace of his person, his + strength of body, joined with his great courage and knowledge in military + affairs, prevailed upon the Athenians to endure patiently his excesses, to + indulge him in many things, and, according to their habit, to give the + softest names to his faults, attributing them to youth and good nature. + As, for example, he kept Agatharcus, the painter, a prisoner till he had + painted his whole house, but then dismissed him with a reward. He publicly + struck Taureas, who exhibited certain shows in opposition to him, and + contended with him for the prize. When Aristophon, the artist, had drawn + Nemea sitting and holding Alcibiades in her arms, the multitude seemed + pleased with the piece, and thronged to see it, but elder people did not + relish it, but looked on these things as enormities, and movements toward + tyranny. So that it was not said amiss by Archestratus, that Greece could + not support a second Alcibiades. Once, when Alcibiades succeeded well in + an oration which he made, and the whole assembly attended upon him to do + him honor, Timon, the misanthrope, did not pass slightly by him, nor avoid + him, as he did others, but purposely met him, and, taking him by the hand, + said, "Go on boldly, my son, and increase in credit with the people, for + thou wilt one day bring them calamities enough." Some that were present + laughed at the saying, and some reviled Timon; but there were others upon + whom it made a deep impression. + </p> + <p> + The Athenians, even in the lifetime of Pericles, had already cast a + longing eye upon Sicily; but did not attempt any thing till after his + death. Then, under pretence of aiding their confederates, they sent succor + upon all occasions to those who were oppressed by the Syracusans, + preparing the way for sending over a greater force. But Alcibiades was the + person who inflamed this desire of theirs to the height, and prevailed + with them no longer to proceed secretly, and little by little, in their + design, but to sail out with a great fleet, and undertake at once to make + themselves masters of the island. He possessed the people with great + hopes, and he himself entertained yet greater; and the conquest of Sicily, + which was the utmost bound of their ambition, was but the mere outset of + his expectation. Nicias endeavored to divert the people from the + expedition, by representing to them that the taking of Syracuse would be a + work of great difficulty; but Alcibiades dreamed of nothing less than the + conquest of Carthage and Libya and by the accession of these conceiving + himself at once made master of Italy and of Peloponnesus, seemed to look + upon Sicily as little more than a magazine for the war. The young men were + soon elevated with these hopes, and listened gladly to those of riper + years, who talked wonders of the countries they were going to; so that you + might see great numbers sitting in the wrestling grounds and public + places, drawing on the ground the figure of the island and the situation + of Libya and Carthage. + </p> + <p> + Together with Alcibiades, Nicias, much against his will, was appointed + general: and he endeavored to avoid the command, not the less on account + of his colleague. But the Athenians thought the war would proceed more + prosperously, if they did not send Alcibiades free from all restraint, but + tempered his heat with the caution of Nicias. This they chose the rather + to do, because Lamachus, the third general, though he was of mature years, + yet in several battles had appeared no less hot and rash than Alcibiades + himself. When all things were fitted for the voyage, many unlucky omens + appeared. The mutilation of the images of Mercury, most of which, in one + night, had their faces all disfigured, terrified many persons who were + wont to despise most things of that nature. Alike enraged and terrified at + the thing, looking upon it to proceed from a conspiracy of persons who + designed some commotions in the state, the council, as well as the + assembly of the people, which was held frequently in a few days' space, + examined diligently every thing that might administer ground for + suspicion. During this examination, Androcles, one of the demagogues, + produced slaves and strangers before them, who accused Alcibiades and some + of his friends of defacing other images in the same manner, and of having + profanely acted the sacred mysteries at a drunken meeting. The people were + highly exasperated and incensed against Alcibiades upon this accusation. + But when they perceived that all the seamen designed for Sicily were for + him, and the soldiers declared that they had undertaken this distant + maritime expedition for the sake of Alcibiades, and that, if he was + ill-used, they would all go home; they let him set sail at once, and + decided that when the war should be at an end, he might then in person + make his defence according to the laws. + </p> + <p> + Alcibiades perceived the malice of this postponement, and, appearing in + the assembly, represented that it was monstrous for him to be sent with + the command of so large an army, when he lay under such accusations and + calumnies. But he could not prevail with the people, who commanded him to + sail immediately. So he departed, together with the other generals, having + with them near 140 galleys, 5,100 men at arms, and about 1,300 archers, + slingers, and light-armed men, and all the other provisions corresponding. + </p> + <p> + Arriving on the coast of Italy, he landed at Rhegium, and there stated his + views of the manner in which they ought to conduct the war. He was opposed + by Nicias; but Lamachus being of his opinion, they sailed for Sicily + forthwith, and took Catana. This was all that was done while he was there, + for he was soon after recalled by the Athenians to abide his trial. At + first, as we before said, there were only some slight suspicions advanced + against Alcibiades. But afterwards, in his absence, his enemies attacked + him more violently, and confounded together the breaking the images with + the profanation of the mysteries, as though both had been committed in + pursuance of the same conspiracy for changing the government. The truth + is, his accusers alleged nothing against him which could be positively + proved. One of them, being asked how he knew the men who defaced the + images, replied, that he saw them by the light of the moon, making a + palpable misstatement, for it was just new moon when the act was + committed. This made all men of understanding cry out upon the thing; but + the people were as eager as ever to receive further accusations. And, in + conclusion, they sent the galley named the Salaminian to recall + Alcibiades. But they expressly commanded those that were sent, to use no + violence, nor seize upon his person, but address themselves to him in the + mildest terms, requiring him to follow them to Athens in order to abide + his trial, and clear himself before the people. For they feared mutiny and + sedition in the army in an enemy's country, which indeed it would have + been easy for Alcibiades to effect, if he had wished it. For the soldiers + were dispirited upon his departure, expecting for the future tedious + delays, and that the war would be drawn out into a lazy length by Nicias, + when Alcibiades, who was the spur to action, was taken away. For though + Lamachus was a soldier, and a man of courage, poverty deprived him of + authority and respect in the army. Alcibiades, just upon his departure, + prevented Messena from falling into the hands of the Athenians. There were + some in that city who were upon the point of delivering it up, but he, + knowing the persons, gave information to some friends of the Syracusans, + and so defeated the whole contrivance. When he arrived at Thurii, he went + on shore, and concealing himself there, escaped those who searched after + him. But to one who knew him, and asked him if he durst not trust his own + native country, he made answer, "In every thing else, yes; but in a matter + that touches my life, I would not even my own mother, lest she might by + mistake throw in the black ball instead of the white." When, afterwards, + he was told that the assembly had pronounced judgment of death against + him, all he said was "I will make them feel that I am alive." + </p> + <p> + The information against him was framed in this form:—"Thessalus lays + information that Alcibiades has committed a crime against the goddesses + Ceres and Proserpine, by representing in derision the holy mysteries, and + showing them to his companions in his own house." + </p> + <p> + He was condemned as contumacious upon his not appearing, his property + confiscated, and it was decreed that all the priests and priestesses + should solemnly curse him. + </p> + <p> + Alcibiades, lying under these heavy decrees and sentences, when he fled + from Thurii, passed over into Peloponnesus, and remained some time at + Argos. But being there in fear of his enemies and seeing himself utterly + hopeless of return to his native country, he sent to Sparta, desiring safe + conduct, and assuring them that he would make them amends by his future + services for all the mischief he had done them while he was their enemy. + The Spartans giving him the security he desired, he went eagerly, was well + received, and, at his very first coming, succeeded in inducing them, + without any further caution or delay, to send aid to the Syracusans; and + so roused and excited them, that they forthwith despatched Gylippus into + Sicily, to crush the forces which the Athenians had in Sicily. A second + point was, to renew the war upon the Athenians at home. But the third + thing, and the most important of all, was to make them fortify Decelea, + which above everything reduced and wasted the resources of the Athenians. + </p> + <p> + The renown which he earned by these public services was equaled by the + admiration he attracted to his private life; he captivated and won over + everybody by his conformity to Spartan habits. People who saw him wearing + his hair close cut, bathing in cold water, eating coarse meal, and dining + on black broth, doubted, or rather could not believe, that he ever had a + cook in his house, or had ever seen a perfumer, or had worn a mantle of + Milesian purple. For he had, as it was observed, this peculiar talent for + gaining men's affections, that he could at once comply with and really + enter into their habits and ways of life, and change faster than the + chameleon. One color, indeed, they say the chameleon cannot assume; it + cannot make itself appear white; but Alcibiades, whether with good men or + with bad, could adapt himself to his company, and equally wear the + appearance of virtue or vice. At Sparta, he was devoted to athletic + exercises, was frugal and reserved; in Ionia, luxurious, gay, and + indolent; in Thrace, always drinking; in Thessaly, ever on horseback; and + when he lived with Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap, he exceeded the + Persians, themselves in magnificence and pomp. Not that his natural + disposition changed so easily, nor that his real character was so very + variable, but whenever he was sensible that by pursuing his own + inclinations he might give offence to those with whom he had occasion to + converse, he transformed himself into any shape and adopted any fashion, + that he observed to be most agreeable to them. So that to have seen him at + Lacedaemon, a man, judging by the outward appearance, would have said, "'T + is not Achilles' son, but he himself, the very man" that Lycurgus designed + to form. + </p> + <p> + After the defeat which the Athenians received in Sicily, ambassadors were + despatched to Sparta at once from Chios and Lesbos and Cyzicus, to signify + their purpose of revolting from the Athenians. But the Lacedaemonians, at + the persuasion of Alcibiades, chose to assist Chios before all others. He + himself, also, went instantly to sea, procured the immediate revolt of + almost all Ionia, and, co-operating with the Lacedaemonian generals, did + great mischief to the Athenians. But King Agis was his enemy, and + impatient of his glory, as almost every enterprise and every success was + ascribed to Alcibiades. Others, also, of the most powerful and ambitious + amongst the Spartans, were possessed with jealousy of him, and, at last, + prevailed with the magistrates in the city to send orders into Ionia that + he should be killed. Alcibiades, however, had secret intelligence of this, + and, in apprehension of the result, while he communicated all affairs to + the Lacedaemonians, yet took care not to put himself into their power. At + last he retired to Tissaphernes, the satrap of the king of Persia, for his + security, and immediately became the first and most influential person + about him. For this barbarian, not being himself sincere, but a lover of + guile and wickedness, admired his address and wonderful subtlety. And, + indeed, the charm of daily intercourse with him was more than any + character could resist or any disposition escape. Even those who feared + and envied him could not but have a sort of kindness for him, when they + saw him and were in his company. So that Tissaphernes, otherwise a cruel + character, and, above all other Persians, a hater of the Greeks, was yet + so won by the flatteries of Alcibiades, that he set himself even to exceed + him in responding to them. The most beautiful of his parks, containing + salubrious streams and meadows, where he had built pavilions, and places + of retirement royally and exquisitely adorned, received by his direction + the name of Alcibiades, and was always so called and so spoken of. + </p> + <p> + Thus Alcibiades, quitting the interests of the Spartans, whom he could no + longer trust, because he stood in fear of Agis, endeavored to do them ill + offices, and render them odious to Tissaphernes, who, by his means, was + hindered from assisting them vigorously, and from finally ruining the + Athenians. For his advice was to furnish them but sparingly with money, + and so wear them out, and consume them insensibly; when they had wasted + their strength upon one another, they would both become ready to submit to + the king. + </p> + <p> + At that time the whole strength of the Athenians was in Samos. Their fleet + maintained itself here, and issued from these head-quarters to reduce such + as had revolted, and protect the rest of their territories; in one way or + other still contriving to be a match for their enemies at sea. What they + stood in fear of, was Tissaphernes and the Phoenician fleet of one hundred + and fifty galleys, which was said to be already under sail; if those came, + there remained then no hopes for the commonwealth of Athens. Understanding + this, Alcibiades sent secretly to the chief men of the Athenians, who were + then at Samos, giving them hopes, that he would make Tissaphernes their + friend; he was willing, he implied, to do some favor, not to the people, + nor in reliance upon them, but to the better citizens, if only, like brave + men, they would make the attempt to put down the insolence of the people, + and, by taking upon them the government, would endeavor to save the city + from ruin. All of them gave a ready ear to the proposal made by + Alcibiades, except Phrynichus of the township of Dirades, despatched + Pisander to Athens to attempt a change of government, and to encourage the + aristocratical citizens to take upon themselves the government, and + overthrow the democracy, representing to them, that, upon these terms, + Alcibiades would procure them the friendship and alliance of Tissaphernes. + </p> + <p> + Those who were at Samos set sail for the Piraeus; and, sending for + Alcibiades declared him general. He, however, in that juncture did not, as + it might have been thought a man would, on being suddenly exalted by the + favor of a multitude, think himself under an obligation to gratify and + submit to all the wishes of those who, from a fugitive and an exile, had + created him general of so great an army and given him the command of such + a fleet. But, as became a great captain, he opposed himself to the + precipitate resolutions which their rage led them to, and, by restraining + them from the great error they were about to commit, unequivocally saved + the commonwealth. For if they had then sailed to Athens, all Ionia and the + islands and the Hellespont would have fallen into the enemies' hands + without opposition, while the Athenians, involved in civil war, would have + been fighting with one another within the circuit of their own walls. It + was Alcibiades alone, or, at least, principally, who prevented all this + mischief; for he not only used persuasion to the whole army, and showed + them the danger, but applied himself to them, one by one, entreating some, + and constraining others. He was much assisted, however, by Thrasybulus of + Stiria, who, having the loudest voice, as we are told, of all the + Athenians, went along with him and cried out to those who were ready to + go. A second great service which Alcibiades did for them was his + undertaking that the Phoenician fleet, which the Lacedaemonians expected + to be sent to them by the king of Persia, should either come in aid of the + Athenians, or otherwise should not come at all. And now the people in the + city not only desired, but commanded Alcibiades to return home from his + exile. He, however, desired not to owe his return to the mere grace and + commiseration of the people, and resolved to come back, not with empty + hands, but with glory and after some service done. To this end, he sailed + from Samos with a few ships, and cruised on the sea of Cnidos and about + the isle of Cos; but receiving intelligence there that Mindarus, the + Spartan admiral, had sailed with his whole army into the Hellespont, and + that the Athenians had followed him, he hurried back to succor the + Athenian commanders, and, by good fortune, arrived with eighteen galleys + at a critical time. For both the fleets having engaged near Abydos, the + fight between them had lasted till night, the one side having the + advantage on one quarter, and the other on another. Upon his first + appearance, both sides formed a false impression; the enemy was + encouraged, and the Athenians terrified. But Alcibiades suddenly raised + the Athenian ensign in the admiral ship, and fell upon those galleys of + the Peloponnesians which had the advantage and were in pursuit. He soon + put these to flight, and followed them so close that he forced them on + shore, and broke the ships in pieces, the sailors abandoning them and + swimming away, in spite of all the efforts of Pharnabazus, who had come + down to their assistance by land, and did what he could to protect them + from the shore. In fine, the Athenians, having taken thirty of the enemy's + ships, and recovered all their own, erected a trophy. After the gaining of + so glorious a victory his vanity made him eager to show himself to + Tissaphernes, and, having furnished himself with gifts and presents, and + an equipage suitable to his dignity, he set out to visit him. But the + thing did not succeed as he had imagined, for Tissaphernes had long been + suspected by the Lacedaemonians, and was afraid to fall into disgrace with + his king upon that account, therefore thinking that Alcibiades had arrived + very opportunely, he immediately caused him to be seized and sent away + prisoner to Sardis; fancying, by this act of injustice, to clear himself + from all former imputations. + </p> + <p> + But about thirty days after, Alcibiades escaped from his keepers, and, + having got a horse, fled to Clazomenae, where he procured Tissaphernes + additional disgrace by professing that he was a party to his escape. From + there he sailed to the Athenian camp, and, being informed that Mindarus + and Pharnabazus were together at Cyzicus, he made a speech to the + soldiers, telling them that sea-fighting, land-fighting, and, by the gods, + fighting against fortified cities too, must be all one for them, as, + unless they conquered everywhere, there was no money for them. As soon as + he got them on ship-board, he hastened to Proconnesus and gave command to + seize all the small vessels they met, and guard them safely in the + interior of the fleet, that the enemy might have no notice of his coming; + and a great storm of rain, accompanied with thunder and darkness, which + happened at the same time, contributed much to the concealment of his + enterprise. Indeed, it was not only undiscovered by the enemy, but the + Athenians themselves were ignorant of it, for he commanded them suddenly + on board, and set sail when they had abandoned all intention of it. As the + darkness presently passed away, the Peloponnesian fleet were seen riding + out at sea in front of the harbor of Cyzicus. Fearing, if they discovered + the number of his ships, they might endeavor to save themselves by land, + he commanded the rest of the captains to slacken, and follow him slowly, + whilst he, advancing with forty ships, showed himself to the enemy and + provoked them to fight. The enemy, being deceived as to their numbers, + despised them, and, supposing they were to contend with those only, made + ready and began the fight. But as soon as they were engaged, they + perceived the other part of the fleet coming down upon them, at which they + were so terrified that they fled immediately. Upon that, Alcibiades, + breaking through the midst of them with twenty of his best ships, hastened + to the shore, disembarked, and pursued those who abandoned their ships and + fled to land, and made a great slaughter of them. Mindarus and + Pharnabazus, coming to their succor were utterly defeated. Mindarus was + slain fighting valiantly; Pharnabazus saved himself by flight. The + Athenians slew great numbers of their enemies, won much spoil, and took + all their ships. They also made themselves masters of Cyzicus, which was + deserted by Pharnabazus, and destroyed its Peloponnesian garrison, and + thereby not only secured to themselves the Hellespont, but by force drove + the Lacedaemonians out of all the rest of the sea. They intercepted some + letters written to the ephors, which gave an account of this fatal + overthrow, after their short, Iaconic manner. "Our hopes are at an end. + Mindarus is slain. The men are starving. We know not what to do." + </p> + <p> + And now Alcibiades began to desire to see his native country again, or + rather to show his fellow-citizens a person who had gained so many + victories for them. He set sail for Athens, the ships that accompanied him + being adorned with great numbers of shields and other spoils, and towing + after them many galleys taken from the enemy, and the ensigns and + ornaments of many others which he had sunk and destroyed; all of them + together amounting to two hundred. Little credit, perhaps, can be given to + what Duris the Samian, who professed to be descended from Alcibiades, + adds, that Chrysogonus, who had gained a victory at the Pythian games, + played upon his flute for the galleys, whilst the oars kept time with the + music; and that Callippides, the tragedian, attired in his buskins, his + purple robes, and other ornaments used in the theatre, gave the word to + the rowers, and that the admiral's galley entered into the port with a + purple sail. It is not credible, that one who had returned from so long an + exile, and such a variety of misfortunes, should come to his countrymen in + the style of revelers breaking up from a drinking-party. On the contrary, + he entered the harbor full of fear, nor would he venture to go on shore, + till, standing on the deck, he saw Euryptolemus, his cousin, and others of + his friends and acquaintance, who were ready to receive him, and invited + him to land. As soon as he was landed, the multitude who came out to meet + him scarcely appeared to see any of the other captains, but came in + throngs about Alcibiades, and saluted him with loud acclamations, and + followed him; those who could press near him crowned him with garlands, + and they who could not come up so close yet stayed to behold him afar off, + and the old men pointed him out to the young ones. Nevertheless, this + public joy was mixed with some tears, and the present happiness was + diminished by the remembrance of the miseries they had endured. They made + reflections, that they could not have so unfortunately miscarried in + Sicily, if they had left the management of their affairs and the command + of their forces, to Alcibiades, since, upon his undertaking the + administration, when they were absolutely driven from the sea, and could + scarcely defend the suburbs of their city by land, and at the same time, + were miserably distracted with intestine factions, he had raised them up + from this low and deplorable condition, and had not only restored them to + their ancient dominion of the sea, but had also made them everywhere + victorious over their enemies on land. + </p> + <p> + The people being summoned to an assembly, Alcibiades came in among them, + and first bewailed and lamented his own sufferings, and, in general terms + complaining of the usage he had received, imputed all to his hard fortune, + and some ill genius that attended him: then he spoke at large of their + prospects, and exhorted them to courage and good hope. The people crowned + him with crowns of gold, and created him general, both at land and sea, + with absolute power. They also made a decree that his estate should be + restored to him, and that the Eumolpiadae and the holy heralds should + absolve him from the curses which they had solemnly pronounced against him + by the sentence of the people. All the rest obeyed, but Theodorus, the + high-priest, excused himself, "For," said he, "if he is innocent, I never + cursed him." + </p> + <p> + Certainly, if ever man was ruined by his own glory, it was Alcibiades. For + his continual success had produced such an idea of his courage and + conduct, that, if he failed in anything he undertook, it was imputed to + his neglect, and no one would believe it was through want of power. For + they thought nothing was too hard for him, if he went about it in good + earnest. Now, having departed with a fleet of one hundred ships for the + reduction of Chios, and of the rest of Ionia, the people grew impatient + that things were not effected as fast and as rapidly as they could wish + for them. They never considered how extremely money was wanting, and that, + having to carry on war with an enemy who had supplies of all things from a + great king, he was often forced to quit his armament, in order to procure + money and provisions for the subsistence of his soldiers. This very thing + gave occasion for the last accusation which was made against him. For + Lysander, being sent from Lacedaemon with a commission to be admiral of + their fleet, and being furnished by Cyrus with a great sum of money, gave + every sailor four obols a day, whereas before thy had but three. + Alcibiades could hardly allow his men three obols, and therefore was + obliged to go into Caria to furnish himself with money. He left the care + of the fleet, in his absence, to Antiochus, an experienced seaman, but + rash and inconsiderate, who had express orders from Alcibiades not to + engage, though the enemy provoked him. But he slighted and disregarded + these directions to such a degree that, having made ready his own galley + and another, he stood for Ephesus, where the enemy lay, and, as he sailed + before the heads of their galleys, used every provocation possible, both + in words and deeds. Lysander manned out a few ships and pursued him. But + all the Athenian ships coming in to his assistance, Lysander, also, + brought up his whole fleet, which gained an entire victory. He slew + Antiochus himself, took many men and ships, and erected a trophy. + </p> + <p> + As soon as Alcibiades heard this news, he returned to Samos, and loosing + from thence with his whole fleet, came and offered battle to Lysander. But + Lysander, content with the victory he had gained, would not stir. Amongst + others in the army who hated Alcibiades, Thrasybulus, the son of Thrason, + was his particular enemy, and went purposely to Athens to accuse him, and + to exasperate his enemies in the city against him. Addressing the people, + he represented that Alcibiades had ruined their affairs and lost their + ships by mere self-conceited neglect of his duties, committing the + government of the army, in his absence, to men who gained his favor by + drinking and scurrilous talking, whilst he wandered up and down at + pleasure to raise money, giving himself up to every sort of luxury in + Abydos and Ionia, at a time when the enemy's navy were on the watch close + at hand. It was also objected to him, that he had fortified a castle near + Bisanthe in Thrace, for a safe retreat for himself, as one that either + could not, or would not, live in his own country. The Athenians gave + credit to these informations, and showed the resentment and displeasure + which they had conceived against him, by choosing other generals. + </p> + <p> + As soon as Alcibiades heard of this, he immediately forsook the army, + afraid of what might follow; and, collecting a body of mercenary soldiers, + made war upon his own account against those Thracians who called + themselves free, and acknowledged no king. By this means he amassed for + himself considerable treasure, and, at the same time, secured the + bordering Greeks from the incursions of the barbarians. Tydeus, Menander, + and Adimantus, the newly made generals, were at that time posted at + Aegospotami, with all the ships which the Athenians had left. Whence they + used to go out every morning, offer battle to Lysander, who lay near + Lampsacus, and, returning back again, lie all the rest of the day, + carelessly and without order, in contempt of the enemy. Alcibiades, who + was not far off, did not think so lightly of their danger, nor neglect to + let them know it, but, mounting his horse, came to the generals, and + represented to them that they had chosen a very inconvenient station, + where there was no safe harbor, and where they were distant from any town; + so that they were constrained to send for their necessary provisions as + far as Sestos. He also pointed out to them their carelessness in suffering + the soldiers, when they went ashore, disperse and wander up and down at + their pleasure, while the enemy's fleet under the command of one general, + and strictly obedient to discipline, lay so very near them. He advised + them to remove the fleet to Sestos. But the admirals not only disregarded + what he said, but Tydeus, with insulting expressions, commanded him to be + gone saying, that now not he, but others, had the command of the forces. + The event, soon made it evident how rightly he had judged of the errors + which the Athenians were committing. For Lysander fell upon them on a + sudden, when they least suspected it, with such fury that Conon alone, + with eight galleys, escaped him; all the rest, about two hundred, he took + and carried away, together with three thousand prisoners, whom he put to + death. And within a short time after, he took Athens itself, burnt all the + ships which he found there, demolished their long walls, and established + the rule of the Thirty Tyrants. + </p> + <p> + After this, Alcibiades, standing in dread of the Lacedaemonians, who were + now masters both at sea and land, retired into Bithynia. He sent there + great treasure before him, took much with him, but left much more in the + castle where he had before resided. But he lost a great part of his wealth + in Bithynia, being robbed by some Thracians who lived in those parts, and + thereupon determined to go to the court of Artaxerxes, not doubting but + that the king, if he would make trial of his abilities, would find him not + inferior to Themistocles, besides being recommended by a more honorable + cause. For he went, not as Themistocles did, to offer his service against + his fellow-citizens, but against their enemies, and to implore the king's + aid for the defence of his country. The Athenians, in the meantime, + miserably afflicted at their loss of empire and liberty, acknowledged and + bewailed their former errors and follies, and judged this second ill-usage + of Alcibiades to be of all the most inexcusable. For he was rejected, + without any fault committed by himself; and only because they were + incensed against his subordinate for having shamefully lost a few ships, + they were much more shamefully deprived the commonwealth of its most + valiant and accomplished general. + </p> + <p> + Critias finally represented to Lysander that the Lacedaemonians could + never securely enjoy the dominion of Greece, till the Athenian democracy + was absolutely destroyed; and though now the people of Athens seemed + quietly and patiently to submit to so small a number of governors, yet so + long as Alcibiades lived, the knowledge of this fact would never suffer + them to acquiesce in their present circumstances. + </p> + <p> + Yet Lysander could not be prevailed upon by these representation, till at + last he received secret orders from the magistrates of Lacedaemon, + expressly requiring him to get Alcibiades despatched: whether it was that + they feared his energy and boldness in undertaking what was hazardous, or + that it was done to gratify king Agis. Upon receipt of this order, + Lysander sent a messenger away to Pharnabazus, desiring him to put it in + execution. Alcibiades resided at that time in a small village in Phrygia. + Those who were sent to assassinate him had not courage enough to enter the + house, but surrounded it first, and set it on fire. Alcibiades, as soon as + he perceived it, wrapped his cloak about his left arm, and holding his + naked sword in his right, cast himself into the middle of the fire, and + escaped securely through it, before his clothes were burnt. The + barbarians, as soon as they saw him, retreated, and none of them durst + engage with him, but standing at a distance, they slew him with their + darts and arrows. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0013" id="link2H_4_0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CORIOLANUS + </h2> + <p> + The patrician house of the Marcii in Rome produced many men of + distinction, and among the rest, Ancus Marcius, grandson to Numa by his + daughter, and king after Tulus Hostillus. Of the same family were also + Publius and Quintus Marcius, which two conveyed into the city the best and + most abundant supply of water they have at Rome. But Caius Marcius, of + whom I now write, being left an orphan, and brought up under the widowhood + of his mother, has shown us by experience, that, although the early loss + of a father may be attended with other disadvantages, yet it can hinder + none from being either virtuous or eminent in the world, and that it is no + obstacle to true goodness and excellence. Those who saw with admiration + how proof his nature was against pleasure, hardships, and the allurements + of gain, while allowing to that universal firmness of his the respective + names of temperance, fortitude, and justice, yet, in the life of the + citizen and the statesman, could not but be offended at the severity and + ruggedness of his deportment, and with his overbearing, haughty, and + imperious temper. + </p> + <p> + Those were times at Rome in which that kind of worth was most esteemed + which displayed itself in military achievements; one evidence of which we + find in the Latin word for virtue, which is properly equivalent to many + courage. But Marcius, having a more passionate inclination than any of + that age for feats of war, began from his very childhood to handle arms; + and feeling that adventitious implements and artificial arms would be of + small use to such as have not their natural weapons well prepared for + services, he so exercised and inured his body to all sorts of activity and + accouter, that, besides the lightness of a racer, he had a weight in close + seizures and wrestlings with an enemy, from which it was hard for anybody + to disengage himself; so that his competitors at home in displays of + bravery, loath to own themselves inferior in that respect, were wont to + ascribe their deficiencies to his strength of body, which they said no + resistance and no fatigue could exhaust. + </p> + <p> + The first time he went out to the wards, being yet a stripling, was when + Tarquinius Superbus, who had been king of Rome and was afterwards + expelled, after many unsuccessful attempts now entered upon his last + effort, and proceeded to hazard all as it were upon a single throw. A + great number of the Latins and other people of Italy joined their forces, + and were marching with him toward the city, to procure his restoration; + not, however, so much out of a desire to serve and oblige Tarquin, as to + gratify their own fear and envy at the increase of the Roman greatness, + which they were anxious to check. The armies met and engaged in a decisive + battle, in the vicissitudes of which, Marcius, while fighting bravely in + the dictator's presence, saw a Roman soldier struck down at a little + distance, and immediately stepped in before him, and slew his assailant. + The general, after having gained the victory, crowned him for this act + with a garland of oak branches; it being the Roman custom thus to adorn + those who had saved the life of a citizen; whether the law intended some + special honor to the oak, in memory of the Arcadians, a people the oracle + had made famous by the name of acorn-eaters; or, the oak wreath, being + sacred to Jupiter, the guardian of the city, might, therefore be thought a + proper ornament for one who preserved a citizen. And the oak, in truth, is + the tree which bears the most and the prettiest of any that grow wild, and + is the strongest of all that are under cultivation; its acorns were the + principal diet of the first mortals, and the honey found in it gave them + drink. + </p> + <p> + In this battle it is stated that Castor and Pollux appeared, and, + immediately after the battle, were seen at Rome just by the fountain where + their temple now stands, with their horses foaming with sweat, and told + the news of the victory of the people in the Forum. The fifteenth of July, + being the day of this conquest, became consequently a solemn holiday + sacred to the Twin Brothers. + </p> + <p> + It may be observed, in general, that when young men arrive early at fame + and repute, if they are of a nature but slightly touched with emulation, + this early attainment is apt to extinguish their thirst and satiate their + small appetite; whereas the first distinctions of more solid and weighty + characters only stimulate and quicken them, and take them away, like a + wind, in the pursuit of honor; they look upon these marks and testimonies + to their virtue not as a recompense received for what they have already + done, but as a pledge given by themselves of what they will perform + hereafter, ashamed now to forsake or underlive the credit they have won, + or, rather, not to exceed and obscure all that is gone before by the + lustre of their following actions. Marcius, having a spirit of this noble + make, was ambitious always to surpass himself, and did nothing, how + extraordinary soever, but he thought he was bound to outdo it at the next + occasion; and ever desiring to give continual fresh instances of his + prowess, he added one exploit to another, and heaped up trophies upon + trophies, so as to make it a matter of contest also among his commanders, + the latter still vying with the earlier, which should pay him the greatest + honor and speak highest in his commendation. Of all the numerous wars and + conflicts in those days, there was not one from which he returned without + laurels and rewards. And, whereas others made glory the end of their + daring, the end of his glory was his mother's gladness; the delight we + took to hear him praised and to see him crowned, and her weeping for joy + in his embraces, rendered him, in his own thoughts, the most honored and + most happy person in the world. Epaminondas is similarly said to have + acknowledged his feeling, that it was the greatest felicity of his whole + life that his father and mother survived to hear of his successful + generalship and his victory at Leuctra. And he had the advantage, indeed, + to have both his parents partake with him, and enjoy the pleasure of his + good fortune. But Marcius, believing himself bound to pay his mother + Volumnia all that gratitude and duty which would have belonged to his + father, had he also been alive, could never satiate himself in his + tenderness and respect to her. He took a wife, also, at her request and + wish, and continued, even after he had children, to live with his mother, + without parting families. + </p> + <p> + The repute of his integrity and courage had, by this time, gained him + considerable influence and authority in Rome, when the senate, favoring + the wealthier citizens, began to be at variance with the common people, + who made sad complaints of the rigorous and inhuman usage they received + from the money-lenders. + </p> + <p> + There had been frequent assemblies of the whole senate within a small + compass of time about this difficulty, but without any definite result; + the poor commonality, therefore, perceiving there was likely to be no + redress of their grievances, collected in a body, and, encouraging each + other in their resolution, forsook the city with one accord, and seizing + the hill which is now called the Holy Mount, sat down by the river Anio, + without committing any sort of violence or seditious outrage, but merely + exclaiming, as they went along, that they had this long time past been + expelled from the city by the cruelty of the rich; that Italy would + everywhere afford them the benefit of air and water and a place of burial, + which was all they could expect in the city, unless it were perhaps, the + privilege of being wounded and killed in time of war for the defence of + their creditors. The senate apprehending the consequences, sent the most + moderate and popular men of their own order to treat with them. + </p> + <p> + Menenius Agrippa, their chief spokesman, after much entreaty to the + people, concluded, at length, with this celebrated fable: "It once + happened, that all the other members of a man mutinied against the + stomach, which they accused as the only idle, uncontributing part in the + whole body, while the rest were put to hardships and the expense of much + labor to minister to its appetites. The stomach, however, merely ridiculed + the silliness of the members, who appeared not to be aware that the + stomach certainly does receive the general nourishment, but only to return + it again, and redistribute it amongst the rest. Such is the case," he + said, "citizens, between you and the senate. The counsels and plans that + are there duly digested, secure to all of you, your proper benefit and + support." + </p> + <p> + A reconciliation ensued, the senate acceding to the request of the people + for the annual election of five protectors for those in need of succor, + the same that are now called the tribunes of the people; and the first two + they pitched upon were Junius Brutus and Sicinnius Vellutus, their leaders + in the secession. + </p> + <p> + The city being thus united, the commons stood presently to their arms, and + followed their commanders. + </p> + <p> + The Romans were now at war with the Volscian nation, whose principal city + was Corioli; when, therefore, Cominius the consul had invested this + important place, the rest of the Volscians, fearing it would be taken, + mustered up whatever force they could from all parts, to relieve it, + designing to give the Romans battle before the city, and so attack them on + both sides. Cominius, to avoid this inconvenience, divided his army, + marching himself with one body to encounter the Volscians on their + approach from without, and leaving Titus Lartius, one of the bravest + Romans of his time, to command the other and continue the siege. Those + within Corioli, despising now the smallness of their number, made a sally + upon them, and prevailed at first, and pursued the Romans into their + trenches. Here it was that Marcius, flying out with a slender company, and + cutting those in pieces that first enraged him, obliged the other + assailants to slacken their speed; and then, with loud cries, called upon + the Romans to renew the battle. For he had, what Cato thought a great + point in a soldier, not only strength of hand and stroke, but also a voice + and look that of themselves were a terror to an enemy. Some of his own + party now rallying and making up to him, the enemies soon retreated; but + Marcius, not content to see them draw off and retire, pressed hard upon + the rear, and drove them, as they fled away in haste, to the very gates of + their city; where, perceiving the Romans to fall back from their pursuit, + beaten off by the multitude of darts poured in upon them from the walls, + and that none of his followers had the hardiness to think of falling in + pell-mell among the fugitives and so entering a city full of enemies in + arms, he, nevertheless, stood and urged them to the attempt, crying out, + that fortune had not opened Corioli, not so much to shelter the + vanquished, as to receive the conquerors. Seconded by a few that were + willing to venture with him, he bore along through the crowd, made good + his passage, and thrust himself into the gate through the midst of them, + nobody at first daring to resist him. But when the citizens, on looking + about, saw that a very small number had entered, they now took courage, + and came up and attacked them. A combat ensued of the most extraordinary + description, in which Marcius, by strength of hand, swiftness of foot, and + daring of soul, overpowered every one that he assailed, succeeded in + driving the enemy to seek refuge, for the most part, in the interior of + the town, while the remainder submitted, and threw down their arms; thus + affording Lartius abundant opportunity to bring in the rest of the Romans + with ease and safety. + </p> + <p> + Corioli being thus surprised and taken, the greater part of the soldiers + employed themselves in spoiling and pillaging it, while Marcius + indignantly reproached them, and exclaimed that it was a dishonorable and + unworthy thing, when the consul and their fellow-citizens had now perhaps + encountered the other Volscians, and were hazarding their lives in battle, + basely to mis-spend the time in running up and down for booty, and, under + a pretence of enriching themselves, keep out of danger. Few paid him any + attention, but, putting himself at the head of these, he took the road by + which the consul's army had marched before him, encouraging his + companions, and beseeching them, as they went along, not to give up, and + praying often to the gods, too, that he might be so happy as to arrive + before the fight was over, and come seasonably up to assist Cominius, and + partake in the peril of the action. + </p> + <p> + It was customary with the Romans of that age, when they were moving into + battle array, and were on the point of taking up their bucklers, and + girding their coats about them, to make at the same time an unwritten + will, or verbal testament, and