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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province, and
+Kashmir, by Sir James McCrone Douie
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir
+
+
+Author: Sir James McCrone Douie
+
+
+
+Release Date: February 10, 2008  [eBook #24562]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PANJAB, NORTH-WEST FRONTIER
+PROVINCE, AND KASHMIR***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Suzanne Lybarger, Asad Razzaki, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations and maps.
+      See 24562-h.htm or 24562-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/5/6/24562/24562-h/24562-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/5/6/24562/24562-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed between tilde characters was in bold face
+      in the original book (~this text is bold~).
+
+
+
+
+
+THE PANJAB, NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE AND KASHMIR
+
+by
+
+SIR JAMES DOUIE, M.A., K.C.S.I.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Seema Publications
+Seema Publications C-3/19, R. P. Bagh, Delhi-110007.
+First Indian Edition 1974
+
+Printed in India at Deluxe Offset Press, Daya Basti, Delhi-110035 and
+Published by Seema Publications, Delhi-110007.
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+In his opening chapter Sir James Douie refers to the fact that the area
+treated in this volume--just one quarter of a million square miles--is
+comparable to that of Austria-Hungary. The comparison might be extended;
+for on ethnographical, linguistic and physical grounds, the geographical
+unit now treated is just as homogeneous in composition as the Dual
+Monarchy. It is only in the political sense and by force of the ruling
+classes, temporarily united in one monarch, that the term
+_Osterreichisch_ could be used to include the Poles of Galicia, the
+Czechs of Bohemia and Moravia, the Szeklers, Saxons and more numerous
+Rumanians of Transylvania, the Croats, Slovenes and Italians of
+"Illyria," with the Magyars of the Hungarian plain.
+
+The term _Punjábi_ much more nearly, but still imperfectly, covers the
+people of the Panjáb, the North-West Frontier Province, Kashmír and the
+associated smaller Native States. The Sikh, Muhammadan and Hindu Jats,
+the Kashmírís and the Rájputs all belong to the tall, fair, leptorrhine
+Indo-Aryan main stock of the area, merging on the west and south-west
+into the Biluch and Pathán Turko-Iranian, and fringed in the hill
+districts on the north with what have been described as products of the
+"contact metamorphism" with the Mongoloid tribes of Central Asia. Thus,
+in spite of the inevitable blurring of boundary lines, the political
+divisions treated together in this volume, form a fairly clean-cut
+geographical unit.
+
+Sir James Douie, in this work, is obviously living over again the happy
+thirty-five years which he devoted to the service of North-West India:
+his accounts of the physiography, the flora and fauna, the people and
+the administration are essentially the personal recollections of one who
+has first studied the details as a District Officer and has afterwards
+corrected his perspective, stage by stage, from the successively higher
+view-point of a Commissioner, the Chief Secretary, Financial
+Commissioner, and finally as Officiating Lieut.-Governor. No one could
+more appropriately undertake the task of an accurate and
+well-proportioned thumb-nail sketch of North-West India and, what is
+equally important to the earnest reader, no author could more obviously
+delight in his subject.
+
+  T. H. H.
+
+  ALDERLEY EDGE,
+
+  _March 9th, 1916._
+
+
+
+
+NOTE BY AUTHOR
+
+
+My thanks are due to the Government of India for permission to use
+illustrations contained in official publications. Except where otherwise
+stated the numerous maps included in the volume are derived from this
+source. My obligations to provincial and district gazetteers have been
+endless. Sir Thomas Holdich kindly allowed me to reproduce some of the
+charts in his excellent book on _India_. The accuracy of the sections on
+geology and coins may be relied on, as they were written by masters of
+these subjects, Sir Thomas Holland and Mr R. B. Whitehead, I.C.S.
+Chapter XVII could not have been written at all without the help
+afforded by Mr Vincent Smith's _Early History of India_. I have
+acknowledged my debts to other friends in the "List of Illustrations."
+
+  J. M. D.
+
+  _8 May 1916._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAP.                                                             PAGE
+
+       I. Areas and Boundaries                                         1
+
+      II. Mountains, Hills, and Plains                                 8
+
+     III. Rivers                                                      32
+
+      IV. Geology and Mineral Resources                               50
+
+       V. Climate                                                     64
+
+      VI. Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees                                    71
+
+     VII. Forests                                                     86
+
+    VIII. Beasts, Birds, Fishes, and Insects                          90
+
+      IX. The People: Numbers, Races, and Languages                   96
+
+       X. The People: Religions                                      114
+
+      XI. The People: Education                                      122
+
+     XII. Roads and Railways                                         127
+
+    XIII. Canals                                                     132
+
+     XIV. Agriculture and Crops                                      142
+
+      XV. Handicrafts and Manufactures                               152
+
+     XVI. Exports and Imports                                        159
+
+    XVII. History: Pre-Muhammadan Period, 500 B.C.-1000 A.D.         160
+
+  XVIII.  History: Muhammadan Period, 1000 A.D.-1764 A.D.            168
+
+    XIX.  History: Sikh Period, 1764 A.D.-1849 A.D.                  181
+
+     XX.  History: British Period, 1849 A.D.-1913 A.D.               188
+
+    XXI.  Archaeology and Coins                                      200
+
+    XXII. Administration: General                                    212
+
+   XXIII. Administration: Local                                      217
+
+    XXIV. Revenue and Expenditure                                    219
+
+     XXV. Panjáb Districts and Delhi                                 224
+
+    XXVI. The Panjáb Native States                                   271
+
+   XXVII. The North-west Frontier Province                           291
+
+  XXVIII. Kashmír and Jammu                                          314
+
+    XXIX. Cities                                                     325
+
+     XXX. Other Places of Note                                       347
+
+
+  TABLES
+
+  I.   Tribes of Panjáb including Native States and of
+  N.W.F. Province                                                    359
+
+  II.   Rainfall, Cultivation, Population, and Land
+  Revenue                                                            360
+
+  III.   Agricultural Diagrams                                       362
+
+  IV.   Crops                                                        364
+
+  V.   Revenue and Expenditure of Panjáb                             366
+
+
+  Index                                                              367
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  FIG.                                                             PAGE
+
+  1.  Arms of Panjáb                                                  1
+
+  2.  Orographical Map (Holdich's _India_)                            9
+
+  3.  Nanga Parvat (Watson's _Gazetteer of Hazára_)                  11
+
+  4.  Burzil Pass (Sir Aurel Stein)                                  13
+
+  5.  Rotang Pass (J. Coldstream)                                    15
+
+  6.  Mt Haramukh (Sir Aurel Stein)                                  16
+
+  7.  R. Jhelam in Kashmír--View towards Mohand Marg
+  (Sir Aurel Stein)                                                  18
+
+  8.  Near Náran in Kágan Glen, Hazára (Watson's
+  _Gazetteer of Hazára_)                                             19
+
+  9.  Muztagh-Karakoram and Himalayan Ranges in
+  Kashmír (Holdich's _India_)                                        21
+
+  10.  The Khaibar Road (Holdich's _India_)                          23
+
+  11.  Panjáb Rivers (Holdich's _India_)                             33
+
+  12.  The Indus at Attock (Sir Aurel Stein)                         37
+
+  13.  Indus at Kafirkot, D.I. Khán dt. (Sir Aurel Stein)            38
+
+  14.  Fording the River at Lahore (E. B. Francis)                   42
+
+  15.  Biás at Manálí (J. Coldstream)                                44
+
+  16.  Rainfall of different Seasons (Blanford)                  62, 63
+
+  17.  Average Barometric and Wind Chart for January
+  (Blanford)                                                         65
+
+  18.  Average Barometric and Wind Chart for July
+  (Blanford)                                                         66
+
+  19.  Banian or Bor trees (Sir Aurel Stein)                         75
+
+  20.  Deodárs and Hill Temple (J. Coldstream)                       80
+
+  21.  Firs in Himálaya (J. Coldstream)                              82
+
+  22.  Chinárs (Sir Aurel Stein)                                     83
+
+  23.  Rhododendron campanulatum (J. Coldstream)                     84
+
+  24.  Big Game in Ladákh                                            92
+
+  25.  Yáks (J. Coldstream)                                          93
+
+  26.  Black Buck                                                    95
+
+  27.  Map showing density of population (_Panjáb Census
+  Report_, 1911)                                                     97
+
+  28. Map showing increase and decrease of population
+  (_Panjáb Census Report_, 1911)                                     98
+
+  29.  Map showing density of population in N.W.F.
+  Province (_N.W. Provinces Census Report_, 1911)                    99
+
+  30. Map showing density of population in Kashmír
+  (_Kashmír Census Report_, 1911)                                   100
+
+  31.  Jat Sikh Officers (Nand Rám)                                 103
+
+  32.  Blind Beggar (E. B. Francis)                                 107
+
+  33. Dards (Sir Aurel Stein)                                       108
+
+  34. Map showing races (from _The People of India_,
+  by Sir Herbert Risley. With permission of
+  W. Thacker and Co., London)                                       109
+
+  35. Map showing distribution of languages (_Panjáb
+  Census Report_, 1911)                                             111
+
+  36. Map showing distribution of religions (_Panjáb
+  Census Report_, 1911)                                             115
+
+  37. Raghunáth Temple, Jammu                                       116
+
+  38. Golden Temple, Amritsar (Mrs B. Roe)                          117
+
+  39. Mosque in Lahore City (E. B. Francis)                         118
+
+  40. God and Goddess, Chamba (H.H. the Rája of
+  Chamba)                                                           120
+
+  41. A Kulu godling and his attendants (J. Coldstream)             121
+
+  42. A School in the time preceding annexation                     124
+
+  43. Poplar lined road to Srínagar (Miss M. B. Douie)              128
+
+  44. Map showing railways                                          129
+
+  45. Map--Older Canals                                             134
+
+  46. Map--Canals                                                   137
+
+  47. Map of Canals of Pesháwar district                            141
+
+  48. Persian Wheel Well and Ekka (Sir Aurel Stein)                 143
+
+  49. A drove of goats--Lahore (E. B. Francis)                      144
+
+  50. A steep bit of hill cultivation, Hazára (Watson's
+  _Gazetteer of Hazára_)                                            146
+
+  51. Preparing rice field in the Hills (J. Coldstream)             147
+
+  52. Carved doorway (Sir Aurel Stein)                              151
+
+  53. Shoemaker's craft (Baden Powell _Panjáb Manufactures_)        153
+
+  54. Carved windows (Sir Aurel Stein)                              155
+
+  55. Papier maché work of Kashmír (Baden Powell
+  _Panjáb Manufactures_)                                            156
+
+  56. The Potter                                                    157
+
+  57. Coin--obverse and reverse of Menander                         163
+
+  58. Mártand Temple (Miss Griffiths)                               166
+
+  59. Bába Nának and the Musician Mardána                           174
+
+  60. Guru Govind Singh                                             176
+
+  61. Mahárája Ranjít Singh                                         182
+
+  62. Mahárája Kharak Singh                                         185
+
+  63. Nao Nihál Singh                                               185
+
+  64. Mahárája Sher Singh                                           185
+
+  65. Zamzama Gun (E. B. Francis)                                   187
+
+  66. Sir John Lawrence (from picture in National Portrait
+  Gallery)                                                          189
+
+  67. John Nicholson's Monument at Delhi (Lady Douie)               190
+
+  68. Sir Robert Montgomery                                         191
+
+  69. Panjáb Camels at Lahore (E. B. Francis)                       193
+
+  70. Sir Charles Aitchison (Bourne and Shepherd)                   194
+
+  71. Sir Denzil Ibbetson (Albert Jenkins)                          198
+
+  72. Sir Michael O'Dwyer (R. Rámlál Bhairulál and Son)             199
+
+  73. Group of Chamba Temples (H.H. the Rája of Chamba)             201
+
+  74. Payer Temple--Kashmír (Sir Aurel Stein)                       202
+
+  75. Reliquary (Government of India)                               203
+
+  76. Colonnade in Kuwwat ul Islám Mosque                           204
+
+  77.  Kutb Minár (Miss M. B. Douie)                                205
+
+  78. Tomb of Emperor Tughlak Sháh (Miss M. B. Douie)               206
+
+  79. Jama Masjid, Delhi                                            207
+
+  80. Tomb of Humáyun (Miss M. B. Douie)                            207
+
+  81. Bádsháhí Mosque, Lahore (E. B. Francis)                       208
+
+  82. Coins                                                         210
+
+  83.  Skeleton District Map of Panjáb                              223
+
+  84.  Delhi Enclave                                                225
+
+  85.  Hissár district with portions of the Phulkian States
+  etc.                                                              226
+
+  86.  Rohtak district                                              228
+
+  87.  Gurgáon district                                             230
+
+  88.  Karnál district                                              231
+
+  89.  Ambála district with Kalsia                                  233
+
+  90.  Kángra district                                              235
+
+  91.  Biás at Manálí (J. Coldstream)                               237
+
+  92.  Religious Fair in Kulu (J. Coldstream)                       238
+
+  93.  Kulu Women (J. Coldstream)                                   239
+
+  94.  Hoshyárpur district                                          240
+
+  95.  Jalandhar district and Kapurthala                            242
+
+  96.  Ludhiána district and adjoining Native States                243
+
+  97.  Ferozepore district and Farídkot                             244
+
+  98.  Gurdáspur district                                           246
+
+  99.  Siálkot district                                             247
+
+  100.  Gujránwála district                                         248
+
+  101.  Amritsar district                                           250
+
+  102.  Lahore district                                             251
+
+  103.  Gujrát district                                             252
+
+  104. Jhelam district                                              254
+
+  105.  Ráwalpindí district                                         255
+
+  106.  Shop in Murree Bazár (Lady Douie)                           256
+
+  107.  Attock district                                             257
+
+  108.  Mianwálí district                                           259
+
+  109.  Sháhpur district                                            261
+
+  110, Montgomery district                                          263
+
+  111. Lyallpur district                                            264
+
+  112. Jhang district                                               265
+
+  113. Multán district                                              266
+
+  114. Muzaffargarh district                                        268
+
+  115. Dera Ghází Khán district                                     269
+
+  116. Mahárája of Patiála (C. Vandyk)                              272
+
+  117. Mahárája of Jínd                                             277
+
+  118. Mahárája Sir Hira Singh of Nábha (Bourne and
+  Shepherd)                                                         278
+
+  119. Mahárája of Kapúrthala                                       279
+
+  120.  Rája of Farídkot (Julian Rust)                              280
+
+  121.  Nawáb of Baháwalpur                                         281
+
+  122.  Native States of Chamba, Mandí, Suket, Biláspur             284
+
+  123.  Rája Surindar Bikram Parkásh of Sirmúr                      285
+
+  124.  Rája of Chamba (F. Bremner)                                 287
+
+  125.  Bashahr (Sketch Map by H. W. Emerson)                       289
+
+  126.  Sir Harold Deane (F. Bremner)                               292
+
+  127.  North-west Frontier Province                                293
+
+  128.  Dera Ismail Khán district                                   294
+
+  129.  Bannu district                                              295
+
+  130.  Kohát district                                              297
+
+  131.  Pesháwar district                                           298
+
+  132.  Hazára district                                             300
+
+  133.  Sir George Roos Keppel (Maull and Fox)                      303
+
+  134.  Tribal Territory north of Pesháwar                          304
+
+  135.  Tribal Territory to west of N.W.F. Province                 308
+
+  136.  Khaibar Rifles                                              310
+
+  137.  North Wazíristán Militia and Border Post                    313
+
+  138.  Mahárája of Kashmír                                         315
+
+  139.  Jammu and Kashmír                                           316
+
+  140.  Takht i Sulimán in Winter (Sir Aurel Stein)                 318
+
+  141.  Ladákh Hills (Mrs Wynyard Brown)                            320
+
+  142.  Zojilá Pass (Mrs Wynyard Brown)                             322
+
+  143.  Delhi Mutiny Monument                                       327
+
+  144.  Kashmír Gate, Delhi                                         328
+
+  145.  Map of Delhi City                                           329
+
+  146.  Darbár Medal                                                334
+
+  147.  Street in Lahore (E. B. Francis)                            336
+
+  148.  Sháhdara                                                    338
+
+  149. Trans-border traders in Pesháwar                             343
+
+  150. Mosque of Sháh Hamadán (F. Bremner)                          345
+
+
+  Map of territories of Mahárája of Jammu and Kashmír   _at end of volume_
+  Map of Panjáb                                         _at end of volume_
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+AREAS AND BOUNDARIES
+
+
+~Introductory.~--Of the provinces of India the Panjáb must always have a
+peculiar interest for Englishmen. Invasions by land from the west have
+perforce been launched across its great plains. The English were the
+first invaders who, possessing sea power, were able to outflank the
+mountain ranges which guard the north and west of India. Hence the
+Panjáb was the last, and not the first, of their Indian conquests, and
+the courage and efficiency of the Sikh soldiery, even after the guiding
+hand of the old Mahárája Ranjít Singh was withdrawn, made it also one of
+the hardest. The success of the early administration of the province,
+which a few years after annexation made it possible to use its resources
+in fighting men to help in the task of putting down the mutiny, has
+always been a matter of just pride, while the less familiar story of the
+conquests of peace in the first sixty years of British rule may well
+arouse similar feelings.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Arms of Panjáb.]
+
+~Scope of work.~--A geography of the Panjáb will fitly embrace an account
+also of the North-West Frontier Province, which in 1901 was severed
+from it and formed into a separate administration, of the small area
+recently placed directly under the government of India on the transfer
+of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi, and of the native states in
+political dependence on the Panjáb Government. It will also be
+convenient to include Kashmír and the tribal territory beyond the
+frontier of British India which is politically controlled from Pesháwar.
+The whole tract covers ten degrees of latitude and eleven of longitude.
+The furthest point of the Kashmír frontier is in 37° 2' N., which is
+much the same as the latitude of Syracuse. In the south-east the Panjáb
+ends at 27° 4' N., corresponding roughly to the position of the
+southernmost of the Canary Islands. Lines drawn west from Pesháwar and
+Lahore would pass to the north of Beirut and Jerusalem respectively.
+Multán and Cairo are in the same latitude, and so are Delhi and
+Teneriffe. Kashmír stretches eastwards to longitude 80° 3' and the
+westernmost part of Wazíristán is in 69° 2' E.
+
+~Distribution of Area.~--The area dealt with is roughly 253,000 square
+miles. This is but two-thirteenths of the area of the Indian Empire, and
+yet it is less by only 10,000 square miles than that of Austria-Hungary
+including Bosnia and Herzegovina. The area consists of:
+
+                                                              sq. miles
+
+  (1) The Panjáb                                                 97,000
+  (2) Native States dependent on Panjáb Government               36,500
+  (3) Kashmír                                                    81,000
+  (4) North West Frontier Province                               13,000
+  (5) Tribal territory under the political control of the Chief
+  Commissioner of North West Frontier Province, roughly          25,500
+
+Approximately 136,000 square miles may be classed as highlands and
+117,000 as plains, and these may be distributed as follows over the
+above divisions:
+
+                                                  Highlands   Plains
+                                                  sq. miles   sq. miles
+
+  (1) Panjáb, British                                11,000   86,000
+  (2) Panjáb, Native States                          12,000   24,500
+  (3) Kashmír                                        81,000     --
+  (4) North West Frontier Province                    6,500    6,500
+  (5) Tribal Territory                               25,500     --
+
+On the north the highlands include the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan
+(Siwálik) tracts to the south and east of the Indus, and north of that
+river the Muztagh-Karakoram range and the bleak salt plateau beyond that
+range reaching almost up to the Kuenlun mountains. To the west of the
+Indus they include those spurs of the Hindu Kush which run into Chitrál
+and Dir, the Buner and Swát hills, the Safed Koh, the Wazíristán hills,
+the Sulimán range, and the low hills in the trans-Indus districts of the
+North West Frontier Province.
+
+~Boundary with China.~--There is a point to the north of Hunza in Kashmír
+where three great mountain chains, the Muztagh from the south-east, the
+Hindu Kush from the south-west, and the Sarikol (an offshoot of the
+Kuenlun) from the north-east, meet. It is also the meeting-place of the
+Indian, Chinese, and Russian empires and of Afghánistán. Westwards from
+this the boundary of Kashmír and Chinese Turkestán runs for 350 miles
+(omitting curves) through a desolate upland lying well to the north of
+the Muztagh-Karakoram range. Finally in the north-east corner of Kashmír
+the frontier impinges on the great Central Asian axis of the Kuenlun.
+From this point it turns southwards and separates Chinese Tibet from the
+salt Lingzi Thang plains and the Indus valley in Kashmír, and the
+eastern part of the native state of Bashahr, which physically form a
+portion of Tibet.
+
+~Boundary with United Provinces.~--The south-east corner of Bashahr is a
+little to the north of the great Kedárnáth peak in the Central Himálaya
+and of the source of the Jamna. Here the frontier strikes to the west
+dividing Bashahr from Teri Garhwál, a native state under the control of
+the government of the United Provinces. Turning again to the south it
+runs to the junction of the Tons and Jamna, separating Teri Garhwál from
+Sirmúr and some of the smaller Simla Hill States. Henceforth the Jamna
+is with small exceptions the boundary between the Panjáb and the United
+Provinces.
+
+~Boundary with Afghánistán.~--We must now return to our starting-point at
+the eastern extremity of the Hindu Kush, and trace the boundary with
+Afghánistán. The frontier runs west and south-west along the Hindu Kush
+to the Dorah pass dividing Chitrál from the Afghán province of Wakhan,
+and streams which drain into the Indus from the head waters of the Oxus.
+At the Dorah pass it turns sharply to the south, following a great spur
+which parts the valley of the Chitrál river (British) from that of its
+Afghán affluent, the Bashgol. Below the junction of the two streams at
+Arnawai the Chitrál changes its name and becomes the Kunar. Near this
+point the "Durand" line begins. In 1893 an agreement was made between
+the Amir Abdurrahman and Sir Mortimer Durand as representative of the
+British Government determining the frontier line from Chandak in the
+valley of the Kunar, twelve miles north of Asmar, to the Persian border.
+Asmar is an Afghán village on the left bank of the Kunar to the south of
+Arnawai. In 1894 the line was demarcated along the eastern watershed of
+the Kunar valley to Nawakotal on the confines of Bajaur and the country
+of the Mohmands.
+
+Thence the frontier, which has not been demarcated, passes through the
+heart of the Mohmand country to the Kábul river and beyond it to our
+frontier post in the Khaibar at Landikhána.
+
+From this point the line, still undemarcated, runs on in a
+south-westerly direction to the Safed Koh, and then strikes west along
+it to the Sikarám mountain near the Paiwar Kotal at the head of the
+Kurram valley. From Sikarám the frontier runs south and south-east
+crossing the upper waters of the Kurram, and dividing our possessions
+from the Afghán province of Khost. This line was demarcated in 1894.
+
+At the south of the Kurram valley the frontier sweeps round to the west
+leaving in the British sphere the valley of the Tochí. Turning again to
+the south it crosses the upper waters of the Tochí and passes round the
+back of Wazíristán by the Shawal valley and the plains about Wána to
+Domandí on the Gomal river, where Afghánistán, Biluchistán, and the
+North West Frontier Province meet. The Wazíristán boundary was
+demarcated in 1895.
+
+~Political and Administrative Boundaries.~--The boundary described above
+defines spheres of influence, and only in the Kurram valley does it
+coincide with that of the districts for whose orderly administration we
+hold ourselves responsible. All we ask of Wazírs, Afrídís, or Mohmands
+is to leave our people at peace; we have no concern with their quarrels
+or blood feuds, so long as they abide in their mountains or only leave
+them for the sake of lawful gain. Our administrative boundary, which
+speaking broadly we took over from the Sikhs, usually runs at the foot
+of the hills. A glance at the map will show that between Pesháwar and
+Kohát the territory of the independent tribes comes down almost to the
+Indus. At this point the hills occupied by the Jowákí section of the
+Afrídí tribe push out a great tongue eastwards. Our military frontier
+road runs through these hills, and we actually pay the tribesmen of the
+Kohát pass for our right of way. Another tongue of tribal territory
+reaches right down to the Indus, and almost severs the Pesháwar and
+Hazára districts. Further north the frontier of Hazára lies well to the
+east of the Indus.
+
+~Frontier with Biluchistán.~--At Domandí the frontier turns to the east,
+and following the Gomal river to its junction with the Zhob at Kajúrí
+Kach forms the boundary of the two British administrations. Henceforth
+the general direction of the line is determined by the trend of the
+Sulimán range. It runs south to the Vehoa pass, where the country of the
+Patháns of the North West Frontier Province ends and that of the Hill
+and Plain Biluches subject to the Panjáb Government begins. From the
+Vehoa pass to the Kahá torrent the line is drawn so as to leave Biluch
+tribes with the Panjáb and Pathán tribes with the Biluchistán Agency.
+South of the Kahá the division is between Biluch tribes, the Marrís and
+Bugtís to the west being managed from Quetta, and the Gurchánís and
+Mazárís, who are largely settled in the plains, being included in Dera
+Gházi Khán, the trans-Indus district of the Panjáb. At the south-west
+corner of the Dera Ghází Khán district the Panjáb, Sind, and Biluchistán
+meet. From this point the short common boundary of the Panjáb and Sind
+runs east to the Indus.
+
+~The Southern Boundary.~--East of the Indus the frontier runs south-east
+for about fifty miles parting Sind from the Baháwalpur State, till a
+point is reached where Sind, Rájputána, and Baháwalpur join. A little
+further to the east is the southern extremity of Baháwalpur at 70° 8' E.
+and 27° 5' N. From this point a line drawn due east would at a distance
+of 370 miles pass a few miles to the north of the south end of Gurgaon
+and a few miles to the south of the border of the Narnaul tract of
+Patiála. Between Narnaul and the south-east corner of the Baháwalpur
+State the great Rájputána desert, mainly occupied in this quarter by
+Bikaner, thrusts northwards a huge wedge reaching almost up to the
+Sutlej. To the west of the wedge is Baháwalpur and to the east the
+British district of Hissár. The apex is less than 100 miles from Lahore,
+while a line drawn due south from that city to latitude 27'5° north
+would exceed 270 miles in length. The Jaipur State lies to the south and
+west of Narnaul, while Gurgaon has across its southern frontiers Alwar
+and Bharatpur, and near the Jamna the Muttra district of the United
+Provinces.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+MOUNTAINS, HILLS, AND PLAINS
+
+
+~The Great Northern Rampart.~--The huge mountain rampart which guards the
+northern frontier of India thrusts out in the north-west a great bastion
+whose outer walls are the Hindu Kush and the Muztagh-Karakoram ranges.
+Behind the latter with a general trend from south-east to north-west are
+the great valley of the Indus to the point near Gilgit where it turns
+sharply to the south, and a succession of mountain chains and glens
+making up the Himalayan tract, through which the five rivers of the
+Panjáb and the Jamna find their way to the plains. To meet trans-Indus
+extensions of the Himálaya the Hindu Kush pushes out from its main axis
+great spurs to the south, flanking the valleys which drain into the
+Indus either directly or through the Kábul river.
+
+~The Himálaya.~--Tibet, which from the point of view of physical geography
+includes a large and little known area in the Kashmír State to the north
+of the Karakoram range, is a lofty, desolate, wind swept plateau with a
+mean elevation of about 15,000 feet. In the part of it situated to the
+north of the north-west corner of Nipál lies the Manasarowar lake, in
+the neighbourhood of which three great Indian rivers, the Tsanpo or
+Brahmapútra, the Sutlej, and the Indus, take their rise. The Indus flows
+to the north-west for 500 miles and then turns abruptly to the south to
+seek its distant home in the Indian Ocean. The Tsanpo has a still
+longer course of 800 miles eastwards before it too bends southwards to
+flow through Assam into the Bay of Bengal. Between the points where
+these two giant rivers change their direction there extends for a
+distance of 1500 miles the vast congeries of mountain ranges known
+collectively as the "Himálaya" or "Abode of Snow." As a matter of
+convenience the name is sometimes confined to the mountains east of the
+Indus, but geologically the hills of Buner and Swát to the north of
+Pesháwar probably belong to the same system. In Sanskrit literature the
+Himalaya is also known as "Himavata," whence the classical Emodus.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Orographical Map.]
+
+~The Kumáon Himálaya.~--The Himálaya may be divided longitudinally into
+three sections, the eastern or Sikkim, the mid or Kumáon, and the
+north-western or Ladákh. With the first we are not concerned. The Kumáon
+section lies mainly in the United Provinces, but it includes the sources
+of the Jamna, and contains the chain in the Panjáb which is at once the
+southern watershed of the Sutlej and the great divide between the two
+river systems of Northern India, the Gangetic draining into the Bay of
+Bengal, and the Indus carrying the enormous discharge of the north-west
+Himálaya, the Muztagh-Karakoram, and the Hindu Kush ranges into the
+Indian Ocean. Simla stands on the south-western end of this watershed,
+and below it the Himálaya drops rapidly to the Siwálik foot-hills and to
+the plains. Jakko, the _deodár_-clad hill round which so much of the
+life of the summer capital of India revolves, attains a height of 8000
+feet. The highest peak within a radius of 25 miles of Simla is the Chor,
+which is over 12,000 feet high, and does not lose its snow cap till May.
+Hattu, the well-known hill above Narkanda, which is 40 miles from Simla
+by road, is 1000 feet lower. But further west in Bashahr the higher
+peaks range from 16,000 to 22,000 feet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Nanga Parvat.]
+
+~The Inner Himálaya or Zánskar Range.~--The division of the Himálaya into
+the three sections named above is convenient for descriptive purposes.
+But its chief axis runs through all the sections. East of Nipál it
+strikes into Tibet not very far from the source of the Tsanpo, is soon
+pierced by the gorge of the Sutlej, and beyond it forms the southern
+watershed of the huge Indus valley. In the west this great rampart is
+known as the Zánskar range. For a short distance it is the boundary
+between the Panjáb and Kashmír, separating two outlying portions of the
+Kángra district, Lahul and Spití, from Ladákh. In this section the peaks
+are from 19,000 to 21,000 feet high, and the Baralácha pass on the road
+from the Kulu valley in Kángra to Leh, the capital of Ladákh, is at an
+elevation of about 16,500 feet. In Kashmír the Zánskar or Inner Himálaya
+divides the valley of the Indus from those of the Chenáb and Jhelam. It
+has no mountain to dispute supremacy with Everest (29,000 feet), or
+Kinchinjunga in the Eastern Himálaya, but the inferiority is only
+relative. The twin peaks called Nun and Kun to the east of Srínagar
+exceed 23,000 feet, and in the extreme north-west the grand mountain
+mass of Nanga Parvat towers above the Indus to a height of 26,182 feet.
+The lowest point in the chain is the Zojilá (11,300 feet) on the route
+from Srínagar, the capital of Kashmír, to Leh on the Indus
+
+The road from Srínagar to Gilgit passes over the Burzil pass at an
+elevation of 13,500 feet.
+
+The Zojilá is at the top of the beautiful valley of the Sind river, a
+tributary of the Jhelam. The lofty Zánskar range blocks the inward flow
+of the monsoon, and once the Zojilá is crossed the aspect of the country
+entirely changes. The land of forest glades and green pastures is left
+behind, and a region of naked and desolate grandeur begins.
+
+     "The waste of snow ... is the frontier of barren Tibet, where sandy
+     wastes replace verdant meadows, and where the wild ridges, jutting
+     up against the sky, are kept bare of vegetation, their strata
+     crumbling under the destructive action of frost and water, leaving
+     bare ribs of gaunt and often fantastic outline.... The colouring of
+     the mountains is remarkable throughout Ladákh and nowhere more so
+     than near the Fotulá (a pass on the road to Leh to the south of the
+     Indus gorge).... As we ascend the peaks suggest organ pipes, so
+     vertical are the ridges, so jagged the ascending outlines. And each
+     pipe is painted a different colour ... pale slate green, purple,
+     yellow, grey, orange, and chocolate, each colour corresponding with
+     a layer of the slate, shale, limestone, or trap strata" (Neve's
+     _Picturesque Kashmir_, pp. 108 and 117).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Burzil Pass.]
+
+In all this desolation there are tiny oases where level soil and a
+supply of river water permit of cultivation and of some tree growth.
+
+~Water divide near Baralácha and Rotang Passes in Kulu.~--We have seen
+that the Indus and its greatest tributary, the Sutlej, rise beyond the
+Himálaya in the Tibetan plateau. The next great water divide is in the
+neighbourhood of the Baralácha pass and the Rotang pass, 30 miles to the
+south of it. The route from Simla to Leh runs at a general level of 7000
+to 9000 feet along or near the Sutlej-Jamna watershed to Narkanda (8800
+feet). Here it leaves the Hindustán-Tibet road and drops rapidly into
+the Sutlej gorge, where the Lurí bridge is only 2650 feet above sea
+level. Rising steeply on the other side the Jalaurí pass on the
+watershed between the Sutlej and the Biás is crossed at an elevation of
+10,800 feet. A more gradual descent brings the traveller to the Biás at
+Lárjí, 3080 feet above sea level. The route then follows the course of
+the Biás through the beautiful Kulu valley to the Rotang pass (13,326
+feet), near which the river rises. The upper part of the valley is
+flanked on the west by the short, but very lofty Bara Bangáhal range,
+dividing Kulu from Kángra and the source of the Biás from that of the
+Ráví. Beyond the Rotang is Lahul, which is divided by a watershed from
+Spití and the torrents which drain into the Sutlej. On the western side
+of this watershed are the sources of the Chandra and Bhága, which unite
+to form the river known in the plains as the Chenáb.
+
+~Mid Himálaya or Pangí Range.~--The Mid Himálayan or Pangí range, striking
+west from the Rotang pass and the northern end of the Bara Bangáhal
+chain, passes through the heart of Chamba dividing the valley of the
+Chenáb (Pangí) from that of the Ráví. After entering Kashmír it crosses
+the Chenáb near the Kolahoi cone (17,900 feet) and the head waters of
+the Jhelam. Thence it continues west over Haramukh (16,900 feet), which
+casts its shadow southwards on the Wular lake, to the valley of the
+Kishnganga, and probably across it to the mountains which flank the
+magnificent Kágan glen in Hazâra.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Rotang Pass.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Mt Haramukh.]
+
+~Outer Himálaya or Dhauladhár-Pir Panjál Range.~--The Outer Himálaya also
+starts from a point near the Rotang pass, but some way to the south of
+the offset of the Mid Himalayan chain. Its main axis runs parallel to
+the latter, and under the name of the Dhauladhár (white ridge) forms the
+boundary of the Chamba State and Kángra, behind whose headquarters, at
+Dharmsála it stands up like a huge wall. It has a mean elevation of
+15,000 feet, but rises as high as 16,000. It passes from Chamba into
+Bhadarwáh in Kashmír, and crossing the Chenáb is carried on as the Pír
+Panjál range through the south of that State. With an elevation of only
+14,000 or 15,000 feet it is a dwarf as compared with the giants of the
+Inner Himalayan and Muztagh-Karakoram chains. But it hides them from the
+dwellers in the Panjáb, and its snowy crest is a very striking picture
+as seen in the cold weather from the plains of Ráwalpindí, Jhelam, and
+Gujrát. The Outer Himálaya is continued beyond the gorges of the Jhelam
+and Kishnganga rivers in Kajnág and the hills of the Hazára district.
+Near the eastern extremity of the Dhauladhár section of the Outer
+Himálaya it sends out southwards between Kulu and Mandí a lower
+offshoot. This is crossed by the Babbu (9480 feet) and Dulchí passes,
+connecting Kulu with Kángra through Mandí. Geologically the Kulu-Mandí
+range appears to be continued to the east of the Biás and across the
+Sutlej over Hattu and the Chor to the hills near Masúrí (Mussoorie), a
+well-known hill station in the United Provinces. Another offshoot at the
+western end of the Dhauladhár passes through the beautiful hill station
+of Dalhousie, and sinks into the low hills to the east of the Ráví,
+where it leaves Chamba and enters the British district of Gurdáspur.
+
+~River Valleys and Passes in the Himálaya.~--While these principal chains
+can be traced from south-east to north-west over hundreds of miles it
+must be remembered that the Himálaya is a mountain mass from 150 to 200
+miles broad, that the main axes are linked together by subsidiary cross
+chains dividing the head waters of great rivers, and flanked by long and
+lofty ridges running down at various angles to the gorges of these
+streams and their tributaries. The typical Himalayan river runs in a
+gorge with mountains dipping down pretty steeply to its sides. The lower
+slopes are cultivated, but the land is usually stony and uneven, and as
+a whole the crops are not of a high class. The open valleys of the
+Jhelam in Kashmír and of the Biás in Kulu are exceptions. Passes in the
+Himálaya are not defiles between high cliffs, but cross the crest of a
+ridge at a point where the chain is locally depressed, and snow melts
+soonest. In the Outer and Mid Himálaya the line of perpetual snow is at
+about 16,000 feet, but for six months of the year the snow-line comes
+down 5000 feet lower. In the Inner Himálaya and the Muztagh-Karakoram,
+to which the monsoon does not penetrate, the air is so dry that less
+snow falls and the line is a good deal higher.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. R. Jhelam in Kashmír--View towards Mohand Marg.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Near Náran in Kágan Glen, Hazára.]
+
+~Himalayan Scenery.~--Certain things strike any observant traveller in the
+Himálaya. One is the comparative absence of running or still water,
+except in the height of the rainy season, away from the large rivers.
+The slope is so rapid that ordinary falls of rain run off with great
+rapidity. The mountain scenery is often magnificent and the forests are
+beautiful, but the absence of water robs the landscape of a charm which
+would make it really perfect. Where this too is present, as in the
+valley of the Biás in Kulu and those of the Jhelam and its tributaries
+in Kashmír and Hazára, the eye has its full fruition of content.
+Another is the silence of the forests. Bird and beast are there, but
+they are little in evidence. A third feature which can hardly be missed
+is the contrast between the northern and the southern slopes. The former
+will often be clothed with forest while the latter is a bare stony slope
+covered according to season with brown or green grass interspersed with
+bushes of indigo, barberry, or the hog plum (Prinsepia utilis). The
+reason is that the northern side enjoys much more shade, snow lies
+longer, and the supply of moisture is therefore greater. The grazier for
+the same reason is less tempted to fire the hill side in order to
+promote the growth of grass, a practice which is fatal to all forest
+growth. The rich and varied flora of the Himálaya will be referred to
+later.
+
+~Muztagh-Karakoram Ranges.~--The Muztagh-Karakoram mountains form the
+northern watershed of the Indus. The range consists of more than one
+main axis. The name Karakoram is appropriated to the eastern part of the
+system which originates at E. longitude 79° near the Pangong lake in the
+Tibetan plateau a little beyond the boundary of Kashmír. Beyond the
+Karakoram pass (18,550 ft.) is a lofty bleak upland with salt lakes
+dotted over its surface. Through this inhospitable region and over the
+Karakoram pass and the Sasser-lá (17,500 ft.) the trade route from
+Yarkand to Leh runs. The road is only open for three months in the year,
+and the dangers and hardships are great. In 1898 Dr Bullock Workman and
+his wife marched along it across the Shyok river, up the valley of the
+Nubra, and over the Sasser-lá to the Karakoram pass. The scenery is an
+exaggeration of that described by Dr Neve as seen on the road from the
+Zoji-lá to Leh. There is a powerful picture of its weird repellent
+grandeur in the Workmans' book entitled _In the Ice World of Himálaya_
+(pp. 28-29, 30-32). The poet who had found ideas for a new Paradiso in
+the Vale of Kashmír might here get suggestions for a new Inferno.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Muztagh-Karakoram and Himalayan Ranges in
+Kashmír.]
+
+The Karakoram range culminates in the north-west near the Muztagh pass
+in a group of majestic peaks including K 2 or Mount Godwin Austen
+(28,265 feet), Gasherbrum, and Masherbrum, which tower over and feed the
+vast Boltoro glacier. The first of these giants is the second largest
+mountain in the world. The Duke of the Abruzzi ascended it to the height
+of 24,600 feet, and so established a climbing record. The Muztagh chain
+carries on the northern bastion to the valley of the Hunza river and
+the western extremity of the Hindu Kush. It has several peaks exceeding
+25,000 feet. The most famous is Rakiposhi which looks down on Hunza from
+a height of 25,550 feet.
+
+~The Hindu Kush.~--The Muztagh chain from the south-east, the Sarikol from
+the north-east, and the Hindu Kush from the south-west, meet at a point
+to the north of Hunza. The last runs westward and south-westward for
+about 200 miles to the Dorah pass (14,800 feet), separating the valleys
+which drain into the Indus from the head waters of the Oxus, and Hunza
+and Gilgit in Kashmír and Chitrál in British India from the Afghán
+province of Wakhan. The highest point in the main axis, Sad Istragh
+(24,171 feet), is in this section. But the finest mountain scenery in
+the Hindu Kush is in the great spurs it thrusts out southwards to flank
+the glens which feed the Gilgit and Chitrál rivers. Tirach Mír towers
+above Chitrál to a height of 25,426 feet. From Tibet to the Dorah pass
+the northern frontier of India is impregnable. It is pierced by one or
+two difficult trade routes strewn with the bones of pack animals, but no
+large army has ever marched across it for the invasion of India. West of
+the Dorah pass the general level of the Hindu Kush is a good deal lower
+than that of its eastern section. The vital point in the defences of
+India in this quarter lies near Charikár to the north of Kábul, where
+the chain thins out, and three practicable passes debouch on the valley
+of the Kábul river. It is this fact that gives the town of Kábul its
+great strategic importance. The highest of the three passes, the Kaoshan
+or Hindu Kush (dead Hindu), crosses the chain at an elevation of 14,340
+feet. It took its own name from the fate that befel a Hindu army when
+attempting to cross it, and has handed it on to the whole range. It is
+the pass which the armies of Alexander and Bábar used. The historical
+road for the invasion of India on this side has been by Charikár and the
+valley of the Kábul river to its junction with the Kunar below
+Jalálábád, thence up the Kunar valley and over one of the practicable
+passes which connect its eastern watershed with the Panjkora and Swát
+river valleys, whence the descent on Pesháwar is easy. This is the route
+by which Alexander led the wing of the Grecian army which he commanded
+in person, and the one followed by Bábar in 1518-19. Like Alexander,
+Bábar fought his way through Bajaur, and crossed the Indus above Attock.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. The Khaibar Road.]
+
+~The Khaibar.~--A British force advancing on Kábul from Pesháwar has never
+marched by the Kunar and Kábul valley route. It has always taken the
+Khaibar road, which only follows the Kabul river for less than one-third
+of the 170 miles which separate Pesháwar from the Amir's capital. The
+military road from Pesháwar to Landikhána lies far to the south of the
+river, from which it is shut off by difficult and rugged country held by
+the Mohmands.
+
+~Safed Koh.~--From Landikhána the political boundary runs south-west to
+the Safed Koh (white mountain) and is continued westwards along that
+range to the Paiwar Kotal or pass (8450 feet). The Safed Koh forms the
+watershed of the Kábul and Kurram rivers. It is a fine pine clad chain
+with a general level of 12,000 feet, and its skyline is rarely free from
+snow. It culminates in the west near Paiwar Kotal in Sikarám (15,620
+feet). To the west of the Pesháwar and Kohát districts is a tangle of
+hills and valleys formed by outlying spurs of the Safed Koh. This
+difficult country is in the occupation of Afrídís and Orakzais, who are
+under our political control.
+
+~The Kurram Valley.~--The line of advance into Afghánistán through the
+Kurram valley is easy, and Lord Roberts used it when he marched towards
+Kábul in 1898. After the war we annexed the valley, leaving however the
+head waters of the Kurram in Afghán territory. The road to Kábul leaves
+the river far to the south before it crosses our frontier at Paiwar
+Kotal.
+
+~Wazíristán Hills.~--Between the Kurram valley and the Gomal river is a
+large block of very rough mountainous country known as Wazíristán from
+the turbulent clan which occupies it. In the north it is drained by the
+Tochí. Westwards of the Tochí valley the country rises into lofty
+mountains. The upper waters of the Tochí and its affluents drain two
+fine glens known as Birmal and Shawal to the west of the country of the
+Mahsud Wazírs. The Tochí valley is the direct route from India to
+Ghazní, and nine centuries ago, when that decayed town was the capital
+of a powerful kingdom, it must often have heard the tramp of armed men.
+The loftiest peaks in Wazíristán, Shuidár (11,000 feet) and Pírghal
+(11,600 feet), overhang Birmal. Further south, Wána, our post in
+south-west Wazíristán, overlooks from its plateau the Gomal valley.
+
+~The Gomal Pass as a trade route.~--East of Kajúrí Kach the Gomal flows
+through tribal territory to the Gomal pass from which it debouches into
+the plains of the Dera Ismail Khán district. "The Gomal route is the
+oldest of all trade routes. Down it there yearly pours a succession of
+_káfilas_ (caravans) led and followed up by thousands of well-armed
+Pathán traders, called Powindahs, from the plains of Afghánistán to
+India. The Powindahs mostly belong to the Ghilzai tribes, and are not
+therefore true Afgháns[1]. Leaving their women and children encamped
+within British territory on our border, and their arms in the keeping of
+our frontier political officials, the Powindah makes his way southwards
+with his camel loads of fruit and silk, bales of camel and goat hair or
+sheepskin goods, carpets and other merchandise from Kábul and Bokhára,
+and conveys himself through the length and breadth of the Indian
+peninsula.... He returns yearly to the cool summits of the Afghán hills
+and the open grassy plains, where his countless flocks of sheep and
+camels are scattered for the summer grazing" (Holdich's _India_, pp.
+80-81).
+
+~Physical features of hilly country between Pesháwar and the Gomal
+river.~--The physical features of the hill country between Pesháwar and
+the Gomal pass may best be described in the words of Sir Thomas Holdich:
+
+     "Natural landscape beauty, indeed, may here be measured to a
+     certain extent by altitude. The low ranges of sun-scorched,
+     blackened ridge and furrow formation which form the approaches to
+     the higher altitudes of the Afghán upland, and which are almost as
+     regularly laid out by the hand of nature in some parts of the
+     frontier as are the parallels ... of the engineer who is besieging
+     a fortress--these are by no means 'things of beauty,' and it is
+     this class of formation and this form of barren desolation that is
+     most familiar to the frontier officer.... Shades of delicate purple
+     and grey will not make up for the absence of the living green of
+     vegetation.... But with higher altitudes a cooler climate and
+     snow-fed soil is found, and as soon as vegetation grasps a
+     root-hold there is the beginning of fine scenery. The upper
+     pine-covered slopes of the Safed Koh are as picturesque as those of
+     the Swiss Alps; they are crowned by peaks whose wonderful altitudes
+     are frozen beyond the possibility of vegetation, and are usually
+     covered with snow wherever snow can lie. In Wazíristán, hidden away
+     in the higher recesses of its great mountains, are many valleys of
+     great natural beauty, where we find the spreading poplar and the
+     ilex in all the robust growth of an indigenous flora.... Among the
+     minor valleys Birmal perhaps takes precedence by right of its
+     natural beauty. Here are stretches of park-like scenery where
+     grass-covered slopes are dotted with clumps of _deodár_ and pine
+     and intersected with rivulets hidden in banks of fern; soft green
+     glades open out to view from every turn in the folds of the hills,
+     and above them the silent watch towers of Pírghal and Shuidár ...
+     look down from their snow-clad heights across the Afghán uplands to
+     the hills beyond Ghazní." (Holdich's _India_, pp. 81-82.)
+
+~The Sulimán Range.~--A well-marked mountain chain runs from the Gomal to
+the extreme south-west corner of the Dera Ghází Khán district where the
+borders of Biluchistán, Sind, and the Panjáb meet. It culminates forty
+miles south of the Gomal in the fine Kaisargarh mountain (11,295 feet),
+which is a very conspicuous object from the plains of the Deraját. On
+the side of Kaisargarh there is a shrine called Takht i Sulimán or
+Throne of Solomon, and this is the name by which Englishmen usually know
+the mountain, and which has been passed on to the whole range.
+Proceeding southwards the general elevation of the chain drops
+steadily. But Fort Munro, the hill station of the Dera Ghází Khán
+district, 200 miles south of the Takht, still stands 6300 feet above sea
+level, and it looks across at the fine peak of Ekbhai, which is more
+than 1000 feet higher. In the south of the Dera Ghází Khán district the
+general level of the chain is low, arid the Giandári hill, though only
+4160 feet above the sea, stands out conspicuously. Finally near where
+the three jurisdictions meet the hills melt into the Kachh Gandáva
+plain. Sir Thomas Holdich's description of the rugged Pathán hills
+applies also to the Sulimán range. Kaisargarh is a fine limestone
+mountain crowned by a forest of the edible _chilgoza_ pine. But the
+ordinary tree growth, where found at all, is of a much humbler kind,
+consisting of gnarled olives and dwarf palms.
+
+~Passes and torrents in Sulimán Hills.~--The drainage of the western
+slopes of the Sulimán range finding no exit on that side has had to wear
+out ways for itself towards the plains which lie between the foot of the
+hills and the Indus. This is the explanation of the large number of
+passes, about one hundred, which lead from the plains into the Sulimán
+hills. The chief from north to south are the Vehoa, the Sangarh, the
+Khair, the Kahá, the Cháchar, and the Sirí, called from the torrents
+which flow through them to the plains. There is an easy route through
+the Cháchar to Biluchistán. But unfortunately the water of the torrent
+is brackish.
+
+~Sub Himálaya or Siwáliks.~--In its lowest ridges the Himálaya drops to a
+height of about 5000 feet. But the traveller to any of the summer
+resorts in the mountains passes through a zone of lower hills
+interspersed sometimes with valleys or "duns." These consist of Tertiary
+sandstones, clays, and boulder conglomerates, the débris in fact which
+the Himálaya has dropped in the course of ages. To this group of hills
+and valleys the general name of Siwáliks is given. East of the Jhelam it
+includes the Náhan hills to the north of Ambála, the low hills of
+Kángra, Hoshyárpur, Gurdáspur, and Jammu, and the Pábbí hills in Gujrát.
+But it is to the west of the Jhelam that the system has its greatest
+extension. Practically the whole of the soil of the plains of the
+Attock, Ráwalpindi, and Jhelam districts consists of disintegrated
+Siwálik sandstone, and differs widely in appearance and agricultural
+quality from the alluvium of the true Panjáb plains. The low hills of
+these districts belong to the same system, but the Salt Range is only in
+part Siwálik. Altogether Siwálik deposits in the Panjáb cover an area of
+13,000 square miles. Beyond the Indus the hills of the Kohát district
+and a part of the Sulimán range are of Tertiary age.
+
+~The Great Panjáb Plain.~--The passage from the highlands to the plains is
+as a rule abrupt, and the contrast between the two is extraordinary.
+This is true without qualification of the tract between the Jamna and
+the Jhelam. It is equally true of British districts west of the Jhelam
+and south of the Salt Range and of lines drawn from Kálabágh on the west
+bank of the Indus southwards to Paniála and thence north-west through
+the Pezu pass to the Wazíristán hills. In all that vast plain, if we
+except the insignificant hills in the extreme south-west of the province
+ending to the north in the historic ridge at Delhi, some hillocks of
+gneiss near Toshám in Hissár, and the curious little isolated rocks at
+Kirána, Chiniot, and Sángla near the Chenáb and Jhelam, the only
+eminences are petty ridges of windblown sand and the "_thehs_" or mounds
+which represent the accumulated débris of ancient village sites. At the
+end of the Jurassic period and later this great plain was part of a sea
+bed. Far removed as the Indian ocean now is the height above sea level
+of the Panjáb plain east of the Jhelam is nowhere above 1000 feet. Delhi
+and Lahore are both just above the 700 feet line. The hills mentioned
+above are humble time-worn outliers of the very ancient Aravalli system,
+to which the hills of Rájputána belong. Kirána and Sángla were already
+of enormous age, when they were islands washed by the waves of the
+Tertiary sea. A description of the different parts of the vast Panjáb
+plain, its great stretches of firm loam, and its tracts of sand and sand
+hills, which the casual observer might regard as pure desert, will be
+given in the paragraphs devoted to the different districts.
+
+~The Salt Range.~--The tract west of the Jhelam, and bounded on the south
+by the Salt Range cis-Indus, and trans-Indus by the lines mentioned
+above, is of a more varied character. Time worn though the Salt Range
+has become by the waste of ages, it still rises at Sakesar, near its
+western extremity, to a height of 5000 feet. The eastern part of the
+range is mostly in the Jhelam district, and there the highest point is
+Chail (3700 feet). The hill of Tilla (3242 feet), which is a marked
+feature of the landscape looking westwards from Jhelam cantonment, is on
+a spur running north-east from the main chain. The Salt Range is poorly
+wooded, the dwarf acacia or _phuláhí_ (Acacia modesta), the olive, and
+the _sanattha_ shrub (Dodonea viscosa) are the commonest species. But
+these jagged and arid hills include some not infertile valleys, every
+inch of which is put under crop by the crowded population. To geologists
+the range is of special interest, including as it does at one end of the
+scale Cambrian beds of enormous antiquity and at the other rocks of
+Tertiary age. Embedded in the Cambrian strata there are great deposits
+of rock salt at Kheora, where the Mayo mine is situated. At Kálabágh
+the Salt Range reappears on the far side of the Indus. Here the salt
+comes to the surface, and its jagged pinnacles present a remarkable
+appearance.
+
+~Country north of the Salt Range.~--The country to the north of the Salt
+Range included in the districts of Jhelam, Ráwalpindí, and Attock is
+often ravine-bitten and seamed with the white sandy beds of torrents.
+Generally speaking it is an arid precarious tract, but there are fertile
+stretches which will be mentioned in the descriptions of the districts.
+The general height of the plains north of the Salt Range is from 1000
+feet to 2000 feet above sea level. The rise between Lahore and
+Ráwalpindí is just over a thousand feet. Low hills usually form a
+feature of the landscape, pleasing at a distance or when softened by the
+evening light, but bare and jagged on a nearer view. The chief hills are
+the Márgalla range between Hazára and Ráwalpindí, the Kálachitta and the
+Khairimurat hills running east and west through Attock and the very dry
+and broken Narrara hills on the right bank of the Indus in the same
+district. Between the Márgalla and Kálachitta hills is the Márgalla pass
+on the main road from Ráwalpindí to the passage of the Indus at Attock,
+and therefore a position of considerable strategical importance. The
+Kálachitta (black and white) chain is so called because the north side
+is formed of nummulitic limestone and the south mainly of a dark purple
+sandstone. The best tree-growth is therefore on the north side.
+
+~Pesháwar, Kohát, and Bannu.~--Across the Indus the Pesháwar and Bannu
+districts are basins ringed with hills and drained respectively by the
+Kábul and Kurram rivers with their affluents. Between these two basins
+lies the maze of bare broken hills and valleys which make up the Kohát
+district. The cantonment of Kohát is 1700 feet above sea level and no
+hill in the district reaches 5000 feet. Near the Kohát border in the
+south-west of the Pesháwar district are the Khattak hills, the
+culmination of which at Ghaibana Sir has a height of 5136 feet, and the
+military sanitarium of Cherát in the same chain is 600 feet lower. On
+the east the Maidáni hills part Bannu from Isakhel, the trans-Indus
+_tahsíl_ of Mianwáli, and on the south the Marwat hills divide it from
+Dera Ismail Khán. Both are humble ranges. The highest point in the
+Marwat hills is Shekhbudín, a bare and dry limestone rock rising to an
+elevation of over 4500 feet.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: They are held to be of Turkish origin.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+RIVERS
+
+
+~The Panjáb Rivers.~--"Panjáb" is a Persian compound word, meaning "five
+waters," and strictly speaking the word denotes the country between the
+valley of the Jhelam and that of the Sutlej. The intermediate rivers
+from west to east are the Chenáb, the Ráví, and the Biás. Their combined
+waters at last flow into the Panjnad or "five rivers" at the south-west
+corner of the Multán district, and the volume of water which 44 miles
+lower down the Panjnad carries into the Indus is equal to the discharge
+of the latter. The first Aryan settlers knew this part of India as the
+land of the seven rivers (_sapla sindhavas_), adding to the five
+mentioned above the Indus and the Sarasvatí. The old Vedic name is more
+appropriate than Panjáb if we substitute the Jamna for the Sarasvatí or
+Sarustí, which is now a petty stream.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Panjáb Rivers.]
+
+~River Valleys.~--The cold weather traveller who is carried from Delhi to
+Ráwalpindí over the great railway bridges at points chosen because there
+the waters of the rivers are confined by nature, or can be confined by
+art, within moderate limits, has little idea of what one of these rivers
+is like in flood time. He sees that, even at such favoured spots,
+between the low banks there is a stretch of sand far exceeding in width
+the main channel, where a considerable volume of water is running, and
+the minor depressions, in which a sluggish and shallow flow may still
+be found. If, leaving the railway, he crosses a river by some bridge of
+boats or local ferry, he will find still wider expanses of sand
+sometimes bare and dry and white, at others moist and dark and covered
+with dwarf tamarisk. He may notice that, before he reaches the sand and
+the tamarisk scrub, he leaves by a gentle or abrupt descent the dry
+uplands, and passes into a lower, greener, and perhaps to his
+inexperienced eye more fertile seeming tract. This is the valley, often
+miles broad, through which the stream has moved in ever-shifting
+channels in the course of centuries. He finds it hard to realize that,
+when the summer heats melt the Himalayan snows, and the monsoon
+currents, striking against the northern mountain walls, are precipitated
+in torrents of rain, the rush of water to the plains swells the river
+20, 30, 40, or even 50 fold. The sandy bed then becomes full from bank
+to bank, and the silt laden waters spill over into the cultivated
+lowlands beyond. Accustomed to the stable streams of his own land, he
+cannot conceive the risks the riverside farmer in the Panjáb runs of
+having fruitful fields smothered in a night with barren sand, or lands
+and well and house sucked into the river-bed. So great and sudden are
+the changes, bad and good, wrought by river action that the loss and
+gain have to be measured up year by year for revenue purposes. Nor is
+the visitor likely to imagine that the main channel may in a few seasons
+become a quite subsidiary or wholly deserted bed. Like all streams, e.g.
+the Po, which flow from the mountains into a flat terrain, the Panjáb
+rivers are perpetually silting up their beds, and thus, by their own
+action, becoming diverted into new channels or into existing minor ones,
+which are scoured out afresh. If our traveller, leaving the railway at
+Ráwalpindi, proceeds by tonga to the capital of Kashmír, he will find
+between Kohála and Báramúla another surprise awaiting him. The noble but
+sluggish river of the lowlands, which he crossed at the town of Jhelam,
+is here a swift and deep torrent, flowing over a boulder bed, and
+swirling round waterworn rocks in a gorge hemmed in by mountains. That
+is the typical state of the Himalayan rivers, though the same Jhelam
+above Báramúla is an exception, flowing there sluggishly through a very
+flat valley into a shallow lake.
+
+~The Indus Basin.~--The river Sindh (Sanskrit, Sindhu), more familiar to
+us under its classical name of the Indus, must have filled with
+astonishment every invader from the west, and it is not wonderful that
+they called after it the country that lay beyond. Its basin covers an
+area of 373,000 square miles. Confining attention to Asia these figures,
+large though they seem, are far exceeded by those of the Yangtsze-Kiang.
+The area of which a description is attempted in this book is, with the
+exception of a strip along the Jamna and the part of Kashmír lying
+beyond the Muztagh-Karakoram range, all included in the Indus basin. But
+it does not embrace the whole of it. Part is in Tibet, part in
+Afghánistán and Biluchistán, and part in Sindh, through which province
+the Indus flows for 450 miles, or one-quarter of its whole course of
+1800 miles. It seems likely that the Jamna valley was not always an
+exception, or at least that that river once flowed westwards through
+Rájputána to the Indian ocean. The five great rivers of the Panjáb all
+drain into the Indus, and the Ghagar with its tributary, the Sarustí,
+which now, even when in flood, loses itself in the sands of Bikaner,
+probably once flowed down the old Hakra bed in Baháwalpur either into
+the Indus or by an independent bed now represented by an old flood
+channel of the Indus in Sindh, the Hakro or Nara, which passes through
+the Rann of Kachh.
+
+~The Indus outside British India.~--To the north of the Manasarowar lake
+in Tibet is Kailás, the Hindu Olympus. On the side of this mountain the
+Indus is said to rise at a height of 17,000 feet. After a course of 200
+miles or more it crosses the south-east boundary of the Kashmír State at
+an elevation of 13,800 feet. From the Kashmír frontier to Mt Haramosh
+west of Gilgit it flows steadily to the north-west for 350 miles. After
+125 miles Leh, the capital of Ladákh, is reached at a height of 10,500
+feet, and here the river is crossed by the trade route to Yarkand. A
+little below Leh the Indus receives the Zánskar, which drains the
+south-east of Kashmír. After another 150 miles it flows through the
+basin, in which Skardo, the principal town in Baltistán, is situated.
+Above Skardo a large tributary, the Shyok, flows in from the east at an
+elevation of 8000 feet. The Shyok and its affluent, the Nubra, rise in
+the giant glaciers to the south-west of the Karakoram pass. After the
+Skardo basin is left behind the descent is rapid. The river rushes down
+a tremendous gorge, where it appears to break through the western
+Himálaya, skirts Haramosh, and at a point twenty-five miles east of
+Gilgit bends abruptly to the south. Shortly after it is joined from the
+west by the Gilgit river, and here the bed is about 4000 feet above sea
+level. Continuing to flow south for another twenty miles it resumes its
+westernly course to the north of Nanga Parvat and persists in it for 100
+miles. Our political post of Chilás lies in this section on the south
+bank. Fifty or sixty miles west of Chilás the Indus turns finally to the
+south. From Jálkot, where the Kashmír frontier is left, to Palosí below
+the Mahaban mountain it flows for a hundred miles through territory over
+which we only exercise political control. Near Palosí, 812 miles from
+the source, the river enters British India. In Kashmír the Indus and the
+Shyok in some places flow placidly over alluvial flats, and at others
+with a rapid and broken current through narrow gorges. At Skardo their
+united stream is said, even in winter, to be 500 feet wide and nine or
+ten feet deep. If one of the deep gorges, as sometimes happens, is
+choked by a landslip, the flood that follows when the barrier finally
+bursts may spread devastation hundreds of miles away. To the north of
+the fertile Chach plain in Attock there is a wide stretch of land along
+the Indus, which still shows in its stony impoverished soil the effects
+of the great flood of 1841.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. The Indus at Attock.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Indus at Káfirkot, D.I. Khán dt.]
+
+~The Indus in British India.~--After reaching British India the Indus soon
+becomes the boundary dividing Hazára and Pesháwar, two districts of the
+North West Frontier Province. Lower down it parts Pesháwar from the
+Panjáb district of Attock. In this section after a time the hills recede
+on both sides, and the stream is wide and so shallow that it is fordable
+in places in the cold weather. There are islands, ferry boats and rafts
+can ply, and the only danger is from sudden freshets. Ohind, where
+Alexander crossed, is in this section. A more famous passage is at
+Attock just below the junction of the Kábul river. Here the heights
+again approach the Indus on either bank. The volume of water is vastly
+increased by the union of the Kábul river, which brings down the whole
+drainage of the southern face of the Hindu Kush. From the north it
+receives near Jalálábád the Kunar river, and near Charsadda in Pesháwar
+the Swát, which with its affluent the Panjkora drains Dír, Bajaur, and
+Swát. In the cold weather looking northwards from the Attock fort one
+sees the Kábul or Landai as a blue river quietly mingling with the
+Indus, and in the angle between them a stretch of white sand. But during
+floods the junction is the scene of a wild turmoil of waters. At Attock
+there are a railway bridge, a bridge of boats, and a ferry. The bed of
+the stream is 2000 feet over sea level. For ninety miles below Attock
+the river is confined between bare and broken hills, till it finally
+emerges into the plains from the gorge above Kálabágh, where the Salt
+Range impinges on the left bank. Between Attock and Kálabágh the right
+bank is occupied by Pesháwar and Kohát and the left by Attock and
+Mianwálí. In this section the Indus is joined by the Haro and Soán
+torrents, and spanned at Khushálgarh by a railway bridge. This is the
+only other masonry bridge crossing it in the Panjáb. Elsewhere the
+passage has to be made by ferry boats or by boat bridges, which are
+taken down in the rainy season. At Kálabágh the height above sea level
+is less than 1000 feet. When it passes the western extremity of the Salt
+Range the river spreads out into a wide lake-like expanse of waters. It
+has now performed quite half of its long journey. Henceforth it receives
+no addition from the east till the Panjnad in the south-west corner of
+the Muzaffargarh district brings to it the whole tribute of the five
+rivers of the Panjáb. Here, though the Indian ocean is still 500 miles
+distant, the channel is less than 300 feet above the sea. From the west
+it receives an important tributary in the Kurram, which, with its
+affluent the Tochí, rises in Afghánistán. The torrents from the Sulimán
+Range are mostly used up for irrigation before they reach the Indus, but
+some of them mingle their waters with it in high floods. Below Kálabágh
+the Indus is a typical lowland river of great size, with many sandy
+islands in the bed and a wide valley subject to its inundations.
+Opposite Dera Ismail Khán the valley is seventeen miles across. As a
+plains river the Indus runs at first through the Mianwálí district of
+the Panjáb, then divides Mianwálí from Dera Ismail Khán, and lastly
+parts Muzaffargarh and the Baháwalpur State from the Panjáb frontier
+district of Dera Ghází Khán.
+
+~The Jhelam.~--The Jhelam, the most westernly of the five rivers of the
+Panjáb, is called the Veth in Kashmir and locally in the Panjáb plains
+the Vehat. These names correspond to the Bihat of the Muhammadan
+historians and the Hydaspes of the Greeks, and all go back to the
+Sanskrit Vitasta. Issuing from a deep pool at Vernág to the east of
+Islámábád in Kashmír it becomes navigable just below that town, and
+flows north-west in a lazy stream for 102 miles through Srínagar, the
+summer capital, into the Wular lake, and beyond it to Báramúla. The
+banks are quite low and often cultivated to the river's edge. But across
+the flat valley there is on either side a splendid panorama of
+mountains. From Báramúla the character of the Jhelam suddenly changes,
+and for the next 70 miles to Kohála, where the traveller crosses by a
+fine bridge into the Panjáb, it rushes down a deep gorge, whose sides
+are formed by the Kajnág mountains on the right, and the Pír Panjál on
+the left, bank. Between Báramúla and Kohála there is a drop from 5000 to
+2000 feet. At Domel, the stage before Kohála the Jhelam receives from
+the north the waters of the Kishnganga, and lower down it is joined by
+the Kunhár, which drains the Kágan glen in Hazára. A little above Kohála
+it turns sharply to the south, continuing its character as a mountain
+stream hemmed in by the hills of Ráwalpindí on the right bank and of the
+Púnch State on the left. The hills gradually sink lower and lower, but
+on the left side only disappear a little above the cantonment of Jhelam,
+where there is a noble railway bridge. From Jhelam onwards the river is
+of the usual plains' type. After dividing the districts of Jhelam (right
+bank) and Gujrát (left), it flows through the Sháhpur and Jhang
+districts, falling finally into the Chenáb at Trimmu, 450 miles from its
+source. There is a second railway bridge at Haranpur on the Sind Ságar
+line, and a bridge of boats at Khusháb, in the Sháhpur district. The
+noblest and most-varied scenery in the north-west Himalaya is in the
+catchment area of the Jhelam. The Kashmír valley and the valleys which
+drain into the Jhelam from the north, the Liddar, the Loláb, the Sind,
+and the Kágan glen, display a wealth of beauty unequalled elsewhere. Nor
+does this river wholly lose its association with beauty in the plains.
+Its very rich silt gives the lands on its banks the green charm of rich
+crops and pleasant trees.
+
+~The Chenáb.~--The Chenáb (more properly Chínáb or river of China) is the
+Asikní of the Vedas and the Akesines of the Greek historians. It is
+formed by the union of the Chandra and Bhága, both of which rise in
+Lahul near the Báralácha pass. Having become the Chandrabhága the river
+flows through Pángí in Chamba and the south-east of Kashmír. Near
+Kishtwár it breaks through the Pír Panjál range, and thenceforwards
+receives the drainage of its southern slopes. At Akhnúr it becomes
+navigable and soon after it enters the Panjáb district of Siálkot. A
+little later it is joined from the west by the Tawí, the stream above
+which stands Jammu, the winter capital of Kashmír. The Chenáb parts
+Siálkot and Gujránwála on the left bank from Gujrát and Sháhpur on the
+right. At Wazírábád, near the point where Siálkot, Gujrát, and
+Gujránwála meet, it is crossed by the Alexandra railway bridge. Leaving
+Sháhpur and Gujránwála behind, the Chenáb flows through Jhang to its
+junction with the Jhelam at Trimmu. In this section there is a second
+railway bridge at Chund Bharwána. The united stream runs on under the
+name of Chenáb to be joined on the north border of the Multán district
+by the Ráví and on its southern border by the Sutlej. Below its junction
+with the latter the stream is known as the Panjnad. In the plains the
+Chenáb cannot be called an attractive river, and its silt is far
+inferior to that of the Jhelam.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. Fording the River at Lahore.]
+
+~The Ráví.~--The Ráví was known to the writers of the Vedic hymns as the
+Parushní, but is called in classical Sanskrit Irávatí, whence the
+Hydraotes of the Greek historians. It rises near the Rotang pass in
+Kángra, and flows north-west through the southern part of Chamba. Below
+the town of Chamba, it runs as a swift slaty-blue mountain stream, and
+here it is spanned by a fine bridge. Passing on to the north of the hill
+station of Dalhousie it reaches the Kashmir border, and turning to the
+south-west flows along it to Basolí where Kashmír, Chamba, and the
+British district of Gurdáspur meet. At this point it is 2000 feet above
+the sea level. It now forms the boundary of Kashmír and Gurdáspur, and
+finally near Madhopur, where the head-works of the Bárí Doáb canal are
+situated, it passes into the Gurdáspur district. Shortly after it is
+joined from the north by a large torrent called the Ujh, which rises in
+the Jammu hills. After reaching the Siálkot border the Ráví parts that
+district first from Gurdáspur and then from Amritsar, and, passing
+through the west of Lahore, divides Montgomery and Lyallpur, and flowing
+through the north of Multán joins the Chenáb near the Jhang border. In
+Multán there is a remarkable straight reach in the channel known as the
+Sídhnai, which has been utilized for the site of the head-works of a
+small canal. The Degh, a torrent which rises in the Jammu hills and has
+a long course through the Siálkot and Gujránwála districts, joins the
+Ráví when in flood in the north of the Lyallpur district. But its waters
+will now be diverted into the river higher up in order to safeguard the
+Upper Chenáb canal. Lahore is on the left bank of the Ráví. It is a mile
+from the cold weather channel, but in high floods the waters have often
+come almost up to the Fort. At Lahore the North Western Railway and the
+Grand Trunk Road are carried over the Ráví by masonry bridges. There is
+a second railway bridge over the Sídhnai reach in Multán. Though the
+Ráví, like the Jhelam, has a course of 450 miles, it has a far smaller
+catchment area, and is really a somewhat insignificant stream. In the
+cold weather, the canal takes such a heavy toll from it that below
+Mádhopur the supply of water is mainly drawn from the Ujh, and in
+Montgomery one may cross the bed dryshod for months together. The valley
+of the Ráví is far narrower than those of the rivers described in the
+preceding paragraphs, and the floods are most uncertain, but when they
+occur are of very great value.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. Biás at Manálí.]
+
+~The Biás.~--The Biás (Sanskrit, Vipasa; Greek, Hyphasis) rises near the
+Rotang pass at a height of about 13,000 feet. Its head-waters are
+divided from those of the Ráví by the Bara Bangáhal range. It flows for
+about sixty miles through the beautiful Kulu valley to Lárjí (3000
+feet). It has at first a rapid course, but before it reaches Sultánpur
+(4000 feet), the chief village in Kulu, some thirty miles from the
+source, it has become, at least in the cold weather, a comparatively
+peaceful stream fringed with alder thickets. Heavy floods, however,
+sometimes cover fields and orchards with sand and boulders. There is a
+bridge at Manálí (6100 feet), a very lovely spot, another below Nagar,
+and a third at Lárjí. Near Lárjí the river turns to the west down a bold
+ravine and becomes for a time the boundary between Kulu and the Mandí
+State. Near the town of Mandí, where it is bridged, it bends again, and
+winds in a north-west and westerly direction through low hills in the
+south of Kángra till it meets the Siwáliks on the Hoshyárpur border. In
+this reach there is a bridge of boats at Dera Gopípur on the main road
+from Jalandhar and Hoshyárpur to Dharmsála. Elsewhere in the south of
+Kángra the traveller can cross without difficulty on a small bed
+supported on inflated skins. Sweeping round the northern end of the
+Siwáliks the Biás, having after long parting again approached within
+about fifteen miles of the Ráví, turns definitely to the south, forming
+henceforth the dividing line between Hoshyárpur and Kapúrthala (left
+bank) and Gurdáspur and Amritsar (right). Finally above the Harike ferry
+at a point where Lahore, Amritsar, Ferozepur, and Kapúrthala nearly
+meet, it falls into the Sutlej. The North Western Railway crosses it by
+a bridge near the Biás station and at the same place there is a bridge
+of boats for the traffic on the Grand Trunk Road. The chief affluents
+are the Chakkí, the torrent which travellers to Dharmsála cross by a
+fine bridge twelve miles from the railhead at Pathánkot, and the Black
+Bein in Hoshyárpur and Kapúrthala. The latter is a winding drainage
+channel, which starts in a swamp in the north of the Hoshyárpur
+district. The Biás has a total course of 390 miles. Only for about
+eighty miles or so is it a true river of the plains, and its floods do
+not spread far.
+
+~The Sutlej.~--The Sutlej is the Shatadru of Vedic hymns and the Zaradros
+of Greek writers. The peasant of the Panjáb plains knows it as the Nílí
+or Ghara. After the Indus it is the greatest of Panjáb rivers, and for
+its source we have to go back to the Manasarowar lakes in Tibet. From
+thence it flows for 200 miles in a north-westerly direction to the
+British frontier near Shipkí. A little beyond the Spití river brings it
+the drainage of the large tract of that name in Kángra and of part of
+Western Tibet. From Shipkí it runs for forty miles in deep gorges
+through Kunáwar in the Bashahr State to Chíní, a beautiful spot near the
+Wangtu bridge, where the Hindustan-Tibet road crosses to the left bank.
+A little below Chíní the Báspa flows in from the southeast. The fall
+between the source and Chíní is from 15,000 to 7500 feet. There is
+magnificent cliff scenery at Rogí in this reach. Forty miles below Chíní
+the capital of Bashahr, Rámpur, on the south bank, is only 3300 feet
+above sea level. There is a second bridge at Rámpur, and from about this
+point the river becomes the boundary of Bashahr and Kulu, the route to
+which from Simla passes over the Lurí bridge (2650 feet) below Nárkanda.
+Beyond Lurí the Sutlej runs among low hills through several of the Simla
+Hill States. It pierces the Siwáliks at the Hoshyárpur border and then
+turns to the south, maintaining that trend till Rúpar and the head-works
+of the Sirhind canal are reached. For the next hundred miles to the Biás
+junction the general direction is west. Above the Harike ferry the
+Sutlej again turns, and flows steadily, though with many windings, to
+the south-west till it joins the Chenáb at the south corner of the
+Multán district. There are railway bridges at Phillaur, Ferozepur, and
+Adamwáhan. In the plains the Sutlej districts are--on the right bank
+Hoshyárpur, Jalandhar, Lahore, and Montgomery, and on the left Ambála,
+Ludhiána and Ferozepur. Below Ferozepur the river divides Montgomery and
+Multán from Baháwalpur (left bank). The Sutle; has a course of 900
+miles, and a large catchment area in the hills. Notwithstanding the
+heavy toll taken by the Sirhind canal, its floods spread pretty far in
+Jalandhar and Ludhiána and below the Biás junction many monsoon canals
+have been dug which inundate a large area in the lowlands of the
+districts on either bank and of Baháwalpur. The dry bed of the Hakra,
+which can be traced through Baháwalpur, Bikaner, and Sindh, formerly
+carried the waters of the Sutlej to the sea.
+
+~The Ghagar and the Sarusti.~--The Ghagar, once a tributary of the Hakra,
+rises within the Sirmúr State in the hills to the east of Kálka. A few
+miles south of Kálka it crosses a narrow neck of the Ambála district,
+and the bridge on the Ambála-Kalka railway is in this section. The rest
+of its course, till it loses itself in the sands of Bikaner, is chiefly
+in Patiála and the Karnál and Hissár districts. It is joined by the Umla
+torrent in Karnál and lower down the Sarustí unites with it in Patiála
+just beyond the Karnál border. It is hard to believe that the Sarustí of
+to-day is the famous Sarasvatí of the Vedas, though the little
+ditch-like channel that bears the name certainly passes beside the
+sacred sites of Thanesar and Pehowa. A small sandy torrent bearing the
+same name rises in the low hills in the north-east of the Ambála
+district, but it is doubtful if its waters, which finally disappear into
+the ground, ever reach the Thanesar channel. That seems rather to
+originate in the overflow of a rice swamp in the plains, and in the cold
+weather the bed is usually dry. In fact, till the Sarustí receives above
+Pehowa the floods of the Márkanda torrent, it is a most insignificant
+stream. The Márkanda, when in flood, carries a large volume of water,
+and below the junction the small channel of the Sarustí cannot carry the
+tribute received, which spreads out into a shallow lake called the
+Sainsa _jhíl_. This has been utilized for the supply of the little
+Sarustí canal, which is intended to do the work formerly effected in a
+rude way by throwing _bands_ or embankments across the bed of the
+stream, and forcing the water over the surrounding lands. The same
+wasteful form of irrigation was used on a large scale on the Ghagar and
+is still practised on its upper reaches. Lower down earthen _bands_ have
+been superceded by a masonry weir at Otu in the Hissár district. The
+northern and southern Ghagar canals, which irrigate lands in Hissár and
+Bikaner, take off from this weir.
+
+~Action of Torrents.~--The Ghagar is large enough to exhibit all the three
+stages which a _cho_ or torrent of intermittent flow passes through.
+Such a stream begins in the hills with a well-defined boulder-strewn
+bed, which is never dry. Reaching the plains the bed of a cho becomes a
+wide expanse of white sand, hardly below the level of the adjoining
+country, with a thread of water passing down it in the cold weather. But
+from time to time in the rainy season the channel is full from bank to
+bank and the waters spill far and wide over the fields. Sudden spates
+sometimes sweep away men and cattle before they can get across. If, as
+in Hoshyárpur, the _chos_ flow into a rich plain from hills composed of
+friable sandstone and largely denuded of tree-growth, they are in their
+second stage most destructive. After long delay an Act was passed in
+1900, which gives the government large powers for the protection of
+trees in the Siwáliks and the reclamation of torrent beds in the plains.
+The process of recovery cannot be rapid, but a measure of success has
+already been attained. It must not be supposed that the action of _chos_
+in this second stage is uniformly bad. Some carry silt as well as sand,
+and the very light loam which the great Márkanda _cho_ has spread over
+the country on its banks is worth much more to the farmer than the stiff
+clay it has overlaid. Many _chos_ do not pass into the third stage, when
+all the sand has been dropped, and the bed shrinks into a narrow
+ditch-like channel with steep clay banks. The inundations of torrents
+like the Degh and the Ghagar after this stage is reached convert the
+soil into a stiff impervious clay, where flood-water will lie for weeks
+without being absorbed into the soil. In Karnál the wretched and
+fever-stricken tract between the Ghagar and the Sarustí known as the
+Nailí is of this character.
+
+~The Jamna.~--The Jamna is the Yamuna of Sanskrit writers. Ptolemy's and
+Pliny's versions, Diamouna and Jomanes, do not deviate much from the
+original. It rises in the Kumáon Himálaya, and, where it first meets the
+frontier of the Simla Hill States, receives from the north a large
+tributary called the Tons. Henceforth, speaking broadly, the Jamna is
+the boundary of the Panjáb and the United Provinces. On the Panjáb bank
+are from north to south the Sirmúr State, Ambála, Karnál, Rohtak, Delhi,
+and Gurgáon. The river leaves the Panjáb where Gurgáon and the district
+of Mathra, which belongs to the United Provinces, meet, and finally
+falls into the Ganges at Allahábád. North of Mathra Delhi is the only
+important town on its banks. The Jamna is crossed by railway bridges
+between Delhi and Meerut and between Ambála and Saháranpur.
+
+~Changes in Rivers.~--Allusion has already been made to the changes which
+the courses of Panjáb rivers are subject to in the plains. The Indus
+below Kálabágh once ran through the heart of what is now the Thal
+desert. We know that in 1245 A.D. Multán was in the Sind Ságar Doáb
+between the Indus and the united streams of the Jhelam, Chenáb, and
+Ráví. The Biás had then no connection with the Sutlej, but ran in a bed
+of its own easily to be traced to-day in the Montgomery and Multán
+districts, and joined the Indus between Multán and Uch. The Sutlej was
+still flowing in the Hakra bed. Indeed its junction with the Biás near
+Harike, which probably led to a complete change in the course of the
+Biás, seems only to have taken place within the last 150 years[2].
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 2: Raverty's "The Mehran of Sind and its Tributaries," in
+_Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal_, 1897.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES
+
+
+~Extent of Geological Record.~--Although the main part of the Panjáb plain
+is covered by a mantle of comparatively recent alluvium, the provinces
+described in this book display a more complete record of Indian
+geological history than any other similar area in the country. The
+variety is so great that no systematic or sufficient description could
+be attempted in a short chapter, and it is not possible, therefore, to
+do more in these few pages than give brief sketches of the patches of
+unusual interest.
+
+~Aravallí System.~--In the southern and south-eastern districts of the
+Panjáb there are exposures of highly folded and metamorphosed rocks
+which belong to the most ancient formations in India. These occupy the
+northern end of the Aravallí hills, which form but a relic of what must
+have been at one time a great mountain range, stretching roughly
+south-south-west through Rájputána into the Bombay Presidency. The
+northern ribs of the Aravallí series disappear beneath alluvial cover in
+the Delhi district, but the rocks still underlie the plains to the west
+and north-west, their presence being revealed by the small promontories
+that peep through the alluvium near the Chenáb river, standing up as
+small hills near Chiniot in the Sháhpur, Jhang, and Lyallpur districts.
+
+The Salt Range in the Jhelam and Sháhpur districts, with a western
+continuation in the Mianwálí district to and beyond the Indus, is the
+most interesting part of the Panjáb to the geologist. It contains
+notable records of three distinct eras in geological history. In
+association with the well-known beds of rock-salt, which are being
+extensively mined at Kheora, occur the most ancient fossiliferous
+formations known in India, corresponding in age with the middle and
+lower part of the Cambrian system of Europe. These very ancient strata
+immediately overlie the red marls and associated rock-salt beds, and it
+is possible that they have been thrust over bodily to occupy this
+position, as we have no parallel elsewhere for the occurrence of great
+masses of salt in formation older than the Cambrian.
+
+The second fragment of geological history preserved in the Salt Range is
+very much younger, beginning with rocks which were formed in the later
+part of the Carboniferous period. The most remarkable feature in this
+fragment is a boulder-bed, resting unconformably on the Cambrian strata
+and including boulders of various shapes and sizes, which are often
+faceted and striated in a way indicative of glacial action. Several of
+the boulders belong to rocks of a peculiar and unmistakable character,
+such as are found _in situ_ on the western flanks of the Aravallí Range,
+some 750 miles to the south. The glacial conditions which gave rise to
+these boulder-beds were presumably contemporaneous with those that
+produced the somewhat similar formation lying at the base of the great
+coal-bearing system in the Indian peninsula. The glacial boulder-bed
+thus offers indirect evidence as to the age of the Indian coal-measures,
+for immediately above this bed in the Salt Range there occur sandstones
+containing fossils which have affinities with the Upper Carboniferous
+formations of Australia, and on these sandstones again there lie
+alternations of shales and limestones containing an abundance of fossils
+that are characteristic of the Permo-Carboniferous rocks of Russia.
+These are succeeded by an apparently conformable succession of beds of
+still younger age, culminating in a series of shales, sandstones, and
+limestones of unmistakably Triassic age.
+
+There is then an interruption in the record, and the next younger series
+preserved occurs in the western part of the Salt Range as well as in the
+hills beyond the Indus. This formation is of Upper Jurassic age,
+corresponding to the well-known beds of marine origin preserved in
+Cutch. Then follows again a gap in the record, and the next most
+interesting series of formations found in the Salt Range become of great
+importance from the economic as well as from the purely scientific point
+of view; these are the formations of Tertiary age.
+
+The oldest of the Tertiary strata include a prominent limestone
+containing Nummulitic fossils, which are characteristic of these Lower
+Tertiary beds throughout the world. Here, as in many parts of
+North-Western India, the Nummulitic limestones are associated with coal
+which has been largely worked. The country between the Salt Range
+plateau and the hilly region away to the north is covered by a great
+stretch of comparatively young Tertiary formations, which were laid down
+in fresh water after the sea had been driven back finally from this
+region. The incoming of fresh-water conditions was inaugurated by the
+formation of beds which are regarded as equivalent in age to those known
+as the Upper Nari in Sind and Eastern Baluchistán, but the still later
+deposits, belonging to the well-known Siwálik series, are famous on
+account of the great variety and large size of many of the vertebrate
+fossil remains which they have yielded. In these beds to the north of
+the Salt Range there have been found remains of Dinotherium, forms
+related to the ancestors of the giraffe and various other mammals, some
+of them, like the Sivatherium, Mastodon, and Stegodon, being animals of
+great size. On the northern side of the Salt Range three fairly
+well-defined divisions of the Siwálik series have been recognised, each
+being conspicuously fossiliferous--a feature that is comparatively rare
+in the Siwálik hills further to the south-east, where these rocks were
+first studied. The Siwálik series of the Salt Range are thus so well
+developed that this area might be conveniently regarded as the type
+succession for the purpose of correlating isolated fragmentary
+occurrences of the same general series in northern and western India. To
+give an idea as to the age of these rocks, it will be sufficient to
+mention that the middle division of the series corresponds roughly to
+the well-known deposits of Pikermi and Samos.
+
+~Kashmir~ deserves special mention, as it is a veritable paradise for the
+geologist. Of the variety of problems that it presents one might mention
+the petrological questions connected with the intrusion of the great
+masses of granite, and their relation to the slates and associated
+metamorphic rocks. Of fossiliferous systems there is a fine display of
+material ranging in age from Silurian to Upper Trias, and additional
+interest is added by the long-continued volcanic eruptions of the
+"Panjál trap." Students of recent phenomena have at their disposal
+interesting problems in physiography, including a grand display of
+glaciers, and the extensive deposits of so-called _karewas_, which
+appear to have been formed in drowned valleys, where the normal
+fluviatile conditions are modified by those characteristic of lakes. The
+occurrence of sapphires in Zánskar gives the State also an interest to
+the mineralogist and connoisseur of gem-stones.
+
+Of this kaleidoscopic assemblage of questions the ones of most immediate
+interest are connected with the Silurian-Trias succession in the Kashmír
+valley, for here we have a connecting-link between the marine formations
+of the Salt Range area and those which are preserved in greater
+perfection in Spití and other parts of the Tibetan highlands, stretching
+away to the south-east at the back of the great range of crystalline
+snow-covered peaks.
+
+In this interesting part of Kashmír the most important feature to Indian
+geologists is the occurrence of plant remains belonging to genera
+identical with those that occur in the lower part of the great
+coal-bearing formation of Peninsular India, known as the Gondwána
+system. Until these discoveries were made in Kashmír about ten years ago
+the age of the base of the Gondwánas was estimated only on indirect
+evidence, partly due to the assumption that glacial conditions in the
+Salt Range and those at the base of the Gondwánas were contemporaneous,
+and partly due to analogy with the coal measures of Australia and South
+Africa. In Kashmír the characteristic plant remains of the Lower
+Gondwánas are found associated with marine fossils in great abundance,
+and these permit of a correlation of the strata with the upper part of
+the Carboniferous system of the European standard stratigraphical scale.
+
+Kashmír seems to have been near the estuary of one of the great rivers
+that formerly flowed over the ancient continent of _Gondwánaland_ (when
+India and South Africa formed parts of one continental mass) into the
+great Eurasian Ocean known as _Tethys_. As the deposits formed in this
+great ocean give us the principal part of our data for forming a
+standard stratigraphical scale, the plants which were carried out to sea
+become witnesses of the kind of flora that flourished during the main
+Indian coal period; they thus enable us with great precision to fix the
+position of the fresh-water Gondwánas in comparison with the marine
+succession.
+
+~Spití.~--With á brief reference to one more interesting patch among the
+geological records of this remarkable region, space will force us to
+pass on to consideration of minerals of economic value. The line of
+snow-covered peaks, composed mainly of crystalline rocks and forming a
+core to the Himálaya in a way analogous to the granitic core of the
+Alps, occupies what was once apparently the northern shore of
+Gondwánaland, and to the north of it there stretched the great ocean of
+Tethys, covering the central parts of Asia and Europe, one of its
+shrunken relics being the present Mediterranean Sea. The bed of this
+ocean throughout many geological ages underwent gradual depression and
+received the sediments brought down by the rivers from the continent
+which stretched away to the south. The sedimentary deposits thus formed
+near the shore-line or further out in deep water attained a thickness of
+well over 20,000 feet, and have been studied in the _tahsíl_ of Spití,
+on the northern border of Kumáon, and again on the eastern Tibetan
+plateau to the north of Darjeeling. A reference to the formations
+preserved in Spití may be regarded as typical of the geological history
+and the conditions under which these formations were produced.
+
+~Succession of Fossiliferous Beds.~--In age the fossiliferous beds range
+from Cambrian right through to the Tertiary epoch; between these
+extremes no single period was passed without leaving its records in some
+part of the great east-to-west Tibetan basin. At the base of the whole
+succession there lies a series of schists which have been largely
+metamorphosed, and on these rest the oldest of the fossiliferous series,
+which, on account of their occurring in the region of snow, has been
+named the _Haimanta system_. The upper part of the Haimanta system has
+been found to contain the characteristic trilobites of the Cambrian
+period of Europe. Over this system lie beds which have yielded in
+succession Ordovician and Silurian fossils, forming altogether a compact
+division which has been distinguished locally as the _Muth system_. Then
+follows the so-called _Kanáwar system_, which introduces Devonian
+conditions, followed by fossils characteristic of the well-known
+mountain limestone of Europe.
+
+Then occurs a break in the succession which varies in magnitude in
+different localities, but appears to correspond to great changes in the
+physical geography which widely affect the Indian region. This break
+corresponds roughly to the upper part of the Carboniferous system of
+Europe, and has been suggested as a datum line for distinguishing in
+India an older group of fossiliferous systems below (formed in an area
+that has been distinguished by the name _Dravidian_), from the younger
+group above, which has been distinguished by the name _Aryan_.
+
+During the periods that followed this interruption the bed of the great
+Eurasian Ocean seems to have subsided persistently though
+intermittently. As the various sediments accumulated the exact position
+of the shore-line must have changed to some extent to give rise to the
+conditions favourable for the formation at one time of limestone, at
+another of shale and at other times of sandy deposits. The whole column
+of beds, however, seems to have gone on accumulating without any folding
+movements, and they are consequently now found lying apparently in
+perfect conformity stage upon stage, from those that are Permian in age
+at the base, right through the Mesozoic group, till the time when
+Tertiary conditions were inaugurated and the earth movements began which
+ultimately drove back the ocean and raised the bed, with its accumulated
+load of sediments, into the great folds that now form the Himálayan
+Range. This great mass of Aryan strata includes an enormous number of
+fossil remains, giving probably a more complete record of the gradual
+changes that came over the marine fauna of Tethys than any other area of
+the kind known. One must pass over the great number of interesting
+features still left unmentioned, including the grand architecture of the
+Sub-Himálaya and the diversity of formations in different parts of the
+Frontier Province; for the rest of the available space must be devoted
+to a brief reference to the minerals of value.
+
+~Rock-salt~, which occurs in abundance, is possibly the most important
+mineral in this area. The deposits most largely worked are those which
+occur in the well-known Salt Range, covering parts of the districts of
+Jhelam, Sháhpur, and Mianwálí. Near the village of Kheora the main seam,
+which is being worked in the Mayo mines, has an aggregate thickness of
+550 feet, of which five seams, with a total thickness of 275 feet,
+consist of salt pure enough to be placed on the table with no more
+preparation than mere pulverising. The associated beds are impregnated
+with earth, and in places there occur thin layers of potash and
+magnesian salts. In this area salt quarrying was practised for an
+unknown period before the time of Akbar, and was continued in a
+primitive fashion until it came under the control of the British
+Government with the occupation of the Panjáb in 1849. In 1872 systematic
+mining operations were planned, and the general line of work has been
+continued ever since, with an annual output of roughly 100,000 tons.
+
+Open quarries for salt are developed a short distance to the
+east-north-east of Kálabágh on the Indus, and similar open work is
+practised near Kohát in the North West Frontier Province, where the
+quantity of salt may be regarded as practically inexhaustible. At
+Bahádur Khel the salt lies at the base of the Tertiary series, and can
+be traced for a distance of about eight miles with an exposed thickness
+of over 1000 feet, sometimes standing up as hills of solid salt above
+the general level of the plains. In this area the production is
+naturally limited by want of transport and the small local demand, the
+total output from the quarries being about 16,000 tons per annum. A
+small quantity of salt (generally about 4000 tons a year), is raised
+also from open quarries in the Mandí State, where the rock-salt beds,
+distinctly impure and earthy, lie near the junction between Tertiary
+formations and the older unfossiliferous groups.
+
+~Coal~ occurs at numerous places in association with the Nummulitic
+limestones of Lower Tertiary age, in the Panjáb, in the North West
+Frontier Province, and in the Jammu division of Kashmír. The largest
+output has been obtained from the Salt Range, where mines have been
+opened up on behalf of the North Western Railway. The mines at Dandot in
+the Jhelam district have considerable fluctuations in output, which,
+however, for many years ranged near 50,000 tons. These mines, having
+been worked at a financial loss, were finally abandoned by the Railway
+Company in 1911, but a certain amount of work is still being continued
+by local contractors. At Bháganwála, 19 miles further east, in the
+adjoining district of Sháhpur, coal was also worked for many years for
+the North Western State Railway, but the maximum output in any one year
+never exceeded 14,000 tons, and in 1900, owing to the poor quality of
+material obtained, the collieries were closed down. Recently, small
+outcrop workings have been developed in the same formation further west
+on the southern scarp of the Salt Range at Tejuwála in the Sháhpur
+district.
+
+~Gold~ to a small amount is washed from the gravel of the Indus and some
+other rivers by native workers, and large concessions have been granted
+for systematic dredging, but these enterprises have not yet reached the
+commercially paying stage.
+
+~Other Metals.~--Prospecting has been carried on at irregular intervals in
+Kulu and along the corresponding belt of schistose rocks further west in
+Kashmír and Chitrál. The copper ores occur as sulphides along certain
+bands in the chloritic and micaceous schists, similar in composition and
+probably in age to those worked further east in Kumáon, in Nipál, and in
+Sikkim. In Lahul near the Shigrí glacier there is a lode containing
+~antimony~ sulphide with ores of ~zinc~ and ~lead~, which would almost
+certainly be opened up and developed but for the difficulty of access
+and cost of transport to the only valuable markets.
+
+~Petroleum~ springs occur among the Tertiary formations of the Panjáb and
+Biluchistán, and a few thousand gallons of oil are raised annually.
+Prospecting operations have been carried on vigorously during the past
+two or three years, but no large supplies have so far been proved. The
+principal oil-supplies of Burma and Assam have been obtained from rocks
+of Miocene age, like those of Persia and the Caspian region, but the
+most promising "shows" in North West India have been in the older
+Nummulitic formations, and the oil is thus regarded by some experts as
+the residue of the material which has migrated from the Miocene beds
+that probably at one time covered the Nummulitic formations, but have
+since been removed by the erosive action of the atmosphere.
+
+~Alum~ is manufactured from the pyritous shales of the Mianwálí district,
+the annual output being generally about 200 to 300 tons. Similar shales
+containing pyrites are known to occur in other parts of this area, and
+possibly the industry might be considerably extended, as the annual
+requirements of India, judged by the import returns, exceed ten times
+the native production of alum.
+
+~Borax~ is produced in Ladákh and larger quantities are imported across
+the frontier from Tibet. In the early summer one frequently meets herds
+of sheep being driven southwards across the Himalayan passes, each sheep
+carrying a couple of small saddle-bags laden with borax or salt, which
+is bartered in the Panjáb bazars for Indian and foreign stores for the
+winter requirements of the snow-blocked valleys beyond the frontier.
+
+~Sapphires.~--The sapphires of Zánskar have been worked at intervals since
+the discovery of the deposit in 1881, and some of the finest stones in
+the gem market have been obtained from this locality, where work is,
+however, difficult on account of the great altitude and the difficulty
+of access from the plains.
+
+~Limestone.~--Large deposits of Nummulitic limestone are found in the
+older Tertiary formations of North-West India. It yields a pure lime and
+is used in large quantities for building purposes. The constant
+association of these limestones with shale beds, and their frequent
+association with coal, naturally suggest their employment for the
+manufacture of cement; and special concessions have recently been given
+by the Panjáb Government with a view of encouraging the development of
+the industry. The nodular impure limestone, known generally by the name
+of _kankar_, contains sufficient clay to give it hydraulic characters
+when burnt, and much cement is thus manufactured. The varying
+composition of _kankar_ naturally results in a product of irregular
+character, and consequently cement so made can replace Portland cement
+only for certain purposes.
+
+~Slate~ is quarried in various places for purely local use. In the Kángra
+valley material of very high quality is obtained and consequently
+secures a wide distribution, limited, however, by competition with
+cheaply made tiles.
+
+~Gypsum~ occurs in large quantities in association with the rock-salt of
+the Salt Range, but the local demand is small. There are also beds of
+potash and magnesian salts in the same area, but their value and
+quantity have not been thoroughly proved.
+
+[Illustration: January-February.]
+
+[Illustration: March to May.]
+
+
+  _Normal Rainfall._
+
+  I. N.W.F. Province.    II. Kashmir.
+  III. Panjáb E. and N.  IV. Panjáb S.W.
+
+
+Fig. 16. Rainfall of different Seasons.
+
+[Illustration: June to September.]
+
+[Illustration: October to December.]
+
+
+  _Normal Rainfall._
+
+  I. N.W.F. Province        II. Kashmir.
+  III. Panjáb E. and N.     IV. Panjáb S.W.
+
+
+Fig. 16 (_cont._). Rainfall of different Seasons.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CLIMATE
+
+
+~Types of Climate.~--The climate of the Panjáb plains is determined by
+their distance from the sea and the existence of formidable mountain
+barriers to the north and west. The factor of elevation makes the
+climate of the Himalayan tracts very different from that of the plains.
+Still more striking is the contrast between the Indian Himalayan climate
+and the Central Asian Trans-Himalayan climate of Spití, Lahul, and
+Ladákh.
+
+~Zones.~--A broad division into six zones may be recognised:
+
+  A 1. Trans-Himalayan.
+  B 2. Himalayan.
+  C. Plains      3. North Western.
+                 4. Submontane.
+                 5. Central and South Eastern.
+                 6. South Western.
+
+~Trans-Himalayan Climate.~--Spití, Lahul, and Ladákh are outside the
+meteorological influences which affect the rest of the Indian Empire.
+The lofty ranges of the Himálaya interpose an almost insurmountable
+barrier between them and the clouds of the monsoon. The rainfall is
+extraordinarily small, and, considering the elevation of the inhabited
+parts, 10,000 to 14,000 feet, the snowfall there is not heavy. The air
+is intensely dry and clear, and the daily and seasonal range of
+temperature is extreme. Leh, the capital of Ladákh (11,500 feet), has an
+average rainfall (including snow) of about 3 inches. The mean
+temperature is 43° Fahr., varying from 19° in January to 64° in July.
+But these figures give no idea of the rigours of the severe but healthy
+climate. The daily range is from 25 to 30 degrees, or double what we are
+accustomed to in England. Once 17° below zero was recorded. In the rare
+dry clear atmosphere the power of the solar rays is extraordinary.
+"Rocks exposed to the sun may be too hot to lay the hand upon at the
+same time that it is freezing in the shade."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for January.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for July.]
+
+~The Indian Zones--Meteorological factors.~--The distribution of pressure
+in India, determined mainly by changes of temperature, and itself
+determining the direction of the winds and the character of the weather,
+is shown graphically in figures 17 and 18. The winter or north-east
+monsoon does not penetrate into the Panjáb, where light westernly and
+northernly winds prevail during the cold season. What rain is received
+is due to land storms originating beyond the western frontier. The
+branch of the summer or south-west monsoon which chiefly affects the
+Panjáb is that which blows up the Bay of Bengal. The rain-clouds
+striking the Eastern Himálaya are deflected to the west and forced up
+the Gangetic plain by south-westernly winds. The lower ranges of the
+Panjáb Himálaya receive in this way very heavy downpours. The rain
+extends into the plains, but exhausts itself and dies away pretty
+rapidly to the south and west. The Bombay branch of the monsoon mostly
+spends itself on the Gháts and in the Deccan. But a part of it
+penetrates from time to time to the south-east Panjáb, and, if it is
+sucked into the Bay current, the result is widespread rain.
+
+~Himalayan Zone.~--The impressions which English people get of the climate
+of the Himálaya, or in Indian phrase "the Hills," are derived mainly
+from stations like Simla and Murree perched at a height of from 6500 to
+7500 feet on the outer ranges. The data of meteorologists are mainly
+taken from the same localities. Places between 8000 and 10,000 feet in
+height and further from the plains enjoy a finer climate, being both
+cooler and drier in summer. But they are less accessible, and weakly
+persons would find the greater rarity of the air trying.
+
+In the first fortnight of April the plains become disagreeably warm, and
+it is well to take European children to the Hills. The Panjáb Government
+moves to Simla in the first fortnight of May. By that time Simla is
+pretty warm in the middle of the day, but the nights are pleasant. The
+mean temperature of the 24 hours in May and June is 65° or 66°, the mean
+maximum and minimum being 78° and 59°. Thunderstorms with or without
+hail are not uncommon in April, May, and June. In a normal year the
+monsoon clouds drift up in the end of June, and the next three months
+are "the Rains." Usually it does not rain either all day or every day;
+but sometimes for weeks together Simla is smothered in a blanket of grey
+mist. Normally the rain comes in bursts with longer or shorter breaks
+between. About the third week of September the rains often cease quite
+suddenly, the end being usually proclaimed by a thunderstorm. Next
+morning one wakes to a new heaven and a new earth, a perfectly cloudless
+sky, and clean, crisp, cool air. This ideal weather lasts for the next
+three months. Even in December the days are made pleasant by bright
+sunshine, and the range of temperature is much less than in the plains.
+In the end of December or beginning of January the night thermometer
+often falls lower at Ambála and Ráwalpindí than at Simla and Murree.
+After Christmas the weather becomes broken, and in January and February
+falls of snow occur. It is a disagreeable time, and English residents
+are glad to descend to the plains. In March also the weather is often
+unsettled. The really heavy falls of snow occur at levels much higher
+than Simla. These remarks apply _mutatis mutandis_ to Dharmsála,
+Dalhousie, and Murree. Owing to its position right under a lofty
+mountain wall Dharmsála is a far wetter place than Simla. Murree gets
+its monsoon later, and the summer rainfall is a good deal lighter. In
+winter it has more snow, being nearer the source of origin of the
+storms. Himalayan valleys at an elevation of 5000 feet, such as the Vale
+of Kashmír, have a pleasant climate. The mean temperature of Srínagar
+(5255 feet) varies from 33° in January to 75° in July, when it is
+unpleasantly hot, and Europeans often move to Gulmarg. Kashmír has a
+heavy snowfall even in the Jhelam valley. Below 4000 feet, especially in
+confined river valleys the Himalayan climate is often disagreeably hot
+and stuffy.
+
+~Climate of the Plains.~--The course of the seasons is the same in the
+plains. The jaded resident finds relief when the rains cease in the end
+of September. The days are still warm, but the skies are clear, the air
+dry, and the nights cool. November is rainless and in every way a
+pleasant month. The clouds begin to gather before Christmas, but rain
+often holds off till January. Pleasant though the early months of the
+cold weather are, they lay traps for the unwary. In October and November
+the daily range of temperature is very large, exceeding 30°, and the
+fall at sunset very sudden. Care is needed to avoid a chill and the
+fever that follows. Clear and dry though the air is, the blue of the
+skies is pale owing to a light dust haze in the upper atmosphere. For
+the same reason the Himalayan snows except after rain are veiled from
+dwellers in the plains at a distance of 30 miles from the foot-hills.
+The air in these months before the winter rains is wonderfully still. In
+the three months after Christmas the Panjáb is the pathway of a series
+of small storms from the west, preceded by close weather and occurring
+usually at intervals of a few weeks. After a day or two of wet weather
+the sky clears, and the storm is followed by a great drop in the
+temperature. The traveller who shivers after a January rain-storm finds
+it hard to believe that the Panjáb plain is a part of the hottest region
+of the Old World which stretches from the Sahára to Delhi. If he had to
+spend the period from May to July there he would have small doubts on
+the subject. The heat begins to be unpleasant in April, when hot
+westernly winds prevail. An occasional thunderstorm with hail relieves
+the strain for a little. The warmest period of the year is May and June.
+But the intense dry heat is healthier and to many less trying than the
+mugginess of the rainy season. The dust-storms which used to be common
+have become rarer and lighter with the spread of canal irrigation in the
+western Panjáb. The rains ought to break at Delhi in the end of June and
+at Lahore ten days or a fortnight later. There is often a long break
+when the climate is particularly trying. The nights are terribly hot.
+The outer air is then less stifling than that of the house, and there is
+the chance of a little comparative coolness shortly before dawn. Many
+therefore prefer to sleep on the roof or in the verandah. September,
+when the rains slacken, is a muggy, unpleasant, and unhealthy month. But
+in the latter half of it cooler nights give promise of a better time.
+
+~Special features of Plain Zones.~--The submontane zone has the most
+equable and the pleasantest climate in the plains. It has a rainfall of
+from 30 to 40 inches, five-sevenths or more of which belongs to the
+monsoon period (June-September). The north-western area has a longer and
+colder winter and spring. In the end of December and in January the keen
+dry cold is distinctly trying. The figures in Statement I, for
+Ráwalpindí and Pesháwar, are not very characteristic of the zone as a
+whole. The average of the rainfall figures, 13 inches for Pesháwar and
+32 for Ráwalpindí, would give a truer result. The monsoon rains come
+later and are much less abundant than in the submontane zone. Their
+influence is very feeble in the western and south-western part of the
+area. On the other hand the winter rains, are heavier than in any other
+part of the province. Delhi and Lahore represent the extreme conditions
+of the central and south-eastern plains. The latter is really on the
+edge of the dry south-western area. The eastern districts of the zone
+have a shorter and less severe cold weather than the western, an earlier
+and heavier monsoon, but scantier winter rains. The total rainfall
+varies from 16 to 30 inches. The south-western zone, with a rainfall of
+from 5 to 15 inches, is the driest part of India proper except northern
+Sindh and western Rájputána. Neither monsoon current affects it much. At
+Multán there are only about fifteen days in the whole year on which any
+rain falls.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HERBS, SHRUBS, AND TREES
+
+
+~Affinities of Panjáb Flora.~--It is hopeless to describe except in the
+broadest outline the flora of a tract covering an area of 250,000 square
+miles and ranging in altitude from a few hundred feet to a height 10,000
+feet above the limit of flowering plants. The nature of the vegetation
+of any tract depends on rainfall and temperature, and only secondarily
+on soil. A desert is a tract with a dry substratum and dry air, great
+heat during some part of the year, and bright sunshine. The soil may be
+loam or sand, and as regards vegetation a sandy desert is the worst
+owing to the rapid drying up of the subsoil after rain. In the third of
+the maps appended to Schimper's _Plant Geography_ by far the greater
+part of the area dealt with in this book is shown as part of the vast
+desert extending from the Sahára to Manchuria. Seeing that the monsoon
+penetrates into the province and that it is traversed by large snow-fed
+rivers the Panjáb, except in parts of the extreme western and
+south-western districts, is not a desert like the Sahára or Gobí,
+and Schimper recognised this by marking most of the area as
+semi-desert. Still the flora outside the Hills and the submontane
+tract is predominantly of the desert type, being xerophilous or
+drought-resisting. The adaptations which enable plants to survive in a
+tract deficient in moisture are of various kinds. The roots may be
+greatly developed to enable them to tap the subsoil moisture, the
+leaves may be reduced in size, converted into thorns, or entirely
+dispensed with, in order to check rapid evaporation, they may be covered
+with silky or felted hairs, a modification which produces the same
+result, or their internal tissue may be succulent or mucilaginous. In
+the plants of the Panjáb plains there is no difficulty in recognising
+these features of a drought-resisting flora. Schimper's map shows in the
+north-east of the area a wedge thrust in between the plains' desert and
+the dry elevated alpine desert cut off from the influence of the monsoon
+by the lofty barrier of the Inner Himálaya. This consists of two parts,
+monsoon forest, corresponding roughly with the Himalayan area Cis Ráví
+above the 5000 feet contour, and dry woodland of a semi-tropical stamp,
+consisting, of the adjoining foot-hills and submontane tract. This wedge
+is in fact treated as part of the zone, which in the map (after Drude)
+prefixed to Willis' _Manual and Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and
+Ferns_, is called Indo-Malayan, and which embraces the Malayan
+Archipelago and part of North Australia, Burma, and practically the
+whole of India except the Panjáb, Sindh, and Rájputána. In Drude's map
+the three countries last mentioned are included in a large zone called
+"the Mediterranean and Orient." This is a very broad classification, and
+in tracing the relationships of the Panjáb flora it is better to treat
+the desert area of North Africa, which in Tripoli and Egypt extends to
+the coast, apart from the Mediterranean zone. It is a familiar fact
+that, as we ascend lofty mountains like those of the Himálaya, we pass
+through belts or regions of vegetation of different types. The air
+steadily becomes rarer and therefore colder, especially at night, and at
+the higher levels there is a marked reduction in the rainfall. When the
+alpine region, which in the Himálaya may be taken as beginning at 11,000
+feet, is reached, the plants have as a rule bigger roots, shorter
+stems, smaller leaves, but often larger and more brilliantly coloured
+flowers. These are adaptations of a drought-resisting kind.
+
+~Regions.~--In this sketch it will suffice to divide the tract into six
+regions:
+
+  Plains 1. Panjáb dry plain.
+
+         2. Salt Range and North West Plateau, from
+            the frontier to Pabbí Hills.
+
+         3. Submontane Hills on east bank of Jhelam.
+
+  Hills  4. Sub-Himálaya, 2000-5000 feet.
+
+         5. Temperate Himálaya, 5000-11,000 feet.
+
+         6. Alpine Himálaya, 11,000-16,000 feet.
+
+Of course a flora does not fit itself into compartments, and the changes
+of type are gradual.
+
+~Panjáb Dry Plain.~--The affinities of the flora of the Panjáb plains
+south of the Salt Range and the submontane tract are, especially in the
+west, with the desert areas of Persia, Arabia, and North Africa, though
+the spread of canal irrigation is modifying somewhat the character of
+the vegetation. The soil and climate are unsuited to the growth of large
+trees, but adapted to scrub jungle of a drought-resisting type, which at
+one time covered very large areas from the Jamna to the Jhelam. The soil
+on which this sparse scrub grew is a good strong loam, but the rainfall
+was too scanty and the water-level too deep to admit of much cultivation
+outside the valleys of the rivers till the labours of canal engineers
+carried their waters to the uplands. East of the Sutlej the Bikaner
+desert thrusts northwards a great wedge of sandy land which occupies a
+large area in Baháwalpur, Hissár, Ferozepur, and Patiála. Soil of this
+description is free of forest growth, and the monsoon rainfall in this
+part of the province is sufficient to encourage an easy, but very
+precarious, cultivation of autumn millets and pulses. The great Thal
+desert to the south of the Salt Range between the valleys of the Jhelam
+and the Indus has a similar soil, but the scantiness of the rainfall has
+confined cultivation within much narrower limits. Between the Sutlej and
+the Jhelam the uplands between the river valleys are known locally as
+Bárs. The largest of the truly indigenous trees of the Panjáb plains are
+the _farásh_ (Tamarix articulata) and the thorny _kíkar_ (Acacia
+Arabica). The latter yields excellent wood for agricultural implements,
+and fortunately it grows well in sour soils. Smaller thorny acacias are
+the _nímbar_ or _raunj_ (Acacia leucophloea) and the _khair_ (Acacia
+Senegal). The dwarf tamarisk, _pilchí_ or _jhao_ (Tamarix dioica), grows
+freely in moist sandy soils near rivers. The scrub jungle consists
+mostly of _jand_ (Prosopis spicigera), a near relation of the Acacias,
+_jál_ or _van_ (Salvadora oleoides), and the coral-flowered _karíl_ or
+leafless caper (Capparis aphylla). All these show their desert
+affinities, the _jand_ by its long root and its thorns, the _jál_ by its
+small leathery leaves, and the _karíl_ by the fact that it has managed
+to dispense with leaves altogether. The _jand_ is a useful little tree,
+and wherever it grows the natural qualities of the soil are good. The
+sweetish fruit of the _jál_, known as _pílu_, is liked by the people,
+and in famines they will even eat the berries of the leafless caper.
+Other characteristic plants of the Panjáb plains are under Leguminosae,
+the _khip_ (Crotalaria burhia), two Farsetias (_faríd kí búti_), and the
+_jawása_ or camel thorn (Alhagi camelorum), practically leafless, but
+with very long and stout spines; under Capparidaceae several Cleomes,
+species of Corchorus (Tiliaceae), under Zygophyllaceae three
+Mediterranean genera, Tribulus, Zygophyllum, and Fagonia, under
+Solanaceae several Solanums and Withanias, and various salsolaceous
+Chenopods known as _lána_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19. Banian or Bor trees.]
+
+In the sandier tracts the _ak_ (Calotropis procera, N.O.
+Asclepiadaceae), the _harmal_ (Peganum harmala, N.O. Rutaceae), and the
+colocynth gourd (Citrullus colocynthis, N.O. Cucurbitaceae), which,
+owing to the size of its roots, manages to flourish in the sands of
+African and Indian deserts, grow abundantly. Common weeds of cultivation
+are Fumaria parviflora, a near relation of the English fumitory, Silene
+conoidea, and two Spergulas (Caryophyllaceae), and Sisymbrium Irio
+(Cruciferae). A curious little Orchid, Zeuxine sulcata, is found growing
+among the grass on canal banks. The American yellow poppy, Argemone
+Mexicana, a noxious weed, has unfortunately established itself widely in
+the Panjáb plain. Two trees of the order Leguminosae, the _shisham_ or
+_tálí_ (Dalbergia Sissoo) and the _siris_ (Albizzia lebbek), are
+commonly planted on Panjáb roads. The true home of the former is in
+river beds in the low hills or in ravines below the hills. But it is a
+favourite tree on roads and near wells throughout the province, and
+deservedly so, for it yields excellent timber. The _siris_ on the other
+hand is an untidy useless tree. The _kíkar_ might be planted as a
+roadside tree to a greater extent. Several species of figs, especially
+the _pípal_ (Ficus religiosa) and _bor_ or banian (Ficus Indica) are
+popular trees.
+
+~Salt Range and North-West Plains.~---Our second region may be taken as
+extending from the Pabbí hills on the east of the Jhelam in Gujrát to
+our administrative boundary beyond the Indus, its southern limit being
+the Salt Range. Here the flora is of a distinctly Mediterranean type.
+Poppies are as familiar in Ráwalpindi as they are in England or Italy,
+and Hypecoum procumbens, a curious Italian plant of the same order, is
+found in Attock. The abundance of Crucifers is also a Mediterranean
+feature. Eruca sativa, the oil-seed known as _táramíra_ or _jamián_,
+which sows itself freely in waste land and may be found growing even on
+railway tracks in the Ráwalpindí division, is an Italian and Spanish
+weed. Malcolmia strigosa, which spreads a reddish carpet over the
+ground, and Malcolmia Africana are common Crucifers near Ráwalpindí. The
+latter is a Mediterranean species. The Salt Range genera Diplotaxis and
+Moricandia are Italian, and the peculiar Notoceras Canariensis found in
+Attock is also a native of the Canary Islands. Another order,
+Boraginaceae, which is very prominent in the Mediterranean region, is
+also important in the North-West Panjáb, though the showier plants of
+the order are wanting. One curious Borage, Arnebia Griffithii, seems to
+be purely Asiatic. It has five brown spots on its petals, which fade and
+disappear in the noonday sunshine. These are supposed to be drops of
+sweat which fell from Muhammad's forehead, hence the plant is called
+_paighambarí phúl_ or the prophet's flower. Among Composites Calendulas
+and Carthamus oxyacantha or the _pohlí_, a near relation of the
+Carthamus which yields the saffron dye, are abundant. Both are common
+Mediterranean genera. Silybum Marianum, a handsome thistle with large
+leaves mottled with white, extends from Britain to Ráwalpindí.
+Interesting species are Tulipa stellata and Tulipa chrysantha. The
+latter is a Salt Range plant, as is the crocus-like Merendera Persica,
+and the yellow Iris Aitchisoni. A curious plant found in the same hills
+is the cactus-like Boucerosia (N.O. Asclepiadaceae), recalling to
+botanists the more familiar Stapelias of the same order. Another
+leafless Asclepiad, Periploca aphylla, which extends westwards to Arabia
+and Nubia and southwards to Sindh, is, like Boucerosia, a typical
+xerophyte adapted to a very dry soil and atmosphere. The thorny Acacias,
+A. eburnea and A. modesta (vern. _phuláhí_), of the low bare hills of
+the N.W. Panjáb are also drought-resisting plants.
+
+~Submontane Region.~--The Submontane region consists of a broad belt below
+the Siwáliks extending from the Jamna nearly to the Jhelam, and may be
+said to include the districts of Ambála, Karnál (part), Hoshyárpur,
+Kángra (part), Hazára (part), Jalandhar, Gurdáspur, Siálkot, Gujrát
+(part). In its flora there is a strong infusion of Indo-Malayan
+elements. An interesting member of it is the Butea frondosa, a small
+tree of the order Leguminosae. It is known by several names, _dhák_,
+_chichra_, _paláh_, and _palás_. Putting out its large orange-red
+flowers in April it ushers in the hot weather. It has a wide range from
+Ceylon to Bengal, where it has given its name to the town of Dacca and
+the battlefield of Plassy (Palási). From Bengal it extends all the way
+to Hazára. There can be no doubt that a large part of the submontane
+region was once _dhák_ forest. Tracts in the north of Karnál--Chachra,
+in Jalandhar--Dardhák, and in Gujrát--Paláhí, have taken their names
+from this tree. It coppices very freely, furnishes excellent firewood
+and good timber for the wooden frames on which the masonry cylinders of
+wells are reared, it exudes a valuable gum, its flowers yield a dye, and
+the dry leaves are eaten by buffaloes. A tree commonly planted near
+wells and villages in the submontane tract is the _dhrek_ (Melia
+azedarach, N.O. Meliaceae), which is found as far west as Persia and is
+often called by English people the Persian lilac. The _bahera_
+(Terminalia belerica, N.O. Combretaceae), a much larger tree, is
+Indo-Malayan. Common shrubs are the _marwan_ (Vitex negundo, N.O.
+Verbenaceae), Plumbago Zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae), the _bánsa_ or
+_bhekar_ (Adhatoda vasica, N.O. Acanthaceae). The last is Indo-Malayan.
+Among herbs Cassias, which do not occur in Europe, are common. The
+curious cactus-like Euphorbia Royleana grows abundantly and is used for
+making hedges.
+
+~Sub-Himálaya.~--A large part of the Sub-Himalayan region belongs to the
+Siwáliks. The climate is fairly moist and subject to less extremes of
+heat and cold than the regions described above. A strong infusion of
+Indo-Malayan types is found and a noticeable feature is the large number
+of flowering trees and shrubs. Such beautiful flowering trees as the
+_simal_ or silk-cotton tree (Bombax Malabaricum, N.O. Malvaceae), the
+_amaltás_ (Cassia fistula), Albizzia mollis and Albizzia stipulata,
+Erythrina suberosa, Bauhinia purpurea and Bauhinia variegata, all
+belonging to the order Leguminosae, are unknown in Europe, but common in
+the Indo-Malayan region. This is true also of Oroxylum Indicum (N.O.
+Bignoniaceae) with its remarkable long sword-like capsules, and of the
+_kamíla_ (Mallotus Philippinensis), which abounds in the low hills, but
+may escape the traveller's notice as its flowers have no charm of form
+or colour. He will in spring hardly fail to observe another Indo-Malayan
+tree, the _dháwí_ (Woodfordia floribunda, N.O. Lythraceae) with its
+bright red flowers. Shrubs with conspicuous flowers are also common,
+among which may be noted species of Clematis, Capparis spinosa, Kydia
+calycina, Mimosa rubicaulis, Hamiltonia suaveolens, Caryopteris
+Wallichiana, and Nerium Oleander. The latter grows freely in sandy
+torrent beds. Rhus cotinus, which reddens the hillsides in May, is a
+native also of Syria, Italy, and Southern France. Other trees to be
+noticed are a wild pear (Pyrus pashia), the olive (Olea cuspidata), the
+_khair_ (Acacia catechu) useful to tanners, the _tun_ (Cedrela toona),
+whose wood is often used for furniture, the _dháman_ (Grewia
+oppositifolia, N.O. Tiliaceae), and several species of fig. The most
+valuable products however of the forests of the lower hills are the
+_chír_ or _chíl_ pine (Pinus longifolia), and a giant grass, the bamboo
+(Dendrocalamus strictus), which attains a height of from 20 to 40 feet.
+Shrubs which grow freely on stony hills are the _sanattha_ or _mendru_
+(Dodonaea viscosa, N.O. Sapindaceae), which is a valuable protection
+against denudation, as goats pass it by, the _garna_, which is a species
+of Carissa, and Plectranthus rugosus. Climbers are common. The great
+Hiptage madablota (N.O. Malpighiaceae), the Bauhinia Vahlii or elephant
+creeper, and some species of the parasitic Loranthus, deserve mention,
+also Acacia caesia, Pueraria tuberosa, Vallaris Heynei, Porana
+paniculata, and several vines, especially Vitis lanata with its large
+rusty leaves. Characteristic herbs are the sweet-scented Viola patrinii,
+the slender milkwort; Polygala Abyssinica, a handsome pea, Vigna
+vexillata, a borage, Trichodesma Indicum, a balsam, Impatiens balsamina,
+familiar in English gardens, the beautiful delicate little blue
+Evolvulus alsinoides, the showy purple convolvulus, Ipomaea hederacea,
+and a curious lily, Gloriosa superba.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20. Deodárs and Hill Temple.]
+
+~Temperate Himálaya.~--The richest part of the temperate Himalayan flora
+is probably in the 7500-10,000 zone. Above 10,000 feet sup-alpine
+conditions begin, and at 12,000 feet tree growth becomes very scanty and
+the flora is distinctly alpine. The _chír_ pine so common in
+sub-Himalayan forests extends up to 6500 feet. At this height and 1000
+feet lower the _ban_ oak (Quercus incana), grey on the lower side of the
+leaf, which is so common at Simla, abounds. Where the _chíl_ stops, the
+_kail_ or blue pine (Pinus excelsa), after the _deodár_ the most
+valuable product of Himalayan forests, begins. Its zone may be taken as
+from 7000 to 9000 feet. To the same zone belong the _kelu_ or _deodár_
+(Cedrus Libani), the glossy leaved _mohru_ oak (Quercus dilatata),
+whose wood is used for making charcoal, and two small trees of the Heath
+order, Rhododendron arborea and Pieris ovalifolia. The former in April
+and May lightens up with its bright red flowers the sombre Simla
+forests. The _kharshu_ or rusty-leaved oak (Quercus semecarpifolia)
+affects a colder climate than its more beautiful glossy-leaved relation,
+and may almost be considered sub-alpine. It is common on Hattu, and the
+oaks there present a forlorn appearance after rain with funereal mosses
+dripping with moisture hanging from their trunks. The firs, Picea
+morinda, with its grey tassels, and Abies Pindrow with its dark green
+yew-like foliage, succeed the blue pine. Picea may be said to range from
+8000 to 10,000 feet, and the upper limit of Abies is from 1000 to 2000
+feet higher. These splendid trees are unfortunately of small commercial
+value. The yew, Taxus baccata, is found associated with them. Between
+5000 and 8000 feet, besides the oaks and other broad-leaved trees
+already noticed, two relations of the dogwood, Cornus capitata and
+Cornus macrophylla, a large poplar, Populus ciliata, a pear, Pyrus
+lanata, a holly, Ilex dipyrena, an elm and its near relation, Celtis
+australis, and species of Rhus and Euonymus, may be mentioned. Cornus
+capitata is a small tree, but it attracts notice because the heads of
+flowers surrounded by bracts of a pale yellow colour have a curious
+likeness to a rose, and the fruit is in semblance not unlike a
+strawberry. Above 8000 feet several species of maple abound. The
+_chinár_ or Platanus orientalis, found as far west as Sicily, grows to
+splendid proportions by the quiet waterways of the Vale of Kashmír. The
+undergrowth in temperate Himalayan forests consists largely of
+barberries, Desmodiums, Indigoferas, roses, brambles, Spiraeas,
+Viburnums, honeysuckles with their near relation, Leycesteria formosa,
+which has been introduced into English shrubberies. The great vine,
+Vitis Himalayana, whose leaves turn red in autumn, climbs up many of the
+trees. Of the flowers it is impossible to give any adequate account. The
+flora is distinctly Mediterranean in type; the orders in Collett's
+_Flora Simlensis_ which are not represented in the Italian flora contain
+hardly more than 5 per cent. of the total genera. The plants included in
+some of these non-Mediterranean orders are very beautiful, for example,
+the Begonias, the Amphicomes (Bignoniaceae), Chirita bifolia and
+Platystemma violoides (Gesneraceae), and Hedychium (Scitamineae). More
+important members of the flora are species of Clematis, including the
+beautiful white Clematis montana, anemones, larkspurs, columbine,
+monkshoods, St John's worts, geraniums, balsams, species of Astragalus,
+Potentillas, Asters, ragworts, species of Cynoglossum, gentians and
+Swertias, Androsaces and primroses, Wulfenia and louseworts, species of
+Strobilanthes, Salvias and Nepetas, orchids, irises, Ophiopogon, Smilax,
+Alliums, lilies, and Solomon's seal. Snake plants (Arisaema) and their
+relation Sauromatum guttatum of the order Araceae are very common in the
+woods. The striped spathe in some species of Arisaema bears a curious
+resemblance to the head of a cobra uplifted to strike. Orchids decrease
+as one proceeds westwards, but irises are much more common in Kashmír
+than in the Simla hills. The Kashmír fritillaries include the beautiful
+Crown Imperial.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21. Firs in Himálaya.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22. Chinárs.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23. Rhododendron campanulatum.]
+
+~Alpine Himálaya.~--In the Alpine Himálaya the scanty tree-growth is
+represented by willows, junipers, and birches. After 12,000 or 12,500
+feet it practically disappears. A dwarf shrub, Juniperus recurva, is
+found clothing hillsides a good way above the two trees of the same
+genus. Other alpine shrubs which may be noticed are two rhododendrons,
+which grow on cliffs at an elevation of 10,000 to 14,000 feet, R.
+campanulatum and R. lepidotum, Gaultheria nummularioides with its
+black-purple berry, and Cassiope fastigiata, all belonging to the order
+Ericaceae. The herbs include beautiful primulas, saxifrages, and
+gentians, and in the bellflower order species of Codonopsis and
+Cyananthus. Among Composites may be mentioned the tansies, Saussureas,
+and the fine Erigeron multiradiatus common in the forest above Narkanda.
+In the bleak uplands beyond the Himálaya tree-growth is very scanty, but
+in favoured localities willows and the pencil cedar, Juniperus
+pseudosabina, are found. The people depend for fuel largely on a hoary
+bush of the Chenopod order, Eurotia ceratoides. In places a profusion of
+the red Tibetan roses, Rosa Webbiana, lightens up the otherwise dreary
+scene.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+FORESTS
+
+
+~Rights of State in Waste.~--Under Indian rule the State claimed full
+power of disposing of the waste, and, even where an exclusive right in
+the soil was not maintained, some valuable trees, e.g. the _deodár_ in
+the Himálaya, were treated as the property of the Rája. Under the tenure
+prevailing in the hills the soil is the Rája's, but the people have a
+permanent tenant right in any land brought under cultivation with his
+permission. In Kulu the British Government asserted its ownership of the
+waste. In the south-western Panjáb, where the scattered hamlets had no
+real boundaries, ample waste was allotted to each estate, and the
+remainder was claimed as State property.
+
+~Kinds of Forest.~--The lands in the Panjáb over which authority, varying
+through many degrees from full ownership unburdened with rights of user
+down to a power of control exercised in the interests of the surrounding
+village communities, may be roughly divided into
+
+  (_a_) Mountain forests;
+
+  (_b_) Hill forests;
+
+  (_c_) Scrub and grass _Jangal_ in the Plains.
+
+The first are forests of _deodár_, blue pine, fir, and oak in the
+Himálaya above the level of 5000 feet. The hill forests occupy the
+lower spurs, the Siwáliks in Hoshyárpur, etc., and the low dry hills of
+the north-west. A strong growth of _chír_ pine (Pinus longifolia) is
+often found in the Himálaya between 3000 and 5000 feet. Below 3000 feet
+is scrub forest, the only really valuable product being bamboo. The
+hills in the north-western districts of the Panjáb and N.W.F. Province,
+when nature is allowed to have its way, are covered with low scrub
+including in some parts a dwarf palm (Nannorhops Ritchieana), useful for
+mat making, and with a taller, but scantier growth of _phuláhí_ (Acacia
+modesta) and wild olive. What remains of the scrub and grass _jangal_ of
+the plains is to be found chiefly in the Bár tracts between the Sutlej
+and the Jhelam. Much of it has disappeared, or is about to disappear,
+with the advance of canal irrigation. Dry though the climate is the Bár
+was in good seasons a famous grazing area. The scrub consisted mainly of
+_jand_ (Prosopis spicigera), _jál_ (Salvadora oleoides), the _karíl_
+(Capparis aphylla) and the _farásh_ (Tamarix articulata).
+
+~Management and Income of Forests.~--The Forest Department of the Panjáb
+has existed singe 1864, when the first Conservator was appointed. In
+1911-12 it managed 8359 square miles in the Panjáb consisting of:
+
+  Reserved Forests  1844 square miles
+  Protected    "    5203   "     "
+  Unclassed    "    1312   "     "
+
+It was also in charge of 235 square miles of reserved forest in the
+Hazára district of the N.W.F. Province, and of 364 miles of fine
+mountain forest in the native State of Bashahr. In addition a few
+reserved forests have been made over as grazing areas to the Military
+Department, and Deputy Commissioners are in charge of a very large area
+of unclassed forest.
+
+No forest can be declared "reserved" or "protected" unless it is owned
+in whole or in part by the State. It is enough if the trees or some of
+them are the property of the Government. In order to safeguard all
+private rights a special forest settlement must be made before a forest
+can be declared to be "reserved." In the case of a protected forest it
+is enough if Government is satisfied that the rights of the State and of
+private persons have been recorded at a land revenue settlement. After
+deducting income belonging to the year 1909-10 realized in 1910-11, the
+average income of the two years ending 1911-12 was £81,805 (Rs.
+1,227,082) and the average expenditure £50,954 (Rs. 764,309).
+
+~Sources of Income.~--In the mountain forests the chief source of income
+is the _deodár_, which is valuable both for railway sleepers and as
+building timber. The blue pine is also of commercial value. _Deodár_,
+blue pine, and some _chír_ are floated down the rivers to depots in the
+plains. Firwood is inferior to cedar and pine, and the great fir forests
+are too remote for profitable working at present. There are fine
+mountain forests in Chitrál, on the Safed Koh, and in Western
+Wazíristán, but these have so far not even been fully explored. The
+value of the hill forests may be increased by the success which has
+attended the experimental extraction of turpentine from the resin of the
+_chír_ pine. The bamboo forests of Kángra are profitable. At present an
+attempt is being made to acclimatize several species of Eucalyptus in
+the low hills. The scrub _jangal_ in the plains yields good fuel. As the
+area is constantly shrinking it is fortunate that the railways have
+ceased to depend on this source of supply, coal having to a great extent
+taken the place of wood. To prevent shortage of fuel considerable areas
+in the tracts commanded by the new canals are being reserved for
+irrigated forests. A forest of this class covering an area of 37 square
+miles and irrigated from the Upper Bárí Doáb Canal has long existed at
+Changa Manga in the Lahore district.