to name who should be their heirs, in the + hearing of three or four witnesses. In this precise posture Marcius found + them at his arrival, the enemy having advanced within view. + </p> + <p> + They were not a little disturbed by his first appearance, seeing him + covered with blood and sweat, and attended with a small train; but when he + hastily made up to the consul with gladness in his looks, giving him his + hand, and recounting to him how the city had been taken, and when they saw + Cominius also embrace and salute him, every one took fresh heart; those + that were near enough hearing, and those that were at a distance guessing, + what had happened; and all cried out to be led to battle. First, however, + Marcius desired to know of him how the Volscians had arrayed their army, + and where they had placed their best men, and on his answering that he + took the troops of the Activates in the centre to be their prime warriors, + than would yield to none in bravery, "Let me then demand and obtain of + you," said Marcius, "that we may be posted against them." The consul + granted the request, with much admiration of his gallantry. And when the + conflict began by the soldiers darting at each other, and Marcius sallied + out before the rest the Volscians opposed to him were not able to make + head against him; wherever he fell in, he broke their ranks, and made a + lane through them; but the parties turning again, and enclosing him on + each side with their weapons, the consul, who observed the danger he was + in, despatched some of the choicest men he had for his rescue. The + conflict then growing warm and sharp about Marcius, and many falling dead + in a little space, the Romans bore so hard upon the enemies, and pressed + them with such violence, that they forced them at length to abandon their + ground, and to quit the field. And, going now to prosecute the victory, + they besought Marcius, tired out with his toils, and faint and heavy + through the loss of blood, that he would retire to the camp. He replied, + however, that weariness was not for conquerors, and joined with them in + the pursuit. The rest of the Volscian army was in like manner defeated, + great numbers killed, and no less taken captive. + </p> + <p> + The day after, when Marcius, with the rest of the army, presented + themselves at the consul's tent, Cominius rose, and having rendered all + due acknowledgment to the gods for the success of that enterprise, turned + next to Marcius, and first of all delivered the strongest encomium upon + his rare exploits, of which he had partly been an eye-witness himself, in + the late battle, and had partly learned from the testimony of Lartius. And + then he required him to choose a tenth part of all the treasure and horses + and captives that had fallen into their hands, before any division should + be made to others; besides which, he made him the special present of a + horse with trappings and ornaments, in honor of his actions. The whole + army applauded; Marcius, however, stepped forth, and declaring his + thankful acceptance of the horse and his gratification at the praises of + his general, said, that all other things which he could only regard rather + as mercenary advantages than any significations of honor, he must waive, + and should be content with the ordinary proportion of such rewards. "I + have only," said he "one special grace to beg, and this I hope you will + not deny me. There was a certain hospitable friend of mine among the + Volscians, a man of probity and virtue, who is become a prisoner, and from + former wealth and freedom is now reduced to servitude. Among his many + misfortunes let my intercession redeem him from the one of being sold as a + common slave." Such a refusal and such a request on the part of Marcius + were followed with yet louder acclamations; and he had many more admirers + of this generous superiority to avarice, than of the bravery he had shown + in battle. The very persons who conceived some envy and despite to see him + so specially honored, could not but acknowledge, that one who so nobly + could refuse reward, was beyond others worth to receive it; and were more + charmed with that virtue which made him despise advantage, than with any + of those former actions that had gained him his title to it. It is a + higher accomplishment to use money well than to use arms; but not to need + it is more noble than to use it. + </p> + <p> + When the noise of approbation and applause ceased, Cominius, resuming, + said, "It is idle, fellow-soldiers, to force those other gifts of ours on + one who is unwilling to accept them; let us, therefore, give him one of + such a kind that he cannot well reject it; let us pass a vote, I mean, + that he shall hereafter be called Coriolanus, unless you think that his + performance at Corioli has itself anticipated any such resolution." Hence, + therefore, he had his third name of Coriolanus, making it all the plainer + that Gaius was a personal proper name, and the second, or surname, + Marcius, one common to his house and family; the third being a subsequent + addition which used to be imposed either from particular act or fortune, + bodily characteristic, or good quality of the bearer. + </p> + <p> + Not long after Marcius stood for the consulship. It was usual for + candidates for office to solicit personally the citizens, presenting + themselves in the forum with the toga on alone, and no tunic under it; + either to promote their supplications by the humility of their dress, or + that such as had received wounds might more readily display those marks of + their fortitude. + </p> + <p> + Marcius, therefore, as the fashion of candidates was, showing the scars + and gashes that were still visible on his body, from the many conflicts in + which he had signalized himself during a service of seventeen years + together, the people were affected at this display of merit, and told one + another that they ought in common modesty to create him consul. But when + the day of election had come, and Marcius appeared in the forum with a + pompous train of senators attending him, and the patricians all seemed to + be exerting greater effort than they had ever done before on a similar + occasion, the commons then fell off again from the kindness they had + conceived for him, and in the place of their late benevolence, began to + feel something of indignation and envy; passions assisted by the fear they + entertained, that if a man of such aristocratic temper, and so influential + among the patricians, should be invested with the power which that office + would give him, he might employ it to deprive the people of all that + liberty which was yet left them. In conclusion, they rejected Marcius. Two + other names were announced, to the great mortification of the senators, + who felt as if the indignity reflected rather upon themselves than on + Marcius. He, for his part, could not bear the affront with any patience. + He had always indulged his temper, and had regarded the proud and + contentious element of human nature as a sort of nobleness and + magnanimity; reason and discipline had not imbued him with that solidity + and equanimity which enter so largely into the virtues for the statesman. + He had never learned how essential it is for any one who undertakes public + business, and desires to deal with mankind, to avoid above all things that + self-will, which, as Plato says, belongs to the family of solitude; and to + pursue, above all things, that capacity so generally ridiculed, of + submission to ill-treatment. Marcius, straightforward and direct, stand + together, and come in to their assistance. The assembly met, and soon + became tumultuous. The sum of what Marcius had spoken, having been + reported to the people, excited them to such fury, that they were ready to + break in upon the senate. The tribunes prevented this, by laying all the + blame on Coriolanus, and they accordingly cited him to come before them, + and defend himself. + </p> + <p> + He came, therefore, as it were, to make his apology, and clear himself; in + which belief the people kept silence, and gave him a quiet hearing. But + when instead of the submissive and deprecatory language expected from him, + he began to use not only an offensive kind of freedom, seeming rather to + accuse than apologize, but as well by the tone of his voice as the + expression of his countenance, displayed a security that was not far from + disdain and contempt of them, the whole multitude then became angry, and + gave evident signs of impatience and disgust; and Sicinnius, the most + violent of the tribunes, after a little private conference with his + colleagues, proceeded solemnly to pronounce before them all, that Marcius + was condemned to die by the tribunes of the people, and bid the Aediles + take him to the Tarpeian rock, and without delay throw him headlong from + the precipice. When they, however, in compliance with the order, came to + seize upon his body, many, even of the plebeian party, felt it to be a + horrible and extravagant act; the patricians, meantime, wholly beside + themselves with distress and horror, hurried with cries to the rescue; and + persuaded them not to despatch him by any sudden violence, but refer the + cause to the general suffrage of the people. But when the people met + together, the tribunes, contrary to all former practice, extorted first, + that votes should be taken, not by centuries, but tribes; a change, by + which the rabble, that had no respect for honesty and justice, would be + sure to carry it against those who were rich and well known, and + accustomed to serve the state in war. In the next place, whereas they had + engaged to prosecute Marcius upon no other head but that of tyranny, which + could never be made out against him, they relinquished this plea, and + urged instead, his language in the senate against an abatement of the + price of corn, and for the overthrow of the tribunician power; adding + further, as a new impeachment, the distribution that was made by him of + the spoil and booty he had taken from the Antiates, when he overran their + country, which he had divided among those that had followed him, whereas + it ought rather to have been brought into the public treasure; which last + accusation did, they say, more discompose Marcius than all the rest, as he + had not anticipated he should ever be questioned on that subject, and, + therefore, was less provided with any satisfactory answer to it on the + sudden. And when, by way of excuse, he began to magnify the merits of + those who had been partakers with him in the action, those that had stayed + at home, being more numerous than the other, interrupted him with the + outcries. In conclusion, when they came to vote, a majority of three + tribes condemned him; the penalty being perpetual banishment. + </p> + <p> + Marcius himself, was neither stunned nor humiliated. In mien, carriage, + and countenance, he bore the appearance of entire composure, and while all + his friends were full of distress, seemed the only man that was not + touched with his misfortune. On his return home, after saluting his mother + and his wife, who were in tears and full of loud lamentations, and + exhorting them to moderate the sense they had of his calamity, he + proceeded at once to the city gates, whither all the nobility came to + attend him; and not taking anything with him, or making any request to the + company, he departed from them, having only three or four clients with + him. He continued solitary for a few days in a place in the country, + distracted with a variety of counsels, such as rage and indignation + suggested to him; and proposing to himself no honorable or useful end, but + only how he might best satisfy his revenge on the Romans, he resolved at + length to arouse a heavy war against them from their nearest neighbors. He + determined, first to make trial of the Volscians, whom he knew to be still + vigorous and flourishing, both in men and treasure, and he imagined their + force and power was not so much abated, as their spite and anger + increased, by the late overthrows they had received from the Romans. + </p> + <p> + There was a man of Antium, called Tullus Aufidius, who, for his wealth and + bravery and the splendor of his family, had the respect and privilege of a + king among the Volscians, but whom Marcius knew to have a particular + hostility to himself, above all other Romans. Frequent menaces and + challenges had passed in battle between them, and those exchanges of + defiance to which their hot and eager emulation is apt to prompt young + soldiers had added private animosity to their national feelings of + opposition. Yet for all this, considering Tullus to have a certain + generosity of temper, and knowing that no Volscian, so much as he, desired + an occasion to requite upon the Romans the evils they had done, he put on + a dress which completely disguised him and thus, like Ulysses,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + He entered the town of his mortal foes. +</pre> + <p> + His arrival at Antium was about evening, and though several met him in the + streets, yet he passed along without recognition, and went directly to the + house of Tullus, and entering undiscovered, went up to the fire-hearth, + and seated himself there without speaking a work, covering up his head. + Those of the family could not but wonder, and yet they were afraid either + to raise or question him, for there was a certain air of majesty both in + his posture and silence, but they recounted to Tullus, then at supper, the + strangeness of this accident. He immediately rose from table and came in, + and asked him who he was, and for what business he came there; and then + Marcius, unmuffling himself, and pausing awhile said, "If you cannot yet + call me to mind, Tullus, or do not believe your eyes concerning me, I must + of necessity be my own accuser. I am Gaius Marcius, the author of so much + mischief to the Volscians; of which, were I seeking to deny it, the + surname of Coriolanus I now bear would be a sufficient evidence against + me. The one recompense I received for all the hardships and perils I have + gone through, was the title that proclaims my enmity to your nation, and + this is the only thing which is still left me. Of all other advantages, I + have been stripped and deprived by the envy of the Roman people, and the + cowardice and treachery of the magistrates and those of my own order. I am + driven out as an exile, and become an humble suppliant at your hearth, not + so much for safety and protection (should I have come hither, had I been + afraid to die?), as to seek vengeance against those that expelled me; + which, methinks, I have already obtained, by putting myself into your + hands. If, therefore, you have really a mind to attack your enemies, make + use of that affliction you see me in to assist the enterprise, and convert + my personal infelicity into a common blessing to the Volscians; as I am + likely to be more serviceable in fighting for than against you, with the + advantage, which I now possess, of knowing all the secrets of the enemy + that I am attacking." + </p> + <p> + Tullus, on hearing this, was extremely rejoiced, and giving him his right + hand, exclaimed, "rise, Marcius, and be of good courage; it is a great + happiness you bring to Antium, in the present you make us of yourself; + expect everything that is good from the Volscians." he then proceeded to + feast and entertain him with every display of kindness, and for several + days after they were in close deliberation together on the prospects of a + war. + </p> + <p> + Although the Volscians had sworn to a truce of arms for the space of two + years, the Romans themselves soon furnished them with a pretence, by + making proclamation, out of some jealousy or slanderous report, at an + exhibition of games, that all the Volscians who had come to see them + should depart from the city before sunset. Some affirm that this was a + contrivance of Marcius, who sent a man privately to the consuls, falsely + to accuse the Volscians of intending to fall upon the Romans during the + games, and to set the city on fire. This public affront aroused their + hostility to the Romans; and Tullus, perceiving it, took advantage of it, + aggravating the fact, and working on their indignation, till he persuaded + them, at last, to despatch ambassadors to Rome, requiring the Romans to + restore that part of their country and those towns which they had taken + from the Volscian in the late war. When the Romans heard the message, they + indignantly replied, that the Volscians were the first that took up arms, + but the Romans would be the last to lay them down. This answer being + brought back, Tullus called a general assembly of the Volscians; and the + voted passing for a war, he then proposed that they should call in + Marcius, laying aside the remembrance of former grudges, and assuring + themselves that the services they should now receive from him as friend + and associate, would abundantly outweigh any harm or damage he had done + them when he was their enemy. Marcius was accordingly summoned, and having + made his entrance, and spoken tot he people, won their good opinion of his + capacity, his skill, counsel, and boldness, not less by his present words + than by his past actions. They joined him in commission with Tullus, to + have full power as general of their forces in all that related to the war. + And he, fearing lest the time that would be requisite to bring all the + Volscians together in full preparation might be so long as to lose him the + opportunity of action, left order with the chief persons and magistrates + for the city to provide other things, while he himself, prevailing upon + the readiest to assemble and march out with him as volunteers without + staying to be enrolled, made a sudden inroad into the Roman confines, when + nobody expected him, and possessed himself of so much booty, that the + Volscians found they had more than they could either carry away or use in + the camp. The abundance of provision which he gained, and the waste and + havoc of the country which he made, were, however, the smallest results of + that invasion; the great mischief he intended, and his special object in + all, was to increase at Rome the suspicions entertained of the patricians, + and to make them upon worse terms with the people. With this view, while + despoiling all the fields and destroying the property of other men, he + took special care to preserve their farms and lands untouched, and would + not allow his soldiers to ravage there, or seize upon any thing which + belonged to them. Hence the quarrels broke out afresh, and rose to a + greater height than ever; the senators reproaching those of the commonalty + with their late injustice to Marcius; while the plebeians, on their side, + did not hesitate to accuse them of having, out of spite and revenge, + solicited him to this enterprise, and thus, when others were involved in + the miseries of a war by their means, they sat like unconcerned spectators + furnished with a guardian abroad of their fortunes, in the very person of + the public enemy. After this incursion and exploit, which was of great + advantage to the Volscians, since they learned by it to be more courageous + and to despise their enemy, Marcius drew them off, and returned in safety. + </p> + <p> + But when the whole strength of the Volscians was brought together into the + field, with great expedition, it appeared so considerable a body, that + they agreed to leave part in garrison, for the security of their towns, + and with the other part to march against the Romans. Marcius now desired + Tullus to choose which of the two charges would be most agreeable to him. + Tullus answered, that since he knew Marcius to be equally valiant with + himself, and far more fortunate, he would have him take the command of + those that were going out to the war, while he made it his care to defend + their cities at home, and provide all conveniences for the army abroad. + Marcius thus reinforced, and much stronger than before, moved first + towards the city called Circaeum, a Roman colony. He received its + surrender, and did the inhabitants no injury; passing thence, he entered + and laid waste the country of the Latins, where he expected the Romans + would meet him, as the Latins were their confederates and allies, and had + often sent to demand succor from them. the people, however, on their part, + showing little inclination for the service, and the consuls themselves + being unwilling to run the hazard of a battle, when the time of their + office was almost ready to expire, they dismissed the Latin ambassadors + without any effect; so that Marcius, finding no army to oppose him, + marched up to their cities, and, having taken by force Toleria, Lavici, + Peda, and Bols, all of which offered resistance, not only plundered their + houses, but made a prey likewise of their persons. Meantime, he showed + particular regard for all such as came over to his party, and, for fear + they might sustain any damage against his will, encamped them at the + greatest distance he could, and wholly abstained from their property. + </p> + <p> + After, however, he had made himself master of Bols, a town not above ten + miles from Rome, where he found great treasure, and put almost all the + adults to the sword; the other Volscians that were ordered to stay behind + and protect their cities, hearing of his achievements and success, had not + patience to remain any longer at home, but came hastening in their arms to + Marcius, saying that he alone was their general and the sole commander + they would own; with all this, his name and renown spread throughout all + Italy, and universal wonder prevailed at the sudden and mighty revolution + in the fortunes for two nations which the loss and the accession of a + single man had effected. + </p> + <p> + All at Rome was in great disorder; they were utterly averse from fighting, + and spent their whole time in cabals and disputes and reproaches against + each other; until news was brought that the enemy had laid close siege to + Lavinium, where were the images and sacred things of their tutelar gods, + and whence they derived the origin of their nations, that being the first + city which Aeneas built in Italy. These tidings produced a change as + universal as it was extraordinary in the thoughts and inclinations of the + people, but occasioned a yet stranger revulsion of feeling among the + patricians. The people now were for repealing the sentence against + Marcius, and calling him back into the city; whereas the senate, being + assembled to consider the decree, opposed and finally rejected the + proposal, either out of the mere humor of opposing the people in whatever + they should desire, or because they were unwilling, perhaps, that he + should owe his restoration to their kindness. When Marcius heard of this, + he was more exasperated than ever, and, quitting the siege of Lavinium, + marched furiously towards Rome, and encamped at a place called the + Cluilian ditches, about five miles from the city. The nearness of his + approach did, indeed, create much terror and disturbance, yet it also + ended their dissensions for the present; as nobody now, whether consul or + senator, durst any longer contradict the people in their design of + recalling Marcius. + </p> + <p> + It was therefore, unanimously agreed by all parties, that ambassadors + should be despatched, offering him return to his country, and desiring him + to free them from the terrors and distresses of the war. The persons sent + by the senate with this message were chosen out of his kindred and + acquaintance, who naturally expected a very kind reception at their first + interview; in which, however, they were much mistaken. Being led through + the enemy's camp, they found him sitting in state amid the chief men of + the Volscians, looking insupportably proud and arrogant. He bade them + declare the cause of their coming, which they did in the most gently + terms, and with a behavior suitable to their language. When they had made + an end of speaking, he returned them a sharp answer, full of bitterness + and angry resentment, as to what concerned himself, and the ill usage he + had received from them; but as general of the Volscians, he demanded + restitution of the cities and the lands which had been seized upon during + the late war, and that the same rights and franchises should be granted + them at Rome, which had been before accorded to the Latins; since there + could be no assurance that a peace would be firm and lasting without just + conditions on both sides. He allowed them thirty days to consider and + resolve. + </p> + <p> + The ambassadors having departed; he withdrew his forces from the Roman + territory. Those of the Volscians who had long envied his reputation, and + could not endure to see the influence he had with the people, laid hold of + this as a matter of complaint against him. Among them was Tullus himself, + not for any wrong done him personally by Marcius, but through the weakness + incident to human nature. He could not help feeling mortified to find his + own glory totally obscured, and himself overlooked and neglected now by + the Volscians, who had so great an opinion of their new leader. Yet + Marcius spent no part of the time idly, but attacked the confederates of + the enemy, ravaged their land, and took from them seven great and populous + cities in that interval. The Romans, in the meanwhile, durst not venture + out to their relief; but were utterly fearful, and showed no more + disposition or capacity for action, than if their bodies had been struck + with a palsy, and become destitute of sense and motion. But when the + thirty days were expired, and Marcius appeared again with his whole army, + they sent another embassy to beseech him that he would moderate his + displeasure, and would withdraw the Volscian army, and then make any + proposals he thought best for both parties, but if it were his opinion + that the Volscians ought to have any favor shown them, upon laying down + their arms they might obtain all they could in reason desire. + </p> + <p> + The reply of Marcius was, that he should make no answer to this as a + general of the Volscians, but in the quality still for a roman citizen, he + would advise them to return to him before three days were at an end, with + a ratification of his previous demands. + </p> + <p> + When the ambassadors came back, and acquainted the senate with the answer, + seeing the whole state now threatened as it were by a tempest, a decree + was made, that the whole order of their priests should go in full + procession to Marcius with their pontifical array, and the dress and habit + which they respectively used in their several functions, and should urge + him, as before, to withdraw his forces, and then treat with his countrymen + in favor of the Volscians. He granted nothing at all, nor so much as + expressed himself more mildly; but without capitulating or receding, bade + them once for all choose whether they would yield or fight, since the old + terms were the only terms of peace. In this great perplexity, the roman + women went, some to other temples, but the greater part, and the ladies of + highest rank, tot he altar of Jupiter Capitolinus. Among these suppliants + was Valeria, sister to the great Poplicola, who happily lighting, not + without divine guidance, on the right expedient, rose, and bade the others + rise, and went directly with them to the house of Volumnia, the mother of + Marcius. And coming in and finding her sitting with her daughter-in-law, + and with her little grandchildren on her lap, Valeria, then surrounded by + her companions, spoke in the name of them all:— + </p> + <p> + "We, O Volumnia, and Vergilia, are come as women to women, to request a + thing on which our own and the common safety depends, and which, if you + consent to it, will raise our glory above that of the daughters of the + Sabines, who won over their fathers and their husbands from mortal enmity + to peace and friendship. Arise and come with us to Marcius; join in our + supplication, for your country's sake." + </p> + <p> + The words of Valeria were seconded by the acclamations of the other women, + to which Volumnia made answer:—"I and Vergilia, my countrywomen, + have an equal share with you all in the common miseries, and we have the + additional sorrow, which is wholly ours, that we have lost the merit and + good fame of Marcius, and see his person confined, rather than protected + by the arms of the enemy. Make use, however, of our service; and lead us, + if you please, to him; we are able, if nothing more, at least to spend our + last breath in making suit to him for our country." + </p> + <p> + Having spoken thus, she took Vergilia by the hand, and the young children, + and so accompanied them to the Volscian camp. So lamentable a sight much + affected the enemies themselves, who viewed them in respectful silence. + Marcius, seeing the party of women advance, came down hastily to meet + them, saluting his mother first, and embracing her a long time, and then + his wife and children, sparing neither tears nor cares, but suffering + himself to be borne away and carried headlong, as it were, but the + impetuous violence of his passion. + </p> + <p> + when he had satisfied himself, and observed that his mother Volumnia was + desirous to say something, the Volscian council being first called in, he + heard her to the following effect: "Our dress and our very persons, my + son, might tell you, though we should say nothing ourselves, in how + forlorn a condition we have lived at home since your banishment and + absence from us; and now consider with yourself, whether we may not pass + for the most unfortunate of all women, to have that sight, which should be + the sweetest that we could see, converted, through I know not what + fatality, to one of all others the most formidable and dreadful,—Volumnia + to behold her son, and Vergilia her husband, in arms against the walls of + Rome. As for myself, if I cannot prevail with you to prefer amity and + concord to quarrel and hostility, and to be the benefactor to both + parties, rather than the destroyer of one of them, be assured of this, + that you shall not be able to reach your country, unless you trample first + upon the corpse of her that brought you into life. For it will be ill in + me to loiter in the world till the day com wherein I shall see a child of + mine, either led in triumph by his own countrymen, or triumphing over + them." + </p> + <p> + Marcius listened to his mother while she spoke, without answering her a + word; and Volumnia, seeing him stand mute also for a long time after she + had ceased, resumed: "O my son, what is the meaning of this silence? Is it + wrong to gratify a mother in a request like this? You have punished your + country already; you have not yet paid your debt to me." Having said this, + she threw herself down at his feet, as did also his wife and children; + upon which Marcius, crying out, "O mother! what is it you have done to + me?" raised her from the ground, and pressing her right hand with more + than ordinary vehemence said, "You have gained a victory, fortunate enough + for the Romans, but destructive to your son; whom you, though none else, + have defeated." And after a little private conference with his mother and + his wife, he went them back again to Rome, as they desired of him. + </p> + <p> + the next morning, he broke up his camp, and led the Volscians homeward, + variously affected with what he had done. None, however, opposed his + commands; they all obediently followed him, though rather from admiration + of his virtue, than any regard they now had to his authority. The Roman + people, meantime began to crown themselves with garlands and prepare for + sacrifice, as they were wont to do upon tidings brought of an signal + victory. But the joy and transport of the whole city was chiefly + remarkable in the honors and marks of affection paid to the women, as well + by the senate as the people in general; every one declaring that they + were, beyond all question, the instruments of the public safety. And the + senate having passed a decree that whatsoever they would ask in the way of + an a favor or honor should be allowed and done for them by the + magistrates, they demanded simply that a temple might be erected to the + Goddess Fortuna, the expense of which they offered to defray out of their + own contributions, if the city would be at the cost of sacrifices, and + other matters pertaining to the due honor of the gods, out of the common + treasury. The senate, much commending their public spirit, caused the + temple to be built and a statue set up in it at the public charge; they + however, made up a sum among themselves, for a second image of Fortune, + which the Romans say utter these words as they were putt it up "Blessed of + the gods, O women, is your gift." + </p> + <p> + When Marcius came back to Antium, Tullus, who thoroughly hated and greatly + feared him, proceeded at once to contrive how he might immediately + despatch him; as, if he escaped now, he was never likely to give him such + another advantage. Having, therefore, got together and suborned several + partisans against him, he required Marcius to resign his charge, and give + the Volscians an account of his administration. + </p> + <p> + An assembly was called, and popular speakers, as had been concerted, came + forward to exasperate and incense the multitude; but when Marcius stood up + to answer, even the most tumultuous part of the people became quiet on a + sudden, and out of reverence allowed him to speak without the least + disturbance; while all the better people, and such as were satisfied with + a peace, made it evident by their whole behavior, that they would give him + a favorable hearing, and judge and pronounce according to equity. + </p> + <p> + For these reasons, the conspirators judged it prudent not to test the + general feeling; but the boldest of their faction fell upon Marcius in a + body, and slew him there, none of those that were present offering to + defend him. But it quickly appeared that the action was in nowise approved + of by the majority of the Volscians, who hurried out of their several + cities to show respect to his corpse; to which they gave honorable + interment, adorning his sepulchre with arms and trophies, as the monument + of a noble hero and a famous general. When the Romans heard tidings of his + death, they gave no other signification either of honor or of anger toward + him, but simply granted the request of the women, that they might put + themselves into mourning and bewail him for ten months, as the usage was + upon the loss of a father or a son or a brother; that being the period + fixed for the longest lamentation by the laws of Numa Pompilius. + </p> + <p> + Marcius was no sooner deceased, than the Volscians felt the need of his + assistance. They quarreled first with the Aequians, their confederates and + friends, about the appointment of the general of their joint forces, and + carried their dispute to the length of bloodshed and slaughter; and were + then defeated by the Romans in a pitched battle, where not only Tullus + lost his life, but the flower of their whole army was cut to pieces; so + that they were forced to submit and accept of peace upon very dishonorable + terms, becoming subjects of Rome, and pledging themselves to submission. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0014" id="link2H_4_0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + COMPARISON OF ALCIBIADES AND CORIOLANUS + </h2> + <p> + Having described all their actions that seem to deserve commemoration, + their military ones, we may say, incline the balance very decidedly upon + neither side. They both, in pretty equal measure, displayed on numerous + occasions the daring and courage of the soldier, and the skill and + foresight of the general; unless, indeed, the fact that Alcibiades was + victorious and successful in many contests both by sea and land, ought to + gain him the title of a more complete commander. That so long as they + remained and held command in their respective countries, they eminently + sustained, and when they were driven into exile, yet more eminently + damaged the fortunes of those countries, is common to both. All the sober + citizens felt disgust at the petulance, the low flattery, and base + seductions which Alcibiades, in his public life, allowed himself to employ + with the view of winning the people's favor; and the ungraciousness, + pride, and oligarchical haughtiness which Marcius, on the other hand, + displayed in his, were the abhorrence of the Roman populace. + </p> + <p> + Marcius, according to our common conceptions of his character, was + undoubtedly simple and straightforward; Alcibiades, unscrupulous as a + public man, and false. He is more especially blamed for the dishonorable + and treacherous way in which, as Thucydides relates, he imposed upon the + Lacedaemonian ambassadors, and disturbed the continuance of the peace. yet + this policy, which engaged the city again in way, nevertheless placed it + in a powerful and formidable position, by the accession, which Alcibiades + obtained for it, of the alliance of Argos and Mantinea. And Coriolanus + also, Dionysius relates, used unfair means to excite war between the + Romans and the Volscians, in the false report which he spread about the + visitors at the Games; and the motive of this action seems to make it the + worse for the two; since it was not done, like the other, out of ordinary + political jealousy, strife and competition. simply to gratify anger, from + which as Ion says, no one ever yet got any return, he threw whole + districts of Italy into confusion, and sacrificed to his passion against + his country numerous innocent cities. It is true, indeed, that Alcibiades, + by his resentment, was the occasion of great disasters to his country, but + he relented as soon as he found their feelings to be changed; and after he + was driven out a second time, so far from taking pleasure in the errors + and inadvertencies of their commanders, or being indifferent to the danger + they were thus incurring, he did the very thing that Aristides is so + highly commended for doing to Themistocles: he came to the generals who + were his enemies, and pointed out to them what they ought to do. + Coriolanus, on the other hand, first all attacked the whole body of his + countrymen, though only one portion of them had done him any wrong, while + the other, the better and nobler portion, had actually suffered, as well + as sympathized, with him. And, secondly, by the obduracy with which he + resisted numerous embassies and supplications, addressed in propitiation + of his person anger, he showed that it had been to destroy and overthrow, + not to recover and regain his country, that he had excited bitter and + implacable hostilities against. There is, indeed, one distinction that may + be drawn. Alcibiades, it may be said, was not safe among the Spartans, and + had the inducements at once of fear and of hatred to lead him again to + Athens; whereas Marcius could not honorably have left the Volscians, when + they were behaving so well to him: he, in the command of their forces and + the enjoyment of their entire confidence, was in a very different position + from Alcibiades, whom the Lacedaemonians did not so much wish to adopt + into their service, as to use, and then abandon. Driven about from house + to house in the city, and from general to general in the camp, the latter + had no resort but to place himself in the hands of Tissaphernes; unless we + are to suppose that his object in courting favor with him was to avert the + entire destruction of his native city, whither he wished himself to + return. + </p> + <p> + As regards money, Alcibiades, we are told, was often guilty of procuring + it by accepting bribes, and spent it in luxury and dissipation. Coriolanus + declined to receive it, even when pressed upon him by his commanders as an + honor; and one great reason for the odium he incurred with the populace in + the discussions about their debts was, that he trampled upon the poor, not + for money's sake, but out of pride and insolence. + </p> + <p> + Antipater, in a letter written upon the death of Aristotle the + philosopher, observes, "Amongst his other gifts he had that of + persuasiveness," and the absence of this in the character of Marcius made + all his great actions and noble qualities unacceptable to those whom they + benefited: pride, and self-will, the consort, as Plato calls it, of + solitude, made him insufferable. With the skill which Alcibiades, on the + contrary, professed to treat every one in the way most agreeable to him, + we cannot wonder that all his successes were attended with the most + exuberant favor and honor; his very errors, at times, being accompanied by + something of grace and felicity. And so, in spite of great and frequent + hurt that he had done the city, he was repeatedly appointed to office and + command; while Coriolanus stood in vain for a place which his great + services had made his due. + </p> + <p> + Alcibiades never professed to deny that it was pleasant to him to be + honored and distasteful to him to be overlooked; and, accordingly, he + always tried to place himself upon good terms with all that he met; + Coriolanus' pride forbade him to pay attentions to those who could have + promoted his advancement, and yet his love of distinction made him feel + hurt and angry when he was disregarded. Such are the faulty parts of his + character, which in all other respects was a noble one. For his + temperance, continence, and probity, he might claim to be compared with + the best and purest of the Greeks; not in any sort of kind with + Alcibiades, the least scrupulous and most entirely careless of human + beings in all these points. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0015" id="link2H_4_0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ARISTIDES + </h2> + <p> + Aristides, the son of Lysimachus, was of the tribe Antiochis, and township + of Alopece. Being the friend and supporter of that Clisthenes, who settled + the government after the expulsion of the tyrants, and emulating and + admiring Lycurgus the Lacedaemonian above all politicians, he adhered to + the aristocratical principles of government; and had Themistocles, son to + Neocles, his adversary on the side of the populace. Some say that, when + boys together, they were always at variance in all their words and + actions, serious as well as playful. One was ready, venturesome, and + subtle, engaging readily and eagerly in everything; the other of a staid + and settled temper, intent on the exercise of justice, not admitting any + degree of falsity, indecorum, or trickery, even at his play. Ariston of + Ceos says that the first origin of enmity which rose to so great a height, + was a love affair; they were rivals for the affection of the beautiful + Stesilaus of Ceos, and were passionate beyond moderation, and did not lay + aside their animosity when the beauty that had excited it passed away; but + carried their heats and differences into public business. + </p> + <p> + Themistocles joined an association of partisans, and fortified himself + with considerable strength; so that when some one told him that if he were + impartial, he would make a good magistrate, "I wish," replied he, "I may + never sit on that tribunal where my friends shall not plead a greater + privilege than strangers." + </p> + <p> + But Aristides walked alone on his path in politics being unwilling to go + with associates in ill doing, or to cause them vexation by not gratifying + their wishes. + </p> + <p> + When he had once opposed Themistocles in some measures that were + expedient, and had got the better of him, he could not refrain from + saying, when he left the assembly, that unless they sent Themistocles and + himself to the barathrum,(a pit into which the dead bodies of malefactors + were thrown) there could be no safety for Athens. Another time, when + urging some proposal upon the people, although there was much opposition + to it, yet he was gaining the day; but just as the president of the + assembly was about to put it to the vote, perceiving by what had been said + in debate the inexpediency of his advice, he let it fall. He often brought + in his bills by other persons, lest Themistocles, thought party spirit + against him, should be any hindrance to the good of the public. + </p> + <p> + In all the vicissitudes of public affairs, the constancy he showed was + admirable, not being elated with honors, and demeaning himself sedately in + adversity. Once, at the recital of these verses of Aeshcylus in the + theatre, relating to Amphiaraus, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + For not at seeming just, but being so + He aims; and from his depth of soil below, + Harvest of wise and prudent counsels grow, +</pre> + <p> + the eyes of all the spectators were turned upon Aristides, as if this + virtue in an especial manner belonged to him. + </p> + <p> + He was a most determined champion of justice, not only against feelings of + friendship and favor, but wrath and malice. + </p> + <p> + Thus it is reported of him that prosecuting one who was his enemy, when + the judges after accusation refused to hear the criminal, and were + proceeding immediately to pass sentence upon him, he rose in haste from + his seat and joined in petition with him for a hearing, and that he might + enjoy the privilege of the law. Another time, judging between two private + persons, when the one declared his adversary had very much injured + Aristides; "Tell me rather, good friend," he said, "what wrong he has done + you: for it is your cause, not my own, which I now sit judge of." Being + chosen to the charge of the public revenue, he made it appear, that not + only those of his time, but the preceding officers, had alienated much + treasure, and especially Themistocles: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Well known he was an able man to be, + But with his fingers apt to be too free. +</pre> + <p> + Therefore, Themistocles associating several persons against Aristides, and + impeaching him when he gave in his accounts, caused him to be condemned of + robbing of the public; so Idomeneus states; but the best and chief men of + the city much resented it, so that he was not only exempted from the fine + imposed upon him, but again called to the same employment. Pretending now + to repent of his former practice, and carrying himself with more + remissness, he became acceptable to such as pillaged the treasury, by not + detecting or calling them to an exact account. So that those who had their + fill of the public money began highly to applaud Aristides, and sued to + the people, to have him once more chosen treasurer. But when they were + upon the point of election, he reproved the Athenians in these words: + "When I discharged my office well and faithfully, I was insulted and + abused; but now that I have countenanced the public thieves in a variety + of malpractices, I am considered an admirable patriot. I am more ashamed, + therefore, of this present honor than of the former sentence; and I pity + your condition, with whom is more praiseworthy to oblige bad men than to + preserve the revenue of public." + </p> + <p> + When Datis was sent by Darius under pretense of punishing the Athenians + for their burning of Sardis, but in reality to reduce the Greeks under his + dominion, and had landed at Marathon and laid waste the country, among the + ten commanders appointed by the Athenians for the war, Miltiades was of + the greatest name; but the second place, both for reputation and power, + was possessed by Aristides: and when his opinion to join battle was added + to that of Miltiades, it did much to incline the balance. Every leader by + his day having the command in chief, when it came to Aristides' turn, he + delivered it into the hands of Miltiades, showing his fellow officers, + that it is not dishonorable to obey and follow wise and able men, but, on + the contrary, noble and prudent. So appeasing their rivalry, and bringing + them to acquiesce in the best advice, he confirmed Miltiades in the + strength of undivided and unmolested authority. And now every one, + yielding his day of command, looked for orders only to him. During the + fight the main body of the Athenians being the hardest pressed, the + barbarians, for a long time, making opposition there against the tribes + Leontis and Antiochis, Themistocles and Aristides being ranged together, + fought valiantly; the one being of the tribe Leontis, the other of the + Antiochis. But, after they had beaten the barbarians back to their ships, + and perceived that they did sail for the isles, but were driven in by the + force of sea and wind towards the country of Attica, fearing lest they + should take the city, they hurried away thither with nine tribes, and + reached it the same day. + </p> + <p> + Of all the virtues of Aristides, the common people were most affected with + his justice, because of its continual and common use; and thus, although + of mean fortune and ordinary birth, he possessed himself of the most + kingly and divine appellation of Just; which kings, however, and tyrants + have never sought after; but have taken delight to be surnamed besiegers + of cities, thunderers, conquerors, eagles and hawks; affecting, it seems, + the reputation which proceeds from power and violence, rather than that of + virtue. + </p> + <p> + Aristides, therefore, had at first the fortune to be beloved for this + surname, but at length envied. Especially when Themistocles spread a rumor + amongst the people, that, by determining and judging all matters + privately, he had destroyed the courts of judicature, and was secretly + making way for a monarchy in his own person, without the assistance of + guards. Moreover, the spirit of the people, now grown high, and confident + with their late victory, naturally entertained feelings of dislike to all + of more than common fame and reputation. Coming together, therefore, from + all parts into the city, they banished Aristides by the ostracism, giving + their jealousy of his reputation the name of fear of tyranny. For + ostracism was not the punishment of any criminal act, but was speciously + said to be the mere depression and humiliation of excessive greatness and + power; and was in fact a gentle relief and mitigation of envious feeling, + which was thus allowed to vent itself in inflicting no intolerable injury, + only a ten years' banishment. But after it came be exercised upon base and + villainous fellows, they desisted from it; Hyperbolus, being the last whom + they banished by the ostracism. + </p> + <p> + The cause of Hyperbolus's banishment is said to have been this. Alcibiades + and Nicias, men that bore the greatest sway in the city, were of different + factions. As the people, therefore, were about to vote the ostracism, and + obviously to decree it against one of them, consulting together and + uniting their parties, they contrived the banishment of Hyperbolus. Upon + which the people, being offended, as if some contempt or affront was put + upon the thing, left off and quite abolished it. It was performed, to be + short, in this manner. Every one taking an ostracon, that is, a sherd, a + piece of earthenware, wrote upon it the citizen's he would have banished, + and carried it to a certain part of the market-place surrounded with + wooden rails. First, the magistrates numbered all the sherds in gross (for + if there were less than six thousand, the ostracism was imperfect); then, + laying every name by itself, they pronounced him whose name was written by + the largest number, banished for ten years, with the enjoyment of his + estate. As, therefore, they were writing the names on the sherds, it is + reported that an illiterate clownish fellow, giving Aristides his sherd, + supposing him a common citizen, begged him write Aristides upon it; and he + being surprised and asking if Aristides had ever done him any injury, + "None at all," said he, "neither know I the man; but I am tired of hearing + him everywhere called the Just." Aristides, hearing this, is said to have + made no reply, but returned the sherd with his own name inscribed. At his + departure from the city, lifting up his hands to heaven, he made a prayer + (the reverse, it would seem, of that of Achilles), that the Athenians + might never have any occasion which should constrain them to remember + Aristides. + </p> + <p> + But three years afterwards, when Xerxes was marching through Thessaly and + Boeotia into the country of Attica, they repealed the law, and decreed the + return of the banished: chiefly fearing lest Aristides might join himself + to the enemy, and bring over many of his fellow-citizens to the party of + the barbarians; much mistaking the man, who, already before the decree, + was exerting himself to excite and encourage the Greeks to the defense of + their liberty. + </p> + <p> + After the battle of Salamis, Xerxes, much terrified, immediately hastened + to the Hellespont. But Mardonius was left with the most serviceable part + of the army, about three hundred thousand men, and was a formidable enemy, + confident in his infantry, and writing messages of defiance to the Greeks: + "You have overcome by sea men accustomed to fight on land and unskilled at + the oar; but there lies now the open country of Thessaly; and the plains + of Boeotia offer a broad and worthy field for brave men, either horse or + foot, to contend in." + </p> + <p> + But he sent privately to the Athenians, both by letter and word of mouth + from the king, promising to rebuild their city, to give them a vast sum of + money, and constitute them lords of all Greece on condition they would not + engage in the war. The Lacedaemonians receiving news of this, and fearing, + dispatched an embassy to the Athenians, entreating that they would send + their wives and children to Sparta, and receive support from them for + their superannuated. For, being despoiled both of their city and country, + the people were suffering extreme distress. Having given audience to the + ambassadors, they returned an answer, upon the motion of Aristides, worthy + of the highest admiration; declaring, that they forgave their enemies if + they thought all things purchasable by wealth, than which they knew + nothing of greater value; but that they felt offended at the Lacaemonians, + for looking only to their present poverty, without any remembrance of + their valor and magnanimity, and offering them their victuals, to fight in + the cause of Greece. Aristides made this proposal, brought back the + ambassadors into the assembly, and charged them to tell the Lacaemonians + that all the treasure on earth or under it was of less value with the + people of Athens than the liberty of Greece. And, showing the sun to those + who came from Mardonius, "as long as that retains the same course, so + long," said he, "shall the citizens of Athens wage war with the Persians + for the country which has been wasted, and the temples that have been + profaned and burnt by them." Moreover, he proposed a decree, that the + priests should anathematize him who sent any herald to the Medes, or + deserted the alliance of Greece. + </p> + <p> + When Mardonius made a second incursion into the country of Attica, the + people passed over again into the isle of Salamis. Aristides himself went + to Lacedaemon, and reproved them for the delay and neglect in abandoning + Athens once more to the barbarians; and demanded their assistance for that + part of Greece which was not yet lost. The Ephori, hearing this, made show + of sporting all day, and of carelessly keeping holy day (for they were + then celebrating the Hyacinthian festival), but in the night, selecting + five thousand Spartans, each of whom was attended by seven Helots, they + sent them forth unknown to those from Athens. And when Aristides again + reprehended them, they told him in derision that he either doted or + dreamed, for the army was already at Oresteum, in their march towards the + strangers; as they called the Persians. Aristides answered that they + jested unreasonably, deluding their friends, instead of their enemies. + </p> + <p> + Being chosen general for the war, he repaired to Plataea, with eight + thousand Athenians, where Pausanias, generalissimo of all Greece, joined + him with the Spartans; and the forces of the other Greeks came in to them. + The encampment of the barbarians extended all along the bank of the river + Asopus, their numbers being so great, there was no enclosing them all, but + their baggage and most valuable things were surrounded with a square + bulwark, each side of which was the length of ten furlongs. + </p> + <p> + The Tegeatans, contesting the post of honor with the Athenians, demanded, + that according to custom, the Lacedaemonians being ranged on the right + wing of the battle, they might have the left, alleging several matters in + commendation of their ancestors. The Athenians being indignant at the + claim, Aristides came forward and said: "To contend with the Tegeatans for + noble descent and valor, the present time permits not: but this we say to + you, O you Spartans, and you the rest of the Greeks, that place neither + takes away nor contributes courage: we shall endeavor by maintaining the + post you assign us, to reflect no dishonor on our former performances. For + we are come, not to differ with our friends, but to fight our enemies; not + to extol our ancestors, but to behave as valiant men. This battle will + manifest how much each city, captain, and private soldier is worth to + Greece." The council of war, upon this address, decided for the Athenians, + and gave them the other wing of the battle. + </p> + <p> + At this juncture, Mardonius made trial of the Grecian courage, by sending + his whole number of horse, in which he thought himself much the stronger, + against them, while they were all, except the Megarians, encamped at the + foot of Mount Cithaeron, in strong and rocky places. They being three + thousand in number, had pitched their tents on the plain, where the + cavalry charged and made inroads upon them from all sides. They sent, + therefore, in haste to Pausanias, demanding relief, not being able alone + to sustain the great numbers of the barbarians. Pausanias, hearing this, + and perceiving the tents of the Megarians almost hidden by the multitude + of darts and arrows, and themselves driven together into a narrow space, + was at a loss how to aid them with his battalions of heavy-armed + Lacedaemonians. He asked, therefore, as a test of emulation and love of + distinction, to the commanders and captains who were around him, if any + would voluntarily take upon the defense and succor of the Megarians. + </p> + <p> + The rest being backward, Aristides undertook the enterprise for the + Athenians, and sent Olympiodorus, the most valiant of his inferior + officers, with three hundred chosen men and some archers under his + command. These were soon in readiness, and running upon the enemy, as soon + as it was perceived by Masistius, who commanded the cavalry of the + barbarians, a man of wonderful courage and of extraordinary bulk and + comeliness of person, he turned his steed and made towards them. They + sustained the shock and joined battle with him, as though by this + encounter they were to try the success of the whole war. But after + Masistius's horse received a wound, and flung him, and he falling, could + hardly raise himself through the weight of his armor, the Athenians + pressed upon him with blows, but could not easily get at his person, armed + as he was, breast, head, and limbs all over, with gold and brass and iron; + but one of them at last, running a javelin under the visor of his helmet, + slew him; and the rest of the Persians, leaving the body, fled. The + greatness of the Greek success was known, not by the multitude of the + slain, (for an inconsiderable number were killed), but by the sorrow the + barbarians expressed. For they shaved themselves, their horses, and mules + for the death of Masistius, and filled the plain with howling and + lamentation; having lost a person, who, next to Mardonius himself, was by + far the chief among them, both for valor and authority. + </p> + <p> + After this skirmish of the horse, they kept from fighting a long time; for + the soothsayers, by the sacrifices, foretold the victory both to Greeks + and Persians, if they stood upon the defensive part only, but if they + became aggressors, the contrary. At length Mardonious, when he had but a + few days' provision, and the Greek forces were increasing continually, + impatient of delay, determined to lie still no longer, but passing Asopus + by daybreak, to fall unexpectedly upon the Greeks. This he signified the + night before to the captains of his host. But about midnight, a certain + horseman stole into the Greek camp, and coming to the watch, desired them + to summon Aristides, the Athenian, to him. He came speedily, and the + stranger said: "I am Alexander, king of the Macedonians, and have come + here through the greatest danger in the world for the goodwill I bear you, + lest a sudden onset should dismay you, so as to behave in the fight worse + than usual. For to-morrow Mardonius will give you battle, urged, not by + any hope of success or courage, but by want of victuals: for the prophets + prohibit him from the battle, the sacrifices and oracles being + unfavorable; but the army is in despondency and consternation; and + necessity forces him to try his fortune, or sit still and endure the last + extremity of want." Alexander, thus saying, entreated Aristides to take + notice and remember him, but not tell any other. But he replied that it + was not fair conceal to the matter from Pausanias (because he was + general); as for any others he would keep it secret from them till the + battle was fought; but if the Greeks obtained the victory, that then no + one should be ignorant of Alexander's goodwill and kindness towards them. + After this, the king of the Macedonians rode back again, and Aristides + went to Pausanias's tent and told him; and they sent for the rest of the + captains and gave orders that the army should be in battle array. + </p> + <p> + Meantime, day came upon them; and Mardonious having his army in array, + fell upon the Lacedaemonians with great shouting and noise of barbarous + people, as if they were not about to join battle, but crush the Greeks in + their flight—a thing which very nearly came to pass. For Pausanius, + perceiving what was done, made a halt, and commanded every one to put + themselves in order for the battle; but through the disturbance he was in, + on account of the sudden approach of the enemy, he forgot to give the + signal to the Greeks in general. Whence it was, that they did not come + immediately, or in a body, to their assistance, but by small companies and + straggling, when the fight was already begun. Pausanias, offering + sacrifice, could not procure favorable omens, and so commanded the + Lacedaemonians to set down their shields at their feet and wait quietly + await for his directions, making no resistance to any of their enemies. At + this time, Callicrates, who, we are told, was the most comely man in the + army, being shot with an arrow and upon the point of expiring, said that + he did not lament his death (for he came from home to lay down his life in + defense of Greece) but that he died without action. While Pausanias was + thus in the act of supplication, the sacrifices appeared propitious, and + the soothsayers foretold victory. The word being given, the Lacedaemonian + battalion of foot seemed, on the sudden, like some fierce animal, setting + up his bristles, and betaking himself to the combat; and the barbarians + perceived that they encountered with men who would fight to the death. + Therefore, holding their wicker shields before them, they shot their + arrows amongst the Lacedaemonians. But they, keeping together in the order + of a phalanx, and falling upon their enemies forced their shields out of + their hands, and, striking with their pikes at the breasts and faces of + the Persians, overthrew many of them; they, however, fell neither + unrevenged nor without courage. For taking hold of the spears with their + bare hands, they broke many of them, and betook themselves with effect to + the sword; and making use of their falchions and scimitars, and wresting + the Lacedaemonians' shields from them, and grappling with them, for a long + time stood their ground. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, the Athenians were standing still, waiting for the + Lacedaemonians to come up. But when they heard a great noise as of men + engaged in fight, and a messenger came from Pausanias to inform them of + what was going on, they made haste to their assistance. And as they passed + through the plain to the place where the noise was, the recreant Greeks, + who took part with the enemy, came upon them. Aristides, as soon as he saw + them, going a considerable space before the rest, cried out to them, by + the guardian gods of Greece, not to enter the fight, and be no impediment + to those who were going to succor the defenders of Greece. But when he + perceived that they gave no attention to him, and had prepared themselves + for the battle, then turning from the present relief of the + Lacedaemonians, he engaged with them, being five thousand in number. But + the greatest part soon gave way and retreated, as the barbarians were also + put to flight. + </p> + <p> + The battle being thus divided, the Lacedaemonians first beat off the + Persians; and a Spartan, named Arimnestus, slew Mardonius by a blow on the + head with a stone, as the oracle in the temple of Amphiaraus had foretold + to him. For Mardonius sent a Lydian thither, and another person, a Carian, + to the cave of Trophonius. The latter, the priest of the oracle answered + in his own language. But to the Lydian sleeping in the temple of + Amphiaraus, it seemed that a minister of the divinity stood before him and + commanded him to be gone; and on his refusing to do it, flung a great + stone at his head, so that he thought himself slain with the blow. Such is + the story. + </p> + <p> + Of three hundred thousand of the enemy, forty thousand only are said to + have escaped with Artabazus; while on the Greeks' side there perished in + all thirteen hundred and sixty; of whom fifty-two were Athenians, all of + the tribe Aeantis, that fought, says Clidemus, with the greatest courage + of all; and for this reason the men of this tribe used to offer sacrifice + for the victory, as enjoined by the oracle, at the public expense; + ninety-one were Lacedaemonians, and sixteen Tegeatans. They engraved upon + the altar this inscription: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Greeks, when by their courage and their might, + They had repelled the Persian in the fight, + The common altar of freed Greece to be, + Reared this to Jupiter who guards the free. +</pre> + <p> + The battle of Plataea was fought on the fourth day of the month + Boedromion, on which day there is still a convention of the Greeks at + Plataea, and the Plateans still offer sacrifice for the victory to + "Jupiter of freedom." + </p> + <p> + After this, the Athenians, not yielding the honor of the day to the + Lacedaemonians, nor consenting that they should erect a trophy, peace was + well-nigh destroyed by a dissension among the armed Greeks; but Aristides, + by soothing and counseling the commanders, especially Leocrates and + Myronides, pacified and persuaded them to leave the thing to the decision + of the Greeks. Cleocritus of Corinth rising up, made people think he would + ask the palm for the Corinthians (for next to Sparta and Athens, Corinth + was in greatest estimation); but he delivered his opinion, to the general + admiration, in favor of the Plataeans; and counseled to take away all + contention by giving them the reward and the glory of the victory, whose + being honored could be distasteful to neither party. This being said, + first Aristides gave consent in the name of the Athenians, and Pausanias + then, for the Lacedaemonians. So, being reconciled, they set apart eighty + talents for the Plateans, with which they built the temple and dedicated + the image to Minerva, and adorned the temple with pictures, which even to + this very day retain their lustre. But the Lacedaemonians and Athenians + each erected a trophy apart by themselves. On their consulting the oracle + about offering sacrifice, Apollo answered that they should dedicate an + altar to Jupiter of freedom, but should not sacrifice till they had + extinguished the fires throughout the country, as having been defiled by + the barbarians, and had kindled unpolluted fire at the common altar at + Delphi. The magistrates of Greece, therefore, went forthwith and compelled + such as had fire to put it out; and Euchidas, a Plataean, promising to + fetch fire with all possible speed, from the altar of the god, ran to + Delphi, and having sprinkled and purified his body, crowned himself with + laurel; and taking the fire from the altar ran back to Plataea, arriving + before sunset, and performing in one day a journey of a thousand furlongs; + and saluting his fellow-citizens and delivering them the fire, he + immediately fell down and a short time after expired. Then the Plataeans, + taking him up, interred him in the temple of Diana Euclia, setting this + inscription over him: "Euchidas ran to Delphi and back again in one day." + </p> + <p> + A general assembly of all the Greeks being called, Aristides proposed a + decree, that the deputies and religious representatives of the Greek + states should assemble annually at Plataea, and every fifth year celebrate + the Eleutheria, or games of freedom. And that there should be a levy upon + all Greece, for the war against the barbarians, of ten thousand spearmen, + one thousand horse, and a hundred sail of ships; but the Plateans to be + exempt, and sacred to the service of the gods, offering sacrifice for the + welfare of Greece. These things being ratified, the Plateans undertook the + performance of annual sacrifice to such as were slain and buried in that + place; which they still perform in the following manner. On the sixteenth + day of Maemacterion they make their procession, which, beginning by break + of day, is led by a trumpeter sounding for onset; then follow chariots + loaded with myrrh and garlands; and then a black bull; then come the young + men of free birth carrying libations of wine and milk in large two-handed + vessels, and jars of oil and precious ointments, none of servile condition + being permitted to have any hand in this ministration, because the men + died in defense of freedom; after all comes the chief magistrate of + Plataea (for whom it is unlawful at other times for him either to touch + iron, or wear any other colored garment but white), at that time appareled + in a purple robe; and taking a water-pot out of the city record-office, he + proceeds, bearing a sword in his hand, through the middle of the town to + the sepulchres. Then drawing water out of a spring, he washes and anoints + the monuments, and sacrificing the bull upon a pile of wood, and making + supplication to Jupiter and Mercury of the earth, invites those valiant + men who perished in the defense of Greece, to the banquet and the + libations of blood. After this, mixing a bowl of wine, and pouring out for + himself, he says, "I drink to those who lost their lives for the liberty + of Greece." These solemnities the Plataeans observe to this day. + </p> + <p> + Theophrastus tells us that Aristides was, in his own private affairs, and + those of his own fellow-citizens, rigorously just, but that in public + matters he acted often in accordance with his country's policy, which + demanded, sometimes, not a little injustice. It is reported of him that he + said in a debate, upon the motion of the Samians for removing the treasure + from Delos to Athens, contrary to the league, that the thing indeed was + not just, but was expedient. + </p> + <p> + In fine, having established the dominion of his city over so many people, + he himself remained indigent; and always delighted as much in the glory of + being poor, as in that of his trophies; as is evident from the following + story. Callias, the torch-bearer was related to him: and was prosecuted by + his enemies in a capital cause, in which, after they had slightly argued + the matters on which they indicted him, they proceeded, beside the point, + to address the judges: "You know," said they, "Aristides, the son of + Lysimachus, who is the admiration of all Greece. In what a condition do + you think his family is at his house, when you see him appear in public in + such a threadbare cloak? Is it not probable that one, who, out of doors, + goes thus exposed to the cold, must want food and other necessaries at + home? Callias, the wealthiest of the Athenians, does nothing to relieve + either him or his wife and children in their poverty, though he is his own + cousin, and has made use of him in many cases, and often reaped advantage + by his interest with you." But Callias, perceiving that the judges were + particularly moved by this, and were exasperated against him, called in + Aristides, who testified that when Callias offered him divers presents, + and entreated him to accept them, he had refused, answering, that it + became him better to be proud of his poverty than Callias of his wealth. + On Aristides deposing these facts in favor of Callias, there was not one + who heard them that went way desirous rather to be poor like Aristides, + than rich as Callias. Thus Aeschines, the scholar of Socrates, writes. But + Plato declares, that of all the great and renowned men in the city of + Athens, he was the only one worthy of consideration; for while + Themistocles, Cimon, and Pericles filled the city with porticoes, + treasure, and many other vain things, Aristides guided his public life by + the rule of justice. He showed his moderation very plainly in his conduct + toward Themistocles himself. For though Themistocles had been his + adversary in all his undertakings, and was the cause of his banishment, + yet when he afforded a similar opportunity of revenge, being accused by + the city, Aristides bore him no malice; but while Alcmaeon, Cimon, and + many others were prosecuting and impeaching him, Aristides alone, neither + did, nor said any evil against him, and no more triumphed over his enemy + in his adversity, than he had envied him his prosperity. + </p> + <p> + Some say Aristides died in Pontus, during a voyage upon the affairs of the + public. Others say that he died of old age at Athens, being in great honor + and veneration among his fellow-citizens. + </p> + <p> + His monument is to be seen at Phalerum, which they say was built for him + by the city, he not having left enough even to defray funeral charges. And + it is stated, that his two daughters were publicly married out of the + prytaneum, or state-house, by the city, which decreed each of them three + thousand drachmas for her portion; and that upon his son Lysimachus, the + people bestowed a hundred minas of money, and as many acres of planted + land, and ordered him besides, upon the motion of Alcibiades, four + drachmas a day. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0016" id="link2H_4_0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CIMON + </h2> + <p> + Cimon was the son of Miltiades and Hegesipyle, who was by birth a + Thracian, and daughter to the king Olorus. By this means the historian + Thucydides was his kinsman by the mother's side; for his father's name + also, in remembrance of this common ancestor, was Olorus, and he was the + owner of the gold mines in Thrace, and met his death, it is said, by + violence, in Scapte Hyle, a district of Thrace. Cimon was left an orphan + very young, with his sister Elpinice, who was also young and unmarried. + And at first he had but an indifferent reputation, being looked upon as + disorderly in his habits, fond of drinking, and resembling his + grandfather, also called Cimon, in character, whose simplicity got him the + surname of Coalemus the simpleton. Stesimbrotus of Thasos, who lived about + the same time with Cimon, reports of him that he had little acquaintance + either with music, or any of the other liberal studies and + accomplishments, then common among the Greeks; that he had nothing + whatever of the quickness and the ready speech of his countrymen in + Attica; that he had great nobleness and candor in his disposition, and in + his character in general, resembled rather a native of Peloponnesus, than + of Athens; as Euripides describes Hercules:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ——Rude And unrefined, for great things, well-endued; +</pre> + <p> + for this may fairly be added to the character which Stesimbrotus has given + of him. + </p> + <p> + Almost all the points of Cimon's character were noble and good. He was as + daring as Miltiades, and not inferior to Themistocles in judgment, and was + incomparably more just and honest than either of them. Fully their equal + in all military virtues, in the ordinary duties of a citizen at home he + was immeasurably their superior. And this, too, when he was very young, + his years not strengthened by any experience. For when Themistocles, upon + the Median invasion, advised the Athenians to forsake their city and their + country, and to carry all their arms on shipboard, and fight the enemy by + sea, in the straits of Salamis; when all the people stood amazed at the + confidence and rashness of this advice, Cimon was seen, the first of all + men, passing with a cheerful countenance through the Ceramics, on his way + with his companions to the citadel, carrying a bridle in his hand to offer + to the goddess, intimating that there was no more need of horsemen now, + but of mariners. There, after he had paid his devotions to the goddess, + and offered up the bridle, he took down one of the bucklers that hung upon + the walls of the temple, and went down to the port; by this example giving + confidence to many of the citizens. He was also of a fairly handsome + person, according to the poet Ion, tall and large, and let his thick and + curly hair grow long. After he had acquitted himself gallantly in this + battle of Salamis, he obtained great repute among the Athenians, and was + regarded with affection, as well as admiration. He had many who followed + after him, and bade him aspire to actions not less famous than his + father's battle of Marathon. And when he came forward in political life, + the people welcomed him gladly, being now weary of Themistocles; in + opposition to whom, and because of the frankness and easiness of his + temper, which was agreeable to every one, they advanced Cimon to the + highest employments in the government. The man that contributed most to + his promotion was Aristides, who early discerned in his character his + natural capacity, and purposely raised him, that he might be a + counterpoise to the craft and boldness of Themistocles. After the Medes + had been driven out of Greece, Cimon was sent out as admiral, when the + Athenians had not yet attained their dominion by sea, but still followed + Pausanias and the Lacedaemonians; and his fellow-citizens under his + command were highly distinguished, both for the excellence of their + discipline, and for their extraordinary zeal and readiness. And further, + perceiving that Pausanias was carrying on secret communications with the + barbarians, and writing letters to the king of Persia to betray Greece, + and, puffed up with authority and success, was treating the allies + haughtily, and committing many wanton injustices, Cimon, taking advantage, + by acts of kindness to those who were suffering wrong, and by his general + humane bearing, robbed him of the command of the Greeks, before he was + aware, not by arms, but by his mere language and character. Cimon, + strengthened with the accession of the allies, went as general into + Thrace. For he was told that some great men among the Persians, of the + king's kindred, being in possession of Eion, a city situated upon the + river Strymon, infested the neighboring Greeks. First he defeated these + Persians in battle, and shut them up within the walls of their town. Then + he fell upon the Thracians of the country beyond the Strymon, because they + supplied Eion with victuals, and driving them entirely out of the country, + took possession of it as conqueror, by which means he reduced the besieged + to such straits, that Butes, who commanded there for the king, in + desperation set fire to the town, and burned himself, his goods, and all + his relations, in one common flame. By this means, Cimon got the town, but + no great booty; as the barbarians had not only consumed themselves in the + fire, but the richest of their effects. However, he put the country into + the hands of the Athenians, a most advantageous and desirable situation + for a settlement. For this action, the people permitted him to erect the + stone Mercuries, upon the first of which was this inscription:— + </p> + <p> + Of bold and patient spirit, too, were those Who, where the Strymon under + Eion flows, With famine and the sword, to utmost need Reduced at last the + children of the Mede. + </p> + <p> + Upon the second stood this:— + </p> + <p> + The Athenians to their leaders this reward For great and useful service + did accord; Others hereafter, shall, from their applause, Learn to be + valiant in their country's cause. + </p> + <p> + And upon the third, the following:— + </p> + <p> + With Atreus' sons, this city sent of yore Divine Menestheus to the Trojan + shore; Of all the Greeks, so Homer's verses say, The ablest man an army to + array; So old the title of her sons the name Of chiefs and champions in + the field to claim. + </p> + <p> + Though the name of Cimon is not mentioned in these inscriptions, yet his + contemporaries considered them to be the very highest honors to him; as + neither Miltiades nor Themistocles ever received the like. When Miltiades + claimed a garland, Sochares of Decelea stood up in the midst of the + assembly and opposed it, using words which, though ungracious, were + received with applause by the people. "When you have gained a victory by + yourself, Miltiades, then you may ask to triumph so too." + </p> + <p> + One mark of Cimon's great favor with the people, was the judgment, + afterwards so famous upon the tragic poets. Sophocles, still a young man, + had just brought forward his first plays; opinions were much divided, and + the spectators had taken sides with some heat. So, to determine the case, + Apsephion, who was at that time Archon, would not cast lots who should be + judges; but when Cimon, and his brother commanders with him, came into the + theatre, after they had performed the usual rites to the god of the + festival, he would not allow them to retire, but came forward and made + them swear, being ten in all, one from each tribe, the usual oath; and so + being sworn judges, he made them sit down to give sentence. The eagerness + for victory grew all the warmer, from the ambition to get the suffrages of + such honorable judges. And the victory was at last adjudged to Sophocles, + which Aeschylus is said to have taken so ill, that he left Athens shortly + after, and went in anger to Sicily, where he died, and was buried near the + city of Gela. + </p> + <p> + Ion relates that when he was a young man, and had recently come from Chios + to Athens, he chanced to sup with Cimon, at Laomedon's house. After + supper, when they had, according to custom, poured out wine to the honor + of the gods, Cimon was desired by the company to give them a song, which + he did with sufficient success, and received the commendations of the + company, who remarked on his superiority to Themistocles, who, on a like + occasion, had declared he had never learnt to sing, or to play, and only + knew how to make a city rich and powerful. After talking of things + incident to such entertainments, they entered upon the particulars of the + several actions for which Cimon had been famous. And when they were + mentioning the most signal, he told them they had omitted one, upon which + he valued himself most for address and good contrivance. He gave this + account of it. When the allies had taken a great number of the barbarians + prisoners in Sestos and Byzantium, they gave him the preference to divide + the booty; he accordingly put the prisoners in one lot, and the spoils of + their rich attire and jewels in the other. This the allies complained of + as an unequal division; but he gave them their choice to take which lot + they would, saying that the Athenians should be content with that which + they refused. Herophytus of Samos advised them to take the ornaments for + their share, and leave the slaves to the Athenians; and Cimon went away, + and was much laughed at for his ridiculous division. For the allies + carried away the golden bracelets, and armlets, and collars, and purple + robes, and the Athenians had only the naked bodies of the captives, which + they could make no advantage of, being unused to labor. But a little while + after, the friends and kinsmen of the prisoners coming from Lydia and + Phrygia, redeemed every one his relations at a high ransom; so that by + this means Cimon got so much treasure that he maintained his whole fleet + of galleys with the money for four months; and yet there was some left to + lay up in the treasury at Athens. + </p> + <p> + Cimon now grew rich, and what he gained from the barbarians with honor, he + spent yet more honorably upon the citizens. For he pulled down all the + enclosures of his gardens and grounds, that strangers, and the needy of + his fellow-citizens, might gather of its fruits freely. At home, he kept a + table, plain, but sufficient for a considerable number, to which any poor + townsman had free access, and so might support himself without labor, with + his whole time left free for public duties. Aristotle states, however, + that this reception did not extend to all the Athenians, but only to his + own fellow townsmen, the Laciadae.* Besides this, he always went attended + by two or three young companions, very well clad; and if he met with an + elderly citizen in a poor habit, one of these would change clothes with + the decayed citizen, which was looked upon as very nobly done. He enjoined + them, likewise, to carry a considerable quantity of coin about them, which + they were to convey silently into the hands of the better class of poor + men, as they stood by them in the market-place. This, Cratinus, the poet, + speaks of in one of his comedies, the Archilochi:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + For I, Metrobius too, the scrivener poor, + Of ease and comfort in my age secure, + By Greece's noblest son in life's decline, + Cimon, the generous-hearted, the divine, + Well-fed and feasted hoped till death to be, + Death which, alas! has taken him ere me. +</pre> + <p> + Gorgias the Leontine gives him this character, that he got riches that he + might use them, and used them that he might get honor by them. And + Critias, one of the thirty tyrants, makes it, in his elegies, his wish to + have + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Scopads' wealth, and Cimon's nobleness, + And king Agesilaus's success. +</pre> + <p> + Lichas, we know, became famous in Greece, only because on the days of the + sports, when the young boys ran naked, he used to entertain the strangers + that came to see these diversions. But Cimon's generosity outdid all the + old Athenian hospitality and good-nature. For though it is the city's just + boast that their forefathers taught the rest of Greece to sow corn, and + how to use springs of water, and to kindle fire, yet Cimon, by keeping + open house for his fellow-citizens, and giving travelers liberty to eat + the fruits which the several seasons produced in his land, seemed to + restore to the world that community of goods, which mythology says existed + in the reign of Saturn. Those who object to him that he did this to be + popular, and gain the applause of the vulgar, are confuted by the constant + tenor of the rest of his actions, which all ended to uphold the interests + of the nobility and the Spartan policy, of which he gave instances, when, + together with Aristides, he opposed Themistocles, who was advancing the + authority of the people beyond its just limits, and resisted Ephialtes, + who to please the multitude, was for abolishing the jurisdiction of the + court of Areopagus. And when all the men of his time, except Aristides and + Ephialtes, enriched themselves out of the public money, he still kept his + hands clean and untainted, and to his last day never acted or spoke for + his own private gain or emolument. They tell us that Rhoesaces, a Persian, + who had traitorously revolted from the king his master, fled to Athens, + and there, being harassed by sycophants who were still accusing him to the + people, he applied himself to Cimon for redress, and to gain his favor, + laid down in his doorway two cups, the one full of gold, and the other of + silver Darics. Cimon smiled and asked him whether he wished to have + Cimon's hired service or his friendship. He replied, his friendship. "If + so," said he, "take away these pieces, for being your friend, when I shall + have occasion for them, I will send and ask for them." + </p> + <p> + The allies of the Athenians began now to be weary of war and military + service, willing to have repose, and to look after their husbandry and + traffic. For they saw their enemies driven out of the country, and did not + fear any new vexations from them. They still paid the tax they were + assessed at, but did not send men and galleys, as they had done before. + This the other Athenian generals wished to constrain them to, and by + judicial proceedings against defaulters, and penalties which they + inflicted on them, made the government uneasy, and even odious. But Cimon + practiced a contrary method; he forced no man to go that was not willing, + but of those that desired to be excused from service he took money and + vessels unmanned, and let them yield to the temptation of staying at home, + to attend to their private business. Thus they lost their military habits, + and luxury and their own folly quickly changed them into unwarlike + husbandmen and traders; while Cimon, continually embarking large numbers + of Athenians on board his galleys, thoroughly disciplined them in his + expeditions, and ere long made them the lords of their own paymasters. The + allies, whose indolence maintained them, while they thus went sailing + about everywhere, and incessantly bearing arms and acquiring skill, began + to fear and flatter them, and found themselves after a while allies no + longer, but unwittingly become tributaries and slaves. + </p> + <p> + Nor did any man ever do more than Cimon did to humble the pride of the + Persian king. He was not content with ridding Greece of him; but following + close at his heels, before the barbarians could take breath and recover + themselves, what with his devastations, and his forcible reduction of some + places and the revolts and voluntary accession of others, in the end, from + Ionia to Pamphylia, all Asia was clear of Persian soldiers. Word being + brought him that the royal commanders were lying in wait upon the coast of + Pamphylia, with a numerous land army, and a large fleet, he determined to + make the whole sea on this side the Chelidonian islands so formidable to + them that they should never dare to show themselves in it; and setting off + from Cnidos and the Triopian headland, with two hundred galleys, which had + been originally built with particular care by Themistocles, for speed and + rapid evolutions, and to which he now gave greater width and roomier decks + along the sides to move to and fro upon, so as to allow a great number of + full-armed soldiers to take part in the engagements and fight from them, + he shaped his course first of all against the town of Phaselis, which, + though inhabited by Greeks, yet would not quit the interests of Persia, + but denied his galleys entrance into their port. Upon this he wasted the + country, and drew up his army to their very walls; but the soldiers of + Chios, who were then serving under him, being ancient friends to the + Phaselites, endeavoring to propitiate the general in their behalf, at the + same time shot arrows into the town, to which were fastened letters + conveying intelligence. At length he concluded peace with them, upon the + conditions that they should pay down ten talents, and follow him against + the barbarians. The Persian admiral lay waiting for him with the whole + fleet at the mouth of the river Eurymedon, with no design to fight, but + expecting a reinforcement of eighty Phoenician ships on their way from + Cyprus. Cimon, aware of this, put out to sea, resolved, if they would not + fight a battle willingly, to force them to it. The barbarians, seeing + this, retired within the mouth of the river to avoid being attacked; but + when they saw the Athenians come upon them, notwithstanding their retreat, + they met them with six hundred ships, as Phanodemus relates, but according + to Ephorus, with three hundred and fifty. However, they did nothing worthy + such mighty forces, but immediately turned the prows of their galleys + toward the shore, where those that came first threw themselves upon the + land, and fled to their army drawn up thereabout, while the rest perished + with their vessels, or were taken. By this, one may guess at their number, + for though a great many escaped out of the fight, and a great many others + were sunk, yet two hundred galleys were taken by the Athenians. + </p> + <p> + When their land army drew toward the seaside, Cimon was in suspense + whether he should venture to try and force his way on shore; as he should + thus expose his Greeks, wearied with slaughter in the first engagement, to + the swords of the barbarians, who were all fresh men, and many times their + number. But seeing his men resolute, and flushed with victory, he bade + them land, though they were not yet cool from their first battle. As soon + as they touched ground, they set up a shout and ran upon the enemy, who + stood firm and sustained the first shock with great courage, so that the + fight was a hard one, and some of the principal men of the Athenians in + rank and courage were slain. At length, though with much ado, they routed + the barbarians, and killing some, took others prisoners, and plundered all + their tents and pavilions, which were full of rich spoil. Cimon, liked a + skilled athlete at the games, having in one day carried off two victories, + wherein he surpassed that of Salamis by sea, and that of Plataea by land, + was encouraged to try for yet another success. News being brought that the + Phoenician succors, in number eighty sail, had come in sight at Hydrum, he + set off with all speed to find them, while they as yet had not received + any certain account of the larger fleet, and were in doubt what to think; + so that thus surprised, they lost all their vessels, and most of their men + with them. This success of Cimon so daunted the king of Persia, that he + presently made that celebrated peace, by which he engaged that his armies + should come no nearer the Grecian sea than the length of a horse's course; + and that none of his galleys or vessels of war should appear between the + Cyanean and Chelidonian isles. In the collection which Craterus made of + the public acts of the people, there is a draft of this treaty given. + </p> + <p> + The people of Athens raised so much money from the spoils of this war, + which were publicly sold, that, besides other expenses, and raising the + south wall of the citadel, they laid the foundation of the long walls, + not, indeed, finished till at a later time, which were called the Legs. + And the place where they built them being soft and marshy ground, they + were forced to sink great weights of stone and rubble to secure the + foundation, and did all this out of the money Cimon supplied them with. + </p> + <p> + It was he, likewise, who first embellished the upper city with those fine + and ornamental places of exercise and resort, which they afterward so much + frequented and delighted in. He set the market-place with plane trees; and + the Academy, which was before a bare, dry, and dirty spot, he converted + into a well-watered grove, with shady alleys to walk in, and open courses + for races. + </p> + <p> + When the Persians who had made themselves masters of the Chersonese, so + far from quitting it, called in the people of the interior of Thrace to + help them against Cimon, whom they despised for the smallness of his + forces, he set upon them with only four galleys, and took thirteen of + theirs; and having driven out the Persians, and subdued the Thracians, he + made the hole Chersonese the property of Athens. Next, he attacked the + people of Thasos, who had revolted from the Athenians; and, having + defeated them in a fight at sea, where he captured thirty-three of their + vessels, he took their own by siege, and acquired for the Athenians all + the mines of gold on the opposite coast, and the territory dependent on + Thasos. + </p> + <p> + This opened him a fair passage into Macedon, so that he might, it was + thought, have acquired a good portion of that country, and because he + neglected the opportunity, he was suspected of corruption, and of having + been bribed off by king Alexander. So, by the combination of his + adversaries, he was accused of being false to his country. In his defence + he told the judges, that he had always shown himself in his public life + the friend, not, like other men, of rich Ionians and Thessalonians, to be + courted, and to receive presents, but of the Lacedaemonians; for as he + admired, so he wished to imitate, the plainness of their habits, their + temperance, and simplicity of living, which he preferred to any sort of + riches; but that he always had been, and still was proud to enrich his + country with the spoils of her enemies. Pericles proved the mildest of his + prosecutors, and rose up but once all the while, almost as a matter of + form, to plead against him. Cimon was acquitted. + </p> + <p> + In his public life after this, he continued, while at home, to control the + common people, who would have trampled upon the nobility, and drawn all + the power and sovereignty to themselves. But when he afterwards was sent + out to war, the multitude broke loose, as it were, and overthrew all the + ancient laws and customs they had hitherto observed, and, chiefly at the + instigation of Ephialtes, withdrew the cognizance of almost all causes + from the Areopagus; so that all jurisdiction now being transferred to + them, the government was reduced to a perfect democracy, and this by the + help of Pericles, who was already powerful, and had pronounced in favor of + the common people. + </p> + <p> + He was indeed a favorer of the Lacedaemonians even from his youth, and + gave the names of Lacedaemonius and Eleus to his two sons, twins. + </p> + <p> + Cimon was countenanced by the Lacedaemonians in opposition to + Themistocles, whom they disliked; and while he was yet very young, they + endeavored to raise and increase his credit in Athens. This the Athenians + perceived at first with pleasure, and the favor the Lacedaemonians showed + him was in various ways advantageous to them and their affairs; as at that + time they were just rising to power, and were occupied in winning the + allies to their side. So they seemed not at all offended with the honor + and kindness showed to Cimon, who then had the chief management of all the + affairs of Greece, and was acceptable to the Lacedaemonians, and courteous + to the allies. But afterwards the Athenians, grown more powerful, when + they saw Cimon so entirely devoted to the Lacedaemonians, began to be + angry, for he would always in speeches prefer them to the Athenians, and + upon every occasion, when he would reprimand them for a fault, or incite + them to emulation, he would exclaim, "The Lacedaemonians would not do + thus." This raised the discontent, and got him in some degree the hatred + of the citizens; but that which ministered chiefly to the accusation + against him fell out upon the following occasion. + </p> + <p> + In the fourth year of the reign of Archidamus, the son of Zeuxidamus, king + of Sparta, there happened in the country of Lacedaemon, the greatest + earthquake that was known in the memory of ma; the earth opened into + chasms, and the mountain Taygetus was so shaken that some of the rocky + points of it fell down, and except five houses, all the town of Sparta was + shattered to pieces. They say that a little before any motion was + perceived, as the young men and the boys just grown up were exercising + themselves together in the middle of the portico, a hare, of a sudden, + started out just by them, which the young men, though all naked and daubed + with oil, ran after for sport. No sooner were they gone from the place, + than the gymnasium fell down upon the boys who had stayed behind, and + killed them all. Their tomb is to this day called Sismatias.