+
+~Forests in Kashmír.~--The extensive and valuable Kashmír forests are
+mountain and hill forests, the former, which cover much the larger area
+yielding, _deodár_, blue pine, and firs, and the latter _chír_ pine. The
+total area exceeds 2600 square miles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+BEASTS, BIRDS, FISHES, AND INSECTS
+
+
+~Fauna.~--With the spread of cultivation and drainage the Panjáb plains
+have ceased to be to anything like the old extent the haunt of wild
+beasts and wild fowl. The lion has long been extinct and the tiger has
+practically disappeared. Leopards are to be found in low hills, and
+sometimes stray into the plains. Wolves are seen occasionally, and
+jackals are very common. The black buck (Antilope cerricapra) can still
+be shot in many places. The graceful little _chinkára_ or ravine deer
+(Gazella Bennetti) is found in sandy tracts, and the hogdeer or _párha_
+(Cervus porcinus) near rivers. The _nílgai_ (Boselaphus tragocamelus) is
+less common. Monkeys abound in the hills and in canal-irrigated tracts
+in the Eastern districts, where their sacred character protects them
+from destruction, though they do much damage to crops. Peafowl are to be
+seen in certain tracts, especially in the eastern Panjáb. They should
+not be shot where the people are Hindus or anywhere near a Hindu shrine.
+The great and lesser bustards and several kinds of sand grouse are to be
+found in sandy districts. The grey partridge is everywhere, and the
+black can be got near the rivers. The _sísí_ and the _chikor_ are the
+partridges of the hills, which are also the home of fine varieties of
+pheasants including the _monál_. Quail frequent the ripening fields in
+April and late in September. Duck of various kinds abound where there
+are _jhíls_, and snipe are to be got in marshy ground. The green
+parrots, crows, and vultures are familiar sights. Both the sharp-nosed
+(Garialis Gangetica, vern. _ghariál_) and the blunt-nosed (Crocodilus
+palustris, vern. magar) crocodiles haunt the rivers. The fish are
+tasteless; the _rohu_ and _mahseer_ are the best. Poisonous snakes are
+the _karait_, the _cobra_, and Russell's viper. The first is sometimes
+an intruder into houses. Lizards and mongooses are less unwelcome
+visitors. White ants attack timber and ruin books, and mosquitoes and
+sandflies add to the unpleasant features of the hot weather. The best
+known insect pest is the locust, but visitations on a large scale are
+rare. Of late years much more damage has been done by an insect which
+harbours in the cotton bolls.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24. Big game in Ladákh.
+
+KEY: 1, 3, 7, 9, Chiru or Tibetan Antelope. 2, Argalí or Ovis Ammon. 4,
+6, 8, Bharal or Ovis nahura. 5, Yak or Bos grunniens. 10, 11, 12, Uriál
+or Ovis Vignei. 13, Bear skin.]
+
+~Game of the Mountains.~--If sport in the plains has ceased to be first
+rate, it is otherwise in the hills. Some areas and the heights at which
+the game is to be found are noted below:
+
+  (_a_) Goats and goat-antelopes:
+
+  1. Ibex (Capra Sibirica) 10,000-14,000 ft.
+  Kashmír, Lahul, Bashahr.
+
+  2. Márkhor (Capra Falconeri). Kashmír, Astor,
+  Gilgit, Sulimán hills.
+
+  3. Thár (Hemitragus jemlaicus), 9000-14,000
+  ft. Kashmír, Chamba.
+
+  4. Gural (Cemas goral), 3000-8000 ft. Kashmír,
+  Chamba, Simla hills, Bashahr.
+
+  5. Serow (Nemorhaedus bubalinus), 6000-12,000
+  ft. From Kashmír eastwards.
+
+  (_b_) Sheep:
+
+  1. Bharal (Ovis nahura), 10,000-12,000 ft. and
+  over. Ladákh, Bashahr.
+
+  2. Argalí (Ovis Ammon). Ladákh.
+
+  3. Uriál (Ovis Vignei)  Salt Range, Sulimán
+  hills.
+
+  (_c_) Antelopes:
+
+  1. Chiru or Tibetan Antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni).
+  Ladákh.
+
+  (_d_) Oxen--Yák (Bos grunniens). Ladákh.  The
+  domesticated _yák_ is invaluable as a beast of
+  burden in the Trans-Himalayan tract. The
+  royal fly whisk or _chaurí_ is made from pure
+  white yák tails.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. Yáks.]
+
+  (_e_) Stag:
+
+  1. Bárasingha (Cervus Duvanceli). Foot of
+  Himálaya in Kashmír.
+
+  (_f_) Bears:
+
+  1. Red or Brown (Ursus Arctos), 10,000-13,000
+  ft. Kashmír, Chamba, Bashahr, etc.
+
+  2. Black (Ursus torquatus), 6000-12,000 ft.
+  Same regions, but at lower elevations.
+  The small bear of the southern Sulimán
+  hills known as _mam_ is now considered a
+  variety of the black bear.
+
+  (_g_) Leopards:
+
+  1. Snow Leopard (Felis Uncia), 9000-15,000 ft.
+  Kashmír, Chamba, Bashahr.
+
+  2. Ordinary Leopard (Felis Pardus). Lower
+  hills.
+
+
+SHOOTING IN HILLS
+
+~Shooting in Hills.~--The finest shooting in the north-west Himálaya is
+probably to be got in Ladákh and Baltistán, but the trip is somewhat
+expensive and requires more time than may be available. In many areas
+licenses have to be obtained, and the conditions limit the number of
+certain animals, and the size of heads, that may be shot. For example,
+the permit in Chamba may allow the shooting of two red bear and two
+_thár_, and when these have been got the sportsman must turn his
+attention to black bear and _gural_. Any one contemplating a shooting
+expedition in the Himálaya should get from one who has the necessary
+experience very complete instructions as to weapons, tents, clothing,
+stores, etc.
+
+
+SPORT IN THE PLAINS
+
+(_a_) ~Black Buck Shooting.~--To get a good idea of what shooting in the
+plains is like Major Glasford's _Rifle and Romance in the Indian Jungle_
+may be consulted. As regards larger game the favourite sport is black
+buck shooting. A high velocity cordite rifle is dangerous to the country
+people, and some rifle firing black powder should be used. It is well to
+reach the home of the herd soon after sunrise while it is still in the
+open, and not among the crops. There will usually be one old buck in
+each herd. He himself is not watchful, but his does are, and the herd
+gallops off with great leaps at the first scent of danger, the does
+leading and their lord and master bringing up the rear. If by dint of
+careful and patient stalking you get to some point of vantage, say 100
+yards from the big buck, it is worth while to shoot. Even if the bullet
+finds its mark the quarry may gallop 50 yards before it drops. Good
+heads vary from 20" to 24" or even more.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26. Black buck.]
+
+(_b_) ~Small game in Plains.~--The cold weather shooting begins with the
+advent of the quail in the end of September and ends when they reappear
+among the ripening wheat in April. The duck arrive from the Central
+Asian lakes in November and duck and snipe shooting lasts till February
+in districts where there are _jhíls_ and swampy land. For a decent shot
+30 couple of snipe is a fair bag. To get duck the _jhíl_ should be
+visited at dawn and again in the evening, and it is well to post several
+guns in favourable positions in the probable line of flight. 40 or 50
+birds would be a good morning's bag. In drier tracts the bag will
+consist of partridges and a hare or two, or, if the country is sandy,
+some sand-grouse and perhaps a bustard.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE PEOPLE: NUMBERS, RACES, AND LANGUAGES
+
+
+~Growth of Population.~--It is probable that in the 64 years since
+annexation the population of the Panjáb has increased by from 40 to 50
+per cent. The first reliable census was taken in 1881. The figures for
+the four decennial enumerations are:
+
+  |-------------------------------------------------------------|
+  |     |                                  |          |         |
+  |     |              Panjáb              |  N.W.F.  | Kashmír |
+  |Year |----------------------------------| Province |         |
+  |     | British   |  Native  |  Total    |          |         |
+  |     |           |  States  |           |          |         |
+  |-------------------------------------------------------------|
+  |1881 |17,274,597 |3,861,683 |21,136,280 |1,543,726 |         |
+  |1891 |19,009,368 |4,263,280 |23,272,648 |1,857,504 |2,543.952|
+  |1901 |20,330,337 |4,424,398 |24,754,735 |2,041,534 |2,905,578|
+  |1911 |19,974,956 |4,212,974 |24,187,730 |2,196,933 |3,158,126|
+  |-------------------------------------------------------------|
+
+~Incidence of Population in Panjáb.~--The estimated numbers of independent
+tribes dwelling within the British sphere of influence is 1,600,000. The
+incidence of the population on the total area of the Panjáb including
+native States is 177 per square mile, which may be compared with 189 in
+France and 287 in the British Isles. As the map shows, the density is
+reduced by the large area of semi-desert country in the south-west and
+by the mountainous tract in the north-east. The distribution of the
+population is the exact opposite of that which prevails in Great
+Britain. There are only 174 towns as compared with 44,400 villages, and
+nearly nine-tenths of the people are to be found in the latter. Some of
+the so-called towns are extremely small, and the average population per
+town is but 14,800 souls. There are no large towns in the European
+sense. The biggest, Delhi and Lahore, returned respectively 232,837 and
+228,687 persons.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27. Map showing density of population.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28. Map showing increase and decrease of
+population.]
+
+~Growth stopped by Plague.~--The growth of the population between 1881 and
+1891 amounted to 10 p.c. Plague, which has smitten the Panjáb more
+severely than any other province, appeared in 1896, and its effect was
+seen in the lower rate of expansion between 1891 and 1901.
+Notwithstanding great extensions of irrigation and cultivation in the
+Rechna Doáb the numbers declined by 2 p.c. between 1901 and 1911. In the
+ten years from 1901 to 1910 in the British districts alone over two
+million people died of plague and the death-rate was raised to 12 p.c.
+above the normal. It actually exceeded the birth-rate by 2 p.c. Of the
+total deaths in the decade nearly one in four was due to plague. The
+part which has suffered most is the rich submontane tract east of the
+Chenáb, Lahore and Gujránwála, and some of the south-eastern districts.
+A glance at the map will show how large the loss of population has been
+there. It is by no means entirely due to plague. The submontane
+districts were almost over-populated, and many of their people have
+emigrated as colonists, tenants, and labourers to the waste tracts
+brought under cultivation by the excavation of the Lower Chenáb and
+Jhelam canals. The districts which have received very marked additions
+of population from this cause are Jhang (21 p.c.), Sháhpur (30 p.c.), and
+Lyallpur (45 p.c.). Deaths from plague have greatly increased the
+deficiency of females, which has always been a noteworthy feature. In
+1911 the proportion had very nearly fallen to four females for every
+five males.
+
+~Increase and Incidence in N.W.F. Province.~--The incidence of the
+population in the area covered by the five districts of the N.W.F.
+Province is 164 per square mile. The district figures are given in the
+map in the margin. The increase between 1901 and 1911 in these districts
+was 7-1/2 p.c. There have been no severe outbreaks of plague like those
+which have decimated the population of some of the Panjáb districts.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29. Map showing density of population in N.W.F.
+Province.]
+
+General figures for the territory of the Mahárája of Kashmír are
+meaningless. In the huge Indus valley the incidence is only 4 persons
+per sq. mile. In Jammu and Kashmír it is 138. The map taken from the
+Census Report gives the details. The increase in the decade was on
+paper 8-1/2 p.c., distributed between 5-1/4 in Jammu, 12 in Kashmír, and
+14 in the Indus valley. A great part of the increase in the last must be
+put down to better enumeration.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30. Map showing density of population in Kashmir.]
+
+~Health and duration of life.~--The climate of the Panjáb plains has
+produced a vigorous, but not a long-lived, race. The mean age of the
+whole population in the British districts is only 25. The normal
+birth-rate of the Panjáb is about 41 per 1000, which exceeds the English
+rate in the proportion of 5 to 3. In 1910 the recorded birth-rate in the
+N.W.F. Province was 38 per 1000. Till plague appeared the Panjáb
+death-rate averaged 32 or 33 per 1000, or more than double that of
+England. The infantile mortality is enormous, and one out of every four
+or five children fails to survive its first year. The death-rate in the
+N.W.F. Province was 27 per 1000 in 1910. In the ten years ending 1910
+plague pushed up the average death-rate in the Panjáb to 43-1/2 per
+1000. Even now malarial fever is a far worse foe than plague. The
+average annual deaths in the ten years ending 1910 were:
+
+  Fevers              450,376
+  Plague              202,522
+  Other diseases      231,473
+                      -------
+  Total               884,371
+                      -------
+
+Fever is very rife in October and November, and these are the most
+unhealthy months in the year, March and April being the best. The
+variations under fevers and plague from year to year are enormous. In
+1907 the latter claimed 608,685 victims, and the provincial death-rate
+reached the appalling figure of 61 per 1000. Next year the plague
+mortality dropped to 30,708, but there were 697,058 deaths from fever.
+There is unfortunately no reason to believe that plague has spent its
+force or that the people as a whole will in the near future generally
+accept the protective measures of inoculation and evacuation.
+Vaccination, the prejudice against which has largely disappeared, has
+robbed the small-pox goddess of many offerings. As a general cause of
+mortality the effect of cholera in the Panjáb is now insignificant. But
+it is still to be feared in the Kashmír valley, especially in the
+picturesque but filthy summer capital. Syphilis is very common in the
+hill country in the north-east of the province. Blindness and leprosy
+are both markedly on the decrease. Both infirmities are common in
+Kashmír, especially the former. The rigours of the climate in a large
+part of the State force the people to live day and night for the seven
+winter months almost entirely in dark and smoky huts, and it is small
+wonder that their eyesight is ruined.
+
+~Occupations.~--The Panjáb is preeminently an agricultural country, and
+the same is true in an almost greater degree of the N.W.F. Province and
+Kashmír. The typical holding is that of the small landowner tilling from
+3 to 10 acres with his own hands with or without help from village
+menials. The tenant class is increasing, but there are still three
+owners to two tenants. Together they make up 50 p.c. of the population
+of the Panjáb, and 5 p.c. is added for farm labourers. Altogether,
+according to the census returns 58 p.c. of the population depends for
+its support on the soil, 20.5 on industries, chiefly the handicrafts of
+the weaver, potter, leather worker, carpenter, and blacksmith, 9.4 on
+trade, 2.5 on professions, and 9.6 on other sources of livelihood.
+
+~Measures taken to protect agriculturists.~--In a country owned so largely
+by small farmers, the first task of the Government must be to secure
+their welfare and contentment. Before plague laid its grasp on the rich
+central districts it was feared that they were becoming congested, and
+the canal colonization schemes referred to in a later chapter were
+largely designed to relieve them. But there is a much subtler foe to
+whose insidious attacks small owners are liable, the temptation to abuse
+their credit till their acres are loaded with mortgages and finally
+lost. So threatening had this economic disease for years appeared that
+at last in 1900 the Panjáb Alienation of Land Act was passed, which
+forbade sales by people of agricultural tribes to other classes without
+the sanction of the district officer, and greatly restricted the power
+of mortgaging. The same restrictions are in force in the N.W.F.
+Province. The Act is popular with those for whose benefit it was
+devised, and has effected its object of checking land alienation and
+probably to some extent discouraged extravagance. It has been
+supplemented by a still more valuable measure, the Co-operative Credit
+Societies Act. The growth of these societies in the Panjáb has been very
+remarkable, a notable contrast to the very slow advance of the similar
+movement in England. In 1913-14 there were 3261 village banks with
+155,250 members and a working capital of 133-3/4 _lakhs_ or £885,149,
+besides 38 central banks with a capital of 42-3/4 _lakhs_ or about
+£285,000. Village banks held deposits amounting to nearly 37 _lakhs_,
+more than half of which was received from non-members, and lent out
+71-1/2 _lakhs_ in the year to their members.
+
+~Tribal Composition.~--Table I based on the Census returns shows the
+percentages of the total population belonging to the chief tribes. The
+classification into "land-holding, etc." is a rough one.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31. Jat Sikh Officers (father and son).]
+
+~Jats.~--The Panjáb is _par excellence_ the home of the Jats. Everywhere
+in the plains, except in the extreme north-west corner of the province,
+they form a large element in the population. In the east they are
+Hindus, in the centre Sikhs and Muhammadans, and in the west
+Muhammadans. The Jat is a typical son of the soil, strong and sturdy,
+hardworking and brave, a fine soldier and an excellent farmer, but
+slow-witted and grasping. The Sikh Jat finds an honourable outlet for
+his overflowing energy in the army and in the service of the Crown
+beyond the bounds of India. When he misses that he sometimes takes to
+dacoity. Unfortunately he is often given to strong drink, and, when his
+passions or his greed are aroused, can be exceedingly brutal. Jat in the
+Western Panjáb is applied to a large number of tribes, whose ethnical
+affinities are somewhat dubious.
+
+~Rájputs.~--Rájputs are found in considerable numbers all over the
+province except in a few of the western and south-western districts. As
+farmers they are much hampered by caste rules which forbid the
+employment of their women in the fields, and the prohibition of widow
+remarriage is a severe handicap. They are generally classed as poor
+cultivators, and this is usually, but by no means universally, a true
+description. The Dogra Rájputs of the low hills are good soldiers. They
+are numerous in Kángra and in the Jammu province of Kashmír.
+
+~Brahmans.~--The Brahmans of the eastern plains and north-eastern hills
+are mostly agriculturists, and the Muhiál Brahman of the north-western
+districts is a landowner and a soldier. In the hills the Brahman is
+often a shopkeeper. The priestly Brahman is found everywhere, but his
+spiritual authority has always been far less in the Panjáb than in most
+parts of India.
+
+~Biluches.~--When the frontier was separated off the Biluch district of
+Dera Ghází Khán with its strong tribal organization under chiefs or
+_tumandárs_ was left in the Panjáb. The Biluches are a frank, manly,
+truthful race, free from fanaticism and ready as a rule to follow their
+chiefs. They are fine horsemen. Unfortunately it is difficult to get
+them to enlist.
+
+~Patháns.~--Both politically and numerically the Patháns are the
+predominant tribe in the N.W.F. Province, and are of importance in parts
+of the Panjáb districts of Attock and Mianwálí. The Pathán is a democrat
+and often a fanatic, more under the influence of _mullahs_ than of the
+_maliks_ or headmen of his tribe. He has not the frank straightforward
+nature of the Biluch, is untiring in pursuit of revenge, and is not free
+from cruelty. But, when he has eaten the _Sarkár's_ salt, he is a very
+brave and dashing soldier, and he is a faithful host to anyone whom he
+has admitted under his roof.
+
+~Awáns.~--The home of the Awán in the Panjáb is the Salt Range and the
+parts of Attock and Mianwálí, lying to the north of it, and this tract
+of country is known as the Awánkárí. In the N.W.F. Province they are,
+after the Patháns, by far the largest tribe, and are specially numerous
+in Pesháwar and Hazára.
+
+~Shekhs.~--Of the Shekhs about half are Kureshís, Sadíkís, and Ansárís of
+foreign origin and high social standing. The rest are new converts to
+Islám, often of the sweeper caste originally.
+
+~Saiyyids.~--Saiyyids are unsatisfactory landowners, and are kept going by
+the offerings of their followers. They are mostly Shias. It is not
+necessary to believe that they are all descended from the Prophet's
+son-in-law, Ali. A native proverb with pardonable exaggeration says:
+"The first year I was a weaver (Juláha), the next year a Shekh. This
+year, if prices rise, I shall be a Saiyyid."
+
+~Trading Castes.~--Aroras are the traders of the S.W. Panjáb and of the
+N.W.F. Province. They share the Central Panjáb with the Khatrís, who
+predominate in the north-western districts. The Khatrí of the
+Ráwalpindí division is often a landowner and a first-class fighting
+man. Some of our strongest Indian civil officials have been Aroras. In
+the Delhi division the place of the Arora and Khatrí is taken by the
+Bania, and in Kángra by the Súd or the Brahman. Khojas and Paráchas are
+Muhammadan traders.
+
+~Artizans and Menials.~--Among artizans and menials Sunárs (goldsmiths),
+Rájes (masons), Lohárs (blacksmiths), and Tarkháns (carpenters) take the
+first rank.
+
+~Impure Castes.~--The vast majority of the impure castes, the
+"untouchables" of the Hindu religion, are scavengers and workers in
+leather. The sweeper who embraces Islám becomes a Musallí. The Sikh
+Mazhbís, who are the descendants of sweeper converts, have done
+excellent service in our Pioneer regiments. The Hindu of the Panjáb in
+his avoidance of "untouchables" has never gone to the absurd lengths of
+the high caste Madrásí, and the tendency is towards a relaxation of
+existing restrictions.
+
+~Mendicants.~--Men of religion living on charity, wandering _fakírs_, are
+common sights, and beggars are met with in the cities, who sometimes
+exhibit their deformities with unnecessary insistence.
+
+~Kashmírís.~--According to the census return the number of Kashmírí
+Musulmáns, who make up 60 p.c. of the inhabitants of the Jhelam valley,
+was 765,442. They are no doubt mostly descendants of various Hindu
+castes, perhaps in the main of Hill Brahmans, but Islám has wiped out
+all tribal distinctions. Sir Walter Lawrence wrote of them: "The
+Kashmírí is unchanged in spite of the splendid Moghal, the brutal
+Afghán, and the bully Sikh. Warriors and statesmen came and went; but
+there was no egress, and no wish ... in normal times to leave their
+homes. The outside world was far, and from all accounts inferior to the
+pleasant valley.... So the Kashmírís lived their self-centred life,
+conceited, clever, and conservative."
+
+The Hindu Kashmírí Pandits numbered 55,276.
+
+~Tribes of Jammu.~--Agricultural Brahmans are numerous in the Jammu
+province. Thakkars and Meghs are important elements of the population of
+the outer hills. The former are no doubt by origin Rájputs, but they
+have cast off many Rájput customs. The Meghs are engaged in weaving and
+agriculture, and are regarded as more or less impure by the higher
+castes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32. Blind Beggar.]
+
+~Gújars.~--Gújars in the Mahárája's territories are almost always
+graziers. In 1911 they numbered 328,003.
+
+~Dard Tribes of Astor and Gilgit.~--The people of Astor and Gilgit are
+Dards speaking Shina and professing Islám. Sir Aurel Stein wrote of
+them: "The Dard race which inhabits the valleys N. of (the Inner
+Himálaya) as far as the Hindu Kush is separated from the Kashmírí
+population by language as well as by physical characteristics.... There
+is little in the Dard to enlist the sympathies of the casual observer.
+He lacks the intelligence, humour, and fine physique of the Kashmírí,
+and, though undoubtedly far braver than the latter, has none of the
+independent spirit and manly bearing which draw us towards the Pathán
+despite all his failings. But I can never see a Dard without thinking of
+the thousands of years of struggle they have carried on with the harsh
+climate and the barren soil of their mountains[3]."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33. Dards.]
+
+~Kanjútís.~--The origin of the Kanjútís of Hunza is uncertain, and so are
+the relationships of their language.
+
+~Mongoloid Population of Ladákh.~--The population of Ladákh and Báltistán
+is Mongoloid, but the Báltís (72,439) have accepted Islám and polygamy,
+while the Ladákhís have adhered to Buddhism and polyandry.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34. Map showing races.]
+
+~Ethnological theories.~--In _The People of India_ the late Sir Herbert
+Risley maintained that the inhabitants of Rájputána, nearly the whole of
+the Panjáb, and a large part of Kashmír, whatever their caste or social
+status, belonged with few exceptions to a single racial type, which he
+called Indo-Aryan. The Biluches of Dera Ghází Khán and the Patháns of
+the N.W.F. Province formed part of another group which he called
+Turko-Iranian. The people of a strip of territory on the west of the
+Jamna he held to be of the same type as the bulk of the inhabitants of
+the United Provinces, and this type he called Aryo-Dravidian. Finally
+the races occupying the hills in the north-east and the adjoining part
+of Kashmír were of Mongol extraction, a fact which no one will dispute.
+Of the Indo-Aryan type Sir Herbert Risley wrote: "The stature is mostly
+tall, complexion fair, eyes dark, hair on face plentiful, head long,
+nose narrow and prominent, but not specially long." He believed that the
+Panjáb was occupied by Aryans, who came into the country from the west
+or north-west with their wives and children, and had no need to contract
+marriages with the earlier inhabitants. The Aryo-Dravidians of the
+United Provinces resulted from a second invasion or invasions, in which
+the Aryan warriors came alone and had to intermarry with the daughters
+of the land, belonging to the race which forms the staple of the
+population of Central India and Madras. This theory was based on
+measurements of heads and noses, and it seems probable that deductions
+drawn from these physical characters are of more value than any evidence
+based on the use of a common speech. But it is hard to reconcile the
+theory with the facts of history even in the imperfect shape in which
+they have come down to us, or to believe that Sakas, Yuechí, and White
+Huns (see historical section) have left no traces of their blood in the
+province. If such there are, they may perhaps be found in some of the
+tribes on both sides of the Salt Range, such as Gakkhars, Janjúas, Awáns
+Tiwánas, Ghebas, and Johdras, who are fine horsemen and expert
+tent-peggers, not "tall heavy men without any natural aptitude for
+horsemanship," as Sir Herbert Risley described his typical Panjábí (p.
+59 of his book).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35. Map showing distribution of languages.]
+
+~Languages.~--In the area dealt with in this book no less than eleven
+languages are spoken, and the dialects are very numerous. It is only
+possible to tabulate the languages and indicate on the map the
+localities in which they are spoken. For the Panjáb the figures of the
+recent census are:
+
+  A 1. Tibeto-Chinese                       41,607
+
+  B. Aryan:
+  (_a_) Iranian:   2. Pashtu                67,174
+                        3. Biluchí          70,675
+                        4. Kohistání            26
+
+  (_b_) Indian:    5. Kashmírí               7,190
+                        6. Pahárí          993,363
+                        7. Lahndí        4,253,566
+                        8. Sindhí               24
+                        9. Panjábí      14,111,215
+                       10. Western Hindi 3,826,467
+                       11. Rájasthání      725,850
+
+The eastern part of the Indus valley in Kashmír forming the provinces of
+Ladákh and Báltistán is occupied by a Mongol population speaking
+Tibeto-Chinese dialects. Kashmírí is the language of Kashmír Proper, and
+various dialects of the Shina-Khowár group comprehensively described as
+Kohistání are spoken in Astor, Gilgit, and Chilás, and to the west of
+Kashmír territory in Chitrál and the Kohistán or mountainous country at
+the top of the Swát river valley. Though Kashmírí and the Shina-Khowár
+tongues belong to the Aryan group, their basis is supposed to be
+non-Sanskritic, and it is held that there is a strong non-Sanskritic or
+Pisácha element also in Lahndí or western Panjábí, which is also the
+prevailing speech in the Hazára and Dera Ismail Khán districts of the
+N.W.F. Province, and is spoken in part of the Jammu province of Kashmír.
+Pashtu is the common language in Pesháwar, Kohát, and Bannu, and is
+spoken on the western frontiers of Hazára and Dera Ismail Khán, and in
+the independent tribal territory in the west between the districts of
+the N.W.F. Province and the Durand Line and immediately adjoining the
+Pesháwar district on the north. Rájasthání is a collective name for the
+dialects of Rájputána, which overflow into the Panjáb, occupying a
+strip along the southern frontier from Baháwalpur to Gurgáon. The
+infiltration of English words and phrases into the languages of the
+province is a useful process and as inevitable as was the enrichment of
+the old English speech by Norman-French. But for the present the results
+are apt to sound grotesque, when the traveller, who expects a train to
+start at the appointed time, is told: "_tren late hai, lekin singal down
+hogaya_" (the train is late, but the signal has been lowered), or the
+criticism is passed on a popular officer: "_bahut affable hai, lekin
+hand shake nahín kartá_" (very affable, but doesn't shake hands).
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 3: _Sand Buried Ruins Of Khotan_, pp. 14-15.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE PEOPLE (_continued_): RELIGIONS
+
+
+~Religions in N.W.F. Province.~--In the N.W.F. Province an overwhelming
+majority of the population professes Islám. In 1911 there were 2,039,994
+Musalmáns as compared with 119,942 Hindus, 30,345 Sikhs, and 6585
+Christians.
+
+~Religions in Kashmír.~--In Kashmír the preponderance of Muhammadans is
+not so overwhelming. The figures are:
+
+  Muhammadans     2,398,320
+  Hindus            690,390
+  Buddhists          36,512
+  Sikhs              31,553
+
+The Hindus belong mostly to the Jammu province, where nearly half of the
+population professes that faith. The people of Kashmír, Báltistán, Astor
+and Gilgit, Chilás and Hunza Nagár, are Musalmáns. The Ladákhís are
+Buddhists.
+
+~Religions in Panjáb.~--The distribution by religions of the population of
+the Panjáb and its native States in 1911 was:
+
+  Muhammadans                       12,275,477 or 51 p.c.
+  Hindus                             8,773,621 or 36 p.c.
+  Sikhs                              2,883,729 or 12 p.c.
+  Others, chiefly Christian (199,751)  254,923 or  1 p.c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36. Map showing distribution of religions.]
+
+The strength of the Muhammadans is in the districts west of the Biás and
+the Sutlej below its junction with the Biás. 83 p.c. of the subjects of
+the Nawáb of Baháwalpur are also Muhammadans. In all this western region
+there are few Hindus apart from the shopkeepers and traders. On the
+other hand the hill country in the north-east is purely Hindu, except on
+the borders of Tibet, where the scanty population professes Buddhism.
+While Hinduism is the predominant faith in the south-east, quite a
+fourth of the people there are Musalmáns. Sikhs nowhere form a majority.
+The districts in the eastern part of the Central Plains where they
+constitute more than one-fifth of the population are indicated in the
+map. In six districts, Lahore, Montgomery, Gujránwála, Lyallpur,
+Hoshyárpur, and Ambála the proportion is between 10 and 20 p.c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37. Raghunáth Temple, Jammu.]
+
+~Growth and Decline in numbers.~--There was a slight rise in the number of
+Muhammadans between 1901 and 1911. Their losses in the central
+districts, where the plague scourge has been heaviest, were
+counterbalanced by gains in the western tract, where its effect has been
+slight. On the other hand the decrease under Hindus amounts to nearly
+15 p.c. The birth-rate is lower and the death-rate higher among Hindus
+than among Musalmáns, and their losses by plague in the central and some
+of the south-eastern districts have been very heavy. A change of
+sentiment on the part of the Sikh community has led to many persons
+recording themselves as Sikhs who were formerly content to be regarded
+as Hindus. It must be remembered that one out of four of the recorded
+Hindus belongs to impure castes, who even in the Panjáb pollute food and
+water by their touch and are excluded from the larger temples. Since
+1901 a considerable number of Chúhras or Sweepers have been converted to
+Islám and Christianity.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38. Golden Temple, Amritsar.]
+
+~Sikhs.~--Notwithstanding heavy losses by plague Sikhs have increased by
+37 p.c. A great access of zeal has led to many more Sikhs becoming
+_Kesdhárís_. _Sajhdhárís_ or _Múnas_, who form over one-fifth of the
+whole Sikh community, were in 1901 classed as Hindus. They are followers
+of Bába Nának, cut their hair, and often smoke. When a man has taken the
+"_pahul_," which is the sign of his becoming a _Kesdhárí_ or follower of
+Guru Govind, he must give up the _hukka_ and leave his hair unshorn. The
+future of Sikhism is with the _Kesdhárís_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39. Mosque in Lahore City.]
+
+~Muhammadans.~--In the eastern districts the conversions to Islám were
+political, and Hindu and Muhammadan Rájputs live peaceably together in
+the same village. The Musalmáns have their mosque for the worship of
+Allah, but were, and are still, not quite sure that it is prudent wholly
+to neglect the godlings. The conversion of the western Panjáb was the
+result largely of missionary effort. _Pírí murídí_ is a great
+institution there. Every man should be the "_muríd_" or pupil of some
+holy man or _pír_, who combines the functions in the Roman Catholic
+Church of spiritual director in this world and the saint in heaven. The
+_pír_ may be the custodian of some little saint's tomb in a village, or
+of some great shrine like that of Baba Faríd at Pákpattan, or Baháwal
+Hakk at Multán, or Taunsa Sharif in Dera Ghází Khán, or Golra in
+Ráwalpindí. His own holiness may be more official than personal. About
+1400 A.D. the Kashmírís were offered by their Sultán Sikandar the choice
+between conversion and exile, and chose the easier alternative. Like the
+western Panjábís they are above all things saint-worshippers. The
+ejaculations used to stimulate effort show this. The embankment builder
+in the south-western Panjáb invokes the holy breath of Baháwal Hakk, and
+the Kashmírí boatman's cry "Yá Pír, dast gír," "Oh Saint, lend me a
+hand," is an appeal to their national saint.
+
+~Effect of Education.~--The Musalmáns of the western Panjáb have a great
+dislike to Sikhs, dating from the period of the political predominance
+of the latter. So far the result of education has been to accentuate
+religious differences and animosities. Both Sikhs and Musalmáns are
+gradually dropping ideas and observances retained in their daily life
+after they ceased to call themselves Hindus. On the other hand, within
+the Hindu fold laxity is now the rule rather than the exception, and the
+neglect of the old ritual and restrictions is by no means confined to
+the small but influential reforming minority which calls itself Árya
+Samáj.
+
+~Christians.~--The number of Christians increased threefold between 1901
+and 1911. The Presbyterian missionaries have been especially successful
+in attracting large numbers of outcastes into the Christian Church.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40. God and Goddess, Chamba.]
+
+~Hinduism in the Panjáb.~--Hinduism has always been, and to-day is more
+than ever, a very elastic term. The Census Superintendent, himself a
+high caste Hindu, wrote: "The definition which would cover the Hindu of
+the modern times is that he should be born of parents not belonging to
+some recognised religion other than Hinduism, marry within the same
+limits, believe in God, respect the cow, and cremate the dead." There is
+room in its ample folds for the Árya Samájist, who rejects idol worship
+and is divesting himself of caste prejudices and marriage restrictions,
+and the most orthodox Sanátan dharmist, who carries out the whole
+elaborate daily ritual of the Brahmanical religion, and submits to all
+its complicated rules; for the ordinary Hindu trader, who is equally
+orthodox by profession, but whose ordinary religious exercises are
+confined to bathing in the morning; for the villager of the eastern
+districts, who often has the name of Parameshvar or the Supreme Lord on
+his lips, but who really worships the godlings, Gúgá Pír, Sarwar or
+Sultán Pír, Sítla (the small-pox goddess), and others, whose little
+shrines we see round the village site; and for the childish idolaters of
+Kulu, who carry their local deities about to visit each other at fairs,
+and would see nothing absurd in locking them all up in a dungeon if rain
+held off too long.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41. A Kulu godling and his attendants.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE PEOPLE (_continued_): EDUCATION
+
+
+~Educational progress.~--According to the census returns of 1911 there are
+not four persons per 100 in the province who are "literate" in the sense
+of being able to read and write a letter. The proportion of literacy
+among Hindus and Sikhs is three times as great as among Muhammadans. In
+1911-12 one boy in six of school-going age was at school or college and
+one girl in 37. This may seem a meagre result of sixty years of work,
+for the Government and Christian missionaries, who have had an
+honourable connection with the educational history of the province,
+began their efforts soon after annexation, and a Director of Public
+Instruction was appointed as long ago as 1856. But a country of small
+peasant farmers is not a very hopeful educational field, and the rural
+population was for long indifferent or hostile. If an ex-soldier of the
+_Khálsa_ had expressed his feelings, he would have used words like those
+of the "Old Pindárí" in Lyall's poem, while the Muhammadan farmer, had
+he been capable of expressing his hostility, might have argued that the
+teaching his son could get in a village school would help him not at all
+in his daily work. Things are better now. We have improved our scheme of
+teaching, and of late raised the pay of the teachers, which is, however,
+still hardly adequate. Till a better class of teachers can be secured
+for primary schools, the best educational theories will not bear fruit
+in practice. The old indifference is weakening, and the most hopeful
+sign is the increasing interest taken in towns in female education, a
+matter of the first importance for the future of the country.
+
+~Present position.~--The present position is as follows:--The Government
+has made itself directly or indirectly responsible for the education of
+the province. At the headquarters of each district there is a high
+school for boys controlled by the Education Department. In each district
+there are Government middle schools, Anglo-vernacular or Vernacular,
+and primary schools, managed by the Municipal Committees and District
+Boards. Each middle school has a primary, and each high school a primary
+and a middle, department. For the convenience of pupils who cannot
+attend school while living at home hostels are attached to many middle
+and high schools. Fees are very moderate. In middle schools, where the
+income covers 56 p.c. of the expenditure, they range from R. 1 (16
+pence) monthly in the lowest class in which they are levied to Rs. 4 (5
+shillings) in the highest class. In rural primary schools the children
+of agriculturists are exempt because they pay local rate, and others,
+when not exempt on the score of poverty, pay nominal fees. Besides the
+Government schools there are aided schools of the above classes usually
+of a sectarian character, and these, if they satisfy the standards laid
+down, receive grants. There is a decreasing, but still considerable,
+class of private schools, which make no attempt to satisfy the
+conditions attached to these grants. The _mullah_ in the mosque teaches
+children passages of the Kurán by rote, or the shopkeeper's son is
+taught in a Mahájaní school native arithmetic and the curious script in
+which accounts are kept. A boys' school of a special kind is the Panjáb
+Chiefs' College at Lahore, intended for the sons of princes and men of
+high social position.
+
+~Technical Schools.~--In an agricultural country like the Panjáb there is
+not at present any large field for technical schools. The best are the
+Mayo School of Art and the Railway Technical School at Lahore. The
+latter is successful because its pupils can readily find employment in
+the railway workshops. Mr Kipling, the father of the poet, when
+principal of the former, did much for art teaching, and the present
+principal, Bhai Rám Singh, is a true artist. The Government Engineering
+School has recently been remodelled and removed to Rasúl, where the
+head-works of the Lower Jhelam canal are situated.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42. A School in the time preceding annexation.
+
+(_From a picture book said to have been prepared for the Mahárája Dalíp
+Singh._)]
+
+~Female Education.~--Female education is still a tender plant, but of late
+growth has been vigorous. The Victoria May School in Lahore founded in
+1908 has developed into the Queen Mary College, which provides an
+excellent education for girls of what may be called the upper middle
+class. There is a separate class for married ladies. Hitherto they have
+only been reached by the teaching given in their own homes by missionary
+ladies, whose useful work is now being imitated by the Hindu community
+in Lahore. There is an excellent Hindu Girls' Boarding School in
+Jalandhar. The Sikhs and the body of reformers known as the Dev Samáj
+have good girls' schools at Ferozepore. The best mission schools are the
+Kinnaird High School at Lahore and the Alexandra School at Amritsar. The
+North India School of Medicine for Women at Ludhiána, also a missionary
+institution, does admirable work. In the case of elementary schools the
+difficulty of getting qualified teachers is even greater than as regards
+boys' schools.
+
+~Education of European Children.~--There are special arrangements for the
+education of European and Anglo-Indian children. In this department the
+Roman Catholics have been active and successful. The best schools are
+the Lawrence Asylum at Sanáwar, Bishop Cotton's School, Auckland House,
+and St Bede's at Simla, St Denys', the Lawrence Asylum, and the Convent
+School at Murree.
+
+~The Panjáb University.~--The Panjáb University was constituted in 1882,
+but the Government Arts College and Oriental College, the Medical
+College and the Law School at Lahore, which are affiliated with it, are
+of older date. The University is an examining body like London
+University. Besides the two Arts Colleges under Government management
+mentioned above there are nine private Arts Colleges aided by Government
+grants and affiliated to the University. Four of these are in Lahore,
+two, the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic and the Diál Singh Colleges, are Hindu
+institutions, one, the Islámia College, is Muhammadan, the fourth is the
+popular and efficient Forman Christian College. Four out of five art
+students read in Lahore. Of the Arts colleges outside Lahore the most
+important is the St Stephen's College at Delhi. The Khálsa School and
+College at Amritsar is a Sikh institution. The Veterinary College at
+Lahore is the best of its kind in India, and the Agricultural College at
+Lyallpur is a well-equipped institution, which at present attracts few
+pupils, but may play a very useful rôle in the future. There is little
+force in the reproach that we built up a super-structure of higher
+education before laying a broad foundation of primary education. There
+is more in the charge that the higher educational food we have offered
+has not been well adapted to the intellectual digestions of the
+recipients.
+
+~Education in N.W.F. Province, Native States, and I Kashmír.~--The Panjáb
+Native States and Kashmír are much more backward as regards education
+than the British Province. As is natural in a tract in which the
+population is overwhelmingly Musalmán by religion and farming by trade
+the N.W.F. Province lags behind the Panjáb. Six colleges in the States
+and the N.W.F. Province are affiliated to the Panjáb University.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+ROADS AND RAILWAYS
+
+
+~Roads.~--The alignment of good roads in the plains of the Panjáb is easy,
+and the deposits of calcareous nodules or _kankar_ often found near the
+surface furnish good metalling material. In the west the rainfall is so
+scanty and in many parts wheeled traffic so rare that it is often wise
+to leave the roads unmetalled. There are in the Panjáb over 2000 miles
+of metalled, and above 20,000 miles of unmetalled roads. The greatest
+highway in the world, the Grand Trunk, which starts from Calcutta and
+ends at Pesháwar, passes through the province from Delhi in the
+south-east to Attock in the extreme north-west corner, and there crosses
+the Indus and enters the N.W.F. Province. The greater part of the
+section from Karnál to Lahore had been completed some years before the
+Mutiny, that from Lahore to Pesháwar was finished in 1863-64. A great
+loop road connects our arsenal at Ferozepore with the Grand Trunk Road
+at Lahore and Ludhiána. The fine metalled roads from Ambála to Kálka,
+and Kálka to Simla have lost much of their importance since the railway
+was brought to the hill capital. Beyond Simla the Kálka-Simla road is
+carried on for 150 miles to the Shipkí Pass on the borders of Tibet,
+being maintained as a very excellent hill road adapted to mule carriage.
+A fine tonga road partly in the plains and partly in the hills joins
+Murree with Ráwalpindí. From Murree it drops into the Jhelam valley
+crossing the river and entering Kashmír at Kohála. It is carried up the
+gorge of the Jhelam to Báramúla and thence through the Kashmír valley to
+Srínagar. A motor-car can be driven all the way from Ráwalpindí to
+Srínagar. In the N.W.F. Province a great metalled road connects
+Pesháwar, Kohát, Bannu, and Dera Ismail Khán.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43. Poplar lined road to Srínagar.]
+
+~Railways. Main Lines.~--It is just over fifty years since the first
+railway, a short line joining Lahore and Amritsar, was opened in 1862.
+Three years later Lahore was linked up with Multán and the small
+steamers which then plied on the Indus. Amritsar was connected with
+Delhi in 1870, and Lahore with Pesháwar in 1883. The line from Pesháwar
+to Lahore, and branching thence to Karáchí and Delhi may be considered
+the Trunk Line. The railway service has been enormously developed in the
+past thirty years. In 1912 there were over 4000 miles of open lines.
+There are now three routes from Delhi to Lahore:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44. Map showing railways.]
+
+(_a_) The N.W. Railway _via_ Meerut and Saháranpur (on east of Jamna),
+and Ambála, Ludhiána, Jalandhar, Amritsar;
+
+(_b_) The Southern Panjáb Railway _via_ Jind, Rohtak, Bhatinda, and
+Ferozepore;
+
+(_c_) The Delhi-Ambála-Kálka branch of the East Indian Rallway from
+Delhi through Karnál to Ambála, and thence by the N.W. Railway. This is
+the shortest route.
+
+The Southern Panjáb Railway also connects Delhi with Karáchí through its
+junction with the N.W. Railway at Samasata to the south of Baháwalpur.
+Another route is by a line passing through Rewárí and the Merta
+junction. Karáchí is the natural seaport of the central and western
+Panjáb. The S.P. Railway now gives an easy connection with Ferozepore
+and Ludhiána, and the enormous export of wheat, cotton, etc. from the
+new canal colonies is carried by several lines which converge at
+Khanewál, a junction on the main line, a little north of Multán.
+
+~Railways. Minor Lines.~--The Sind Ságar branch starting from Lála Musa
+between Lahore and Amritsar with smaller lines taking off further north
+at Golra and Campbellpur serves the part of the province lying north of
+the Salt Range. These lines converge at Kundian in the Mianwálí
+district, and a single line runs thence southwards to points on the
+Indus opposite Dera Ismail Khán and Dera Ghází Khán, and turning
+eastwards rejoins the trunk line at Sher Sháh near Multán. There are a
+number of branch lines in the plains, some owned by native States.
+Strategically a very important one is that which crossing the Indus by
+the Khushálgarh bridge unites Ráwalpindí with Kohát. The only hill
+railway is that from Kálka to Simla. A second is now under construction
+which, when completed, will connect Ráwalpindí with Srínagar. All these
+lines with the exception of the branch of the E.I. Railway mentioned
+above are worked by the staff of the N. W. State Railway, whose manager
+controls inside and outside the Panjáb some 5000 miles of open line. The
+interest earned in 1912 was 4-1/2 p.c., a good return when it is
+considered that the parts of the system to the north of the Salt Range
+and the Sind Ságar railway were built primarily for strategic reasons.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+CANALS
+
+
+~Importance of Canals.~--One need have no hesitation in placing among the
+greatest achievements of British rule in the Panjáb the magnificent
+system of irrigation canals which it has given to the province. Its
+great alluvial plain traversed by large rivers drawing an unfailing
+supply of water from the Himalayan snows affords an ideal field for the
+labours of the canal engineer. The vastness of the arid areas which
+without irrigation yield no crops at all or only cheap millets and
+pulses makes his works of inestimable benefit to the people and a source
+of revenue to the State.
+
+~Canals before annexation.~--In the west of the province we found in
+existence small inundation canals dug by the people with some help from
+their rulers. These only ran during the monsoon season, when the rivers
+were swollen. In 1626 Sháhjahán's Persian engineer, Ali Mardán Khán,
+brought to Delhi the water of the canal dug by Firoz Sháh as a monsoon
+channel and made perennial by Akbar. But during the paralysis of the
+central power in the eighteenth century the channels became silted up.
+The same able engineer dug a canal from the Ráví near Mádhopur to water
+the royal gardens at Lahore. What remained of this work at annexation
+was known as the Haslí.
+
+~Extent of Canal Irrigation.~--In 1911-12, when the deficiency of the
+rainfall made the demand for water keen, the canals of the Panjáb and
+the N.W.F. Province irrigated 8-1/2 millions of acres. The figures are:
+
+_Panjáb_
+
+  A.   Permanent Canals     Acres   Interest earned %
+
+      1. Western Jamna      775,450     7-3/4
+      2. Sirhind          1,609,458     8
+      3. Upper Bárí Doáb  1,156,808    11-1/2
+      4. Lower Chenáb     2,334,090    34
+      5. Lower Jhelam       801,649    10-1/3
+  B.  Monsoon Canals      1,654,437
+                   Total  8,331,892
+
+_N.W. Frontier Province_
+
+                     Acres   Interest earned %
+
+  Lower Swát River   157,650     9-3/4
+  Two minor Canals    67,510
+             Total   225,160
+
+On the Sirhind Canal, on which the demand fluctuates greatly with the
+character of the season, the area was twice the normal. The three canals
+of the Triple Project will, when fully developed, add 1,871,000 acres to
+the irrigated area of the Panjáb, and the Upper Swát Canal will increase
+that of the N.W.F. Province by 381,000 acres. The canals will therefore
+in a year of drought be able to water over ten millions of acres without
+taking account of possible extensions if a second canal should be drawn
+from the Sutlej. The money spent from imperial funds on Panjáb canals
+has exceeded twelve millions sterling, and no money has ever been better
+spent. In, when the area irrigated was a good deal less than in, the
+value of the crops raised by the use of canal water was estimated at
+about 207 millions of rupees or nearly £14,000,000. It is only possible
+to note very briefly the steps by which this remarkable result has been
+achieved.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45. Map--Older Canals.]
+
+~Western Jamna Canal.~--Soon after the assumption of authority at Delhi in
+1803 the question of the old Canal from the Jamna was taken up. The
+Delhi Branch was reopened in 1819, and the Hánsí Branch six years later.
+In the famine year nearly 400,000 acres were irrigated. For more than
+half a century that figure represented the irrigating capacity of the
+canal. The English engineers in the main retained the faulty Moghal
+alignment, and waterlogging of the worst description developed. The
+effect on the health of the people was appalling. After long delay the
+canal was remodelled. The result has been most satisfactory in every
+way. In the last decade of the nineteenth century the Sirsa Branch and
+the Nardak Distributary were added, to carry water to parts of the
+Karnál and Hissár districts where any failure of the monsoon resulted in
+widespread loss of crops. If a scheme to increase the supply can be
+carried out, further extension in tracts now very liable to famine will
+become possible. In the six years ending the interest earned exceeded 8
+p.c.
+
+~Upper Bárí Doáb Canal.~--The headworks of the Upper Bárí Doáb Canal are
+above Mádhopur near the point where the Ráví leaves the hills. The work
+was started soon after annexation, but only finished in 1859. Irrigation
+has grown from 90,000 acres in to 533,000 in, 861,000 in 1900-1, and
+1,157,000 in. The later history of the canal consists mainly of great
+extensions in the arid Lahore district, and the irrigation there is now
+three-fifths of the whole. In parts of Amritsar, and markedly near the
+city, waterlogging has become a grave evil, but remedial measures have
+now been undertaken. The interest earned on the capital expenditure in
+the six years ending averaged 11-1/2 p.c.
+
+~Sirhind Canal.~--A quarter of a century passed after the Upper Bárí Doáb
+Canal began working before the water of the Sutlej was used for
+irrigation. The Sirhind Canal weir is at Rupar where the river emerges
+from the Siwáliks. Patiála, Jínd, and Nábha contributed to the cost, and
+own three of the five branches. But the two British branches are
+entitled to nearly two-thirds of the water, which is utilized in the
+Ludhiána and Ferozepore districts and in the Farídkot State. The soil of
+the tract commanded is for the most part a light sandy loam, and in
+years of good rainfall it repays dry cultivation. The result is that the
+area watered fluctuates largely. But in the six years ending the
+interest earned averaged 7 p.c., and the power of expansion in a bad
+year is a great boon to the peasantry.
+
+~Canal extensions in Western Panjáb.~--In the last quarter of a century
+the chief task of the Canal Department in the Panjáb has been the
+extension of irrigation to the Rechna and Jech Doábs and the lower part
+of the Bárí Doáb. All three contained large areas of waste belonging to
+the State, mostly good soil, but incapable of cultivation owing to the
+scanty rainfall. Colonization has therefore been an important part of
+all the later canal projects. The operations have embraced the
+excavation of five canals.
+
+~Lower Chenáb Canal.~--The Lower Chenáb Canal is one of the greatest
+irrigation works in the world, the area commanded being 3-1/3 million
+acres, the average discharge four or five times that of the Thames at
+Teddington, and the average irrigated area 2-1/4 million acres. There
+are three main branches, the Rakh, the Jhang, and the Gugera. The supply
+is secured by a great weir built across the Chenáb river at Khánkí in
+the Gujránwála district, and the irrigation is chiefly in the
+Gujránwála, Lyallpur, and Jhang districts. In the four years ending the
+average interest earned was 28 p.c., and in future the rate should
+rarely fall below 30 p.c. The capital expenditure has been a little over
+£2,000,000. The interest charges were cleared about five years after the
+starting of irrigation, and the capital has already been repaid to the
+State twice over.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46. Map--Canals.]
+
+~Lower Jhelam Canal.~--The Lower Jhelam Canal, which waters the tract
+between the Jhelam and Chenáb in the Sháhpur and Jhang districts, is a
+smaller and less profitable work. The culturable commanded area is about
+one million acres. The head-works are at Rasúl in the Gujrát district.
+Irrigation began in 1901. In the four years ending 1911-12 the average
+area watered was 748,000 acres and the interest earned exceeded 10 p.c.
+
+~Triple Project--Upper Jhelam and Upper Chenáb Canals and Lower Bárí Doáb
+Canal.~--The Lower Chenáb Canal takes the whole available supply of the
+Chenáb river. But it does not command a large area in the Rechna Doáb
+lying in the west of Gujránwála, in which rain cultivation is very risky
+and well cultivation is costly. No help can be got from the Ráví, as the
+Upper Bárí Doáb Canal exhausts its supply. Desirable as the extension of
+irrigation in the areas mentioned above is, the problem of supplying it
+might well have seemed insuperable. The bold scheme known as the Triple
+Project which embraces the construction of the Upper Jhelam, Upper
+Chenáb, and Lower Bárí Doáb Canals, is based on the belief that the
+Jhelam river has even in the cold weather water to spare after feeding
+the Lower Jhelam Canal. The true _raison d'être_ of the Upper Jhelam
+Canal, whose head-works are at Mangla in Kashmír a little north of the
+Gujrát district, is to throw a large volume of water into the Chenáb at
+Khánkí, where the Lower Chenáb Canal takes off, and so set free an equal
+supply to be taken out of the Chenáb higher up at Merála in Siálkot,
+where are the head-works of the Upper Chenáb Canal. But the Upper Jhelam
+Canal will also water annually some 345,000 acres in Gujrát and Sháhpur.
+The Upper Chenáb Canal will irrigate 648,000 acres mostly in Gujránwála,
+and will be carried across the Ráví by an aqueduct at Balloke in the
+south of Lahore. Henceforth the canal is known as the Lower Bárí Doáb,
+which will water 882,000 acres, mostly owned by the State, in the
+Montgomery and Multán districts. On the other two canals the area of
+Government land is not large. The Triple Project is approaching
+completion, and irrigation from the Upper Chenáb Canal has begun. The
+engineering difficulties have been great, and the forecast does not
+promise such large gains as even the Lower Jhelam Canal. But a return of
+7-1/2 p.c. is expected.
+
+~Monsoon or Inundation Canals.~--The numerous monsoon or inundation
+canals, which take off from the Indus, Jhelam, Chenáb, Ráví, and Sutlej,
+though individually petty works, perform an important office in the
+thirsty south-western districts. By their aid a _kharíf_ crop can be
+raised without working the wells in the hot weather, and with luck the
+fallow can be well soaked in autumn, and put under wheat and other
+spring crops. For the maturing of these crops a prudent cultivator
+should not trust to the scanty cold weather rainfall, but should
+irrigate them from a well. The Sidhnai has a weir, but may be included
+in this class, for there is no assured supply at its head in the Ráví in
+the winter. In 1910-11 the inundation canals managed by the State
+watered 1,800,000 acres. There are a number of private canals in
+Ferozepore, Sháhpur, and the hill district of Kángra. In Ferozepore the
+district authorities take a share in the management.
+
+~Colonization of Canal Lands.~--The colonization of huge areas of State
+lands has been an important part of new canal schemes in the west of the
+Panjáb. When the Lower Chenáb Canal was started the population of the
+vast Bár tract which it commands consisted of a few nomad cattle owners
+and cattle thieves. It was a point of honour to combine the two
+professions. Large bodies of colonists were brought from the crowded
+districts of the central Panjáb. The allotments to peasants usually
+consisted of 55 acres, a big holding for a man who possibly owned only
+four or five acres in his native district. There were larger allotments
+known as yeoman and capitalist grants, but the peasants are the only
+class who have turned out quite satisfactory farmers. Colonization began
+in 1892 and was practically complete by 1904, when over 1,800,000 acres
+had been allotted. To save the peasants from the evils which an
+unrestricted right of transfer was then bringing on the heads of many
+small farmers in the Panjáb it was decided only to give them permanent
+inalienable tenant right. The Panjáb Alienation of Land Act, No. XIII of
+1900, has supplied a remedy generally applicable, and the peasant
+grantees are now being allowed to acquire ownership on very easy terms.
+The greater part of the colony is in the new Lyallpur district, which
+had in 1911 a population of 857,511 souls.
+
+On the Lower Jhelam Canal the area of colonized land exceeds 400,000
+acres. A feature of colonization on that canal is that half the area is
+held on condition of keeping up one or more brood mares, the object
+being to secure a good class of remounts. Succession to these grants is
+governed by primogeniture. On the Lower Bárí Doáb Canal a very large
+area is now being colonized.
+
+~Canals of the N.W.F. Province.~--Hemmed in as the N.W.F. Province is
+between the Indus and the Hills, its canals are insignificant as
+compared with the great irrigation works of the Panjáb. The only ones of
+any importance are in the Pesháwar Valley. These draw their supplies
+from the Kábul, Bára, and Swát rivers, but the works supplied by the
+first two streams only command small areas. The Lower Swát Canal was
+begun in 1876, but the tribesmen were hostile and the diggers had to
+sleep in fortified enclosures. The work was not opened till 1885. A reef
+in the river has made it possible to dispense with a permanent weir. The
+country is not an ideal one for irrigation, being much cut up by
+ravines. But a large area has been brought under command, and the
+irrigation has more than once exceeded 170,000 acres. In 1911-12 it was
+157,650 acres, and the interest earned was 9-3/4 p.c. The Upper Swát
+Canal, which was opened in April 1914, was a more ambitious project,
+involving the tunnelling at the Málakand of 11,000 feet of solid rock.
+The commanded area is nearly 450,000 acres, including 40,000 beyond our
+administrative frontier. The estimated cost is Rs. 18,240,000 or over
+£1,200,000 and the annual irrigation expected is 381,562 acres.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                    { Kábul River Canal.
+ Areas commanded by { L. Swát Canal.
+                    { U. Swát Canal.
+
+Fig. 47. Map of Canals of Pesháwar district.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+AGRICULTURE AND CROPS
+
+
+~Classification by Zones.~--In order to give an intelligible account of
+the huge area embraced by the Panjáb, N.W.F. Province, and Kashmír it is
+necessary to make a division of the area into zones. Classification must
+be on very broad lines based on differences of altitude, rainfall, and
+soil, leading to corresponding differences in the cultivation and the
+crops. For statistical purposes districts must be taken as a whole,
+though a more accurate classification would divide some of them between
+two zones.
+
+~Classes of Cultivation.~--The broadest division of cultivation is into
+irrigated and unirrigated, the former including well (_cháhí_), canal
+(_nahrí_), and _ábí_. The last term describes a small amount of land
+watered from tanks or _jhíls_ in the plains and a larger area in the
+hills irrigated by _kuhls_ or small artificial channels. "Unirrigated"
+embraces cultivation dependent on rain (_bárání_) or on flooding or
+percolation from rivers (_sailáb_). (See Table II.)
+
+~Harvests.~--There are two harvests, the autumn or _kharíf_, and the
+spring or _rabí_. The autumn crops are mostly sown in June and July and
+reaped from September to December. Cotton is often sown in March. Cane
+planted in March and cut in January and February is counted as a
+_kharíf_ crop. The spring crops are sown from the latter part of
+September to the end of December. They are reaped in March and April.
+Roughly in the Panjáb three-fifths of the crops belong to the spring
+harvest. In the N.W.F. Province the proportion is somewhat higher. In
+Kashmír the autumn crop is by far the more important.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48. Persian Wheel Well and Ekka.]
+
+~Implements of Husbandry and Wells.~--The implements of husbandry are
+simple but effective in a land where as a rule there is no advantage in
+stirring up the soil very deep. With his primitive plough (_hal_) and a
+wooden clodcrusher (_sohága_) the peasant can produce a tilth for a crop
+like cane which it would be hard to match in England. There are two
+kinds of wells, the _charsa_ or rope and bucket well and the _harat_ or
+Persian wheel.
+
+~Rotations.~--The commonest rotation in ordinary loam soils is to put in a
+spring and autumn crop in succession and then let the land lie fallow
+for a year. Unless a good deal of manure is available this is the course
+to follow, even in the case of irrigated land. Some poor hard soils are
+only fit for crops of coarse rice sown after the embanked fields have
+been filled in the monsoon by drainage from surrounding waste. Other
+lands are cropped only in the autumn because the winter rainfall is very
+scanty. Flooded lands are often sown only for the spring harvest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49. A drove of goats--Lahore.]
+
+~Cattle, Sheep, and Goats.~--In 1909 there were in the British districts
+of the Panjáb 4-1/4 million bullocks and 625,000 male buffaloes
+available to draw 2,169,000 ploughs and 288,000 carts, thresh the corn,
+and work a quarter of a million wells, besides sugar, oil, and flour
+mills. The cattle of the hills, N.W. Panjáb, and riverain tracts are
+undersized, but in the uplands of the Central Panjáb and S.E. districts
+fine oxen are used. The horned cattle share 18 millions of pasture land,
+much extremely poor, with 4 million sheep and 5-1/2 million goats.
+Hence the enormous area devoted to fodder crops.
+
+~Zones.~--Six zones can be distinguished, but, as no district is wholly
+confined to the mountain zone, it must for statistical purposes be
+united to the submontane zone:
+
+ (_a_) Mountain above 5000 feet    Panjáb--Kángra, Simla, Native
+                                            States in Hills, Ambála,
+                                            Hoshyárpur.
+
+ (_b_) Submontane                  N.W.F. Province. Hazára,
+                                        Kashmír--whole
+
+ (_c_) North Central Plain         Panjáb--Gujrát, Siálkot, Gurdáspur,
+                                            Amritsar, Jalandhar,
+                                            Ludhiána, Kapúrthala,
+                                            Malerkotla, Powádh
+                                            tract in Phulkian States.
+
+ (_d_) North-West Area             Panjáb--Ráwalpindí, Jhelam,
+                                            Attock, Mianwálí.
+                                        N.W.F.P.--Pesháwar, Kohát,
+                                            Bannu.
+
+ (_e_) South-Western Plains        Panjáb--Gujránwála, Lahore,
+                                            Sháhpur, Jhang, Lyallpur,
+                                            Montgomery, Multán,
+                                            Muzaffargarh, Dera Ghází
+                                            Khán, Baháwalpur.
+                                        N.W.F.P.--Dera Ismail Khán.
+
+ (_f_) South-Eastern Area          Panjáb--Karnál, Rohtak, Gurgáon,
+                                            Hissár, Ferozepore,
+                                            Farídkot, Jangal tract in
+                                            Phulkian States, Native
+                                            States territory adjoining
+                                            Gurgáon and Rohtak.
+
+~Mountain and Submontane Zones.~--In the Mountain Zone the fields are
+often very minute, consisting of narrow terraces supported by stone
+revetments built up the slopes of hills. That anyone should be ready to
+spend time and labour on such unpromising material is a sign of pressure
+of population on the soil, which is a marked feature of some hill
+tracts.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50. A steep bit of hill cultivation, Hazára.]
+
+Below 8000 feet the great crop is maize. Potatoes have been introduced
+near our hill stations. The chief pulse of the mountain zone is _kulath_
+(Dolichos biflorus), eaten by the very poor. Wheat ascends to 8000 or
+9000 feet, and at the higher levels is reaped in August. Barley is grown
+at much greater heights. Buckwheat (_úgal_, _trúmba_, _dráwí_),
+amaranth (_chauláí_, _ganhár_, _sariára_), and a tall chenopod (_bathu_)
+are grown in the mountain zone. Buckwheat is common on poor stony lands.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51. Preparing rice field in the Hills.]
+
+The only comparatively flat land is on the banks above river beds, which
+are devoted to rice cultivation, the water being conducted to the
+embanked fields by an elaborate system of little canals or _kuhls_. This
+is the only irrigation in the mountains, and is much valued. The
+Submontane Zone has a rainfall of from 30 to 40 inches. Well irrigation
+is little used and the dry crops are generally secure. Wheat and maize
+are the great staples, but gram and _charí_, i.e. _jowár_ grown for
+fodder, are also important. Some further information about Kashmír
+agriculture will be found in a later chapter. For full details about
+classes of cultivation and crops in all the zones Tables II, III and IV
+should be consulted.
+
+~North Central Panjáb Plain.~--The best soils and the finest tillage are
+to be found in the North Central Zone. Gujrát has been included in it,
+though it has also affinities in the north with the North-West area, and
+in the south with the South-Western plain. The rainfall varies from 25
+to 35 inches. One-third of the cultivated area is protected by wells,
+and the well cultivation is of a very high class in Ludhiána and
+Jalandhar, where heavily manured maize is followed by a fine crop of
+wheat, and cane is commonly grown. In parts of Siálkot and Gujrát the
+well cultivation is of a different type, the area served per well being
+large and the object being to protect a big acreage of wheat in the
+spring harvest. The chief crops in this zone are wheat and _charí_. The
+latter is included under "Other Fodder" in Tables III and IV.
+
+~North-Western Area.~--The plateau north of the Salt Range has a very
+clean light white sandy loam soil requiring little ploughing and no
+weeding. It is often very shallow, and this is one reason for the great
+preference for cold weather crops. _Kharíf_ crops are more liable to be
+burned up. Generally speaking the rainfall is from 15 to 25 inches, the
+proportion falling in the winter and spring being larger than elsewhere.
+There is, except in Pesháwar and Bannu, where the conditions involve a
+considerable divergence from the type of this zone, practically no canal
+irrigation. The well irrigation is unimportant and in most parts
+consists of a few acres round each well intensively cultivated with
+market-gardening crops. The dry crops are generally very precarious. In
+Mianwálí the Indus valley is a fine tract, but the harvests fluctuate
+greatly with the extent of the floods. The Thal in Mianwálí to the south
+of the Sind Ságar railway is really a part of the next zone.
+
+~The South-Western Plains.~--This zone contains nine districts. With the
+exception of the three on the north border of the zone they have a
+rainfall of from 5 to 10 inches. Of these six arid districts, only one,
+Montgomery, has any dry cultivation worth mentioning. In the zone as a
+whole three-fourths of the cultivation is protected by canals or wells,
+or by both. In the lowlands near the great rivers cultivation depends on
+the floods brought to the land direct or through small canals which
+carry water to parts which the natural overflow would not reach. In the
+uplands vast areas formerly untouched by the plough have been brought
+under tillage by the help of perennial canals, and the process of
+reclamation is still going on. The Thal is a large sandy desert which
+becomes more and more worthless for cultivation as one proceeds
+southwards. In the north the people have found out of late years that
+this unpromising sand can not only yield poor _kharíf_ crops, but is
+worth sowing with gram in the spring harvest. The expense is small, and
+a lucky season means large profits. In Dera Ghází Khán a large area of
+"_pat_" below the hills is dependent for cultivation on torrents. The
+favourite crop in the embanked fields into which the water is diverted
+is _jowár_.
+
+~The South-Eastern Plains.~--In the south-eastern Panjáb except in Hissár
+and the native territory on the border of Rájputána, the rainfall is
+from 20 to 30 inches. In Hissár it amounts to some 15 inches. These are
+averages; the variations in total amount and distribution over the
+months of the year are very great. In good seasons the area under dry
+crops is very large, but the fluctuations in the sown acreage are
+extraordinary, and the matured is often far below the sown area. The
+great crops are gram and mixtures of wheat or barley with gram in the
+spring, and _bájra_ in the autumn, harvest. Well cultivation is not of
+much importance generally, though some of it in the Jamna riverain is
+excellent. The irrigated cultivation depends mainly on the Western Jamna
+and Sirhind canals, and the great canal crops are wheat and cotton. This
+is the zone in which famine conditions are still most to be feared.
+
+In the Panjáb as a whole about one-third of the cultivated area is
+yearly put under wheat, which with _bájra_ and maize is the staple food
+of the people. A large surplus of wheat and oil-seeds is available for
+export.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52. Carved doorway.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+HANDICRAFTS AND MANUFACTURES
+
+
+~Handicrafts.~--The chief handicrafts of the province are those of the
+weaver, the shoemaker, the carpenter, the potter, and the worker in
+brass and copper. The figures of the 1911 census for each craft
+including dependents were: weavers 883,000; shoemakers 540,000;
+carpenters 381,000; potters and brickmakers 349,000; metalworkers
+240,000. The figures for weavers include a few working in factories. The
+hand-spun cotton-cloth is a coarse strong fabric known as "_khaddar_"
+with a single warp and weft. "_Khes_" is a better article with a double
+warp and weft. "_Súsí_" is a smooth cloth with coloured stripes used for
+women's trousers. A superior kind of checked "_khes_" known as
+"_gabrún_" is made at Ludhiána. The native process of weaving is slow
+and the weavers are very poor. The Salvation Army is trying to introduce
+an improved hand loom. Fine "_lungís_" or turbans of cotton with silk
+borders are made at Ludhiána, Multán, Pesháwar, and elsewhere. Effective
+cotton printing is carried on by very primitive methods at Kot Kamália
+and Lahore. Ludhiána and Lahore turn out cotton _darís_ or rugs. Coarse
+woollen blankets or _loís_ are woven at various places, and coloured
+felts or _namdas_ are made at Ludhiána, Khusháb, and Pesháwar. Excellent
+imitations of Persian carpets are woven at Amritsar, and the Srínagar
+carpets do credit to the Kashmírís' artistic taste. The best of the
+Amritsar carpets are made of _pashm_, the fine underwool of the Tibetan
+sheep, and _pashmína_ is also used as a material for _choghas_
+(dressing-gowns), etc. Coarse woollen cloth or _pattu_ is woven in the
+Kángra hills for local use. At Multán useful rugs are made whose fabric
+is a mixture of cotton and wool. More artistic are the Biluch rugs made
+by the Biluch women with geometrical patterns. These are excellent in
+colouring. They are rather difficult to procure as they are not made for
+sale. The weaving of China silk is a common industry in Amritsar,
+Baháwalpur, Multán, and other places. The _phulkárí_ or silk embroidery
+of the village maidens of Hissár and other districts of the Eastern
+Panjáb, and the more elaborate gold and silver wire embroideries of the
+Delhi _bazárs_, are excellent. The most artistic product of the plains
+is the ivory carving of Delhi. As a wood-carver the Panjábí is not to be
+compared with the Kashmírí. His work is best fitted for doorways and the
+bow windows or _bokhárchas_ commonly seen in the streets of old towns.
+The best carvers are at Bhera, Chiniot, Amritsar, and Batála. The
+European demand has produced at Simla and other places an abundant
+supply of cheap articles of little merit. The inlaid work of Chiniot and
+Hoshyárpur is good, as is the lacquer-work of Pákpattan. The papier
+maché work of Kashmír has much artistic merit (Fig. 55), and some of the
+repoussé silver work of Kashmír is excellent.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53. Shoemaker's craft.]
+
+The craft of the _thathera_ or brass worker is naturally most prominent
+in the Eastern Panjáb, because Hindus prefer brass vessels for cooking
+purposes. Delhi is the great centre, but the trade is actively carried
+on at other places, and especially at Jagádhrí.
+
+Unglazed pottery is made practically in every village. The blue
+enamelled pottery of Multán and the glazed Delhi china ware are
+effective. The manufacture of the latter is on a very petty scale.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54. Carved windows.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55. Papier maché work ~of~ Kashmír.]
+
+~Factories.~--The factory industries of the Panjáb are still very small.
+In 1911 there were 268 factories employing 28,184 hands. The typical
+Panjáb factory is a little cotton ginning or pressing mill. The grinding
+of flour and husking of rice are sometimes part of the same business.
+The number of these mills rose in the 20 years ending 1911 from 12 to
+202, and there are complaints that there are now too many factories.
+Cotton-spinning has not been very successful and the number of mills in
+1911, eight, was the same as in 1903-4. The weaving is almost entirely
+confined to yarn of low counts. Part is used by the hand-loom weavers
+and part is exported to the United Provinces. Good woollen fabrics are
+turned out at a factory at Dháriwál in the Gurdáspur district. There
+were in 1911 fifteen flour mills, ten ironworks, three breweries, and
+one distillery.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56. The Potter.
+
+(_From a picture book said to have been prepared for Mahárája Dalíp
+Singh._)]
+
+~Joint-Stock Companies.~--The Panjáb has not reached the stage where the
+joint-stock business successfully takes the place of the family banking
+or factory business. In 1911 there were 194 joint-stock companies. But
+many of these were provident societies, the working of which has been
+attended with such abuses that a special act has been passed for their
+control. A number of banks and insurance companies have also sprung up
+of late years. Of some of these the paid up capital is absurdly small,
+and the recent collapse of the largest and of two smaller native banks
+has drawn attention to the extremely risky nature of the business done.
+Of course European and Hindu family banking businesses of the old type
+stand on quite a different footing. Some of the cotton and other mills
+are joint-stock concerns.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+EXPORTS AND IMPORTS
+
+
+~Trade.~--In 1911-12 the exports from the Panjáb, excluding those by land
+to Central Asia, Ladákh, and Afghánistán, were valued at Rs.
+27,63,21,000 (£18,421,000), of which 61 p.c. went to Karáchí and about
+10 p.c. to Calcutta and Bombay. Of the total 27 p.c. consisted of wheat,
+nearly the whole of which was dispatched to Karáchí. All other grains
+and pulses were about equal in value to the wheat. "Gram and other
+pulses" (18 p.c. of total exports) was the chief item. Raw cotton
+accounts for 15, and oil-seeds for 10 p.c. The imports amounted in value
+to Rs. 30,01,28,000 (£20,008,000), little more than one-third being
+received from Karáchí. Cotton piece goods (Foreign 22, Indian 8-1/2
+p.c.) make up one-third of the total. The other important figures are
+sugar 12, and metals 11 p.c. The land trade with Afghánistán, Central
+Asia, and Ladákh is insignificant, but interesting as furnishing an
+example of modes of transport which have endured for many centuries, and
+of the pursuit of gain often under appalling physical difficulties.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+HISTORY--PRE-MUHAMMADAN PERIOD, 500 B.C.--1000 A.D.
+
+
+~In Hindu period relations of Panjáb were with western kingdoms.~--The
+large tract included in the British province of the Panjáb which lies
+between the Jamna and the Ghagar is, having regard to race, language,
+and past history, a part of Hindustán. Where "Panjáb" is used without
+qualification in this section the territories west of the Ghagar and
+south of Kashmír are intended. The true relations of the Panjáb and
+Kashmír during the Hindu period were, except for brief intervals, with
+Persia, Afghánistán, and Turkistán rather than with the great kingdoms
+founded in the valley of the Ganges and the Jamna.
+
+~Normal division into petty kingdoms and tribal confederacies.~--The
+normal state of the Panjáb in early times was to be divided into a
+number of small kingdoms and tribal republics. Their names and the areas
+which they occupied varied from time to time. Names of kingdoms that
+have been rescued from oblivion are Gandhára, corresponding to Pesháwar
+and the valley of the Kábul river, Urasa or Hazára, where the name is
+still preserved in the Orash plain, Táxila, which may have corresponded
+roughly to the present districts of Ráwalpindí and Attock with a small
+part of Hazára, Abhisara or the low hills of Jammu, Kashmír, and
+Trigartta, with its capital Jalandhara, which occupied most of the
+Jalandhar division north of the Sutlej and the states of Chamba, Suket,
+and Mandí. The historians of Alexander's campaigns introduce us also to
+the kingdoms of the elder Poros on both banks of the Jhelam, of the
+younger Poros east of the Chenáb, and of Sophytés (Saubhutí) in the
+neighbourhood of the Salt Range. We meet also with tribal confederacies,
+such as in Alexander's time those of the Kathaioi on the upper, and of
+the Malloi on the lower, Ráví.
+
+~Invasion by Alexander, 327-325 B.C.~--The great Persian king, Darius, in
+512 B.C. pushed out the boundary of his empire to the Indus, then
+running in a more easternly course than to-day[4]. The army with which
+Xerxes invaded Greece included a contingent of Indian bowmen[5]. When
+Alexander overthrew the Persian Empire and started on the conquest of
+India, the Indus was the boundary of the former. His remarkable campaign
+lasted from April, 327 B.C., when he led an army of 50,000 or 60,000
+Europeans across the Hindu Kush into the Kábul valley, to October, 325,
+when he started from Sindh on his march to Persia through Makrán. Having
+cleared his left flank by a campaign in the hills of Buner and Swát, he
+crossed the Indus sixteen miles above Attock near Torbela. The King of
+Táxila, whose capital was near the Margalla pass on the north border of
+the present Ráwalpindí district, had prudently submitted as soon as the
+Macedonian army appeared in the Kábul valley. From the Indus Alexander
+marched to Táxila, and thence to the Jhelam (Hydaspes), forming a camp
+near the site now occupied by the town of that name in the country of
+Poros. The great army of the Indian king was drawn up to dispute the
+passage probably not very far from the eastern end of the present
+railway bridge. Favoured by night and a monsoon rain-storm--it was the
+month of July, 326 B.C.--Alexander succeeded in crossing some miles
+higher up into the Karrí plain under the low hills of Gujrát. Here,
+somewhere near the line now occupied by the upper Jhelam Canal, the
+Greek soldiers gave the first example of a feat often repeated since,
+the rout of a large and unwieldy Indian army by a small, but mobile and
+well-led, European force. Having defeated Poros, Alexander crossed the
+Chenáb (Akesines), stormed Sángala, a fort of the Kathaioi on the upper
+Ráví (Hydraotes) and advanced as far as the Biás (Hyphasis). But the
+weary soldiers insisted that this should be the bourn of their eastward
+march, and, after setting up twelve stone altars on the farther side,
+Alexander in September, 326 B.C., reluctantly turned back. Before he
+left the Panjáb he had hard fighting with the Malloi on the lower Ráví,
+and was nearly killed in the storm of one of their forts. Alexander
+intended that his conquests should be permanent, and made careful
+arrangements for their administration. But his death in June, 323 B.C.,
+put an end to Greek rule in India. Chandra Gupta Maurya expelled the
+Macedonian garrisons, and some twenty years later Seleukos Nicator had
+to cede to him Afghánistán.
+
+~Maurya Dominion and Empire of Asoka, 323-231 B.C.~--Chandra Gupta is
+the Sandrakottos, to whose capital at Pataliputra (Patna) Seleukos sent
+Megasthenes in 303 B.C. The Greek ambassador was a diligent and truthful
+observer, and his notes give a picture of a civilized and complex system
+of administration. If Chandra Gupta was the David, his grandson,
+Asoka, was the Solomon of the first Hindu Empire. His long reign,
+lasting from 273 to 231 B.C., was with one exception a period of
+profound peace deliberately maintained by an emperor who, after his
+conversion to the teaching of Gautama Buddha, thought war a sin.
+Asoka strove to lead his people into the right path by means of pithy
+abstracts of the moral law of his master graven on rocks and pillars. It
+is curious to remember that this missionary king was peacefully ruling a
+great empire in India during the twenty-four years of the struggle
+between Rome and Carthage, which we call the first Punic War. Of the
+four Viceroys who governed the outlying provinces of the empire one had
+his headquarters at Táxila. One of the rock edicts is at Mansehra in
+Hazára and another at Sháhbázgarhí in Pesháwar. From this time and for
+many centuries the dominant religion in the Panjáb was Buddhism, but the
+religion of the villages may then have been as remote from the State
+creed as it is to-day from orthodox Brahmanism.
+
+~Graeco-Bactrian and Graeco-Parthian Rule.~--The Panjáb slipped from the
+feeble grasp of Asoka's successors, and for four centuries it looked
+not to the Ganges, but to the Kábul and the Oxus rivers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57. Coin--obverse and reverse of Menander.]
+
+Up to the middle of the first century of our era it was first under
+Graeco-Bactrian, and later under Graeco-Parthian, rule directly, or
+indirectly through local rulers with Greek names or Sáka Satraps. The
+Sákas, one of the central Asian shepherd hordes, were pushed out of
+their pastures on the upper Jaxartes by another horde, the Yuechí.
+Shadowy Hellenist Princes have left ~us~ only their names on coins; one
+Menander, who ruled about 150 B.C., is an exception. He anticipated the
+feats of later rulers of Kábul by a temporary conquest of North-Western
+India, westwards to the Jamna and southwards to the sea.
+
+~The Kushán Dynasty.~--The Yuechí in turn were driven southward to the
+Oxus and the Kábul valley and under the Kushán dynasty established their
+authority in the Panjáb about the middle of the first century. The most
+famous name is that of Kanishka, who wrested from China Kashgár,
+Yarkand, and Khotan, and assembled ~a~ notable council of sages of the law
+in Kashmír. His reign may be dated from 120 to 150 A.D. His capital was
+at Purushapura (Pesháwar), near which he built the famous relic tower of
+Buddha, 400 feet high. Beside the tower was a large monastery still
+renowned in the ninth and tenth centuries as a home of sacred learning.
+The rule of Kushán kings in the Panjáb lasted till the end of the first
+quarter of the third century. To their time belong the Buddhist
+sculptures found in the tracts near their Pesháwar capital (see also
+page 204).
+
+~The Gupta Empire.~--Of the century preceding the establishment in 320
+B.C. of the Gupta dynasty at Patna we know nothing. The Panjáb probably
+again fell under the sway of petty rájas and tribal confederacies,
+though the Kushán rule was maintained in Pesháwar till 465 A.D., when it
+was finally blotted out by the White Huns. These savage invaders soon
+after defeated Skanda Gupta, and from this blow the Gupta Empire never
+recovered. At the height of its power in 400 A.D. under Chandra Gupta
+II, known as Vikramaditya, who is probably the original of the
+Bikramajít of Indian legends, it may have reached as far west as the
+Chenáb.
+
+~The White Huns or Ephthalites.~--In the beginning of the sixth century
+the White Hun, Mahirakula, ruled the Panjáb from Sakala, the modern
+Siálkot. He was a worshipper of Siva, and a deadly foe of the
+Buddhist cult, and has been described as a monster of cruelty.
+
+The short-lived dominion of the White Huns was destroyed by the Turks
+and Persians about the year 565 A.D.
+
+~Panjáb in seventh century A.D.~--From various sources, one of the most
+valuable being the Memoirs of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Hiuen Tsang,
+who travelled in India from 630 to 644 A.D., we know something of
+Northern India in the first half of the seventh century. Hiuen Tsang was
+at Kanauj as a guest of a powerful king named Harsha, whose first
+capital was at Thanesar, and who held a suzerainty over all the rájas
+from the Brahmaputra to the Biás. West of that river the king of Kashmír
+was also overlord of Táxila, Urasa, Parnotsa (Punch), Rájapurí (Rajaurí)
+and Sinhapura, which seems to have included the Salt Range. The Pesháwar
+valley was probably ruled by the Turkí Shahiya kings of Kábul. The rest
+of the Panjáb was divided between a kingdom called by Hiuen Tsang
+Tsekhia, whose capital was somewhere near Siálkot, and the important
+kingdom of Sindh, in which the Indus valley as far north as the Salt
+Range was included. Harsha died in 647 A.D. and his empire collapsed.
+
+~Kashmír under Hindu Kings.~--For the next century China was at the height
+of its power. It established a suzerainty over Kashmír, Udyána (Swát),
+Yasín, and Chitrál. The first was at this period a powerful Hindu
+kingdom. Its annals, as recorded in Kalhana's Rájataranginí, bear
+henceforward a real relation to history. In 733 A.D. King Muktapida
+Lálitáditya received investiture from the Chinese Emperor. Seven years
+later he defeated the King of Kanauj on the Ganges. A ruler who carried
+his arms so far afield must have been very powerful in the Northern
+Panjáb. The remains of the wonderful Mártand temple, which he built in
+honour of the Sun God, are a standing memorial of his greatness. The
+history of Kashmír under its Hindu kings for the next 400 years is for
+the most part that of a wretched people ground down by cruel tyrants. A
+notable exception was Avantidharman--855-883 A.D.--whose minister,
+Suyya, carried out very useful drainage and irrigation works.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58. Mártand Temple.]
+
+~The Panjáb, 650-1000 A.D.~--We know little of Panjáb history in the 340
+years which elapsed between the death of Harsha and the beginning of the
+Indian raids of the Sultans of Ghazní in 986-7 A.D. The conquest of the
+kingdom of Sindh by the Arab general, Muhammad Kásim, occurred some
+centuries earlier, in 712 A.D. Multán, the city of the Sun-worshippers,
+was occupied, and part at least of the Indus valley submitted to the
+youthful conqueror. He and his successors in Sindh were tolerant rulers.
+No attempt was made to occupy the Central Panjáb, and when the Turkish
+Sultán, Sabaktagin, made his first raid into India in 986-7 A.D., his
+opponent was a powerful rája named Jaipál, who ruled over a wide
+territory extending from the Hakra to the frontier hills on the
+north-west. His capital was at Bhatinda. Just about the time when the
+rulers of Ghazní were laying the train which ended at Delhi and made it
+the seat of a great Muhammadan Empire, that town was being founded in
+993-4 A.D. by the Tunwar Rájputs, who then held sway in that
+neighbourhood.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 4: See Sykes' _History of Persia_, pp. 179-180; also Herodotos
+III. 94 and 98 and IV. 44.]
+
+[Footnote 5: "The Indians clad with garments made of cotton had bows of
+cane and arrows of cane tipped with iron."--Herodotos VII. 65.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+HISTORY (_continued_). THE MUHAMMADAN PERIOD, 1000-1764 A.D.
+
+
+~The Ghaznevide Raids.~--In the tenth century the Turks were the
+janissaries of the Abbaside Caliphs of Baghdád, and ambitious soldiers
+of that race began to carve out kingdoms. One Alptagin set up for
+himself at Ghazní, and was succeeded in 976 A.D. by his slave
+Sabaktagin, who began the long series of Indian raids which stained with
+blood the annals of the next half-century. His son, Mahmúd of Ghazní, a
+ruthless zealot and robber abroad, a patron of learning and literature
+at home, added the Panjáb to his dominions. In the first 26 years of the
+eleventh century he made seventeen marauding excursions into India. In
+the first his father's opponent, Jaipál, was beaten in a vain effort to
+save Pesháwar. Ten years later his successor, Anandpál, at the head of a
+great army, again met the Turks in the Khaibar. The valour of the
+Ghakkars had practically won the day, when Anandpál's elephant took
+fright, and this accident turned victory into rout. In one or other of
+the raids Multán and Lahore were occupied, and the temples of Kángra
+(Nagarkot) and Thanesar plundered. In 1018 the Turkish army marched as
+far east as Kanauj. The one permanent result of all these devastations
+was the occupation of the Panjáb. The Turks made Lahore the capital.
+
+~Decline of Buddhism.~--The iconoclastic raids of Mahmúd probably gave the
+_coup de grâce_ to Buddhism. Its golden age may be put at from 250 B.C.
+to 200 A.D. Brahmanism gradually emerged from retirement and reappeared
+at royal courts. It was quite ready to admit Buddha to its pantheon, and
+by so doing it sapped the doctrine he had taught. The Chinese pilgrim,
+Fahien, in the early part of the fifth century could still describe
+Buddhism in the Panjáb as "very flourishing," and he found numerous
+monasteries. The religion seems however to have largely degenerated into
+a childish veneration of relics.
+
+~Conquest of Delhi.~--For a century and a quarter after the death of
+Mahmúd in 1030 A.D. his line maintained its sway over a much diminished
+empire. In 1155 the Afghán chief of Ghor, Alá ud dín, the "World-burner"
+(Jahán-soz), levelled Ghazní with the ground. For a little longer the
+Ghaznevide Turkish kings maintained themselves in Lahore. Between 1175
+and 1186 Muhammad Ghorí, who had set up a new dynasty at Ghazní,
+conquered Multán, Peshawar, Siálkot, and Lahore, and put an end to the
+line of Mahmúd. The occupation of Sirhind brought into the field Prithví
+Rája, the Chauhán Rájput king of Delhi. In 1191 he routed Muhammad Ghorí
+at Naráina near Karnál. But next year the Afghán came back with a huge
+host, and this time on the same battlefield fortune favoured him.
+Prithví Rája was taken and killed, and Muhammad's slave, Kutbuddín
+Aibak, whom he left to represent him in India, soon occupied Delhi. In
+1203 Muhammad Ghorí had to flee for his life after a defeat near the
+Oxus. The Ghakkars seized the chance and occupied Lahore. But the old
+lion, though wounded, was still formidable. The Ghakkars were beaten,
+and, it is said, converted. A year or two later they murdered their
+conqueror in his tent near the Indus.
+
+~Turkish and Afgháns Sultáns of Delhi.~--He had no son, and his strong
+viceroy, Kutbuddín Aibak, became in 1206 the first of the 33 Muhammadan
+kings, who in five successive dynasties ruled from Delhi a kingdom of
+varying dimensions, till the last of them fell at Pánipat in 1526, and
+Bábar, the first of the Moghals, became master of their red fort palace.
+The blood-stained annals of these 320 years can only be lightly touched
+on. Under vigorous rulers like the Turkí Slave kings, Altamsh
+(1210-1236) and Balban (1266-1287), a ferocious and masterful boor like
+Alá ud dín Khaljí (1296-1316), or a ferocious but able man of culture
+like Muhammad Tughlak (1325-1351), the local governors at Lahore and
+Multán were content to be servants. In the frequent intervals during
+which the royal authority was in the hands of sottish wastrels, the
+chance of independence was no doubt seized.
+
+~Mongol Invasions.~--In 1221 the Mongol cloud rose on the north-west
+horizon. The cruelty of these camel-riding Tatars and the terror they
+inspired may perhaps be measured by the appalling picture given of their
+bestial appearance. In 1221, Chingiz Khán descended on the Indus at the
+heels of the King of Khwarizm (Khiva), and drove him into Sindh. Then
+there was a lull for twenty years, after which the Mongol war hordes
+ruined and ravaged the Panjáb for two generations. Two great Panjáb
+governors, Sher Khán under Balban and Tughlak under Alá ud dín Khaljí,
+maintained a gallant struggle against these savages. In 1297 and 1303
+the Mongols came to the gates of Delhi, but the city did not fall, and
+soon after they ceased to harry Northern India. During these years the
+misery of the common people must often have been extreme. When foreign
+raids ceased for a time they were plundered by their own rulers. In the
+Panjáb the fate of the peasantry must have depended chiefly on the
+character of the governor for the time being, and of the local
+feudatories or _zamíndárs_, who were given the right to collect the
+State's share of the produce on condition of keeping up bodies of armed
+men for service when required.
+
+~The Invasion of Timúr.~--The long reign of Muhammad Tughlak's successor,
+Firoz Sháh (1351-1388), son of a Hindu Rájput princess of Dipálpur,
+brought relief to all classes. Besides adopting a moderate fiscal
+policy, he founded towns like Hissár and Fatehábád, dug canals from the
+Jamna and the Sutlej, and carried out many other useful works. On his
+death the realm fell into confusion. In 1398-99 another appalling
+calamity fell upon it in the invasion of Timúrlang (Tamerlane), Khán of
+Samarkand. He entered India at the head of 90,000 horsemen, and marched
+by Multán, Dipálpur, Sirsa, Kaithal, and Pánipat to Delhi. What lust of
+blood was to the Mongols, religious hatred was to Timúr and his Turks.
+Ten thousand Hindus were put to the sword at Bhatner and 100,000
+prisoners were massacred before the victory at Delhi. For the three
+days' sack of the royal city Timúr was not personally responsible. Sated
+with the blood of lakhs of infidels sent "to the fires of Hell" he
+marched back through Kángra and Jammu to the Indus. Six years later the
+House of Tughlak received a deadly wound when the Wazír, Ikbál Khan,
+fell in battle with Khizr Khán, the governor of Multán.
+
+~The later Dynasties.~--The Saiyyids, who were in power from 1414 to 1451,
+only ruled a small territory round Delhi. The local governors and the
+Hindu chiefs made themselves independent. Sikandar Lodí (1488-1518)
+reduced them to some form of submission, but his successor, Ibrahím,
+drove them into opposition by pushing authority further than his power
+justified. An Afghán noble, Daulat Khán, rebelled in the Panjáb. There
+is always an ear at Kábul listening to the first sounds of discord and
+weakness between Pesháwar and Delhi. Bábar, a descendant of Timúr, ruled
+a little kingdom there. In 1519 he advanced as far as Bhera. Five years
+later his troops burned the Lahore _bazár_, and sacked Dipálpur. The
+next winter saw Bábar back again, and this time Delhi was his goal. On
+the 21st of April, 1526, a great battle at Pánipat again decided the
+fate of India, and Bábar entered Delhi in triumph.
+
+~Akbar and his successors.~--He soon bequeathed his Indian kingdom to his
+son Humáyun, who lost it, but recovered it shortly before his death by
+defeating Sikandar Sur at Sirhind. In 1556 Akbar succeeded at the age of
+13, and in the same year Bahram Khán won for his master a great battle
+at Pánipat and seated the Moghals firmly on the throne. For the next
+century and a half, till their power declined after the death of
+Aurangzeb in 1707, Kábul and Delhi were under one rule, and the Panjáb
+was held in a strong grasp. When it was disturbed the cause was
+rebellions of undutiful sons of the reigning Emperor, struggles between
+rival heirs on the Emperor's death, or attempts to check the growing
+power of the Sikh Gurus. The empire was divided into _súbahs_, and the
+area described in this book embraced _súbahs_ Lahore and Multán, and
+parts of _súbahs_ Delhi and Kábul. Kashmír and the trans-Indus tract
+were included in the last.
+
+~The Sultáns of Kashmír.~--The Hindu rule in Kashmír had broken down by
+the middle of the twelfth century. A long line of Musalmán Sultáns
+followed. Two notable names emerge in the end of the fourteenth and the
+first half of the fifteenth century, Sikandar, the "Idol-breaker," who
+destroyed most of the Hindu temples and converted his people to Islám,
+and his wise and tolerant successor, Zain-ul-ábidín. Akbar conquered
+Kashmír in 1587.
+
+~Moghal Royal Progresses to Kashmír.~--His successors often moved from
+Delhi by Lahore, Bhimbar, and the Pír Panjál route to the Happy Valley
+in order to escape the summer heats. Bernier has given us a graphic
+account of Aurangzeb's move to the hills in 1665. On that occasion his
+total following was estimated to amount to 300,000 or 400,000 persons,
+and the journey from Delhi to Lahore occupied two months. The burden
+royal progresses on this scale must have imposed on the country is
+inconceivable. Jahángír died in his beloved Kashmír. He planted the road
+from Delhi to Lahore with trees, set up as milestones the _kos minárs_,
+some of which are still standing, and built fine _sarais_ at various
+places.
+
+~Prosperity of Lahore under Akbar, Jahángír, and Sháhjahán.~--The reigns
+of Akbar and of his son and grandson were the heyday of Lahore. It was
+the halfway house between Delhi and Kashmír, and between Agra and Kábul.
+The Moghal Court was often there. Akbar made the city his headquarters
+from 1584 to 1598. Jahángír was buried and Sháhjahán was born at Lahore.
+The mausoleum of the former is at Sháhdara, a mile or two from the city.
+Sháhjahán made the Shálimár garden, and Ali Mardán Khán's Canal, the
+predecessor of our own Upper Bárí Doáb Canal, was partly designed to
+water it. Lahore retained its importance under Aurangzeb, till he became
+enmeshed in the endless Deccan wars, and his successor, Bahádur Shah,
+died there in 1712.
+
+~Bába Nának, the first Guru.~--According to Sikh legend Bábar in one of
+his invasions had among his prisoners their first Guru, Bába Nának, and
+tried to make him a Musalmán. Nának was born in 1469 at Talwandí, now
+known as Nankána Sáhib, 30 miles to the south-west of Lahore, and died
+twelve years after Bábar's victory at Pánipat. He journeyed all over
+India, and, if legend speaks true, even visited Mecca. His propaganda
+was a peaceful one. A man of the people himself, he had a message to
+deliver to a peasantry naturally impatient of the shackles of orthodox
+Hinduism. Sikhism is the most important of all the later dissents from
+Brahmanism, which represent revolts against idolatry, priestly
+domination, and the bondage of caste and ritual. These things Nának
+unhesitatingly condemned, and in the opening lines of his Japjí, the
+morning service which every true Sikh must know by heart, he asserted in
+sublime language the unity of God.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59. Bába Nának and the Musician Mardána.]
+
+~The Gurus between Nának and Govind.~--The first three successors of Nának
+led the quiet lives of great eastern saints. They managed to keep on
+good terms with the Emperor and generally also with his local
+representatives. The fifth Guru, Arjan (1581-1606), began the welding of
+the Sikhs into a body fit to play a part in secular politics. He
+compiled their sacred book, known as the _Granth Sáhib_, and made
+Amritsar the permanent centre of their faith. The tenets of these early
+Gurus chimed in with the liberal sentiments of Akbar, and he treated
+them kindly. Arjan was accused of helping Khusru, Jahángír's rebellious
+son, and is alleged to have died after suffering cruel tortures.
+
+Hitherto there had been little ill-will between monotheistic Sikhs and
+Muhammadans. Henceforth there was ever-increasing enmity. The peasant
+converts to the new creed had many scores against Turk officials to pay
+off, while the new leader Hargovind (1606-1645), had the motive of
+revenge. He was a Guru of a new type, a lover of horses and hawks, and a
+man of war. He kept up a bodyguard, and, when danger threatened, armed
+followers flocked to his standard. The easy-going Jahángír (1605-1627)
+on the whole treated him well. Sháhjahán (1627-1659) was more strict or
+less prudent, and during his reign there were several collisions between
+the imperial troops and the Guru's followers. Hargovind was succeeded
+by his grandson, Har Rai (1645-1661). The new Guru was a man of peace.
+Har Rai died in 1661, having nominated his younger son, Harkrishn, a
+child of six, as his successor. His brother, Rám Rai, disputed his
+claim, but Aurangzeb confirmed Harkrishn's appointment. He died of small
+pox in 1664 and was succeeded by his uncle, Teg Bahádur (1664-1675),
+whose chief titles to fame are his execution in 1675, his prophecy of
+the coming of the English, and the fact that he was the father of the
+great tenth Guru, Govind. It is said that when in prison at Delhi he
+gazed southwards one day in the direction of the Emperor's _zanána_.
+Charged with this impropriety, he replied: "I was looking in the
+direction of the Europeans, who are coming to tear down thy _pardas_ and
+destroy thine empire."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60. Guru Govind Singh.]
+
+~Guru Govind Singh.~--When Govind (1675-1708) succeeded his father,
+Aurangzeb had already started on the course of persecution which fatally
+weakened the pillars of Turkish rule. Govind grew up with a rooted
+hatred of the Turks, and a determination to weld his followers into a
+league of fighting men or _Khálsa_ (Ar. _khális_ = pure), admission into
+which was by the _pahul_, a form of military baptism. Sikhs were
+henceforth to be _Singhs_ (lions). They were forbidden to smoke, and
+enjoined to wear the five k's, _kes_, _kangha_, _kripan_, _kachh_, and
+_kara_ (uncut hair, comb, sword, short drawers, and steel bracelet). He
+established himself at Anandpur beyond the Hoshyárpur Siwáliks. Much of
+his life was spent in struggles with his neighbours, the Rájput Hill
+Rájas, backed from time to time by detachments of imperial troops from
+Sirhind. In 1705 two of his sons were killed fighting and two young
+grandsons were executed at Sirhind. He himself took refuge to the south
+of the Sutlej, but finally decided to obey a summons from Aurangzeb, and
+was on the way to the Deccan when the old Emperor died. The Guru took
+up his residence on the banks of the Godávarí, and died there in 1708.
+
+~Bánda.~--Before his death he had converted the Hindu ascetic Bánda, and
+sent him forth on a mission of revenge. Bánda defeated and slew the
+governor of Sirhind, Wazír Khán, and sacked the town. Doubtless he
+dreamed of making himself Guru. But he was really little more than a
+condottiere, and his orthodoxy was suspect. He was defeated and captured
+in 1715 at Gurdáspur. Many of his followers were executed and he himself
+was tortured to death at Delhi, where the members of an English mission
+saw a ghastly procession of Sikh prisoners with 2000 heads carried on
+poles. The blow was severe, and for a generation little was heard of the
+Sikhs.
+
+~Invasions of Nádir Sháh and Ahmad Sháh.~--The central power was weak, and
+a new era of invasions from the west began. Nádir Sháh, the Turkman
+shepherd, who had made himself master of Persia, advanced through the
+Panjáb. Zakaria Khán, the governor of Lahore, submitted and the town was
+saved from sack. A victory at Karnál left the road to Delhi open, and in
+March, 1738, the Persians occupied the capital. A shot fired at Nádir
+Sháh in the Chándní Chauk led to the nine hours' massacre, when the
+Daríba ran with blood, and 100,000 citizens are said to have perished.
+The Persians retired laden with booty, including the peacock throne and
+the Kohinur diamond. The Sikhs harassed detachments of the army on its
+homeward march. Nádir Sháh was murdered nine years later, and his power
+passed to the Afghán leader, the Durání Ahmad Sháh.
+
+Between 1748 and 1767 this remarkable man, who could conquer but could
+not keep, invaded India eight times. Lahore was occupied in 1748, but at
+Sirhind the skill of Mír Mannu, called Muín ul Mulk, gave the advantage
+to the Moghals. Ahmad Sháh retreated, and Muín ul Mulk was rewarded
+with the governorship of the Panjáb. He was soon forced to cede to the
+Afghán the revenue of four districts. His failure to fulfil his compact
+led to a third invasion in 1752, and Muín ul Mulk, after a gallant
+defence of Lahore, had to submit. In 1755-56 Ahmad Sháh plundered Delhi
+and then retired, leaving his son, Timúr, to represent him at Lahore.
+Meanwhile the Sikhs had been gathering strength. Then, as now, they
+formed only a fraction of the population. But they were united by a
+strong hatred of Muhammadan rule, and in the disorganized state of the
+country even the loose organization described below made them
+formidable. Owing to the weakness of the government the Panjáb became
+dotted over with forts, built by local chiefs, who undoubtedly lived
+largely by plunder. The spiritual organization under a Guru being gone,
+there gradually grew up a political and military organization into
+twelve _misls_, in which "a number of chiefs agreed, after a somewhat
+democratic and equal fashion, to fight under the general orders of some
+powerful leader" against the hated Muhammadans. The _misls_ often fought
+with one another for a change. In the third quarter of the eighteenth
+century _Sardár_ Jassa Singh of Kapúrthala, head of the Ahluwália
+_misl_, was the leading man among the Sikhs. Timúr having defiled the
+tank at Amritsar, Jassa Singh avenged the insult by occupying Lahore in
+1756, and the Afghán prince withdrew across the Indus. Adína Beg, the
+governor of the Jalandhar Doáb, called in the Mahrattas, who drove the
+Sikhs out in 1758. Ahmad Sháh's fifth invasion in 1761 was rendered
+memorable by his great victory over the Mahratta confederacy at Pánipat.
+When he returned to Kábul, the Sikhs besieged his governor, Zín Khán, in
+Sirhind. Next year Ahmad Sháh returned, and repaid their audacity by a
+crushing defeat near Barnála.
+
+They soon rallied, and, in 1763, under Jassa Singh Ahluwália and Rája
+Ala Singh of Patiála razed Sirhind to the ground. After the sack the
+Sikh horsemen rode over the plains between Sirhind and Karnál, each man
+claiming for his own any village into which in passing he had thrown
+some portion of his garments. This was the origin of the numerous petty
+chiefships and confederacies of horsemen, which, along with the Phulkian
+States, the British Government took under its protection in 1808. In
+1764 the chiefs of the Bhangí _misl_ occupied Lahore.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+HISTORY (_continued_). THE SIKH PERIOD, 1764-1849 A.D.
+
+
+~Rise of Ranjít Singh.~--The Bhangís held Lahore with brief intervals for
+25 years. In 1799, Ranjít Singh, basing his claim on a grant from Sháh
+Zamán, the grandson of Ahmad Sháh, drove them out, and inaugurated the
+remarkable career which ended with his death in 1839. When he took
+Lahore the future Mahárája was only nineteen years of age. He was the
+head of the Sukarchakia _misl_, which had its headquarters at
+Gujránwála. Mean in appearance, his face marked and one eye closed by
+the ravages of smallpox, he was the one man of genius the Jat tribe has
+produced. A splendid horseman, a bold leader, a cool thinker untroubled
+with scruples, an unerring judge of character, he was bound to rise in
+such times. He set himself to put down every Sikh rival and to profit by
+the waning of the Durání power to make himself master of their
+possessions in the Panjáb. Pluck, patience, and guile broke down all
+opposition among the Mánjha Sikhs. The Sikh chiefs to the south of the
+Sutlej were only saved from the same fate by throwing themselves in 1808
+on the protection of the English, who six years earlier had occupied
+Delhi, and by taking under their protection the blind old Emperor, Sháh
+Álam, had virtually proclaimed themselves the paramount power in India.
+For 44 years he had been only a piece in the game played by Mahrattas,
+Rohillas, and the English in alliance with the Nawáb Wazír of Oudh.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61. Mahárája Ranjít Singh.
+
+(_From a picture book said to have been prepared for Mahárája Dalíp
+Singh._)]
+
+~British supremacy established in India.~--In the first years of the
+nineteenth century the Marquess of Wellesley had made up his mind that
+the time was ripe to grasp supreme power in India. The motive was
+largely self-preservation. India was included in Napoleon's vast plans
+for the overthrow of England, and Sindhia, with his army trained in
+European methods of warfare by French officers, seemed a likely
+confederate. Colonel Arthur Wellesley's hard-won battle at Assaye in
+September, 1803, and Lord Lake's victories on the Hindan and at Laswárí
+in the same year, decided the fate of India. Delhi was occupied, and
+Daulat Rao Sindhia ceded to the company territory reaching from Fázilka
+on the Sutlej to Delhi on the Jamna, and extending along that river
+northwards to Karnál and southwards to Mewát. Fázilka and a large part
+of Hissár then formed a wild desert tract called Bhattiána, over which
+no effective control was exercised till 1818. In 1832 "the Delhi
+territory" became part of the North-West Provinces, from which it was
+transferred to the Panjáb after the Mutiny.
+
+~Relations of Ranjít Singh with English.~--In December, 1808, Ranjít Singh
+was warned that by the issue of the war with Sindhia the Cis-Sutlej
+chiefs had come under British protection. The Mahárája was within an ace
+of declaring war, or let the world think so, but his statesmanlike
+instincts got the better of mortified ambition, and in April, 1809, he
+signed a treaty pledging himself to make no conquests south and east of
+the Sutlej. The compact so reluctantly made was faithfully observed. In
+1815, as the result of war with the Gurkhas, the Rájput hill states
+lying to the south of the Sutlej came under British protection.
+
+~Extension of Sikh Kingdom in Panjáb.~--As early as 1806, when he reduced
+Jhang, Ranjít Singh began his encroachments on the possessions of the
+Duránís in the Panjáb. Next year, and again in 1810 and 1816, Multán was
+attacked, but the strong fort was not taken till 1818, when the old
+Nawáb, Muzaffar Khán, and five of his sons, fell fighting at the gate.
+Kashmír was first attacked in 1811 and finally annexed in 1819. Called
+in by the great Katoch Rája of Kángra, Sansár Chand, in 1809, to help
+him against the Gurkhas, Ranjít Singh duped both parties, and became
+master of the famous fort. Many years later he annexed the whole of the
+Kángra hill states. By 1820 the Mahárája was supreme from the Sutlej to
+the Indus, though his hold on Hazára was weak. Pesháwar became tributary
+in 1823, but it was kept in subjection with much difficulty. Across the
+Indus the position of the Sikhs was always precarious, and revenue was
+only paid when an armed force could be sent to collect it. As late as
+1837 the great Sikh leader, Harí Singh Nalwa, fell fighting with the
+Afgháns at Jamrúd. The Barakzai, Dost Muhammad, had been the ruler of
+Kábul since 1826. In 1838, when the English launched their ill-starred
+expedition to restore Sháh Shuja to his throne, Ranjít Singh did not
+refuse his help in the passage through the Panjáb. But he was worn out
+by toils and excesses, and next year the weary lion of the Panjáb died.
+He had known how to use men. He employed Jat blades and Brahman and
+Muhammadan brains. Khatrís put both at his service. The best of his
+local governors was Diwán Sáwan Mal, who ruled the South-West Panjáb
+with much profit to himself and to the people. After 1820 the three
+Jammu brothers, Rájas Dhián Singh, Suchet Singh, and Guláb Singh, had
+great power.
+
+~Successors of Ranjít Singh.~--From 1839 till 1846 an orgy of bloodshed
+and intrigue went on in Lahore. Kharak Singh, the Mahárája's son, died
+in 1840, and on the same day occurred the death of his son Nao Nihál
+Singh, compassed probably by the Jammu Rájas. Sher Singh, and then the
+child, Dalíp Singh, succeeded. In September, 1843, Mahárája Sher Singh,
+his son Partáb Singh, and Rája Dhián Singh were shot by Ajít Singh and
+Lehna Singh of the great Sindhanwália house. The death of Dhián Singh
+was avenged by his son, Híra Singh, who proclaimed Dalíp Singh as
+Mahárája and made himself chief minister. When he in turn was killed
+Rání Jindan, the mother of Dalíp Singh, her brother Jowáhir Singh, and
+her favourite, Lál Singh, took the reins.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62. Mahárája Kharak Singh.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63. Nao Nihál Singh.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64. Mahárája Sher Singh.
+
+(_From a picture book said to have been prepared for Mahárája Dalíp
+Singh._)]
+
+~The First Sikh War and its results.~--In 1845 these intriguers, fearing
+the _Khálsa_ army which they could not control, yielded to its cry to be
+led across the Sutlej in the hope that its strength would be broken in
+its conflict with the Company's forces. The valour displayed by the Sikh
+soldiery on the fields of Mudkí, Ferozesháh (Pherushahr), and Sobráon
+was rendered useless by the treachery of its rulers, and Lahore was
+occupied in February, 1846. By the treaty signed on 9th March, 1846, the
+Mahárája ceded the territories in the plains between the Sutlej and
+Biás, and in the hills between the Biás and the Indus. Kashmír and
+Hazára were made over by the Company to Rája Guláb Singh for a payment
+of 75 lakhs, but next year he induced the Lahore Darbár to take over
+Hazára and give him Jammu in exchange. After Rája Lál Singh had been
+banished for instigating Shekh Imám ud din to resist the occupation of
+Kashmír by Guláb Singh, an agreement was executed, in December, 1846,
+between the Government and the chief Sikh _Sardárs_ by which a Council
+of Regency was appointed to be controlled by a British Resident at
+Lahore. The office was given to Henry Lawrence.
+
+~The Second Sikh War.~--These arrangements were destined to be
+short-lived. Diwán Sáwan Mal's son, Mulráj, mismanaged Multán and was
+ordered to resign. In April, 1848, two English officers sent to instal
+his Sikh successor were murdered. Herbert Edwardes, with the help of
+Muhammadan tribesmen and Baháwalpur troops, shut up Mulráj in Multán,
+but the fort was too strong for the first British regular force, which
+arrived in August, and it did not fall till January, 1849. During that
+winter a formidable Sikh revolt against English domination broke out.
+Its leader was _Sardár_ Chatar Singh, Governor of Hazára. The troops
+sent by the _Darbár_ to Multán under Chatar Singh's son, Sher Singh,
+marched northwards in September to join their co-religionists.
+
+On the 13th of January, 1849, Lord Gough fought a very hardly contested
+battle at Chilianwála. If this was but a doubtful victory, that won six
+weeks later at Gujrát was decisive. On 12th March, 1849, the soldiers of
+the _Khálsa_ in proud dejection laid down their weapons at the feet of
+the victor, and dispersed to their homes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65. Zamzama Gun[6].]
+
+~Annexation.~--The cause they represented was in no sense a national one.
+The Sikhs were a small minority of the population, the bulk of the
+people being Muhammadans, to whom the English came as deliverers. On the
+30th of March, 1849, the proclamation annexing the Panjáb was read at
+Lahore.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 6: This gun, known to the readers of _Kim_, stands on the
+Lahore Mall. Whoever possesses it is supposed to be ruler of the
+Panjáb.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+HISTORY (_continued_). THE BRITISH PERIOD, 1849-1913
+
+
+~Administrative Arrangements in Panjáb.~--Lord Dalhousie put the
+government of the province under a Board of Administration consisting of
+the two Lawrences, Henry and John, and Charles Mansel. The Board was
+abolished in 1853 and its powers vested in a Chief Commissioner. A
+Revenue or Financial Commissioner and a Judicial Commissioner were his
+principal subordinates. John Lawrence, the first and only Chief
+Commissioner of the Panjáb, became its first Lieutenant-Governor on the
+1st of January, 1859. The raising of the Panjáb to the full rank of an
+Indian province was the fitting reward of the great part which its
+people and its officers, with their cool-headed and determined chief,
+had played in the suppression of the Mutiny. The overthrow of the
+_Khálsa_ left the contending parties with the respect which strong men
+feel for each other; the services of the Sikhs in 1857 healed their
+wounded pride and removed all soreness.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66. Sir John Lawrence.]
+
+~Administration, 1849-1859.~--When John Lawrence laid down his office in
+the end of February, 1859, ten years of work by himself and the able
+officers drafted by Lord Dalhousie into the new province had established
+order on a solid foundation. A strong administration suited to a manly
+and headstrong people had been organised. In the greater part of the
+province rights in land had been determined and recorded. The principle
+of a moderate assessment of the land revenue had been laid down and
+partially carried out in practice. The policy of canal and railway
+development, which was to have so great a future in the Panjáb, had been
+definitely started. The province had been divided into nine divisions
+containing 33 districts. The Divisional Commissioners were
+superintendents of revenue and police with power to try the gravest
+criminal offences and to hear appeals in civil cases. The Deputy
+Commissioner of districts had large civil, criminal, and fiscal powers.
+A simple criminal and civil code was enforced. The peace of the frontier
+was secured by a chain of fortified outposts watching the outlets from
+the hills, behind which were the cantonments at the headquarters of the
+districts linked together by a military road. The posts and the
+cantonments except Pesháwar were garrisoned by the Frontier Force, a
+splendid body of troops consisting ultimately of seven infantry and
+five cavalry regiments, with some mule batteries. This force was till
+1885 subject to the orders of the Lieutenant Governor. It never wanted
+work, for before the Mutiny troops had to be employed seventeen times
+against the independent tribesmen. East of the Indus order was secured
+by the disarmament of the people, the maintenance, in addition to civil
+police, of a strong body of military police, and the construction of
+good roads. Just before Lawrence left the construction of the
+Amritsar-Multán railway was begun, and a few weeks after his departure
+the Upper Bárí Doáb Canal was opened.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67. John Nicolson's Monument at Delhi.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68. Sir Robert Montgomery.]
+
+~Administration, 1859-1870.~--The next eleven years occupied by the
+administrations of Sir Robert Montgomery and Sir Donald Macleod were a
+quiet time in which results already achieved were consolidated. The
+Penal Code was extended to the Panjáb in 1862, and a Chief Court with a
+modest establishment of two judges in 1865 took the place of the
+Judicial Commissioner. In the same year a Settlement Commissioner was
+appointed to help the Financial Commissioner in the control of land
+revenue settlements. Two severe famines marked the beginning and the
+close of this period. Omitting the usual little frontier excitements, it
+is necessary to mention the troublesome Ambela campaign in 1863 in the
+country north of Pesháwar, which had for its object the breaking up of
+the power of a nest of Hindustání fanatics, and the Black Mountain
+expedition, in 1868, on the Hazára border, in which no fewer than 15,000
+men were employed. Sir Henry Durand, who succeeded Sir Donald Macleod,
+after seven months of office lost his life by an accident in the
+beginning of 1871.
+
+~Administration, 1871-1882.~--The next eleven years divided between the
+administrations of Sir Henry Davies (1871-1877) and Sir Robert Egerton
+(1877-1882) produced more striking events. In 1872 a small body of
+fanatics belonging to a Sikh sect known as Kúkas or Shouters marched
+from the Ludhiána district and attacked the headquarters of the little
+Muhammadan State of Malerkotla. They were repulsed and 68 men
+surrendered to the Patiála authorities. The Deputy Commissioner of
+Ludhiána blew 49 of them from the guns, and the rest were executed after
+summary trial by the Commissioner. Such strong measures were not
+approved by the Government, but it must be remembered that these madmen
+had killed ten and wounded seventeen men, and that their lives were
+justly forfeit. On the 1st of January, 1877, Queen Victoria's
+assumption of the title of Empress of India (_Kaisar-i-Hind_) was
+announced at a great _Darbár_ at Delhi. In 1877 Kashmír, hitherto
+controlled by the Lieutenant-Governor, was put directly under the
+Government of India. The same year and the next the province was tried
+by famine, and in 1878-80 it was the base from which our armies marched
+on Kábul and Kandahár, while its resources in camels were strained to
+supply transport. Apart from this its interest in the war was very great
+because it is the chief recruiting ground of the Indian army and its
+chiefs sent contingents to help their suzerain. The first stage of the
+war was closed by the treaty of Gandamak in May, 1879, by which Yakúb
+Khán surrendered any rights he possessed over Khaibar and the Kurram as
+far as Shutargardan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69. Panjáb Camels--Lahore.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70. Sir Charles Aitchison.]
+
+~Administration, 1882-1892.~--During the Lieutenant-Governorships of Sir
+Charles Aitchison (1882-1887) and Sir James Lyall (1887-1892) there was
+little trouble on the western frontier. In 1891 the need had arisen of
+making our power felt up to the Pamírs. The setting up of a British
+agency at Gilgit was opposed in 1891 by the fighting men of Hunza and
+Nagar. Colonel Durand advanced rapidly with a small force and when a
+determined assault reduced the strong fort of Nilt, trouble was at an
+end once and for all. Within the Panjáb the period was one of quiet
+development. The Sirhind Canal was opened in 1882, and the weir at
+Khánkí for the supply of the Lower Chenáb Canal was finished in 1892.
+New railways were constructed. Lord Ripon's policy of Local
+Self-government found a strong supporter in Sir Charles Aitchison, and
+Acts were passed dealing with the constitution and powers of municipal
+committees and district boards. In 1884 and 1885 a large measure of
+reorganization was carried out. A separate staff of divisional,
+district, and subordinate civil judges was appointed. The divisional
+judges were also sessions judges. The ten commissioners were reduced to
+six, and five of them were relieved of all criminal work by the sessions
+judges. The Deputy Commissioner henceforth was a Revenue Collector and
+District Magistrate with large powers in criminal cases. The revenue
+administration was at the same time being improved by the reforms
+embodied in the Panjáb Land Revenue and Tenancy Acts passed at the
+beginning of Sir James Lyall's administration.
+
+~Administration, 1892-1902.~--The next two administrations, those of Sir
+Dennis Fitzpatrick (1892-97) and Sir Mackworth Young (1897-1902) were
+crowded with important events. Throughout the period the colonization of
+the vast area of waste commanded by the Lower Chenáb Canal was carried
+out, and the Lower Jhelam Canal was formally opened six months before
+Sir Mackworth Young left. The province suffered from famine in 1896-97
+and again in 1899-1900. In October, 1897, a worse enemy appeared in the
+shape of plague, but its ravages were not very formidable till the end
+of the period. The Panjáb was given a small nominated Legislative
+Council in 1897, which speedily proved itself a valuable instrument for
+dealing with much-needed provincial legislation. But the most important
+Panjáb Act of the period, XIII of 1900, dealing with Land Alienation was
+passed by the Viceroy's Legislative Council. In 1901 a Political Agent
+was appointed as the intermediary between the Panjáb Government and the
+Phulkian States. On the frontier the conclusion of the Durand Agreement
+in 1893 might well have raised hopes of quiet times. But the reality was
+otherwise. The establishment of a British officer at Wána to exercise
+control over Southern Wazíristán in 1894 was forcibly resisted by the
+Mahsúd Wazírs, and an expedition had to be sent into their country. The
+Mehtar or Chief of Chitrál, who was in receipt of a subsidy from the
+British Government, died in 1892. A period of great confusion followed
+fomented by the ambitions of Umra Khán of Jandol. Finally we recognised
+as Mehtar the eldest son, who had come uppermost in the struggle, and
+sent an English officer as British Agent to Chitrál. Umra Khán got our
+protégé murdered, and besieged the Agent in the Chitrál fort. He
+withdrew however on the approach of a small force from Gilgit.
+Shuja-ul-Mulk was recognised as Mehtar. This little trouble occurred in
+1895. Two years later a storm-cloud suddenly burst over the frontier,
+such as we had never before experienced. It spread rapidly from the
+Tochí to Swát, tribe after tribe rising and attacking our posts. It is
+impossible to tell here the story of the military measures taken against
+the different offending tribes. The most important was the campaign in
+Tirah against the Orakzais and Afrídís, in which 30,000 men were engaged
+for six months. In 1900 attacks on the peace of the border by the Mahsúd
+Wazírs had to be punished by a blockade, and in the cold weather of
+1901-2 small columns harried the hill country to enforce their
+submission. By this time the connection of the Panjáb Government with
+frontier affairs, which had gradually come to involve responsibility
+with little real power, had ceased. On the 25th of October, 1901, the
+North-West Frontier Province was constituted and Colonel (afterwards Sir
+Harold) Deane became its first Chief Commissioner, an office which he
+held till 1908, when he was succeeded by Major (now Sir George) Roos
+Keppel.
+
+~Administration, 1902-1913.~--The last eleven years have embraced the
+Lieutenant Governorship of Sir Charles Rivaz (1902-1907), the too brief
+administration of Sir Denzil Ibbetson (1907-1908), and that of Sir Louis
+Dane (1908-1913). Throughout the period plague has been a disturbing
+factor, preventing entirely the growth of population which the rapid
+development of the agricultural resources of the province would
+otherwise have secured. It was among the causes stimulating the unrest
+which came to a head in 1907. A terrible earthquake occurred in 1905.
+Its centre was in Kángra, where 20,000 persons perished under the ruins
+of their houses. The colonization of the Crown waste on the Lower Jhelam
+Canal was nearly finished during Sir Charles Rivaz's administration.
+Before he left the Triple Canal Project, now approaching completion, had
+been undertaken. Other measures of importance to the rural population
+were the passing of the Co-operative Credit Societies' Act in 1903, and
+the organization in 1905 of a provincial Agricultural Department. The
+seditious movement which troubled Bengal had its echo in some parts of
+the Panjáb in the end of 1906 and the spring of 1907. A bill dealing
+with the rights and obligations of the Crown tenants in the new Canal
+Colonies was at the time before the Local Legislature. Excitement
+fomented from outside spread among the prosperous colonists on the Lower
+Chenáb Canal. There was a disturbance in Lahore in connection with the
+trial of a newspaper editor, the ringleaders being students. When Sir
+Denzil Ibbetson took the reins into his strong hands in March, 1907, the
+position was somewhat critical. The disturbance at Lahore was followed
+by a riot at Ráwalpindí. The two leading agitators were deported, a
+measure which was amply justified by their reckless actions and which
+had an immediate effect. Lord Minto decided to withhold his assent from
+the Colony Bill, and it has recently been replaced by a measure which
+has met with general acceptance. When Sir Denzil Ibbetson took office he
+was already suffering from a mortal disease. In the following January he
+gave up the unequal struggle, and shortly afterwards died. Sir Louis
+Dane became Lieutenant Governor in May, 1908. A striking feature of his
+administration was the growth of co-operative credit societies or
+village banks. At the Coronation _Darbár_ on 12th December, 1911, the
+King-Emperor announced the transfer of the capital of India to Delhi. As
+a necessary consequence the city and its suburbs were severed from the
+province, with which they had been connected for 55 years. In 1913 Sir
+Louis Dane was succeeded by Sir Michael O'Dwyer.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71. Sir Denzil Ibbetson.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72. Sir Michael O'Dwyer.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+ARCHAEOLOGY AND COINS
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73. Group of Chamba Temples.]
+
+~Hindu and Buddhist Remains.~--The scholar who ended his study of Indian
+history with the close of the first millennium of the Christian era
+would expect to find a fruitful field for the study of ancient monuments
+of the Hindu faith in the plains of the Panjáb. He would look for a
+great temple of the Sun God at Multán, and at places like Lahore and
+Kángra, Thanesar and Pihowa, for shrines rich with graven work outside
+and with treasures of gold and precious stones within. But he would look
+in vain. The Muhammadan invaders of the five centuries which elapsed
+between Mahmúd of Ghazní and the Moghal Bábar were above all things
+idol-breakers, and their path was marked by the destruction and
+spoliation of temples. Even those invaders who remained as conquerors
+deemed it a pious work to build their mosques with the stones of ruined
+fanes. The transformation, as in the case of the great Kuwwat ul Islám
+mosque beside the Kutb Minár, did not always involve the complete
+obliteration of idolatrous emblems. Kángra was not too remote to be
+reached by invading armies, and the visitor to Nurpur on the road from
+Pathánkot to Dharmsála can realize how magnificent some of the old Hindu
+buildings were, and how utterly they were destroyed. The smaller
+buildings to be found in the remoter parts of the hills escaped, and
+there are characteristic groups of stone temples at Chamba and still
+older shrines dating from the eighth century at Barmaur and Chitrádí in
+the same state. The ruins of the great temple of the Sun, built by
+Lálitáditya in the same period, at Mártand[7] near Islámábád in the
+Kashmír State are very striking. The smaller, but far better preserved,
+temple at Payer is probably of much later date. Round the pool of Katás,
+one of Siva's eyes, a great place of Hindu pilgrimage in the Salt
+Range, there is little or nothing of antiquarian value, but there are
+interesting remains at Malot in the same neighbourhood. It is possible
+that when the mounds that mark the sites of ancient villages come to be
+excavated valuable relics of the Hindu period will be brought to light.
+The forces of nature or the violence of man have wiped out all traces of
+the numerous Buddhist monasteries which the Chinese pilgrims found in
+the Panjáb. Inscriptions of Asoka? graven on rocks survive at
+Sháhbázgarhí and Mansehra in the North-West Frontier Province. Two
+pillars with inscriptions of the Missionary Emperor stand at Delhi. They
+were brought from Topra near the Jamna in Ambála and from Meerut by
+Firoz Sháh. The traveller by train from Jhelam to Ráwalpindí can see to
+the west of the line at Mankiála a great _stúpa_ raised to celebrate the
+self-sacrifice of the Bodhisattva who gave his life to feed a starving
+tigress. There is a ruined _stúpa_ at Suí Vihár in the Baháwalpur State.
+The Chinese pilgrims described the largest of Indian _stúpas_ built by
+Kanishka near Pesháwar to enshrine precious relics of Gautama Buddha and
+a great monastery beside it. Recent excavations have proved the truth
+of the conjecture that the two mounds at Sháhjí kí dherí covered the
+remains of these buildings, and the six-sided crystal reliquary
+containing three small fragments of bone has after long centuries been
+disinterred and is now in the great pagoda at Rangoon. In the Lahore
+museum there is a rich collection of the sculptures recovered from the
+Pesháwar Valley, the ancient Gandhára. They exhibit strong traces of
+Greek influence. The best age of Gandhára sculpture was probably over
+before the reign of Kanishka. The site of the famous town of Táxila is
+now a protected area, and excavation there may yield a rich reward.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74. Payer Temple.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75. Reliquary.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76. Colonnade in Kuwwat ul Islám Mosque.]
+
+~Muhammadan Architecture.~--The Muhammadan architecture of North-Western
+India may be divided into three periods:
+
+  (_a_)  The Pathán     1191-1320
+  (_b_)  The Tughlak    1320-1556
+  (_c_)  The Moghal     1556-1753
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77. Kutb Minár.]
+
+In the Pathán period the royal builders drew their inspiration from
+Ghazní, but their work was also much affected by Hindu influences for
+two reasons. They used the materials of Hindu temples in constructing
+their mosques and they employed masons imbued with the traditions of
+Hindu art. The best specimens of this period are to be found in the
+group of buildings in Old Delhi or _Kila' Rai Pithora_, close to
+Mahraulí and eleven miles to the south of the present city. These
+buildings are the magnificent _Kuwwat ul Islám_ (Might of Islam) Mosque
+(1191-1225), with its splendid tower, the _Kutb Minár_ (1200-1220), from
+which the _mu'azzin_ called the faithful to prayer, the tomb of the
+Emperor Altamsh (1238), and the great gateway built in 1310 by Alá ud
+dín Khaljí. In the second period, named after the house that occupied
+the imperial throne when it began, all traces of Hindu influence have
+vanished, and the buildings display the austere and massive grandeur
+suited to the faith of the desert prophet unalloyed by foreign elements.
+This style in its beginning is best seen in the cyclopean ruins of
+Tughlakábád and the tomb of the Emperor Tughlak Sháh, and in some
+mosques in and near Delhi. Its latest phase is represented by Sher
+Sháh's mosque in the Old Fort or _Purána Kila'_. To some the simple
+grandeur of this style will appeal more strongly than the splendid, but
+at times almost effeminate, beauty of the third period. Noted examples
+of Moghal architecture in the Panjáb are to be found in Sháhjahári's red
+fort palace and _Jama' Masjid_ at New Delhi or Sháhjahánábád,
+Humáyun's tomb on the road from Delhi to Mahraulí, the fort palace, the
+Bádsháhí and Wazír Khán's mosques, at Lahore, and Jahángír's mausoleum
+at Sháhdara. A very late building in this style is the tomb of Nawáb
+Safdar Jang (1753) near Delhi. A further account of some of the most
+famous Muhammadan buildings will be found in the paragraphs devoted to
+the chief cities of the province. The architecture of the British period
+scarcely deserves notice.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78. Tomb of Emperor Tughlak Sháh.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79. Jama Masjid, Delhi.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80. Tomb of Emperor Humáyun.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81. Bádsháhí Mosque, Lahore.]
+
+~Coins.~--Among the most interesting of the archaeological remains are the
+coins which are found in great abundance on the frontier and all over
+the Panjáb. These take us back through the centuries to times before
+the invasion of India by Alexander, and for the obscure period
+intervening between the Greek occupation of the Frontier and the
+Muhammadan conquest, they are our main source of history. The most
+ancient of the Indian monetary issues are the so-called punch-marked
+coins, some of which were undoubtedly in existence before the Greek
+invasion. Alexander himself left no permanent traces of his progress
+through the Panjáb and Sindh, but about the year 200 B.C., Greeks from
+Bactria, an outlying province of the Seleukidan Empire, once more
+appeared on the Indian Frontier, which they effectively occupied for
+more than a century. They struck the well-known Graeco-Bactrian coins;
+the most famous of the Indo-Greek princes were Apollodotos and Menander.
+Towards the close of this dynasty, parts of Sindh and Afghánistán were
+conquered by Sáka Scythians from Central Asia. They struck what are
+termed the Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins bearing names in
+legible Greek legends--Manes, Azes, Azilises, Gondophares, Abdagases.
+Both Greeks and Sákas were overthrown by the Kusháns. The extensive gold
+and copper Kushán currency, with inscriptions in the Greek script,
+contains the names of Kadphises, Kanishka, Huvishka, and others. In
+addition to the coins of these foreign dynasties, there are the purely
+Indian currencies, e.g. the coins of Táxila, and those bearing the names
+of such tribes as the Odumbaras, Kunindas, and Yaudheyas. The White Huns
+overthrew the Kushán Empire in the fifth century. After their own fall
+in the sixth century, there are more and more debased types of coinage
+such as the ubiquitous _Gadhiya paisa_, a degraded Sassanian type. In
+the ninth century we again meet with coins bearing distinct names, the
+"bull and horseman" currency of the Hindu kings of Kábul. We have now
+reached the beginning of the Muhammadan rule in India. Muhammad bin
+Sám was the founder of the first Pathán dynasty of Delhi, and was
+succeeded by a long line of Sultáns. The Pathán and Moghal coins bear
+Arabic and Persian legends. There were mints at Lahore, Multán,
+Háfizábád, Kalanaur, Deraját, Pesháwar, Srínagar and Jammu. An issue of
+coins peculiar to the Panjáb is that of the Sikhs. Their coin legends,
+partly Persian, partly Panjábí, are written in the Persian and Gurmúkhí
+scripts. Amongst Sikh mints were Amritsar, Lahore, Multán, Dera,
+Anandgarh, Jhang, and Kashmír.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82. Coins.
+
+1. Silver punch-marked coin. 2. Drachma of Sophytes (Panjáb Satrap about
+time of Alexander). 3. Hemidrachma of Azes. 4. Copper coin of Táxila. 5.
+Silver Kuninda coin. 6. Stater of Wema Kadphises. 7. Stater of Kanishka.
+8. Later Kushán stater. 9. White Hun silver piece. 10. Gadhiya _paisa_.
+11. Silver coin of Spalapatí Deva, Hindu King of Kábul.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 7: See page 166.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+ADMINISTRATION--GENERAL
+
+
+~Panjáb Districts.~--The administrative unit in the Panjáb is the district
+in charge of a Deputy Commissioner. The districts are divided into
+_tahsíls_, each on the average containing four, and are grouped together
+in divisions managed by Commissioners. There are 28 districts and five
+divisions. An ordinary Panjáb district has an area of 2000 to 3000
+square miles and contains from 1000 to 2000 village estates. Devon, the
+third in size of the English counties, is about equal to an average
+Panjáb district.
+
+~Branches of Administration.~--The provincial governments of India are
+organized in three branches, Executive, Judicial, and Revenue, and a
+number of special departments, such as Forests and Irrigation. Under
+"Judicial" there are two subdivisions, civil and criminal. The tendency
+at first is for powers in all three branches to be concentrated in the
+hands of single individuals, development tends to specialization, but it
+is a matter of controversy how far the separation of executive and
+magisterial functions can be carried without jeopardy to the common
+weal.
+
+~The Lieutenant Governor.~--At the head of the whole administration is the
+Lieutenant Governor, who holds office for five years. He has a strong
+Secretariat to help in the dispatch of business. The experiment of
+governing the Panjáb by a Board was speedily given up, and for sixty
+years it has enjoyed the advantage of one man government, the Lieutenant
+Governor controlling all subordinate authorities and being himself only
+controlled by the Governor General in Council. The independence of the
+Courts in the exercise of judicial functions is of course safeguarded.