* Archidamus, + by the present danger made apprehensive of what might follow, and seeing + the citizens intent upon removing the most valuable of their goods out of + their houses, commanded an alarm to be sounded, as if an enemy were coming + upon them, in order that they should collect about him in a body, with + arms. It was this alone that saved Sparta at that time, for the Helots had + come together from the country about, with design of surprising the + Spartans, and overpowering those whom the earthquake had spared. But + finding them armed and well prepared, they retired into the towns and + openly made war with them, gaining over a number of the Laconians of the + country districts; while at the same time the Messenians, also, made an + attack upon the Spartans, who therefore despatched Periclidas to Athens to + solicit succor, of whom Aristophanes says in mockery that he came and + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + In a red jacket, at the altars seated, + With a white face, for men and arms entreated. +</pre> + <p> + This Ephialtes opposed, protesting that they ought not to raise up or + assist a city that was a rival to Athens; but that being down, it were + best to keep her so, and let the pride and arrogance of Sparta be trodden + under. But Cimon, as Critias says, preferring the safety of Lacedaemon to + the aggrandizement of his own country, so persuaded the people, that he + soon marched out with a large army to their relief. Ion records, also, the + most successful expression which he used to move the Athenians. "They + ought not to suffer Greece to be lamed, nor their own city to be deprived + of her yoke fellow." + </p> + <p> + In his return from aiding the Lacedaemonians, he passed with his army + through the territory of Corinth; whereupon Lachartus reproached him for + bringing his army into the country, without first asking leave of the + people. For he that knocks at another man's door ought not to enter the + house till the master gives him leave. "But you, Corinthians, O + Lachartus," said Cimon, "did not knock at the gates of the Cleonaeans and + Megarians, but broke them down and entered by force, thinking that all + places should be open to the stronger." And having thus rallied the + Corinthian, he passed on with his army. Some time after this, the + Lacedaemonians sent a second time to desire succor of the Athenians + against the Messenians and Helots, who had seized upon Ithome. But when + they came, fearing their boldness and gallantry, of all that came to their + assistance, they sent them only back, alleging that they were designing + innovations. The Athenians returned home, enraged at this usage, and + vented their anger upon all those who were favorers of the Lacedaemonians; + and seizing some slight occasion, they banished Cimon for ten years, which + is the time prescribed to those that are banished by the ostracism. In the + mean time, the Lacedaemonians, on their return after freeing Delphi from + the Phocians, encamped their army at Tanagra, whither the Athenians + presently marched with design to fight them. + </p> + <p> + Cimon also, came thither armed and ranged himself among those of his own + tribe, which was the Oeneis, desirous of fighting with the rest against + the Spartans; but the council of five hundred being informed of this, and + frightened at it, his adversaries crying out that he would disorder the + army, and bring the Lacedaemonians to Athens, commanded the officers not + to receive him. Wherefore Cimon left the army, conjuring Euthippus, the + Anaphylstian, and the rest of his companions, who were most suspected as + favoring the Lacedaemonians, to behave themselves bravely against their + enemies, and by their actions make their innocence evident to their + countrymen. These, being in all a hundred, took the arms of Cimon, and + followed his advice; and making a body by themselves, fought so + desperately with the enemy, that they were all cut off, leaving the + Athenians deep regret for the loss of such brave men, and repentance for + having so unjustly suspected them. Accordingly, they did not long retain + their severity toward Cimon, partly upon remembrance of his former + services, and partly, perhaps, induced by the juncture of the times. For + being defeated at Tanagra in a great battle, and fearing the + Peloponnesians would come upon them at the opening of the spring, they + recalled Cimon by a decree, of which Pericles himself was author. So + reasonable were men's resentments in those times, and so moderate their + anger, that it always gave way to the public good. Even ambition, the + least governable of all human passions, could then yield to the + necessities of the State. + </p> + <p> + Cimon, as soon as he returned, put an end to the war, and reconciled the + two cities. Peace thus established, seeing the Athenians impatient of + being idle, and eager for the honor and aggrandizement of war, lest they + should set upon the Greeks themselves, or with so many ships cruising + about the isles and Peloponnesus, they should give occasions for intestine + wars, or complaints of their allies against them, he equipped two hundred + galleys, with design to make an attempt upon Egypt and Cyprus; purposing, + by this means, to accustom the Athenians to fight against the barbarians, + and enrich themselves honestly by despoiling those who were the natural + enemies to Greece. But when all things were prepared, and the army ready + to embark, Cimon had this dream. It seemed to him that there was a furious + female dog barking at him, and, mixed with the barking, a kind of human + voice uttered these words: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Come on, for thou shalt shortly be + A pleasure to my whelps and me. +</pre> + <p> + This dream was hard to interpret, yet Astyphilus of Posidonia, a man + skilled in divinations, and intimate with Cimon, told him that his death + was presaged by this vision, which he thus explained. A dog is enemy to + him he barks at; and one is always most a pleasure to one's enemies, when + one is dead; the mixture of human voice with barking signifies the Medes, + for the army of the Medes is mixed up of Greeks and barbarians. After this + dream, as he was sacrificing to Bacchus, and the priest cutting up the + victim, a number of ants, taking up the congealed particles of the blood, + laid them about Cimon's great toes. This was not observed for a good + while, but at the very time when Cimon spied it, the priest came and + showed him the liver of the sacrifice imperfect, wanting that part of it + called the head. But he could not then recede from the enterprise, so he + set sail. Sixty of his ships he sent toward Egypt; with the rest he went + and fought the king of Persia's fleet, composed of Phoenician and Cilician + galleys, recovered all the cities thereabout, and threatened Egypt; + designing no less than the entire ruin of the Persian empire. And the more + because he was informed that Themistocles was in great repute among the + barbarians, having promised the king to lead his army, whenever he should + make war upon Greece. But Themistocles, it is said, abandoning all hopes + of compassing his designs, very much out of the despair of overcoming the + valor and good-fortune of Cimon, died a voluntary death. Cimon, intent on + great designs, which he was now to enter upon, keeping his navy about the + isle of Cyprus, sent messengers to consult the oracle of Jupiter Ammon + upon some secret matter. For it is not known about what they were sent, + and the god would give them no answer, but commanded them to return again, + for Cimon was already with him. Hearing this, they returned to sea, and as + soon as they came to the Grecian army, which was then about Egypt, they + understood that Cimon was dead; and computing the time of the oracle, they + found that his death had been signified, he being then already with the + gods. + </p> + <p> + He died, some say, of sickness, while besieging Citium, in Cyprus; + according to others, of a wound he received in a skirmish with the + barbarians. When he perceived that he was going to die, he commanded those + under his charge to return, and by no means to let the news of his death + be known by the way; this they did with such secrecy that they all came + home safe, and neither their enemies nor the allies knew what had + happened. Thus, as Phanodemus relates, the Grecian army was, as it were, + conducted by Cimon thirty days after he was dead. But after his death + there was not one commander among the Greeks that did any thing + considerable against the barbarians, and instead of uniting against their + common enemies, the popular leaders and partisans of war animated them + against one another to such a degree, that none could interpose their good + offices to reconcile them. And while, by their mutual discord, they ruined + the power of Greece, they gave the Persians time to recover breath, and + repair all their losses. It is true, indeed, Agesilaus carried the arms of + Greece into Asia, but it was a long time afterwards; there were some brief + appearances of a war against the king's lieutenants in the maritime + provinces, but they all quickly vanished; before he could perform any + thing of moment, he was recalled by fresh civil dissensions and + disturbances at home. So that he was forced to leave the Persian king's + officers to impose what tribute they pleased on the Greek cities in Asia, + the confederates and allies of the Lacedaemonians. Whereas, in the time of + Cimon, not so much as a letter-carrier, or a single horseman, was ever + seen to come within four hundred furlongs of the sea. + </p> + <p> + The monuments, called Cimonian to this day, in Athens, show that his + remains were conveyed home, yet the inhabitants of the city Citium pay + particular honor to a certain tomb which they call the tomb of Cimon, + according to Nausicrates the rhetorician, who states that in a time of + famine, when the crops of their land all failed, they sent to the oracle, + which commanded them not to forget Cimon, but give him the honors of a + superior being. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0017" id="link2H_4_0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + POMPEY + </h2> + <p> + The people of Rome appear, from the first, to have been affected towards + Pompey, much in the same manner as Prometheus, in Aeschylus, was towards + Hercules, when after that hero had delivered him from his chains, he says— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The sire I hated, but the son I loved. +</pre> + <p> + For never did the Romans entertain a stronger and more rancorous hatred + for any general than for Strabo, the father of Pompey. While he lived, + indeed, they were afraid of his abilities as a soldier, for he had great + talents for war; but upon his death, which happened by a stroke of + lightning, they dragged his corpse from the bier, on the way to the + funeral pile, and treated it with the greatest indignity. On the other + hand, no man ever experienced from the same Romans an attachment more + early begun, more disinterested in all the stages of his prosperity, or + more constant and faithful in the decline of his fortune, than Pompey. + </p> + <p> + The sole cause of their aversion to the father was his insatiable avarice; + but there were many causes of their affection for the son; his temperate + way of living, his application to martial exercises, his eloquent and + persuasive address, his strict honor and fidelity, and the easiness of + access to him upon all occasions; for no man was ever less importunate in + asking favors, or more gracious in conferring them. When he gave, it was + without arrogance; and when he received, it was with dignity. + </p> + <p> + In his youth he had a very engaging countenance, which spoke for him + before he opened his lips. Yet that grace of aspect was not attended with + dignity, and amidst his youthful bloom there was a venerable and princely + air. His hair naturally curled a little before; which, together with the + shining moisture and quick turn of his eye, produced a stronger likeness + to Alexander the Great than that which appeared in the statues of that + prince. + </p> + <p> + As to the simplicity of his diet, there is a remarkable saying of his upon + record. In a great illness, when his appetite was almost gone, the + physician ordered him a thrush. His servants, upon inquiry, found there + was not one to be had for money, for the season was passed. They were + informed, however, that Lucullus had them all the year in his menageries. + This being reported to Pompey, he said, "Does Pompey's life depend upon + the luxury of Lucullus?" Then, without any regard to the physician, he ate + something that was easy to be had. + </p> + <p> + After the death of Cinna, Carbo, a tyrant still more savage, took the + reins of government. It was not long, however, before Sylla returned to + Italy, to the great satisfaction of most of the Romans, who, in their + present unhappy circumstances, thought the change of their master no small + advantage. + </p> + <p> + Pompey, at the age of twenty-three, without a commission from any superior + authority, erected himself into a general; and having placed his tribunal + in the most public part of the great city of Auximum, enlisted soldiers + and appointed tribunes, centurions, and other officers, according to the + established custom. He did the same in all the neighboring cities; for the + partisans of Carbo retired and gave place to him; and the rest were glad + to range themselves under his banners. So that in a little time he raised + three complete legions, and furnished himself with provisions, beasts of + burden, carriages; in short, with the whole apparatus of war. + </p> + <p> + In this form he moved towards Sylla, not by hasty marches, nor as if he + wanted to conceal himself; for he stopped by the way to harass the enemy; + and attempted to draw off from Carbo all the parts of Italy through which + he passed. At last, three generals of the opposite party, Carinna, + Caelius, and Brutus, came against him all at once, not in front, or in one + body, but they hemmed him in with their three armies, in hopes to demolish + him entirely. + </p> + <p> + Pompey, far from being terrified, assembled all his forces, and charged + the army of Brutus at the head of his cavalry. The Gaulish horse on the + enemy's side sustained the first shock; but Pompey attacked the foremost + of them, who was a man of prodigious strength, and brought him down with a + push of his spear. The rest immediately fled and threw the infantry into + such disorder that the whole was soon put to flight. This produced so + great a quarrel among the three generals, that they parted and took + separate routes. In consequence of which, the cities, concluding that the + fears of the enemy had made them part, adopted the interest of Pompey. + </p> + <p> + Not long after, Scipio the consul advanced to engage him. But before the + infantry were near enough to discharge their lances, Scipio's soldiers + saluted those of Pompey, and came over to them. Scipio, therefore, was + forced to fly. At last, Carbo sent a large body of cavalry against Pompey, + near the river Arsis. He gave them so warm a reception, that they were + soon broken, and in the pursuit drove them upon impracticable ground; so + that finding it impossible to escape, they surrendered themselves with + their arms and horses. + </p> + <p> + Sylla had not yet been informed of these transactions; but upon the first + news of Pompey's being engaged with so many adversaries, and such + respectable generals, he dreaded the consequence, and marched with all + expedition to his assistance. Pompey, having intelligence of his approach, + ordered his officers to see that the troops were armed and drawn up in + such a manner as to make the handsomest and most gallant appearance before + the commander-in-chief. For he expected great honours from him, and he + obtained greater. Sylla no sooner saw Pompey advancing to meet him, with + an army in excellent condition, both as to age and size of the men, and + the spirits which success had given them, than he alighted; and upon being + saluted of course by Pompey as Imperator, he returned his salutation with + the same title: though no one imagined that he would have honoured a young + man not yet admitted into the senate with a title for which he was + contending with the Scipios and the Marii. The rest of his behavior was as + respectable as that in the first interview. He used to rise up and uncover + his head, whenever Pompey came to him; which he was rarely observed to do + for any other, though he had a number of persons of distinction about him. + </p> + <p> + While Pompey was in Sicily, he received a decree of the senate, and + letters from Sylla, in which he was commanded to cross over to Africa and + to carry on the war with the utmost vigor against Domitius, who had + assembled a much more powerful army than that which Marius carried not + long before from Africa to Italy, when he made himself master of Rome, and + from a fugitive became a tyrant. Pompey soon finished his preparation for + this expedition; and leaving the command in Sicily to Memmius, his + sister's husband, he set sail with one hundred and twenty armed vessels, + and eight hundred store-ships, laden with provisions, arms, money, and + machines of war. Part of his fleet landed at Utica, and part at Carthage: + immediately after which seven thousand of the enemy came over to him; and + he had brought with him six legions complete. + </p> + <p> + On his arrival he met with a whimsical adventure. Some of his soldiers, it + seems, found a treasure, and rest of the troops concluded that the place + was full of money, which the Carthaginians had hid there in some time of + public distress. Pompey, therefore could make no use of them for several + days, as they were searching for treasures; and he had nothing to do but + walk about and amuse himself with the sight of so many thousands digging + and turning up the ground. At last, they gave up the point, and bade him + lead them wherever be pleased, for they were sufficiently punished for + their folly. + </p> + <p> + Domitius advanced to meet him, and put his troops in order of battle. + There happened to be a channel between them, craggy and difficult to pass. + Moreover, in the morning it began to rain, and the wind blew violently; + insomuch that Domitius, not imagining there would be any action that day, + ordered his army to retire. But Pompey looked upon this as his + opportunity, and he passed the defile with the utmost expedition. The + enemy stood upon their defence, but it was in a disorderly and tumultuous + manner, and the resistance they made was neither general nor uniform. + Besides the wind and rain beat in their faces. The storm incommoded the + Romans, too, for they could not well distinguish each other. Nay, Pompey + himself was in danger of being killed by a soldier, who asked him the + pass-word, and did not receive a speedy answer. At length, however, he + routed the enemy with great slaughter; not above three thousand of them + escaping out of twenty thousand. The soldiers then saluted Pompey, + Imperator, but he said he would not accept that title while the enemy's + camp stood untouched; therefore, if they chose to confer such an honor + upon him, they must first make themselves masters of the intrenchments. + </p> + <p> + At that instant they advanced with great fury against them. Pompey fought + without his helmet, for fear of such an accident as he had just escaped. + The camp was taken, and Domitius slain; in consequence of which most of + the cities immediately submitted, and rest were taken by assault. He took + Iarbas, one of the confederates of Domitius, prisoner, and bestowed his + crown on Hiempsal. Advancing with the same tide of fortune, and while his + army had all the spirits inspired by success, he entered Numidia, in which + he continued his march for several days, and subdued all that came in his + way. Thus he revived the terror of the Roman name, which the barbarians + had begun to disregard. Nay, he chose not to leave the savage beasts in + the deserts without giving them a specimen of the Roman valor and success. + Accordingly he spent a few days in hunting lions and elephants. The whole + time he passed in Africa, they tell us, was not above forty days; in which + he defeated the enemy, reduced the whole country, and brought the affairs + of its kings under proper regulations, though he was only in his + twenty-fourth year. + </p> + <p> + Upon his return to Utica, he received letters from Sylla, in which he was + ordered to send home the rest of his army, and to wait there with one + legion only for a successor. This gave him a great deal of uneasiness, + which he kept to himself, but the army expressed their indignation aloud; + insomuch that when he entreated them to return to Italy, they launched out + into abusive terms against Sylla, and declared they would never abandon + Pompey, or suffer him to trust a tyrant. At first, he endeavored to pacify + them with mild representations; and when he found those had no effect, he + descended from the tribunal, and retired to his tent in tears. However, + they went and took him thence, and paced him again upon the tribunal, + where they spent a great part of the day; they insisting that he should + stay and keep the command, and he in persuading them to obey Sylla's + orders, and to form no new faction. At last, seeing no end of their + clamors and importunity, he assured them, with an oath, that he would kill + himself, if they attempted to force him. And even this hardly brought them + to desist. + </p> + <p> + The first news that Sylla heard was, that Pompey had revolted; upon which + he said to his friends, "Then it is my fate to have to contend with boys + in my old age." This he said, because Marius, who was very young, had + brought him into so much trouble and danger. But when he received true + information of the affair, and observed that all the people flocked out to + receive Pompey to conduct him home with marks of great regard, he resolved + to exceed them in his regards, if possible. He, therefore, hastened to + meet him, and embracing him in the most affectionate manner, saluted him + aloud by the surname of Magnus, or The Great; at the same time he ordered + all about him to give him the same appellation. Others say, it was given + him by the whole army in Africa, but did not generally obtain till it was + authorized by Sylla. It is certain, he was the last to take it himself, + and he did not make use of it till a long time after, when he was sent + into Spain with the dignity of pro-consul against Sertorius. Then he began + to write himself in his letters in all his edicts, Pompey the Great; for + the world was accustomed to the name, and it was no longer invidious. In + this respect we may justly admire the wisdom of the ancient Romans, who + bestowed on their great men such honorable names and titles, not only for + military achievements, but for the great qualities and arts which adorn + civil life. + </p> + <p> + When Pompey arrived at Rome, he demanded a triumph, in which he was + opposed by Sylla. The latter alleged that the laws did not allow that + honor to any person who was not either consul or praetor. Hence it was + that the first Scipio, when he returned victorious from greater wars and + conflicts with the Carthaginians in Spain, did not demand a triumph; for + he was neither consul nor praetor. He added, that if Pompey, who was yet + little better than a beardless youth, and who was not of age to be + admitted into the senate, should enter the city in triumph, it would bring + an odium both upon the dictator's power, and those honors of his friend. + These arguments Sylla insisted on, to show him that he would not allow of + his triumph, and that, in case he persisted, he would chastise his + obstinacy. + </p> + <p> + Pompey, not in the least intimidated, bade him consider, that more + worshiped the rising than the setting sun; intimating that his power was + increasing, and Sylla's upon the decline. Sylla did not hear well what he + said, but perceiving by the looks and gestures of the company that they + were struck with the expression, he asked what it was. When he was told + it, he admired the spirit of Pompey and cried, "Let him triumph! Let him + triumph!" + </p> + <p> + There is no doubt that he might then have been easily admitted a senator, + if he had desired it; but his ambition was to pursue honor in a more + uncommon track. It would have been nothing strange, if Pompey had been a + senator before the age fixed for it; but it was a very extraordinary + instance of honor to lead up a triumph before he was a senator. And it + contributed not a little to gain him the affections of the multitude; the + people were delighted to see him, after his triumph, class with the + equestrian order. + </p> + <p> + The power of the pirates had its foundation in Cilicia. Their progress was + the more dangerous, because at first it was little taken notice of. In the + Mithridatic war they assumed new confidence and courage, on account of + some services they had rendered the king. After this, the Romans being + engaged in civil wars at the very gates of their capital, the sea was left + unguarded, and the pirates by degrees attempted higher things; they not + only attacked ships, but islands, and maritime towns. Many persons, + distinguished for their wealth, their birth, and their capacity, embarked + with them, and assisted in the depredations, as if their employment had + been worthy the ambition of men of honor. They had in various places + arsenals, ports, and watch-towers, all strongly fortified. Their fleets + were not only extremely well manned, supplied with skillful pilots, and + fitted for their business by their lightness and celerity; but there was a + parade of vanity about them more mortifying than their strength, in gilded + sterns, purpose canopies, and plated oars; as if they took a pride and + triumphed in their villainy. Music resounded, and drunken revels were + exhibited on every coast. Here generals were made prisoners; there the + cities the pirates had taken were paying their ransom; all to the great + disgrace of the Roman power. The number of their galleys amounted to one + thousand, and the cities they were masters of to four hundred. + </p> + <p> + Temples which had stood inviolably sacred till that time, they plundered. + They ruined the temple of Apollo at Claros, that of the Cabiri in + Samothrace, of Ceres at Hermione, of Aesculapius at Epidaurus, those of + Neptune in the Isthmus, at Taenarus and in Calauria, those of Apollo at + Actium and in the isle of Leucas, those of Juno at Samos, Argos, and the + promontory of Lacinium. + </p> + <p> + They likewise offered strange sacrifices; those of Olympus I mean; and + they celebrated certain secret mysteries, among which those of Mithra + continue to this day, being originally instituted by them. They not only + insulted the Romans at sea but infested the great roads, and plundered the + villas near the coast; they carried off Sextilius and Bellinus, two + praetors, in their purple robes, which all their servants and lictors. + They seized the daughter of Antony, a man who had been honored with a + triumph, as she was going to her country house, and he was forced to pay a + large ransom for her. + </p> + <p> + But the most contemptible circumstance of all was, that when they had + taken a prisoner, and he cried out that he was a Roman, and told them his + name, they pretended to be struck with terror, smote their thighs, and + fell upon their knees to ask him pardon. The poor man, seeing them thus + humble themselves before him, thought them in earnest, and said he would + forgive them; for some were so officious as to put on his shoes, and + others to help him on with his gown, that his quality might no more be + mistaken. When they had carried on this farce, and enjoyed it for some + time, they let a ladder down into the sea, and bade him go in peace; and + if he refused to do it, they pushed him off the deck, and drowned him. + </p> + <p> + Their power extended over the whole Tuscan sea, so that the Romans found + their trade and navigation entirely cut off. The consequence of which was, + that their markets were not supplied, and they had reason to apprehend a + famine. This at last led them to send Pompey to clear the sea of pirates. + Gabinius, one of Pompey's intimate friends, proposed the decree, which + created him not admiral, but monarch, and invested him with absolute + power. The decree gave him the empire of the sea as far as the Pillars of + Hercules, and of the land for 400 furlongs from the coasts. There were few + parts of the Roman empire which this commission did not take in; and the + most considerable of the barbarous nations, and most powerful kings, were + moreover comprehended in it. Besides this he was empowered to choose out + of the senators fifteen lieutenants, to act under him in such districts, + and with such authority as he should appoint. He was to take from the + quaestors, and other public receivers, what money he pleased, and equip a + fleet of two hundred sail. The number of marine forces, of mariners and + rowers, was left entirely to his discretion. + </p> + <p> + When this decree was read in the assembly, the people received it with + inconceivable pleasure. The most respectable part of the senate saw, + indeed, that such an absolute and unlimited power was above envy, but they + considered it as a real object of fear. They therefore all, except Caesar, + opposed its passing into a law. He was for it, not out of regard for + Pompey, but to insinuate himself into the good graces of the people, which + he had long been courting. The rest were very severe in the expressions + against Pompey; and one of the consuls venturing to say, "If he imitates + Romulus, he will not escape his fate," was in danger of being pulled in + pieces by the populace. + </p> + <p> + It is true, when Catulus rose up to speak against the law, out of + reverence for his person they listened to him with great attention. After + he had freely given Pompey the honor that was his due, and said much in + his praise, he advised them to spare him, and not to expose such a man to + so many dangers; "for where will you find another," said he, "if you lose + him?" They answered with one voice, "Yourself." Finding his arguments had + no effect, he retired. Then Roscius mounted the rostrum, but not a man + would give ear to him. However he made signs to them with his fingers, + that they should not appoint Pompey alone, but give him a colleague. + Incensed at the proposal, they set up such a shout, that a crow, which was + flying over the forum, was stunned with the force of it, and fell down + among the crowd. Hence we may conclude, that when birds fall on such + occasions, it is not because the air is so divided with the shock as to + leave a vacuum, but rather because the sound strikes them like a blow, + when it ascends with force, and produces so violent an agitation. + </p> + <p> + The assembly broke up that day without coming to any resolution. When the + day came that they were to give their suffrages, Pompey retired into the + country; and, on receiving information that the decree was passed, he + returned to the city by night, to prevent the envy which the multitudes of + people coming to meet him would have excited. Next morning at break of day + he made his appearance, and attended the sacrifice. After which, he + summoned an assembly, and obtained a grant of almost as much more as the + first decree had given him. He was empowered to fit out 500 galleys, and + to raise an army of 120,000 foot, and 5,000 horse. Twenty-four senators + were selected, who had all been generals or praetors, and were appointed + his lieutenants; and he had two quaestors given him. As the price of + provisions fell immediately, the people were greatly pleased, and it gave + them occasion to say that the very name of Pompey had terminated the war. + </p> + <p> + However, in pursuance of his charge, he divided the whole Mediterranean + into thirteen parts, appointing a lieutenant for each, and assigning him a + squadron. By thus stationing his fleet in all quarters, he enclosed the + pirates as it were in a net, took great numbers of them, and brought them + into harbor. Such of their vessels as had dispersed and made off in time, + or could escape the general chase, retired to Cilicia, like so many bees + into a hive. Against these he proposed to go himself, with sixty of his + best galleys; but first he resolved to clear the Tuscan sea, and the + coasts of Africa, Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily, of all piratical + adventurers; which he effected in forty days, by his own indefatigable + endeavors and those of his lieutenants. But, as the consul Piso was + indulging his malignity at home, in wasting his stores and discharging his + seamen, he sent his fleet round to Brundusium, and went himself by land + through Tuscany to Rome. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the people were informed of his approach, they went in crowds + to receive him, in the same manner as they had done a few days before, to + conduct him on his way. Their extraordinary joy was owing to the speed + with which he had executed his commission, so far beyond all expectation, + and to the superabundant plenty which reigned in the markets. For this + reason Piso was in danger of being deposed from the consulship, and + Gabinius had a decree ready drawn up for that purpose; but Pompey would + not suffer him to propose it. On the contrary, his speech to the people + was full of candor and moderation; and when he had provided such things as + he wanted, he went to Brundusium, and put to sea again. Though he was + straightened for time, and in his haste sailed by many cities without + calling, yet he stopped at Athens. He entered the town and sacrificed to + the gods; after which he addressed the people, and then prepared to + reembark immediately. As he went out of the gate he observed two + inscriptions, each comprised in one line. + </p> + <p> + That within the gate was: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + But know thyself a man, and be a god. +</pre> + <p> + That without: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + We wish'd, we saw; we loved, and we adored. +</pre> + <p> + Some of the pirates, who yet traversed the seas, made their submission; + and as he treated them in a humane manner, when he had them and their + ships in his power, others entertained hope of mercy, and avoiding the + other officers, surrendered themselves to Pompey, together with their + wives and children. He spared them all; and it was principally by their + means that he found out and took a number who were guilty of unpardonable + crimes, and therefore had concealed themselves. + </p> + <p> + Still, however, there remained a great number, and indeed the most + powerful part of these corsairs, who sent their families, treasures, and + all useless hands, into castles and fortified towns upon Mount Taurus. + Then they manned their ships, and waited for Pompey at Coracesium, in + Cilicia. A battle ensued, and the pirates were defeated; after which they + retired into the fort. But they had not been long besieged before they + capitulated, and surrendered themselves, together with the cities and + islands which they had conquered and fortified, and which by their works + as well as situation were almost impregnable. Thus the war was finished, + and whole force of the pirates destroyed, within three months at the + farthest. + </p> + <p> + Besides the other vessels, Pompey took ninety ships with beaks of brass; + and the prisoners amounted to 20,000. He did not choose to put them to + death, and at the same time he thought it wrong to suffer them to + disperse, because they were not only numerous, but warlike and + necessitous, and therefore would probably knit again and give future + trouble. He reflected, that man by nature is neither a savage nor an + unsocial creature; and when he becomes so, it is by vices contrary to + nature; yet even then he may be humanized by changing his place of abode, + and accustoming him to a new manner of life; as beasts that are naturally + wild put off their fierceness when they are kept in a domestic way. For + this reason he determined to remove the pirates to a great distance from + the sea, and bring them to taste the sweets of civil life, by living in + cities, and by the culture of the ground. He placed some of them in the + little towns of Cilicia, which were almost desolate, and which received + them with pleasure, because at the same time he gave them an additional + proportion of lands. He repaired the city of Soli, which had lately been + dismantled and deprived of its inhabitants by Tigranes, king of Armenia, + and peopled it with a number of these corsairs. The remainder, which was a + considerable body, he planted in Dyma, a city of Achaia, which, though it + had a large and fruitful territory, was in want of inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + Pompey, having secured the sea from Phoenicia to the Bosphorus, marched in + quest of Mithridates, who had an army of 30,000 foot and 2,000 horse, but + durst not stand an engagement. That prince was in possession of a strong + and secure post upon a mountain, which he quitted upon Pompey's approach, + because it was destitute of water. Pompey encamped in the same place; and + conjecturing, from the nature of the plants and the crevices in the + mountain, that springs might be found, he ordered a number of wells to be + dug, and the camp was in a short time plentifully supplied with water. He + was not a little surprised that this did not occur to Mithridates during + the whole time of his encampment there. + </p> + <p> + After this, Pompey followed him to his new camp, and drew a line of + circumvallation round him. Mithridates stood a siege of forty-five days, + after which he found means to steal off with his best troops, having first + killed all the sick, and such as could be of no service. Pompey overtook + him near the Euphrates, and encamped over against him; but fearing he + might pass the river unperceived, he drew out his troops at midnight. At + that time Mithridates is said to have had a dream prefigurative of what + was to befall him. He thought he was upon the Pontic Sea, sailing with a + favorable wind, and in sight of the Bosphorus; so that he felicitated his + friends in the ship, like a man perfectly safe, and already in harbor. But + suddenly he beheld himself in the most destitute condition, swimming upon + a piece of wreck. While he was in all the agitation which this dream + produced, his friends awaked him, and told him that Pompey was at hand. He + was now under a necessity of fighting for his camp, and his generals drew + up the forces with all possible expedition. + </p> + <p> + Pompey, seeing them prepared, was loth to risk a battle in the dark. He + thought it sufficient to surround them, so as to prevent their flight; and + what inclined him still more to wait for daylight, was the consideration + that his troops were much better than the enemy's. However, the oldest of + his officers entreated him to proceed immediately to the attack, and at + last prevailed. It was not indeed very dark; for the moon, though near her + setting, gave light enough to distinguish objects. But it was a great + disadvantage to the king's troops, that the moon was so low, and on the + backs of the Romans; because she projected their shadows so far before + them, that the enemy could form no just estimate of the distances, but + thinking them at hand, threw their javelins before they could do the least + execution. + </p> + <p> + The Romans, perceiving their mistake, advanced to the charge with all the + alarm of voices. The enemy were in such a consternation, that they made + not the least stand, and, in their flight, vast numbers were slain. They + lost above 10,000 men, and their camp was taken. As for Mithridates, he + broke through the Romans with 800 horses, in the beginning of the + engagement. That corps, however, did not follow him far before they + dispersed, and left him with only three of his people. + </p> + <p> + The pursuit of Mithridates was attended with great difficulties; for he + concealed himself among the nations settled about the Bosphorus and the + Palus Maeotis. Besides, news was brought to Pompey that the Albanians had + revolted, and taken up arms again. The desire of revenge determined him to + march back, and chastise them. But it was with infinite trouble and danger + that he passed the Cyrnus again, the barbarians having fenced it on their + side with palisades all along the banks. And when he was over, he had a + large country to traverse, which afforded no water. This last difficulty + he provided against by filling 10,000 bottles; and pursuing his march, he + found the enemy drawn up on the banks of the river Abas, to the number of + 60,000 foot and 12,000 horse, but many of them ill-armed, and provided + with nothing of the defensive kind but skins of beasts. + </p> + <p> + They were commanded by the king's brother, named Cosis; who, at the + beginning of the battle, singled out Pompey, and rushing in upon him, + struck his javelin into the joints of his breastplate. Pompey in return + run him through with his spear, and laid him dead on the spot. It is said + that the Amazons came to the assistance of the barbarians from the + mountains near the river Thermodon, and fought in this battle. The Romans, + among the plunder of the field, did, indeed, meet with bucklers in the + form of a half-moon, and such buskins as the Amazons wore; but there was + not the body of a woman found among the dead. They inhabit that part of + Mount Caucasus which stretches toward the Hyrcanian Sea, and are not next + neighbors to the Albanians; for Gelae and Leges lie between; but they meet + that people, and spend two months with them every year on the banks of the + Thermodon; after which they retire to their own country. + </p> + <p> + Pompey had advanced near to Petra, and encamped, and was taking some + exercise on horseback without the trenches, when messengers arrived from + Pontus; and it was plain they brought good news, because the points of + their spears were crowned with laurel. The soldiers seeing this, gathered + about Pompey, who was inclined to finish his exercise before he opened the + packet; but they were so earnest in their entreaties, that they prevailed + upon him to alight and take it. He entered the camp with it in his hand; + and as there was no tribunal ready, and the soldiers were too impatient to + raise one of turf, which the common method, they piled a number of + pack-saddles one upon the other, upon which Pompey mounted, and gave them + this information: "Mithridates is dead. He killed himself upon the revolt + of his son Pharnaces. And Pharnaces has seized all that belonged to his + father; which he declares he has done for himself and Romans." + </p> + <p> + At this news the army, as might be expected, gave a loose rein to their + joy, which they expressed in sacrifices to the gods, and in reciprocal + entertainments, as if 10,000 of their enemies had been slain in + Mithridates. Pompey having thus brought the campaign and the whole war to + a conclusion so happy, and so far beyond his hopes, immediately quitted + Arabia, traverses the provinces between that and Galatia with great + rapidity, and soon arrived at Amisus. There he found many presents from + Pharnaces, and several corpses of the royal family, among which was that + of Mithridates. As for Pompey, he would not see the body, but to + propitiate the avenging Nemesis, sent it to Sinope. However, he looked + upon and admired the magnificence of his habit, and the size and beauty of + his arms. The scabbard of his sword cost four hundred talents, and the + diadem was of most exquisite workmanship. + </p> + <p> + Pompey having thoroughly settled the affairs of Asia, hoped to return to + Italy the greatest and happiest of men. + </p> + <p> + People talked variously at Rome concerning his intentions. Many disturbed + themselves at the thought that he would march with his army immediately to + Rome and make himself sole and absolute master there. Crassus took his + children and money, and withdrew; whether it was that he had some real + apprehensions, or rather that he chose to countenance the calumny, and add + force to the sting of envy; the latter seems the more probable. But Pompey + had no sooner set foot in Italy, than he called an assembly of his + soldiers, and, after a kind and suitable address, ordered them to disperse + in their respective cities, and attend to their own affairs till his + triumph, on which occasion they were to repair to him again. + </p> + <p> + Pompey's triumph was so great, that though it was divided into two days, + the time was far from being sufficient for displaying what was prepared to + be carried in procession; there remained still enough to adorn another + triumph. At the head of the show appeared the titles of the conquered + nations: Pontus, Armenia, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, Media, Colchis, the + Iberians, the Albanians, Syria, Cilicia, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, + Palestine, Judaea, Arabia, the pirates subdued both by sea and land. In + these countries, it was mentioned that there were not less than 1,000 + castles and 900 cities captured, 800 galleys taken from the pirates, and + 39 desolate cities repeopled. On the face of the tablets it appeared + besides, that whereas the revenues of the Roman empire before these + conquests amounted but to 50,000,000 drachmas, by the new acquisitions + they were advanced to 85,000,000; and that Pompey had brought into the + public treasury in money, and in gold and silver vessels, the value of + 20,000 talents; besides what he had distributed among the soldiers, of + whom he that received least had 1,500 drachmas to his share. The captives + who walked in the procession (not the mention the chiefs of the pirates) + were the son of Tigranes, king of Armenia, together with his wife and + daughter; Zosima, the wife of Tigranes himself; Aristobulus, king of + Judaea; the sister of Mithridates, with her five sons, and some Scythian + women. The hostages of the Albanians and Iberians, and of the king of + Commagene also appeared in the train; and as many trophies were exhibited + as Pompey had gained victories, either in person or by his lieutenants, + the number of which was not small. + </p> + <p> + But the most honorable circumstance, and what no other Roman could boast, + was that his third triumph was over the third quarter of the world, after + his former triumphs had been over the other two. Others before him had + been honored with three triumphs; but his first triumph was over Africa, + his second over Europe, and his third over Asia; so that the three seemed + to declare him conqueror of the world. + </p> + <p> + Those who desire to make the parallel between him and Alexander agree in + all respects, tell us he was at this time not quite thirty-four, whereas, + in fact, he was entering upon his fortieth year. (It should be the + forty-sixth year. Pompey was born in the beginning of the month of August, + in the year of Rome 647, and his triumph was in the same month in the year + of Rome 692.) Happy it had been for him, if he had ended his days while he + was blessed with Alexander's good fortune! The rest of his life, every + instance of success brought its proportion of envy, and every misfortune + was irretrievable. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime the wars in Gaul lifted Caesar to the first sphere of + greatness. The scene of action was at a great distance from Rome, and he + seemed to be wholly engaged with the Belgae, the Suevi, and the Britons; + but his genius all the while was privately at work among the people of + Rome, and he was undermining Pompey in his most essential interests. His + war with the barbarians was not his principal object. He exercised his + army, indeed, in those expeditions, as he would have done his own body, in + hunting and other diversions of the field, by which he prepared them for + higher conflicts, and rendered them not only formidable but invincible. + </p> + <p> + The gold and silver, and other rich spoils which he took from the enemy in + great abundance, he sent to Rome; and by distributing them freely among + the aediles, praetors, consuls, and their wives, he gained a great party. + Consequently when he passed the Alps and wintered at Lucca, among the + crowd of men and women, who hastened to pay their respects to him, there + were two hundred senators, Pompey and Crassus of the number; and there + were no fewer than one hundred and twenty proconsuls and praetors, whose + faces were to be seen at the gates of Caesar. He made it his business in + general to give them hopes of great things, and his money was at their + devotion; but he entered into a treaty with Crassus and Pompey, by which + it was agreed that they should apply for the consulship, and that Caesar + should assist them, by sending a great number of his soldiers to vote at + the election. As soon as they were chosen, they were to share the + provinces, and take the command of armies, according to their pleasure, + only confirming Caesar in the possession of what he had for five years + more. + </p> + <p> + Crassus, upon the expiration of his consulship, repaired to his province. + Pompey remaining at Rome, opened his theatre; and to make the dedication + more magnificent, exhibited a variety of gymnastic games, entertainments + of music, and battles with wild beasts, in which were killed 500 lions; + but the battle of elephants afforded the most astonishing spectacle. (Dio + says the elephants fought with armed men. There were no less than eighteen + of them; and he adds, that some of them seemed to appeal, with piteous + cries to the people; who, in compassion, saved their lives. If we may + believe him, an oath had been taken before they left Africa, that no + injury should be done them.) These things gained him the love and + admiration of the public; but he incurred their displeasure again, by + leaving his provinces and armies entirely to his friends and lieutenants, + and roving about Italy with his wife from one villa to another. The strong + attachment of Julia appeared on the occasion of an election of aediles. + The people came to blows, and some were killed so near Pompey that he was + covered with blood, and forced to change his clothes. There was a great + crowd and tumult about his door, when his servants went home with a bloody + robe; and Julia, happening to see it, fainted away and was with difficulty + restored. Shortly after Julia died, and the alliance which had rather + covered than restrained the ambition of the two great competitors for + power was now no more. To add to the misfortune, news was brought soon + after that Crassus was slain by the Parthians; and in him another great + obstacle to a civil war was removed. Out of fear of him, they had both + kept some measures with each other. But when fortune had carried off the + champion who could take up the conqueror, we may say with the comic poet— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + High spirits of emprise + Elates each chief; they oil their brawny limbs, + and dip their hands in dust. +</pre> + <p> + So little able is fortune to fill the capacities of the human mind; when + such a weight of power, and extent of command, could not satisfy the + ambition of two men. They had heard and read that the gods had divided the + universe into three shares, + </p> + <p> + (Plutarch alludes here to a passage in the fifteenth book of the Iliad, + where Neptune says to Iris— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Assign'd by lot our triple rule we know; + Infernal Pluto sways the shades below; + O'er the wide clouds, and o'er the starry plain, + Ethereal Jove extends his high domain; + My court beneath the hoary waves I keep, + And hush the roarings of the sacred deep.) +</pre> + <p> + and each was content with that which fell to his lot, and yet these men + could not think the Roman empire sufficient for two of them. Such anarchy + and confusion took place that numbers began to talk boldly of setting up a + dictator. Cato, now fearing he should be overborne, was of opinion that it + were better to give Pompey some office whose authority was limited by law, + than to intrust him with absolute power. Bibulus, though Pompey's declared + enemy, moved in full senate, that he should be appointed sole consul. "For + by that means," said he, "the commonwealth will either recover from her + disorder, or, if she must serve, will serve a man of the greatest merit." + The whole house was surprised at the motion; and when Cato rose up, it was + expected he would oppose it. A profound silence ensued, and he said, he + should never have been the first to propose such an expedient, but as it + was proposed by another, he thought it advisable to embrace it; for he + thought any kind of government better than anarchy, and knew no man fitter + to rule than Pompey, in a time of so much trouble. The senate came into + his opinion, and a decree was issued, that Pompey should be appointed sole + consul, and that if he should have need of a colleague, he might choose + one himself, provided it were not before the expiration of two months. + </p> + <p> + Pompey being declared sole consul by the Interrex Sulpitius, made his + compliments to Cato, acknowledged himself much indebted to his support, + and desired his advice and assistance in the cabinet, as to the measures + to be pursued in his administration. Cato made answer, that Pompey was not + under the least obligation to him; for what he had said was not out of + regard to him, but to his country. "If you apply to me," continued he, "I + shall give you my advice in private; if not, I shall inform you of my + sentiments in public." Such was Cato, and the same on all occasions. + </p> + <p> + Pompey then went into the city, and married Cornelia, the daughter of + Metellus Scipio. She was a widow, having been married, when very young, to + Publius the son of Crassus, who was lately killed in the Parthian + expedition. This woman had many charms beside her beauty. She was well + versed in polite literature; she played upon the lyre, and understood + geometry; and she had made considerable improvements by the precepts of + philosophy. What is more, she had nothing of that petulance and + affectation which such studies are apt to produce in women of her age. And + her father's family and reputation were unexceptionable. + </p> + <p> + Pompey's confidence made him so extremely negligent, that he laughed at + those who seemed to fear the war. And when they said if Caesar should + advance in a hostile manner to Rome, they did not see what forces they had + to oppose him, he bade them, with an open and smiling countenance, give + themselves no pain: "For, if in Italy," said he, "I do but stamp upon the + ground, an army will appear." + </p> + <p> + Meantime Caesar was exerting himself greatly. He was now at no great + distance from Italy, and not only sent his soldiers to vote in the + elections, but by private pecuniary applications, corrupted many of the + magistrates. Paulus the consul was of the number, and he had one thousand + five hundred talents for changing sides. So also was Curio, one of the + tribunes of the people, for whom he paid off an immense debt, and Mark + Antony, who, out of friendship for Curio, had stood engaged with him for + the debt. + </p> + <p> + It is said, that when one of Caesar's officers, who stood before the + senate-house, waiting the issue of the debates, was informed that they + would not give Caesar a longer term in his command, he laid his hand on + his sword, and said, "But this shall give it." Indeed, all the + preparations of his general tended that way; though Curio's demands in + behalf of Caesar seemed more plausible. He proposed, that either Pompey + should likewise be obliged to dismiss his forces, or Caesar suffered to + keep his. "If they are both reduced to a private station," said he, "they + will agree upon reasonable terms; or, if each retains his respective + power, they will be satisfied. But he who weakens the one, without doing + the same by the other, must double that force which he fears will subvert + the government." + </p> + <p> + But now news was brought that Caesar was marching directly towards Rome + with all his forces. The last circumstance, indeed, was not true. He + advanced with only three hundred horse and five thousand foot; the rest of + his forces were on the other side of the Alps, and he would not wait for + them, choosing rather to put his adversaries in confusion by a sudden and + unexpected attack, than to fight them when better prepared. When he came + to the river Rubicon, which was the boundary of his province, he stood + silent a long time, weighing with himself the greatness of his enterprise. + At last, like one who plunges down from the top of a precipice into a gulf + of immense depth, he silenced his reason, and shut his eyes against the + danger; and crying out in the Greek language, "The die is cast," he + marched over with his army. + </p> + <p> + Upon the first report of this at Rome, the city was in greater disorder + and astonishment than had ever been known. + </p> + <p> + All Italy was in motion, with the stir of the coming storm. Those who + lived out of Rome fled to it from all quarters, and those who lived in it + abandoned it as fast. These saw, that in such a tempestuous and disorderly + state of affairs, the well disposed part of the city wanted strength, and + that the ill disposed were so refractory that they could not be managed by + the magistrates. The terrors of the people could not be removed, and no + one would suffer Pompey to lay a plan of action for himself. According to + the passion wherewith each was actuated, whether fear, sorrow, or doubt, + they endeavored to inspire him with the same; insomuch that he adopted + different measures the same day. He could gain no certain intelligence of + the enemy's motions, because every man brought him the report he happened + to take up, and was angry if it did not meet with credit. + </p> + <p> + Pompey at last caused it to be declared by a formal edict, that the + commonwealth was in danger, and no peace was to be expected. After which, + he signified that he should look upon those who remained in the city as + the partisans of Caesar; and then quitted it in the dusk of the evening. + The consuls also fled, without offering the sacrifices which their customs + required before a war. However, in this great extremity, Pompey could not + but be considered as happy in the affections of his countrymen. Though + many blamed the war, there was not a man who hated the general. Nay, the + number of those who followed him, out of attachment to his person, was + greater than that of the adventurers in the cause of liberty. + </p> + <p> + A few days after, Caesar arrived at Rome. When he was in possession of the + city, he behaved with great moderation in many respects, and composed in a + good measure the minds of its remaining inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + Pompey, who was the master of Brundusium, and had a sufficient number of + transports, desired the consuls to embark without loss of time, and sent + them before him with thirty cohorts to Dyrrhachium. But at the same time + he sent his father-in-law Scipio and his son Cnaeus into Syria, to provide + ships of war. He had well secured the gates of the city, and planted the + lightest of his slingers and archers upon the walls; and having now + ordered the Brundusians to keep within doors, he caused a number of + trenches to be cut, and sharp stakes to be driven into them, and then + covered with earth, in all the streets, except two which led down to the + sea. In three days all his other troops were embarked without + interruption; and then he suddenly gave the signal to those who guarded + the walls; in consequence of which, they ran swiftly down to the harbor, + and got on board. Thus having his whole complement, he set sail, and + crossed the sea to Dyrrhachium. + </p> + <p> + When Caesar came and saw the walls left destitute of defence, he concluded + that Pompey had taken to flight, and in his eagerness to pursue, would + certainly have fallen upon the sharp stakes in the trenches, had not the + Brundusians informed him of them. He then avoided the streets, and took a + circuit round the town, by which he discovered that all the vessels had + weighed anchor, except two that had not many soldiers aboard. + </p> + <p> + This manoeuvre of Pompey was commonly reckoned among the greatest act of + generalship. Caesar, however, could not help wondering, that his + adversary, who was in possession of a fortified town, and expected his + forces from Spain, and at the same time was master of them, should give up + Italy in such a manner. + </p> + <p> + Caesar thus made himself master of all Italy in sixty days without the + least bloodshed, and he would have been glad to have gone immediately in + pursuit of Pompey. But as he was in want of shipping, he gave up that + design for the present, and marched to Spain, with an intent to gain + Pompey's forces there. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime Pompey assembled a great army; and at sea he was + altogether invincible. For he had five hundred ships of war, and the + number of his lighter vessels was still greater. As for his land forces, + he had seven thousand horse, the flower of Rome and Italy, all men of + family, fortune, and courage. His infantry, though numerous, was a mixture + of raw, undisciplined soldiers; he therefore exercised them during his + stay at Beroea, where he was by no means idle, but went through the + exercises of a soldier, as if he had been in the flower of his age. It + inspired his troops with new courage, when they saw Pompey the Great, at + the age of fifty-eight, going through the whole military discipline, in + heavy armor, on foot; and then mounting his horse, drawing his sword with + ease when at full speed, and as dexterously sheathing it again. As to the + javelin, he threw it not only with great exactness, but with such force + that few of the young men could dart it to a greater distance. + </p> + <p> + Many kings and princes repaired to his camp; and the number of Roman + officers who had commanded armies was so great, that it was sufficient to + make up a complete senate. Labienus, who had been honored with Caesar's + friendship, and served under him in Gaul, now joined Pompey. + </p> + <p> + Caesar had now made himself master of Pompey's forces in Spain, and though + it was not without a battle, he dismissed the officers, and incorporated + the troops with his own. After this, he passed the Alps again, and marched + through Italy to Brundusium, where he arrived at the time of the winter + solstice. There he crossed the sea, and landed at Oricum; from whence he + dispatched Vibullius, one of Pompey's friends, whom he had brought + prisoner thither, with proposals of a conference between him and Pompey, + in which they should agree to disband their armies within three days, + renew their friendship, confirm it with solemn oath, and then both return + to Italy. Pompey took this overture for another snare, and therefore drew + down in haste to the sea, and secured all the forts and places of strength + for land forces, as well as all the ports and other commodious stations + for shipping; so that there was not a wind that blew, which did not bring + him either provisions, or troops, or money. On the other hand, Caesar was + reduced to such straits, both by sea and land, that he was under the + necessity of seeking a battle. Accordingly, he attacked Pompey's + intrenchments, and bade him defiance daily. In most of these attacks and + skirmishes he had the advantage; but one day was in danger of losing his + whole army. Pompey fought with so much valor, that he put Caesar's whole + detachment to flight, after having killed two thousand men upon the spot; + but was either unable or afraid to pursue his blow, and enter their camp + with them. Caesar said to his friends on this occasion, "This day the + victory had been the enemy's had their general known how to conquer." + </p> + <p> + Pompey's troops, elated with this success, were in great haste to come to + a decisive battle. Nay, Pompey himself seemed to give in to their opinions + by writing to the kings, the generals, and cities, in his interest, in the + style of a conqueror. Yet all this while he dreaded the issue of a general + action, believing it much better, by length of time, by famine and + fatigue, to tire out men who had been ever invincible in arms, and long + accustomed to conquer when they fought together. Besides, he knew the + infirmities of age had made them unfit for the other operations of war, + for long marches and countermarches, for digging trenches and building + forts, and that, therefore, they wished for nothing so much as a battle. + Pompey, with all these arguments, found it no easy matter to keep his army + quiet. + </p> + <p> + After this last engagement, Caesar was in such want of provisions, that he + was forced to decamp, and he took his way through Athamania into Thessaly. + This added so much to the high opinion Pompey's soldiers had of + themselves, that it was impossible to keep them within bounds. They cried + out with one voice, "Caesar is fled." Some called upon the general to + pursue; some to pass over into Italy. Others sent their friends and + servants to Rome, to engage homes near the forum, for the convenience of + soliciting the great offices of state. And not a few went of their own + accord to Cornelia, who had been privately lodged in Lesbos, to + congratulate her upon the conclusion of the war. + </p> + <p> + While he thus softly followed the enemy's steps, a complaint was raised + against him, and urged with much clamor, that he was not exercising his + generalship upon Caesar, but upon the Senate and the whole commonwealth, + in order that he might forever keep the command in his hands, and have + those for his guards and servants who had a right to govern the world. + Domitius Aenobarbus, to increase the odium, always called him Agamemnon, + or king of kings. Favonius piqued him no less with a jest, than others by + their unseasonable severity; he went about crying, "My friends, we shall + eat no figs in Tusculum this year." + </p> + <p> + These and many other like sallies of ridicule had such an effect upon + Pompey, who was ambitious of being spoken well of by the world, and had + too much deference for the opinions of his friends, that he gave up his + own better judgment, to follow them in the career of their false hopes and + prospects. A thing which would have been unpardonable in the pilot or + master of a ship, much more in the commander-in-chief of so many nations + and such numerous armies. He had often commended the physician who gives + no indulgence to the whimsical longings of his patients, and yet he + humored the sickly cravings of his army, and was afraid to give them pain, + though necessary for the preservation of their life and being. For who can + say that army was in a sound and healthy state, when some of the officers + went about the camp canvassing for the offices of consul and praetor; and + others, namely, Spinther, Domitius, and Scipio, were engaged in quarrels + and cabals about Caesar's high-priesthood, as if their adversary had been + only a Tigranes, a king of Armenia, or a prince of the Nabathaeans; and + not that Caesar and that army who had stormed one thousand cities, subdued + above three hundred nations, gained numberless battles of the Germans and + Gauls, taken one million prisoners, and killed as many fairly in the + field. Notwithstanding all this, they continued loud and tumultuous in + their demands of a battle; and when they came to the plains of Pharsalia, + forced Pompey to call a council of war. Lebienus, who had the command of + the cavalry, rose up first, and took an oath, that he would not return + from the battle, till he had put the enemy to flight. All the other + officers swore the same. + </p> + <p> + The night following, Pompey had this dream. He thought he entered his own + theatre, and was received with loud plaudits; after which, he adorned the + temple of Venus the Victorious with many spoils. This vision, on one side, + encouraged him, and on the other alarmed him. He was afraid that Caesar, + who was a descendant of Venus, would be aggrandized at his expense. + Besides, a panic (A Panic was so called, from the terror which the god Pan + is said to have struck the enemies of Greece with, at the battle of + Marathon.) fear ran through the camp, the noise of which awakened him. And + about the morning watch, over Caesar's camp, where everything was + perfectly quiet, there suddenly appeared a great light, from which a + stream of fire issued in the form of a torch, and fell upon that of + Pompey. Caesar himself says he saw it as he was going his rounds. + </p> + <p> + Caesar was preparing, at break of day, to march to Scotusa; his soldiers + were striking their tents, and the servants and beasts of burden were + already in motion, when his scouts brought intelligence that they had seen + arms handed about in the enemy's camp, and perceived a noise and bustle, + which indicated an approaching battle. After these, others came and + assured him that the first ranks were drawn up. + </p> + <p> + Upon this Caesar said: "The long-wished day is come, on which we shall + fight with men, and not with want and famine." Then he immediately ordered + the red mantle to be put up before his pavilion, which, among the Romans, + is the signal of a battle. The soldiers no sooner beheld it, than they + left their tents as they were, and ran to arms with loud shouts, and every + expression of joy. And when the officers began to put them in order of + battle, each man fell into his proper rank as quietly, and with as much + skill and ease, as a chorus in a tragedy. + </p> + <p> + Pompey placed himself in his right wing over against Antony, and his + father-in-law, Scipio, in the centre, opposite Domitius Calvinus. His left + wing was commanded by Lucius Domitius, and supported by the cavalry; for + they were almost all ranged on that side, in order to break in upon + Caesar, and cut off the tenth legion, which was accounted the bravest in + his army, and in which he used to fight in person. Caesar, seeing the + enemy's left wing so well guarded with horse, and fearing the excellence + of their armor, sent for a detachment of six cohorts from the body of the + reserve, and placed them behind the tenth legion, with orders not to stir + before the attack, lest they should be discovered by the enemy; but when + the enemy's cavalry had charged, to make up through the foremost ranks, + and then not to discharge their javelins at a distance, as brave men + generally do in their eagerness to come to sword in hand, but to reserve + them till they came to close fighting, and to push them forward into the + eyes and faces of the enemy. "For those fair young dancers," said he, + "will never stand the steel aimed at their eyes, but will fly to save + their handsome faces." + </p> + <p> + While Caesar was thus employed, Pompey took a view on horseback of the + order of both armies; and finding that they enemy kept their ranks with + the utmost exactness, and quietly waited for the signal of battle, while + his own men, for want of experience, were fluctuating and unsteady, he was + afraid they would be broken up on the first onset. He therefore commanded + the vanguard to stand firm in their ranks, and in that close order to + receive the enemy's charge. Caesar condemned this measure, as not only + tending to lessen the vigor of the blows, which is always greatest in the + assailants, but also to damp the fire and spirit of the men; whereas those + who advance with impetuosity, and animate each other with shouts, are + filled with an enthusiastic valor and superior ardor. + </p> + <p> + Caesar's army consisted of twenty-two thousand men, and Pompey's was + something more than twice that number. When the signal was given on both + sides, and the trumpets sounded a charge, each common man attended only to + his own concern. But some of the principal Romans and Greeks, who only + stood and looked on, when the dreadful moment of action approached, could + not help considering to what the avarice and ambition of two men had + brought the Roman Empire. The same arms on both sides, the troops + marshalled in the same manner, the same standards; in short, the strength + and flower of one and the same city turned upon itself! What could be a + stronger proof of the blindness and infatuation of human nature, when + carried away by its passions? Had they been willing to enjoy the fruits of + their labors in peace and tranquillity, the greatest and best part of the + world was their own. Or, if they must have indulged their thirst of + victories and triumphs, the Parthians and Germans were yet to be subdued. + Scythia and India yet remained; together with a very plausible color for + their lust of new acquisitions, the pretence of civilizing barbarians. And + what Scythian horse, what Parthian arrows, what Indian treasures, could + have resisted seventy thousand Romans, led on by Pompey and Caesar, with + whose names those nations had long been acquainted! Into such a variety of + wild and savage countries had these two generals carried their victorious + arms! Whereas now they stood threatening each other with destruction; not + sparing even their own glory, though to it they sacrificed their country, + but prepared, one of them, to lose the reputation of being invincible, + which hitherto they had both maintained. So that the alliance which they + had contracted by Pompey's marriage to Julia, was from the first only an + artful expedient; and her charms were to form a self-interested compact, + instead of being the pledge of a sincere friendship. + </p> + <p> + The plain of Pharsalia was now covered with men, and horses and arms; and + the signal of battle being given on both sides, the first on Caesar's side + who advanced to the charge was Caius Crastinus, who commanded a corps of + one hundred and twenty men, and was determined to make good his promise to + his general. He was the first man Caesar saw when he went out of the + trenches in the morning; and upon Caesar's asking him what he thought of + the battle, he stretched out his hand, and answered in a cheerful tone, + "You will gain a glorious victory, and I shall have your praise this day, + either alive or dead." In pursuance of this promise, he advanced the + foremost, and many following to support him, he charged into the midst of + the enemy. They soon took to their swords, and numbers were slain; but as + Crastinus was making his way forward, and cutting down all before him, one + of Pompey's men stood to receive him, and pushed his sword in at his mouth + with such force, that it went through the nape of his neck. Crastinus thus + killed, the fight was maintained with equal advantage on both sides. + </p> + <p> + Pompey did not immediately lead on his right wing, but often directed his + eyes to the left, and lost time in waiting to see what execution his + cavalry would do there. Meanwhile they had extended their squadrons to + surround Caesar, and prepared to drive the few horse he had placed in + front, back upon the foot. At that instant Caesar gave the signal; upon + which his cavalry retreated a little; and the six cohorts, which consisted + of 3000 men, and had been placed behind the tenth legion, advanced to + surround Pompey's cavalry; and coming close up to them, raised the points + of their javelins, as they had been taught, and aimed them at the face. + Their adversaries, who were not experienced in any kind of fighting, and + had not the least previous idea of this, could not parry or endure the + blows upon their faces, but turned their backs, or covered their eyes with + their hands, and soon fled with great dishonor. Caesar's men took no care + to pursue them, but turned their force upon the enemy's infantry, + particularly upon that wing, which, now stripped of its horse, lay open to + the attack on all sides. The six cohorts, therefore, took them in flank, + while the tenth legion charged them in front; and they, who had hoped to + surround the enemy, and now, instead of that, saw themselves surrounded, + made but a short resistance, and then took to a precipitate flight. + </p> + <p> + By the great dust that was raised, Pompey conjectured the fate of his + cavalry; and it is hard to say what passed in his mind at that moment. He + appeared like a man moonstruck and distracted; and without considering + that he was Pompey the Great, or speaking to any one, he quitted the + ranks, and retired step by step toward his camp—a scene which cannot + be better painted than in these verses of Homer: (In the eleventh book of + the Iliad, where he is speaking of the flight of Ajax before Hector.) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + But partial Jove, espousing Hector's part, + Shot heaven-bred horror through the Grecian's heart; + Confused, unnerv'd in Hector's presence grown, + Amazed he stood with terrors not his own. + O'er his broad back his moony shield he threw, + And, glaring round, by tardy steps withdrew. +</pre> + <p> + In this condition he entered his tent, where he sat down, and uttered not + a word, till at last, upon finding that some of the enemy entered the camp + with the fugitives, he said, "What! Into my camp, too!" After this short + exclamation, he rose up, and dressing himself in a manner suitable to his + fortune, privately withdrew. All the other legions fled; and a great + slaughter was made in the camp, of the servants and others who had the + care of the tents. But Asinius Pollio, who then fought on Caesar's side, + assures us, that of the regular troops there were not above six thousand + men killed. (Caesar says, that in all there were fifteen thousand killed, + and twenty-four thousand taken prisoners.) + </p> + <p> + Upon the taking of the camp, there was a spectacle which showed, in strong + colors, the vanity and folly of Pompey's troops. All the tents were + crowned with myrtle; the beds were strewn with flowers; the tables covered + with cups, and bowls of wine set out. In short, everything had the + appearance of preparations for feasts and sacrifices, rather than for men + going out to battle. To such a degree had their vain hopes corrupted them, + and with such a senseless confidence they took to the field! + </p> + <p> + When Pompey had got at a little distance from the camp, he quitted his + horse. He had very few people about him; and, as he saw he was not + pursued, he went softly on, wrapped up in such thoughts as we may suppose + a man to have, who had been used for thirty-four years to conquer and + carry all before him, and now in his old age first came to know what it + was to be defeated and to fly. We may easily conjecture what his thoughts + must be, when in one short hour he had lost the glory and the power which + had been growing up amidst so many wars and conflicts; and he who was + lately guarded with such armies of horse and foot, and such great and + powerful fleets, was reduced to so mean and contemptible an equipage, that + his enemies, who were in search of him, could not know him. + </p> + <p> + He passed by Larissa, and came to Tempe, where, burning with thirst, he + threw himself upon his face, and drank out of the river; after which, he + passed through the valley, and went down to the sea-coast. There he spent + the remainder of the night in a poor fisherman's cabin. Next morning, + about break of day, he went on board a small river-boat, taking with him + such of his company as were freemen. The slaves he dismissed, bidding them + go to Caesar, and fear nothing. + </p> + <p> + As he was coasting along, he saw a whip of burden just ready to sail; the + master of which was Peticius, a Roman citizen, who, though not acquainted + with Pompey, knew him by sight. Therefore, without waiting for any further + application, he took him up, and such of his companions as he thought + proper, and then hoisted sail. The persons Pompey took with him, were the + two Lentuli and Favonius; and a little after, they saw king Deiotarus + beckoning to them with great earnestness from the shore, and took him up + likewise. The master of the ship provided them with the best supper he + could, and when it was almost ready, Pompey, for want of a servant, was + going to wash himself, but Favonius, seeing it, stepped up, and both + washed and anointed him. All the time he was on board, he continued to + wait upon him in all the offices of a servant, even to the washing of his + feet and providing his supper; insomuch, that one who saw the unaffected + simplicity and sincere attachment with which Favonius performed these + offices, cried out— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The generous mind adds dignity + To every act, and nothing misbecomes it. +</pre> + <p> + Pompey, in the course of his voyage, sailed by Amphipolis, and from thence + steered for Mitylene, to take up Cornelia and his son. As soon as he + reached the island, he sent a messenger to the town with news far + different from what Cornelia expected. For, by the flattering accounts + which many officious persons had given her, she understood that the + dispute was decided at Dyrrhachium, and that nothing but the pursuit of + Caesar remained to be attended to. The messenger, finding her possessed + with such hopes, had not power to make the usual salutations; but + expressing the greatness of Pompey's misfortunes by his tears rather than + words, only told her she must make haste if she had a mind to see Pompey + with one ship only, and that not his own. + </p> + <p> + At this news Cornelia threw herself upon the ground, where she lay a long + time insensible and speechless. At last, coming to herself, she perceived + there was no time to be lost in tears and lamentations, and therefore + hastened through the town to the sea. Pompey ran to meet her, and received + her to his arms as she was just going to fall. While she hung upon his + neck, she thus addressed him: "I see, my dear husband, your present + unhappy condition is the effect of my ill fortune, and not yours. Alas! + how are you reduced to one poor vessel, who, before your marriage with + Cornelia, traversed the sea with 500 galleys! Why did you come to see me, + and not rather leave me to my evil destiny, who have loaded you, too, with + such a weight of calamities? How happy had it been for me to have died + before I heard that Publius, my first husband, was killed by the + Parthians! How wise, had I followed him to the grave, as I once intended! + What have I lived for since, but to bring misfortunes upon Pompey the + Great?" + </p> + <p> + Such, we are assured, was the speech of Cornelia; and Pompey answered: + "Till this moment, Cornelia, you have experienced nothing but the smiles + of fortune; and it was she who deceived you, because she stayed with me + longer than she commonly does with her favorites. But, fated as we are, we + must bear this reverse, and make another trial of her. For it is no more + improbable that we may emerge from this poor condition and rise to great + things again, than it was that we should fall from great things into this + poor condition." + </p> + <p> + Cornelia then sent to the city for her most valuable movables and her + servants. + </p> + <p> + As soon as his wife and his friends were embarked, he set sail, and + continued his course without touching at any port, except for water and + provisions, till he came to Attalia, a city of Pamphylia. There he was + joined by some Cilician galleys; and beside picking up a number of + soldiers, he found in a little time sixty senators about him. When he was + informed that his fleet was still entire, and that Cato was gone to Africa + with a considerable body of men which he had collected after their flight, + he lamented to his friends his great error, in suffering himself to be + forced into an engagement on land, and making no use of those forces, in + which he was confessedly stronger; nor even taking care to fight near his + fleet, that, in case of his meeting with a check on land, he might have + been supplied from the sea with another army, capable of making head + against the enemy. Indeed, we find no greater mistake in Pompey's whole + conduct, nor a more remarkable instance of Caesar's generalship, than in + removing the scene of action to such a distance from the naval force. + </p> + <p> + However, as it was necessary to undertake something with the small means + he had left, he sent to some cities, and sailed to others himself, to + raise money, and to get a supply of men for his ships. But knowing the + extraordinary celerity of the enemy's motions, he was afraid he might be + beforehand with him, and seize all that he was preparing. He, therefore, + began to think of retiring to some asylum, and proposed the matter in + council. They could not think of any province in the Roman empire that + would afford a safe retreat; and when they cast their eyes on the foreign + kingdoms, Pompey mentioned Parthia as the most likely to receive and + protect them in their present weak condition, and afterwards to send them + back with a force sufficient to retrieve their affairs. Others were of + opinion it was proper to apply to Africa, and to Juba in particular. But + Theophanes of Lesbos observed it was madness to leave Egypt, which was + distant but three days' sail. Besides, Ptolemy, who was growing towards + manhood, had particular obligations to Pompey on his father's account. As + so it was determined that they should seek for refuge in Egypt. Being + informed that Ptolemy was with his army at Pelusium, where he was engaged + in war with his sister, he proceeded thither, and sent a messenger before + him to announce his arrival, and to entreat the king's protection. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy was very young, fourteen years of age, and Photinus, his prime + minister, called a council of his ablest officers; though their advice had + no more weight than he was pleased to allow it. He ordered each, however, + to give his opinion. But who can, without indignation, consider that the + fate of Pompey the Great was to be determined by the wretch Photinus, by + Theodotus, a man of Chios, who was hired to teach the prince rhetoric, and + by Achillas, an Egyptian? For among the king's chamberlains and tutors + these had the greatest influence over him and were the persons he most + consulted. Pompey lay at anchor at some distance from the place waiting + the determination of this respectable board; while he thought it beneath + him to be indebted to Caesar for his safety. The council were divided in + their opinions, some advising the prince to give him an honorable + reception, and others to send him an order to depart. But Theodotus, to + display his eloquence, insisted that both were wrong. "If you receive + him," said he, "you will have Caesar for your enemy, and Pompey for your + master. If you order him off, Pompey may one day revenge the affront and + Caesar resent your not having put him in his hands: the best method, + therefore, is to send for him and put him to death. By this means you will + do Caesar a favor, and have nothing to fear from Pompey." He added with a + smile, "Dead men do not bite." + </p> + <p> + This advice being approved of, the execution of it was committed to + Achillas. In consequence of which he took with him Septimius, who had + formerly been one of Pompey's officers, and Salvius, who had also acted + under him as a centurion, with three or four assistants, and made up to + Pompey's ship, where his principal friends and officers had assembled to + see how the affair went on. When they perceived there was nothing + magnificent in their reception, nor suitable to the hopes which Theophanes + had conceived, but that a few men only in a fishing-boat came to wait upon + them, such want of respect appeared a suspicious circumstance, and they + advised Pompey, while he was out of the reach of missive weapons, to get + out to the main sea. + </p> + <p> + Meantime, the boat approaching, Septimius spoke first, addressing Pompey + in Latin by the title of Imperator. Then Achillas saluted him in Greek, + and desired him to come into the boat, because the water was very shallow + towards the shore, and a galley must strike upon the sands. At the same + time they saw several of the king's ships getting ready, and the shore + covered with troops, so that if they would have changed their minds it was + then too late; besides, their distrust would have furnished the assassins + with a pretence for their injustice. He therefore embraced Cornelia, who + lamented his sad exit before it happened; and ordered two centurions, one + of his enfranchised slaves, named Philip, and a servant called Scenes, to + get into the boat before him. When Achillas had hold of his hand, and he + was going to step in himself, he turned to his wife and son, and repeated + that verse of Sophocles— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Seek'st thou a tyrant's door? + Then farewell freedom! + Though FREE as air before. +</pre> + <p> + These were the last words he spoke to them. + </p> + <p> + As there was a considerable distance between the galley and the shore, and + he observed that not a man in the boat showed him the least civility, or + even spoke to him, he looked at Septimius, and said, "Methinks, I remember + you to have been my fellow-soldier;" but he answered only with a nod, + without testifying any regard or friendship. A profound silence again + taking place, Pompey took out a paper, in which he had written a speech in + Greek that he designed to make to Ptolemy, and amused himself with reading + it. + </p> + <p> + When they approached the shore, Cornelia, with her friends in the galley, + watched the event with great anxiety. She was a little encouraged, when + she saw a number of the king's great officers coming down to the strand, + in all appearance to receive her husband and do him honor. But the moment + Pompey was taking hold of Philip's hand, to raise him with more ease, + Septimius came behind, and ran him through the body; after which Salvius + and Achillas also drew their swords. Pompey took his robe in both hands + and covered his face, and without saying or doing the least thing unworthy + of him, submitted to his fate, only uttering a groan, while they + despatched him with many blows. He was then just fifty-nine years old, for + he was killed the day after his birthday. + </p> + <p> + Cornelia, and her friends in the galley, upon seeing him murdered, gave a + shriek that was heard to the shore, and weighed anchor immediately. Their + flight was assisted by a brisk gale, as they got out more to sea; so that + the Egyptians gave up their design of pursuing them. The murderers having + cut off Pompey's head, threw the body out of the boat naked, and left it + exposed to all who were desirous of such a sight. Philip stayed till their + curiosity was satisfied, and then washed the body with sea-water, and + wrapped it in one of his own garments, because he had nothing else at + hand. The next thing was to look out for wood for the funeral pile; and + casting his eyes over the shore, he spied the old remains of a + fishing-boat; which, though not large, would make a sufficient pile for a + poor naked body that was not quite entire. + </p> + <p> + While he was collecting the pieces of plank and putting them together, an + old Roman, who had made some of his first campaigns under Pompey, came up + and said to Philip, "Who are you that are preparing the funeral of Pompey + the Great?" Philip answered, "I am his freedman." "But you shall not," + said the old Roman, "have this honor entirely to yourself. As a work of + piety offers itself, let me have a share in it; that I may not absolutely + repent my having passed so many years in a foreign country; but, to + compensate many misfortunes, may have the consolation of doing some of the + last honors to the greatest general Rome ever produced." In this manner + was the funeral of Pompey conducted. + </p> + <p> + Such was the end of Pompey the Great. As for Caesar, he arrived not long + after in Egypt, which he found in great disorder. When they came to + present the head, he turned from it, and the person that brought it, as a + sight of horror. He received the seal, but it was with tears. The device + was a lion holding a sword. The two assassins, Achillas and Photinus, he + put to death; and the king, being defeated in battle, perished in the + river. Theodotus, the rhetorician, escaped the vengeance of Caesar, by + leaving Egypt; but he wandered about a miserable fugitive, and was hated + wherever he went. At last, Marcus Brutus, who killed Caesar, found the + wretch, in his province of Asia, and put him to death, after having made + him suffer the most exquisite tortures. The ashes of Pompey were carried + to Cornelia, who buried them in his lands near Alba. (Langhorne has well + remarked that Pompey has, in all appearance, and in all consideration of + his character, had less justice done him by historians than any other man + of his time. His popular humanity, his military and political skills, his + prudence (which he sometimes unfortunately gave up), his natural bravery + and generosity, his conjugal virtues, which (though sometimes impeached) + were both naturally and morally great; his cause, which was certainly, in + its original interests, the cause of Rome; all these circumstances + entitled him to a more distinguished and more respectable character than + any of his historians have thought proper to afford him.) + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0018" id="link2H_4_0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE ENGINES OF ARCHIMEDES FROM THE LIFE OF MARCELLUS + </h2> + <p> + Marcellus now moved with his whole army to Syracuse, and, camping near the + wall, proceeded to attack the city both by land and by sea. The land + forces were conducted by Appius: Marcellus, with sixty galleys, each with + five rows of oars, furnished with all sorts of arms and missiles, and a + huge bridge of planks laid upon eight ships chained together, upon which + was carried the engine to cast stones and darts, assaulted the walls, + relying on the abundance and magnificence of his preparations, and on his + own previous glory; all which, however, were, it would seem, but trifles + for Archimedes and his machines. + </p> + <p> + These machines he had designed and contrived, not as matters of any + importance, but as mere amusements in geometry; in compliance with King + Hiero's desire and request, some little time before, that he should reduce + to practice some part of his admirable speculations in science, and by + accommodating the theoretical truth to sensation and ordinary use, bring + it more within the appreciation of people in general. Eudoxus and Archytas + had been the originators of this far-famed and highly prized art of + mechanics, which they employed as an elegant illustration of geometrical + truths, and as a means of sustaining experimentally, to the satisfaction + of the senses, conclusions too intricate for proof by words and diagrams. + As, for example, to solve the problem, so often required in constructing + geometrical figures, given the two extreme, to find the two mean lines of + a proportion, both these mathematicians had recourse to the aid of + instruments, adapting to their purpose certain curves and sections of + lines. (The 'mesolabes or mesalabium, was the name by which this + instrument was commonly known.) But what with Plato's indignation at it, + and his invectives against it as the mere corruption and annihilation of + the one good of geometry,—which was thus shamefully turning its back + upon the unembodied objects of pure intelligence to recur to sensation, + and to ask help (not to be obtained without haste subservience and + depravation) from matter; so it was that mechanics came to be separated + from geometry, and, being repudiated and neglected by philosophers, took + its place as a military art. Archimedes, however, in writing to King + Hiero, whose friend and near relation he was, had stated, that given the + force, any weight might be moved, and even boasted, we are told, relying + on the strength of demonstration, that if there were another earth, by + going into it he could remove this. Hiero being struck with amazement at + this, and entreating him to make good this problem by actual experiment, + and show some great weight moved by a small engine, he fixed accordingly + upon a ship of burden out of the king's arsenal, which could not be drawn + out of the dock without great labor and many men; and, loading her with + many passengers and a full freight, sitting himself the while far off, + with no great endeavor, but only holding the head of the pulley in his + hand and drawing the cord by degrees, he drew the ship in a straight line, + as smoothly and evenly as if she had been in the sea. The king, astonished + at this, and convinced of the power of the art, prevailed upon Archimedes + to make him engines accommodated to all the purposes, offensive and + defensive, of a siege. These the king himself never made use of, because + he spent almost all his life in a profound quiet, and the highest + influence. But the apparatus was, in a most opportune time, ready at hand + for the Syracusans, and with it also the engineer himself. + </p> + <p> + When, therefore, the Romans assaulted the walls in two places at once, + fear and consternation stupefied the Syracusans, believing that nothing + was able to resist that violence and those forces. But when Archimedes + began to ply his engines, he at once shot against the land forces all + sorts of missile weapons, and immense masses of stone that came down with + incredible noise and violence, against which no man could stand; for they + knocked down those upon whom they fell, in heaps, breaking all their ranks + and files. In the mean time huge poles thrust out from the walls over the + ships, sunk some by the great weights which they let down from on high + upon them; others they lifted up into the air by an iron hand or beak like + a crane's beak, and, when they had drawn them up by the prow, and set them + on end upon the poop, they plunged them to the bottom of the sea; or else + the ships, drawn by engines within, and whirled about, were dashed against + steep rocks that stood jutting out under the walls, with great destruction + of the soldiers that were aboard them. A ship was frequently lifted up to + a great height in the air (a dreadful thing to behold), and was rolled to + and fro, and kept swinging, until the mariners were all thrown out, when + at length it was dashed against the rocks, or let fall. In the meantime, + Marcellus himself brought up his engine upon the bridge of ships, which + was called "Sambuca," from some resemblance it had to an instrument of + music, but while it was as yet approaching the wall, there was discharged + at it a piece of rock of ten talents' weight, then a second and a third, + which, striking upon it with immense force and with a noise like thunder, + broke all its foundations to pieces, shook out all its fastenings, and + completely dislodged it from the bridge. So Marcellus, doubtful what + counsel to pursue, drew off his ships to a safer distance, and sounded a + retreat to his forces on land. They then took a resolution of coming up + under the walls, if it were possible, in the night; thinking that as + Archimedes used ropes stretched at length in playing his engines, the + soldiers would now be under the shot, and the darts would, for want of + sufficient distance to throw them, fly over their heads without effect. + But he, it appeared, had long before framed for such occasion engines + accommodated to any distance, and shorter weapons; and had made numerous + small openings in the walls, through which, with engines of a shorter + range, unexpected blows were inflicted on the assailants. Thus, when they + who thought to deceive the defenders came close up to the walls, instantly + a shower of darts and other missile weapons was again cast upon them. And + when stones came tumbling down perpendicularly upon their heads, and, as + it were, the whole wall shot out arrows at them, they retired. And now, + again, as they were going off, arrows and darts of a longer range + inflicted a great slaughter among them, and their ships were driven one + against another; while they themselves were not able to retaliate in any + way; for Archimedes had fixed most of his engines immediately under the + wall. The Romans, seeing that infinite mischiefs overwhelmed them from no + visible means, began to think they were fighting with the gods. + </p> + <p> + Yet Marcellus escaped unhurt, and, deriding his own artificers and + engineers, exclaimed "What! Must we give up fighting with this geometrical + Briareus, who plays pitch and toss with our ships, and, with the multitude + of darts which he showers at a single moment upon us, really outdoes the + hundred-handed giants of mythology?" The rest of the Syracusans were but + the body of Archimedes' designs, one soul moving and governing all; for, + laying aside all other arms, with his alone they infested the Romans, and + protected themselves. In fine, when such terror had seized upon the + Romans, that, if they did but see a little rope or a piece of wood from + the wall, they instantly cried out, "There it is again! Archimedes is + about to let fly another engine at us," and turned their backs and fled, + Marcellus desisted from conflicts and assaults, putting all his hope in a + long siege. Yet Archimedes possessed so high a spirit, so profound a soul, + and such treasures of scientific knowledge, that though these inventions + had now obtained him the renown of more than human sagacity, he yet would + not deign to leave behind him any commentary or writing on such subjects; + but, repudiating as sordid and ignoble the whole trade of engineering, and + every sort of art that lends itself to mere use and profit, he placed his + whole affection and ambition in those purer speculations where there can + be no reference to the vulgar needs of life; studies, the superiority of + which to all others is unquestioned, and in which the only doubt can be, + whether the beauty and grandeur of the subjects examined, or the precision + and cogency of the methods and means of proof, most deserve our + admiration. It is not possible to find in all geometry more difficult and + intricate questions, or more simple and lucid explanations. Some ascribe + this to his natural genius; while others think that incredible effort and + toil produced these apparently easy and unlabored results. No amount of + investigation of yours would succeed in attaining the proof, and yet, once + seen, you immediately believe you would have discovered it; by so smooth + and so rapid a path he leads you to the conclusion required. And thus it + ceases to be incredible that (as is commonly told of him), the charm of + his familiar and domestic Siren made him forget his food and neglect his + person, to such a degree that when he was occasionally carried by absolute + violence to bathe, or have his body anointed, he used to trace geometrical + figures in the ashes of the fire, and diagrams in the oil on his body, + being in a state of entire preoccupation, and, in the truest sense, + divinely possessed with his love and delight in science. His discoveries + were numerous and admirable; and he is said to have requested his friends + and relations that when he was dead, they would place over his tomb a + cylinder containing a sphere, inscribing it with the ratio of three to two + which the containing solid bears to the contained. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0019" id="link2H_4_0019"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + DESCRIPTION OF CLEOPATRA FROM THE LIFE OF ANTONY + </h2> + <p> + When Antony was making preparation for the Parthian war, he sent to + command Cleopatra to make her personal appearance in Cilicia, to answer + the accusation, that she had given great assistance, in the late wars, to + Cassius. Dellius, who was sent on this message, had no sooner seen her + face, and remarked her adroitness and subtlety in speech, than he felt + convinced that Antony would not so much as think of giving any molestation + to a woman like this; on the contrary, she would be the first in favor + with him. So he set himself at once to pay his court to the Egyptia, and + gave her his advice, "to go," in the Homeric style, to Cilicia, "in her + best attire," and bade her fear nothing from Antony, the gentlest and the + kindest of soldiers. She had some faith in the words of Dellius, but more + in her own attractions, which, having formerly recommended her to Caesar + and the young Gnaeus Pompey, she did not doubt might prove yet more + successful with Antony. Their acquaintance was with her when a girl, + young, and ignorant of the world, but she was to meet Antony in the time + of life when women's beauty is most splendid, and their intellects are in + full maturity, for she was now about twenty-eight years of age. She made + great preparation for her journey, of money, gifts, and ornaments of + value, such as so wealthy a kingdom might afford, but she brought with her + her surest hopes in her own magic arts and charms. + </p> + <p> + She received several letters, both from Antony and from his friends, to + summon her, but she paid no attention to these orders; and at last, as if + in mockery of them, she came sailing up the river Cydnus, in a barge with + gilded stern and outspread sails of purple, while oars of silver beat time + to the music of flutes and fifes and harps. She herself lay stretched + along under a canopy of cloth of gold, dressed as Venus in a picture, and + beautiful young boys, like painted Cupids, stood on each side to fan her. + Her maids were dressed like Sea Nymphs and Graces, some steering at the + rudder, some working at the ropes. The perfumes diffused themselves from + the vessel to the shore, which was covered with multitudes, part following + the galley up the river on either bank, part running out of the city to + see the sight. The market-place was quite emptied, and Antony at last was + left alone sitting upon the tribunal; while the word went through all the + multitude, that Venus had come to feast with Bacchus, for the common good + of Asia. On her arrival, Antony sent to invite her to supper. She thought + it fitter he should come to her; so, willing to show his good-humor and + courtesy, he complied, and went. He found the preparations to receive him + magnificent beyond expression, but nothing so admirable as the great + number of lights; for on a sudden there were let down all together so + great numbers of branches with lights in them so ingeniously disposed, + some in squares, and some in circles, that the whole thing was a spectacle + that has seldom been equaled for beauty. + </p> + <p> + The next day, Antony invited her to supper, and was very desirous to outdo + her as well in magnificence as contrivance; but he found he was altogether + beaten in both, and was so well convinced of it, that he was himself the + first to jest and mock at his poverty of wit, and his rustic awkwardness. + She, perceiving that his raillery was broad and gross, and savored more of + the soldier than the courtier, rejoined in the same taste, and fell into + it at once, without any sort of reluctance or reserve. For her actual + beauty, it is said, was not in itself so remarkable that none could be + compared with her, or that no one could see her without being struck by + it, but the contact of her presence, if you lived with her, was + irresistible; the attraction of her person, joining with the charm of her + conversation, and the character that attended all she said or did, was + something bewitching. It was a pleasure merely to hear the sound of her + voice, with which, like an instrument of many strings, she could pass from + one language to another; so that there were few of the barbarian nations + that she answered by an interpreter; to most of them she spoke herself, as + to the Aethiopians, Troglodytes, Hebrews, Arabians, Syrians, Medes, + Parthians, and many others, whose language she had learnt; which was all + the more surprising, because most of the kings her predecessors scarcely + gave themselves the trouble to acquire the Egyptian tongue, and several of + them quite abandoned the Macedonian. + </p> + <p> + Antony was so captivated by her that, leaving his troops assembled in + Mesopotamia, and ready to enter Syria, he suffered himself to be carried + away by her to Alexandria, there to keep holiday, like a boy, in play and + diversion, squandering and fooling away in enjoyments that most costly, as + Antiphon says, of all valuable, time. They had a sort of company, to which + they gave a particular name, calling it that of the "Inimitable Livers." + The members entertained one another daily in turn, with an extravagance of + expenditure beyond measure or belief. Philotas, a physician of Amphissa, + who was at that time a student of medicine in Alexandria, used to tell my + grandfather, Lamprias, that, having some acquaintance with one of the + royal cooks, he was invited by him, being a young man, to come and see the + sumptuous preparations for supper. So he was taken into the kitchen, where + he admired the prodigious variety of all things; but particularly, seeing + eight wild boars roasting whole, he exclaimed, "Surely you have a great + number of guests." The cook laughed at his simplicity, and told him there + were not more than twelve to sup, but that every dish was to be served up + just roasted to a turn, and if anything was but one minute ill-timed, it + was spoiled; "And," said he, "maybe Antony will sup just now, maybe not + this hour, maybe he will call for wine, or begin to talk, and will put it + off. So that," he continued, "not one, but many suppers must be had in + readiness, as it impossible to guess at his hour." + </p> + <p> + Plato admits four sorts of flattery, but Cleopatra had a thousand. Were + Antony serious or disposed to mirth, she had at any moment some new + delight or charm to meet his wishes. She played at dice with him, drank + with him, hunted with him; and when he exercised in arms, she was there to + see. At night she would go rambling with him to disturb and torment people + at their doors and windows, dressed like a servant-woman, for Antony also + went in servant's disguise, and from these expeditions he often came home + very scurvily answered, and sometimes even beaten severely, though most + people guessed who it was. It would be trifling without end to be + particular in his follies, but his fishing must not be forgotten. He went + out one day to angle with Cleopatra, and, being so unfortunate as to catch + nothing in the presence of the queen, he gave secret orders to the + fishermen to dive under water, and put fishes that had been already taken + upon his hooks; and these he drew so fast that the Egyptian perceived it. + But, feigning great admiration, she told everybody how dexterous Antony + was, and invited them next day to come and see him again. So, when a + number of them had come on board the fishing boats, as soon as he had let + down his hook, one of her servants was beforehand with his divers, and + fixed upon his hook a salted fish from Pontus. Antony, feeling his line + give, drew up the prey, and when, as may be imagined, great laughter + ensued, Cleopatra said, "Leave the fishing-rod, general, to us poor + sovereigns of Pharos and Canopus; your game is cities, provinces, and + kingdoms." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0020" id="link2H_4_0020"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ANECDOTES FROM THE LIFE OF AGESILAUS, KING OF SPARTA + </h2> + <p> + Agesilaus is said to have been a little man, of a contemptible presence; + but the goodness of his humor, and his constant cheerfulness and + playfulness of temper, always free from anything of moroseness or + haughtiness, made him more attractive, even to his old age, than the most + beautiful and youthful men of the nation. Theophrastus writes, that the + Ephors laid a fine upon Archidamus for marrying a little wife, "For," said + they, "she will bring us a race of kinglets, instead of kings." + </p> + <p> + Agesilaus was excessively fond of his children; and it is to him the story + belongs, that when they were little ones, he used to make a horse of a + stick, and ride with them; and being caught at this sport by a friend, he + desired him not to mention it, till he himself should be the father of + children. + </p> + <p> + When the Mantineans revolted from Thebes to Sparta, and Epaminondas + understood that Agesilaus had come to their assistance with a powerful + army, he privately in the night quitted his quarters at Tegea, and unknown + to the Mantineans, passing by Agesilaus, marched toward Sparta, insomuch + that he failed very little of taking it empty and unarmed. Agesilaus had + intelligence sent him by Euthynus, the Thespian, as Callisthenes says, but + Xenophon says by a Cretan, and immediately despatched a horseman to + Lacedaemon, to apprise them of it, and to let them know that he was + hastening to them. Shortly after his arrival the Thebans crossed the + Eurotas. They made an assault upon the town, and were received by + Agesilaus with great courage, and with exertions beyond what was to be + expected at his years. For he did not now fight with that caution and + cunning which he formerly made use of, but put all upon a desperate push; + which, though not his usual method, succeeded so well, that he rescued the + city out of the very hands of Epaminondas, and forced him to retire, and, + at the erection of a trophy, was able, in the presence of their wives and + children, to declare that the Lacedaemonians had nobly paid their debt to + their country, and particularly his son Archidamus, who had that day made + himself illustrious, both by his courage and agility of body, rapidly + passing about by the short lanes to every endangered point, and everywhere + maintaining the town against the enemy with but few to help him. Isadas, + too, the son of Phoebidas, must have been, I think, the admiration of the + enemy as well as of his friends. He was a youth of remarkable beauty and + stature, in the very flower of the most attractive time of life, when the + boy is just rising into the man. He had no arms upon him, and scarcely + clothes; he had just anointed himself at home, when, upon the alarm, + without further waiting, in that undress, he snatched a spear in one hand, + and a sword in the other, and broke his way through the combatants to the + enemies, striking at all he met. He received no wound, whether it were + that a special divine care rewarded his valor with an extraordinary + protection, or whether his shape being so large and beautiful, and his + dress so unusual, they thought him more than a man. The Ephors gave him a + garland; but as soon as they had done so, they fined him a thousand + drachma, for going out to battle unarmed. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0021" id="link2H_4_0021"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE BROTHERS FROM THE LIFE OF TIMOLEON + </h2> + <p> + Timoleon had an older brother, whose name was Timophanes, who was every + way unlike him, being indiscreet and rash and infected by the suggestions + of some friends and foreign soldiers, whom he kept always about him, with + a passion for absolute power. He seemed to have a certain force and + vehemence in all military service, and even to delight in dangers, and + thus he took much with the people, and was advanced to the highest charges + as a vigorous and effective warrior; in the obtaining of which offices and + promotions Timoleon much assisted him, helping to conceal or at least to + extenuate his errors, embellishing by his praise whatever was commendable + in him, and setting off his good qualities to the best advantage. + </p> + <p> + It happened once in the battle fought by the Corinthians against the + forces of Argos and Cleonae, that Timoleon served among the infantry, when + Timophanes, commanding their cavalry, was brought into extreme danger; for + his horse being wounded fell forward, and threw him headlong amidst the + enemies, while part of his companions dispersed at once in a panic, and + the small number that remained, bearing up against a great multitude, had + much ado to maintain any resistance. As soon, therefore, as Timoleon was + aware of the accident, he ran hastily to his brother's rescue, and + covering the fallen Timophanes with his buckler, after having received an + abundance of darts and several strokes by the sword upon his body and his + armor, he at length with much difficulty obliged the enemies to retire, + and brought off his brother alive and safe. But when the Corinthians, for + fear of losing their city a second time, as they had once before, by + admitting their allies, made a decree to maintain four hundred mercenaries + for its security, and gave Timophanes the command over them, he, + abandoning all regard for honor and equity, at once proceeded to put into + execution his plans for making himself absolute, and bringing the place + under his own power; and having cut off many principal citizens, + uncondemned and without trial, who were most likely to hinder his design, + he declared himself tyrant of Corinth; a procedure that infinitely + afflicted Timoleon, to whom the wickedness of such a brother appeared to + be his own reproach and calamity. He undertook to persuade him by + reasoning to desist from that wild and unhappy ambition, and bethink + himself how he could make the Corinthians some amends, and find out an + expedient to remedy the evils he had done them. When his single admonition + was rejected and contemned by him, he made a second attempt, taking with + him Aeschylus his kinsman, brother to the wife of Timophanes, and a + certain diviner, that was his friend, whom Theopompus in his history calls + Satyrus. This company coming to his brother, all three of them surrounded + and earnestly importuned him upon the same subject, that now at length he + would listen to reason and be of another mind. But when Timophanes began + first to laugh at the men's simplicity, and presently broke out into rage + and indignation against them, Timoleon stepped aside from him and stood + weeping with his face covered, while the other two, drawing out their + swords, despatched him in a moment. + </p> + <p> + When the rumor of this act was spread about, the better and more generous + of the Corinthians highly applauded Timoleon for the hatred of wrong and + the greatness of soul that had made him, though of a gentle disposition + and full of love and kindness for his family, think the obligations to his + country stronger than the ties of consanguinity, and prefer that which is + good and just before gain and interest and his own particular advantage. + For the same brother, who with so much bravery had been saved by him when + he fought valiantly in the cause of Corinth, he had now as nobly + sacrificed for enslaving her afterward by a base and treacherous + usurpation. But when he came to understand how heavily his mother took it, + and that she likewise uttered the saddest complaints and most terrible + imprecations against him, he went to satisfy and comfort her, but he found + that she would not endure so much as to look upon him, but caused her + doors to be shut that he might have no admission into her presence, and + with grief at this he grew so disordered in mind and disconsolate, that he + determined to put an end to his perplexity with his life, by abstaining + from all manner of sustenance. But through the care and diligence of his + friends, who were very persistent with him, and added force to their + entreaties, he promised at last that he would endure living, provided it + might be in solitude, and remote from company; so that, quitting all civil + transactions and commerce with the world, for a long while after his first + retirement he never came into Corinth, but wandered up and down the + fields, full of anxious and tormenting thoughts, and for almost twenty + years did not offer to concern himself in any honorable or public action. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0022" id="link2H_4_0022"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE WOUND OF PHILOPOEMEN + </h2> + <p> + Cleomenes, king of the Lacedaemonians, surprised Megalopolis by night, + forced the guards, broke in, and seized the market-place. + </p> + <p> + Awhile after, king Antigonus coming down to succor the Achaeans, they + marched with their united forces against Cleomenes; who, having seized the + avenues, lay advantageously posted on the hills of Sellasia. Antigonus + drew up close by him, with a resolution to force him in his strength. + Philopoemen, with his citizens, was that day placed among the horse, next + to the Illyrian foot, a numerous body of bold fighters, who completed the + line of battle, forming, together with the Achaeans, the reserve. Their + orders were to keep their ground, and not engage till they should see a + red coat lifted up on the point of a spear from the other wing, where the + king fought in person. The Achaeans obeyed their order and stood fast; but + the Illyrians were led on by their commanders to the attack. Euclidas, the + brother of Cleomenes; seeing the foot thus severed from the horse, + detached the best of his light-armed men, commanding them to wheel about + and charge the unprotected Illyrians in the rear. This charge put things + into confusion, and Philopoemen, considering that those light-armed men + could be easily repelled, went first to the king's officers to make them + sensible of what the occasion required. But when they did not mind what he + said, slighting him as a hare-brained fellow (as indeed he was not yet of + any repute sufficient to give credit to a proposal of such importance). he + charged with his own citizens, and at the first encounter disordered, and + soon after put the troops to flight with great slaughter. Then, to + encourage the king's army further, to bring them all upon the enemy while + he was in confusion, he quitted his horse, and fighting with extreme + difficulty in his heavy horseman's dress, in rough, uneven ground, full of + water-courses and hollows, had both his thighs struck through with a + thonged javelin. It was thrown with great force, so that the head came out + on the other side, and made a severe though not a mortal wound. There he + stood awhile, as if he had been shackled, unable to move. The fastening + which joined the thong to the javelin made it difficult to get it drawn + out, nor would anybody about him venture to do it. But the fight being now + at the hottest, and likely to be quickly decided, he was transported with + the desire of partaking in it, and struggled and strained so violently, + setting one leg forward, the other back, that at last he broke the shaft + in two, and thus got the pieces pulled out. Being in this manner set at + liberty he caught up his sword, and running through the midst of those who + were fighting in the first ranks, animated his men, and set them afire + with emulation. Antigonus, after the victory, asked the Macedonians, to + try them, how it happened that the cavalry had charged without orders + before the signal? and when they answered that they were forced to it + against their wills by a young man of Megalopolis, who had fallen in + before it was time, Antigonus replied, smiling, "That young man acted like + an experienced commander." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0023" id="link2H_4_0023"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + A ROMAN TRIUMPH FROM THE LIFE OF PAULUS AEMILIUS + </h2> + <p> + Paulus Aemilius, advanced in years, being nearly threescore, yet vigorous + in his own person, and rich in valiant sons and sons-in-law, besides a + great number of influential relations and friends, all of whom joined in + urging him to yield to the desires of the people, who called him to the + consulship. He at first manifested some shyness of the people, and + withdrew himself from their importunity, professing reluctance to hold + office; but, when they daily came to his doors, urging him to come forth + to the place of election, and pressing him with noise and clamor, he + acceded to their request. When he appeared amongst the candidates, it did + not look as if it were to sue for the consulship, but to bring victory and + success, that he came down into the Campus; with such hopes and such + gladness did they all receive him there, unanimously choosing him a second + time consul; nor would they suffer the lots to be cast, as was usual, to + determine which province should fall to his share, but immediately decreed + him the command of the Macedonian war. It is told, that when he had been + proclaimed general against Perseus, and was honorably accompanied home by + great numbers of people, he found his daughter Tertia, a very little girl, + weeping, and taking her to him asked her why she was crying. She, catching + him about the neck and kissing him, said, "O father, do you not know that + Perseus is dead?" meaning a little dog of that name who had been brought + up in the house with her; to which Aemilius replied, "Good fortune, my + daughter; I embrace the omen." Thus Cicero, the orator, relates in his + book on divination. + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + The triumph of Aemilius over Perseus was performed in this manner. + </p> + <p> + The people erected scaffolds in the Forum, in the circuses, as they call + their buildings, for horse-races, and in all other parts of the city where + they could best behold the show. The spectators were clad in white + garments; all the temples were open, and full of garlands and perfumes; + the ways were cleared and kept open by numerous officers, who drove back + all who crowded into or ran across the main avenue. This triumph lasted + three days. On the first, which was scarcely long enough for the sight, + were to be seen the statues, pictures, and colossal images, which were + taken from the enemy, drawn upon two hundred and fifty chariots. On the + second, was carried in a great many wagons the finest and richest armor of + the Macedonians, both of brass and steel, all newly polished and + glittering; the pieces of which were piled up and arranged purposely with + the greatest art, so as to seem to be tumbled in heaps carelessly and by + chance; helmets were thrown upon shields, coats of mail upon greaves; + Cretan targets, and Thracian bucklers and quivers of arrows, lay huddled + amongst horses' bits, and through these there appeared the points of naked + swords, intermixed with long Macedonian sarissas. All these arms were + fastened together with just so much looseness that they struck against one + another as they were drawn along, and made a harsh and alarming noise, so + that, even as spoils of a conquered enemy, they could not be beheld + without dread. After these wagons loaded with armor, there followed three + thousand men who carried the silver that was coined, in seven hundred and + fifty vessels, each of which weighed three talents, and was carried by + four men. Others brought silver bowls and goblets and cups, all disposed + in such order as to make the best show, and all curious as well for their + size as the solidity of their embossed work. + </p> + <p> + On the third day, early in the morning, first came the trumpeters, who did + not sound as they were wont in a procession or solemn entry, but such a + charge as the Romans use when they encourage the soldiers to fight. Next + followed young men wearing frocks with ornamented borders, who led to the + sacrifice a hundred and twenty stalled oxen, with their horns gilded, and + their heads adorned with ribbons and garlands; and with these were boys + that carried basins for libation, of silver and gold. After this was + brought the gold coin, which was divided into vessels that weighed three + talents, like those that contained the silver; they were in number + seventy-seven. These were followed by those that brought the consecrated + bowl which Aemilius had caused to be made, that weighed ten talents, and + was set with precious stones. Then were exposed to view the cups of + Antigonus and Seleucus, and those of the Thericlean make (Thericles, + according to the more probable supposition, was a Corinthian potter: the + first maker of a particular kind of cup, which long continued to bear his + name.) and all the gold plate that was used at Perseus' table. Next to + these came Perseus' chariot, in which his armor was placed, and on that + his diadem. And, after a little intermission, the king's children were led + captives, and with them a train of their attendants, masters, and + teachers, all shedding tears, and stretching out their hands to the + spectators, and making the children themselves also beg and entreat their + compassion. There were two sons and a daughter whose tender age made them + but little sensible of the greatness of their misery, which very + insensibility of their condition rendered it the more deplorable; insomuch + that Perseus himself was scarcely regarded as he went along, whilst pity + fixed the eyes of the Romans upon the infants; many of them could not + forbear tears, and all beheld the sight with a mixture of sorrow and + pleasure, until the children had passed. + </p> + <p> + After his children and their attendants came Perseus himself, clad all in + black, and wearing the boots of his country; and looking like one + altogether stunned and deprived of reason, through the greatness of his + misfortunes. Next followed a great company of his friends and familiars, + whose countenances were disfigured with grief, and who let the spectators + see, by their tears and their continual looking upon Perseus, that it was + his fortune they so much lamented, and that they were regardless of their + own. Perseus sent to Aemilius to entreat that he might not be led in pomp, + but be left out of the triumph; who, deriding, as was but just, his + cowardice and fondness of life, sent him this answer, that as for that, it + had been before, and was now, in his own power; giving him to understand + that the disgrace could be avoided by death; which the faint-hearted man + not having the spirit for, and made effeminate by I know not what hopes, + allowed himself to appear as a part of his own spoils. After these were + carried four hundred crowns, all made of gold, sent from the cities by + their respective deputations to Aemilius, in honor of his victory. Then he + himself came, seated on a chariot magnificently adorned (a man well worthy + to be looked at, even without these ensigns of power), dressed in a robe + of purple, interwoven with gold, and holding a laurel branch in his right + hand. All the army, in like manner, with boughs of laurel in their hands, + divided into their bands and companies, followed the chariot of their + commander; some singing verses, according to the usual custom, mingled + with raillery; others, songs of triumph, and the praise of Aemilius's + deeds; who, indeed, was admired and accounted happy by all men, and + unenvied by every one that was good; except so far as it seems the + province of some god to lessen that happiness which is too great and + inordinate, and so to mingle the affairs of human life that no one should + be entirely free from calamities; but, as we read in Homer*, only those + should think themselves truly blessed to whom fortune has given an equal + share of good and evil. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "Grief is useless; cease to lament," Achilles to Priam, + his suppliant for the body of Hecor. "For thus have the gods + appointed for mortal men; that they should live in vexation, + while the gods themselves are untroubled. Two vessels are + set upon the threshold of Zeus, of the gifts that he + dispenses; one of evil things, the other of good; he who + receives from both at the hand of thundering Zeus, meets at + one time with evil, and at another with good; he who + receives from only one, is a miserable wretch." +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0024" id="link2H_4_0024"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE NOBLE CHARACTER OF CAIUS FABRICIUS FROM THE LIFE OF PYRRHUS + </h2> + <p> + Caius Fabricius, a man of highest consideration among the Romans as an + honest man and a good soldier, but extremely poor, went upon an embassy to + Pyrrhus to treat about prisoners that had been taken. Pyrrhus received him + with much kindness, and privately would have persuaded him to accept of + his gold, not for any evil purpose, but as a mark of respect and + hospitable kindness. Upon Fabricius's refusal, he pressed him no further, + but the next day, having a mind to discompose him, as he had never seen an + elephant before, he commanded one of the largest, completely armed, to be + placed behind the hangings, as they were talking together. This being + done, at a given signal the hanging was drawn aside, and the elephant, + raising his trunk over the head of Fabricius, made a horrid and ugly + noise. He gently turned about and, smiling, said to Pyrrhus, "neither your + money yesterday, nor this beast today make any impression upon me." At + supper, amongst all sorts of things that were discoursed of, but more + particularly Greece and the philosophers there, Cineas, by accident, had + occasion to speak of Epicurus, and explained the opinions his followers + hold about the gods and the commonwealth, and the object of life, who + place the chief happiness of man in pleasure, and decline public affairs + as an injury and disturbance of a happy life, and remove the gods afar off + both from kindness or anger, or any concern for us at all, to a life + wholly without business and flowing in pleasures. Before he had done + speaking, Fabricius cried out to Pyrrhus, "O Hercules! may Pyrrhus and the + Samnites entertain themselves with this sort of opinions as long as they + are at war with us." Pyrrhus, admiring the wisdom and gravity of the man, + was the more transported with desire to make friendship instead of war + with the city, and entreated him, personally, after the peace should be + concluded, to accept of living with him as the chief of his ministers and + generals. Fabricius answered quietly, "Sir, this will not be for your + advantage, for they who now honor and admire you, when they have had + experience of me, will rather choose to be governed by me, than by you." + And Pyrrhus received his answer without any resentment or tyrannic + passion; nay, among his friends he highly commended the great mind of + Fabricius, and intrusted the prisoners to him alone, on condition that if + the senate should not vote a peace, after they had conversed with their + friends and celebrated the festival of Saturn, they should be remanded. + And, accordingly, they were sent back after the holidays; death being + decreed for any that stayed behind. + </p> + <p> + After this, when Fabricius had taken the consulate, a person came with a + letter to the camp written by the king's principal physician, offering to + take Pyrrhus off by poison, and so end the war without further hazard to + the Romans, if he might have a reward proportional to his service. + Fabricius, despising the villany of the man, and disposing the other + consul to the same opinion, sent despatches immediately to Pyrrhus to + caution him against the treason. His letter was to this effect: "Caius + Fabricius and Quintus Aemilius, consuls of the Romans, to Pyrrhus the + king, health. You seem to have made a bad judgement both of your friends + and your enemies; you will understand by reading this letter sent to us, + that you are at war with honest men, and trust villains and knaves. Nor do + we disclose this out of any favor to you, but lest your ruin might bring a + reproach upon us, as if we had ended the war by treachery because not able + to do it by force." When Pyrrhus had read the letter, and made inquiry + into the treason, he punished the physician, and as an acknowledgement to + the Romans sent to Rome the prisoners without ransom. But they, regarding + it as at once too great a kindness from an enemy, and too great a reward + for not doing a mean act to accept their prisoners so, released in return + an equal number of the Tarentines and Samnites, but would admit of no + debate of alliance or peace until Pyrrhus had removed his arms and forces + out of Italy, and sailed back to Epirus with the same ships that brought + him over. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0025" id="link2H_4_0025"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + FROM THE LIFE OF QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS + </h2> + <p> + Hannibal was within five miles of Tarentum, when he was informed that the + town had been taken by Fabius. He said openly, "Rome, then, has also got a + Hannibal; as we won Tarentum, so have we lost it." And, in private with + some of his confidants, he told them, for the first time, that he always + thought it difficult, but now he held it impossible, with the forces he + then had, to master Italy. + </p> + <p> + Upon this success, Fabius had a triumph decreed him at Rome, much more + splendid than his first; they looked upon him now as a champion who had + learned to cope with his antagonist, and could now easily foil his arts + and prove his best skill ineffectual. And, indeed the army of Hannibal was + at this time partly worn out with continual action, and partly weakened + and become dissolute with over abundance and luxury. Marcus Livius, who + was governor of Tarentum when it was betrayed to Hannibal, and had then + retired into the citadel, which he kept till the town was retaken, was + annoyed at these honors and distinctions, and, on one occasion, openly + declared in the senate, that by his resistance, more than by any actions + of Fabius, Tarentum had been recovered; on which Fabius laughingly + replied: "What you say is very true, for if Marcus Livius had not lost + Tarentum, Fabius Maximus had never recovered it." The people, among other + marks of gratitude, gave his son the consulship of the next year; shortly + after whose entrance upon his office, there being some business on foot + about provision for the war, his father, either on account of age and + infirmity, or perhaps out of design to try his son, came up to him on + horseback. While he was still at a distance, the young consul observed it, + and bade one of his lictors command his father to alight, and tell him + that, if he had any business with the consul, he should come on foot. The + bystanders seemed offended at the imperiousness of the son towards a + father so venerable for his age and his authority, and turned their eyes + in silence towards Fabius. He, however, instantly alighted from his horse, + and with open arms came up, almost running, and embracing him said, "Yes, + my son, you do well, and understand what authority you have received, and + over whom you are to use it. This was the way by which we and our + forefathers advanced the dignity of Rome, preferring ever her honor and + service to our own fathers and children." + </p> + <p> + And, in fact, it is told that the great-grandfather of Fabius, who was + undoubtedly the greatest man of Rome in his time, both in reputation and + authority, who had been five times consul, and had been honored with + several triumphs for victories obtained by him, took pleasure in serving + as lieutenant under his own son, when he went as consul to his command. + And when afterwards his son had a triumph bestowed upon him for his good + service, the old man followed his triumphant chariot, on horseback, as one + of his attendants; and made it his glory, that while he really was, and + was acknowledged to be, the greatest man in Rome, and held a father's full + power over his son, he yet submitted himself to the law and the + magistrate. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0026" id="link2H_4_0026"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE CRUELTY OF LUCIUS CORNELIUS SYLLA + </h2> + <p> + Sylla's general personal appearance may be known by his statues; only his + blue eyes, of themselves extremely keen and glaring, were rendered all the + more forbidding and terrible by the complexion of his face, in which white + was mixed with rough blotches of fiery red. Hence, it is said, he was + surnamed Sylla, and in allusion to it one of the scurrilous jesters at + Athens made the verse upon him, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Sylla is a mulberry sprinkled o'er with meal. +</pre> + <p> + Sylla being wholly bent upon slaughter, filled the city with executions + without number or limit, many wholly uninterested persons falling a + sacrifice to private enmity, through his permission and indulgence to his + friends. At last Caius Metellus, one of the younger men, made bold in the + senate to ask him what end there was of these evils, and at what point he + might be expected to stop? "We do ask you," said he, "to pardon any whom + you have resolved to destroy, but to free from doubt those whom you are + pleased to save." Sylla answering, that he knew not as yet whom to spare, + he asked: "Will you then tell us whom you will punish?" This Sylla said he + would do. These last words, some authors say, were spoken not by Metellus, + but by Afidius, one of Sylla's fawning companions. Immediately upon this, + without communicating with any magistrates, Sylla proscribed eighty + persons, and notwithstanding the general indignation, after one day's + respite, he posted two hundred and twenty more, and on the third again, as + many. In an address to the people on this occasion, he told them he had + put up as many names as he could think of; those which had escaped his + memory, he would publish at a future time. He issued an edict likewise, + making death the punishment of humanity, proscribing any who should dare + to receive and cherish a proscribed person, without exception to brother, + son, or parents. And to him who should slay any one proscribed person, he + ordained two talents' reward, even were it a slave who had killed his + master, or a son his father. And what was thought most unjust of all, he + caused the attainder to pass upon their sons, and sons' sons, and made + open sale of all their property. Nor did the proscription prevail only at + Rome, but throughout all the cities of Italy the effusion of blood was + such that neither sanctuary of the gods nor hearth of hospitality nor + ancestral home escaped. Men were butchered in the embraces of their wives, + children in the arms of their mothers. Those who perished through public + animosity, or private enmity, were nothing in comparison to the numbers of + those who suffered for their riches. Even the murderers began to say, that + "his fine house killed this man, a garden that, a third, his hot baths." + Quintus Aurelius, a quiet, peaceable man, and one who thought all his part + in the common calamity consisted in condoling with the misfortunes of + others, coming into the forum to read the list, and finding himself among + the proscribed, cried out, "Woe is me, my Alban farm has informed against + me." He had not gone far, before he was despatched by a ruffian, sent on + that errand. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime, Marius, on the point of being taken, killed himself; and + Sylla, coming to Praeneste, at first proceeded judicially against each + particular person, till at last, finding it a work of too much time, he + cooped them up together in one place, to the number of twelve thousand + men, and gave order for the execution of them all, save his own host (The + friend, that is, with whom he always stayed when he happened to be at + Praeneste, his 'xenos;' a relationship much regarded to the Greek and + Roman world) alone excepted. But he, brave man, telling him he could not + accept the obligation of life from the hands of one who had been the ruin + of his country, went in among the rest, and submitted willingly to the + stroke. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0027" id="link2H_4_0027"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE LUXURY OF LUCULLUS + </h2> + <p> + Lucullus' life, like the Old comedy, presents us at the commencement with + acts of policy and of war, and at the end offers nothing but good eating + and drinking, feastings, and revelings, and mere play. For I give no + higher name to his sumptuous buildings, porticos and baths, still less to + his paintings and sculptures, and all his industry about these + curiosities, which he collected with vast expense, lavishly bestowing all + the wealth and treasure which he got in the war upon them, insomuch that + even now, with all the advance of luxury, the Lucullean gardens are + counted the noblest the emperor has. Tubero, the stoic, when he saw his + buildings at Naples, where he suspended the hills upon vast tunnels, + brought in the sea for moats and fish-ponds round his house, and + pleasure-houses in the waters, called him Xerxes in a gown. He had also + fine seats in Tusculum, belvederes, and large open balconies for men's + apartments, and porticos to walk in, where Pompey coming to see him, + blamed him for making a house which would be pleasant in summer, but + uninhabitable in winter; whom he answered with a smile, "You think me, + then, less provident than cranes and storks, not to change my home with + the season." When a praetor, with great expense and pains, was preparing a + spectacle for the people, and asked him to lend him some purple robes for + the performers in a chorus, he told him he would go home and see, and if + he had any, would let him take them; and the next day asking how many he + wanted, and being told that a hundred would suffice, bade him take twice + as many: on which the poet Horace observes, that a house is indeed a poor + one, where the valuables unseen and unthought of do not exceed all those + that meet the eye. + </p> + <p> + Lucullus' daily entertainments were ostentatiously extravagant, not only + in purple coverlets, and plate adorned with precious stones, and dancings, + and interludes, but with the greatest diversity of dishes and the most + elaborate cookery, for the vulgar to admire and envy. It was a happy + thought of Pompey in his sickness, when his physician prescribed a thrush + for his dinner, and his servants told him that in summer time thrushes + were not to be found anywhere but in Lucullus' fattening coops, that he + would not suffer them to fetch one thence, but observed to his physician, + "So if Lucullus had not been an epicure, Pompey had not lived," and + ordered something else that could easily be got to be prepared for him. + Cato was his friend and connection, but, nevertheless, so hated his life + and habits, that when a young man in the senate made a long and tedious + speech in praise of frugality and temperance, Cato got up and said, "How + long do you mean to go making money like Crassus, living like Lucullus, + and talking like Cato?" + </p> + <p> + It is plain from the anecdotes on record of him, that Lucullus was not + only pleased with, but even gloried in his way of living. For he is said + to have feasted several Greeks upon their coming to Rome day after day, + who, out of a true Grecian principle, being ashamed, and declining the + invitation, where so great an expense was every day incurred for them, he + with a smile said to them, "Some of this, indeed, my Grecian friends, is + for your sakes, but more for that of Lucullus." Once when he supped alone, + there being only one course, and that but moderately furnished, he called + his steward and reproved him, who, professing to have supposed that there + would be no need of any great entertainment, when nobody was invited, was + answered, "What, did you not know, then, that today Lucullus was to dine + with Lucullus?" This being much spoken of about the city, Cicero and + Pompey one day met him loitering in the forum, the former his intimate + friend and familiar, and, though there had been some ill-will between + Pompey and him about the command in the war, still they used to see each + other and converse on easy terms together. Cicero accordingly saluted him, + and asked him whether today was a good time for asking a favor of him, and + on his answering, "Very much so," and begging to hear what it was, Cicero + said, "then we should like to dine with you today, just on the dinner that + is prepared for yourself." Lucullus being surprised, and requesting a + day's time, they refused to grant it, and would not allow him to talk with + his servants, for fear he should give orders for more than was appointed + before. But this they consented to, that before their faces he might tell + his servant, that today he would sup in "the Apollo" (for so one of his + best dining-rooms was called), and by this evasion he outwitted his + guests. For every room, as it seems, had its own assessment of + expenditure, dinner at such a price, and all else in accordance; so that + the servants, on knowing where he would dine, knew also how much was to be + expended, and in what style and form dinner was to be served. The expense + for the Apollo was fifty thousand drachmas, and such a sum being that day + laid out, the greatness of the cost did not so much amaze Pompey and + Cicero, as the rapidity of the outlay. One might believe that Lucullus + thought his money really captive and barbarian, so wantonly and + contumeliously did he treat it. + </p> + <p> + His furnishing of a library, however, deserves praise and record, for he + collected very many choice manuscripts; and the use they were put to was + even more magnificent than the purchase, the library being always open, + and the walks and reading rooms about it free to all Greeks, whose delight + it was to leave their other occupations and hasten thither as to the + habitation of the Muses, there walking about, and diverting one another. + He himself often passed his hours there, disputing with the learned in the + walks, and giving his advice to statesmen who required it, insomuch that + his house was altogether a home, and in a manner, a Greek prytaneum for + those that visited Rome. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0028" id="link2H_4_0028"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + FROM THE LIFE OF SERTORIUS + </h2> + <p> + (The Roman who endeavored to establish a separate government for himself + in Spain.) + </p> + <p> + Sertorius was highly honored for his introducing discipline and good order + among the Spaniards, for he altered their furious and savage manner of + fighting, and brought them to make use of the Roman armor, taught them to + keep their ranks, and observe signals and watchwords; and out of a + confused horde of thieves and robbers, he constituted a regular, + well-disciplined army. He bestowed silver and gold upon them liberally to + gild and adorn their helmets, he had their shields worked with various + figures and designs, he brought them into the mode of wearing flowered and + embroidered cloaks and coats, and by supplying money for these purposes, + and joining with them in all improvements, he won the hearts of all. That, + however, which delighted them most, was the care that he took of their + children. He sent for all the boys of noblest parentage out of all their + tribes, and placed them in the great city of Osca, where he appointed + masters to instruct them in the Grecian and Roman learning, that when they + came to be men, they might, as he professed, be fitted to share with him + in authority, and in conducting the government, although under this + pretext he really made them hostages. However, their fathers were + wonderfully pleased to see their children going daily to the schools in + good order, handsomely dressed in gowns edged with purple, and that + Sertorius paid for their lessons, examined them often, distributed rewards + to the most deserving, and gave them the golden bosses to hang around + their necks, which the Romans called "bullae." + </p> + <p> + All the cities on this side of the river Ebro finally united their forces + under his command, and his army grew very great, for they flocked together + and flowed in upon him from all quarters. But when they continually cried + out to attack the enemy, and were impatient of delay, their inexperienced, + disorderly rashness caused Sertorius much trouble, who at first strove to + restrain them with reason and good counsel, but when he perceived them + refractory and unseasonably violent, he gave way to their impetuous + desires, and permitted them to engage with the enemy, in such a way that + they might be repulsed, yet not totally routed, and so become more + obedient to his commands for the future. This happening as he had + anticipated, he soon rescued them, and brought them safe into his camp. + And after a few days, being willing to encourage them again, when he had + called all his army together, he caused two horses to be brought into the + field, one an old, feeble, lean animal, the other a lusty, strong horse, + with a remarkably thick and long tail. Near the lean one he placed a tall, + strong man, and near the strong, young horse a weak, despicable-looking + fellow; and at a given signal the strong man took hold of the weak horse's + tail with both his hands, and drew it to him with his whole force, as if + he would pull it off; the other, the weak man, in the meantime, set to + work to pluck off hair by hair the great horse's tail. And when the strong + man had given trouble enough to himself in vain, and sufficient diversion + to the company, and had abandoned his attempt, whilst the weak, pitiful + fellow in a short time and with little pains had left not a hair on the + great horse's tail, Sertorius arose and said to his army, "You see, + fellow-soldiers, that perseverance is more prevailing than violence, and + that many things which cannot be overcome when they are together, yield + readily when taken little by little. Assiduity and persistence are + irresistible, and in time overthrow and destroy the greatest powers. Time + being the favorable friend and assistant of those who use their judgment + to await his occasions, and the destructive enemy of those who are + unseasonably urging and pressing forward." + </p> + <p> + Of all his remarkable exploits, none raised greater admiration than that + which he put in practice against the Characitanians. These are a people + beyond the river Tagus, who inhabit neither cities nor towns, but live in + a vast, high hill, within the deep dens and caves of the rocks, the mouths + of which all open towards the north. The country below is of a soil + resembling a light clay, so loose as easily to break into powder, and is + not firm enough to bear any one that treads upon it, and if you touch it + in the least, it flies about like ashes or unslaked lime. In any danger of + war, these people enter their caves, and carrying in their booty and prey + along with them, stay quietly within, secure from every attack. And when + Sertorius, leaving Metellus some distance off, had placed his camp near + this hill, they slighted and despised him, imagining that he retired into + these parts to escape being overthrown by the Romans. And whether out of + anger and resentment, or out of his unwillingness to be thought to fly + from his enemies, early in the morning he rode up to view the situation of + the place. But finding there was no way to come at it, as he rode about, + threatening them in vain and disconcerted, he took notice that the wind + raised the dust and carried it up towards the caves of the Characitanians, + and the northerly wind, which some call Caecias, prevailing most in those + parts, coming up out of moist plains or mountains covered with snow, at + this particular time, in the heat of summer, being further supplied and + increased by the melting of the ice in the northern regions, blew a + delightful, fresh gale, cooling and refreshing the Characitanians and + their cattle all the day long. Sertorius, considering well all + circumstances in which either the information of the inhabitants, or his + own experience had instructed him, commanded his soldiers to shovel up a + great quantity of this light, dusty earth, to heap it together, and make a + mound of it over against the hill in which these barbarous people lived, + who, imagining that all this preparation was for raising a mound to get at + them, only mocked and laughed at it. However, he continued the work till + the evening, and brought his soldiers back into their camp. The next + morning a gentle breeze at first arose, and moved the lightest parts of + the earth, and dispersed it about as the chaff before the wind; but when + the sun got higher, and the strong, northerly wind had covered the hills + with the dust, the soldiers came and turned this mound of earth over and + over, and broke the hard clods in pieces, whilst others on horseback rode + through it backward and forward, and raised a cloud of dust into the air; + then with the wind the whole of it was carried away and blown into the + dwellings of the Characitanians, all lying open to the north. And there + being no other vent or breathing-place than that through which the Caecias + rushed in upon them, it quickly blinded their eyes, and filled their + lungs, and all but choked them, whilst they strove to draw in the rough + air mingled with dust and powdered earth. Nor were they able, with all + they could do, to hold out more than two days, but surrendered on the + third, adding, by their defeat, not so much to the power of Sertorius, as + to his renown, in proving that he was able to conquer places by art, which + were impregnable by the force of arms. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0029" id="link2H_4_0029"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE SCROLL-FROM THE LIFE OF LYSANDER + </h2> + <p> + The scroll is made up thus: when the Ephors send an admiral or general on + his way, they take two round pieces of wood, both exactly of a length and + thickness, and cut even to one another; they keep one themselves, and the + other the give to the person they send forth; and these pieces of wood + they call Scytales. When, therefore, they have occasion to communicate any + secret or important matter, making a scroll of parchment long and narrow + like a leathern thong, they roll it about their own staff of wood, leaving + no space void between, but covering the surface of the staff with the + scroll all over. When they have done this, they write what they please on + the scroll, as it is wrapped about the staff; and when they have written, + they take off the scroll, and send it to the general without the wood. He, + when he has received it, can read nothing of the writing, because the + words and letters are not connected, but all broken up; but taking his own + staff, he winds the slip of the scroll about it, so that this folding, + restoring all the parts into the same order that they were in before, and + putting what comes first into connection with what follows, brings the + whole consecutive contents to view round the outside. And this scroll is + called a <i>staff</i>, after the name of the wood, as a thing measured is + by the name of the measure. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0030" id="link2H_4_0030"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE CHARACTER OF MARCUS CATO + </h2> + <p> + Marcus Cato grew so powerful by his eloquence that he was commonly called + the Roman Demosthenes; but his manner of life was yet more famous and + talked of. For oratorical skill was, as an accomplishment, commonly + studied and sought after by all young men; but he was a rare man who would + cultivate the old habits of bodily labor, or prefer a light supper, and a + breakfast which never saw the fire; or be in love with poor clothes and a + homely lodging, or could set his ambition rather on doing without luxuries + than on possessing them. For now the state, unable to keep its purity by + reason of its greatness, and having so many affairs, and people from all + parts under its government, was fain to admit many mixed customs, and new + examples of living. With reason, therefore, everybody admired Cato, when + they saw others sink under labors, and grow effeminate by pleasures, but + beheld him unconquered by either; and that, too, not only when he was + young and desirous of honor, but also when old and gray-headed, after a + consulship and triumph; like some famous victor in the games, persevering + in his exercise and maintaining his character to the very last. He himself + says, that he never wore a suit of clothes which cost more than a hundred + drachmas; and that, when he was general and consul, he drank the same wine + which his workmen did; and that the meat or fish which was bought in the + market for his dinner, did not cost above thirty 'asses.' All which was + for the sake of the commonwealth, that his body might be the hardier for + the war. Having a piece of embroidered Babylonian tapestry left him, he + sold it; because none of his farm-houses were so much as plastered. Nor + did he ever buy a slave for above fifteen hundred drachmas; as he did not + seek for effeminate and handsome ones, but able, sturdy workmen, + horse-keepers, and cow-herds; and these he thought ought to be sold again, + when they grew old, and no useless servants fed in a house. In short, he + reckoned nothing a good bargain, which was superfluous; but whatever it + was, though sold for a farthing, he would think it a great price, if you + had no need of it. + </p> + <p> + Yet, in my judgment, it marks an over-rigid temper for a man to take the + work out of his servants as out of brute beasts, turning them off and + selling them in their old age. A kind-natured man will keep even worn-out + horses and dogs, and not only take care of them when they are foals and + whelps, but also when they are grown old. The Athenians, when they built + their Hecatompedon,* (*The Parthenon; built on the site of an older temple + which had borne the name of Hecatompedon, or a "hundred feet long." The + name was retained for the new building.) turned those mules loose to feed + freely, which they had observed to have done the hardest labor. One of + these came once of itself to offer its service, and ran along with, nay, + went before, the teams which drew the wagons up to the Acropolis, as if it + would incite and encourage them to draw more stoutly; upon which a vote + was passed that the creature should be kept at the public charge till it + died. The graves of Cimon's horses, which thrice won the Olympian races, + are yet to be seen close by his own monument. Old Xanthippus, too, the + father of Pericles, entombed his dogs which swam after his galley to + Salamis, when the people fled from Athens, on the top of a cliff, which + they call the dogs' tomb to this day. + </p> + <p> + For his general temperance, however, and self-control, Cato really + deserves the highest admiration. For when he commanded the army, he never + took for himself, and those that belonged to him, more than three bushels + of wheat for a month, and somewhat less than a bushel and a half a day of + barley for his baggage-cattle. And when he entered upon the government of + Sardinia, where his predecessors had been used to require tents, bedding, + and clothes upon the public account, and to charge the state heavily with + the cost of provisions and entertainments for a great train of servants + and friends, the difference he showed in his economy was something + incredible. There was nothing of any sort for which he put the public to + expense; he would walk, instead of taking a carriage to visit the cities, + with only one of the common town officers, who carried his dress, and a + cup to offer libation with. Yet on the other hand, he showed most + inflexible severity and strictness, in what related to public justice, and + was rigorous, and precise in what concerned the ordinances of the + commonwealth; so that the Roman government never seemed more terrible, nor + yet more mild, than under his administration. + </p> + <p> + His very manner of speaking seemed to have such a kind of idea with it; + for it was courteous, and yet forcible; pleasant, yet overwhelming; + facetious, yet austere; sententious, and yet vehement: like Socrates, in + the description of Plato, who seemed outwardly to those about him to be + but a simple, talkative, blunt fellow; whilst at the bottom he was full of + such gravity and matter, as would even move tears, and touch the very + hearts of his auditors. Reproving on one occasion the sumptuous habits of + the Romans, he said: "It is hard to preserve a city, where a fish is sold + for more than an ox." He had a saying, also, that the Roman people were + like sheep; for they, when single, do not obey, but when altogether in a + flock, they follow their leaders: "So you," said he, "when you have got + together in a body let yourselves be guided by those whom singly you would + never think of being advised by." + </p> + <p> + The Romans having sent three ambassadors to Bithnia, of whom one was + gouty, another had his skull trepanned, and the other seemed little better + than a fool; Cato, laughing, gave out that the Romans had sent an embassy, + which had neither feet, head, nor heart.* (*Both the Romans and the Greeks + conceived of the region of the heart, the chest, as the seat not of + emotion, nor of will and courage merely, but more especially of judgment, + deliberation, and practical sense. Thus the Greeks derived their word for + moral wisdom from Phren, the diaphragm, and the Romans by 'egregie + cordatus homo' meant a wise statesman.) + </p> + <p> + Cato also said that in his whole life he most repented of three things; + one was, that he had trusted a secret to a woman; another that he went by + water when he might have gone by land; the third, that he had remained one + whole day without doing any business of moment. + </p> + <p> + He was a good father, an excellent husband to his wife, and an + extraordinary economist; and as he did not manage his affairs of this kind + carelessly, and as things of little moment, I think I ought to record a + little further whatever was commendable in him in these points. He married + a wife more noble than rich; being of opinion that the rich and the + high-born are equally haughty and proud; but that those of noble blood + would be more ashamed of base things, and consequently more obedient to + their husbands in all that was fit and right. A man who beat his wife or + child, laid violent hands, he said, on what was most sacred; and a good + husband he reckoned worthy of more praise than a great senator; and he + admired the ancient Socrates for nothing so much, as for having lived a + temperate and contented life with a wife who was a scold, and children who + were half-witted. + </p> + <p> + When his son began to come to years of discretion, Cato himself would + teach him to read, although he had a servant, a very good grammarian, + called Chilo, who taught many others; but he thought not fit, as he + himself said, to have his son reprimanded by a slave, or pulled, it may + be, by the ears when found tardy in his lesson: nor would he have him owe + to a servant the obligation of so great a thing as his learning; he + himself, therefore, taught him his grammar, his law, and his gymnastic + exercises. Nor did he only show him, too, how to throw a dart, to fight in + armor, and to ride, but to box also and to endure both heat and cold, and + to swim over the most rapid and rough rivers. He says, likewise, that he + wrote histories, in large characters, with his own hand, that so his son, + without stirring out of the house, might learn to know about his + countrymen and forefathers: nor did he less abstain from speaking any + thing improper before his son, than if it had been in the presence of the + sacred virgins, called vestals. Nor would he ever go into the bath with + him; which seems indeed to have been the common custom of the Romans. + </p> + <p> + Thus, like an excellent work, Cato formed and fashioned his son to virtue. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0031" id="link2H_4_0031"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE SACRED THEBAN BAND FROM THE LIFE OF PELOPIDAS. + </h2> + <p> + Gorgidas, according to some, first formed the Sacred Band of three hundred + chosen men, to whom, as being a guard for the citadel, the State allowed + provision, and all things necessary for exercise: and hence they were + called the city band, as citadels of old were usually called cities. + Others say that it was composed of young men attached to each other by + personal affection, and a pleasant saying of Pammenes is current, that + Homer's Nestor was not well skilled in ordering an army, when he advised + the Greeks to rank tribe and tribe, and family and family together, that + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "So tribe might tribe, and kinsmen kinsmen aid," +</pre> + <p> + but that he should have joined lovers and their beloved. For men of the + same tribe or family little value one another when dangers press; but a + band cemented by friendship grounded upon love, is never to be broken, and + invincible; since all, ashamed to be base in sight of their beloved, + willingly rush into danger for the relief of one another. Nor can that be + wondered at; since they have more regard for their absent loving friends + than for others present; as in the instance of the man who, when his enemy + was going to kill him, earnestly requested him to run him through the + breast, that his lover might not blush to see him wounded in the back. It + is a tradition likewise, that Iolaus, who assisted Hercules in his labors + and fought at his side, was beloved of him; and Aristotle observes, that + even in his time, lovers plighted their faith at Iolaus' tomb. It is + likely, therefore, that this band was called sacred on this account; as + Plato calls a lover a divine friend. It is stated that it was never beaten + till the battle at Chaeronea: and when Philip, after the fight, took a + view of the slain, and came to the place where the three hundred that + fought his phalanx lay dead together, he was filled with wonder, and + understanding that it was the band of lovers, he shed tears and said, + "Perish any man who suspects that these men either did or suffered any + thing that was base." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0032" id="link2H_4_0032"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + FROM THE LIFE OF TITUS FLAMININUS, THE CONQUEROR OF PHILIP + </h2> + <p> + Among the songs written after the battle of Cynos Cephalas (the + Dog-heads), was the following epigram, composed by Alcaeus in mockery of + Philip, exaggerating the number of the slain: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Naked and tombless see, O passer-by + The thirty thousand men of Thessaly, + Slain by the Aetolians and the Latin band, + That came with Titus from Italia's land: + Alas for mighty Macedon! that day, + Swift as a roe, king Philip fled away. +</pre> + <p> + Titus himself thought more highly of his liberation of Greece than of any + other of his actions, as appears by the inscription upon some silver + targets, dedicated together with his own shield, to Apollo at Delphi: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Ye Spartan Tyndarids, twin sons of Jove, + Who in swift horsemanship have placed your love, + Titus, of great Aeneas' race, leaves this + In honor of the liberty of Greece. +</pre> + <p> + And a golden crown, also offered to Apollo, bore this inscription: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + This golden crown upon thy locks divine, + O blest Latona's son, was set to shine + By the great captain of the Aenean name + O Phoebus, grant the noble Titus fame! +</pre> + <p> + When the ambassadors of Antiochus were recounting to those of Achaea, the + various multitudes composing their royal master's forces, and ran over a + long catalogue of hard names, "I supped once," said Titus, "with a friend, + and could not forbear expostulating with him at the number of dishes he + had provided, and said I wondered where he had furnished himself with such + a variety; 'Sir,' replied he, 'to confess the truth, it is all hog's flesh + differently cooked.' And so, men of Achaea, when you are told of + Antiochus' lancers, and pikemen, and foot-guards, I advise you not to be + surprised; since in fact they are all Syrians differently armed." + </p> + <p> + The Chalcidians, who owed their lives to Titus, dedicated to him all the + best and most magnificent of their sacred buildings, inscriptions upon + which, like the following, may be seen to this day: THE PEOPLE DEDICATE + THIS GYMNASIUM TO TITUS AND TO HERCULES; so again: THE PEOPLE CONSECRATE + THE DELPHINIUM TO TITUS AND TO HERCULES; and what is yet more remarkable, + even in our time, a priest of Titus was formally elected and declared; and + after sacrifice and libation, they sang a set song, of which these are the + closing verses:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Roman Faith, whose aid of yore, + Our vows were offered to implore, + We worship now and evermore. + To Rome, to Titus, and to Jove, + O maidens, in the dances move. + Dances and Io-Paeans too + Unto the Roman Faith are due + O Savior Titus, and to you. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0033" id="link2H_4_0033"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ALEXANDER THE GREAT + </h2> + <p> + It must be borne in mind that my design has been not to write histories, + but lives. And the most glorious exploits do not always furnish us with + the clearest discoveries of virtue or vice in men; sometimes a matter of + less moment, an expression or a jest, informs us better of their + characters and inclinations, than the most famous sieges, the greatest + armaments, or the bloodiest battles whatsoever. Therefore as + portrait-painters are more exact in the lines and features of the face, in + which the character is seen, than in the other parts of the body, so I + must be allowed to give my more particular attention to the marks and + indications of the souls of men, in my portrayal of their lives. + </p> + <p> + It is agreed on by all hands, that on the father's side, Alexander + descended from Hercules by Caranus, and from Aeacus by Neoptolemus on the + mother's side. His father Philip, being in Samothrace, when he was quite + young, fell in love there with Olympias, in company with whom he was + initiated in the religious ceremonies of the country, and her father and + mother being both dead, soon after, with the consent of her brother + Arymbas, he married her. + </p> + <p> + Alexander was born on the sixth of Hecatombaeon, the same day that the + temple of Diana at Ephesus was burnt. The statues that gave the best + representation of Alexander's person, were those of Lysippus, those + peculiarities which many of his successors afterwards and his friends used + to affect to imitate,—the inclination of his head a little on one + side towards his left shoulder, and his melting eye,—having been + expressed by this artist with great exactness. But Apelles, who drew him + with thunderbolts in his hand, made his complexion browner and darker than + it was naturally; for he was fair and of a light color, passing into + ruddiness in his face and upon his breast. His temperance, as to all + pleasures, was apparent in him in his very childhood, as he was with much + difficulty incited to them, and always used them with great moderation; + though in other things he was extremely eager and vehement, and in his + love of glory and the pursuit of it, he showed a solidity of high spirit + and magnanimity far above his age. For he neither sought nor valued it + upon every occasion, as his father Philip did (who affected to show his + eloquence almost to a degree of pedantry, and took care to have the + victories of his racing chariots at the Olympic games engraved on his + coin), but when he was asked by some about him, whether he would run a + race in the Olympic games, as he was very swift-footed, he answered, that + he would, if he might have kings to run with him. + </p> + <p> + While he was yet very young, he entertained the ambassadors from the king + of Persia, in the absence of his father, and entering much into + conversation with them, gained so much upon them by his affability, and + the questions he asked them, which were far from being childish or + trifling (for he inquired of them the length of the ways, the nature of + the road into inner Asia, the character of their king, how he carried + himself toward his enemies, and what forces he was able to bring into the + field), that they were struck with admiration of him, and looked upon the + ability so much famed of Philip, to be nothing in comparison with the + forwardness and high purpose that appeared thus early in his son. Whenever + he heard that Philip had taken any town of importance, or won any signal + victory, instead of rejoicing at it altogether, he would tell his + companions that his father would anticipate every thing, and leave him and + them no opportunities of performing great and illustrious actions. For + being more bent upon action and glory than upon either pleasure or riches, + he esteemed all that he should receive from his father as a diminution of + his own future achievements; and would have chosen rather to succeed to a + kingdom involved in troubles and wars, which would have afforded him + frequent exercise of his courage, and a large field of honor, than to one + already flourishing and settled, where his inheritance would be an + inactive life, and the mere enjoyment of wealth and luxury. + </p> + <p> + The care of his education, as it might be presumed, was committed to a + great many attendants, preceptors, and teachers, over the whole of whom + Leonidas, a near kinsman of Olympias, a man of an austere temper, + presided, who did not indeed himself decline the name of what in reality + is a noble and honorable office, but in general his dignity, and his near + relationship, obtained him from other people the title of Alexander's + fosterfather and governor. But he who took upon him the actual place and + style of his "pedagogue," was Lysimachus the Acarnanian. + </p> + <p> + Philonicus the Thessalian brought the horse Bucephalas to Philip, offering + to sell him for thirteen talents; but when they went into the field to try + him, they found him so very vicious and unmanageable, that he reared up + when they endeavored to mount him, and would not so much as endure the + voice of any of Philip's attendants. Upon which, as they were leading him + away as wholly useless and untractable, Alexander, who stood by, said, + "What a magnificent horse they lose, for want of address and boldness to + manage him!" Philip at first took no notice of what he said, but when he + heard him repeat the same thing several times, and perceived that he was + much vexed to see the horse sent away, he said to him, "Do you reproach + those who are older than yourself, as if you knew more, and were better + able to manage him than they?" "I could manage this horse," replied he, + "better than others do." "And if you fail," said Philip, "what will you + forfeit for your rashness?" "I will pay," answered Alexander, "the whole + price of the horse." At this the whole company fell to laughing; and as + soon as the wager was settled amongst them, he immediately ran to the + horse, and taking hold of the bridle, turned him directly towards the sun, + having, it seems, observed that he was disturbed at and afraid of the + motion of his own shadow; then letting him go forward a little, still + keeping the reins in his hand, and stroking him gently when he found him + beginning to grow eager and fiery, he let fall his upper garment softly, + and with one nimble leap securely mounted him, and when he was seated, + little by little drew in the bridle, and curbed him without either + striking or spurring him. Presently, when he found him free from all + rebelliousness, and only impatient for the course, he let him go at full + speed, inciting him now with a commanding voice, and urging him also with + his heel. Philip and his friends looked on at first in silence and anxiety + for the result, till seeing him turn at the end of his career, and come + back rejoicing and triumphing for what he had performed, they all burst + out into acclamations of applause; and his father, shedding tears, it is + said, for joy, kissed him as he came down from his horse, and in his + transport, said, "O my son, seek out a kingdom worthy of thyself, for + Macedonia is too little for thee." + </p> + <p> + After this, considering him to be of a temper easy to be led to his duty + by reason, but by no means to be compelled, he always endeavored to + persuade rather than to command or force him to any thing; and now looking + upon the instruction and tuition of his youth to be of greater difficulty + and importance, than to be wholly trusted to the ordinary masters in music + and poetry, and the common school subjects, and to require, as Sophocles + says, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The bridle and the rudder too, +</pre> + <p> + he sent for Aristotle, the most learned and most celebrated philosopher of + his time, and rewarded him with a munificence proportionable to and + becoming the care he took to instruct his son. For he repeopled his native + city Stagira, which he had caused to be demolished a little before, and + restored all the citizens who were in exile or slavery, to their + habitations. As a place for the pursuit of their studies and exercises, he + assigned the temple of the Nymphs, near Mieza, where, to this very day, + they show you Aristotle's stone seats, and the shady walks which he was + wont to frequent. It would appear that Alexander received from him not + only his doctrines