+
+~Official hierarchy.~--The following is a list of the official hierarchy
+in the different branches of the administration:
+
+ _A._  Lieutenant Governor.
+ _B._  Five Judges of Chief Court (_j_).
+ _C._  Two Financial Commissioners (_r_).
+ _D._  Five Commissioners, (_e_) and (_r_).
+ _E._  Sixteen Divisional and Sessions Judges (_j_).
+ _F._  Deputy Commissioners, (_e_), (_r_) and (_crim_).
+ _G._  District Judges (_civ_).
+ _H._  Subordinate Judges (_civ_).
+ _J._  Assistant and Extra Assistant Commissioners, (_e_), (_j_) and (_r_).
+ _K._  Tahsíldárs (_e_), (_r_) and (_crim_).
+ _L._  _Munsifs_ (_civ_).
+ _M._  _Náib-Tahsíldárs_, (_e_) (_r_) and (_j_).
+
+The letters in brackets indicate the classes of functions which the
+official concerned usually exercises. Translated into a diagram we have
+the following:
+
+                        Lieutenant Governor
+
+              Judicial        Executive   Revenue
+
+            Chief Court                 Financial
+                                      Commissioners
+
+  Divisional and Sessions Judges      Commissioners
+
+    Civil                 Criminal
+
+  District Judges                  Deputy Commissioners
+
+                                   Asst. and Extra Asst.
+                                      Commissioners
+  Subordinate
+    Judges
+                                        _Tahsíldárs_
+  _Munsifs_
+                                      _Náib-Tahsíldárs_
+
+~Tahsíldárs and Assistant and Extra Assistant Commissioners.~--Thus the
+chain of executive authority runs down to the _tahsíldár's_ assistant or
+_náib_ through the Commissioner and the Deputy Commissioner, the
+_tahsíldár_ being directly responsible to the latter. The Assistant and
+Extra Assistant Commissioners are the Deputy Commissioner's Assistants
+at headquarters, and as such are invested with powers in all branches.
+The _tahsíldár_, a very important functionary, is in charge of a
+_tahsíl_. He is linked on to the village estates by a double chain, one
+official consisting of the _kanungos_ and the _patwáris_ or village
+accountants whom they supervise, the other non-official consisting of
+the village headmen and the _zaildárs_, each of whom is the intermediary
+between the revenue and police staffs and the villages.
+
+~Subdivisional Officers.~--In some heavy districts one or more _tahsíls_
+are formed into a subdivision and put in charge of a resident Assistant
+or Extra Assistant Commissioner, exercising such independent authority
+as the Deputy Commissioner thinks fit to entrust to him.
+
+~The Deputy Commissioner and his Assistants.~--As the officer responsible
+for the maintenance of order the Deputy Commissioner is District
+Magistrate and has large powers both for the prevention and punishment
+of crime. The District Superintendent is his Assistant in police
+matters. The Civil Surgeon is also under his control, and he has an
+Indian District Inspector of Schools to assist him in educational
+business. The Deputy Commissioner is subject to the control of the
+Divisional Commissioner.
+
+~Financial Commissioners.~--In all matters connected with land, excise,
+and income tax administration the Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner
+are subject to the control of the Financial Commissioners, who are also
+the final appellate authority in revenue cases. As chief district
+revenue officer the Deputy Commissioner's proper title is "Collector," a
+term which indicates his responsibility for the realization of all
+Government revenues. In districts which are canal irrigated the amount
+is in some cases very large.
+
+~Settlement Officers, etc.~--With the periodical revisions of the land
+revenue assessment the Deputy Commissioner has no direct concern. That
+very responsible duty is done by a special staff of Settlement Officers,
+selected chiefly from among the Assistant Commissioners and working
+under the Commissioners and Financial Commissioners. The Director of
+Land Records, the Registrar of Co-operative Credit Societies, and in
+some branches of his work the Director of Agriculture and Industries,
+are controlled by the Financial Commissioners.
+
+~The Chief Court.~--It must be admitted that Panjábís are very litigious
+and that in some tracts they are extremely vindictive and reckless of
+human life. The volume of litigation is swollen by the fact that the
+country is one of small-holders subject as regards inheritance and other
+matters to an uncodified customary law, which may vary from tribe to
+tribe and tract to tract. A suit is to the Panjábí a rubber, the last
+game of which he will play in Lahore, if the law permits. It is not
+therefore extraordinary that the Chief Court constituted in 1865 with
+two judges has now five, and that even this number has in the past
+proved insufficient. In the same way the cadre of divisional and
+sessions judges had in 1909 to be raised from 12 to 16.
+
+~Administration of N. W. F. Province.~--In the N. W. F. Province no
+Commissioner is interposed between the district officers and the Chief
+Commissioner, under whom the Revenue Commissioner and the Judicial
+Commissioner occupy pretty much the position of the Financial
+Commissioners and the Chief Court in the Panjáb.
+
+~Departments.~--The principal departments are the Railway, Post Office,
+Telegraphs, and Accounts, under the Government of India, and Irrigation,
+Roads and Buildings, Forests, Police, Medical, and Education, under the
+Lieutenant Governor. In matters affecting the rural population, as a
+great part of the business of the Forest Department must do, the
+Conservator of Forests is subject to the control of the Financial
+Commissioners, whose relations with the Irrigation Department are also
+very intimate.
+
+~Legislative Council.~--From 1897 to 1909 the Panjáb had a local
+Legislative Council of nine nominated members, which passed a number of
+useful Acts. Under 9 Edward VII, cap. 4, an enlarged council with
+increased powers has been constituted. It consists of 24 members of whom
+eight are elected, one by the University, one by the Chamber of
+Commerce, three by groups of Municipal and cantonment committees, and
+three by groups of district boards. The other sixteen members are
+nominated by the Lieutenant Governor, and at least six of them must be
+persons not in Government service. The right of interpellation has been
+given, and also some share in shaping the financial arrangements
+embodied in the annual budget.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+ADMINISTRATION--LOCAL
+
+
+~Municipalities.~--It is matter for reflection that, while the effect of
+British administration has been to weaken self-government in villages,
+half a century of effort has failed to make it a living thing in towns
+and districts. The machinery exists, but outside a few towns the result
+is poor. The attempt was made on too large a scale, municipal
+institutions being bestowed on places which were no more than villages
+with a _bazár_. This has been partially corrected of late years. A new
+official entity, the "notified area," has been invented to suit the
+requirements of such places. While there were in 1904 139 municipalities
+and 48 notified areas, in 1911-12 the figures were 107 and 104
+respectively. Even in the latter year 32 of the municipalities had
+incomes not exceeding £1000 (Rs. 15,000). The total income of the 104
+towns was Rs. 71,41,000 (£476,000), of which Rs. 44,90,000 (£300,000)
+were derived from taxation. Nearly 90 p.c. of the taxation was drawn
+from octroi, a hardy plant which has survived much economic criticism.
+The expenditure was Rs. 69,09,000 (£461,000), of which Rs. 40,32,000
+(£269,000) fall under the head of "Public Health and Convenience." The
+incidence of taxation was Rs. 2.6 or a little over three shillings a
+head.
+
+~District Boards.~--The district boards can at present in practice only be
+treated as consultative bodies, and well handled can in that capacity
+play a useful rôle. Their income is mainly derived from the local rate,
+a surcharge of one-twelfth on the land revenue. In 1911-12 the income
+was Rs. 53,74,000 (£358,000) and the expenditure Rs. 54,44,500
+(£363,000). The local rate contributed 51 p.c. and contributions from
+Government 23 p.c. of the former figure. Public works took up 41 and
+Education about 20 p.c. of the expenditure.
+
+~Elections.~--Some of the seats in most of the municipalities and boards
+are filled by election when any one can be induced to vote. Public
+spirit is lacking and, as a rule, except when party or sectarian spirit
+is rampant, the franchise is regarded with indifference.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE
+
+
+~Financial Relations with Government of India.~--Local governments
+exercise their financial powers in strict subordination to the
+Government of India, which alone can borrow, and which requires the
+submission for its sanction of the annual provincial budgets. To ensure
+a reasonable amount of decentralization the Supreme Government has made
+financial contracts with the provinces under which they receive definite
+shares of the receipts, and are responsible for definite shares of the
+expenditure, under particular heads. The existing contract dates only
+from 1911-12 (see Table V).
+
+~Income and Expenditure.~--Excluding income from railways, post offices,
+telegraphs, salt, and sales of excise opium, which are wholly imperial,
+the revenue of the Panjáb in 1911-12 was £5,057,000 (Rs. 758,56,000), of
+which the provincial share was £2,662,200 (Rs. 399,33,000), to which
+have to be added £251,800 (Rs. 37,77,000) on account of assignments made
+by the Government of India to the province. This brought up the total to
+£2,914,000 (Rs. 437,10,000). The expenditure was £2,691,933 (Rs.
+403,79,000). This does not include £983,000 spent from loan funds on
+irrigation works, chiefly the great Triple Project. The large
+expenditure on railways is imperial. Of the gross income more than
+three-fourths is derived from the land (Land Revenue, 46 p.c.,
+Irrigation, chiefly canal water rates, 29 p.c., and Forests, 1-3/4
+p.c.). The balance consists of Excise 8-1/2 p.c., Stamps, 7 p.c., Income
+Tax over 2 p.c., and other heads 5-3/4 p.c.
+
+~Land Revenue.~--Certain items are included under the Land Revenue head
+which are no part of the assessment of the land. The real land revenue
+of the Panjáb is about £2,000,000 and falls roughly at the rate of
+eighteen pence per cultivated acre (Table II). It is not a land tax, but
+an extremely moderate quit rent. In India the ruler has always taken a
+share of the produce of the land from the persons in whom he recognised
+a permanent right to occupy it or arrange for its tillage. The title of
+the Rája to his share and the right of the occupier to hold the land he
+tilled and pass it on to his children both formed part of the customary
+law of the country. Under Indian rule the Rája's share was often
+collected in kind, and the proportion of the crop taken left the tiller
+of the soil little or nothing beyond what was needed for the bare
+support of himself and his family. What the British Government did was
+to commute the share in kind into a cash demand and gradually to limit
+its amount to a reasonable figure. The need of moderation was not
+learned without painful experience, but the Panjáb was fortunate in this
+that, except as regards the Delhi territory, the lesson had been learned
+and a reasonable system evolved in the United Provinces before the
+officers it sent to the Panjáb began the regular assessments of the
+districts of the new province. A land revenue settlement is usually made
+for a term of 20 or 30 years. Since 1860 the limit of the government
+demand has been fixed at one-half of the rental, but this figure is very
+rarely approached in practice. Between a quarter and a third would be
+nearer the mark. A large part of the land is tilled by the owners, and
+the rent of the whole has to be calculated from the data for the part,
+often not more than a third or two-fifths of the whole, cultivated by
+tenants at will. The calculation is complicated by the fact that kind
+rents consisting of a share of the crop are in most places commoner than
+cash rents and are increasing in favour. The determination of the cash
+value of the rent where the crop is shared is a very difficult task.
+There is a large margin for error, but there can be no doubt that the
+net result has almost always been undervaluation. It is probable that
+the share of the produce of the fields which the land revenue absorbs
+rarely exceeds one-seventh and is more often one-tenth or less. A clear
+proof of the general moderation of Panjáb assessments is furnished by
+the fact that in the three years ending 1910-11 the recorded prices in
+sales amounted to more than Rs. 125 per rupee of land revenue of the
+land sold, which may be taken as implying a belief on the part of
+purchasers that the landlord's rent is not double, but five or six times
+the land revenue assessment, for a man would hardly pay Rs. 125 unless
+he expected to get at least six or seven rupees annual profit.
+
+~Fluctuating Assessments.~--The old native plan of taking a share of the
+crop, though it offered great opportunity for dishonesty on both sides,
+had at least the merit of roughly adjusting the demand to the character
+of the seasons. It was slowly realized that there were parts of the
+province where the harvests were so precarious that even a very moderate
+fixed cash assessment was unsuitable. Various systems of fluctuating
+cash assessment have therefore been introduced, and one-fourth of the
+total demand is now of this character, the proportion having been
+greatly increased by the adoption of the fluctuating principle in the
+new canal colonies.
+
+~Suspensions and Remissions.~--Where fixity is retained the strain in bad
+seasons is lessened by a free use of suspensions, and, if the amounts of
+which the collection has been deferred accumulate owing to a succession
+of bad seasons, resort is had to remission.
+
+~Irrigation Income and Expenditure.~--In a normal year in the Panjáb over
+one-fourth of the total crops is matured by the help of Government
+Canals, and this proportion will soon be largely increased. In 1911-12
+the income from canals amounted to £1,474,000, and the working expenses
+to £984,000, leaving a surplus of £490,000. Nearly the whole of the
+income is derived from water rates, which represent the price paid by
+the cultivator for irrigation provided by State expenditure. The rates
+vary for different crops and on different canals. The average incidence
+may be roughly put at Rs. 4 or a little over five shillings per acre. In
+calculating the profit on canals allowance is made for land revenue
+dependent on irrigation, amounting to nearly £400,000.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83. Skeleton District Map of Panjáb.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+PANJÁB DISTRICTS AND DELHI
+
+
+~Districts and Divisions.~--The Panjáb now consists of 28 districts
+grouped in five divisions. In descriptions of districts and states
+boundaries, railways, and roads, which appear on the face of the inset
+maps, are omitted. Details regarding cultivation and crops will be found
+in Tables II, III and IV, and information as to places of note in
+Chapter XXX. The revenue figures of Panjáb districts in this chapter
+relate to the year 1911-12.
+
+~Delhi Enclave.~--On the transfer of the capital of India to Delhi part of
+the area of the old district of that name comprising 337 estates was
+removed from the jurisdiction of the Panjáb Government and brought under
+the immediate authority of the Government of India (Act No. XIII of
+1912). The remainder of the district was divided between Rohtak and
+Gurgáon, and the headquarters of the Delhi division were transferred to
+Ambála.
+
+The area of the new province is only 528 square miles, and the
+population including that of the City is estimated at 396,997. The
+cultivated area is 340 square miles, more than half of which is
+cultivated by the owners themselves. The principal agricultural tribe is
+the Hindu Játs, who are hard-working and thrifty peasant farmers. The
+land revenue is Rs. 4,00,203 (£26,680). The above figures only relate to
+the part of the enclave formerly included in the Panjáb[8]. The head of
+the administration has the title of Chief Commissioner.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84. Delhi Enclave.]
+
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+14,832 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+10,650 sq. m.
+Pop. 3,704,608;
+68 p.c. H.[9]
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 66,99,136
+= £446,609.]
+
+~The Ambála division~--includes four of the five districts of the
+South-Eastern Plains, the submontane district of Ambála, and the hill
+district of Simla. It is with the exception of Lahore the smallest
+division, but it ranks first in cultivated area and third in population.
+It is twice the size of Wales and has twice its population. The
+Commissioner is in political charge of the hill state of Sirmúr and of
+five petty states in the plains.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85. Hissár with portions of Phulkian States etc.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 5213 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+4201 sq.m.
+Pop. 804,809;
+67 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 9,76,749
+= £67,117.]
+
+~Hissár District.~--Hissár is the south-western district of the division
+and has a long common boundary with Bikaner. It is divided into five
+_tahsíls_, Hissár, Hánsi, Bhiwání, Fatehábád, and Sirsa. There are four
+natural divisions, Nálí, Bágar, Rohí, and Hariána. The overflow of the
+Ghagar, which runs through the north of the district, has transformed
+the lands on either bank into hard intractable clay, which yields
+nothing to the husbandman without copious floods. This is the Nálí. The
+Bágar is a region of rolling sand stretching along the Bikaner border
+from Sirsa to Bhiwání. In Sirsa to the east of the Bágar is a plain of
+very light reddish loam known as the Rohí, partly watered by the Sirhind
+Canal. South of the Ghagar the loam in the east of the district is
+firmer, and well adapted to irrigation, which much of it obtains from
+branches of the Western Jamna Canal. This tract is known as Hariána, and
+has given its name to a famous breed of cattle. The Government cattle
+farm at Hissár covers an area of 65 square miles. North of the Fatehábád
+_tahsíl_ and surrounded by villages belonging to the Phulkian States is
+an island of British territory called Budhláda. It belongs to the Jangal
+Des, and has the characteristic drought-resisting sandy loam and sand of
+that tract. Much of Budhláda is watered by the Sirhind Canal. Of the
+total area of the district only about 9 p.c. is irrigated. The water
+level is so far from the surface that well irrigation is usually
+impossible, and the source of irrigation is canals.
+
+Hissár suffered severely from the disorders which followed on the
+collapse of the Moghal Empire and its ruin was consummated by the
+terrible famine of 1783. The starving people died or fled and for years
+the country lay desolate. It passed into the hands of the British 20
+years later, but for another 20 years our hold on this outlying
+territory was loose and ineffective. In 1857 the troops at Hánsi,
+Hissár, and Sirsa rose and killed all the Europeans who fell into their
+hands. The Muhammadan tribes followed their example, and for a time
+British authority ceased to exist. The district was part of the Delhi
+territory transferred to the Panjáb in 1858.
+
+The rainfall is scanty, averaging 15 inches, and extremely capricious.
+No other district suffers so much from famine as Hissár. The crops are
+extraordinarily insecure, with a large surplus in a good season and
+practically nothing when the rains fail badly. They consist mainly of
+the cheap pulses and millets. With such fluctuating harvests it is
+impossible to collect the revenues with any regularity, and large sums
+have to be suspended in bad seasons.
+
+Such industries as exist are mostly in Hánsi and Bhiwání, where there
+are mills for ginning and pressing cotton. Cotton cloths tastefully
+embroidered with silk, known as _phulkárís_, are a well-known local
+product.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2248 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1815 sq. m.
+Pop. 714,834.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 16,66,364
+= £111,091.]
+
+~Rohtak~--became a British possession in 1803, but it was not till after
+the Mutiny that it was brought wholly under direct British
+administration. The old district consisted of the three _tahsíls_ of
+Rohtak, Gohána, and Jhajar, but on the breaking up of the Delhi district
+the Sonepat _tahsíl_ was added.
+
+Rohtak is practically a purely agricultural tract with large villages,
+but no towns of any importance. By far the most important agricultural
+tribe is the Hindu Játs. They are strong-bodied sturdy farmers, who keep
+fine oxen and splendid buffaloes, and live in large and well organized
+village communities. 37 p.c. of the cultivation is protected by canal
+and well irrigation, the former being by far the more important. The
+district consists mainly of a plain of good loam soil. There have been
+great canal extensions in this plain, which under irrigation is very
+fertile, yielding excellent wheat, cotton, and cane. There is a rich
+belt of well irrigation in the Jamna valley, and in the south of the
+district there are parts where wells can be profitably worked. Belts of
+uneven sandy land are found especially in the west and south. The dry
+cultivation is most precarious, for the rainfall is extremely variable.
+In the old district it averages 20 inches. But averages in a tract like
+Rohtak mean very little. The chief crops are the two millets and gram.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2264 sq.m.
+Cultd Area,
+1701 sq. m.
+Pop. 729,167.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 15,98,333
+= £106,556.]
+
+~Gurgáon~ contains six _tahsíls_, Rewárí, Gurgáon, Nuh, Firozpur,
+Palwal, and Ballabgarh. The southern part of the district projects into
+Rájputána, and in its physical and racial characteristics really belongs
+to that region.
+
+Rewárí is the only town of any importance. It has a large trade with
+Rájputána. Apart from this the interests of the district are
+agricultural. In Gurgáon the Jamna valley is for the most part narrow
+and very poor. The plain above it in the Palwal _tahsíl_ has a fertile
+loam soil and is irrigated by the Agra Canal. The Hindu Játs of this
+part of the district are good cultivators. The rest of Gurgáon consists
+mostly of sand and sandy loam and low bare hills. In Rewárí the skill
+and industry of the Hindu Ahírs have produced wonderful results
+considering that many of the wells are salt and much of the land very
+sandy. The lazy and thriftless Meos of the southern part of the district
+are a great contrast to the Ahírs. They are Muhammadans.
+
+About a quarter of the area is protected by irrigation from wells, the
+Agra Canal, and embankments or "_bands_," which catch and hold up the
+hill drainages. Owing to the depth and saltness of many of the wells the
+cultivation dependent on them is far from secure, and the "_band_"
+irrigation is most precarious. The large dry area is subject to
+extensive and complete crop failures. The average rainfall over a series
+of years is 24 inches, but its irregularities from year to year are
+extreme. The district is a poor one, and for its resources bears the
+heaviest assessment in the Panjáb. It requires the most careful revenue
+management. There are brine wells at Sultánpur, but the demand for the
+salt extracted is now very small.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3153 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1744 sq. m.
+Pop. 799,787;
+70 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 12,92,620
+=£86,175.]
+
+~Karnál~ is midway in size between Rohtak and Hissár. One-third of the
+cultivation is now protected by irrigation, two-fifths of the irrigation
+being from wells and three-fifths from the Western Jamna Canal. There
+are four _tahsíls_, Thanesar, Karnál, Kaithal, and Pánipat. The
+peasantry consists mostly of hardworking Hindu Játs, but there are also
+many Hindu and Muhammadan Rájput villages. The chief towns are Pánipat,
+Karnál, and Kaithal.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 88._]
+
+The district falls broadly into two divisions, the boundary between them
+being the southern limit of the floods of the Sarustí in years of heavy
+rainfall. The marked features of the northern division is the effect
+which the floods of torrents of intermittent flow, the Sarustí,
+Márkanda, Umla, and Ghagar have on agriculture. Some tracts are included
+like the Andarwár and the outlying villages of the Powádh[10] in Kaithal
+which are fortunately unaffected by inundation, and have good well
+irrigation. The country between the Umla and Márkanda in Thanesar gets
+rich silt deposits and is generally fertile. The Kaithal Nailí is the
+tract affected by the overflow of the Sarustí, Umla, and Ghagar. It is a
+wretched fever-stricken region where a short lived race of weakly people
+reap precarious harvests. The southern division is on the whole a much
+better country. It includes the whole of Karnál and Pánipat, the south
+of Kaithal, and a small tract in the extreme east of the Thanesar
+_tahsíl_. North of Karnál the Jamna valley or Khádir is unhealthy and
+has in many parts a poor soil. South of Karnál it is much better in
+every respect. Above the Khádir is the Bángar, a plain of good loam.
+North of Karnál its cultivation is protected by wells and the people are
+in fair circumstances. South of that town it is watered by the Western
+Jamna Canal. Another slight rise brings one to the Nardak of the Karnál
+and Kaithal _tahsíls_. Till the excavation of the Sirsa branch of the
+Western Jamna Canal and of the Nardak Distributary much of the Nardak
+was covered with _dhák_ jangal, and the cultivation was of the most
+precarious nature, for in this part of the district the rainfall is both
+scanty and capricious, and well cultivation is only possible in the
+north. The introduction of canal irrigation has effected an enormous
+change. Wheat and gram are the great crops.
+
+Historically Karnál is one of the most interesting districts. The Nardak
+is the scene of the great struggle celebrated in the Mahábhárata. The
+district contains the holy city of Thanesar, once the capital of a great
+Hindu kingdom. It has found climate a more potent instrument of ruin
+than the sword of Mahmúd of Ghazní, who sacked it in 1014. It still on
+the occasion of Eclipse fairs attracts enormous crowds of pilgrims.
+Pihowa is another very sacred place. Naráina, a few miles to the
+north-west of Karnál, was the scene of two famous fights[11], and three
+times, in 1526, 1556, and 1761, the fate of India was decided at
+Pánipat.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1851 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1174 sq. m.
+Pop. 689,970.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 11,47,688
+= £76,513]
+
+~Ambála~ is a submontane district of very irregular
+shape. It includes two small hill tracts,
+Morní and Kasaulí. There is little irrigation,
+for in most parts the rainfall is ample.
+Wheat is the chief crop. The population
+has been declining in the past 20 years.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 89.]
+
+The only town of importance is Ambála. Jagádhrí is a busy little place
+now connected through private enterprise by a light railway with the N.
+W. Railway. The district consists of two parts almost severed from one
+another physically and wholly different as regards people, language, and
+agricultural prosperity. The Rúpar subdivision in the north-west beyond
+the Ghagar has a fertile soil, and, except in the Nálí, as the tract
+flooded by the Ghagar is called, a vigorous Ját peasantry, whose native
+tongue is Panjábí. The three south-eastern _tahsíls_, Ambála,
+Naráingarh, and Jagádhrí, are weaker in every respect. The loam is often
+quite good, but interspersed with it are tracts of stubborn clay largely
+put under precarious rice crops. The Játs are not nearly so good as
+those of Rúpar, and Rájputs, who are mostly Musulmáns, own a large
+number of estates.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 101 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+15 sq. m.
+Pop. in Feb.
+1911, 39,320.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 17,484
+= £1166.]
+
+Simla consists of three little tracts in the hills known as Bharaulí,
+Kotkhai, and Kotgarh, and of patches of territory forming the
+cantonments of Dagshai, Subáthu, Solon, and Jutogh, the site of the
+Lawrence Military School at Sanáwar, and the great hill station of
+Simla. Bharaulí lies south-west of Simla in the direction of Kasaulí.
+Kotkhai is in the valley of the Girí, a tributary of the Jamna. Kotgarh
+is on the Sutlej and borders on the Bashahr State. The Deputy
+Commissioner of Simla is also Superintendent or Political Officer of 28
+hill states.
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+19,934 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+7762 sq. m.
+Pop. 3,967,724.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 61,64,172
+= £410,945.]
+
+~Jalandhar Division.~--More than half the area of the Jalandhar division
+is contributed by the huge district of Kángra, which stretches from the
+Plains to the lofty snowy ranges on the borders of Tibet. The other
+districts are Hoshyárpur in the submontane zone, Jalandhar and Ludhiána,
+which belong to the Central Plains, and Ferozepore, which is part of the
+South-Eastern Panjáb. Sikhs are more numerous than in any other
+division, but are outnumbered by both Hindus and Muhammadans. The
+Commissioner has political charge of the hill states of Mandí and Suket
+and of Kapúrthala in the Plains.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 9878 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+918 sq. m.
+Pop. 770,386;
+94 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 9,26,661
+= £61,777.]
+
+~Kángra~ is the largest district in the Panjáb. It includes three tracts
+of very different character:
+
+(_a_) Spití and Lahul, area exceeding 4400 square miles, forming part of
+Tibet;
+
+(_b_) Kulu and Saráj;
+
+(_c_) Kángra proper, area 2939 square miles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90.]
+
+Lahul, Spití, Kulu, and Saráj form a subdivision in charge of an
+Assistant Commissioner. The people of Kángra are Hindus. Islám never
+penetrated into these hills as a religion, though the Rájput Rájas of
+Kángra became loyal subjects of the Moghal Emperors. In its last days
+Ranjít Singh called in as an ally against the Gurkhas remained as a
+hated ruler. The country was ceded to the British Government in 1846.
+The Rájas were chagrined that we did not restore to them their royal
+authority, but only awarded them the status of _jagírdárs_. An outbreak,
+which was easily suppressed, occurred in 1848. Since then Kángra has
+enjoyed 65 years of peace. A Gurkha regiment is stationed at the
+district headquarters at Dharmsála. The cultivation ranges from the rich
+maize and rice fields of Kulu and Kángra to the poor buckwheat and
+_kulath_ on mountain slopes. Rice is irrigated by means of _kuhls_,
+ingeniously constructed channels to lead the water of the torrents on to
+the fields.
+
+~Spití and Lahul.~--Spití, or rather Pití, is a country of great rugged
+mountains, whose bare red and yellow rocks rise into crests of
+everlasting snow showing clear under a cloudless blue sky. There is no
+rain, but in winter the snowfall is heavy. The highest of the mountains
+exceeds 23,000 feet. Pití is drained by the river of the same name,
+which after passing through Bashahr falls I into the Sutlej at an
+elevation of 11,000 feet. Of the few villages several stand at a height
+of from 13,000 to 14,000 feet. The route to Pití from Kulu passes over
+the Hamtu Pass (14,200 feet) and the great Shigrí glacier. The people
+are Buddhists. They are governed by their hereditary ruler or Nono
+assisted by five elders, the Assistant Commissioner exercising a general
+supervision. Indian laws do not apply to the sparse population of this
+remote canton, which has a special regulation of its own. Lahul lies to
+the west of Pití, from which it is separated by a lofty range. It is
+entered from Kulu by the Rotang Pass (13,000 feet) and the road from it
+to Ladákh passes over the Baralácha (16,350 feet). The whole country is
+under snow from December to April, but there is very little rain. The
+two streams, the Chandra and Bhága, which unite to form the Chenáb, flow
+through Lahul and the few villages are situated at a height of 10,000
+feet in their elevated valleys. The people are Buddhists. In summer the
+population is increased by "Gaddí" shepherds from Kángra, who drive lean
+flocks in the beginning of June over the Rotang and take them back from
+the Alpine pastures in the middle of September fat and well liking.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91. Biás at Manálí.]
+
+~Kulu and Saráj.~--The Kulu Valley, set in a mountain frame and with the
+Biás, here a highland stream, running through the heart of it, is one of
+the fairest parts of the Panjáb Himálaya. Manálí, at the top of the
+Valley on the road to the Rotang, is a very beautiful spot. Kulu is
+connected with Kángra through Mandí by the Babbu and Dulchí passes. The
+latter is generally open the whole year round. The headquarters are at
+Sultánpur, but the Assistant Commissioner lives at Nagar. In Kulu the
+cultivation is often valuable and the people are well off. The climate
+is good and excellent apples and pears are grown by European settlers.
+Inner and outer Saráj are connected by the Jalaori Pass on the watershed
+of the Sutlej and Biás. Saráj is a much rougher and poorer country than
+Kulu. There are good _deodár_ forests in the Kulu subdivision. In 1911
+the population of Kulu, Saráj, Lahul, and Pití, numbered 124,803. The
+Kulu people are a simple folk in whose primitive religion local godlings
+of brass each with his little strip of territory take the place of the
+Brahmanic gods. It is a quaint sight to see their ministers carrying
+them on litters to the fair at Sultánpur, where they all pay their
+respects to a little silver god known as Raghunáthjí, who is in a way
+their suzerain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92. Religious Fair in Kulu.]
+
+Kángra proper is bounded on the north by the lofty wall of the Dhaula
+Dhár and separated from Kulu by the mountains of Bara Bangáhal. It
+consists of the five _tahsíls_ of Kángra, Palampur, Nurpur, Dera, and
+Hamírpur. The first two occupy the rich and beautiful Kángra Valley.
+They are separated from the other three _tahsíls_ by a medley of low
+hills with a general trend from N.W. to S.E. They are drained by the
+Biás, and are much more broken and poorer than the Kángra Valley. The
+tea industry, once important, is now dead so far as carried on by
+English planters. The low hills have extensive _chír_ pine forests. They
+have to be managed mainly in the interests of the local population, and
+are so burdened with rights that conservation is a very difficult
+problem. In 1911 the population of the five _tahsíls_ amounted to
+645,583. The most important tribes are Brahmans, Rájputs, and
+hardworking Gírths. The hill Brahman is usually a farmer pure and
+simple.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93. Kulu Women.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2247 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1128 sq. m.
+Pop. 918,569;
+54 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 14,22,527
+= £494,835.]
+
+~Hoshyárpur~ became a British possession in 1846 after the first Sikh
+War. It is a typically submontane district. A line of low bare hills
+known as the Solasinghí Range divides it from Kángra. Further west the
+Katár dhár, a part of the Siwáliks, runs through the heart of the
+district. Between these two ranges lies the fertile Jaswan Dun
+corresponding to the Una _tahsíl_. The other three _tahsíls_,
+Garhshankar, Hoshyárpur, and Dasúya, are to the west of the Katár dhár.
+Una is drained by the Soan, a tributary of the Sutlej. The western
+_tahsíls_ have a light loam soil of great fertility, except where it has
+been overlaid by sand from the numerous _chos_ or torrents which issue
+from the Siwáliks. The denudation of that range was allowed to go on for
+an inordinate time with disastrous results to the plains below. At last
+the Panjáb Land Preservation (_Chos_) Act II of 1890 gave the Government
+power to deal with the evil, but it will take many years to remedy the
+mischief wrought by past inaction. The rainfall averages about 32 inches
+and the crops are secure. The population has fallen off by 93,000 in 20
+years, a striking instance of the ravages of plague. The chief tribes
+are Játs, Rájputs, and Gújars.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1431 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1069 sq. m.
+Pop. 801,920;
+45 p.c. M.
+33 p.c. H.
+22 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 14,77,661
+= £98,511.]
+
+~Jalandhar District.~--Modern though the town of Jalandhar looks it was
+the capital of a large Hindu kingdom, which included also Hoshyárpur,
+Mandí, Suket, and Chamba, and in the ninth century was a rival of
+Kashmír (page 160). The present district is with the exception of Simla
+the smallest, and for its size the richest, in the province. It contains
+four _tahsíls_, Nawashahr, Phillaur, Jalandhar, and Nakodar. About 45
+p.c. of the cultivation is protected by 28,000 wells. Behind the long
+river frontage on the Sutlej is the Bet, divided by a high bank from the
+more fertile uplands. The soil of the latter is generally an excellent
+loam, but there is a good deal of sand in the west of the district. The
+rainfall averages about 26 inches and the climate is healthy. The well
+cultivation is the best in the Panjáb. Between 1901 and 1911 the
+population declined by 13 p.c. Játs and Arains, both excellent
+cultivators, are the predominant tribes. British rule dates from 1846.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1452 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1143 sq. m.
+Pop. 517,192;
+40 p.c. S.
+35 p.c. M
+25 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 11,57,399
+= £77,160.]
+
+~Ludhiána~ on the opposite bank of the Sutlej is also a very small
+district. It consists of a river Bet and Uplands with generally speaking
+a good loam soil. But there are very sandy outlying estates in the
+Jangal Des surrounded by Patiála and Jínd villages. There are three
+_tahsíls_, Samrála, Ludhiána, and Jagráon. Of the cultivated area 26
+p.c. is irrigated, from wells (19) and from the Sirhind Canal (7). Wheat
+and gram are the principal crops. Between 1901 and 1911 the population
+fell from 673,097 to 517,192, the chief cause of decline being plague.
+
+Sturdy hard-working Játs are the backbone of the peasantry. They furnish
+many recruits to the Army. Ludhiána is a thriving town and an important
+station on the N.W. Railway. Our connection with Ludhiána began in 1809,
+and the district assumed practically its present shape in 1846 after the
+first Sikh War.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 4286 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+3504 sq. m.
+Pop. 959,657;
+44 p.c. M.
+29 p.c. H.
+27 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 11,79,924
+= £78,661.]
+
+~Ferozepore~ is a very large district. The Farídkot State nearly cuts it
+in two. The northern division includes the _tahsíls_ of Ferozepore,
+Zíra, and Moga, the last with an outlying tract known as Mahráj, which
+forms an island surrounded by the territory of several native states.
+The southern division contains the _tahsíls_ of Muktsar and Fázilka. Our
+connection with Ferozepore began in 1809, and, when the widow of the
+last Sikh chief of Ferozepore died in 1835, we assumed direct
+responsibility for the administration of a considerable part of the
+district. Two of the great battles of the first Sikh War, Mudkí and
+Ferozesháh or more properly Pherushahr, were fought within its borders.
+Mamdot with an area of about 400 square miles ceased to be independent
+in 1855, but the descendant of the last ruler still holds it in _jagír_.
+Fázilka was added in 1864 when the Sirsa district was broken up. Of the
+cultivated area 47-1/2 p.c. is irrigated by the Sirhind Canal, the Grey
+Inundation Canals, and wells. For the most part the district is divided
+into three tracts, the riverain, Hithár or Bet, with a poor clay soil
+and a weak population, the Utár, representing river deposits of an older
+date when the Sutlej ran far west of its present bed, and the Rohí, an
+upland plain of good sandy loam, now largely irrigated by the Sirhind
+Canal. The Grey Canals furnish a far less satisfactory source of
+irrigation to villages in the Bet and Utár. In different parts of this
+huge district the rainfall varies from 10 to 22 inches. The chief crops
+are gram and wheat. The Játs are the chief tribe. In the Uplands they
+are a fine sturdy race, but unfortunately they are addicted to strong
+drink, and violent crime is rife. Ferozepore has a large cantonment and
+arsenal and a big trade in grain. It is an important railway junction.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+12,387 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+7924 sq. m.
+Pop 4,656,629;
+57 p.c. M.
+24 p.c. H.
+16 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 70,53,856
+= £470,257.]
+
+~Lahore Division.~--Lahore is the smallest division, but the first in
+population. Its political importance is great as the home of the Sikhs
+of the Mánjha, and because the capital of the province and the sacred
+city of the _Khálsa_ are both within its limits. It contains the five
+districts of Gurdáspur, Siálkot, Gujránwála, Lahore, and Amritsar. The
+Commissioner is in political charge of the Chamba State.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1809 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1281 sq. m.
+Pop. 836,771;
+49 p.c. M.
+34 p.c. H.
+14-1/2 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 17,68,412
+= £117,894.]
+
+~Gurdáspur~ is a submontane district with a good rainfall and a large
+amount of irrigation. The crops are secure except in part of the
+Shakargarh _tahsíl_. 27 p.c. of the cultivated area is irrigated, 16 by
+wells and 11 by the Upper Bárí Doáb Canal. Irrigation is only allowed
+from the Canal for the Autumn harvest. The chief crop is wheat and the
+area under cane is unusually large. Of late years plague has been very
+fatal and the population fell from 940,334 in 1901 to 836,771 in 1911.
+Játs, Rájputs, Arains, Gújars, and Brahmans, are the chief agricultural
+tribes, the first being by far the most important element. There are
+four _tahsíls_, Batála, Gurdáspur, and Pathánkot in the Bárí Doáb, and
+Shakargarh to the west of the Ráví. Batála is one of the most fertile
+and prosperous tracts in the Panjáb and Gurdáspur is also thriving.
+Pathánkot is damp, fever stricken, and unprosperous. It lies mostly in
+the plains but contains a considerable area in the low hills and higher
+up two enclaves, Bakloh and Dalhousie, surrounded by Chamba villages.
+Shakargarh is much more healthy, and is better off than Pathánkot. There
+is good duck and snipe shooting to be got in some parts of the district,
+as the drainage from the hills collects in swamps and _jhíls_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99.]
+
+Area, 1991 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1427 sq. m.
+Pop. 979,553;
+62 p.c. M.
+25 p.c. H.
+ 8 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 14,79,390
+= £98,626.
+
+~Siálkot~ is another secure and fully cultivated submontane district. It
+lies wholly in the Rechna Doáb and includes a small well-watered hilly
+tract, Bajwát, on the borders of Jammu. The Ráví divides Siálkot from
+Amritsar an the Chenáb separates it from Gujrát. The Degh and some
+smaller torrents run through the district. In the south there is much
+hard sour clay, part hitherto unculturable. But irrigation from the
+Upper Chenáb Canal will give a new value to it. There are five
+_tahsíls_, Zafarwál, Siálkot, Daska, Pasrúr, and Raya. The chief crop is
+wheat which is largely grown on the wells, numbering 22,000. The
+pressure of the population on the soil was considerable, but since 1891
+the total has fallen from 1,119,847 to 979,553 as the result of plague
+and emigration to the new canal colonies. Christianity has obtained a
+considerable number of converts in Siálkot. The Játs form the backbone
+of the peasantry. Rájputs and Arains are also important tribes, but
+together they are not half as numerous as the Játs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 4802 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+2166 sq. m.
+Pop. 923,419.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 15,43,440
+= £102,896.]
+
+~Gujránwála~ is a very large district in the Rechna Doáb, with five
+_tahsíls_, Wazírábád, Gujránwála, Sharakpur, Háfizábád, and Khángáh
+Dográn. The rainfall varies from 20 inches on the Siálkot border to ten
+or eleven in the extreme south-west corner of the district. Gujránwála
+is naturally divided into three tracts: the Riverain of the Ráví and
+Chenáb, the Bángar or well tract, and the Bár once very partially
+cultivated, but now commanded by the Lower and Upper Chenáb Canals.
+Enormous development has taken place in the Háfizábád and Khángáh Dográn
+_tahsíls_ in the 20 years since the Lower Chenáb Canal was opened. Of
+late years the rest of the district has suffered from plague and
+emigration, and has not prospered. But a great change will be effected
+by irrigation from the Upper Chenáb Canal, which is just beginning. In
+the east of the district much sour clay will become culturable land, and
+the Bár will be transformed as in the two _tahsíls_ watered by the older
+canal. Of the cultivated area 73-1/2 p.c. is irrigated, 36-1/2 from
+wells and 37 from canals. The chief crops are wheat and gram. There is,
+as is usual in the Western Panjáb, a great preponderance of Spring
+crops. The Játs are far and away the strongest element in the
+population.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1601 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1184 sq. m.
+Pop. 880,728;
+46 p.c. M.
+29 p.c. S.
+24 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 12,70,799
+= £84,720.]
+
+~Amritsar~ is a small district lying in the Bárí Doáb between Gurdáspur
+and Lahore. 62 p.c. of the cultivated area is irrigated, half from
+12,000 wells and half from the Upper Bárí Doáb Canal. Unfortunately much
+waterlogging exists, due to excessive use of canal water and defective
+drainage. Measures are now being taken to deal with this great evil,
+which has made the town of Amritsar and other parts of the district
+liable to serious outbreaks of fever. There are two small riverain
+tracts on the Biás and Ráví and a poor piece of country in Ajnála
+flooded by the Sakkí. The main part of the district is a monotonous
+plain of fertile loam. The two western _tahsíls_, Amritsar and Tarn
+Táran, are prosperous, Ajnála is depressed. The rainfall is moderate
+averaging 21 or 22 inches, and the large amount of irrigation makes the
+harvests secure. The chief crops are wheat and gram.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101.]
+
+The Sikh Játs of the Mánjha to the south of the Grand Trunk Road form by
+far the most important element in the population. Between 1901 and 1911
+there was a falling off from 1,023,828 to 880,728. Besides its religious
+importance the town of Amritsar is a great trade centre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2824 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1866 sq. m.
+Pop. 1,036,158.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 991,815
+= £66,121.]
+
+~Lahore~ lies in the Bárí Doáb to the south-west of Amritsar. It is a
+much larger district, though, like Amritsar, it has only three
+_tahsíls_, Lahore, Kasúr, and Chúnian. 76 p.c. of the cultivated area is
+irrigated, 23 from wells and 53 from canals. There has been an enormous
+extension of irrigation from the Upper Bárí Doáb Canal in the past 30
+years. Accordingly, though the rainfall is somewhat scanty, the crops
+are generally secure. The principal are wheat and gram. The district
+consists of the Riverain on the Biás and Ráví, the latter extending to
+both sides of the river, and the plain of the Mánjha, largely held by
+strong and energetic Sikh Játs. In the Ráví valley industrious Arains
+predominate. Railway communications are excellent. Trade activity is not
+confined to the city of Lahore. Kasúr, Chúnian, and Raiwind are
+important local centres.
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+21,361 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+8099 sq.m.
+Pop. 3,353,052;
+87 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 50,43,587
+= £336,239.]
+
+The ~Ráwalpindí Division~ occupies the N.W. of the Panjáb. It is in area
+the second largest division, but in population the smallest. Five-sixths
+of the people profess the faith of Islam. It includes six districts,
+Gujrát, Jhelam, Ráwalpindi, Attock, Mianwálí, and Sháhpur. This is the
+division from which the Panjáb Musalmáns, who form so valuable an
+element in our army, are drawn.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2357 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1369 sq. m.
+Pop. 784,011.
+Land Rev.
+Ra. 887,220
+= £59,148.]
+
+~Gujrát~ lies in the Jech Doáb. The two northern _tahsíls_, Gujrát and
+Kharián, have many of the features of a submontane tract. In the former
+the Pabbí, a small range of low bare hills, runs parallel to the Jhelam,
+and the outliers of the Himálaya in Kashmír are not far from the
+northern border of the district. The uplands of these two _tahsíls_
+slope pretty rapidly from N.E. to S.W., and contain much light soil.
+They are traversed by sandy torrents, dry in winter, but sometimes very
+destructive in the rains. Phália on the other hand is a typical plain's
+_tahsíl_. It has on the Chenáb a wide riverain, which also separates the
+uplands of the Gujrát _tahsíl_ from that river. The Jhelam valley is
+much narrower. Above the present Chenáb alluvial tract there is in
+Phália a well tract known as the Hithár whose soil consists of older
+river deposits, and at a higher level a Bár, which will now receive
+irrigation from the Upper Jhelam Canal and become a rich agricultural
+tract. 26 p.c. of the cultivated area is irrigated from wells. Játs and
+Gújars are the great agricultural tribes, the former predominating. The
+climate is mild and the rainfall sufficient. The chief crops are wheat
+and _bájra_.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2813 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1162 sq. m.
+Pop. 511,575;
+88 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Ra. 752,758
+= £50,183.]
+
+The ~Jhelam district~ lies to the north of the river of the same name.
+The district is divided into three _tahsíls_, Jhelam, Chakwál, Pind
+Dádan Khán. The river frontage is long, extending for about 80 miles,
+and the river valley is about eight miles wide. The district contains
+part of the Salt Range, from the eastern end of which the Nílí and Tilla
+spurs strike northwards, enclosing very broken ravine country called the
+Khuddar. The Pabbí tract, embracing the Chakwál _tahsíl_ and the north
+of the Jhelam _tahsíl_, is much less broken, though it too is scored by
+deep ravines and traversed by torrents, mostly flowing north-west into
+the Sohán river. Two large torrents, the Kahá and the Bunhár, drain into
+the Jhelam. There are some fertile valleys enclosed in the bare hills of
+the Salt Range. The average rainfall is about 20 inches and the climate
+is good. It is hot in summer, but the cold weather is long, and
+sometimes for short periods severe. There is little irrigation and the
+harvests are by no means secure. The chief crops are wheat and _bájra_.
+The country breeds fine horses, fine cattle, and fine men. Numerically
+Játs, Rájputs, and Awáns are the principal tribes, but the Janjuas and
+Gakkhars, though fewer in number, are an interesting element in the
+population, having great traditions behind them. Awáns, Janjuas, and
+Gakkhars supply valuable recruits to the army. Most of the villages are
+far from any railway.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2010 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+937 sq. m.
+Pop. 547,827;
+83 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 674,650
+= £44,977.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105.]
+
+~Ráwalpindí~ is the smallest district in the division. Along the whole
+eastern border the Jhelam, which runs in a deep gorge, divides it from
+Kashmír. There are four _tahsíls_, Murree, Kahúta, Ráwalpindí, and Gújar
+Khán. The first is a small wedge of mountainous country between Kashmír
+and Hazára. The hills are continued southwards at a lower level in the
+Kahúta _tahsíl_ parallel with the Jhelam. The greater part of the
+district consists of a high plateau of good light loam, in parts much
+eaten into by ravines. Where, as often happens, it is not flat the
+fields have to be carefully banked up. The plateau is drained by the
+Sohán and the Kánshí. The latter starting in the south of Kahúta runs
+through the south-east of the Gújar Khán _tahsíl_, and for some miles
+forms the boundary of the Ráwalpindí and Jhelam districts. The district
+is very fully cultivated except in the hills. In the plains the rainfall
+is sufficient and the soil very cool and clean, except in the extreme
+west, where it is sometimes gritty, and, while requiring more, gets
+less, rain. The chief crops are wheat, the _Kharíf_ pulses and _bájra_.
+The climate is good. The cold weather is long, and, except in January
+and February, when the winds from the snows are very trying, it is
+pleasant. In the plains the chief tribes are Rájputs and Awáns. Gakkhars
+are of some importance in Kahúta. In the Murree the leading tribes are
+the Dhúnds and the Sattís, the latter a fine race, keen on military
+service.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106. Shop in Murree Bazár.]
+
+~Ráwalpindí~ is the largest cantonment in Northern India. From it the
+favourite hill station of Murree is easily reached, and soon after
+leaving Murree the traveller crosses the Jhelam by the Kohála bridge and
+enters the territory of the Mahárája of Kashmír.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 4025 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1678 sq. m.
+Pop. 519,273;
+91 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 672,851
+=£44,857.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107.]
+
+~Attock district.~--Though Attock is twice the size of Ráwalpindí it has
+a smaller population. Nature has decreed that it should be sparsely
+peopled. The district stretches from the Salt Range on the south to the
+Hazára border on the north. It contains itself the fine Kálachitta range
+in the north, the small and barren Khairí Múrat range in the centre, and
+a line of bare hills running parallel with the Indus in the west. That
+river forms the western boundary for 120 miles, dividing Attock from
+Pesháwar and Kohát. It receives in the Attock district two tributaries,
+the Haro and the Soán. There are four _tahsíls_, Attock, Fatehjang,
+Pindigheb, and Talagang. The northern _tahsíl_ of Attock is most
+favoured by nature. It contains the Chach plain, part of which has a
+rich soil and valuable well irrigation, also on the Hazára border a
+small group of estates watered by cuts from the Haro. The south of the
+_tahsíl_ is partly sandy and partly has a dry gritty or stony soil. Here
+the crops are very insecure. The rest of the district is a plateau. The
+northern part consists of the _tahsíls_ of Fatehjang and Pindigheb
+drained by the Soán and its tributary the Sil. The southern is occupied
+by _tahsíl_ Talagang, a rough plateau with deep ravines and torrents
+draining northwards into the Soán. In the valleys of the Sil and Soán
+some good crops are raised. The soil of the plateau is very shallow, and
+the rainfall being scanty the harvest is often dried up. The chief crops
+are wheat and _bájra_. Awáns form the bulk of the agricultural
+population.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 5395 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1020 sq. m.
+Pop. 341,377;
+88 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 359,836
+= £23,989.]
+
+~Mianwálí~ is one of the largest districts, but has the smallest
+population of any except Simla. The Indus has a course of about 180
+miles in Mianwálí. In the north it forms the boundary between the
+Mianwálí _tahsíl_ and the small Isakhel _tahsíl_ on the right bank. In
+the south it divides the huge Bhakkar _tahsíl_, which is bigger than an
+average district, from the Dera Ismail Khán district of the N.W.F.
+Province. It is joined from the west by the Kurram, which has a short
+course in the south of the Isakhel _tahsíl_. The Salt Range extends into
+the district, throwing off from its western extremity a spur which runs
+north to the Indus opposite Kálabágh. Four tracts may be distinguished,
+two large and two small. North and east of the Salt Range is the Khuddar
+or ravine country, a little bit of the Awánkárí or Awán's land, which
+occupies a large space in Attock. West of the Indus in the north the
+wild and desolate Bhangí-Khel glen with its very scanty and scattered
+cultivation runs north to the Kohát Hills. The rest of the district
+consists of the wide and flat valley of the Indus and the Thal or
+Uplands. In the north the latter includes an area of strong thirsty
+loam, but south of the railway it is a huge expanse of sand rising
+frequently into hillocks and ridges with some fertile bottoms of better
+soil. Except in the north the Thal people used to make their living
+almost entirely as shepherds and camel owners. There were scattered
+little plots of better soil where wells were sunk, and the laborious and
+careful cultivation was and is Dutch in its neatness. Some millets were
+grown in the autumn and the sandhills yielded melons. The people have
+now learned that it is worth while to gamble with a spring crop of gram,
+and this has led to an enormous extension of the cultivated area. But
+even now in Mianwálí this is a comparatively small fraction of the total
+area. There is a small amount of irrigation from wells and in the
+neighbourhood of Isakhel from canal cuts from the Kurram. Owing to the
+extreme scantiness of the rainfall the riverain depends almost entirely
+on the Indus floods, to assist the spread of which a number of
+embankments are maintained. Everywhere in Mianwálí the areas both of
+crops sown and of crops that ripen fluctuate enormously, and much of the
+revenue has accordingly been put on a fluctuating basis. The chief crops
+are wheat, _bájra_, and gram. Jats[12] are in a great majority
+Cis-Indus, but Patháns are important in Isakhel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 4791 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1933 sq. m.
+Pop. 648,989.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 16,96,272
+= £113,085.]
+
+~Sháhpur~ is also a very large district with the three _tahsíls_ of
+Bhera, Sháhpur, and Sargodha in the Jech Doáb, and on the west of the
+Jhelam the huge Khusháb _tahsíl_, which in size exceeds the other three
+put together. The principal tribes are Jats Cis-Jhelam, Awáns in the
+Salt Range, and Jats and Tiwánas in Khusháb. The Tiwána Maliks have
+large estates on both sides of the river and much local influence. East
+of the Jhelam the colonization of the Bár after the opening of the Lower
+Jhelam Canal has led to a great increase of population and a vast
+extension of the cultivated area, 71 p.c. of which is irrigated. The
+part of the district in the Jech Doáb consists of the river valleys of
+the Chenáb and Jhelam, the Utár, and the Bár. The Chenáb riverain is
+poor, the Jhelam very fertile with good well irrigation. In the north of
+the district the Utár, a tract of older alluvium, lies between the
+present valley of the Jhelam and the Bár. It has hitherto been largely
+irrigated by public and private inundation canals, but this form of
+irrigation may be superseded by the excavation of a new distributary
+from the Lower Jhelam Canal. Till the opening of that canal the Bár was
+a vast grazing area with a little cultivation on scattered wells and in
+natural hollows. North of the Kirána Hill the soil is excellent and the
+country is now a sheet of cultivation. In the south of the Bár much of
+the land is too poor to be worth tillage. The Khusháb _tahsíl_ consists
+of the Jhelam riverain, the Salt Range with some fertile valleys hidden
+amid barren hills, the Mohár below the hills with a thirsty soil
+dependent on extremely precarious torrent floods, and the Thal, similar
+to that described on page 260. The rainfall of the district is scanty
+averaging eleven or twelve inches. The chief crops are wheat, _bájra_
+and _jowár_, _charí_ and cotton.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+28,652 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+9160 sq. m.
+Pop. 3,772,728;
+78 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 81,48,103
+= £542,872.]
+
+The ~Multán~ division consists of the six districts of the S.W. Panjáb,
+Montgomery, Lyallpur, Jhang, Multán, Muzaffargarh, and Dera Ghází Khán.
+Muhammadans are in an overwhelming majority. Wheat and cotton are the
+chief crops.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 4649 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1080 sq. m.
+Pop. 535,299;
+75 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 434,563
+= £28,971.]
+
+The ~Montgomery~ district takes its name from Sir Robert Montgomery
+(page 192). It lies in the Bárí Doáb between the Sutlej and the Ráví. It
+consists of the two Ráví _tahsíls_ of Gugera and Montgomery, and the two
+Sutlej _tahsíls_ of Dipálpur and Pákpattan. The trans-Ráví area of the
+Montgomery district was transferred to Lyallpur in April, 1913. It is
+included in the figures for area and population given in the margin.
+
+The backbone of the district is a high and dry tract known as the Ganjí
+or Bald Bár. The advent of the Lower Bárí Doáb Canal will entirely
+change the character of this desert. Its south-eastern boundary is a
+high bank marking the course of the old bed of the Biás. Below this is
+the wide Sutlej valley. The part beyond the influence of river floods
+depends largely on the Khánwáh and Sohág Pára inundation Canals. The
+Ráví valley to the north-west of the Bár is naturally fertile and has
+good well irrigation. But it has suffered much by the failure of the
+Ráví floods.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110.]
+
+
+The peasantry belongs largely to various tribes described vaguely as
+Játs. The most important are Káthias, Wattús, and Kharrals. The last
+gave trouble in 1857 and were severely punished. The Dipálpur Kambohs
+are much more hard-working than these semi-pastoral Játs. There is
+already a small canal colony on the Sohág Pára Canals and arrangements
+for the colonization of the Ganjí Bár are now in progress.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3156 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+2224 sq. m.
+Pop. 857,711;
+61 p.c. M.
+18 p.c. H.
+17 p.c. S.
+ 4 p.c. Ch.[13]
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 37,55,139
+= £237,009.]
+
+The ~Lyallpur district~ occupies most of the Sándal Bár, which a quarter
+of a century ago was a desert producing scrub jungle and, if rains were
+favourable, excellent grass. It was the home of a few nomad graziers.
+The area of the district, which was formed in 1904 and added to from
+time to time, has been taken out of the Crown Waste of the Jhang and
+Montgomery districts on its colonization after the opening of the Lower
+Chenáb Canal. Some old villages near the present borders of these two
+districts have been included. The colonization of the Sándal Bár has
+been noticed on pages 139-140. The figures for area and population given
+in the margin are for the district as it was before the addition of the
+trans-Ráví area of Montgomery.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111.]
+
+Lyallpur is divided into the four _tahsíls_ of Lyallpur, Járanwala,
+Samundrí, and Toba Tek Singh. It consists almost entirely of a flat
+plain of fertile loam with fringes of poor land on the eastern, western,
+and southern edges. The cultivated area is practically all canal
+irrigated. The rainfall of 10 inches does not encourage dry cultivation.
+The chief crops are wheat, the oil seed called _toria_, cotton, and
+gram. The area of the first much exceeds that of the other three put
+together. There is an enormous export of wheat and oil seeds to Karáchí.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3363 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1214 sq. m.
+Pop. 515,526;
+82 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 11,67,965
+= £77,864.]
+
+~Jhang~ now consists of a wedge of country lying between Lyallpur on the
+east and Sháhpur, Mianwálí, and Muzaffargarh on the west. It contains
+the valleys of the Chenáb and Jhelam rivers, which unite to the
+south-west of the district headquarters and flow as a single stream to
+the southern boundary. The valley of the Jhelam is pretty and fertile,
+that of the Chenáb exactly the reverse. In the west of the district part
+of the Thal is included in the boundary. The high land between the river
+valleys is much of it poor. Irrigation from the Lower Jhelam Canal is
+now available. There is a fringe of high land on the east of the Chenáb
+valley, partly commanded by the Lower Chenáb Canal. Jhang is divided
+into the three large _tahsíls_ of Jhang, Chiniot, and Shorkot. The
+rainfall is about ten inches and the summer long and very hot. The chief
+crops are wheat, _jowár_, and _charí_. The Siáls are few in number, but
+are the tribe that stands highest in rank as representing the former
+rulers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 6107 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1756 sq. m.
+Pop. 814,871;
+82 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 13,74,472
+= £91,631.]
+
+~Multán~ occupies the south of the Bárí Doáb. The Ráví flows from east
+to west across the north of the district and falls into the Chenáb
+within its boundary. The Sutlej meets the combined stream of the Jhelam,
+Chenáb, and Ráví at the south-west corner of the district.
+
+A part of the Kabírwála _tahsíl_ lies beyond the Ráví. The other four
+_tahsíls_ are Multán, Shujábád, Lodhran, and Mailsí. In a very hot
+district with an average rainfall of six inches cultivation must depend
+on irrigation or river floods. The present sources of irrigation are
+inundation canals from the Chenáb and Sutlej supplemented by well
+irrigation, and the Sidhnai Canal from the Ráví. The district consists
+of the river valleys, older alluvial tracts slightly higher than these
+valleys, but which can be reached by inundation canals[14], and the high
+central Bár, which is a continuation of the Ganjí Bár in Montgomery.
+Part of this will be served by the new Lower Bárí Doáb Canal. The
+population consists mainly of miscellaneous tribes grouped together
+under the name of Jats, the ethnological significance of which in the
+Western Panjáb is very slight. They are Muhammadans. The district is
+well served by railways.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 6052 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1163 sq. m.
+Pop. 569,461;
+87 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 873,491
+= £58,233.]
+
+~Muzaffargarh~ is with the exception of Kángra the biggest Panjáb
+district. It forms a large triangle with its apex in the south at the
+junction of the Indus and Panjnad. On the west the Indus forms the
+boundary for 180 miles. On the east Muzaffargarh has a river boundary
+with Baháwalpur and Multán, but, where it marches with Jhang, is
+separated from it by the area which that district possesses in the Sind
+Ságar Doáb. There are four _tahsíls_, Leia, Sinánwan, Muzaffargarh, and
+Alipur, the first being equal in area to a moderately sized district.
+The greater part of Leia and Sinánwan is occupied by the Thal. The
+southern tongue of the Thal extends into the Muzaffargarh _tahsíl_. The
+rest of that district is a heavily inundated or irrigated tract, the
+part above flood level being easily reached by inundation canals. Dry
+cultivation is impossible with a yearly rainfall of about six inches.
+The chief crop is wheat. In the south of the district the people live in
+frail grass huts, and when the floods are out transfer themselves and
+their scanty belongings to wooden platforms.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 5325 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1723 sq. m.
+Pop. 499,860;
+88 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 542,473
+= £36,165.]
+
+~Dera Ghází Khán district.~--When the N. W. Frontier Province was
+separated from the Panjáb, the older province retained all the
+trans-Indus country in which Biluches were the predominant tribe. The
+Panjáb therefore kept Dera Ghází Khán. It has a river frontage on the
+Indus about 230 miles in length and on the west is bounded by the
+Sulimán Range, part of which is included within the district. The Deputy
+Commissioner of Dera Ghází Khán and the Commissioner of Multán spend
+part of the hot weather at Fort Munro. The wide Indus valley is known as
+the Sindh. The tract between it and the Hills is the Pachádh. It is
+seamed by hill torrents, three of which, the Vehoa, the Sangarh, and the
+Kahá, have a thread of water even in the cold season. The heat in summer
+is extreme, and the _luh_, a moving current of hot air, claims its human
+victims from time to time. The cultivation in the Sindh depends on the
+river floods and inundation canals, helped by wells. In the Pachádh dams
+are built to divert the water of the torrents into embanked fields. The
+cultivated area is recorded as 1723 square miles, but this is enormously
+in excess of the cropped areas, for a very large part of the embanked
+area is often unsown. The encroachments of the Indus have enforced the
+transfer of the district headquarters from Dera Ghází Khán to a new town
+at Choratta. Biluches are the dominant tribe both in numbers and
+political importance. They with few exceptions belong to one or other of
+the eight organized clans or tumans, Kasránis, Sorí Lunds, Khosas,
+Laghárís, Tibbí Lunds, Gurchánís, Drishaks, and Mazárís. The most
+important clans are Mazárís, Laghárís, and Gurchánís. Care has been
+taken to uphold the authority of the chiefs. The Deputy Commissioner is
+political officer for such of the independent Biluch tribes across the
+administrative frontier as are not included in the Biluchistán Agency.
+Regular troops have all been removed from the district. The peace of the
+borderland is maintained by a tribal militia under the command of a
+British officer.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 8: Some estates lying to the east of the Jamna and belonging
+to the United Provinces have recently been added to the enclave.]
+
+[Footnote 9: H. = Hindu, M. = Muhammadan, S. = Sikh.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Not shown in map.]
+
+[Footnote 11: See page 169.]
+
+[Footnote 12: This leading tribe in the Panjáb is known as Ját in the
+Hindi-speaking Eastern districts and as Jat elsewhere.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Ch.=Christian.]
+
+[Footnote 14: There is a project for improving the water-supply of
+inundation canals in the west of the district by building a weir across
+the Chenáb below its junction with the Jhelam.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+THE PANJÁB NATIVE STATES
+
+
+1. _The Phulkian States_
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 7599 sq. m.
+Pop. 1,928,724.
+Rev.
+Rs. 118,00,000
+= £786,666.]
+
+~Phulkian States.~--The three Phulkian States of Patiála, Jínd, and
+Nábha form a political agency under the Panjáb Government. They occupy,
+with Baháwalpur and Hissár, the bulk of that great wedge of light loam
+and sand which Rájputána, physically considered, pushes northwards
+almost to the Sutlej. In the Phulkian States this consists of two
+tracts, the Powádh and the Jangal Des. The former, which occupies the
+north and north-east of their territory, possesses a light fertile loam
+soil and a very moderate natural water level, so that well irrigation is
+easy. The Jangal Des is a great tract of sandy loam and sand in the
+south-west. Water lies too deep for the profitable working of wells, but
+the harvests are far less insecure than one would suppose looking to the
+scantiness of the rainfall. The soil is wonderfully cool and
+drought-resisting. The dry cultivation consists of millets in the
+Autumn, and of gram and mixed crops of wheat or barley and gram in the
+Spring, harvest. The three states have rather more than a one-third
+share in the Sirhind Canal, their shares _inter se_ being Patiála 83·6,
+Nábha 8·8, and Jínd 7·6. Portions of the Powádh and Jangal Des are
+irrigated. In the case of the Powádh there has been in some places over
+irrigation considering how near the surface the water table is. The
+Nirwána _tahsíl_ in Patiála and the part of Jínd which lies between
+Karnál and Rohtak is a bit of the Bángar tract of the south-eastern
+Panjáb, with a strong loam soil and a naturally deep water level. The
+former receives irrigation from the Sirsa, and the latter from the
+Hánsi, branch of the Western Jamna Canal. The outlying tracts to the
+south of Rohtak and Gurgáon, acquired after the Mutiny, are part of the
+dry sandy Rájputána desert, in which the _Kharíf_ is the chief harvest,
+and the millets and gram the principal crops. In addition Patiála has an
+area of 294 square miles of territory immediately below and in the Simla
+Hills. The territory of the Phulkian States is scattered and intermixed,
+and they have islands in British districts and _vice versa_, a natural
+result of their historic origin and development.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116. Mahárája of Patiála.]
+
+Phul was the sixth in descent from Baryám, a Sidhu Ját, to whom Bábar
+gave the _Chaudhráyat_ of the wild territory to the south-west of Delhi,
+making him in effect a Lord of the Marches.
+
+_Tree showing relationship of the three Houses_.
+
+                 Phul
+                   |
+           +-------+-------------+
+        Tiloka                 Ráma
+    +------+------+              |
+Gurditta      Sukhchen     Raja Ála Singh
+    |             |          of Patiála
+    |             |
+Suratya    Raja Gajpat Singh
+    |          of Jínd
+    |
+Raja Hamír Singh
+of Nábha
+
+The century and more which elapsed between the grant and Phul's death in
+1652 were filled with continual fighting with the Bhattís. Phul's second
+son Ráma obtained from the Governor of Sírhind the _Chaudhráyat_ of the
+Jangal Des. When Ahmad Sháh defeated the Sikhs near Barnála in 1762,
+Ráma's son, Ála Singh, was one of his prisoners. He was a chief of such
+importance that his conqueror gave him the title of Rája and the right
+to coin money. But Ála Singh found it prudent to join next year in the
+capture of Sirhind. From the division of territory which followed the
+separate existence of the Phulkian States begins. The manner in which
+they came in 1809 under British protection has already been related. The
+Rája of Patiála was our ally in the Gurkha War in 1814, and received the
+Pinjaur _tahsíl_. The active loyalty displayed in 1857 was suitably
+rewarded by accessions of territory. The right of adoption was
+conferred, and special arrangements made to prevent lapse, if
+nevertheless the line in any state failed.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 5412 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+4515 sq. m.
+Pop. 1,407,659;
+40 p.c. H.
+38 p.c. S.
+22 p.c. M.
+Rev.
+Rs. 82,00,000
+=£546,666.]
+
+~Patiála~ occupies five-sevenths of the Phulkian inheritance The
+predominant agricultural tribe is the Játs, over three-fourths of whom
+are Sikhs. The cultivated area is four-fifths of the total area. Over
+one-fourth of the former is irrigated, 27 p.c. from wells, and the rest
+from the two canals. In an area extending with breaks from Simla to the
+Rájputána desert the variations of agriculture are of course extreme.
+The state is excellently served by railways.
+
+~Nizámats.~--There are five _nizámats_ or districts, Pinjaur, Amargarh,
+Karmgarh, Anáhadgarh, and Mohindargarh. Their united area is equivalent
+to that of two ordinary British districts. The Pinjaur _nizámat_ with
+headquarters at Rájpura covers only 825 square miles. Of its four
+_tahsíls_ Pinjaur contains the submontane and hill tract, part of the
+latter being quite close to Simla. The other three _tahsíls_ Rájpura,
+Bannur, and Ghanaur are in the Powádh. The Amargarh _nizámat_ with an
+area of 855 square miles comprises the three _tahsíls_ of Fatehgarh,
+Sáhibgarh, and Amargarh. The first two are rich and fertile well tracts.
+Amargarh is in the Jangal Des to the south-west of Sáhibgarh. It
+receives irrigation from the Kotla branch of the Sirhind Canal. The
+Karmgarh _nizámat_ with an area of 1835 square miles contains the four
+_tahsíls_ of Patiála, Bhawánigarh, Sunám, and Nirwána. The headquarters
+are at Bhawánigarh. The first three are partly in the Powádh, and partly
+in the Jangal Des. Nirwána is in the Bángar. There is much irrigation
+from the Sirhind and Western Jamna Canals. The Anáhadgarh _nizámat_ lies
+wholly in the Jangal Des. It has an area of 1836 square miles, and is
+divided into three _tahsíls_, Anáhadgarh, Bhikhi, and Govindgarh. The
+headquarters are at Barnála or Anáhadgarh. The Mohindarpur _nizámat_
+lies far away to the south on the borders of Jaipur and Alwar (see map
+on page 226). Its area is only 576 miles and it has two _tahsíls_,
+Mohindargarh or Kánaud and Narnaul. Kánaud is the headquarters.
+
+The history down to 1763 has already been related. Rája Ála Singh died
+in 1765 and was succeeded by his grandson Amar Singh (1765-1781), who
+was occupied in continual warfare with his brother and his neighbours,
+as became a Sikh chieftain of those days. His son, Sáhib Singh
+(1781-1813), came under British protection in 1809. Karm Singh
+(1813-1845), his successor, was our ally in the Gurkha War. Mahárája
+Narindar Singh, K.C.S.I. (1845-1862), was a wise and brave man, who gave
+manful and most important help in 1857. His son, Mahárája Mohindar Singh
+(1862-1876), succeeded at the age of ten and died 14 years later. His
+eldest son, Mahárája Rajindar Singh (1876-1900), was only four when he
+succeeded and died at the age of 28. Another long minority, that of the
+present Mahárája Bhupindar Singh, only came to an end a few years ago.
+In the last fifty years Patiála has in consequence of three minorities
+been governed, and as a rule successfully governed, for long periods by
+Councils of Regency. The State in 1879 sent a contingent of 1100 men to
+the Afghán War. It maintains an Imperial Service Force consisting of two
+fine regiments of infantry and one of cavalry. Mahárája Rajindar Singh
+went with one of these regiments to the Tirah Expedition.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1259 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1172 sq. m.
+Pop. 248,887;
+78 p.c. H. and J.[15]
+14 p.c. M.
+ 8 p.c. S.
+Rev.
+Rs. 19,00,000
+= £126,666.]
+
+~Jínd.~--A third of the population of Jínd consists of Hindu and Sikh
+Játs. There are two _nizámats_, Sangrúr and Jínd, the latter divided
+into the _tahsíls_ of Jínd and Dádrí (map on page 226). The Sangrúr
+villages are interspersed among those of the other Phulkian States, and
+form a part of the Jangal Des. Jínd is in the Bángar, and Dádrí,
+separated from Jínd by the Rohtak district, is partly in Hariána and
+partly in the sandy Rájputána desert. The rainfall varies from 17 inches
+at Sangrúr to ten inches at Dádrí. Sangrúr is irrigated by the Sirhind,
+and Jínd by the Western Jamna, Canal. Dádrí is a dry sandy tract, in
+which the Autumn millets are the chief crop. The revenue in 1911-12 was
+19 _lákhs_ (£126,700). For imperial service Jínd keeps up a fine
+battalion of infantry 600 strong. The real founder of the state was
+Gajpat Singh, who was a chief of great vigour. He conquered Jínd and in
+1774 deprived his relative, the chief of Nábha, of Sangrúr. He died in
+1789. His successor, Rája Bhág Singh, was a good ally of the British
+Government. He died after a long and successful career in 1819. His son,
+Fateh Singh, only survived him by three years. Sangat Singh succeeded to
+troublous times and died childless in 1834. His second cousin, Rája
+Sarúp Singh, was only allowed to inherit the territory acquired by
+Gajpat Singh, from whom he derived his claim. But the gallant and
+valuable services rendered by Rája Sarúp Singh in 1857 enabled him to
+enlarge his State by the grant of the Dádrí territory and of thirteen
+villages near Sangrúr. He died in 1864. His son Raghubír Singh
+(1864-1887) was a vigorous and successful ruler. He gave loyal help in
+the Kúka outbreak and in the Second Afghán War. His grandson, the
+present Mahárája Ranbir Singh, K.C.S.I., was only eight when he
+succeeded, and Jínd was managed by a Council of Regency for a number of
+years. Full powers were given to the chief in 1899.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117. Mahárája of Jínd.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 928 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+806 sq. m.
+Pop. 248,887;
+51 p.c. H. and J.
+31 p.c. S.
+18 p.c. M.
+Rev.
+Rs. 17,00,000
+= £113,300.]
+
+~Nábha~ consists of twelve patches of territory in the north scattered
+among the possessions of Patiála, Jínd, and Farídkot, and two other
+patches in the extreme south on the border of Gurgáon. The northern
+section of the state is divided into the eastern _nizámat_ of Amloh in
+the Powádh and the western _nizámat_ of Phul in the Jangal Des. Both now
+receive irrigation from the Sirhind Canal. The Báwal _nizámat_ is part
+of the arid Rájputána desert. Játs, who are mostly Sikhs, constitute 30
+p.c. of the population.
+
+The State is well served by railways, Nábha itself being on the
+Rájpura-Bhatinda line. The Mahárája maintains a battalion of infantry
+for imperial service. Hamír Singh, one of the chiefs who joined in the
+capture of Sirhind, may be considered the first Rája. He died in 1783
+and was succeeded by his young son, Jaswant Singh. When he grew to
+manhood Jaswant Singh proved a very capable chief and succeeded in
+aggrandising his State, which he ruled for 57 years. His son, Deoindar
+Singh (1840--47), was deposed, as he was considered to have failed to
+support the British Government when the Khalsa army crossed the Sutlej
+in 1845. A fourth of the Nábha territory was confiscated. Bharpur Singh,
+who became chief in 1857, did excellent service at that critical time,
+and the Báwal _nizámat_ was his reward. He was succeeded by his brother,
+Bhagwán Singh, in 1863. With Bhagwán Singh the line died out in 1871,
+but under the provisions of the _sanad_ granted after the Mutiny a
+successor was selected from among the Badrúkhan chiefs in the person of
+the late Mahárája Sir Hira Singh. No choice could have been more happy.
+Hira Singh for 40 years ruled his State on old fashioned lines with much
+success. Those who had the privilege of his friendship will not soon
+forget the alert figure wasted latterly by disease, the gallant bearing,
+or the obstinate will of a Sikh chieftain of a type now departed. His
+son, Mahárája Ripudaman Singh, succeeded in 1911.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118. Mahárája Sir
+Hira Singh.]
+
+
+2. _Other Sikh States_
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 630 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+424 sq. m.
+Pop. 268,163.
+Rev.
+Rs. 14,00,000
+= £93,333,
+exclusive of
+Rs. 13,00,000
+= £86,666
+derived from the
+Oudh estates.]
+
+~Kapúrthala.~--The main part consists of a strip of territory mostly in
+the valley of the Biás, and interposed between that river and Jalandhar.
+This is divided into the four _tahsíls_ of Bholath, Dhilwan, Kapúrthala,
+and Sultánpur. There is a small island of territory in Hoshyárpur, and a
+much larger one, the Phagwára _tahsíl_, projecting southwards from the
+border of that district into Jalandhar. Two-thirds of the area is
+cultivated and the proportion of high-class crops is large. The chief
+agricultural tribes are the Muhammadan Arains and the Játs, most of whom
+are Sikhs.
+
+The real founder of the Kapúrthala house was Sardár Jassa Singh
+Ahluwália, who in 1763, when Sirhind fell, was the leading Sikh chief in
+the Panjáb. He captured Kapúrthala in 1771 and made it his headquarters,
+and died in 1783. A distant relative, Bágh Singh, succeeded. His
+successor, Fateh Singh, was a sworn brother of Ranjít Singh, with whom
+he exchanged turbans. But an alliance between the weak and the strong is
+not free from fears, and in 1826 Fateh Singh, who had large possessions
+south of the Sutlej, fled thither and asked the protection of the
+British Government. He returned however to Kapúrthala in 1827, and the
+Mahárája never pushed matters with Fateh Singh to extremities. The
+latter died in 1836. His successor, Nihál Singh, was a timid man, and
+his failure to support the British in 1845 led to the loss of his
+Cis-Sutlej estates. In 1849 he took the English side and was given the
+title of Rája. Randhír Singh succeeded in 1852. His conspicuous services
+in the Mutiny were rewarded with the grant of estates in Oudh. The
+present Mahárája, Sir Jagatjít Singh Bahádur, G.C.S.I., is a grandson of
+Randhír Singh. He was a young child when he succeeded in 1877. The State
+maintains a battalion of infantry for imperial service.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119. Mahárája Sir Jagatjít Singh Bahádur, G.C.S.I.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 642 sq. m.
+Pop. 130,925.
+Rev.
+Rs. 11,50,000
+= £76,666.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120. Rája Brijindar Singh.]
+
+~Farídkot~ is a small wedge of territory which almost
+divides the Ferozepore district in two. The
+population is composed of Sikhs 42-1/2, Hindus
+and Jains 29, and Musalmans 28-1/2 p.c. Sikh
+Játs are the strongest tribe. The country
+is flat. In the west it is very sandy, but in the east
+the soil is firmer and is
+irrigated in part by the Sirhind
+Canal. The Chief, like
+the Phulkians, is a Sidhu
+Barár Ját, and, though not
+a descendant of Phul, unites
+his line with the Phulkians
+further back.  The present
+Rája, Brijindar Singh, is 17
+years of age, and the State
+is managed by a Council of
+Regency.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 168 sq.m.
+Pop. 55,915.
+Rev.
+Rs. 221,000
+= £14,733.]
+
+~Kalsia~ consists of a number of patches of territory in Ambála and an
+enclave in Ferozepore known as Chirak. The founder of the State was one
+of the Játs from the Panjáb, who swept over Ambála after the capture of
+Sirhind in 1763, and carved out petty principalities, of which Kalsia is
+the only survivor (page 180). The capital is Chachraulí, eight or nine
+miles north-west of Jagádhrí. The present Chief, Sardár Ráví Sher Singh,
+is a minor.
+
+
+3. _The Muhammadan States_
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+15,917 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1853 sq. m.
+Pop. 780,641;
+84 p.c. M.
+Rev.
+Rs. 35,00,000
+= £233,333.]
+
+~Baháwalpur~ is by far the largest of the Panjáb States. But the greater
+part of it is at present desert, and the population, except in the river
+tract, is very sparse. Baháwalpur stretches from Ferozepore on the north
+to the Sindh border. It has a river frontage exceeding 300 miles on the
+Sutlej, Panjnad, and Indus. The cultivated area in 1903-4 was 1451
+square miles, and of this 83 p.c. was irrigated and 10 p.c. flooded. The
+rainfall is only five inches and the climate is very hot. South and east
+of the rivers is a tract of low land known as the "Sindh," which widens
+out to the south. It is partly flooded and partly irrigated by
+inundation canals with the help of wells. Palm groves are a conspicuous
+feature in the Sindh. Behind it is a great stretch of strong loam or
+"_pat_," narrow in the south, but widening out in the north. It is
+bounded on the south-east by a wide depression known as the Hakra,
+probably at one time the bed of the Sutlej. At present little
+cultivation is possible in the _pat_, but there is some hope that a
+canal taking out on the right bank of the Sutlej in Ferozepore may bring
+the water of that river back to it. South of the Hakra is a huge tract
+of sand and sand dunes, known as the Rohí or Cholistán, which is part of
+the Rájputána desert. There are three _nizámats_, Minchinábád in the
+north, Baháwalpur in the middle, and Khánpur in the south. The capital,
+Baháwalpur, is close to the bridge at Adamwáhan by which the N.W.
+Railway crosses the Sutlej. The ruling family belongs to the Abbásí
+Dáudpotra clan, and came originally from Sindh. Sadik Muhammad Khán, who
+received the title of Nawáb from Nádir Sháh, when he invaded the Deraját
+in 1739, may be considered the real founder of the State. The Nawáb
+Muhummad Baháwal Khan III, threatened with invasion by Mahárája Ranjít
+Singh, made a treaty with the British Government in 1833. He was our
+faithful ally in the first Afghán War, and gave valuable help against
+Diwán Mulráj in 1848. The next three reigns extending from 1852 to 1866
+were brief and troubled. Nawáb Sadik Muhummad Khán IV, who succeeded in
+1866, was a young child, and for the next thirteen years the State was
+managed by Captain Minchin and Captain L. H. Grey as Superintendents.
+The young Nawáb was installed in 1879, and henceforth ruled with the
+help of a Council. In the Afghán War of 1879-1880 Baháwalpur did very
+useful service. The Nawáb died in 1899. A short minority followed during
+which Colonel L. H. Grey again became Superintendent. The young Nawáb,
+Muhammad Baháwal Khán V, had but a brief reign. He was succeeded by the
+present Chief, Nawáb Sadik Muhummad Khán V, a child of eight or nine
+years. The State is managed by a Council aided by the advice of the
+political Agent. From 1903 to 1913, the Agent for the Phulkian States
+was in charge, but a separate Agent has recently been appointed for
+Baháwalpur and Farídkot. An efficient camel corps is maintained for
+imperial service.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121. Nawáb Sadik Muhammad Khán.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 167 sq. m.
+Pop. 71,144.
+Rev.
+Rs. 900,000
+= £60,000.]
+
+~Malerkotla~ consists of a strip of territory to the south of the
+Ludhiána district. The capital is connected with Ludhiána by railway.
+The Nawáb keeps up a company of Sappers and Miners for imperial service.
+He is an Afghán, and his ancestor held a position of trust under the
+Moghal Empire, and became independent on its decline. The independence
+of his successor was menaced by Mahárája Ranjít Singh when Malerkotla
+came under British protection in 1809.
+
+~Pataudí, Dujána, and Loháru.~--The three little Muhammadan States of
+Loháru, Dujána, and Pataudí are relics of the policy which in the
+opening years of the nineteenth century sought rigorously to limit our
+responsibilities to the west of the Jamna. Together they have an area of
+275 square miles, a population of 59,987 persons, and a revenue of Rs.
+269,500 (£18,000). The Chief of Loháru, Nawáb Amír ud dín Ahmad Khán,
+K.C.I.E., is a man of distinction.
+
+
+4. _Hindu Hill States_
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1200 sq. m.
+pop. 181,110.
+Rev.
+Rs. 500,000
+= £33,333.]
+
+~Mandí~ is a tract of mountains and valleys drained by the Biás. With
+Suket, with which for many generations it formed one kingdom, it is a
+wedge thrust up from the Sutlej between Kángra and Kulu. Three-fifths of
+the area is made up of forests and grazing lands. The _deodár_ and blue
+pine forests on the Kulu border are valuable. At Guma and Drang an
+impure salt, fit for cattle, is extracted from shallow cuttings. A
+considerable part of the revenue is derived from the price and duty. The
+chiefs are Chandarbánsí Rájputs. The direct line came to an end in 1912
+with the death of Bhawání Sen, but to prevent lapse the British
+Government has chosen as successor a distant relative, Jogindar Singh,
+who is still a child.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 420 sq. m.
+Pop. 54,928.
+Rev.
+Rs. 200,000
+= £13,333.]
+
+~Suket~ lies between Mandí and the Sutlej. Its Rája, Ugar Sen, like his
+distant relative, the Rája of Mandí, came under British protection in
+1846. His great-grandson, Rája Bhim Sen, is the present chief.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1198 sq. m.
+Pop. 138,520.
+Rev.
+Rs. 600,000
+= £40,000.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123. The late Rája Surindar Bikram Parkásh, K.C.S.I.,
+of Sirmúr.]
+
+~Sirmúr~ (~Náhan~) lies to the north of the Ambála district, and
+occupies the greater part of the catchment area of the Girí, a tributary
+of the Jamna. It is for the most part a mountain tract, the Chor to the
+north of the Girí rising to a height of 11,982 feet. The capital, Náhan
+(3207 feet), near the southern border is in the Siwálik range. In the
+south-east of the State is the rich valley known as the Kiárda Dún,
+reclaimed and colonized by Rája Shamshér Parkásh. There are valuable
+_deodár_ and _sál_ forests. A good road connects Náhan with Barára on
+the N.W. Railway. In 1815 the British Government having driven out the
+Gurkhas put Fateh Parkásh on the throne of his ancestors. His troops
+fought on the English side in the first Sikh War. His successors, Rája
+Sir Shamsher Parkásh, G.C.S.I. (1856-98), and Rája Sir Surindar Bikram
+Parkásh, K.C.S.I. (1898-1911), managed their State with conspicuous
+success. The present Rája, Amar Parkásh, is 25 years of age. In the
+second Afghán War in 1880, Sirmúr sent a contingent to the frontier, and
+the Sappers and Miners, which it keeps up for imperial service,
+accompanied the Tirah Expedition of 1897.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3216 sq. m.
+Pop. 135,989.
+Rev. 4 _lákhs_
+= £26,700.]
+
+~Chamba~ lies to the N. of Kángra from which it is divided by the
+Dhauladhár (map, p. 284). The southern and northern parts of the State
+are occupied respectively by the basins of the Ráví and the Chandrabhágá
+or Chenáb. Chamba is a region of lofty mountains with some fertile
+valleys in the south and west. Only about one-nineteenth of the area is
+cultivated. The snowy range of the Mid-Himálaya separates the Ráví
+valley from that of the Chandrabhágá, and the great Zánskár chain with
+its outliers occupies the territory beyond the Chenáb, where the
+rainfall is extremely small and Tibetan conditions prevail. The State
+contains fine forests and excellent sport is to be got in its mountains.
+There are five _wazárats_ or districts, Brahmaur or Barmaur, Chamba,
+Bhattoyat, Chaura, and Pángí.
+
+The authentic history of this Súrajbansí Rajput principality goes back
+to the seventh century. It came into the British sphere in 1846. During
+part of the reign of Rája Shám Singh (1873-1904), the present Rája, Sir
+Bhure Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., administered the State as Wazír, filling
+a difficult position with loyalty and honour. He is a Rájput gentleman
+of the best type. The Rája owns the land of the State, but the people
+have a permanent tenant right in cultivated land.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124. Rája Sir Bhure Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E.]
+
+~Simla Hill States.~--The Deputy Commissioner of Simla is political
+officer with the title of Superintendent of nineteen, or, including the
+tributaries of Bashahr, Keonthal, and Jubbal, of 28 states with a total
+area of 6355 square miles, a population of 410,453, and revenues
+amounting to a little over ten _lákhs_ (£66,000). The States vary in
+size from the patch of four square miles ruled by the Thákur of Bija to
+the 388r square miles included in Bashahr. Only four other States have
+areas exceeding 125 square miles, namely, Biláspur (448), Keonthal
+(359), Jubbal (320), and Hindúr or Nalagarh (256). Excluding feudatories
+the revenues vary from Rs. 900 (or a little over £1 a week) in Mangal to
+Rs. 190,000 (£12,666) in Biláspur. The chiefs are all Rájputs, who came
+under our protection at the close of the Gurkha War.
+
+The watershed of the Sutlej and Jamna runs through the tract. The range
+which forms the watershed of the Sutlej and the Jamna starts from the
+Shinka Pass on the south border of Bashahr and passes over Hattu and
+Simla. In Bashahr it divides the catchment areas of the Rupín and Pábar
+rivers, tributaries of the Tons and therefore of the Jamna, from those
+of the Báspa and the Noglí, which are affluents of the Sutlej. West of
+Bashahr the chief tributary of the Jamna is the Girí and of the Sutlej
+the Gámbhar, which rises near Kasaulí. In the east Bashahr has a large
+area north of the Sutlej drained by its tributary the Spití and smaller
+streams. In the centre the Sutlej is the northern boundary of the Simla
+Hill States. In the west Biláspur extends across that river. The east of
+Bashahr is entirely in the Sutlej basin.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 448 sq. m.
+Pop. 93,107.
+Rev. Rs. 190,000
+= £12,666.]
+
+~Biláspur.~--This is true also of Biláspur or Kahlúr (map, p. 284),
+which has territory on both banks of the river. The capital, Biláspur,
+is on the left bank only 1455 feet above sea level. The present Rája
+Bije Chand, C.S.I., succeeded in 1889.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3881 sq. m.
+Pop. 93,203.
+Rev. Rs. 95,000
+= £6233.]
+
+~Bashahr.~--The chain which forms the watershed of the Sutlej and Jamna
+rises from about 12,000 feet at Hattu in the west to nearly 20,000 feet
+on the Tibet border. Two peaks in the chain exceed 20,000 feet. Further
+north Raldang to the east of Chíní is 21,250 feet high, and in the
+north-east on the Tibet border there are two giants about 1000 feet
+higher. Generally speaking the Sutlej runs in a deep gorge but at Chíní
+and Saráhan the valley widens out. The main valley of the Pábar is not
+so narrow as that of the Sutlej, while the side valleys descend in easy
+slopes to the river beds. The Báspa has a course of 35 miles. In the
+last ten miles it falls 2000 feet and is hemmed in by steep mountains.
+Above this gorge the Báspa valley is four or five miles wide and
+consists of a succession of plateaux rising one above the other from the
+river's banks. Bashahr is divided into two parts, Bashahr proper and
+Kunáwar. The latter occupies the Sutlej valley in the north-east of the
+State. It covers an area of about 1730 square miles and is very sparsely
+peopled. In the north of Kunáwar the predominant racial type is
+Mongoloid and the religion is Buddhism. The capital of Bashahr, Rámpur,
+on the left bank of the Sutlej is at an elevation of 3300 feet. The
+Gurkhas never succeeded in conquering Kunáwar. They occupied Bashahr,
+but in 1815 the British Government restored the authority of the Rája.
+The present chief, Shamsher Singh, is an old man, who succeeded as long
+ago as 1850. He is incapable of managing the State and an English
+officer is at present in charge.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125. Bashahr.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 15: J.=Jain.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+THE NORTH WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE
+
+
+1. _Districts_
+
+~The Province.~--The N. W. F. Province consists of five British
+districts, Dera Ismail Khán, Bannu, Kohát, Pesháwar, and Hazára with a
+total area of 13,193 square miles, of which rather less than one-third
+is cultivated. Of the cultivated area 70 p.c. depends solely on the
+rainfall. In addition the Chief Commissioner as Agent to the Governor
+General controls beyond the administrative boundary territory occupied
+by independent tribes, which covers approximately an area of 25,500
+square miles. In 1911 the population of British districts was 2,196,933
+and that of tribal territory is estimated to exceed 1,600,000. In the
+districts 93 persons in every hundred profess the creed of Islam and
+over 38 p.c. are Patháns.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3780 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+851 sq. m.
+Pop. 256,120.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 306,240
+= £20,416.]
+
+~Dera Ismail Khán~ lies to the north of Dera Gházi Khán and is very
+similar to it in its physical features. It is divided into the three
+_tahsíls_ of Tánk, Dera Ismail Khán, and Kuláchi. It has a long river
+frontage on the west, and is bounded on the east by the Sulimán Range.
+The Kachchhí of Dera Ismail Khán corresponds to the Sindh of Dera Gházi
+Khán, but is much narrower and is not served by inundation canals,
+except in the extreme north, where the Pahárpur Canal has recently been
+dug. It depends on floods and wells. The Dáman or "Skirt" of the hills
+is like the Pachádh of Dera Ghází Khán a broad expanse of strong clayey
+loam or _pat_ seamed by torrents and cultivated by means of dams and
+embanked fields. The climate is intensely hot in summer, and the average
+rainfall only amounts to ten inches. Between one-fourth and one-fifth of
+the area is cultivated. The Pachádh is a camel-breeding tract.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126. Sir Harold Deane.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127. NORTH-WEST FRONTIER-PROVINCE]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128. Map of Dera Ismail Khán with trans-border
+territory of Largha Sheránis and Ustaránas.]
+
+Patháns predominate in the Dáman and Jats in the Kachchhí. The
+Bhittannís in the north of the district are an interesting little tribe.
+The hill section lies outside our administrative border, but like the
+Lárgha Sheránís in the south are under the political control of the
+Deputy Commissioner. A good metalled road, on which there is a _tonga_
+service, runs northwards from Dera Ismail Khán to Bannu.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1641 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+818 sq. m.
+Pop. 250,086.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 304,004
+= £20,267.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129.]
+
+~Bannu.~--The small Bannu district occupies a basin surrounded by hills
+and drained by the Kurram and its affluent, the Tochí. It is cut off
+from the Indus by the Isakhel _tahsíl_ of Mianwálí and by a horn of the
+Dera Ismail Khán district. Bannu is now connected with Kálabágh in
+Mianwálí by a narrow gauge railway. An extension of this line from Laki
+to Tánk in the Dera Ismail Khán district has been sanctioned. There are
+two _tahsíls_, Bannu and Marwat. The cultivated area is about one-half
+of the total area. About 30 p.c. of the cultivation is protected by
+irrigation from small canals taking out of the streams. Most of the
+irrigation is in the Bannu _tahsíl_. The greater part of Marwat is a dry
+sandy tract yielding in favourable seasons large crops of gram. But the
+harvests on unirrigated land are precarious, for the annual rainfall is
+only about 12 inches. The irrigated land in Bannu is heavily manured and
+is often double-cropped. Wheat accounts for nearly half of the whole
+crops of the district. The Marwats are a frank manly race of good
+physique. The Bannúchís are hard-working, but centuries of plodding toil
+on a wet soil has spoiled their bodily development, and had its share in
+imparting to their character qualities the reverse of admirable. The
+Deputy Commissioner has also political charge of some 17,884 tribesmen
+living across the border. There are good metalled roads to Dera Ismail
+Khán and Kohát, and also one on the Tochí route.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2973 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+512 sq. m.
+Pop. 222,690.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 275,462
+= £18,364.]
+
+~Kohát~ is a large district, but most of it is unfit for tillage and
+only one-sixth is actually cultivated. The chief crops are wheat, 44,
+and _bájra_, 26 p.c. The district stretches east and west for 100 miles
+from Khushálgarh on the Indus to Thal at the mouth of the Kurram valley.
+The two places are now connected by a railway which passes through the
+district headquarters at Kohát close to the northern border. There are
+three _tahsíls_, Kohát, Hangu, and Terí, the last a wild tract of bare
+hills and ravines occupying the south of the district and covering more
+than half its area. Two small streams, the Kohát Toi and the Terí Toi,
+drain into the Indus. The rainfall is fair, but very capricious. The
+cold weather lasts long and the chill winds that blow during part of it
+are very trying. The chief tribes are the Bangash Patháns of Hangu and
+the Khattak Patháns of Terí. The Khán of Terí is head of the Khattaks, a
+manly race which sends many soldiers to our army. He enjoys the revenue
+of the _tahsíl_ subject to a quit rent of Rs. 20,000.
+
+~Hangu~ contains in Upper and Lower Miranzai the most fertile land in
+the district, but the culturable area of the _tahsíl_ is small and only
+one-tenth of it is under the plough. Perennial streams run through the
+Miranzai valleys, and the neighbouring hills support large flocks of
+sheep and goats. Kohát contains a number of salt quarries, the most
+important being at Bahádur Khel near the Bannu border. The Thal
+subdivision consisting of the Hangu _tahsíl_ is in charge of an
+Assistant Commissioner who manages our political relations with
+transfrontier tribes living west of Fort Lockhart on the Samána Range.
+The Deputy Commissioner is in direct charge of the Pass Afrídís and the
+Jowákís and Orakzais in the neighbourhood of Kohát. He and his Assistant
+between them look after our relations with 144,000 trans-border Patháns.
+The Samána Rifles, one of the useful irregular corps which keep the
+peace of the Borderland, have their headquarters at Hangu.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2611 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1398 sq. m.
+Pop. 865,000
+Land Rev
+Rs. 11,37,504
+= £75,834.]
+
+~Pesháwar~ is a large basin encircled by hills. The gorge of the Indus
+separates it from Attock and Hazára. The basin is drained by the Kábul
+river, whose chief affluents in Pesháwar are the Swát and the Bára. The
+district is divided into the five _tahsíls_ of Pesháwar, Charsadda,
+Naushahra, Mardán, and Swábí. The last two form the Mardán subdivision.
+Nearly 40 p.c. of the cultivation is protected by irrigation mainly from
+canals large and small. The most important are the Lower Swát, the Kábul
+River, and the Bára River, Canals. The irrigated area will soon be much
+increased by the opening of the Upper Swát Canal. The cold weather
+climate is on the whole pleasant, though too severe in December and
+January. The three months from August to October are a very unhealthy
+time. The soil except in the stony lands near the hills is a fertile
+loam. The cold weather rainfall is good, and the Spring harvest is by
+far the more important of the two. Wheat is the chief crop. Half of the
+people are Patháns, the rest are known generically as Hindkís. The
+principal Hindkí tribe is that of the Awáns. Besides managing his own
+people the Deputy Commissioner has to supervise our relations with
+240,000 independent tribesmen across the border. The Assistant
+Commissioner at Mardán, where the Corps of Guides is stationed, is in
+charge of our dealings with the men of Buner and the Yúsafzai border.
+The N.W. Railway runs past the city of Pesháwar to Jamrúd, and there is
+a branch line from Naushahra to Dargai at the foot of the Malakand Pass.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2858 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+673 sq. m.
+Pop. 603,028.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 512,897
+= £34,193.]
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132.]
+
+~Hazára~ is a typical montane and submontane district with a copious
+rainfall and a good climate. It has every kind of cultivation from
+narrow terraced _kalsí_ fields built laboriously up steep mountain
+slopes to very rich lands watered by canal cuts from the Dor or Haro.
+Hazára is divided into three _tahsíls_, Haripur, Abbottábád, and
+Mansehra. Between a fourth and a fifth of this area is culturable and
+cultivated. In this crowded district the words are synonymous. The above
+figure does not include the 204 square miles of Feudal Tanáwal. The
+rainfall is copious and the crops generally speaking secure. The
+principal are maize 42 and wheat 25 p.c. Hazára was part of the
+territory made over to Rája Guláb Singh in 1846, but he handed it back
+in exchange for some districts near Jammu. The maintenance of British
+authority in Hazára in face of great odds by the Deputy Commissioner,
+Captain James Abbott, during the Second Sikh War is a bright page in
+Panjáb history, honourable alike to himself and his faithful local
+allies. The population is as mixed as the soils. Patháns are numerous,
+but they are split up into small tribes. The Swátís of Mansehra are the
+most important section. After Patháns Gújars and Awáns are the chief
+tribes. The Gakkhars, though few in number, hold much land and a
+dominant position in the Khánpur tract on the Ráwalpindí border. The
+Deputy Commissioner is also responsible for our relations with 98,000
+trans-border tribesmen. The district is a wedge interposed between
+Kashmír on the east and Pesháwar and the tribal territory north of
+Pesháwar on the west. The Indus becomes the border about eight miles to
+the north of Amb, and the district consists mainly of the areas drained
+by its tributaries the Unhár, Siran, Dor, and Haro. On the eastern side
+the Jhelam is the boundary with Kashmir from Kohála to a point below
+Domel, where the Kunhár meets it. Thence the Kunhár is the boundary to
+near Garhí Habíbullah. To the south of Garhí the watershed of the Kunhár
+and Jhelam is close to these rivers and the country is very rough and
+poor. West of Garhí it is represented by the chain which separates the
+Kunhár and Siran Valleys and ends on the frontier at Musa ká Musalla
+(13,378 feet). This chain includes one peak over 17,000 feet, Málí ká
+Parvat, which is the highest in the district. The Kunhár rises at the
+top of the Kágan Glen, where it has a course of about 100 miles to
+Bálakot. Here the glen ends, for the fall between Bálakot and Garhí
+Habíbullah is comparatively small. There is a good mule road from Garhí
+Habíbullah to the Bábusar Pass at the top of the Kágan Glen, and beyond
+it to Chilás. There are rest-houses, some very small, at each stage from
+Bálakot to Chilás. The Kágan is a beautiful mountain glen. At places the
+narrow road looks sheer down on the river hundreds of feet below,
+rushing through a narrow gorge with the logs from the _deodár_ forests
+tossing on the surface, and the sensation, it must be confessed, is not
+wholly pleasant. But again it passes close to some quiet pretty stretch
+of this same Kunhár. There are side glens, one of which opposite Naran
+contains the beautiful Safarmulk Lake. Near the top of the main glen the
+Lulusar Lake at a height of 11,167 feet and with an average depth of 150
+feet is passed on the left. In the lower part of the glen much maize is
+grown. As one ascends almost the last crop to be seen is a coarse barley
+sown in June and reaped in August. Where the trees and the crops end the
+rich grass pastures begin. Kágan covers between one-third and
+one-fourth of the whole district. The Siran flows through the beautiful
+Bhogarmang Glen, at the foot of which it receives from the west the
+drainage of the Konsh Glen. Forcing its way through the rough Tanáwal
+hills, it leaves Feudal Tanáwal and Badhnak on its right, and finally
+after its junction with the Dor flows round the north of the Gandgarh
+Range and joins the Indus below Torbela. The bare Gandgarh Hills run
+south from Torbela parallel with the Indus. The Dor rises in the hills
+to the south of Abbottábád and drains the Haripur plain. A range of
+rough hills divides the Dor valley from that of the Haro, which again is
+separated from Ráwalpindí by the Khánpur Range. To the west of the Siran
+the Unhár flows through Agror and Feudal Tanáwal, and joins the Indus a
+little above Amb. Irrigation cuts are taken from all these streams, and
+the irrigated cultivation is often of a very high character. The best
+cultivation of the district is in the Haripur plain and the much smaller
+Orash and Pakhlí plains and in the Haro valley. There is much
+unirrigated cultivation in the first, and it is generally secure except
+in the dry tract in the south-west traversed by the new railway from
+Sarai Kála. The little Orash plain below Abbottábád is famous for its
+maize and the Pakhlí plain for its rice.
+
+Feudal Tanáwal is a very rough hilly country between the Siran on the
+east and the Black Mountain and the river Indus on the west. It is the
+appanage of the Kháns of Amb and Phulra.
+
+North of Feudal Tanáwal is Agror. In 1891 the rights of the last Khán
+were declared forfeit for abetment of raids by trans-bordermen.
+
+There are fine forests in Hazára, but unfortunately the _deodár_ is
+confined to the Kágan Glen and the Upper Siran. Nathiagalí, the summer
+headquarters of the Chief Commissioner, is in the Dungagalí Range. The
+Serai Kála-Srínagar railway will run through Hazára. There is a good
+mule road from Murree to Abbottábád through the Galís.
+
+
+2. _Tribal Territory_
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133. Sir George Roos Keppel.]
+
+Feudal Tanáwal mentioned above occupies the southern corner of the tract
+of independent tribal territory lying between the Hazára border and the
+Indus. North of Tanáwal on the left bank of the river a long narrow
+chain known as the Black Mountain rises in its highest peaks to a height
+of nearly 10,000 feet. The western slopes are occupied by Hasanzais,
+Akazais, and Chagarzais, who are Patháns belonging to the great
+Yúsafzai clan, and these three sections also own lands on the right bank
+of the Indus. They have been very troublesome neighbours to the British
+Government. The eastern slopes of the Black Mountain are occupied by
+Saiyyids and Swátís, and the latter also hold the glens lying further
+north, the chief of which is Allai.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134.]
+
+The mountainous tract on the Pesháwar border lying to the west of
+Tanáwal and the territory of the Black Mountain tribes formed part of
+the ancient Udyána, and its archaeological remains are of much interest.
+It is drained by the Barandu, a tributary of the Indus. Its people are
+mainly Yúsafzai Patháns, the principal section being the Bunerwáls.
+These last bear a good character for honesty and courage, but are slaves
+to the teachings of their _mullas_. The Yúsafzais have been bad
+neighbours. The origin of the trouble is of old standing, dating back to
+the welcome given by the tribesmen in 1824 to a band of Hindústání
+fanatics, whose leader was Saiyyid Ahmad Sháh of Bareilly. Their
+headquarters, first at Sitána and afterwards at Malka, became Caves of
+Adullam for political refugees and escaped criminals, and their
+favourite pastime was the kidnapping of Hindu shopkeepers. In 1863 a
+strong punitive expedition under Sir Neville Chamberlain suffered heavy
+losses before it succeeded in occupying the Ambela Pass. The door being
+forced the Yúsafzais themselves destroyed Malka as a pledge of their
+submission. Our political relations with the Yúsafzais are managed by
+the Assistant Commissioner at Mardán.
+
+The rest of the tribal territory between the Pesháwar district and the
+Hindu Kush is included in the Dír, Swát, and Chitrál political agency.
+It is a region of mountains and valleys drained by the Swát, Panjkora,
+and Chitrál or Yárkhun rivers, all three affluents of the Kábul river.
+Six tracts are included in the Agency.
+
+(_a_) ~Swát.~--A railway now runs from Naushahra in the Pesháwar district
+to Dargai, which lies at the foot of the Malakand, a little beyond our
+administrative boundary. An old Buddhist road crosses the pass and
+descends on the far side into Swát. We have a military post at Chakdarra
+on the Swát river, and a military road passing through Dír connects
+Chakdarra with Kila Drosh in Chitrál. Most of the Swátís, who are
+Yúsafzais of the Akozai section, occupy a rich valley above 70 miles in
+length watered by the Swát river above its junction with the Panjkora.
+Rice is extensively grown, and a malarious environment has affected the
+physique and the character of the people. The Swátí is priest-ridden and
+treacherous. Even his courage has been denied, probably unjustly. Swátí
+fanaticism has been a source of much trouble on the Pesháwar border. The
+last serious outbreak was in 1897, when a determined, but unsuccessful,
+attack was made on our posts at Chakdarra and the Malakand Pass. The
+Swátís are Yúsafzai Patháns of the Akozai clan, and are divided into
+five sections, one of which is known as Ránízai.
+
+(_b_) ~Sam Ránízai.~--A small tract between the Pesháwar border and the
+hills is occupied by the Sam Ránízais, who were formerly servants and
+tenants of the Ránízais, but are now independent.
+
+(_c_) ~Utmán Khel.~--The country of the Utmán Khels begins where the
+Pesháwar boundary turns to the south. This tribe occupies the tract on
+both sides of the Swát river to the west of Swát and Sam Ránízai. On the
+south-west the Swát river divides the Utmán Khels from the Mohmands.
+Their country is very barren, but a good many of them cultivate land in
+the Pesháwar district. The Utmán Khels are quite independent of the
+surrounding tribes and have been troublesome neighbours to ourselves.
+
+(_d_) ~Bajaur.~--Bajaur is a very mountainous tract lying to the
+north-west of the Utmán Khel country and between it and the Durand line.
+It includes four valleys, through which flow the Rud river and its
+affluents with the exception of that known as Jandol. The valley of the
+last is now included in Dír. The Rud, also known as the Bajaur, is a
+tributary of the Panjkora. The people consist mainly of Mamunds and
+other sections of the Tarkanrí clan, which is related to the Yúsafzais.
+They own a very nominal allegiance to the Khán of Nawagai, who is
+recognised as the hereditary head of the Tarkanrís. They manage their
+affairs in quasi-republican fashion through a council consisting of the
+particular party which for the time being has got the upper hand.
+
+(_e_) ~Dír.~--Dír is the mountainous country drained by the Panjkora and
+its tributaries, to the north of its junction with the Rud river in
+Bajaur. It is separated from Chitrál by the Uchiri Range, which forms
+the watershed of the Panjkora and Kunar rivers. The military road to
+Kila Drosh crosses this chain by the Lowari Pass at a height of 10,200
+feet. The people of Dír are mostly Yúsafzais, relations of the Swátís,
+whom they much resemble in character. They pay one-tenth of their
+produce to their overlord, the Khán of Dír, when he is strong enough to
+take it. The higher parts of the country have a good climate and contain
+fine _deodár_ forests. The Khán derives much of his income from the
+export of timber, which is floated down the Panjkora and Swát rivers.
+
+(_f_) ~Chitrál.~--The Pathán country ends at the Lowari Pass. Beyond,
+right up to the main axis of the Hindu Kush, is Chitrál. It comprises
+the basin of the Yárkhun or Chitrál river from its distant source in the
+Shawar Shur glacier to Arnawai, where it receives from the west the
+waters of the Bashgul, and is thenceforth known as the Kunar. Its
+western boundary is the Durand line, which follows a lofty chain
+sometimes called the Káfiristán range. Another great spur of the Hindu
+Kush known as the Shandur range divides Chitrál on the east from the
+basin of the Yasín river and the territories included in the Gilgit
+Agency (see Chapter XXVIII). Chitrál is a fine country with a few
+fertile valleys, good forests below 11,000 feet, and splendid, if
+desolate, mountains in the higher ranges. The Chitrálís are a quiet
+pleasure-loving people, fond of children and of dancing, hawking, and
+polo. They are no cowards and no fanatics, but have little regard for
+truth or good faith. The common language is Khowár (see page 112). The
+chief, known as the Mehtar, has his headquarters at Chitrál, a large
+village on the river of the same name. It is dominated at a distance by
+the great snow peak of Tirach Mír (see page 22). The British garrison is
+stationed at Kila Drosh on the river bank about halfway between Chitrál
+and the Lowari Pass[16].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135.]
+
+~Mohmands and Mallagorís.~--South of the Utmán Khel country and north of
+the Khaibar are the rugged and barren hills held by that part of the
+Mohmand tribe which lives inside the Durand line. The clan can muster
+about 20,000 fighting men and is as convenient a neighbour as a nest of
+hornets. The southern edge of the tract, where it abuts on the Khaibar,
+is held by the little Mallagorí tribe, which is independent of the
+Mohmands. Their country is important strategically because a route
+passes through it by which the Khaibar can be outflanked. It is included
+in the charge of the Political Agent for the Khaibar.
+
+~Afrídís.~--The pass and the tract lying to the south of it including the
+Bazár valley and part of Tirah are the home of the six sections of the
+Pass Afrídís, the most important being the Zakha Khel, whose winter home
+is in the Khaibar and the Bazár valley, a barren glen hemmed in by
+barren hills, the entrance to which is not far from Ali Masjid. Its
+elevation is 3000 to 4000 feet. The valleys in Tirah proper, where the
+Pass Afrídís for the most part spend the summer, are two or three
+thousand feet higher. When the snow melts there is excellent pasturage.
+The climate is pleasant in summer, but bitterly cold in winter. The Bára
+river with its affluents drains the glens of Tirah. The Aka Khel
+Afrídís, who have no share in the Pass allowances, own a good dear of
+land in the lower Bára valley and winter in the adjoining hills. The
+fighting strength of the above seven sections may be put at 21,000. When
+they have been able to unite they have shown themselves formidable
+enemies, for they are a strong and manly race, and they inhabit a very
+difficult country[17]. But the Afrídí clan is torn by dissensions. Blood
+feuds divide house from house, and the sections are constantly at feud
+one with another. Apart from other causes of quarrel there is the
+standing division into two great factions, Gar and Samil, which prevails
+among Afrídís and Orakzais. Afrídís enlist freely in our regiments and
+in the Khaibar Rifles, and have proved themselves excellent soldiers.
+The eighth section of the Afrídís, the Adam Khel, who hold the Kohát
+Pass and the adjoining hills, have very little connection with the rest
+of the clan. The Jowákís, against whom an expedition had to be sent in
+the cold weather of 1877-78, are a sub-section of the Adam Khel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136. Khaibar Rifles.]
+
+~Orakzais, Chamkannís, and Zaimukhts.~--The Orakzais, who in numbers are
+even stronger than the Pass and Aka Khel Afrídís, occupy the south of
+Tirah, the Samáná Range on the border of Kohát, and the valley of the
+Khánkí river. The tribal territory extends westwards as far as the
+Khurmana, a tributary of the Kurram. The Orakzais do some trade and Sikh
+_banias_ and artizans are to be found in some of their villages. The
+clan is honey-combed with feuds. North-west of the Orakzais beyond the
+Khurmana are the Chamkannís, and on the south is a small tribe of
+vigorous mountaineers called Zaimukhts. One of these Zaimukhts, Sarwar
+Khán, nicknamed Chikai, was a notorious frontier robber, and a person of
+considerable importance on the border till his death in 1903.
+
+~The Kurram Valley.~--The Kurram Valley, which is drained by the Kurram
+river and its affluents, lies to the south of the lofty Safed Koh range,
+and reaches from Thal in Kohát to the Peiwar Kotal on the borders of
+Afghán Khost. It has an area of nearly 1300 square miles and in 1911 the
+population was estimated at 60,941 souls. Though under British
+administration, it does not form a part of any British district. The
+people are Patháns of various clans, the predominant element being the
+Turís, who are Shias by religion and probably of Turkish origin. It was
+at their request that the valley was annexed in 1892. The political
+agent has his headquarters at Parachinár in Upper Kurram, which is
+divided from Lower Kurram by a spur of the Khost hills, through which
+the river has cut a passage. Such part of the Indian penal law as is
+suitable has been introduced, and civil rights are governed by the
+customary law of the Turís. A complete record of rights in land and
+water has been framed, and the land revenue demand is 88,000 rupees
+(£5889). Upper Kurram is a wide and fertile valley set in a frame of
+pine-clad hills. It is not fully cultivated, but has great
+possibilities, especially in the matter of fruit growing. The snowfall
+is heavy in winter, but the summer climate is excellent. Lower Kurram is
+a poor and narrow glen unpleasantly hot and cold according to the season
+of the year. Parachinár is connected with the railhead at Thal by a
+good _tonga_ road.
+
+~Wazíristán.~--The country of the Darwesh Khel and Mahsud Wazírs extends
+from the Kurram valley to the Gomal river. It is divided into the North
+Wazíristán (2300 square miles) and the South Wazíristán (2700 square
+miles) Agencies. North Wazíristán consists of four valleys and some
+barren plateaux. The principal valley is that of Daur (700 square miles)
+drained by the Tochí. In 1894 the Dauris sought refuge from Darwesh Khel
+inroads by asking for British administration. In the eyes of the Darwesh
+Khel they are a race of clodhoppers. Their sole virtue consists in
+patient spade industry in the stiff rich soil of their valley, their
+vices are gross, and their fanaticism is extreme. The political agent's
+headquarters are at Miram Shah. South Wazíristán is the home of the
+troublesome Mahsuds, who can muster 11,000 fighting men. But parts of
+the country, e.g. the Wána plain, are held by the Darwesh Khel. Much of
+South Wazíristán consists of bare hills and valleys and stony plains
+scored with torrents, which are dry most of the year. The streams are
+salt. Part of the hinterland is however a more inviting tract with
+grassy uplands and hills clad with oak, pine, and _deodár_. Wána, where
+the political agent has his headquarters, was occupied on the invitation
+of the Darwesh Khel in 1894.
+
+~Sheránís.~--The Sherání country stretches along the Dera Ismail Khán
+border from the Gomal to the Vihoa torrent. The Lárgha or lower part has
+been under direct administration since 1899, the Upper part belongs to
+the Biluchistán Agency.
+
+~Tribal Militias.~--In the greater part of India beyond the border there
+is no British administration. Respect for our authority and the peace of
+the roads are upheld, and raiding on British territory is restrained,
+by irregular forces raised from among the tribesmen. There are Hunza and
+Nagar levies, Chitrál and Dír levies, Khaibar Rifles, Samána Rifles, and
+Kurram, North Wazíristán, and South Wazíristán militias.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137. North Wazíristán Militia and Border Post.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 16: For recent history see page 196.]
+
+[Footnote 17: See page 196.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+KASHMÍR AND JAMMU
+
+
+~Kashmír.~--Some account has already been given of the topography and
+scenery of the wide territory, covering an area about equal to that of
+the Panjáb less the Ambála division, ruled by the Mahárája of Kashmír
+and Jammu. The population, races, languages, and religions have been
+referred to in Chapters IX and X.
+
+~Modern history.~--Some mention has been made of the early history of
+Kashmír (pages 165, 166, 172, 173). Even the hard Sikh rule was a relief
+to a country which had felt the tyranny of the Durání governors who
+succeeded the Moghals. Under the latter small kingships had survived in
+the Jammu hills, but the Jammuwál Rajas met at Ranjít Singh's hands the
+same fate as the Kángra Rájas. Three cadets of the Jammu royal house,
+the brothers Dhián Singh, Suchet Singh, and Guláb Singh, were great men
+at his court. In 1820 he made the last Rája of Jammu. Guláb Singh was a
+man fit for large designs. In 20 years he had made himself master of
+Bhadráwah, Kishtwár, Ladákh, and Báltistán, and held the casket which
+enclosed the jewel of Kashmír. He acquired the jewel itself for 75 lakhs
+by treaty with the British at the close of the first Sikh war.
+
+Excluding a large but little-known and almost uninhabited tract beyond
+the Muztagh and Karakoram mountains, the drainage of which is northwards
+into Central Asia, the country consists of the valleys of the Chenáb,
+Jhelam, and Indus, that of the last amounting to three-fourths of the
+whole. There is a trifling area to the west of Jammu, which contains the
+head-waters of small streams which find their way into the Ráví.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138. Mahárája of Kashmír.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139. Sketch Map of Chenáb and Jhelam Valleys (Jammu
+and Kashmír).]
+
+~Divisions.~--The following broad divisions may be recognised:
+
+  1. Chenáb Valley  (_a_) Plain and Kandí or Low Hills.
+                    (_b_) Uplands of Kishtwár and Bhadráwah.
+
+  2. Jhelam Valley  (_a_) Vale of Kashmír with adjoining glens and hills.
+                    (_b_) Gorge below Báramúla and Kishnganga Valley.
+
+  3. Indus Valley  (_a_) Ladákh including Zánskar and Rupshu.
+                   (_b_) Báltistán.
+                   (_c_) Astor and Gilgit.
+
+~Chenáb Valley.~--(_a_) _Plain and Kandí._ This tract extends from Mírpur
+on the Jhelam to Kathua near the Ráví and close to the head-works of the
+Upper Bárí Doáb Canal at Mádhopur. It is coterminous with the Panjáb
+districts of Jhelam, Gujrát, Siálkot, and Gurdáspur, and comprises four
+of the five districts of the Jammu Province, Mírpur, Riásí, Jammu, and
+Jasrota, and a part of the fifth, Udhampur. The plain is moist and
+unhealthy. The rough country behind with a stony and thirsty red soil
+covered in its natural state with _garna_ (Carissa spinarum), _sanatan_
+(Dodonaea viscosa), and _bhekar_ (Adhatoda vasica) does not suffer in
+this respect. The chief crops of the Kandí are wheat, barley, and rape
+in the spring, and maize and _bájra_ in the autumn, harvest. Behind the
+Kandí is a higher and better tract, including Naoshera, with wide
+valleys, in which maize replaces _bájra_.
+
+(_b_) _Uplands._ The greater part of the Upper Chenáb Valley is occupied
+by Kishtwár and _Jagír_ Bhadráwah. The rainfall is heavy and there is
+copious irrigation from _kuhls_ (page 142), but elevation and rapid
+drainage make the climate healthy. In the upper parts snow and cold
+winds sometimes prevent the ripening of the crops. The poppy is grown in
+Kishtwár and Bhadráwah. Kishtwár is a part of the Udhampur district.
+
+~Jhelam Valley.~--(_a_) _Vale of Kashmír with adjoining glens and
+mountains._ This first division of the Jhelam Valley extends from the
+source above Vernág to Báramúla, and embraces not only the Vale of
+Kashmír, over 80 miles long and from 20 to 25 miles in breadth, but the
+glens which drain into it and the mountains that surround it. It
+therefore includes cultivation of all sorts from rich irrigated rice
+fields to narrow plots terraced up mountain slopes on which buckwheat
+and the beardless Tibetan barley are grown. The administrative divisions
+are the _wazárat_ or district of South Kashmir and the southern part of
+North Kashmír. The central valley has an elevation of 6000 feet. It was
+undoubtedly once a lake bed. Shelving fan-shaped "_karewas_" spread out
+into it from the bases of the hills. The object of the Kashmírí is to
+raise as much rice as he possibly can on the alluvium of his valley and
+on the rich soil deposited on the banks of mountain streams. Manure and
+facilities for irrigation exist in abundance, and full use is made of
+them in the cultivation of the favourite crop. _Kangní_ takes the place
+of rice in many fields if there is any deficiency of water. On reclaimed
+swamps near the Jhelam heavy crops of maize are raised. The tillage for
+wheat and barley is as careless as that for rice is careful. The
+cultivation of saffron (Crocus sativus) on _karewas_ is famous, but the
+area is now limited, as the starving people ate up the bulbs in the
+great famine of 1877 and recovery is slow. Saffron is used as a pigment
+for the sectarian marks on the forehead of the orthodox Hindu and also
+as a condiment. The little floating vegetable gardens on the Dal lake
+are a very curious feature. The "_demb_" lands on the borders of the
+same lake are a rich field for the market gardener's art. He fences a
+bit of land with willows, and deposits on it weeds and mud from the lake
+bed. He is of the boatman or Hanz caste, whose reputation is by no means
+high, and can himself convey by water his vegetables and fruits to the
+Srínagar market. The production of fruit in Kashmír is very large, and
+the extension of the railway to Srínagar should lead to much improvement
+in the quality and in the extent of the trade. It may also improve the
+prospects of sericulture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140. Takht i Sulimán in Winter.]
+
+(_b_) _Jhelam Gorge and Valley of Kishnganga._ The Jhelam gorge below
+Báramúla is narrow and the cultivation is usually terraced. The
+Kishnganga joins the Jhelam near Muzaffarábád. The Muzaffarábád district
+includes the Jhelam gorge and the lower part of the valley of the
+Kishnganga. The upper part is in the Uttarmachhipura _tahsíl_ of the
+district of North Kashmír.
+
+~Indus Valley.~--(_a_) _Ladákh including Zánskar and Rupshu._ Some
+description of Ladákh and its scenery has already been given in Chapter
+II. It may be divided into Rupshu, Zánskar, and Ladákh proper with Leh
+as its centre. Rupshu in the south-east is a country of great brackish
+lakes in no part less than 13,500 feet above sea level. At such a height
+cultivation must be very difficult, but a little beardless Tibetan
+barley is raised. The scanty population consists mainly of nomad
+shepherds. In Ladákh the people are divided into shepherds or
+_champas_, who roam over the Alpine pastures, and Ladákhís, who till
+laboriously every available patch of culturable land in the river
+valleys. Though both are Buddhists they rarely intermarry. Zánskar to
+the N.W. of Rupshu is drained by the river of the same name, which flows
+northwards to join the Indus below Leh. It forms part of the Kargil
+_tahsíl_. Zánskar is a bleak inaccessible region where the people and
+cattle remain indoors for six months of the year. Its breed of ponies is
+famous. In Ladákh proper cultivation ranges from 9000 to 15,000 feet.
+The sandy soil must be manured and irrigated, and is often refreshed by
+top-dressings of fresh earth from the hill sides. The crops are wheat
+and barley, rape, lucerne, peas and beans, in spring, and buckwheat,
+millets, and turnips, in autumn. There is a great lack of wood for
+building and for fuel, and the deficiency in the latter case has to be
+supplied by cow-dung cakes. Notwithstanding their hard life the people
+are cheerful and fairly well off, for polyandry has prevented
+overcrowding.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141. Ladákh Hills.]
+
+(_b_) _Báltistán._ In Báltistán, which lies to the N.W. of Ladákh, they
+are Muhammadans and there is much more pressure on the soil. They are a
+cheery race and very fond of polo. To support their families the men
+have to work as carriers on the roads to Leh and Gilgit. They tend the
+cattle in the pastures, keep the irrigation channels and the walls of
+the terraced fields in repair, and do the ploughing. The rest of the
+work of cultivation is left to the women. The climate is very severe and
+most of the rivers are frozen in winter. On the other hand near the
+Indus on the Skardo plain (7250 feet) and in the Rondu gorge further
+west, the heat is intense in July and August. The dreary treeless stony
+Deosai Plains on the road to Kashmír have an elevation of 13,000 feet.
+The cultivation and crops are much the same as in Ladákh. Excellent
+fruit is grown, and there is a considerable export of apricots. Gold
+washing is carried on with profit.
+
+Ladákh and Báltistán together form the Ladákh _wazárat_, divided into
+the three _tahsíls_ of Ladákh, Kargil, and Skardo.
+
+(_c_) _Astor and Gilgit._--Where the Gilgit road from Kashmír descends
+from the Burzil pass (13,500 feet) the country of Astor is reached. It
+is drained by the Astor river, which joins the Indus to the south of
+Bunjí. The bridge which crosses it at Ramghát is only 3800 feet above
+sea level. The village of Astor itself is at a height of 7853 feet. The
+cultivation is of the same description as that in Báltistán. The aspect
+of the country is bleak till the Indus is crossed, and Gilgit (4890
+feet) is reached. Here there is a fertile well-watered oasis from which
+on every side great mountain peaks are visible. The lands are heavily
+manured. Rice, maize, millet, buckwheat, cotton, wheat, barley, rape,
+and lucerne are grown. There is a second and easier road to Gilgit
+from India over the Bábusar pass at the top of the Kágan Glen in Hazára.
+But the posts are sent by the Kashmír road. The Astorís and Gilgitís are
+a simple easy-going folk, and, like the Báltís, very fond of polo. A
+British Political Agent is stationed at Gilgit. He is responsible to the
+Government of India for the administration of Hunza, Nagar, and Yasín,
+and of the little republics in the neighbourhood of Chilás. Hunza and
+Nagar lie to the north of Gilgit near the junction of the Muztagh and
+Hindu Kush ranges, and Yasín far to the west about the upper waters of
+the Gilgit river.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142. Zojilá Pass (page 12).]
+
+In Astor and Gilgit also Guláb Singh's Dogras replaced the Sikh troops.
+But across the Indus Guláb Singh was never strong, and after 1852 that
+river was his boundary. He died in 1857, having proved himself a hard
+and unscrupulous, but a capable and successful ruler. His son, Randhír
+Singh, was a better man, but a worse king. A good Hindu, tolerant, and a
+friend of learning, he had not the force of character to control the
+corrupt official class, and the people suffered much in consequence. He
+was a loyal ally in the Mutiny. In 1860 his forces recovered Gilgit, a
+conquest which for years after was a fruitful source of suffering to his
+Cis-Indus subjects. The present Mahárája, Sir Pratáp Singh, G.C.S.I.,
+succeeded in 1885. While he lived his brother, Rája Amar Singh, played a
+very important part in Kashmír affairs. From 1887 to 1905 the
+administration was managed by a small council, of which after 1891 the
+Mahárája was President and Rája Amar Singh Vice-President. It was
+abolished in 1905. There are now under the Mahárája a chief minister and
+ministers in charge of the home and revenue departments. Judicial
+business is controlled by the Judge of the High Court. Death sentences
+must be confirmed by the Mahárája. The highest executive officers are
+the governors of Jammu and Kashmír, and the _Wazírs Wazárat_ of Ladákh
+and Gilgit. In Jammu and Kashmír each of the eight districts is in
+charge of a _Wazír Wazárat_. In connection with the land revenue
+settlement, forests, etc., the services of British officers have been
+lent to the State. The Government of India is represented at Srínagar by
+a Resident, and a political agent at Gilgit exercises a general
+supervision over the _Wazír Wazárat_.
+
+During the reign of the present Mahárája great reforms have been
+effected. The construction of the Gilgit road has done away with the
+blood tax, which the conveyance of supplies to that remote post formerly
+involved. The land revenue settlement has largely substituted cash for
+kind payments and done away with many abuses. Official corruption and
+oppression have been scotched, but would speedily revive if vigilance
+were relaxed. The different peoples ruled by the Mahárája are easily
+governed if properly treated, and violent crime is rare.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Note._ In the map appended to Dr Arthur Neve's _Thirty Years in
+Kashmír_ the heights of Gasherbrum and Masherbrum (see page 21) are
+given respectively as 26,360 and 25,560 feet, and that of Hidden Peak,
+S.E. of Gasherbrum, as 26,470 feet. These with _K2_ are the highest
+mountains round the Baltoro Glacier. Further east is the Siachen, "the
+greatest glacier in Asia," which feeds the Nubra river (page 36). N.E.
+of the Siachen is the Teram Kangrí mountain, the height of which does
+not probably exceed 25,000 feet. The actual height of the Nun Kun (page
+12) is 23,447 feet. Dr Neve gives that of the Karakoram Pass as 18,110
+feet, not 18,550 as stated on page 20.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+CITIES
+
+
+~Delhi~ (28.38 N., 77.13 E.).--Of imperial cities the most interesting are
+those which have felt the tragedies as well as enjoyed the glories of
+Empire. From this point of view Delhi, notwithstanding its small extent
+and modern foundation, may be grouped with Rome, Constantinople, and
+Paris. In the matter of size it is in the same class as Edinburgh. The
+present Delhi or Sháhjahánábád is a creation of the middle of the
+seventeenth century, and the oldest of the Delhis in the neighbourhood
+goes back only to the fourth century of our era. The latter endured for
+six or seven centuries. It was the capital of the Tunwar and Chauhán
+Rájas, and takes its second name of Rai Pithora's Kila' or Fort from the
+last Hindu King of Delhi, the famous Prithví Rája. The early Muhammadan
+kings occupied it and adorned it with splendid buildings. Firoz Sháh
+Tughlak's city of Firozábád occupied part of the present Delhi and the
+country lying immediately to the south of it. The other so-called towns
+Sirí, Tughlakábád, and Indarpat or Puráná Kila' (Old Fort) were
+fortified royal residences round which other dwelling-houses and shops
+sprang up.
+
+The visitor to Delhi will be repaid if he can devote a week to the City
+and the neighbourhood. It is impossible here to give any adequate
+account of the objects of historic and architectural interest. No
+visitor should be without Mr H. C. Fanshawe's _Delhi Past and Present_,
+a work of great interest. The value of the text is enhanced by good maps
+and excellent illustrations. In the Civil Station, which lies to the
+north of the City and east of the Ridge, is Ludlow Castle, from the roof
+of which General Wilson and his Staff watched the assault on 14th
+September, 1857, when Delhi was retaken. Ludlow Castle is now the Delhi
+Club. Between it and the northern rampart of the City, a defence against
+the Mahrattas built by British officers fifty years earlier, grim
+fighting took place on that historic day when the little British and
+Indian force, till then rather besieged than besiegers, was at last
+strong enough to attack. Here are the sites of the four batteries which
+breached that rampart, and here is the grave of John Nicholson and the
+statue recently erected in his honour (page 190). The Ridge to which the
+little army had clung obstinately from May to September in scorching
+heat and drenching rain, undismayed by repeated assaults and the ravages
+of cholera, starts about half-a-mile to the west of the Morí bastion, at
+the north-west corner of the city wall, and runs north by east to
+Wazírábád on an old bed of the Jamna. Ascending to the Flagstaff Tower
+one looks down to-day on the Circuit House and the site of the principal
+camps at the great _darbár_ of 1911. Here was the old Cantonment and its
+parade ground, on which the main encampment of the British force stood
+in 1857. The position was strong, being defended by the ridge on the
+east and the Najafgarh Canal on the west. It is open to the south, where
+are the Savzí Mandí (Vegetable Market), now the site of factories, and
+the Roshanára Gardens. It was on this side that the mutineers made their
+most dangerous attacks. The road along the Ridge from the Flagstaff
+Tower passes the Chauburjí Mosque and Hindu Rao's house, which was the
+principal target of the City batteries and was gallantly held by Major
+Reid with his Sirmur Gurkhas, the Guides, and the 60th Rifles. Beyond
+Hindu Rao's house is one of the stone pillars of Asoka, which Firoz
+Sháh Tughlak transported to Delhi. Still further south is the Mutiny
+Memorial. As one reads the tale of the losses of the different regiments
+one realizes in some measure the horrors and the heroism of which the
+Ridge was witness.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143. Delhi Mutiny Monument.
+
+'In memory of the officers and soldiers, British and native, of the
+Delhi Field Force who were killed in action or died of wounds or disease
+between the 30th May and 20th September 1857.'
+
+'This monument has been erected by the comrades who lament their loss
+and by the Govmt: they served so well.']
+
+~The City.~--When visiting the City from the Civil Lines it is well to
+follow the road, which passing the Kudsia Gardens leads straight to the
+Kashmír Gate, one of two places in India (the Lucknow Residency is the
+other) which must stir with grateful pride the heart of the most
+phlegmatic of Englishmen. The road from the Gate to the Fort and the
+Jama Masjid is rich in memories of the Mutiny. It has on its left S.