of Morals, and of Politics, but also something of those + more abstruse and profound theories which these philosophers, by the very + names they gave them, professed to reserve for oral communication to the + initiated, and did not allow many to become acquainted with. For when he + was in Asia, and heard Aristotle had published some treatises of that + kind, he wrote to him, using very plain language to him in behalf of + philosophy, the following letter: "Alexander to Aristotle greeting. You + have not done well to publish your books of oral doctrine, for what is + there now that we excel others in, if those things which we have been + particularly instructed in be laid open to all? For my part, I assure you, + I had rather excel others in the knowledge of what is excellent, than in + the extent of my power and dominion. Farewell." And Aristotle, soothing + this passion for pre-eminence, speaks, in his excuse for himself, of these + doctrines, as in fact both published and not published. To tell the truth, + his books on metaphysics are written in a style which makes them useless + for ordinary teaching, and instructive only in the way of memoranda, for + those who have been already conversant with that sort of learning. + </p> + <p> + Doubtless also it was to Aristotle, that he owed the inclination he had, + not to the theory only, but also to the practice of the art of medicine. + For when any of his friends were sick, he would often prescribe for them + their course of diet, and medicines proper to their disease, as we may + find in his epistles. He was naturally a great lover of all kinds of + learning and reading; and Onesicritus informs us, that he constantly laid + Homer's Iliads, according to the copy corrected by Aristotle, called "The + casket copy," with his dagger under his pillow, declaring that he esteemed + it a perfect portable treasure of all military virtue and knowledge. When + he was in the upper Asia, being destitute of other books, he ordered + Harpalus to send him some; who furnished him with Philistus's History, a + great many of the plays of Euripides, Sophocles, and Aeschylus, and some + dithyrambic odes, composed by Telestes and Philoxenus. + </p> + <p> + While Philip went on his expedition against the Byzantines, he left + Alexander, then sixteen years old, his lieutenant in Macedonia, committing + the charge of his seal to him; who, not to sit idle, reduced the + rebellious Maedi, and having taken their chief town by storm, drove out + the barbarous inhabitants, and planting a colony of several nations in + their room, called the place after his own name, Alexandropolis. At the + battle of Chaeronea, which his father fought against the Greeks, he is + said to have been the first man that charged the Thebans' sacred band. And + even in my remembrance, there stood an old oak near the river Cephisus, + which people called Alexander's oak, because his tent was pitched under + it. And not far off are to be seen the graves of the Macedonians who fell + in that battle. This early bravery made Philip so fond of him, that + nothing pleased him more than to hear his subjects call himself their + general and Alexander their king. + </p> + <p> + But later on, through an unfortunate marriage of Philip with Cleopatra, + the niece of Attalus, an estrangement grew up between them. And not long + after the brother of Alexander, Pausanias, having had an insult done to + him at the instance of Attalus and Cleopatra, when he found he could get + no reparation for his disgrace at Philip's hands, watched his opportunity + and murdered him. + </p> + <p> + Alexander was but twenty years old when his father was murdered, and + succeeded to a kingdom beset on all sides with great dangers, and + rancorous enemies. Hearing the Thebans were in revolt, and the Athenians + in correspondence with them, he immediately marched through the pass of + Thermopylae, saying that to Demosthenes, who had called him a child while + he was in Illyria, and a youth when he was in Thessaly, he would appear a + man before the walls of Athens. + </p> + <p> + When he came to Thebes, to show how willing he was to accept of their + repentance for what was past, he only demanded of them Phoenix and + Prothytes, the authors of the rebellion, and proclaimed a general pardon + to those who would come over to him. But when the Thebans merely retorted + by demanding Philotas and Antipater to be delivered into their hands, he + applied himself to make them feel the last extremities of war. The Thebans + defended themselves with a zeal and courage beyond their strength, being + much outnumbered by their enemies. But when the Macedonian garrison + sallied out upon them from the citadel, they were so hemmed in on all + sides, that the greater part of them fell in the battle; the city itself + being taken by storm, was sacked and razed, Alexander's hope being that so + severe an example might terrify the rest of Greece into obedience. So + that, except the priests, and a few who had heretofore been the friends + and connections of the Macedonians, the family of the poet Pindar, and + those who were known to have opposed the public vote for the war, all the + rest, to the number of thirty thousand, were publicly sold for slaves; and + it is computed that upwards of six thousand were put to the sword. Among + the other calamities that befell the city, it happened that some Thracian + soldiers having broken into the house of a matron of high character and + repute named Timoclea, their captain, to satisfy his avarice, asked her if + she knew of any money concealed; to which she readily answered that she + did, and bade him follow her into a garden, where she showed him a well, + into which, she told him, upon the taking of the city she had thrown what + she had of most value. The greedy Thracian presently stooping down to view + the place where he thought the treasure lay, she came behind him, and + pushed him into the well, and then flung great stones in upon him, till + she had killed him. After which, when the soldiers led her away bound to + Alexander, her very mien and gait showed her to be a woman of dignity and + high mind, not betraying the least sign of fear or astonishment. And when + the king asked her who she was, she said, "I am the sister of Theagenes, + who fought at the battle of Chaeronea with your father, Philip, and fell + there in command for the liberty of Greece." Alexander was so surprised, + both at what she had done, and what she said, that he could not chose but + give her and her children their freedom to go whither they pleased. + </p> + <p> + After this he received the Athenians into favor. Whether it were, like the + lion, that his passion was now satisfied, or that after an example of + extreme cruelty, he had a mind to appear merciful, it happened well for + the Athenians. Certain it is, too, that in after-time he often repented of + his severity to the Thebans, and his remorse had such influence on his + temper as to make him ever after less rigorous to all others. And it was + observed that whatsoever any Theban, who had the good fortune to survive + this victory, asked of him, he was sure to grant without the least + difficulty. + </p> + <p> + Soon after, the Greeks being assembled at the Isthmus, declared their + resolution of joining with Alexander in the war against the Persians, and + proclaimed him their general. While he stayed here, many public ministers + and philosophers came from all parts to visit him, and congratulated him + on his election, but contrary to his expectation, Diogenes of Sinope, who + then was living at Corinth, thought so little of him, that instead of + coming to compliment him, he never so much as stirred out of the suburb + called the Cranium, where Alexander ran across him lying at full length in + the sun. When he saw so much company near him, he raised himself a little, + and vouchsafed to look upon Alexander; and when he kindly asked him + whether he wanted any thing, "Yes," said he, "I would have you stand from + between me and the sun." Alexander was so struck at this answer, and + surprised at the greatness of the man, who had taken so little notice of + him, that as he went away, he told his followers who were laughing at the + moroseness of the philosopher, that if he were not Alexander, he would + choose to be Diogenes. + </p> + <p> + His army consisted of about thirty thousand foot, and four thousand horse; + and Aristobulus says, he had not a fund of over seventy talents for their + pay, nor more than thirty days' provision, if we may believe Duris. + However narrow the beginnings of so vast an undertaking might seem to be, + yet he would not embark his army until he had informed himself + particularly what means his friends had to enable them to follow him, and + supplied what they wanted, by giving good farms to some, a village to one, + and the revenue of some hamlet or harbor town to another. So that at last + he had portioned out or engaged almost all the royal property; which + giving Perdiccas an occasion to ask him what he would leave himself, he + answered, "My hopes." "Your soldiers," replied Perdiccas, "will be your + partners in those," and refused to accept of the estate he had assigned + him. + </p> + <p> + With such vigorous resolutions, and his mind thus disposed, he passed the + Hellespont, and at Troy sacrificed to Minerva, and honored the memory of + the heroes who were buried there, with solemn libations; especially + Achilles, whose gravestone he anointed, and with his friends, as the + ancient custom is, ran naked about his sepulchre, and crowned it with + garlands, declaring how happy he esteemed him, in having, while he lived, + so faithful a friend, and when he was dead, so famous a poet to proclaim + his actions. While he was viewing the rest of the antiquities and + curiosities of the place, being told he might see Paris's harp, if he + pleased, he said, he thought it not worth looking at, but he should be + glad to see that of Achilles, to which he used to sing the glories and + great actions of brave men. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime Darius's captains having collected large forces, were + encamped on the further bank of the river Granicus, and it was necessary + to fight, as it were, in the gate of Asia for an entrance into it. And + when Parmenio advised him not to attempt anything that day, because it was + late, he told him that he should disgrace the Hellespont, should he fear + the Granicus. And so without saying more, he immediately took the river + with thirteen troops of horse, and advanced against whole showers of darts + thrown from the steep opposite side, which was covered with armed + multitudes of the enemy's horse and foot, notwithstanding the disadvantage + of the ground and the rapidity of the stream; so that the action seemed to + have more of frenzy and desperation in it, than of prudent conduct. + However, he persisted obstinately to gain the passage, and at last with + much ado making his way up the banks, which were extremely muddy and + slippery, he had instantly to join in a mere confused hand-to-hand combat + with the enemy, before he could draw up his men, who were still passing + over, into any order. For the enemy pressed upon him with loud and warlike + outcries; and charging horse against horse, with their lances, after they + had broken and spent these, they fell to it with their swords. And + Alexander, being easily known by his buckler, and a large plume of white + feathers on each side of his helmet, was attacked on all sides, yet + escaped without a wound, though his cuirass was pierced by a javelin in + one of the joinings. And Rhoesaces and Spithridates, two Persian + commanders, falling upon him at once, he avoided one of them, and struck + at Rhoesaces, who had a good cuirass on, with such force, that his spear + breaking in his hand, he was glad to betake himself to his dagger. While + they were thus engaged, Spithridates came up on the other side of him, and + raising himself upon his horse, gave him such a blow with his battle-axe + on the helmet, that he cut off the crest of it, with one of his plumes, + and the helmet was only just so far strong enough to save him, that the + edge of the weapon touched the hair of his head. But as he was about to + repeat his stroke, Clitus, called the black Clitus, prevented him, by + running him through the body with his spear. At the same time Alexander + despatched Rhoesaces with his sword. While the horse were thus dangerously + engaged, the Macedonian phalanx passed the river, and the foot on each + side advanced to fight. But the enemy hardly sustaining the first onset, + soon gave ground and fled, all but the mercenary Greeks, who, making a + stand upon a rising ground, desired quarter, which Alexander, guided + rather by passion than judgment, refused to grant, and charging them + himself first, had his horse (not Bucephalas, but another) killed under + him. And this obstinacy of his to cut off these experienced, desperate + men, cost him the lives of more of his own soldiers than all the battle + before, besides those who were wounded. The Persians lost in this battle + twenty thousand foot, and two thousand five hundred horse. On Alexander's + side, Aristobulus says there were not over four and thirty missing, of + whom nine were foot-soldiers; and in memory of them he caused as many + statues of brass, of Lysippus's making, to be erected. And that the Greeks + might participate in the honor of his victory, he sent a portion of the + spoils home to them, particularly to the Athenians three hundred bucklers, + and upon all the rest he ordered this inscription to be set: "Alexander + the son of Philip, and the Greeks, except the Lacedaemonians, won these + from the barbarians who inhabit Asia." All the plate and purple garments, + and other things of the same kind that he took from the Persians, except a + very small quantity which he reserved for himself, he sent as a present to + his mother. + </p> + <p> + This battle presently made a great change of affairs to Alexander's + advantage. For Sardis itself, the chief seat of the barbarians' power in + the maritime provinces, and many other considerable places, were + surrendered to him; only Halicarnassus and Miletus stood out, which he + took by force, together with the territory about them. After which he was + a little unsettled in his opinion how to proceed. Sometimes he thought it + best to find out Darius as soon as he could, and put all to the hazard of + a battle; at another time he looked upon it as a more prudent course to + make an entire reduction of the sea-coast, and not to seek the enemy till + he had first exercised his power here and made himself secure of the + resources of these provinces. While he was thus deliberating what to do, + it happened that a spring of water near the city of Xanthus in Lycia, of + its own accord swelled over its banks, and threw up a copper plate upon + the margin, in which was engraven in ancient characters, that the time + would come, when the Persian empire should be destroyed by the Greeks. + Encouraged by this incident, he proceeded to reduce the maritime parts of + Cilicia and Phoenicia, and passed his army along the sea-coasts of + Pamphylia with such expedition that many historians have described and + extolled it with a height of admiration, as if it were no less than a + miracle, and an extraordinary effect of divine favor, that the waves which + usually come rolling in violently from the main, and hardly ever leave so + much as a narrow beach under the steep, broken cliffs at any time + uncovered, should on a sudden retire to afford him passage. Menander, in + one of his comedies, alludes to this marvel when he says, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Was Alexander ever favored more? + Each man I wish for meets me at the door, + And should I ask for passage through the sea, + The sea, I doubt not, would retire for me. +</pre> + <p> + Then he subdued the Pisidians who made head against him, and conquered the + Phrygians, at whose chief city Gordium, which is said to be the seat of + the ancient Midas, he saw the famous chariot fastened with cords made of + the rind of the cornel-tree, about which the inhabitants had a tradition, + that for him who should untie it, was reserved the empire of the world. + Most authors tell the story of Alexander, finding himself unable to untie + the knot, the ends of which were secretly twisted round and folded up + within it, cut it asunder with his sword. But Aristobulus tells us it was + easy for him to undo it, by only pulling the pin out of the pole, to which + the yoke was tied, and afterwards drawing off the yoke itself from below. + </p> + <p> + Darius was by this time upon his march from Susa, very confident, in the + number of his men, which amounted to six hundred thousand. But Alexander + was detained in Cilicia by a sickness, which some say he contracted from + his fatigues, others from bathing in the river Cydnus, whose waters were + exceedingly cold. None of his physicians would venture to give him any + remedies, they thought his case so desperate, and were so afraid of the + suspicions and ill-will of the Macedonians if they should fail in the + cure; till Philip, the Acarnanian, seeing how critical his case was, but + relying on his own well-known friendship for him, resolved to try the last + efforts of his art, and rather hazard his own credit and life, than suffer + him to perish for want of physic, which he confidently administered to + him, encouraging him to take it boldly, if he desired a speedy recovery, + in order to prosecute the war. At this very time, Parmenio wrote to + Alexander from the camp, bidding him have a care of Philip, as one who was + bribed by Darius to kill him, with great sums of money, and a promise of + his daughter in marriage. When he had perused the letter, he put it under + his pillow, without so much as showing it to any of his most intimate + friends, and when Philip came in with the potion, he took it with great + cheerfulness and assurance, giving him meantime the letter to read. This + was a spectacle well worth being present at, to see Alexander take the + draught, and Philip read the letter at the same time, and then turn and + look upon one another, but with different sentiments; for Alexander's + looks were cheerful and open, to show his kindness to and confidence in + his physician, while the other was full of surprise and alarm at the + accusation, appealing to the gods to witness his innocence, sometimes + lifting up his hands to heaven, and then throwing himself down by the + bedside, and beseeching Alexander to lay aside all fear, and follow his + directions without apprehension. For the medicine at first worked so + strongly as to drive, as it were, the vital forces into the interior; he + lost his speech, and falling into a swoon, had scarcely any sense or pulse + left. However, in a very short time, by Philip's means, his health and + strength returned, and he showed himself in public to the Macedonians, who + were in continual fear and dejection until they saw him abroad again. + </p> + <p> + Darius, in the meantime marched into Cilicia, at the same time that + Alexander advanced into Syria to meet him; and missing one another in the + night, they both turned back again. Alexander, greatly pleased with the + event, made all the haste he could to fight in the defiles, and Darius to + recover his former ground, and draw his army out of so disadvantageous a + place. For now he began to see his error in engaging himself too far in a + country in which the sea, the mountains, and the river Pinarus running + through the midst of it, would force him to divide his forces, render his + horse almost unserviceable, and only cover and support the weakness of the + enemy. Fortune was not kinder to Alexander in the choice of the ground, + than he was careful to improve it to his advantage. For being much + inferior in numbers, so far from allowing himself to be outflanked, he + stretched his right wing much further out than the left wing of his + enemies, and fighting there himself in the very foremost ranks, put the + barbarians to flight. In this battle he was wounded in the thigh, Chares + says by Darius, with whom he fought hand to hand. But in the account which + he gave Antipater of the battle, though he owns he was wounded in the + thigh with a sword, though not dangerously, he does not mention who it was + that wounded him. + </p> + <p> + Nothing was wanting to complete this victory, in which he overthrew above + a hundred and ten thousand of his enemies, but the taking of the person of + Darius, who escaped very narrowly by flight. However, having captured his + chariot and his bow, he returned from pursuing him, and found his own men + busy in pillaging the barbarians' camp, which (though to disburden + themselves, they had left most of their baggage at Damascus) was + exceedingly rich. But Darius's tent, which was full of splendid furniture, + and quantities of gold and silver, they reserved for Alexander himself, + who after he had put off his arms, went to bathe himself, saying, "Let us + now cleanse ourselves from the toils of war in the bath of Darius." "Not + so," replied one of his followers, "but in Alexander's rather; for the + property of the conquered is, and should be called, the conqueror's." + Here, when he beheld the bathing vessels, the water-pots, the pans, and + the ointment boxes, all of gold, curiously wrought, and smelt the fragrant + odors with which the whole place was exquisitely perfumed, and from thence + passed into a pavilion of great size and height, where the couches and + tables and preparations for an entertainment were perfectly magnificent, + he turned to those about him and said, "This, it seems, is royalty." + </p> + <p> + But as he was going to supper, word was brought him that Darius's mother + and wife and two unmarried daughters, being taken among the rest of the + prisoners, were all in mourning and sorrow upon the sight of his chariot + and bow, imagining him to be dead. After a little he sent Leonnatus to + them, to let them know Darius was not dead, and that they need not fear + any harm from Alexander, who made war upon him only for dominion. But the + noblest and most royal part of their usage was, that he treated these + illustrious prisoners according to their virtue and character, not + suffering them to hear, or receive, or so much as to apprehend any thing + that was unbecoming. So that they seemed rather lodged in some temple, or + some holy chambers, where they enjoyed their privacy sacred and + uninterrupted, than in the camp of an enemy. Yet Darius's wife was + accounted the most beautiful princess then living, as her husband the + tallest and handsomest man of his time, and the daughters were not + unworthy of their parents. + </p> + <p> + In his diet Alexander was most temperate, as appears, omitting many other + circumstances, by what he said to Ada, whom he adopted, with the title of + mother, and afterwards created queen of Caria. For when she out of + kindness sent him every day many curious dishes, and sweetmeats, and would + have furnished him with some cooks and pastry-men, who were thought to + have great skill, he told her he wanted none of them, his preceptor, + Leonidas, having already given him the best, which were "a night march to + prepare for breakfast, and a moderate breakfast to create an appetite for + supper." Leonidas also, he added, used to open and search the furniture of + his chamber, and his wardrobe, to see if his mother had left him any thing + that was delicate or superfluous. He was much less addicted to wine than + was generally believed; that which gave people occasion to think so of him + was, that when he had nothing else to do, he loved to sit long and talk, + rather than drink, and over every cup hold a long conversation. For when + his affairs called upon him, he would not be detained, as other generals + often were, either by wine, or sleep, nuptial solemnities, spectacles, or + any other diversion whatsoever; a convincing argument of which is, that in + the short time he lived, he accomplished so many and so great actions. + When he was free from employment, after he was up, and had sacrificed to + the gods, he used to sit down to breakfast, and then spend the rest of the + day in hunting, or writing memoirs, giving decisions on some military + questions, or reading. In marches that required no great haste, he would + practice shooting as he went along, or to mount a chariot, and alight from + it in full speed. Sometimes, for sport's sake, as his journals tell us, he + would hunt foxes and go fowling. When he came in for the evening, after he + had bathed and was anointed, he would call for his bakers and chief cooks, + to know if they had his dinner ready. He never cared to dine till it was + pretty late and beginning to be dark, and as wonderfully circumspect at + meals that every one who sat with him should be served alike and with + proper attention; and his love of talking, as was said before, made him + delight to sit long at his wine. And no prince's conversation was ever so + agreeable, yet he would at times fall into a temper of ostentation and + soldierly boasting, which gave his flatterers a great advantage to ride + him, and made his better friends very uneasy. After such an entertainment, + he was wont to bathe, and then perhaps he would sleep till noon, and + sometimes all day long. He was so very temperate in his eating, that when + any rare fish or fruits were sent him, he would distribute them among his + friends, and often reserve nothing for himself. His table, however, was + always magnificent, the expense of it still increasing with his good + fortune, till it amounted to ten thousand drachmas a day, to which sum he + limited it, and beyond this he would suffer none to lay out in any + entertainment where he himself was the guest. + </p> + <p> + Among the treasures and other booty that was taken from Darius, there was + a very precious casket, which being brought to Alexander for a great + rarity, he asked those about him what they thought fittest to be laid up + in it; and when they had delivered their various opinions, he told them he + should keep Homer's Iliad in it. Nor did Homer prove an unprofitable + companion to him in his expeditions. For, after he had become master of + Egypt he determined to found a great and populous city, and give to it his + own name. And when he had measured and staked out the ground with the + advice of the best architects, he chanced one night in his sleep to see a + wonderful vision; a gray-headed old man, of a venerable aspect, appeared + to stand by him, and pronounce these verses: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + An island lies, where loud the billows roar, + Pharos they call it, on the Egyptian shore. +</pre> + <p> + Alexander upon this immediately rose up and went to Pharos, which, at that + time, was an island lying a little above the Canobic mouth of the river + Nile, though it has now been joined to the main land by a mole. As soon as + he saw the commodious situation of the place, it being a long neck of + land, stretching like an isthmus between large lagoons and shallow waters + on one side, and the sea on the other, the latter at the end of it making + a spacious harbor, he said, Homer, besides his other excellences, was a + very good architect, and ordered the plan of a city to be drawn out + answerable to the place. To do which, for want of chalk, the soil being + black, they laid out their lines with flour, taking in a pretty large + compass of ground in a semicircular figure, and drawing into the inside of + the circumference equal straight lines from each end, thus giving it + something of the form of a cloak or cape. While he was pleasing himself + with his design, on a sudden an infinite number of great birds of several + kinds, rising like a black cloud out of the river and the lake, came and + devoured every morsel of the flour that had been used in setting out the + lines; at which omen even Alexander himself was troubled, till the augurs + restored his confidence again by telling him it was a sign that the city + he was about to build would not only abound in all things within itself, + but also be the nurse and feeder of many nations. + </p> + <p> + The great battle of all that was fought with Darius, was not, as most + writers tell us, at Arbela, but at Gaugamela, which, in their language, + signifies the camel's house, forasmuch as one of their ancient kings + having escaped the pursuit of his enemies on a swift camel, in gratitude + to his beast settled him at this place, with an allowance of certain + villages and rents for his maintenance. It came to pass that in the month + Boedromion, about the beginning of the Feast of Mysteries at Athens, there + was an eclipse of the moon, the eleventh night after which, the two armies + being now in view of one another, Darius kept his men in arms, and by + torchlight took a general review of them. But Alexander, while his + soldiers slept, spent the night before his tent with his diviner + Aristander, performing certain mysterious ceremonies, and sacrificing to + the god Fear. + </p> + <p> + In the meanwhile the oldest of his commanders, and chiefly Parmenio, when + they beheld all the plain between Niphates and the Gordyaean mountains + shining with the lights and fires which were made by the barbarians, and + heard the uncertain and confused sound of voices out of their camp, like + the distant roaring of a vast ocean, were so amazed at the thoughts of + such a multitude, that after some conference among themselves, they + concluded it an enterprise too difficult and hazardous for them to engage + so numerous an enemy in the day, and therefore meeting the king as he came + from sacrificing, besought him to attack Darius by night, that the + darkness might conceal the danger of the ensuing battle. To this he gave + them the celebrated answer, "I will not steal a victory," which, though + some at the time thought it a boyish and inconsiderate speech, as if he + played with danger, others regarded as an evidence that the confided in + his present condition, and acted on a true judgment of the future, not + wishing to leave Darius, in case he were worsted, the pretext of trying + his fortune again, which he might suppose himself to have, if he could + impute his overthrow to the disadvantage of the night, as he did before to + the mountains, the narrow passages, and the sea. For while he had such + numerous forces and large dominions still remaining, it was not any want + of men or arms that could induce him to give up the war, but only the loss + of all courage and hope upon the conviction of an undeniable and manifest + defeat. + </p> + <p> + After they were gone from him with this answer, he laid himself down in + his tent and slept the rest of the night more soundly than was usual with + him, to the astonishment of the commanders. Not only before the battle, + but in the height of the danger, he showed himself great, and manifested + the self-possession of a just foresight and confidence. For the battle for + some time fluctuated and was dubious. The left wing, where Parmenio + commanded, was so impetuously charged by the Bactrian horse that it was + disordered and forced to give ground, at the same time that Mazaeus had + sent a detachment around to fall upon those who guarded the baggage, which + so disturbed Parmenio, that he sent messengers to acquaint Alexander that + the camp and baggage would be all lost unless he immediately relieved the + rear by a considerable reinforcement drawn out of the front. This message + being brought him just as he was giving the signal to those about him for + the onset, he bade them tell Parmenio that he must have surely lost the + use of his reason, and had forgotten, in his alarm, that soldiers, if + victorious, become masters of their enemies' baggage; and if defeated, + instead of taking care of their wealth or their slaves, have nothing more + to do but to fight gallantly and die with honor. When he had said this, he + put on his helmet, having the rest of his arms on before he came out of + his tent, which were a coat of the Sicilian make, girt close about him, + and over that a breastpiece of thickly quilted linen, which was taken + among other booty at the battle of Issus. The helmet, which was made by + Theophilus, though of iron, was so well wrought and polished, that it was + as bright as the most refined silver. To this was fitted a gorget of the + same metal, set with precious stones His sword, which was the weapon he + most used in fight, was given him by the king of the Citieans, and was of + an admirable temper and lightness. The belt which he also wore in all + engagements, was of much richer workmanship than the rest of his armor. It + was the work of the ancient Helicon, and had been presented to him by the + Rhodians, as a mark of their respect to him. So long as he was engaged in + drawing up his men, or riding about to give orders or directions, or to + view them, he spared Bucephalas, who was now growing old, and made use of + another horse; but when he was actually to fight, he sent for him again, + and as soon as he was mounted, commenced the attack. + </p> + <p> + He made the longest address that day to the Thessalians and other Greeks, + who answered him with loud shouts desiring him to lead them on against the + barbarians, upon which he shifted his javelin into his left hand, and with + his right lifted up towards heaven, besought the gods, as Callisthenes + tells us, that if he was of a truth the son of Jupiter, they would be + pleased to assist and strengthen the Grecians. At the same time the augur + Aristander, who had a white mantle about him, and a crown of gold on his + head, rode by and showed them an eagle that soared just over Alexander, + and directed his flight towards the enemy; which so animated the + beholders, that after mutual encouragements and exhortations, the cavalry + charged at full speed, and were followed in a mass by the whole phalanx of + the foot. But before they could well come to blows with the first ranks, + the barbarians shrunk back, and were hotly pursued by Alexander, who drove + those that fled before him into the middle of the battle, where Darius + himself was in person, whom he saw from a distance over the foremost + ranks, conspicuous in the midst of his lifeguard, a tall and fine-looking + man, drawn in a lofty chariot, defended by an abundance of the best + cavalry who stood close in order about it, ready to receive the enemy. But + Alexander's approach was so terrible, forcing those who gave back upon + those who yet maintained their ground, that he beat down and dispersed + them almost all. Only a few of the bravest and valiantest opposed the + pursuit, who were slain in their king's presence, falling in heaps upon + one another, and in the very pangs of death striving to catch hold of the + horses. Darius now seeing all was lost, that those who were placed in + front to defend him were broken and beaten back upon him, that he could + not turn or disengage his chariot without great difficulty, the wheels + being clogged and entangled among the dead bodies, which lay in such heaps + as not only stopped, but almost covered the horses, and made them rear and + grow so unruly, that the frighted charioteer could govern them no longer, + in this extremity was glad to quit his chariot and his arms, and mounting, + it is said, upon a mare that had been taken from her foal, betook himself + to flight. + </p> + <p> + This battle being thus over, seemed to put a period to the Persian empire; + and Alexander, who was now proclaimed king of Asia, returned thanks to the + gods in magnificent sacrifices, and rewarded his friends and followers + with great sums of money, and places, and governments of provinces. + </p> + <p> + From here he marched through the province of Babylon, which immediately + submitted to him, and was much surprised at the sight in one place where + fire issues in a continuous stream, like a spring of water, out of a cleft + in the earth, and the stream of naphtha, which, not far from this spot, + flows out so abundantly as to form a sort of lake. This naphtha, in other + respects resembling bitumen, is so subject to take fire, that before it + touches the flame, it will kindle at the very light that surrounds it, and + often inflame the intermediate air also. The barbarians, to show the power + and nature of it, sprinkled the street that led to the king's lodgings + with little drops of it, and when it was almost night, stood at the + further end with torches, which being applied to the moistened places, the + first at once taking fire, instantly, as quick as a man could think of it, + it caught from one end to another, in such a manner that the whole street + was one continuous flame. + </p> + <p> + Alexander, in his own letters, has given us an account of his war with + Porus. He says that two armies were separated by the river Hydaspes, on + whose opposite bank Porus continually kept his elephants in order of + battle, with their heads towards their enemies, to guard the passage; that + he, on the other hand, made every day a great noise and clamor in his + camp, to dissipate the apprehensions of the barbarians; that one stormy, + dark night he passed the river, at a distance from the place where the + enemy lay, into a little island, with part of his foot, and the best of + his horse. Here there fell a most violent storm of rain accompanied with + lightning and whirlwinds, and although he saw some of his men burnt and + dying with the lightning, he nevertheless quitted the island and made over + to the other side. Here, apprehending the multitude of the enemy, and to + avoid the shock of their elephants, he divided his forces, and attacked + their left wing himself, commanding Coenus to fall upon the right, which + was performed with good success. By this means both wings being broken, + the enemies fell back in their retreat upon the centre, and crowded in + upon their elephants. There rallying, they fought a hand to hand battle, + and it was the eighth hour of the day before they were entirely defeated. + </p> + <p> + Almost all the historians agree in relating that Porus was four cubits and + a span high, and that when he was upon his elephant, which was of the + largest size, his stature and bulk were so answerable, that he appeared to + be proportionably mounted, as a horseman on his horse. This elephant, + during the whole battle, gave many singular proofs of sagacity and of + particular care of the king, whom as long as he was strong and in a + condition to fight, he defended with great courage, repelling those who + set upon him; and as soon as he perceived him overpowered with his + numerous wounds and the multitude of darts that were thrown at him, to + prevent his falling off, he softly knelt down and began to draw out the + darts with his proboscis. When Porus was taken prisoner, and Alexander + asked him how he expected to be used, he answered, "As a king." And + Alexander, accordingly, not only suffered him to govern his own kingdom as + satrap under himself, but gave him also the additional territory of + various independent tribes whom he subdued. + </p> + <p> + Some little time after the battle with Porus, Bucephalas died, as most of + the authorities state, under cure of his wounds, or as Onesicritus says, + of fatigue and age, being thirty years old. Alexander was no less + concerned at his death, than if he had lost an old companion or an + intimate friend, and built a city, which he named Bucephalia, in memory of + him, on the bank of the river Hydaspes. + </p> + <p> + Aristobulus tells us that Alexander died of a raging fever, having, in a + violent thirst, taken a copious draught of wine, upon which he fell into + delirium, and died on the thirtieth day of the month Daesius. + </p> + <p> + But the journals give the following record. On the eighteenth of the + month, he slept in the bathing-room on account of his fever. The next day + he bathed and removed into his chamber, and spent his time in playing at + dice with Medius. In the evening he bathed and sacrificed, and ate freely, + and had the fever on him through the night. On the twenty-fourth he was + much worse, and was carried out of his bed to assist at the sacrifices, + and gave order that the general officers should wait within the court, + whilst the inferior officers kept watch without doors. On the twenty-fifth + he was removed to his palace on the other side the river, where he slept a + little, but his fever did not abate, and when the generals came into his + chamber, he was speechless, and continued so the following day. The + Macedonians, therefore, supposing he was dead, came with great clamors to + the gates, and menaced his friends so that they were forced to admit them, + and let them all pass through unarmed along by his bedside. The same day + Python and Seleucus were despatched to the temple of Serapis to inquire if + they should bring Alexander thither, and were answered by the god, that + they should not remove him. On the twenty-eighth, in the evening, he died. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0034" id="link2H_4_0034"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE DEATH OF CAESAR + </h2> + <p> + The place destined for the scene of this murder, in which the senate met + that day, was the same in which Pompey's statue stood, and was one of the + edifices which Pompey had raised and dedicated with his theatre to the use + of the public, plainly showing that there was something of a supernatural + influence which guided the action, and ordered it to that particular + place. Cassius, just before the act, is said to have looked towards + Pompey's statue, and silently implored his assistance, though he had been + inclined to the doctrines of Epicurus. But this occasion and the instant + danger, carried him away out of all his reasonings, and filled him for the + time with a sort of inspiration. As for Antony, who was firm to Caesar, + and a strong man, Brutus Albinus kept him outside the house, and delayed + him with a long conversation contrived on purpose. When Caesar entered, + the senate stood up to show their respect to him, and of Brutus's + confederates, some came about his chair and stood behind it, others met + him, pretending to add their petitions to those of Tillius Cimber, in + behalf of his brother, who was in exile; and they followed him with their + joint supplications till he came to his seat. When he had sat down, he + refused to comply with their requests, and upon their urging him further, + began to reproach them severally for their importunities, when Tillius, + laying hold of his robe with both his hands, pulled it down from his neck, + which was the signal for the assault. Casca gave him the first cut, in the + neck, which was not mortal nor dangerous, coming, as it did, from one who + at the beginning of such a bold action was probably very much disturbed. + Caesar immediately turned about, and laid his hand upon the dagger and + kept hold of it. And both of them at the same time cried out, he that + received the blow, in Latin, "Vile Casca, what does this mean?" and he + that gave it, in Greek, to his brother, "Brother, help!" Upon this first + onset, those who were not privy to the design were astounded, and their + horror and amazement at what they saw were so great, that they durst not + fly nor assist Caesar, nor so much as speak a word. But those who came + prepared for the business inclosed him on every side, with their naked + daggers in their hands. Which way soever he turned, he met with blows, and + saw their swords leveled at his face and eyes, and was encompassed, like a + wild beast in the toils, on every side. For it had been agreed that they + should each make a thrust at him, and flesh themselves with his blood; for + which reason Brutus also gave him one stab in the groin. Some say that he + fought and resisted all the rest, shifting his body to avoid the blows, + and calling out for help, but that when he saw Brutus's sword drawn, he + covered his face with his robe and submitted, letting himself fall, + whether it were by chance, or that he was pushed in that direction by his + murderers, at the foot of the pedestal on which Pompey's statue stood, and + which was thus wet with his blood. So that Pompey himself seemed to have + presided, as it were, over the revenge done upon his adversary, who lay + here at his feet, and breathed out his soul through his multitude of + wounds, for they say he received three and twenty. And the conspirators + themselves were many of them wounded by each other, whilst they all + leveled their blows at the same person. + </p> + <p> + When Caesar's will was opened, and it was found that he had left a + considerable legacy to each one of the Roman citizens, and when his body + was seen carried through the marketplace all mangled with wounds, the + multitude could no longer contain themselves within the bounds of + tranquility and order, but heaped together a pile of benches, bars, and + tables, upon which they placed the corpse, and setting fire to it, burnt + it on them. Then they took brands from the pile, and ran some to fire the + conspirators, others up and down the city, to find out the men and tear + them to pieces, but met, however, with none of them, they having taken + effectual care to secure themselves. + </p> + <p> + Caesar died in his fifty-sixth year, not having survived Pompey above four + years. That empire and power which he had pursued through the whole course + of his life with so much hazard, he did at last with much difficulty + compass, but reaped no other fruits from it than the empty name and + invidious glory. But the great genius which attended him through his + lifetime, even after his death remained as the avenger of his murder, + pursuing through every sea and land all those who were concerned in it, + and suffering none to escape, but reaching all who in any sort or kind + were either actually engaged in the fact, or by their counsels any way + promoted it. + </p> + <p> + The most remarkable of mere human coincidences was that which befell + Cassius, who, when he was defeated at Philippi, killed himself with the + same dagger which he had made use of against Caesar. The most signal + preternatural appearances were the great comet, which shone very bright + for seven nights after Caesar's death, and then disappeared, and the + dimness of the sun, whose orb continued pale and dull for the whole of + that year, never showing its ordinary radiance at its rising, and giving + but a feeble heat. The air consequently was damp and gross, for want of + stronger rays to open and rarefy it. The fruits, for that reason, never + properly ripened, and began to wither and fall off for want of heat, + before they were fully formed. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Boys' and Girls' Plutarch, by Plutarch + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' PLUTARCH *** + +***** This file should be named 2484-h.htm or 2484-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/8/2484/ + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer, and David Widger + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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