+James' Church, with memorial tablets within and outside the shot-riddled
+globe which once surmounted its dome. Further on are the obelisk to the
+telegraph officers who stuck to their posts on the fatal 11th of May,
+and on a gateway of the Old Magazine a record of the heroism of the nine
+devoted men, who blew it up, losing five of their number in the
+explosion. Passing under the railway bridge one comes out on the open
+space in front of Sháhjahán's palace fort, which was finished about 1648
+A.D. To the beautiful buildings erected by his father Aurangzeb added
+the little Motí Masjid or Pearl Mosque. But he never lived at Delhi
+after 1682. The palace is therefore associated with the tragedies and
+squalor of the decline and fall of the Moghal Empire rather than with
+its glories. In 1739 it was robbed of the Kohinur and the Peacock throne
+by Nádir Shah, in 1788 it saw the descendants of Akbar tortured and the
+aged Emperor blinded by the hateful Ghulám Kádir, and on 16th May, 1857
+the mutineers massacred fifty Christians captive within its walls. When
+viewing the public and private halls of audience, known as the Diwán i
+'Ám and the Diwán i Kháss, it is however natural to think rather of
+scenes of splendour such as Bernier described when Aurangzeb sat in
+royal apparel on the Peacock throne with a king's ransom in the aigrette
+of his turban and the rope of pearls which hung from his neck. On such
+an occasion, the pillars of the Diwán i 'Ám were hung with gold brocades
+and the floors covered with rich silken carpets. Half the court outside
+was occupied by a magnificent tent and the arcade galleries surrounding
+it were decked with brocades and covered with costly carpets. The marble
+Diwán i Kháss with its lovely pillars decorated with gold and precious
+stones is surely the most splendid withdrawing room that a monarch ever
+possessed. There is nothing in the Moorish palace at Granada which can
+for a moment be compared with these two halls. For a description of them
+and of the other buildings in the Fort the reader must refer to Mr
+Fanshawe's book. In the Viceroyalty of Lord Curzon and since much has
+been done to restore their surroundings to some semblance of their
+former state. But the heavy British barracks occupied by the little
+garrison are very incongruous with the remains of Moghal grandeur.
+Leaving the Fort by the Southern or Delhi Gate and turning to the right
+one is faced by the Jama Masjid, another monument of the taste of
+Sháhjahán. The gateway and the lofty ascent into this House of God are
+very fine. The mosque in the regular beauty and grandeur of its lines,
+appealing to the sublimity rather than to the mystery of religion, is a
+fitting symbol of the faith for whose service it was raised. South of
+the Jama Masjid in a part of the city once included in Firozábád stands
+the Kalán or Kála Masjid with low cupolas and heavy square black
+pillars, a striking example of the sombre architecture of the Tughlak
+period. A narrow street called the Daríba leads from the Jama Masjid to
+the wide Chándní (Silver) Chauk. The Daríba was formerly closed by the
+Khúní Darwáza or Gate of Blood, so called because here occurred that
+terrible massacre of the citizens of Delhi which Nádir Shah witnessed
+from the neighbouring Golden Mosque. Besides its width there is nothing
+remarkable about the Chándní Chauk. But the visitor in quest of silver
+work, jewellery, or embroidery will find there many shopkeepers ready to
+cater for his wants. It was while passing down the Chándní Chauk in an
+elephant procession on 23rd December, 1912, that Lord Hardinge was
+wounded by a bomb thrown from one of the houses. From the Chauk one may
+pass through the Queen's Gardens and Road to the opening in the wall
+where the Kábul Gate once stood and so leave the City. A tablet in the
+vicinity marks the spot where John Nicholson fell.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144. Kashmír Gate.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145. Map of Delhi City.]
+
+When visiting the old Delhis it is a good plan to drive again through
+the City and to leave it by the Delhi Gate. Humáyun's tomb, an early and
+simple, but striking, specimen of Moghal architecture, is reached at a
+distance of four miles along the Mathra road. Outside the City the road
+first leaves on the left side the ruined citadel of Firoz Sháh
+containing the second Asoka pillar. North and south of this citadel
+the town of Firozábád once lay. It ended where the Puráná Kila' or Old
+Fort, the work of Sher Sháh and Humáyun, now stands, a conspicuous
+object from the road about three miles from Delhi. The red sandstone
+gateway very narrow in proportion to its height is a noble structure,
+and within the walls is Sher Sháh's mosque. The fort and mosque are the
+last important works of the second or Tughlak period. Hindus call the
+site of the Old Fort, Indarpat. If any part of Delhi has a claim to
+antiquity it is this, for it is alleged to be one of the five "pats" or
+towns over which the war celebrated in the Mahábhárata was waged. A
+recent cleaning of part of the interior of the fort brought to light
+bricks belonging to the Gupta period. From Humáyun's tomb a cross road
+leads to the Gurgáon road and the Kutb. But the visitor who has seen
+enough of buildings for the day may proceed further down the Mathra road
+and reach the headworks of the Agra Canal at Okhla by a side road. The
+view looking back to Delhi up the Jamna is fine.
+
+~The Kutb Minár.~--Starting for the Kutb from Humáyun's tomb (page 207)
+the Dargáh of the great Chistí saint and political intriguer, Nizám ud
+dín Aulia, is passed on the left. He died in 1324 A.D. Just at the point
+where the cross road meets the Gurgáon road is the tomb of Safdar Jang,
+the second of the Nawáb Wazírs of Oudh. He died after the middle of the
+eighteenth century, and the building is wonderfully good considering
+that it is one of the latest important monuments of the Moghal period.
+Six miles to the south of Safdar Jang's tomb the entrance to the Kutb
+Minár enclosure is reached. The great Kuwwat ul Islám mosque of
+Kutbuddín Aibak (page 204) was constructed out of the materials of a
+Jain temple which stood on the site. Evidence of this is to be found in
+the imperfectly defaced sculptures on the pillars. An iron pillar nearly
+24 feet in height dating back probably to the sixth century stands in
+the court. The splendid column known as the Kutb Minár (page 205), begun
+by Kutbuddín and completed by his successor Shams ud dín Altamsh, was
+the minaret of the mosque from which the _mu'azzin_ called the faithful
+to prayer. The disappointment that may be felt when it is seen from a
+distance is impossible on a nearer view. Its height is now 238 feet, but
+it was formerly surmounted "by a majestic cupola of red granite." Close
+by is the Alai Darwaza, a magnificent gateway built by Alá ud dín
+Tughlak in 1310, about 90 years after the Minár was finished. Five miles
+east of the Kutb are the cyclopean ruins of Tughlakábád (page 206).
+
+~Delhi past and present.~--The Delhi of Aurangzeb was as much a camp as a
+city. When the Emperor moved to Agra or Kashmír the town was emptied of
+a large part of its inhabitants. It contained one or two fine _bazárs_,
+and nobles and rich merchants and shopkeepers had good houses, set
+sometimes in pleasant gardens. But the crowds of servants and followers
+occupied mud huts, whose thatched roofs led to frequent and widespread
+fires. In that insanitary age these may have been blessings in disguise.
+"In Delhi," wrote Bernier, "there is no middle state. A man must either
+be of the highest rank or live miserably.... For two or three who wear
+decent apparel there may always be reckoned seven or eight poor, ragged,
+and miserable beings." The ordinary street architecture of modern Delhi
+is mean enough, and posterity will not open an eyelid to look at the
+public buildings which its present rulers have erected in the city. But
+at least the common folk of Delhi are better housed, fed, and clad than
+ever before. It is now a clean well-managed town with a good water
+supply, and it has become an important railway centre and a thriving
+place of trade. Since 1881 the population has steadily increased from
+173,393 to 232,837 in 1911. In 1911-12 the imports into Delhi City from
+places outside the Panjáb amounted to 9,172,302 maunds. There are some
+fifteen cotton ginning, spinning, and weaving mills, besides flour
+mills, iron foundries, two biscuit manufactories, and a brewery. The
+city is well supplied with hospitals including two for women only.
+Higher education has been fostered by S. Stephen's College in charge of
+the Cambridge Missionary brotherhood. The Hindu college has not been
+very successful. Delhi has had famous "hakíms," practising the Yúnáni or
+Arabic system of medicine, which is taught in a flourishing school known
+as the Madrasa i Tibbiya.
+
+~Imperial Darbárs.~--In this generation the plain to the north of the
+Ridge has been the scene of three splendid _darbárs_. When on 1st
+January, 1877, Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India
+(_Kaisar i Hind_) it seemed fitting that the proclamation of the fact to
+the princes and peoples of India should be made by Lord Lytton at the
+old seat of imperial power. On 1st January, 1903, Lord Curzon held a
+_darbár_ on the same spot to proclaim the coronation of King Edward the
+VIIth. Both these splendid ceremonies were surpassed by the _darbár_ of
+12th December, 1911, when King George and Queen Mary were present in
+person, and the Emperor received the homage of the ruling chiefs, the
+great officials, and the leading men of the different provinces. The
+King and Queen entered Delhi on 7th December, and in the week that
+followed the craving of the Indian peoples for "_darshan_" or a sight
+of their sovereign was abundantly gratified. None who saw the spectacles
+of that historic week will ever forget them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146. Darbár Medal.]
+
+New Imperial Capital.--The turn of Fortune's Wheel has again made Delhi
+an imperial city. The transfer of the seat of government from Calcutta
+announced by the King Emperor at the _darbár_, is now being carried out.
+The site will probably extend from Safdar Jang's tomb to a point lying
+to the west of Firoz Sháh's citadel.
+
+~Lahore~ (31.34 N., 74.21 E.). The capital of the Panjáb lies on the east
+bank of the Ráví, which once flowed close to the Fort, but has moved a
+mile or two to the west. In high floods the waters still spread over the
+lowlands between the Ráví and the Fort. Lahore lies nearly halfway
+between Delhi and Pesháwar, being nearer to the latter than to the
+former.
+
+~Early History.~--Practically we know nothing of its history till Mahmúd
+conquered the Panjáb and put a garrison in a fort at Lahore. Henceforth
+its history was intimately connected with Muhammadan rule in India.
+Whether north-western India was ruled from Ghazní or from Delhi, the
+chief provincial governor had his headquarters at Lahore. In the best
+days of Moghal rule Agra and Lahore were the two capitals of the
+Empire. Lahore lay on the route to Kábul and Kashmír, and it was
+essential both to the power and to the pleasures of the Emperors that it
+should be strongly held and united to Delhi and Agra by a Royal or
+_Bádsháhí_ Road. The City and the Suburbs in the reign of Sháhjahán
+probably covered three or four times the area occupied by the town in
+the days of Sikh rule. All round the city are evidences of its former
+greatness in ruined walls and domes.
+
+~The Civil Station.~--The Anárkalí gardens and the buildings near them
+mark the site of the first Civil Station. John Lawrence's house, now
+owned by the Rája of Punch, is beyond the Chauburjí on the Multán Road.
+The Civil Lines have stretched far to the south-east in the direction of
+the Cantonment, which till lately took its name from the tomb of Mian
+Mír, Jahangír's spiritual master. The soil is poor and arid. Formerly
+the roads were lined with dusty tamarisks. But of late better trees have
+been planted, and the Mall is now quite a fine thoroughfare. The
+Lawrence Hall Gardens and the grounds of Government House show what can
+be done to produce beauty out of a bad soil when there is no lack of
+water. There is little to praise in the architecture or statuary of
+modern Lahore. The marble canopy over Queen Victoria's statue is however
+a good piece of work. Of the two cathedrals the Roman Catholic is the
+better building. The Montgomery Hall with the smaller Lawrence Hall
+attached, a fine structure in a good position in the public gardens, is
+the centre of European social life in Lahore. Government House is close
+by, on the opposite side of the Mall. Its core, now a unique and
+beautiful dining-room with domed roof and modern oriental decoration, is
+the tomb of Muhammad Kásim Khán, a cousin of Akbar. Jamadár Khushál
+Singh, a well-known man in Ranjít Singh's reign, built a house round the
+tomb. After annexation, Henry Lawrence occupied it for a time, and Sir
+Robert Montgomery adopted it as Government House. It is now much
+transformed. Beyond Government House on the road to the Cantonment are
+the Club and the Panjáb Chiefs' College, the only successful attempt in
+Lahore to adapt oriental design to modern conditions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 147. Street in Lahore.]
+
+~The Indian City.~--In its streets and _bazárs_ Lahore is a truly eastern
+city, and far more interesting than Delhi, so far as private buildings
+are concerned. In public edifices it possesses some fine examples of
+Moghal architecture. Every visitor should drive through the town to the
+Fort past Wazír Khán's mosque. Under British rule the height of the city
+wall has been reduced by one-half and the moat filled in and converted
+into a garden. Wazír Khán's mosque founded in 1634 by a Panjábí
+minister of Sháhjahán, is a noble building profusely adorned with glazed
+tiles and painted panels. The Golden Mosque was constructed 120 years
+later about the same time as Safdar Jang's tomb at Delhi. The palace
+fort, built originally by Akbar, contains also the work of his three
+successors. The Shísh Mahal or Hall of Mirrors, which witnessed the
+cession of the Panjáb to the Queen of England, was begun by Sháhjahán
+and finished by Aurangzeb. The armoury contains a curious collection of
+weapons. The Bádsháhí Mosque opposite with its beautiful marble domes
+and four lofty minarets of red sandstone was founded in 1673 in the
+reign of Aurangzeb. The cupolas were so shaken by an earthquake in 1840
+that they had to be removed. Mahárája Ranjít Singh used the mosque as a
+magazine. In the space between it and the Fort he laid out the pretty
+orange garden known as the Huzúrí Bágh and set in it the marble
+_báradarí_ which still adorns it. Close by are his own tomb and that of
+Arjan Dás, the fifth Guru.
+
+~Buildings outside Lahore.~--The best example of Moghal architecture is
+not at Lahore itself, but at Shahdara across the Ráví. Here in a fine
+garden is the Mausoleum of Jahángír with its noble front and four
+splendid towers. It enshrines an exquisite sarcophagus, which was
+probably once in accordance with the Emperor's wish open to the sunlight
+and the showers. Near by are the remains of the tombs of his beautiful
+and imperious consort, Nur Jahán, and of her brother Asaf Khán, father
+of the lady of the Táj. Another building associated with Jahángír is
+Anárkali's tomb beside the Civil Secretariat. The white marble
+sarcophagus is a beautiful piece of work placed now in most
+inappropriate surroundings. The tomb was reared by the Emperor to
+commemorate the unhappy object of his youthful love. Half-a-mile off on
+the Multán road is the Chauburjí, once the gateway of the Garden of
+Zebunnissa a learned daughter of Aurangzeb. The garden has disappeared,
+but the gateway, decorated with blue and green tiles, though partially
+ruined, is still a beautiful object. On the other side of Lahore on the
+road to Amritsar are the Shalimár Gardens laid out by Sháhjahán for the
+ladies of his court. When the paved channels are full and the fountains
+are playing, and the lights of earthen lamps are reflected in the water,
+Shalimár is still a pleasant resort.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148. Sháhdara.]
+
+The Museum in Anárkalí contains much of interest to Indians and
+Europeans. The "house of wonders" is very popular with the former. It
+includes a very valuable collection of Buddhist sculptures. Opposite the
+museum is the famous Zamzama gun (page 187).
+
+~Growth of Lahore.~ As the headquarters of an important Government and of
+a great railway system Lahore has prospered. Owing to the influx of
+workers the population has risen rapidly from 157,287 in 1881 to 228,687
+in 1911. The railway alone affords support to 30,000 people, of whom
+8000 are employed in the workshops.
+
+~Amritsar~ (31.38 N., 74.53 E.) is a modern town founded in the last
+quarter of the sixteenth century by the fourth Guru, Rám Dás, on a site
+granted to him by Akbar. Here he dug the Amrita Saras or Pool of
+Immortality, leaving a small platform in the middle as the site of that
+Har Mandar, which rebuilt is to-day, under the name of the Darbár Sáhib,
+the centre of Sikh devotion. The fifth Guru, Arjan Dás, completed the
+Har Mandar. Early in the eighteenth century Amritsar became without any
+rival the Mecca of the Sikhs, who had now assumed an attitude of warlike
+resistance to their Muhammadan rulers. Once and again they were driven
+out, but after the victory at Sirhind in 1763 they established
+themselves securely in Amritsar, and rebuilt the temple which Ahmad Sháh
+had burned. Ranjít Singh covered the Darbár Sáhib with a copper gilt
+roof, whence Englishmen commonly call it the Golden Temple. He laid out
+the Rám Bágh, still a beautiful garden, and constructed the strong fort
+of Govindgarh outside the walls.
+
+~Trade and Manufactures.~--Amritsar lies in a hollow close to a branch of
+the Upper Bárí Doáb Canal. Waterlogging is a great evil and accounts for
+the terrible epidemics of fever, which have occurred from time to time.
+The population has fluctuated violently, and at the last census was
+152,756, or little larger than in 1881. Long before annexation the shawl
+industry was famous. The caprice of fashion a good many years ago
+decreed its ruin, but carpet weaving, for which Amritsar is still
+famous, fortunately did something to fill the gap. Amritsar has also
+been an entrepôt of trade with other Asiatic countries. It has imported
+raw silk from Bokhára, and later from China, and woven it into cloth. It
+has dealt in China tea, but that is a decreasing trade, in opium from
+Afghánistán, and in _charas_ from Central Asia. There is a considerable
+export of foreign piece goods to Kashmír and the N. W. F. Province.
+
+~Multán~ (30.1 N., 71.3 E.), though now the smallest of the four great
+towns of the Panjáb, is probably the most ancient. It is very doubtful
+whether it is the fortress of the Malloi, in storming which Alexander
+was wounded. But when Hiuen Tsang visited it in 741 A.D. it was a
+well-known place with a famous temple of the Sun God. Muhammad Kásim
+conquered it in 712 A.D. (page 166). It was not till the savage
+Karmatian heretics seized Multán towards the end of the tenth century
+that the temple, which stood in the fort, was destroyed. It was
+afterwards rebuilt, but was finally demolished by order of Aurangzeb,
+who set up in its place a mosque. Under the Moghals Multán was an
+important town, through which the trade with Persia passed. Its later
+history has already been noticed (pages 183 and 186).
+
+~The Fort~ contains the celebrated Prahládpurí temple, much damaged during
+the siege in 1848, but since rebuilt. Its proximity to the tomb of
+Baháwal Hakk, a very holy place in the eyes of the Muhammadans of the
+S.W. Panjáb and Sindh, has at times been a cause of anxiety to the
+authorities. Baháwal Hakk and Bába Faríd, the two great saints of the
+S.W. Panjáb, were contemporaries and friends. They flourished in the
+thirteenth century, and it probably would be true to ascribe largely to
+their influence the conversion of the south-west Panjáb to Islám, which
+was so complete and of which we know so little. The tomb of Baháwal Hakk
+was much injured during the siege, but afterwards repaired. Outside is a
+small monument marking the resting place of the brave old Nawáb
+Muzaffar Khán. Another conspicuous object is the tomb of Rukn ud dín
+'Alam, grandson of Baháwal Hakk. An obelisk in the fort commemorates the
+deaths of the two British officers who were murdered on the outbreak of
+the revolt. A simpler epitaph would have befitted men who died in the
+execution of their duty.
+
+~Trade and Manufactures.~--Though heat and dust make the climate of Multán
+trying, it is a very healthy place. The population rose steadily from
+68,674 in 1881 to 99,243 in 1911. The chief local industries are silk
+and cotton weaving and the making of shoes. Multán has also some
+reputation for carpets, glazed pottery and enamel, and of late for tin
+boxes. A special feature of its commerce is the exchange of piece goods,
+shoes, and sugar for the raw silk, fruits, spices, and drugs brought in
+by Afghán traders. The Civil Lines lie to the south of the city and
+connect it with the Cantonment, which is an important military station.
+
+~Pesháwar~ (34.1 N., 71.35 E.) is 276 miles from Lahore and 190 from
+Kábul. There is little doubt that the old name was Purushapura, the town
+of Purusha, though Abu Rihan (Albiruni), a famous Arab geographer, who
+lived in the early part of the eleventh century, calls it Parsháwar,
+which Akbar corrupted into Pesháwar, or the frontier fort. As the
+capital of King Kanishka it was in the second century of the Christian
+era a great centre of Buddhism (page 164). Its possession of Buddha's
+alms bowl and of yet more precious relics of the Master deposited by
+Kanishka in a great _stupa_ (page 203) made it the first place to be
+visited by the Chinese pilgrims who came to India between 400 and 630
+A.D. Hiuen Tsang tells us the town covered 40 li or 6-3/4 miles. Its
+position on the road to Kábul made it a place of importance under the
+Moghal Empire. On its decline Pesháwar became part of the dominions of
+the Durání rulers of Kábul, and finally fell into the hands of Ranjít
+Singh. His Italian general Avitabile ruled it with an iron rod. In 1901
+it became the capital of the new N. W. F. Province.
+
+~The Town~ lies near the Bára stream in a canal-irrigated tract. On the
+north-west it is commanded by the Bála Hissár, a fort outside the walls.
+The suburbs with famous fruit gardens are on the south side, and the
+military and civil stations to the west. The people to be seen in the
+_bazárs_ of Pesháwar are more interesting than any of its buildings. The
+Gor Khatrí, part of which is now the _tahsíl_, from which a bird's-eye
+view of the town can be obtained, was successively the site of a
+Buddhist monastery, a Hindu temple, a rest-house built by Jahángír's
+Queen, Nur Jahán, and the residence of Avitabile. The most noteworthy
+Muhammadan building is Muhabbat Khán's mosque. Avitabile used to hang
+people from its minarets. The Hindu merchants live in the quarter known
+as Andar Shahr, the scene of destructive fires in 1898 and 1913.
+Pesháwar is now a well-drained town with a good water supply. It is an
+entrepôt of trade with Kábul and Bokhára. From the former come raw silk
+and fruit, and from the latter gold and silver thread and lace _en
+route_ to Kashmír. The Kábulí and Bokháran traders carry back silk
+cloth, cotton piece goods, sugar, tea, salt, and Kashmír shawls.
+
+~Simla~ (31.6 N., 77.1 E.) lies on a spur of the Central Himálaya at a
+mean height exceeding 7000 feet. A fine hill, Jakko, rising 1000 feet
+higher, and clothed with _deodár_, oak, and rhododendron, occupies the
+east of the station and many of the houses are on its slopes. The other
+heights are Prospect Hill and Observatory Hill in the western part of
+the ridge. Viceregal Lodge is a conspicuous object on the latter, and
+below, between it and the Annandale race-course, is a fine glen, where
+the visitor in April from the dry and dusty plains can gather yellow
+primroses (Primula floribunda) from the dripping rocks. The beautiful
+Elysium Hill is on a small spur running northwards from the main ridge.
+Simla is 58 miles by cart road from Kálka, at the foot of the hills, and
+somewhat further by the narrow gauge railway.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149. Trans-border traders in Pesháwar.]
+
+~History.~--Part of the site was retained at the close of the Gurkha war
+in 1816, and the first English house, a wooden cottage with a thatched
+roof, was built three years later. The first Governor General to spend
+the summer in Simla was Lord Amherst in 1827. After the annexation of
+the Panjáb in 1849 Lord Dalhousie went there every year, and from 1864
+Simla may be said to have become the summer capital of India. It became
+the summer headquarters of the Panjáb Government twelve years later. The
+thirty houses of 1830 have now increased to about 2000. Six miles
+distant on the beautiful Mahásu Ridge the Viceroy has a "Retreat," and
+on the same ridge and below it at Mashobra there are a number of
+European houses. There are excellent hotels in Simla, and the cold
+weather tourist can pay it a very pleasant visit, provided he avoids the
+months of January and February.
+
+~Srínagar~ (34.5 N., 74.5 E.), the summer capital of the Mahárája of
+Kashmír, is beautifully situated on both banks of the river Jhelam at a
+level of 5250 feet above the sea. To the north are the Hariparvat or
+Hill of Vishnu with a rampart built by Akbar and the beautiful Dal lake.
+Every visitor must be rowed up its still waters to the Násím Bágh, a
+grove of plane (_chenâr_) trees, laid out originally in the reign of the
+same Emperor. Between the lake and the town is the Munshí Bágh, in and
+near which are the houses of Europeans including the Residency. The
+splendid plane trees beside the river bank, to which house boats are
+moored, and the beautiful gardens attached to some of the houses, make
+this a very charming quarter. The Takht i Sulimán to the west of
+Srínagar is crowned by a little temple, whose lower walls are of great
+age. The town itself is intersected by evil-smelling canals and consists
+in the main of a jumble of wooden houses with thatched roofs. Sanitary
+abominations have been cleansed from time to time by great fires and
+punished by severe outbreaks of cholera. The larger part of the
+existing city is on the left side. The visitor may be content to view
+the parts of the town to be seen as he is rowed down the broad waterway
+from the Munshí Bágh passing under picturesque wooden bridges, and
+beside temples with shining metal roofs and the beautiful mosque of Sháh
+Hamadán. On the left bank below the first bridge is the Shergarhí with
+the Mahárája's houses and the Government Offices. Opposite is a fine
+_ghát_ or bathing place with stone steps. Between the third and fourth
+bridges on the right bank is Sháh Hamadán's mosque, a carved cedar house
+with Buddhist features, totally unlike the ordinary Indian mosque. The
+stone mosque close by on the opposite side, built by Mir Jahán, was
+seemingly rejected by Muhammadans as founded by a woman, and is now a
+State granary. The Jama Masjid is on the north side, but not on the
+river bank. The tomb of the great king, Zain ul Ábidín, is below the
+fourth bridge, which bears his name. In the same quarter are the
+storehouses of the dealers in carpets and art wares and the Mission
+School. The last should be visited by anyone who wishes to see what a
+manly education can make of material in some respects unpromising.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 150 Mosque of the Sháh Hamadán.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+OTHER PLACES OF NOTE
+
+
+I. PANJÁB.
+
+(_a_) _Ambála Division._
+
+~Ambála~, 30·2 N.--76·4 E. Population 80,131, of which 54,223 in
+Cantonments. A creation of British rule. It became the headquarters of
+the Political Agent for the Cis-Sutlej States in 1823, and the
+Cantonment was established in 1843. The Native City and the Civil Lines
+lie some miles to the N.W. of the Cantonment. Headquarters of district
+and division.
+
+~Bhiwání~ (~Hissár~), 28·5 N.--76·8 E. Headquarters of _tahsíl_ in Hissár.
+Population 31,100. On Rewárí--Ferozepore branch of Rájputána--Málwa
+Railway. Has a brisk trade with Rájputána.
+
+~Hánsí~ (~Hissár~), 29·7 N.--75·6 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_. Population
+14,576. A very ancient town. In centre of canal tract of Hissár, and a
+local centre of the cotton trade.
+
+~Hissár~, 29·1 N.--75·4 E. Headquarters of district. Population 17,162.
+Founded by the Emperor Firoz Sháh Tughlak, who supplied it with water by
+a canal taken from the Jamna. This was the origin of the present Western
+Jamna Canal. Is now a place of small importance.
+
+~Jagádhrí~ (~Ambála~), 30·1 N.--77·2 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
+Population 12,045. Connected with the N.W. Railway by a light railway.
+The iron and brass ware of Jagádhrí are well known.
+
+~Kaithal~ (~Karnál~), 29·5 N.--76·2 E. Headquarters of subdivision and
+_tahsil_. Population 12,912. A town of great antiquity. Kaithal is a
+corruption of Kapisthala--the monkey town, a name still appropriate.
+Timúr halted here on his march to Delhi. Was the headquarters of the
+Bhais of Kaithal, who held high rank among the Cis-Sutlej Sikh chiefs.
+Kaithal lapsed in 1843.
+
+~Karnál~, 29·4 N.--76·6 E. Headquarters of district. Population 21,961. On
+Delhi--Kálka Railway. Till the Western Jamna Canal was realigned it was
+most unhealthy, and the Cantonment was given up in 1841 on this account.
+The health of the town is still unsatisfactory. Trade unimportant.
+
+~Kasauli~ (~Ambála~), 30·5 N.--76·6 E. Small hill station overlooking
+Kálka. Height 6000 feet. The Pasteur Institute for the treatment of
+rabies is at Kasauli, and the Lawrence Military School at Sanáwar, three
+miles off.
+
+~Pánipat~ (~Karnál~), 29·2 N.--76·6 E. Headquarters of _tahsíl_.
+Population 26,342. On Delhi--Kálka Railway. An important place in Hindu
+and Muhammadan times (pages 172 and 179). Local manufactures, brass
+vessels, cutlery, and glass.
+
+~Pihowa~ (~Karnál~), 29·6 N.--76·3 E. A very sacred place on the holy
+stream Sarusti.
+
+~Rewárí~ (~Gurgáon~), 28·1 N.--76·4 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
+Population 24,780. Junction of main line and Rewárí--Bhatinda branch of
+Rájputána--Málwa Railway. Trade in grain and sugar with Rájputána.
+
+~Rúpar~ (~Ambála~), 30·6 N.--76·3 E. Headquarters of subdivision and
+_tahsíl_. Population 6935. Exchange market for products of Hills and
+Plains. Headworks of Sirhind Canal are at Rúpar.
+
+~Sirsa~ (~Hissár~), 29·3 N.--75·2 E. Headquarters of subdivision and
+_tahsil_. Population 14,629. Sirsa or Sarsútí was an important place in
+Muhammadan times. Deserted in the great famine of 1783 it was refounded
+in 1838. On the Rewárí--Bhatinda Branch of the Rájputána--Málwa Railway.
+Has a brisk trade with Rájputána.
+
+~Thanesar~ (~Karnál~), 29·6 N.--76·5 E. See pages 165 and 168. Noted
+place of pilgrimage. Headquarters of a _tahsíl_. Population 4719. The
+old Hindu temples were utterly destroyed apparently when Thanesar was
+sacked by Mahmúd in 1014. There is a fine tomb of a Muhammadan Saint,
+Shekh Chillí.
+
+
+(_b_) _Jalandhar Division._
+
+~Aliwál~, 30·6 N.--75·4 E. Scene of Sir Harry Smith's victory over the
+Sikhs on 28th January, 1846.
+
+~Dharmsála~ (~Kángra~), 32·1 N.--76·1 E. Headquarters of district. On a
+spur of the Dhauladhár Range. A Gurkha regiment is stationed here. The
+highest part of Dharmsála is over 7000 feet, and the scenery is very
+fine, but the place is spoiled as a hill station by the excessive
+rainfall, which averages over 120 inches. In the earthquake of 1905,
+1625 persons, including 25 Europeans, perished.
+
+~Fázilka~ (~Ferozepore~), 30·3 N.--74·3 E. Headquarters of sub-division
+and _tahsíl_. Population 10,985. Terminus of Fázilka extension of
+Rájputána--Málwa Railway, and connected with Ludhiána by a line which
+joins the Southern Panjáb Railway at Macleodganj. A grain mart.
+
+~Ferozepore~, 30·6 N.--74·4 E. Headquarters of district. Population
+50,836 including 26,158 in Cantonment. (See page 245.)
+
+~Ferozesháh~ (~Ferozepore~), 30·5 N.--74·5 E. The real name is
+Pherushahr. Sir Hugh Gough defeated the Sikhs here after two days' hard
+fighting on Dec. 21-22, 1845.
+
+~Jalandhar~, 31·2 N.--75·3 E. Headquarters of district. Population
+69,318, including 13,964 in Cantonment. The Cantonment lies four miles
+to the S.E. of the native town and three miles from the Civil Lines.
+(See page 241.)
+
+~Jawála Mukhí~ (~Kángra~), 31·5 N.--76·2 E. Celebrated place of Hindu
+pilgrimage with a famous temple of the goddess Jawálamukhí, built over
+some jets of combustible gas.
+
+~Kángra~, 30·5 N.--76·2 E. Headquarters of _tahsíl_. Ancient name
+Nagarkot. The celebrated temple and the fort of the Katoch kings of
+Kángra were destroyed in the earthquake of 1905. (See pages 168, 171,
+183.)
+
+~Ludhiána~, 30·6 N.--75·5 E. Headquarters of district. Population
+44,170. The manufacture of _pashmína_ shawls was introduced in 1833 by
+Kashmírís. Ludhiána is well known for its cotton fabrics and turbans (p.
+152).
+
+~Mudkí~ (~Ferozepore~), 30·5 N.--74·5 E. The opening battle of the 1st
+Sikh War was fought here on 18th December, 1845.
+
+
+(_c_) _Lahore Division._
+
+~Batála~ (~Gurdáspur~), 30·5 N.--75·1 E. Headquarters of _tahsíl_.
+Population 26,430. Chief town in Gurdáspur district on the
+Amritsar--Pathánkot Railway. Cotton, silk, leathern goods, and soap are
+manufactured, and there is a large trade in grain and sugar. The Baring
+Anglo-Vernacular High School for Christian boys is a well-known
+institution.
+
+~Dalhousie~ (~Gurdáspur~), 33·3 N.--75·6 E. A well-known hill station at
+height of 7687 feet, 51 miles N.W. of Pathánkot, from which it is
+reached by tonga. The Commissioner of Lahore and the Deputy Commissioner
+of Gurdáspur spend part of the hot weather at Dalhousie. It is a very
+pretty and healthy place, with the fine Kálatop Forest in Chamba close
+by, and is deservedly popular as a summer resort.
+
+~Gujránwála~, 32·9 N.--74·1 E. Headquarters of district. Population
+29,472. An active trade centre. Ranjít Singh was born, and the tomb of
+his father, Mahán Singh is, at Gujránwála.
+
+~Kasúr~ (~Lahore~), 31·8 N--74·3 E. Headquarters of _tahsíl_ in Lahore.
+Population 24,783. Between Raiwind and Ferozepore on N.W. Railway, and
+has direct railway communication with Amritsar. A very ancient place and
+now an active local trade centre.
+
+~Nankána-Sáhib~ (~Gujránwala~), 31·6 N.--73·8 E. In south of Gujránwála
+district on Chichoki--Shorkot Railway. Venerated by Sikhs as the early
+home of Bába Nának.
+
+~Siálkot~, 32·3 N.--74·3 E. Headquarters of district. Population 64,869,
+of which 16,274 in Cantonment. A very old place connected with the
+legendary history of Raja Sáliváhan and his two sons Púran and Rája
+Rasálu. (See also page 165.) The Cantonment is about a mile and a half
+from the town. Siálkot is an active trade centre. Its hand-made paper
+was once well known, but the demand has declined. Tents, tin boxes,
+cricket and tennis bats, and hockey sticks, are manufactured.
+
+~Tarn Táran~ (~Amritsar~), 31·3 N.--74·6 E. Headquarters of _tahsíl_.
+Population 4260. On Amritsar--Kasúr Railway. The tank is said to have
+been dug by Guru Arjan and it and the temple beside it are held in great
+reverence by the Sikhs. The water is supposed to cure leprosy. The leper
+asylum at Tarn Táran in charge of the Rev. E. Guilford of the Church
+Missionary Society is an admirable institution. Clay figures of this
+popular missionary can be bought in the _bazár_.
+
+
+(_d_) _Ráwalpindí Division._
+
+~Attock~ (~Atak~), 32·5 N.--72·1 E. The fort was built by Akbar to
+protect the passage of the Indus. In the river gorge below is a
+whirlpool between two jutting slate rocks, called Kamália and Jamália
+after two heretics who were flung into the river in Akbar's reign. The
+bridge which carries the railway across the Indus still makes Attock a
+position of military importance. Population 630.
+
+~Bhera~ (~Sháhpur~), 32·3 N.--72·6 E. Headquarters of _tahsíl_.
+Population 15,202. A very ancient town which was sacked by Mahmúd and
+two centuries later by Chingiz Khán. Has an active trade. The
+wood-carvers of Bhera are skilful workmen. Woollen felts are
+manufactured.
+
+~Chilianwála~ (~Chelianwála~) (~Gujrát~), 32·7 N.--73·6 E. Famous
+battlefield (page 187).
+
+~Gujrát~, 32·3 N.--74·5 E. Headquarters of district. Population 19,090.
+An old place, famous in recent history for the great battle on 22
+February, 1849 (page 187). Has a brisk local trade.
+
+~Hasn Abdál~ (~Attock~) 33·5 N.--72·4 E. On N.W. Railway. Shrine of Bába
+Walí Kandahárí on hill above village. Below is the Sikh shrine of the
+Panja Sáhib, the rock in which bears the imprint of Bába Nának's five
+fingers (_panja_).
+
+~Jhelam~, 32·6 N.--73·5 E. Headquarters of district and an important
+cantonment. Population 19,678, of which 7380 in cantonment. Has only
+become a place of any importance under British rule. Is an important
+depot for Kashmir timber trade.
+
+~Kálabágh~ (~Mianwálí~), 32·6 N.--71·3 E. Population 6654. Picturesquely
+situated below hills which are remarkable for the fantastic shapes
+assumed by salt exposed on the surface. The Kálabágh salt is in favour
+from its great purity. The Malik of Kálabágh is the leading man in the
+Awán tribe.
+
+~Katás~ (~Jhelam~), 32·4 N.--72·6 E. A sacred pool in the Salt Range and
+a place of Hindu pilgrimage. The tears of Siva weeping for the loss of
+his wife Satí formed the Katáksha pool in the Salt Range and Pushkar at
+Ajmer.
+
+~Khewra~ (~Jhelam~), 32·4 N.--73·3 E. In Salt Range five and a half
+miles N.E. of Pinddádankhán. The famous Mayo Salt Mine is here.
+
+~Malot~ (~Jhelam~), 32·4 N.--72·5 E. Nine miles W. of Katás (see above).
+Fort and temple on a spur of the Salt Range. Temple in early Kashmir
+style (_Archaeological Survey Reports_, Vol. v. pp. 85-90).
+
+~Mankiála~ (~Manikyála~) (~Ráwalpindi~), 33·3 N.--74·2 E. A little
+village close to which are the remains of a great Buddhist _stúpa_ and
+of a number of monasteries (page 202).
+
+~Murree~ (~Marrí~) (~Ráwalpindi~), 33·5 N.--73·2 E. Hill Station near
+Kashmír road on a spur of the Himálaya--height 7517 feet--39 miles from
+Ráwalpindí, from which visitors are conveyed by tonga. The views from
+Murree are magnificent and the neighbourhood of the Hazára Galís is an
+attraction. But the climate is not really bracing. The summer
+headquarters of the Northern Army are at Murree, and before 1876 the
+Panjáb Government spent the hot weather there. The Commissioner and
+Deputy Commissioner of Ráwalpindí take their work there for several
+months.
+
+~Murtí~ (~Jhelam~), 32·4 N.--72·6 E. In Gandhála valley on bank of Katás
+stream. Remains of a Buddhist _stúpa_ and of a Jain temple.
+(_Archaeological Survey Reports_, Vol. II. pp. 88 and 90.)
+
+~Ráwalpindí~, 33·4 N.--73·7 E. Headquarters of district and division,
+and the most important cantonment in Northern India. Population 86,483,
+of which 39,841 in Cantonment. It owes its importance entirely to
+British rule. Large carrying trade with Kashmír. Contains the N.W.
+Railway Locomotive and Carriage works and several private factories,
+also a branch of the Murree brewery. There is an important arsenal. The
+Park, left fortunately mainly in its natural state, is an attractive
+feature of the cantonment.
+
+~Rohtás~ (~Jhelam~), 32·6 N.--73·5 E. Ten miles N.W. of Jhelam on the
+far side of the gorge where the Kahá torrent breaks through a spur of
+the Tilla Range. Fine remains of a very large fort built by the Emperor
+Sher Sháh Surí.
+
+~Sakesar~ (~Sháhpur~), 31·3 N.--71·6 E. Highest point of Salt Range,
+5010 feet above sea level. The Deputy Commissioners of Sháhpur,
+Mianwálí, and Attock spend part of the hot weather at Sakesar.
+
+~Sháhdherí~ (~Ráwalpindí~), 33·2 N.--72·5 E. On the Hazára border and
+near the Margalla Pass. Site of the famous city of Táxila (Takshasilá).
+See pages 161, 165, and 204. Excavation is now being carried out with
+interesting results.
+
+~Táxila~. See Sháhdherí.
+
+
+(_e_) _Multán Division._
+
+~Chiniot~ (~Jhang~), 31·4 N.--73·0 E. Headquarters of _tahsíl_. Population
+14,085. A very old town near the left bank of the Chenáb. Famous for
+brasswork and wood-carving. The Muhammadan Khoja traders have large
+business connections with Calcutta, Bombay, and Karáchí. Fine mosque of
+the time of Sháhjahán.
+
+~Kamália~ (~Lyallpur~), 30·4 N.--72·4 E. Population 8237. An old town.
+Cotton printing with hand blocks is a local industry. The town should
+now prosper as it is a station on the Chichoki--Shorkot Road Railway and
+irrigation from the Lower Chenáb Canal has reached its neighbourhood.
+
+~Lyallpur~, 31·3 N.--73·9 E. Fine new Colony town. Headquarters of
+district. Population 19,578. Large wheat trade with Karáchí, and has a
+number of cotton ginning and pressing factories.
+
+~Montgomery~, 30·4 N.--73·8 E. Headquarters of district. Population 8129.
+May become a place of some importance with the opening of the Lower Bárí
+Doáb Canal. Hitherto one of the hottest and dreariest stations in the
+Panjáb, but healthy.
+
+~Pákpattan~, 30·2 N.--73·2 E. Headquarters of _tahsíl_. Population 7912.
+On Sutlej Valley Railway. Anciently known as Ajodhan and was a place of
+importance. Contains shrine of the great Saint Faríd ul Hakk wa ud Dín
+Shakarganj (1173-1265). Visited by Timúr in 1398. There is a great
+annual festival attracting crowds of pilgrims, who come even from
+Afghánistán. There is great competition to win eternal bliss by getting
+first through the gate at the entrance to the shrine.
+
+
+II. PANJÁB NATIVE STATES.
+
+~Baháwalpur~, 29·2 N.--71·5 E. Capital of State on N.W. Railway 65 miles
+south of Multán. Population 18,414. There is a large palace built by
+Nawáb Muhammad Sadík Muhammad Khán IV in 1882.
+
+~Barnála~ (~Patiála~), 32·2 N.--75·4 E. Headquarters of Anáhadgarh Nizámat
+on Rájpura-Bhatinda branch of N.W. Railway. Population 5341. For the
+famous battle see page 179.
+
+~Bhatinda~ (~Patiála~), 30·1 N.--75·0 E. Also called Govindgarh. Old names
+are Vikramagarh and Bhatrinda. Historically a place of great interest
+(page 167). Fell into decay in later Muhammadan times. Is now a great
+railway junction and a nourishing grain mart. The large fort is a
+conspicuous object for many miles round. Population 15,037.
+
+~Brahmaur~, 32·3 N.--76·4 E. The old capital of Chamba, now a small
+village. Has three old temples. One of Lakshana Deví has an inscription
+of Meru Varma, who ruled Chamba in the seventh century.
+
+~Chamba~, 32·3 N.--76·1 E. Capital of State picturesquely situated on a
+plateau above right bank of Ráví. Population 5523. The white palace is a
+conspicuous object. There is an excellent hospital and an interesting
+museum. The group of temples near the palace is noteworthy (page 201).
+That of Lakshmí Naráyan perhaps dates from the tenth century. The Ráví
+is spanned at Chamba by a fine bridge.
+
+~Chíní~ (~Bashahr~), 31·3 N.--78·2 E. Headquarters of Kanáwar near the
+right bank of Sutlej. Elevation 9085 feet. Was a favourite residence of
+Lord Dalhousie. There is a Moravian Mission Station at Chíní.
+
+~Kapúrthala~, 31·2 N.--75·2 E. Capital of State. Contains Mahárája's
+palace. Population 16,367.
+
+~Malerkotla~, 30·3 N.--75·6 E. Capital of State. Population 23,880.
+
+~Mandí~, 31·4 N.--76·6 E. Capital of State. Population 7896. On the
+Biás, 131 miles from Pathánkot, with which it is connected by the
+Pathánkot--Palampur--Baijnáth road. There is a fine iron bridge spanning
+the Biás. It is a mart for trade with Ladákh and Yárkand.
+
+~Nábha~, 30·2 N.--76·1 E. Capital of State. Population 13,620, as
+compared with 18,468 in 1901. Founded in 1755 by Hamír Singh (page 277).
+Since irrigation from the Sirhind Canal has been introduced the environs
+have become waterlogged and the town is therefore unhealthy.
+
+~Náhan~, 30·3 N.--77·2 E. Capital of Sirmúr State. Elevation 3207 feet.
+Population 6341. There is a good iron foundry at Náhan.
+
+~Patiála~, 30·2 N.--76·3 E. Capital of State. Population 46,974. On
+Rájpura-Bhatinda Branch of N.W. Railway. Contains fine gardens and
+modern buildings. The old palace is in the centre of the town. Patiála
+is a busy mart for local trade.
+
+~Pattan Munára~ (~Baháwalpur~), 28·1 N.--70·2 E. There are the ruins
+here of a large city and of a Buddhist monastery. They are situated in
+the south of the State five miles east of Rahím Yár Khán Station.
+
+~Sangrúr~ (~Jínd~), 30·1 N.--75·6 E. Became the capital of Jínd State in
+1827. Population 9041. On Ludhiána--Dhurí--Jakhal Railway.
+
+~Sirhind~ (~Patiála~), 30·4 N.--76·3 E. Properly Sahrind. On N.W.
+Railway. Population 3843. The idea that the name is Sir-Hind = head of
+India is a mistake. An old town of great importance in Muhammadan period
+(pages 177 and 180). The ruins extend for several miles. There are two
+fine tombs known as those of the Master and his Disciple dating probably
+from the fourteenth century.
+
+~Suí Vehar~ (~Baháwalpur~), 29·2 N.--71·3 E. Six miles from Samasata.
+Site of a ruined Buddhist _stúpa_. An inscription found at Suí Vehár
+belongs to the reign of Kanishka (page 164).
+
+~Uch~ (~Baháwalpur~), 29·1 N.--71·4 E. On the Sutlej near the point
+where it joins the Chenáb. Consists now of three villages. But it was in
+early Muhammadan times a place of great importance, and a centre of
+learning. It is still very sacred in the eyes of Musalmáns.
+
+
+III. NORTH WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE.
+
+(_a_) _Districts._
+
+~Abbottábád~, 34·9 N.--73·1 E. Headquarters of district and a cantonment
+with four battalions of Gurkhas. Population 11,506. At south end of
+Orash Plain 4120 feet above sea level. Appropriately named after Captain
+James Abbott (page 299).
+
+~Bannu.~ See Edwardesábád.
+
+~Cherát~ (~Pesháwar~), 33·5 N.--71·5 E. Small hill sanitarium in Pesháwar
+near Kohát border, 4500 feet above sea level.
+
+~Dera Ismail Khán~, 31·5 N.--70·6 E. Headquarters of district and a
+cantonment. Population 35,131, including 5730 in cantonment. The Powinda
+caravans pass through Dera Ismail Khán on their march to and from India.
+
+~Dungagalí~ (~Hazára~), 34·6 N.--73·2 E. Small sanitarium, elevation 7800
+feet, in Hazára Galís, two miles from Nathiagalí. Moshpurí rises above
+it to a height of 9232 feet.
+
+~Edwardesábád~ (~Bannu~), 33·0 N.--70·4 E. Headquarters of Bannu district
+and a cantonment. Founded by Lieutenant (afterwards Sir Herbert)
+Edwardes in 1848. Population 16,865. It is unhealthy owing to the heavy
+irrigation in the neighbourhood.
+
+~Fort Lockhart~ (~Kohát~), 33·3 N.--70·6 E. Important military outpost on
+Samána Range, elevation 6743 feet. Saragarhí, heroically defended by
+twenty-one Sikhs in 1897 against several thousand Orakzais, is in the
+neighbourhood.
+
+~Kohát~, 33·3 N.--71·3 E. Headquarters of district and a cantonment.
+Population 22,654, including 5957 in Cantonment. On Khushálgarh--Thal
+Branch of N.W. Railway.
+
+~Mansehra~ (~Hazára~), 34·2 N.--73·1 E. Headquarters of _tahsíl_. The two
+rock edicts of Asoka are in the neighbourhood (pages 163 and 202).
+
+~Nathiagalí~ (~Hazára~), 34·5 N.--73·6 E. Summer headquarters of Chief
+Commissioner of N.W.F. Province in Hazára Galís. Elevation 8200 feet. It
+is a beautiful little hill station. Míran Jáni (9793 feet) is close by,
+and on a clear day Nanga Parvat can be seen in the far distance.
+
+~Naushahra~ (~Pesháwar~), 34 N.--72 E. Population 25,498, including 14,543
+in cantonment. On railway 27 miles east of Pesháwar. Risálpura, a new
+cavalry cantonment, is in the neighbourhood.
+
+~Shekhbudín~, 32·2 N.--70·5 E. Small hill station on Níla Koh on border
+of Dera Ismail Khán and Bannu districts. Elevation 4516 feet. It is on a
+bare limestone rock with very scanty vegetation and is hot in summer in
+the daytime. Water is scarce. The Deputy Commissioners of Bannu and Dera
+Ismail Khán spend part of the hot weather at Shekhbudín.
+
+~Thal~ (~Kohát~), 33·2 N.--70·3 E. Important military outpost at
+entrance of Kurram Valley. Terminus of Khushálgarh--Thal branch of N.W.
+Railway.
+
+~Thandiání~ (~Hazára~), 34·1 N.--73·2 E. Small hill station in Galís
+sixteen miles N.E. of Abbottábád. Elevation about 8800 feet. A
+beautifully situated place chiefly resorted to by residents of
+Abbottábád and Missionaries.
+
+
+(_b_) _Agencies and Independent Territory._
+
+~Ali Masjid~ (~Khaibar~), 34·2 N.--71·5 E. Village and fort in Khaibar,
+10-1/4 miles from Jamrúd. Elevation 2433 feet.
+
+~Ambela~ (~Indep. Territory~), 34·2 N.--72·4 E. Pass in Buner, which
+gave its name to the Ambela campaign of 1863 (page 191).
+
+~Chakdarra~ (~Dír~, ~Swát~, and ~Chitrál~), 34·4 N.--72·8 E. Military
+post to N.E. of Malakand Pass on south bank of Swát River.
+
+~Chitrál~, 35·5 N.--71·5 E. A group of villages forming capital of
+Chitrál State. There is a small _bazár_.
+
+~Jamrúd~ (~Khaibar~), 34 N.--71·2 E. Just beyond Pesháwar boundary at
+mouth of Khaibar. Terminus of railway. 10-1/2 miles west of Pesháwar.
+There is a fort and a large _sarai_. Elevation 1670 feet.
+
+~Landí Kotal~ (~Khaibar~), 34·6 N.--71·8 E. 20 miles from Jamrúd. Fort
+garrisoned by Khaibar Rifles at highest point of Khaibar route.
+Elevation 3373 feet. Afghán frontier 6 miles beyond.
+
+~Malakand~ (~Dír~, ~Swát~, and ~Chitrál~), 34·3 N.--71·6 E. Pass leading
+into Swát Valley from Pesháwar district.
+
+~Míram Sháh~ (~N. Wazíristán~), 33·6 N.--70·7 E. Headquarters of North
+Wazíristán Agency in Tochí Valley 3050 feet above the sea.
+
+~Parachinár~ (~Kurram~), 33·5 N.--70·4 E. Headquarters of Kurram Agency
+and of Kurram Militia. Climate temperate. Population 2364.
+
+~Wána~ (~S. Wazíristán~), 37·2 N.--69·4 E. Headquarters of South
+Wazíristán Agency. In a wide valley watered by Wána Toi. There is much
+irrigation and the place is unhealthy, though the elevation of the
+Valley is from 4300 to 5800 feet.
+
+
+IV. KASHMÍR AND JAMMU.
+
+~Báramúla~, 34·1 N.--74·2 E. Situated at the point where the Jhelam gorge
+ends and the Vale of Kashmír begins. Travellers who intend to go to
+Srínagar by water board their house boats here. There is an excellent
+poplar-lined road from Báramúla to Srínagar and a bad road to Gulmarg.
+
+~Chilás~, 35·4 N.--74·2 E. See page 323.
+
+~Gulmarg~, 34·1 N.--74·4 E. S.W. of Srínagar. It is a favourite hot
+weather resort of Europeans. The Mahárája has a house here. The forest
+scenery is beautiful, especially on the way to the limit of trees at
+Khilanmarg. Good golf links on beautiful turf.
+
+~Gurais~, 34·7 N.--74·8 E. A beautiful valley drained by the head waters
+of the Kishnganga. It lies between Bandipura and the Burzil Pass on the
+road to Gilgit.
+
+~Hunza~, 36·4 N.--74·7 E. (See page 323.) Hunza is a group of villages.
+The Rajá's (or Tham's) fort, Baltit castle, at an elevation of 7000 feet
+is splendidly situated in full view of Rakaposhi, distant 20 miles. It
+is overhung by the enormous mass of snow peaks said to be called in the
+language of the country Boiohaghurduanasur (the peak of the galloping
+horse).
+
+~Islámábád~, 33·4 N.--75·1 E. About 40 miles by river from Srínagar, near
+the point where the Jhelam ceases to be navigable. Achabal and Mártand
+are easily visited from Islámábád, and it is the starting point for the
+Liddar Valley and Pahlgam. It is a dirty insanitary place.
+
+~Jammu~, 32·4 N.--74·5 E. Capital of the Jammu province and winter
+residence of the Mahárája. Connected with Siálkot by rail. Situated
+above the ravine in which the Tawí flows. At a distance the white-washed
+temples with gilded pinnacles look striking. The town was once much more
+prosperous than it is to-day.
+
+~Leh~, 34·2 N.--77·5 E. Capital of Ladákh. On the Indus 11,500 feet above
+sea-level. The meeting place of caravans from India and Yárkand. The
+Central Asian caravans arrive in Autumn, when the _bazár_, in a wide
+street lined with poplars, becomes busy. The Wazír Wazárat has his
+headquarters here, and there is a small garrison in the mud fort. The
+old palace of the Gyalpo (King) is a large pile on a ridge overhanging
+the town. There are Moravian and Roman Catholic missions at Leh.
+
+~Mártand~, 33·4 N.--75·1 E. Remains of a remarkable temple of the Sun god
+three miles east of Islámábád (pages 166 and 201).
+
+~Payer~ (erroneously ~Payech~). Nineteen miles from Srínagar containing a
+beautiful and well-preserved temple of the Sun god, dated variously from
+the fifth to the thirteenth century (page 202).
+
+~Punch~, 33·4 N.--74·9 E. Capital of the _jágír_ of the Rája of Punch, a
+feudatory of the Kashmír State. 3300 feet above sea level. There is a
+brisk trade in grain and _ghí_. Decent roads connect Punch with
+Ráwalpindí and Urí on the Jhelam. Cart Road into Kashmír. Kashmírís call
+the place Prunts and its old name was Parnotsa.
+
+~Skardo~, 35·3 N.--75·6 E. Old capital of Báltistán. 7250 feet above
+sea-level. In a sandy basin lying on both sides of the Indus, and about
+five miles in width. A _tahsíldár_ is stationed at Skardo.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE I. _Tribes of Panjáb (including Native States) and N.W.F.
+Province[1]._
+
+  ------------------------------+------------------------+---------------------------+-------------------------
+         Landholding etc.       |        Traders         |     Artizans and menials  |  Impure Castes
+  --------------+------+--------+--------+------+--------+-----------+------+--------+---------+------+--------
+       Tribe    |Panjáb|N.W.F.P.| Tribe  |Panjáb|N.W.F.P.|    Tribe  |Panjáb|N.W.F.P.|  Tribe  |Panjáb|N.W.F.P.
+                | p.c. | p.c.   |        | p.c. | p.c.   |           | p.c. |  p.c.  |         | p.c. | p.c.
+  --------------+------+--------+--------+------+--------+-----------+------+--------+---------+------+--------
+  Jats          | 20.5 |   3.9  | Aroras |  2.8 |    3.1 |Lohárs and |      |        |Chúhra[8]|  5.1 |
+  Rajputs       |  6.8 |    .7  | Khatrís|  1.8 |    1.2 |Tarkháns[2]|  4.0 |  3.3   |Chamár[9]|  4.7 |
+  Arains and    |      |        | Banias |  1.7 |     -- |Juláhas[3] |  2.6 |  1.7   |         |      |
+  Kambohs       |  4.8 |    --  |        |      |        |Jhínwar and|      |        |         |      |
+  Brahmans      |  4.2 |    .6  |        |      |        | Máchhi[4] |  2.6 |  ---   |         |      |
+  Gújars        |  2.5 |   5.2  |        |      |        |Kumhár[5]  |  2.3 |  1.0   |         |      |
+  Biloch        |  2.2 |   1.2  |        |      |        |Nai[6]     |  1.4 |  1.1   |         |      |
+  Awán          |  1.8 |  12.6  |        |      |        |Telí[7]    |  1.2 |   .3   |         |      |
+  Shekhs inc.   |      |        |        |      |        |           |      |        |         |      |
+    Kureshí     |  1.7 |        |        |      |        |           |      |        |         |      |
+  Kanet         |  1.7 |    --  |        |      |        |           |      |        |         |      |
+  Sainís, Málís,|      |        |        |      |        |           |      |        |         |      |
+   and Malliárs |  1.3 |   1.8  |        |      |        |           |      |        |         |      |
+  Patháns       |  1.2 |  38.3  |        |      |        |           |      |        |         |      |
+  Saiyyíds      |  1.0 |   4.4  |        |      |        |           |      |        |         |      |
+  --------------+------+--------+--------+------+--------+-----------+------+--------+---------+------+--------
+
+  [1] Only tribes amounting in number to 1 p.c. of total population shown.
+
+  [2] Blacksmiths and Carpenters.
+
+  [3] Weavers.
+
+  [4] Water carriers.
+
+  [5] Potter.
+
+  [6] Barber.
+
+  [7] Oilman.
+
+  [8] Scavenger.
+
+  [9] Leather-worker.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE II. _Rainfall, Cultivation, Population, and Land Revenue._
+
+  ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+-------------------------------------------+----------+-------------
+            |             |        |       |          |    Classes of Cultivation, p.c.           |Population| Land
+  Zone      | District    |Rainfall|No. of |Cultivated+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+   1911   | Revenue
+            |             |   in   |Masonry|  Area    |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          | in 1911-12
+            |             |inches  |Wells  |  Acres   |Well |Canal| Abí |Total|Moist| Dry |Total  |          | in hundreds
+            |             |        |       | 1911-12  |     |     |     |Irrd.|     |     |Unirrd.|          | of rupees
+  ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----------+-------------
+            |Kánga        | 125    |     5 |  587,826 | --  | --  | 20  | 20  | --  |  80 |  80   |   770,386|   9,267
+            |Simla        |  68    |  --   |    9,984 | --  | --  |  7  |  7  | --  |  93 |  93   |    39,320|  175
+            |Ambála       |  35    | 2,154 |  750,515 |  4  | --  |  2  |  6  |  4  |  90 |  94   |   689,970|  11,477
+            |Hoshyárpur   |  36    | 6,841 |  722,122 |  5  |  2  |  1  |  8  | --  |  92 |  92   |   918,569|  14,225
+            |             |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |
+            |Total British|  --    | 9,000 |2,070,447 |  3  |  1  |  6½ | 10½ |  1½ |  88 |  89½  | 2,418,245|  35,144
+  Mountain  |dts. Panjáb  |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          | (1.10.0[1])
+    and     +-------------+--------+-------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----------+-------------
+  Submontane| Hazára      |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |
+            | (N.W.F.P.)  |  46    |   353 |  430,872 | --  |  -- | 10  | 10  |  -- |  90 |  90   |   603,028|   5,129
+            |             |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |   (1.3.1)
+            +-------------+--------+-------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----------+-------------
+            |Kashmír and  |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |
+            |  Jammu      |  35[3] |    -- |1,750,056 | --  | --  | --  | 32  |  -- |  -- |  68   | 2,893,066|    --
+            |Indus        |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |
+            | Valley[2]   |   5[4] |    -- |  121,952 | --  | --  | --  | --  |  -- |  -- | 100   |   210,315|    --
+            |             |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |
+            |Total Kashmir|  --    |    -- |1,872,008 | --  | --  | --  | 30  |  -- |  -- |  70   | 3,103,381|    --
+  ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----------+-------------
+            | Gujrát      |  28    |10,221 |  845,023 | 26  | --  | --  | 26  |   6 |  68 |  74   |   784,011|   8,445
+  North     | Siálkot     |  35    |23,010 |  941,558 | 54  |  1  |  3  | 58  |   9 |  33 |  42   |   979,553|  14,847
+  Central   | Gurdáspur   |  35    | 6,439 |  844,403 | 16  | 11  | --  | 27  |  14 |  59 |  73   |   836,771|  15,410
+  Panjáb    | Amritsar    |  24    |12,386 |  787,229 | 31  | 31  | --  | 62  |   4 |  34 |  38   |   880,728|  12,746
+  Plain     | Jalandhar   |  28    |28,289 |  695,571 | 44  | --  | --  | 44  |   5 |  51 |  56   |   801,920|  14,871
+  (British  | Ludhiána    |  28    | 9,991 |  754,373 | 19  |  7  | --  | 26  |   4 |  70 |  74   |   517,192|  11,103
+  Districts)|             |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |
+            | Total       |        |90,336 |4,868,157 | 32  |  8  |  1  | 41  |   7 |  52 |  59   | 4,800,175|  77,422
+            |             |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |  (1.9.5)
+  ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----------+-------------
+
+  ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----------+-------------
+            |Ráwalpíndí   |  33    |   947 |  598,371 |   ½ | --  |   ½ |  1  | --  |  99 |  99   |   547,827|   6,754
+            |Jhelam       |  26    | 4,103 |  754,585 |  4  | --  | --  |  4  |  4  |  92 |  96   |   511,175|   7,576
+            |Attock       |  19    | 6,850 |1,031,962 |  2½ | --  |  1  |  3½ |  1  |  96 |  97   |   519,273|   6,741
+            |Mianwáli     |  12    | 7,128 |  748,255 | 17  |  2  |  -- | 19  | 38½ |  42½|  81   |   341,377|   4,866
+            |             |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |
+    North-  |Total Panjáb |  --    |19,028 |3,133,173 |  6  |   ½ |   ½ |  7  | 10  |  83 |  93   | 1,919,652|  25,937
+     West   |             |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |  (0.13.3)
+     Area   +-------------+--------+-------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----------+-------------
+            |Pesháwar     |  13    | 6,597 |  894,803 |  5  | 33  |   ½ | 38½ |  2  |  59½|  61½  |   865,009|  11,375
+            |Kohát        |  18    |   467 |  327,949 |   ½ | --  | 12  | 12½ |   ½ |  87 |  87½  |   222,690|   2,755
+            |Bannu        |  13    |    11 |  523,688 | --  | 24  | --  | 24  | --  |  76 |  76   |   256,086|   3,040
+            |             |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |
+            |Total        |  --    | 7,075 |1,746,440 |  3  | 24-½|  2-½| 30  |  1  |  69 |  70   | 1,343,785|  17,170
+            | N.W.F.P.    |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |  (0.15.8)
+  ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----------+-------------
+            |Gujránwála   |  24    |10,926 |1,179,348 | 37  | 40  | --  | 77  |  4  |  19 |  23   |   923,419|  10,497
+            |Lahore       |  21    |13,828 |1,462,108 | 31  | 43-½|  1  | 75½ |  5  |  19½|  24½  | 1,036,158|  11,301
+            |Sháhpur      |  14    | 6,403 |1,267,566 | 14  | 55  | --  | 69  |  6  |  25 |  31   |   648,989|   8,701
+            |Jhang        |  10    |11,588 |  723,733 | 36  | 46  | --  | 82  | 16  |   2 |  18   |   515,526|   6,429
+            |Lyallpur     |   9    |   121 |1,373,892 | --  | 99  | --  | 99  |  1  |  -- |   1   |   857,711|  12,736
+   South-   |Montgomery   |  10    |10,472 |  815,355 | 27  | 28  |  1  | 56  | 25  |  19 |  44   |   555,219|   6,225
+   Western  |Multán       |   7    |20,132 |1,081,030 | 58½ | 26  |  1  | 85½ | 13½ |   1 |  14½  |   814,871|  15,865
+   Plains   |Muzaffargarh |   6    |14,053 |  553,643 | 36  | 33  |  4  | 73  | 27  |  -- |  27   |   569,461|   7,316
+            |Dera Ghází   |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |
+            | Khán        |   6    | 9,564 |1,035,011 | 25½ | 16  |  2½ | 42  | 53½ |   2½|  56   |   499,860|   5,752
+            |             |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |
+            |Total Panjáb |  --    |97,087 |9,491,686 | 28  | 46  |  1  | 75  | 14½ |  10½|  25   | 6,420,814|  84,822
+            | districts   |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |  (0.14.4)
+            +-------------+--------+-------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----------+-------------
+            |D.I.  Khán   |   8    |   795 |  544,746 |  1  | 17  |  8  | 26  | 11  |  63 |  74   |   256,120|   3,062
+            | N.W.F.P.    |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |  (0.9.0)
+  ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----------+-------------
+            |Karnál       |  30    | 7,827 |1,148,876 | 13  | 21  | --  | 34  | 10  |  56 |  66   |   799,787|  10,833
+            |Delhi[6]     |  --    | 7,133 |  555,057 | 19  | 18  | --  | 37  |  6  |  57 |  63   |   657,604|   8,563
+    South-  |Gurgaon      |  26    | 6,594 |  988,613 | 13  | 10  |  1  | 24  |  3½ |  72½|  76   |   643,177|  12,182
+   Eastern  |Rohtak       |  21    | 2,450 |  974,200 |  4½ | 30  | --  | 34½ | --  |  65½|  65½  |   541,489|   9,660
+    Plains  |Hissár       |  16    |   720 |2,691,478 | --  | 11¼ | --  | 11¼ |  2¼ |  86½|  88¾  |   804,809|   8,582
+  (British  |Ferozepore   |  21    | 7,940 |2,248,322 |  7  | 40½ | --  | 47½ |  2  |  50½|  52½  |   959,657|  12,066
+  Districts)|             |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |
+            |Total Panjáb |  --    |32,664 |8,606,546 |  7  | 22½ | --  | 29½ |  3½ |  67 |  70½  | 4,306,523|  61,886
+            | districts   |        |       |          |     |     |     |     |     |     |       |          |  (0.11.6)
+  ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----------+-------------
+
+  [1] Rate per cultivated acre in rupees (Rupee 1 = 16 pence).
+
+  [2] = Ladákh, Baltistán, Astor, and Gilgit.
+
+  [3] At Jammu.
+
+  [4] At Gilgit. Leh 3, Skardo 5.
+
+  [5] Including Frontier _Iláka_ 264,750.
+
+  [6] The Delhi district has been broken
+  up, and, with the exception of the area now administered by the Government of India, has been divided between
+  Rohtak and Gurgaon.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  TABLE III. _Diagrams relating to Cultivation._
+
+  PANJÁB
+
+  [Illustration: (_a_) Harvests and Irrigation
+
+  Rabi  59 p.c.
+  Irrigated Rabi  25/59
+
+  Kharif  41 p.c.
+  Irrigated Kharif  13/41]
+
+  [Illustration: (_b_) Classes of Land
+
+  Abi 1 p.c.
+  Canal 24 p.c.
+  Dry 49 p.c.
+  Moist 8 p.c.
+  Well 18 p.c.]
+
+  N.W.F. PROVINCE
+
+  (_a_) Harvests
+
+  Rabi  64 p.c.
+  Kharif  36 p.c.
+
+  [Illustration: (B) Classes of Land
+
+  Abi 6 p.c.
+  Well 2 p.c.
+  Canal 19 p.c.
+  Dry 70 p.c.
+  Moist 3 p.c.]
+
+
+  PANJÁB
+
+  [Illustration: (_c_) Crops
+
+  Wheat 31 p.c.
+  Other Crops 15-1/2 p.c.
+  Cotton 4-1/2 p.c.
+  Other Pulses 6-1/2 p.c.
+  Fodder 8-1/2 p.c.
+  Maize 4 p.c.
+  Millets (grain) 14 p.c.
+  Gram 16 p.c.]
+
+  N.W.F. PROVINCE
+
+  [Illustration: (_c_) Crops
+
+  Wheat 36 p.c.
+  Other Crops 19-1/2 p.c.
+  Other Pulses 3-1/2 p.c.
+  Fodder 3-1/2 p.c.
+  Maize 16-1/2 p.c.
+  Millets 12 p.c.
+  Cotton 2 p.c.
+  Gram 7 p.c.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Only tribes amounting in number to 1 p.c. of total population shown.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE IV. _Percentages of Principal Crops_[1].
+
+  KEY:
+  ** = (both harvests)
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+            |                  |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |                  |      |      | Rape  |   Pulses    |      |      |
+            |                  |      |      |_Toria_|------+------|      |      |
+    Zone    |  Districts       |Wheat |Barley| and   |      |Other |Fodder|Maize |
+            |                  |      |      |_Tara_ | Gram |Pulses|  **  |      |
+            |                  |      |      |_mira_ |      |  **  |      |      |
+  ----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |Kángra            | 32   |   7  |   1   |  4   |  4   |  --  | 21   |
+            |Simla             | 31   |  15  |   --  |  --  |  3   |  --  | 13   |
+            |Ambála            | 26   |   2  |   1   | 17   |  9   | 11   | 10½  |
+            |Hoshyárpur        | 33   |   1½ |   1   | 17   |  5   |  7   | 17½  |
+  Mountain  |                  |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |Total Panjáb      | 30   |   3  |   1   | 13   |  6   |  6   | 16   |
+  and       |  districts       |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+  Submontane|                  |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |Hazára N.W.F.P.   | 26   |  10  |   1   | --   | 10   |  1½  | 43   |
+  Zone      |------------------+------+------+-------+--------- ---+------+------+
+            |                  |      |      |       |  \________/ |      |      |
+            |Kashmír and Jammu | 21   |   4  |   --  |      7      |  --  | 38   |
+            |Indus Valley      | 29   |   4  |   --  |     12      |  --  |  7   |
+            |------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |Total Kashmír     | 23   |   4  |   --  |  8   |  --  | 35½  |  --  |
+  ----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |Gujrát            | 42   |   4  |   1   |  8   |  7   |  8   |  2½  |
+  North     |Siálkot           | 43   |   6  |   1   |  3   |  5   | 15   |  8   |
+  Central   |Gurdáspur         | 36   |   4  |   1   |  7   | 13   | 11   |  8   |
+  Panjáb    |Amritsar          | 36   |   2  |   3   | 16   |  3   | 20   |  5   |
+  Plain     |Jalandhar         | 33   |   1  |   --  | 15   |  7   | 23   | 10   |
+  (British  |Ludhiána          | 28   |   2  |   2   |  3   |  8   | 11   |  7   |
+  districts)|                  |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |Total             | 37   |   3  |   1   | 11   |  8   | 14   |  7   |
+  ----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |Ráwalpindí        | 41   |   2  |   1   |  1   | 19   |  2½  |  8   |
+            |Jhelam            | 47   |   2  |   2   |  3   | 10   |  5   |  1   |
+            |Attock            | 50   |   2  |   2   |  9   |  7½  |  2½  |  2½  |
+  North-    |Mianwálí          | 34   |   4  |   3   | 19   | 10   |  2   |  --  |
+            |                  |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+    West    |Total Panjáb      | 43   |   2  |   2   |  7   | 11   |  3½  |  3   |
+            |  districts       |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+    Area    |------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |Pesháwar          | 36½  |  16  |   1   |  1   |  3   |  7   | 18½  |
+            |Kohát             | 43   |   2½ |   1   |  5   |  4   |  2   |  8   |
+            |Bannu             | 49   |   4  |   --  | 24   |   ½  |  4   |  8   |
+            |                  |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |Total N.W.F.P.    | 41   |  10  |   1   |  8½  |  2½  |  5   | 13½  |
+  ----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |Gujránwála        | 40   |   3  |   4   | 15½  |  3   | 12   |  2½  |
+            |Lahore            | 37   |   1  |   6   | 16   |  1   | 15   |  4½  |
+            |Shahpur           | 44   |   1  |   7   |  7   |  3   | 10   |  2   |
+            |Jhang             | 47   |   1  |   2   |  4½  |  4   | 10   |  2   |
+  South-    |Lyallpur          | 42½  |    ½ |  13   |  8   |  2½  |  5   |  4½  |
+            |Montgomery        | 41   |   1½ |   2   | 13   |  4½  | 17   |  3   |
+    Western |Multán            | 41   |   1  |   2   |  4   |  6   | 13   |   ½  |
+            |Muzaffargarh      | 44½  |   3  |   2   |  8   | 10   |  7   |  --  |
+    Plains  |Dera Ghází Khán   | 27   |   1  |  10   |  3½  |  5½  |  5   |  --  |
+            |                  |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |Total Panjáb d    | 40½  |   1½ |   6   |  9   |  4   | 10   |  2   |
+            |  districts       |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |D.I. Khán N.W.F.P.| 31   |   2  |  13   |  8   |  3   |   ½  |  --  |
+  ----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |Karnál            | 21   |   2  |   5   | 26½  |  4½  |  6½  |  5½  |
+            |Rohtak            |  8   |   2½ |   1   | 34½  |  7   |  2   |  --  |
+            |Gurgáon           |  8   |  13  |   1½  | 20   | 12   |  4   |  --  |
+  South-    |Hissar            |  4   |   7  |   4   | 28   |  8   |  4   |  --  |
+    Eastern |Ferozepore        | 28   |   7  |   4   | 31½  |  4   |  8   |  2½  |
+    Plains  |                  |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+  (British  |Total Panjáb      | 14   |   6  |   3   | 28½  |  7   |  5   |  1½  |
+  Districts)|  districts       |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |Grand total Panjáb| 31   |   3½ |   4   | 16   |  6½  |  8½  |  4   |
+            |     "    N.W.F.P.| 36   |   8½ |   3   |  7   |  3½  |  3½  | 16½  |
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+   -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |
+  |   Millets     |      |      |     |      |                  |
+  |-------+-------|      |      |     |Other |                  |
+  |       |       | Rice |Cotton|Cane |Crops |  Districts       | Zone
+  |_Bájra_|_Jowár_|      |      |     |  **  |                  |
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |
+  + ------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
+  |  --   |  --   | 15   |   ½  | 1   | 14½  |Kángra            |
+  |  --   |  --   |  6   |  --  | --  | 32   |Simla             |
+  |  1½   |  1    |  7   |  6   | 2   |  6   |Ambála            |
+  |   ½   |  1    |  4   |  2   | 3   |  7½  |Hoshyárpur        |
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |Mountain
+  |   ½   |   ½   |  8   |  3   | 2   | 11   |Total Panjáb      |
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |  districts       |and
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |Submontane
+  |  1½   |  1    |  3   |  1   | --  |  2   |Hazára N.W.F.P.   |
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|Zone
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |
+  |  --   |  --   |  9   |  --  | --  | 21   |Kashmír and Jammu |
+  |  --   |  --   |  1   |  --  | --  | 47   |Indus Valley      |
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|
+  |  --   |  8    |  --  |  --  |     | 21½  |Total Kashmír     |
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
+  | 15    |  6    |  1   |  1½  | 1   |  1   |Gujrát            |
+  |  1½   |  1½   |  6½  |  2   | 4   |  3½  |Siálkot           |North
+  |   ½   |   ½   |  6½  |  1   | 7   |  4½  |Gurdáspur         |Central
+  |  --   |  --   |  4½  |  4   | 3   |  3½  |Amritsar          |Panjáb
+  |  --   |  --   |  --  |  3½  | 3½  |  4   |Jalandhar         |Plain
+  |   ½   |  3    |  --  |  2   | 2   | 12   |Ludhiána          |(British
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |districts)
+  |   3   |  2    |  3   |  2½  | 3½  |  4½  |Total             |
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
+  |  17   |  4    |  --  |  1   | --  |  3½  |Ráwalpindí        |
+  |  21   |  2    |  --  |  2   | --  |  5   |Jhelam            |
+  |  19   |  2½   |  --  |  2   | --  |  1   |Attock            |
+  |  19   |  4    |  --  |   ½  | --  |  4½  |Mianwálí          |North-
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |
+  |  19   |  3    |  --  |  1½  | --  |  5   |Total Panjáb      |  West
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |  districts       |
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------|  Area
+  |  1    |  4½   |  1½  |  4   | 3   |  3   |Pesháwar          |
+  | 27½   |  2    |  1   |  1   |  -- |  3   |Kohát             |
+  |  3    |  1¼   |   ½  |   ½  | 1¼  |  4   |Bannu             |
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |
+  |  6    |  3    |  1   |  2½  | 2   |  4   |Total N.W.F.P.    |
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
+  |  2½   |  3    |  5   |  5   | 2½  |  2   |Gujránwála        |
+  |  1    |  1    |  2½  |  9   | 1   |  5   |Lahore            |
+  | 10    |  3½   |  1   |  8   |  ½  |  3   |Shahpur           |
+  |  2    |  8    |   ½  |  5½  | --  | 13½  |Jhang             |
+  |   ½   |  1    |  --  |  9   | 2½  | 11   |Lyallpur          |South-
+  |  1    |  2    |  3   |  5   | --  |  7   |Montgomery        |
+  |  4    |  8    |  3   |  9   | --  |  8½  |Multán            |  Western
+  |  3    |  2    |  7   |  6   | 1   |  6½  |Muzaffargarh      |
+  |  9    | 23    |  8   |  6   | --  |  2   |Dera Ghází Khán   |  Plains
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |
+  |  3½   |  4    |  3   |  7   | 1   |  8½  |Total Panjáb      |
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |  districts       |
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|
+  | 22    |  9    |  --  |  2   |  -- |  9½  |D.I. Khán N.W.F.P.|
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
+  |  5    | 11½   |  4   |  6   | 2   |   ½  |Karnál            |
+  | 21    | 14    |  --  |  6½  | 2   |  1½  |Rohtak            |
+  | 25    |  5    |  --  |  8   |  ½  |  3   |Gurgáon           |
+  | 26    |  6½   |  --  |  3   | --  |  9½  |Hissar            |South-
+  |  3    |  6    |  --  |  --  | --  |  6   |Ferozepore        |  Eastern
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |  Plains
+  | 15    |  8    |   ½  |  3½  |  ½  |  7½  |Total Panjáb      |(British
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |  districts       |Districts)
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|
+  |  9    |  5    |  2½  |  4½  | 1½  |  4   |Grand total Panjáb|
+  |  8    |  4    |  1   |  2   | 1   |  6   |     "    N.W.F.P.|
+  -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+[1] In case of Panjáb districts figures relate to _Kharif_ 1910 and
+_Rabi_ 1911.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE V _Revenue and Expenditure_, 1911-12.
+
+  +-------------------+-------------------------+--------------------------+
+  |                   |         Income          |       Expenditure        |
+  |                   +---------+---------------+--------+-----------------|
+  |    Heads          |         |  Provincial   |        |    Provincial   |
+  |                   |         +---------------+--------+--------+--------|
+  |                   |Total in |               |Total in|        |        |
+  |                   |Rs. 000  |Share  |Amount |Rs. 000 | Share  |Amount  |
+  |                   |         |       |in     |        |        |in      |
+  |                   |         |       |Rs. 000|        |        |Rs. 000 |
+  |-------------------+---------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------|
+  |Land Revenue       |3,47,92  | Half  |1,73,96|   47,76| Whole  |47,76   |
+  |Salt               |  38,16  | Nil   |  --   |    4,82|  Nil   |  --    |
+  |Stamps             |  52,57  | Half  |  26,29|    1,77|  Half  |  89    |
+  |Excise             |  64,00  | Half  |  32,00|    1,71|  Half  |  86    |
+  |Income-tax         |  16,22  | Half  |   8,11|   11   |  Half  |   5    |
+  |Forests            |  13,10  | Whole |  13,10|    7,64| Whole  | 7,65   |
+  |Registration       |   3,16  | Whole |   3,16|    1,20| Whole  | 1,20   |
+  |General            |         |       |       |        |        |        |
+  |Administration     |   --    |  --   |   --  |   18,33|Various |13,65   |
+  |Law and Justice    |         |       |       |        |        |        |
+  |  --Courts         |  4,35   | Whole |   4,35|   42,18| Whole  |42,18   |
+  |Law and Justice    |         |       |       |        |        |        |
+  |  --Jails          |  3,41   | Whole |   3,41|   12,24| Whole  |12,24   |
+  |Police             |  1,80   | Whole |   1,80|   58,57| Whole  |58,57   |
+  |Education          |  3,64   | Whole |   3,64|   23,27| Whole  |23,27   |
+  |Irrigation--       |         |       |       |        |        |        |
+  | Major Works       | 2,13,08 | Half  |1,06,54| 1,36,42| Half   |68,21   |
+  |Irrigation--       |         |       |       |        |        |        |
+  | Minor Works       | 7,99    |Various|   56  |   11,17|Various |1,07    |
+  |Civil Works        | 6,93    |Various|   6,20|   67,90|Various |62,70   |
+  |Medical            |  --     |   --  |  --   |   21,20| Whole  |21,20   |
+  |All other heads[1] |  27,60  |Nil and|  16,21|   56,96| Whole, |41,29   |
+                      |         |various|       |        |various,|        |
+                      |         |       |       |        |  and   |        |
+                      |         |       |       |        |  nil   |        |
+  --------------------+---------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------|
+  Total               |8,03,93  |  --   |3,99,33|5,13,25 |   --   |4,02,79 |
+  --------------------+---------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+
+
+[1] Under Income "Salt," "Tribute," "Interest," "Miscellaneous," and
+"All other heads." Under Expenditure "Political," "Scientific,"
+"Pensions," "Stationery," "All other items."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Abbott, Captain J.; 299, 300
+
+  Abbottábád; 302, 303, 355
+
+  Adamwahán railway bridge; 46, 283
+
+  Adína Beg; 179
+
+  Administration, British 1849-1913; 188-195
+    General; 212-221
+    Local; 222
+
+  Afghán War; 1878-1880 193
+
+  Afrídís; 196, 297, 309
+
+  Agriculture; 101, 102, 143, Tables II, III, IV
+
+  Agriculturists, Legislation to protect; 102
+
+  Agror; 303
+
+  Ahírs; 230, 231
+
+  Ahmad Sháh; 178, 179
+
+  Aitchison, Sir Charles; 194
+
+  Akazais; 303
+
+  Akbar; 172
+
+  Ála Singh, Rája; 273, 274
+
+  Alá ud dín; 169
+
+  Alexander the Great; 161-162
+
+  Alexandra railway bridge; 41
+
+  Ali Masjid; 356
+
+  Alptagin; 168
+
+  Altamsh; 170
+
+  Alum; 59
+
+  Amb; 303
+
+  Ambála division; 225-235
+    district; 233-235
+    town and cantonment; 347
+
+  Ambela; 192, 305, 356
+
+  Amritsar district; 249
+    town; 175, 339, 340
+
+  Anandpál Rája; 168
+
+  Arains; 242, 245, 248, 252, 279
+
+  Aravallís; 50
+
+  Archaeology; 200-208
+
+  Areas; 2-3
+
+  Arjan Guru; 175
+
+  Aroras; 105, 106
+
+  Asoka; 162, 163
+
+  Attock, Fort; 37, 38, 350
+
+  Attock district; 257, 258
+
+  Aurangzeb; 172, 177
+
+  Awáns; 105, 254, 258-260, 299-300
+
+
+  Bábar; 172, 273
+
+  Bábusar pass; 301
+
+  Baháwalpur State; 280-283
+    town; 353
+
+  Bajaur; 306
+
+  Balban; 170
+
+  Bánda; 178
+
+  Banias; 106
+
+  Bannu district; 295, 296
+    town; 355
+
+  Bár; 261, 262, 267
+
+  Bára river; 298, 309
+
+  Báralácha pass; 12, 236
+
+  Báramúla; 40, 357
+
+  Bárí Doáb Canal, Upper; 135, 249, 251
+    Lower; 138, 262
+
+  Barnála; 179, 353
+
+  Bashahr State; 287-290
+
+  Báspa river; 288, 289
+
+  Bazár valley; 309
+
+  Bein torrent; 45
+
+  Bhakkar; 258
+
+  Bhittannís; 294
+
+  Bhupindar Singh, Mahárája of Patiála; 275
+
+  Bhure Singh, Rája of Chamba; 286
+
+  Biás river; 43-45, 162, 237, 249, 251
+    railway bridge; 45
+
+  Biláspur State; 288
+
+  Biloches; 104, 105, 268, 269
+
+  Birmal; 24
+
+  Black buck; 94, 95
+
+  Black Mountain Expedition; 191
+
+  Boltoro glacier; 21
+
+  Borax; 60
+
+  Boundaries; 3-6
+
+  Brahmans; 104, 106, 240
+
+  Brijindar Singh, Rája of Farídkot; 280
+
+  Buddhism; 114, 115, 169, 236, 289
+
+  Bunhár torrent; 254
+
+  Burzil pass; 12
+
+
+  Canals; 132-141, 197
+
+  Carving in wood and ivory; 154
+
+  Castes; 105, 106
+
+  Chagarzais; 302
+
+  Chail; 29
+
+  Chakdarra; 305, 306, 356
+
+  Chakkí torrent; 45
+
+  Chamba State; 245, 246
+    town; 201, 354
+
+  Chamberlain, Sir Neville; 305
+
+  Chamkannís; 310, 311
+
+  Chandrabhága river; 2, 41, 286
+    (see also Chenáb)
+
+  Chandra Gupta; 162
+
+  Chatar Singh, Sardar; 186-187
+
+  Chenáb river; 41, 247, 249, 252, 261, 266, 267
+
+  Cherát; 31, 355
+
+  Chilás; 36, 301, 357
+
+  Chilianwála; 187, 351
+
+  Chingiz Khán; 170
+
+  Chíní; 44, 288, 354
+
+  Chitrál; 196, 305, 307, 308, 356
+
+  Chitrál and Dír levies; 313
+
+  Cholera; 101
+
+  Chor mountain; 285
+
+  Chos; 241
+
+  Christians; 119
+
+  Chund Bharwána railway bridge; 41
+
+  Climate; 64-70
+
+  Coal; 58
+
+  Coins 208-211
+
+  Colleges; 125, 126
+
+  Colonization of Canal lands; 136, 139, 140, 263
+
+  Co-operative Credit Societies; 197, 199
+
+  Crops; 146-150, Tables III-IV
+
+  Cultivation; 142-150, Tables II-III
+
+
+  Dalhousie, Lord; 188
+
+  Dalhousie hill station; 68, 246, 350
+
+  Dalíp Singh, Mahárája; 184
+
+  Dandot; 58
+
+  Dane, Sir Louis; 199
+
+  Darbár 1877; 193-333
+    1903; 333
+    Coronation 1911; 199, 333, 334
+
+  Dards; 107, 108
+
+  Darius; 161
+
+  Darwesh Khel; 312
+
+  Daulat Ráo Sindhia; 183
+
+  Daur valley; 312
+
+  Davies, Sir Henry; 191
+
+  Deane, Sir Harold; 197
+
+  Degh torrent; 42, 247
+
+  Delhi; 169, 199, 205-208, 224, 225, 325-334
+
+  Delhi-Ambála-Kalka Railway; 130
+
+  Deodár; 80, 86, 302, 307
+
+  Dera Gopípur; 44
+
+  Dera Gházi Khán district; 268-270
+
+  Dera Ismail Khán district; 294, 295
+    town and cantonment; 355
+
+  Dharmsála; 68, 238, 348
+
+  Dhauladhár; 16
+
+  Dhúnds; 256
+
+  Dír; 305-307
+
+  Domel; 40
+
+  Dorah pass; 22
+
+  Dor river; 299, 301
+
+  Dost Muhammad, Amír; 184
+
+  Drishaks; 270
+
+  Dujána State; 283
+
+  Dungagalí; 355
+
+  Durand, Colonel; 194
+
+  Durand, Sir Henry; 191
+
+  Durand Line; 4, 196, 306, 307, 308
+
+
+  Earthquake of; 1905 197
+
+  Education; 119, 121-126
+
+  Edwardes, Sir Herbert; 186
+
+  Edwardesábád; 355
+
+  Egerton, Sir Robert; 191
+
+  Ekbhai mountain; 27
+
+  Ethnology; 109, 110
+
+  Expenditure, Provincial; 219-220, Table V
+
+  Exports and Imports; 159
+
+
+  Factories; 156, 157
+
+  Famines; 195, 227
+
+  Farídkot State; 244, 280
+
+  Fateh Singh, Sardár of Kapúrthala; 279
+
+  Fauna; 90-95
+
+  Ferozepore district; 243-245
+    railway bridge; 46
+    town and cantonment; 349
+
+  Ferozesháh, battle of; 186, 244, 349
+
+  Fever, mortality from; 100, 101
+
+  Finance; 219-222
+
+  Fitzpatrick, Sir Dennis; 195
+
+  Flora; 71-85
+
+  Fluctuating assessments; 221
+
+  Forests; 86-89
+
+  Fort Lockhart; 355
+
+  Fort Munro; 27, 270
+
+  Fossils; 53, 55-57
+
+  Fotulá; 12
+
+
+  Gaddís; 236
+
+  Gajpat Singh, Sardár of Jind; 276
+
+  Game; 91-95
+
+  Gandamak, treaty of; 193
+
+  Gandgarh hills; 302
+
+  Ghagar torrent; 46, 47, 227, 231, 233
+
+  Ghaibana Sir; 31
+
+  Ghakkhars; 168, 169, 254, 256, 300
+
+  Ghaznevide raids; 168
+
+  Giandári hill; 27
+
+  Gilgit; 194, 321, 323
+
+  Girí river; 235, 285, 288
+
+  Gírths; 240
+
+  Godwin Austen Mt; 21
+
+  Gold; 59, 322
+
+  Gomal pass; 25, 312
+
+  Gough, Lord; 187
+
+  Govind Singh, Guru; 177, 178
+
+  Granth Sáhib; 175
+
+  Grey Inundation Canals; 244
+
+  Gújars; 107, 241, 245, 252, 300
+
+  Gujránwála district; 249
+    town; 350
+
+  Gujrát battle; 187
+    district; 252
+    town; 351
+
+  Guláb Singh, Rája; 184, 186, 219, 314, 323
+
+  Gulmarg; 357
+
+  Gupta Empire; 164
+
+  Gurais; 357
+
+  Gurchánís; 270
+
+  Gurdáspur district; 245, 246
+
+  Gurgáon district; 229, 230
+
+  Gurkhas; 235, 274, 289
+
+  Gurus, Sikh; 173-178
+
+
+  Hakra river; 40
+
+  Handicrafts; 152-156
+
+  Hangu; 297
+
+  Haramukh mountain; 14
+
+  Haríke ferry; 44
+
+  Hari Singh Nalwa, Sardár; 184
+
+  Haro river; 38, 258, 299, 301, 302
+
+  Harvests; 142
+
+  Hasanzais; 303
+
+  Hattu mountains; 288
+
+  Hazára district; 186, 298-303
+
+  Himálaya; 8-20, 67, 68
+
+  Hindkís; 299
+
+  Hindu Kush; 22, 23, 305, 307
+
+  Hindur; 287
+
+  Hindus and Hinduism; 114-118, 119, 120
+
+  Híra Singh Sir, Rája of Nadha; 278
+
+  Hissár district; 226-228
+    town; 347
+
+  History; 160-199
+
+  Hiuen Tsang; 165
+
+  Hoshyárpur district; 240, 241, 278
+
+  Humáyun; 172
+
+  Hunza town; 357
+
+  Hunza and Nagar; 323
+
+  Hunza-Nagar levies; 313
+    war; 194, 195
+
+
+  Ibbetson, Sir Denzil; 197, 198
+
+  Imperial Service troops; 276, 277, 279, 283
+
+  Income and Expenditure; 219, 286, Table V
+
+  Indus river; 34-39, 260, 270, 281, 296, 300, 302
+
+  Inundation Canals; 139, 262, 267
+
+  Islámábád; 358
+
+
+  Jagatjít Singh, Mahárája of Kapúrthala; 279
+
+  Jahángír; 173, 175, 208
+
+  Jains; 280
+
+  Jalandhar district; 241, 242
+    town and cantonment; 349
+
+  Jalandhara kingdom; 241
+
+  Jálkot; 36
+
+  Jammu State; 107, 314-317
+    town; 358
+
+  Jamna river; 48, 49
+
+  Jamna Western Canal; 133, 135
+
+  Jamrúd; 356
+
+  Janjúas; 254
+
+  Jassa Singh, Ahluwáha Sardár; 279
+
+  Jats; 103, 104, 234, 240, 242, 245, 248, 249, 252, 254
+
+  Jhang district; 265, 266
+
+  Jhelam Canal, Lower; 133, 137, 138, 261, 265
+    Upper; 138, 252
+
+  Jhelam district; 253, 254
+    river; 39, 40, 253, 254, 261, 265, 301
+    town and cantonment; 351
+
+  Jind; 271, 276, 277
+
+  Joint Stock Companies; 157, 158
+
+  Jowákis; 297, 310
+
+  Jubbal State; 287
+
+
+  Kabul; 22, 165
+    river; 23, 37, 298
+    canal; 140, 298
+
+  Káfiristan range; 307
+
+  Kágan; 40, 301
+
+  Kahá torrent; 270
+
+  Kaisargarh mountain; 26
+
+  Kálabágh; 38, 39, 295
+
+  Kálachitta range; 30, 258
+
+  Kalsia State; 280
+
+  Kamália; 353
+
+  Kambohs; 263
+
+  Kángra district; 235-240
+    town and fort; 168, 171, 183, 349
+
+  Kanjútís; 108
+
+  Kankar; 60, 127
+
+  Kaoshan pass; 22
+
+  Kapúrthala State; 278, 279
+    town; 356
+
+  Karakoram; 20, 324
+
+  Karnál district; 230-232
+    town; 348
+
+  Kashmír, Early History; 165, 166, 172
+    Forests; 89
+    Population; 99, 100, 106, 107
+    Territories; 2, 12, 14, 16, 20, 21, 193, 314, 324
+
+  Kashmírí Pandits; 107
+
+  Kasránis; 270
+
+  Katás; 201
+
+  Káthias; 263
+
+  Keonthal State; 287
+
+  Keppel, Sir George Roos; 197
+
+  Khaibar; 23, 309
+    Rifles; 308, 309, 313
+
+  Khairímúrat hills; 30, 258
+
+  Khánkí weir; 195, 310
+
+  Khánwáh Canal; 263
+
+  Kharrals; 263
+
+  Khatrís; 105, 106
+
+  Khattaks; 297, 298
+
+  Kheora Salt Mine; 51, 351
+
+  Khojas; 104
+
+  Khosas; 170
+
+  Khost; 311
+
+  Khowar; 308
+
+  Khurmana river; 311
+
+  Khushálgarh railway bridge; 130
+
+  Kila Drosh; 307, 308
+
+  Kirána hill; 261
+
+  Kishngangá river; 40, 261, 319
+
+  Kohála; 40, 257
+
+  Kohát district; 296-298
+    salt; 57, 58, 296
+    town and cantonment; 356
+
+  Kolahoi mountain; 14
+
+  Kúka rising; 192, 193
+
+  Kulu; 17, 235, 237, 238
+
+  Kunar river; 23, 37, 307
+
+  Kunáwar; 289
+
+  Kunhár 40, 301
+
+  Kurram militia; 313
+    river; 39, 260, 295, 311
+    valley; 24, 296
+
+
+  Ladákh; 64, 65, 109, 112, 319-321
+
+  Laghárís; 270
+
+  Lahore city; 169, 173, 334-339
+    district; 251, 252
+    division; 245
+    railway bridge; 43
+
+  Lahul; 64, 236
+
+  Lake, Lord; 183
+
+  Land Alienation Act, XIII of 1900; 196
+
+  Land Revenue; 220, 221
+
+  Landai river; 38
+
+  Landí Kotal; 357
+
+  Languages; 110-113
+
+  Lárjí; 43
+
+  Lawrence Memorial School; 234
+
+  Lawrence, Sir Henry; 186, 188
+    Sir John; 188-191
+
+  Legislative Council; 195, 216
+
+  Leh; 35, 64, 65, 358
+
+  Leprosy; 101
+
+  Liddar valley; 40
+
+  Lieutenant Governors; 188-199
+
+  Local Self Government; 195, 217, 218
+
+  Lohárs; 106, 152
+
+  Loháru State; 283
+
+  Loláb valley; 40
+
+  Lowárí pass; 307, 308
+
+  Lower Bárí Doáb Canal; 138, 262, 267
+    Chenáb Canal; 136, 137, 195, 263, 265
+    Jhelam Canal; 137, 138, 197, 260
+    Swát Canal; 140, 141, 298
+
+  Ludhiána district; 242, 243
+    town; 153, 349
+
+  Lulusar lake; 301
+
+  Lunds; 270
+
+  Lurí bridge; 45
+
+  Lyall, Sir James; 194
+
+  Lyallpur district; 263, 264
+    town; 353
+
+
+  Macleod, Sir Donald; 191
+
+  Mahaban mountain; 36
+
+  Mahirakula; 164
+
+  Mahmúd of Ghazní; 168
+
+  Mahsud Wazírs; 196, 312
+
+  Malakand pass; 299, 305, 306, 357
+
+  Malerkotla State; 283
+    town; 354
+
+  Máli ká parvat; 301
+
+  Malka; 305
+
+  Mallagorís; 308, 309
+
+  Mamdot; 244
+
+  Mamunds; 306
+
+  Manálí; 43, 237
+
+  Mandí State; 283, 284
+    town; 354
+
+  Mangal; 287
+
+  Mansehra; 356
+
+  Mardán; 298, 299
+
+  Márkanda torrent; 47
+
+  Mártand temple; 166, 358
+
+  Marwats; 296
+
+  Mazárís; 270
+
+  Mazhbís; 106
+
+  Meghs; 107
+
+  Menander; 163, 164
+
+  Mendicants; 106
+
+  Meos; 229
+
+  Metals; 59
+
+  Mianwálí district; 258-260
+
+  Miram Sháh; 357
+
+  Miranzai; 297
+
+  Moghal Empire; 171-180
+
+  Mohmands; 308, 309
+
+  Mongol invasions; 170
+
+  Montgomery, Sir Robert; 191
+
+  Montgomery district; 261, 262
+    town; 353
+
+  Mudkí battle field; 186, 282
+
+  Muhammad Ghorí; 169
+
+  Muhammad Tughlak; 170, 171
+
+  Muhammadan Architecture; 204-208
+
+  Muhammadan States; 280-283
+
+  Muhammadans; 118, 119, 252, 262, 291
+
+  Muín ul Mulk; 179
+
+  Mulráj, Diwán; 186-282
+
+  Multán district; 266, 267
+    division; 262
+
+  Multán city; 154, 166, 183, 186, 340, 341
+    district; 266-267
+    division; 262
+
+  Municipalities; 217
+
+  Murree; 68, 256, 303, 351, 352
+
+  Musa ká Musalla mountain; 301
+
+  Musallís; 106
+
+  Mutiny of 1857; 227
+
+  Muzaffargarh district; 267, 268
+
+
+  Nabha State; 271, 277, 278
+    town; 354
+
+  Nádir Sháh; 178
+
+  Náhan State; 285
+    town; 354
+
+  Nálagarh State; 207
+
+  Nanga parvat (mountain); 12
+
+  Naráina, battlefield of; 232
+
+  Nardak; 232
+
+  Nathiagalí; 356
+
+  Naushahra; 298, 356
+
+  North West Frontier Province; 197, 291-313
+
+  North Western Railway; 120-131
+
+  Nun and Kun peaks; 12, 324
+
+
+  Occupations; 101, 102, 105, 106, 152-156
+
+  O'Dwyer, Sir Michael; 199
+
+  Ohind; 37
+
+  Orakzais; 196, 297, 309-311
+
+  Otu weir; 47
+
+
+  Pabar river; 288
+
+  Pabbí hills; 252
+
+  Pahárpur canal; 292
+
+  Paiwar Kotal; 24
+
+  Pakhlí plain; 302
+
+  Pákpattan; 353
+
+  Palosí; 36
+
+  Pángí; 14, 286
+
+  Panipat; 172, 179, 232, 348
+
+  Panjkora river; 38, 306, 307
+
+  Panjnad river; 41, 382
+
+  Parachas; 106
+
+  Parachinár; 311, 357
+
+  Pataudí State; 283
+
+  Patháns; 105, 260, 294, 299, 300, 304, 311
+
+  Patiála State; 180, 271-274
+    town; 354
+
+  Pattan Munára; 354
+
+  Payech, see Payer
+
+  Payer; 201, 358
+
+  Pesháwar city; 160, 164, 169, 184, 341, 342
+    district; 298, 299
+
+  Petroleum; 59
+
+  Phillaur; 46, 243
+
+  Phulkian States; 196, 271-278
+
+  Pihowa; 232, 348
+
+  Pírghal mountain; 24
+
+  Pití, _See_ Spití
+
+  Plague; 97-99, 100, 195, 245
+
+  Population; 96-113
+
+  Pottery; 152, 156
+
+  Powindahs; 25
+
+  Pressure, barometric; 65-67
+
+  Punch; 358
+
+
+  Railways; 128-131
+
+  Rájput Hill Chiefs (Simla); 288
+
+  Rájputs; 104, 240, 241, 245, 248, 254, 288
+
+  Raldang mountain; 288
+
+  Rámpur ;45, 289
+
+  Ranbir Singh, Mahárája of Jínd; 277
+
+  Ranjít Singh, Mahárája; 181-184
+
+  Ráví river; 41-43, 247, 251, 262, 266, 267, 286
+
+  Ráwalpindi cantonment and town; 256, 352
+    district; 255-257
+    division; 252
+
+  Religions, Kashmír; 114
+    N. W. F. Province; 114
+    Panjáb; 114-117
+
+  Ripon, Lord; 195
+
+  Ripudaman Singh, Mahárája of Nábha; 270
+
+  Rivaz, Sir Charles 197
+
+  Rivers; 32-49
+
+  Road, Grand Trunk; 127
+
+  Roads; 127, 128
+
+  Rogí cliffs; 45
+
+  Rohtak district; 228, 229
+
+  Roos-Keppel, Sir George; 197
+
+  Rotang pass; 14, 236
+
+  Rúpar; 46, 348
+
+
+  Sabaktagin; 167, 168
+
+  Sádik Muhammad Khán, Nawáb of Baháwalpur; 281, 282
+
+  Sad Istragh mountains; 22
+
+  Safarmulk lake; 301
+
+  Safed Koh range; 24, 311
+
+  Saiyyids; 105, 304
+
+  Sakesar; 29, 352
+
+  Sakkí stream; 250
+
+  Salt; 57, 58
+
+  Salt Range ;29, 30, 253, 254, 257, 258, 262
+    Geology of; 51-53
+    Flora of; 76, 77
+
+  Samána range; 297
+    Rifles; 297, 298
+
+  Sam Ránízai; 306
+
+  Sangrúr; 276, 354
+
+  Sansár Chand, Rája; 183
+
+  Sapphires; 60
+
+  Saráj; 235, 237
+
+  Sarusti torrent; 46, 47, 231, 232
+    canal; 47
+
+  Sasserlá; 20
+
+  Sattís; 256
+
+  Sháh Álam, Emperor; 181
+
+  Sháhjahán; 173
+
+  Sháh Shuja; 184
+
+  Sháhpur district; 260-262
+
+  Shawal; 24
+
+  Shekhbudín; 31, 356
+
+  Shekhs; 105
+
+  Sher Khán; 170
+
+  Sher Singh Mahárája; 184
+
+  Shigrí glacier; 236
+
+  Shipkí pass; 45
+
+  Shooting; 94, 95
+
+  Shuidár mountain; 24
+
+  Shyok river; 36
+
+  Sialkot district; 247
+    town and cantonment; 164, 350
+
+  Siáls; 266
+
+  Sídhnai canal; 139, 267
+
+  Sikandar Lodí; 171
+
+  Sikarám mountain; 24
+
+  Sikh Jats; 104, 250, 252, 276, 280
+    wars; 186, 187
+    religion; 117, 118
+
+  Sil torrent; 258
+
+  Simla district; 254
+    hill station; 67, 68, 342-344
+    Hill States; 287-290
+
+  Sind valley; 40
+
+  Sirhind canal; 135, 136, 195, 227, 245, 271, 275, 276, 280
+
+  Sirhind, town; 177, 180, 354, 355
+
+  Sirmúr State; 285
+
+  Siwaliks; 27, 52, 53
+
+  Skárdo; 36, 321
+
+  Smallpox; 101
+
+  Soán torrent (Hoshyárpur); 241
+    (Ráwalpindí), _see_ Sohán
+
+  Sobráon, battle of; 186
+
+  Sohág Pára Canals; 262
+
+  Sohán torrent; 38, 253, 256
+
+  Southern Panjáb Railway; 130
+
+  Spití; 55, 235, 236
+    river; 45, 288
+
+  Stúpas; 202
+
+  Súds; 106
+
+  Sulimán range; 26, 27, 270, 290
+
+  Sultánpur (Kulu); 238
+
+  Sultánpur (Kapúrthala); 278
+
+  Sunárs; 106
+
+  Surindar Bikram Parkásh, late Rája of Sirmúr; 285, 286
+
+  Sutlej inundation canals; 267
+    river; 45, 46, 245, 262, 266, 281, 288
+
+
+  Takht i Sulimán mountain; 26
+    hill (Kashmír); 318
+
+  Tamerlane. _See_ Timúr
+
+  Tanáwal; 302, 303
+
+  Tanáwal hills; 302
+
+  Tarkanrís; 307
+
+  Tarkháns (carpenters); 106, 152
+
+  Terí; 296
+
+  Thakkars; 107
+
+  Thal desert; 149, 259-261, 262, 265, 267
+
+  Thal (Kohát); 297, 311, 356
+
+  Thandiáni; 356
+
+  Thanesar; 165, 168, 232, 348
+
+  Tilla hill; 29
+
+  Timúr (Tamerlane); 171
+
+  Tirach Mir mountain; 22, 308
+
+  Tirah Campaign; 176
+
+  Tiwánas; 260
+
+  Tochí valley; 24, 296
+
+  Tons, river; 48
+
+  Torrents, action of; 47, 48
+
+  Trade; 159
+
+  Traders; 105, 106
+
+  Tribal militias; 312
+
+  Triple Canal Project; 138, 197
+
+  Túmans Biloch; 270
+
+  Turís; 311
+
+
+  Uch; 355
+
+  Uchiri range; 307
+
+  Udyána; 304
+
+  Ujh torrent; 42
+
+  Umra Khán; 196
+
+  Unhár river; 302
+
+  University, Panjáb; 125, 126
+
+  Upper Bárí Doáb Canal; 135, 191, 247, 249, 251
+    Chenáb Canal; 138, 139, 249
+    Jhelam Canal; 138, 139, 252
+    Swát Canal; 141, 298
+
+  Utman Khel; 306
+
+
+  Vaccination; 101
+
+
+  Wána; 24, 196, 312, 357
+
+  Wattús; 263
+
+  Wazíristán; 312
+    hills; 24
+    militias; 313
+
+  Wazírs Darwesh Khel; 312
+    Madsud; 312
+
+  Weavers; 102, 152, 154
+
+  Wellesley, Marquis of; 182
+    Arthur; 183
+
+  Wells; 143, 144
+
+  Western Jamna Canal; 135, 227, 232, 273, 276
+
+  Wular lake; 40
+
+
+  Yakúb Khán, Amir; 194
+
+  Yárkhun river; 305, 307
+
+  Yasín river; 307
+
+  Young, Sir Mackworth; 195
+
+  Yúsafzais; 299, 304, 305, 306
+
+
+  Zaimukhts; 310
+
+  Zakaria Khán; 178
+
+  Zakha Khel; 309
+
+  Zamzama gun; 187
+
+  Zanskár; 320
+    Himálaya; 10, 286
+    river; 36
+
+  Zojilá; 12
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PANJAB, NORTH-WEST FRONTIER
+PROVINCE, AND KASHMIR***
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province, and
+Kashmir, by Sir James McCrone Douie</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir</p>
+<p>Author: Sir James McCrone Douie</p>
+<p>Release Date: February 10, 2008  [eBook #24562]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PANJAB, NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE, AND KASHMIR***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by Suzanne Lybarger, Asad Razzaki,<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <h1>THE PANJAB, NORTH-WEST<br />
+
+  FRONTIER PROVINCE<br />
+
+  AND KASHMIR<br /><br /></h1>
+
+  <h4>BY</h4>
+
+  <h2>SIR JAMES DOUIE, M.A., K.C.S.I.</h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">SEEMA PUBLICATIONS C-3/19, R. P. Bagh, Delhi-110007.<br /><br />
+
+<i>First Indian Edition 1974</i><br /><br />
+
+Printed in India at Deluxe Offset Press, Daya Basti, Delhi-110035 and<br />
+Published by Seema Publications, Delhi-110007.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="EDITORS_PREFACE" id="EDITORS_PREFACE"></a>EDITOR'S PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>In his opening chapter Sir James Douie refers to the fact that the area
+treated in this volume&mdash;just one quarter of a million square miles&mdash;is
+comparable to that of Austria-Hungary. The comparison might be extended;
+for on ethnographical, linguistic and physical grounds, the geographical
+unit now treated is just as homogeneous in composition as the Dual
+Monarchy. It is only in the political sense and by force of the ruling
+classes, temporarily united in one monarch, that the term
+<i>Osterreichisch</i> could be used to include the Poles of Galicia, the
+Czechs of Bohemia and Moravia, the Szeklers, Saxons and more numerous
+Rumanians of Transylvania, the Croats, Slovenes and Italians of
+"Illyria," with the Magyars of the Hungarian plain.</p>
+
+<p>The term <i>Punj&aacute;bi</i> much more nearly, but still imperfectly, covers the
+people of the Panj&aacute;b, the North-West Frontier Province, Kashm&iacute;r and the
+associated smaller Native States. The Sikh, Muhammadan and Hindu Jats,
+the Kashm&iacute;r&iacute;s and the R&aacute;jputs all belong to the tall, fair, leptorrhine
+Indo-Aryan main stock of the area, merging on the west and south-west
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>into the Biluch and Path&aacute;n Turko-Iranian, and fringed in the hill
+districts on the north with what have been described as products of the
+"contact metamorphism" with the Mongoloid tribes of Central Asia. Thus,
+in spite of the inevitable blurring of boundary lines, the political
+divisions treated together in this volume, form a fairly clean-cut
+geographical unit.</p>
+
+<p>Sir James Douie, in this work, is obviously living over again the happy
+thirty-five years which he devoted to the service of North-West India:
+his accounts of the physiography, the flora and fauna, the people and
+the administration are essentially the personal recollections of one who
+has first studied the details as a District Officer and has afterwards
+corrected his perspective, stage by stage, from the successively higher
+view-point of a Commissioner, the Chief Secretary, Financial
+Commissioner, and finally as Officiating Lieut.-Governor. No one could
+more appropriately undertake the task of an accurate and
+well-proportioned thumb-nail sketch of North-West India and, what is
+equally important to the earnest reader, no author could more obviously
+delight in his subject.</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+T. H. H.</p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Alderley Edge</span>,</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>March 9th, 1916.</i></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="NOTE_BY_AUTHOR" id="NOTE_BY_AUTHOR"></a>NOTE BY AUTHOR</h2>
+
+
+<p>My thanks are due to the Government of India for permission to use
+illustrations contained in official publications. Except where otherwise
+stated the numerous maps included in the volume are derived from this
+source. My obligations to provincial and district gazetteers have been
+endless. Sir Thomas Holdich kindly allowed me to reproduce some of the
+charts in his excellent book on <i>India</i>. The accuracy of the sections on
+geology and coins may be relied on, as they were written by masters of
+these subjects, Sir Thomas Holland and Mr R. B. Whitehead, I.C.S.
+Chapter XVII could not have been written at all without the help
+afforded by Mr Vincent Smith's <i>Early History of India</i>. I have
+acknowledged my debts to other friends in the "List of Illustrations."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="author">
+J. M. D.</p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>8 May 1916.</i></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="3" width="75%" cellspacing="0" summary="CONTENTS">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>CHAP.</td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>Areas and Boundaries</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>Mountains, Hills, and Plains</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_8'><b>8</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>Rivers</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_32'><b>32</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>Geology and Mineral Resources</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_50'><b>50</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'>Climate</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>VI.</td><td align='left'>Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>VII.</td><td align='left'>Forests</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>VIII.</td><td align='left'>Beasts, Birds, Fishes, and Insects</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_90'><b>90</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IX.</td><td align='left'>The People: Numbers, Races, and Languages</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_96'><b>96</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>X.</td><td align='left'>The People: Religions</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XI.</td><td align='left'>The People: Education</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_122'><b>122</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XII.</td><td align='left'>Roads and Railways</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_127'><b>127</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XIII.</td><td align='left'>Canals</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_132'><b>132</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XIV.</td><td align='left'>Agriculture and Crops</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XV.</td><td align='left'>Handicrafts and Manufactures</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XVI.</td><td align='left'>Exports and Imports</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XVII.</td><td align='left'>History: Pre-Muhammadan Period, 500 B.C.-1000 A.D.</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XVIII.</td><td align='left'>History: Muhammadan Period, 1000 A.D.- 1764 A.D.</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XIX.</td><td align='left'>History: Sikh Period, 1764 A.D.-1849 A.D.</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_181'><b>181</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XX.</td><td align='left'>History: British Period, 1849 A.D.-1913 A.D.</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XXI.</td><td align='left'>Archaeology and Coins</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XXII.</td><td align='left'>Administration: General</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XXIII.</td><td align='left'>Administration: Local</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_217'><b>217</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XXIV.</td><td align='left'>Revenue and Expenditure</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_219'><b>219</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XXV.</td><td align='left'>Panj&aacute;b Districts and Delhi</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_224'><b>224</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XXVI.</td><td align='left'>The Panj&aacute;b Native States</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XXVII.</td><td align='left'>The North-west Frontier Province</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_291'><b>291</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XXVIII.</td><td align='left'>Kashm&iacute;r and Jammu</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_314'><b>314</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XXIX.</td><td align='left'>Cities</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_325'><b>325</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XXX.</td><td align='left'>Other Places of Note</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_347'><b>347</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><th align='center' colspan="3">TABLES</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>Tribes of Panj&aacute;b including Native States and of N.W.F. Province</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_359'><b>359</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>Rainfall, Cultivation, Population, and Land Revenue</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_360'><b>360</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>Agricultural Diagrams</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_362'><b>362</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>Crops</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_364'><b>364</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'>Revenue and Expenditure of Panj&aacute;b</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_366'><b>366</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Index</td><td align='right'><a href='#INDEX'><b>367</b></a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="75%" cellspacing="0" summary="ILLUSTRATIONS">
+<tr><td align='right'>FIG.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Arms of Panjáb</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig1'><b>1</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'>Orographical Map (Holdich's <i>India</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig2'><b>9</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>3.</td><td align='left'>Nanga Parvat (Watson's <i>Gazetteer of Hazára</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig3'><b>11</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>4.</td><td align='left'>Burzil Pass (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig4'><b>13</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>5.</td><td align='left'>Rotang Pass (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig5'><b>15</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>6.</td><td align='left'>Mt Haramukh (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig6'><b>16</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>7.</td><td align='left'>R. Jhelam in Kashmír&mdash;View towards Mohand Marg (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig7'><b>18</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>8.</td><td align='left'>Near Náran in Kágan Glen, Hazára (Watson's <i>Gazetteer of Hazára</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig8'><b>19</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>9.</td><td align='left'>Muztagh-Karakoram and Himalayan Ranges in Kashmír (Holdich's <i>India</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig9'><b>21</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>10.</td><td align='left'>The Khaibar Road (Holdich's <i>India</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig10'><b>23</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>11.</td><td align='left'>Panjáb Rivers (Holdich's <i>India</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig11'><b>33</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>12.</td><td align='left'>The Indus at Attock (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig12'><b>37</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>13.</td><td align='left'>Indus at Kafirkot, D.I. Khán dt. (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig13'><b>38</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>14.</td><td align='left'>Fording the River at Lahore (E. B. Francis)</td><td align='right'><a href='#img014'><b>42</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>15.</td><td align='left'>Biás at Manálí (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#img015'><b>44</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>16.</td><td align='left'>Rainfall of different Seasons (Blanford)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig16a'><b>62</b></a>, <a href='#fig16b'><b>63</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>17.</td><td align='left'>Average Barometric and Wind Chart for January (Blanford)</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_65'><b>65</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>18.</td><td align='left'>Average Barometric and Wind Chart for July (Blanford)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig018tb'><b>66</b></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>19.</td><td align='left'>Banian or Bor trees (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig19'><b>75</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>20.</td><td align='left'>Deodárs and Hill Temple (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig20'><b>80</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>21.</td><td align='left'>Firs in Himálaya (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig21'><b>82</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>22.</td><td align='left'>Chinárs (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig22'><b>83</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>23.</td><td align='left'>Rhododendron campanulatum (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig23'><b>84</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>24.</td><td align='left'>Big Game in Ladákh</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig24'><b>92</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>25.</td><td align='left'>Yáks (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig25'><b>93</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>26.</td><td align='left'>Black Buck</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig26'><b>95</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>27.</td><td align='left'>Map showing density of population (<i>Panjáb Census Report</i>, 1911)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig27'><b>97</b></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>28.</td><td align='left'>Map showing increase and decrease of population (<i>Panjáb Census Report</i>, 1911)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig28'><b>98</b></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='right'>29.</td><td align='left'>Map showing density of population in N.W.F. Province (<i>N.W. Provinces Census Report</i>, 1911)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig29'><b>99</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>30.</td><td align='left'>Map showing density of population in Kashmír (<i>Kashmír Census Report</i>, 1911)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig30'><b>100</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>31.</td><td align='left'>Jat Sikh Officers (Nand Rám)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig31'><b>103</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>32.</td><td align='left'>Blind Beggar (E. B. Francis)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig32'><b>107</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>33.</td><td align='left'>Dards (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig33'><b>108</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>34.</td><td align='left'>Map showing races (from <i>The People of India</i>, by Sir Herbert Risley. With permission of W. Thacker and Co., London)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig34'><b>109</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>35.</td><td align='left'>Map showing distribution of languages (<i>Panjáb Census Report</i>, 1911)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig35'><b>111</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>36.</td><td align='left'>Map showing distribution of religions (<i>Panjáb Census Report</i>, 1911)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig36'><b>115</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>37.</td><td align='left'>Raghunáth Temple, Jammu</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig37'><b>116</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>38.</td><td align='left'>Golden Temple, Amritsar (Mrs B. Roe)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig38'><b>117</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>39.</td><td align='left'>Mosque in Lahore City (E. B. Francis)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig39'><b>118</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>40.</td><td align='left'>God and Goddess, Chamba (H.H. the Rája of Chamba)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig40'><b>120</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>41.</td><td align='left'>A Kulu godling and his attendants (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig41'><b>121</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>42.</td><td align='left'>A School in the time preceding annexation</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig42'><b>124</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>43.</td><td align='left'>Poplar lined road to Srínagar (Miss M. B. Douie)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig43'><b>128</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>44.</td><td align='left'>Map showing railways</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig44'><b>129</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>45.</td><td align='left'>Map&mdash;Older Canals</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig45'><b>134</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>46.</td><td align='left'>Map&mdash;Canals</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig46'><b>137</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>47.</td><td align='left'>Map of Canals of Pesháwar district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig47'><b>141</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>48.</td><td align='left'>Persian Wheel Well and Ekka (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig48'><b>143</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>49.</td><td align='left'>A drove of goats&mdash;Lahore (E. B. Francis)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig49'><b>144</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>50.</td><td align='left'>A steep bit of hill cultivation, Hazára (Watson's <i>Gazetteer of Hazára</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig50'><b>146</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>51.</td><td align='left'>Preparing rice field in the Hills (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig51'><b>147</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>52.</td><td align='left'>Carved doorway (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig52'><b>151</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>53.</td><td align='left'>Shoemaker's craft (Baden Powell <i>Panjáb Manufactures</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig53'><b>153</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>54.</td><td align='left'>Carved windows (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig54'><b>155</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>55.</td><td align='left'>Papier maché work of Kashmír (Baden Powell <i>Panjáb Manufactures</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig55'><b>156</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>56.</td><td align='left'>The Potter</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig56'><b>157</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>57.</td><td align='left'>Coin&mdash;obverse and reverse of Menander</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig57'><b>163</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>58.</td><td align='left'>Mártand Temple (Miss Griffiths)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig58'><b>166</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>59.</td><td align='left'>Bába Nának and the Musician Mardána</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig59'><b>174</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>60.</td><td align='left'>Guru Govind Singh</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig60'><b>176</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>61.</td><td align='left'>Mahárája Ranjít Singh</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig61'><b>182</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>62.</td><td align='left'>Mahárája Kharak Singh</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig62'><b>185</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>63.</td><td align='left'>Nao Nihál Singh</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig63'><b>185</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>64.</td><td align='left'>Mahárája Sher Singh</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig64'><b>185</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>65.</td><td align='left'>Zamzama Gun (E. B. Francis)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig65'><b>187</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>66.</td><td align='left'>Sir John Lawrence (from picture in National Portrait Gallery)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig66'><b>189</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>67.</td><td align='left'>John Nicholson's Monument at Delhi (Lady Douie)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig67'><b>190</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>68.</td><td align='left'>Sir Robert Montgomery</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig68'><b>191</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>69.</td><td align='left'>Panjáb Camels at Lahore (E. B. Francis)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig69'><b>193</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>70.</td><td align='left'>Sir Charles Aitchison (Bourne and Shepherd)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig70'><b>194</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>71.</td><td align='left'>Sir Denzil Ibbetson (Albert Jenkins)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig71'><b>198</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>72.</td><td align='left'>Sir Michael O'Dwyer (R. Rámlál Bhairulál and Son)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig72'><b>199</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>73.</td><td align='left'>Group of Chamba Temples (H.H. the Rája of Chamba)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig73'><b>201</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>74.</td><td align='left'>Payer Temple&mdash;Kashmír (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig74'><b>202</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>75.</td><td align='left'>Reliquary (Government of India)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig75'><b>203</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>76.</td><td align='left'>Colonnade in Kuwwat ul Islám Mosque</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig76'><b>204</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>77.</td><td align='left'>Kutb Minár (Miss M. B. Douie)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig77'><b>205</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>78.</td><td align='left'>Tomb of Emperor Tughlak Sháh (Miss M. B. Douie)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig78'><b>206</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>79.</td><td align='left'>Jama Masjid, Delhi</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig79'><b>207</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>80.</td><td align='left'>Tomb of Humáyun (Miss M. B. Douie)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig80'><b>207</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>81.</td><td align='left'>Bádsháhí Mosque, Lahore (E. B. Francis)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig81'><b>208</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>82.</td><td align='left'>Coins</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig82'><b>210</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>83.</td><td align='left'>Skeleton District Map of Panjáb</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig83'><b>223</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>84.</td><td align='left'>Delhi Enclave</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig84'><b>225</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>85.</td><td align='left'>Hissár district with portions of the Phulkian States etc.</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig85'><b>226</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>86.</td><td align='left'>Rohtak district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig86'><b>228</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>87.</td><td align='left'>Gurgáon district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig87'><b>230</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>88.</td><td align='left'>Karnál district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig88'><b>231</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>89.</td><td align='left'>Ambála district with Kalsia</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig89'><b>233</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>90.</td><td align='left'>Kángra district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig90'><b>235</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>91.</td><td align='left'>Biás at Manálí (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig91'><b>237</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>92.</td><td align='left'>Religious Fair in Kulu (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig92'><b>238</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>93.</td><td align='left'>Kulu Women (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig93'><b>239</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>94.</td><td align='left'>Hoshyárpur district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig94'><b>240</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>95.</td><td align='left'>Jalandhar district and Kapurthala</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig95'><b>242</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>96.</td><td align='left'>Ludhiána district and adjoining Native States</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig96'><b>243</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>97.</td><td align='left'>Ferozepore district and Farídkot</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig97'><b>244</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>98.</td><td align='left'>Gurdáspur district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig98'><b>246</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>99.</td><td align='left'>Siálkot district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig99'><b>247</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>100.</td><td align='left'>Gujránwála district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig100'><b>248</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>101.</td><td align='left'>Amritsar district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig101'><b>250</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>102.</td><td align='left'>Lahore district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig102'><b>251</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>103.</td><td align='left'>Gujrát district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig103'><b>252</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>104.</td><td align='left'>Jhelam district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig104'><b>254</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>105.</td><td align='left'>Ráwalpindí district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig105'><b>255</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>106.</td><td align='left'>Shop in Murree Bazár (Lady Douie)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig106'><b>256</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>107.</td><td align='left'>Attock district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig107'><b>257</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>108.</td><td align='left'>Mianwálí district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig108'><b>259</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>109.</td><td align='left'>Sháhpur district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig109'><b>261</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>110.</td><td align='left'>Montgomery district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig110'><b>263</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>111.</td><td align='left'>Lyallpur district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig111'><b>264</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>112.</td><td align='left'>Jhang district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig112'><b>265</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>113.</td><td align='left'>Multán district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig113'><b>266</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>114.</td><td align='left'>Muzaffargarh district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig114'><b>268</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>115.</td><td align='left'>Dera Ghází Khán district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig115'><b>269</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>116.</td><td align='left'>Mahárája of Patiála (C. Vandyk)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig116'><b>272</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>117.</td><td align='left'>Mahárája of Jínd</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig117'><b>277</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>118.</td><td align='left'>Mahárája Sir Hira Singh of Nábha (Bourne and Shepherd)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig118'><b>278</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>119.</td><td align='left'>Mahárája of Kapúrthala</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig119'><b>279</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>120.</td><td align='left'>Rája of Farídkot (Julian Rust)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig120'><b>280</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>121.</td><td align='left'>Nawáb of Baháwalpur</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig121'><b>281</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>122.</td><td align='left'>Native States of Chamba, Mandí, Suket, Biláspur</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig122'><b>284</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>123.</td><td align='left'>Rája Surindar Bikram Parkásh of Sirmúr</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig123'><b>285</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>124.</td><td align='left'>Rája of Chamba (F. Bremner)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig124'><b>287</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>125.</td><td align='left'>Bashahr (Sketch Map by H. W. Emerson)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig125'><b>289</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>126.</td><td align='left'>Sir Harold Deane (F. Bremner)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig126'><b>292</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>127.</td><td align='left'>North-west Frontier Province</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig127'><b>293</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>128.</td><td align='left'>Dera Ismail Khán district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig128'><b>294</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>129.</td><td align='left'>Bannu district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig129'><b>295</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>130.</td><td align='left'>Kohát district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig130'><b>297</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>131.</td><td align='left'>Pesháwar district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig131'><b>298</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>132.</td><td align='left'>Hazára district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig132'><b>300</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>133.</td><td align='left'>Sir George Roos Keppel (Maull and Fox)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig133'><b>303</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>134.</td><td align='left'>Tribal Territory north of Pesháwar</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig134'><b>304</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>135.</td><td align='left'>Tribal Territory to west of N.W.F. Province</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig135'><b>308</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>136.</td><td align='left'>Khaibar Rifles</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig136'><b>310</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>137.</td><td align='left'>North Wazíristán Militia and Border Post</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig137'><b>313</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>138.</td><td align='left'>Mahárája of Kashmír</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig138'><b>315</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>139.</td><td align='left'>Jammu and Kashmír</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig139'><b>316</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>140.</td><td align='left'>Takht i Sulimán in Winter (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig140'><b>318</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>141.</td><td align='left'>Ladákh Hills (Mrs Wynyard Brown)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig141'><b>320</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>142.</td><td align='left'>Zojilá Pass (Mrs Wynyard Brown)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig142'><b>322</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>143.</td><td align='left'>Delhi Mutiny Monument</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig143'><b>327</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>144.</td><td align='left'>Kashmír Gate, Delhi</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig144'><b>328</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>145.</td><td align='left'>Map of Delhi City</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig145'><b>329</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>146.</td><td align='left'>Darbár Medal</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig146'><b>334</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>147.</td><td align='left'>Street in Lahore (E. B. Francis)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig147'><b>336</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>148.</td><td align='left'>Sháhdara</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig148'><b>338</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>149.</td><td align='left'>Trans-border traders in Pesháwar</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig149'><b>343</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>150.</td><td align='left'>Mosque of Sháh Hamadán (F. Bremner)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig150'><b>345</b></a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td align='center' colspan="3">Map of territories of Mahárája of Jammu and Kashmír <a href='#kashmir'><b><i>at end of volume</i></b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan="3">Map of Panjáb <a href='#punjab'><b><i>at end of volume</i></b></a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>AREAS AND BOUNDARIES</h3>
+
+<p><a name="fig1" id="fig1"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 268px;">
+<img src="images/img001.jpg" width="268" height="300" alt="Fig. 1. Arms of Panj&aacute;b." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1. Arms of Panj&aacute;b.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Introductory.</b>&mdash;Of the provinces of India the Panj&aacute;b must always have a
+peculiar interest for Englishmen. Invasions by land from the west have
+perforce been launched across its great plains. The English were the
+first invaders who, possessing sea power, were able to outflank the
+mountain ranges which guard the north and west of India. Hence the
+Panj&aacute;b was the last, and not the first, of their Indian conquests, and
+the courage and efficiency of the Sikh soldiery, even after the guiding
+hand of the old Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Ranj&iacute;t Singh was withdrawn, made it also one of
+the hardest. The success of the early administration of the province,
+which a few years after annexation made it possible to use its resources
+in fighting men to help in the task of putting down the mutiny, has
+always been a matter of just pride, while the less familiar story of the
+conquests of peace in the first sixty years of British rule may well
+arouse similar feelings.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p><b>Scope of work.</b>&mdash;A geography of the Panj&aacute;b will fitly embrace an account
+also of the North-West Frontier<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> Province, which in 1901 was severed
+from it and formed into a separate administration, of the small area
+recently placed directly under the government of India on the transfer
+of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi, and of the native states in
+political dependence on the Panj&aacute;b Government. It will also be
+convenient to include Kashm&iacute;r and the tribal territory beyond the
+frontier of British India which is politically controlled from Pesh&aacute;war.
+The whole tract covers ten degrees of latitude and eleven of longitude.
+The furthest point of the Kashm&iacute;r frontier is in 37&deg; 2' N., which is
+much the same as the latitude of Syracuse. In the south-east the Panj&aacute;b
+ends at 27&deg; 4' N., corresponding roughly to the position of the
+southernmost of the Canary Islands. Lines drawn west from Pesh&aacute;war and
+Lahore would pass to the north of Beirut and Jerusalem respectively.
+Mult&aacute;n and Cairo are in the same latitude, and so are Delhi and
+Teneriffe. Kashm&iacute;r stretches eastwards to longitude 80&deg; 3' and the
+westernmost part of Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n is in 69&deg; 2' E.</p>
+
+<p><b>Distribution of Area.</b>&mdash;The area dealt with is roughly 253,000 square
+miles. This is but two-thirteenths of the area of the Indian Empire, and
+yet it is less by only 10,000 square miles than that of Austria-Hungary
+including Bosnia and Herzegovina. The area consists of:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="70%" cellspacing="0" summary="The area dealt with is roughly 253,000">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>sq. miles</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(1)</td><td align='left'>The Panj&aacute;b</td><td align='right'>97,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(2)</td><td align='left'>Native States dependent on Panj&aacute;b Government</td><td align='right'>36,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(3)</td><td align='left'>Kashm&iacute;r</td><td align='right'>81,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(4)</td><td align='left'>North West Frontier Province</td><td align='right'>13,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(5)</td><td align='left'>Tribal territory under the political control of the Chief Commissioner of North West Frontier Province, roughly</td><td align='right'>25,500</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Approximately 136,000 square miles may be classed as highlands and
+117,000 as plains, and these may be distributed as follows over the
+above divisions:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="70%" cellspacing="0" summary="136,000 square miles may be classed as highlands">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>Highlands sq. miles</td><td align='right'>Plains sq. miles</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(1)</td><td align='left'>Panj&aacute;b, British</td><td align='right'>11,000</td><td align='right'>86,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(2)</td><td align='left'>Panj&aacute;b, Native States</td><td align='right'>12,000</td><td align='right'>24,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(3)</td><td align='left'>Kashm&iacute;r</td><td align='right'>81,000</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(4)</td><td align='left'>North West Frontier Province</td><td align='right'>6,500</td><td align='right'>6,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(5)</td><td align='left'>Tribal Territory</td><td align='right'>25,500</td><td align='right'>&mdash;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p>On the north the highlands include the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan
+(Siw&aacute;lik) tracts to the south and east of the Indus, and north of that
+river the Muztagh-Karakoram range and the bleak salt plateau beyond that
+range reaching almost up to the Kuenlun mountains. To the west of the
+Indus they include those spurs of the Hindu Kush which run into Chitr&aacute;l
+and Dir, the Buner and Sw&aacute;t hills, the Safed Koh, the Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n hills,
+the Sulim&aacute;n range, and the low hills in the trans-Indus districts of the
+North West Frontier Province.</p>
+
+<p><b>Boundary with China.</b>&mdash;There is a point to the north of Hunza in Kashm&iacute;r
+where three great mountain chains, the Muztagh from the south-east, the
+Hindu Kush from the south-west, and the Sarikol (an offshoot of the
+Kuenlun) from the north-east, meet. It is also the meeting-place of the
+Indian, Chinese, and Russian empires and of Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n. Westwards from
+this the boundary of Kashm&iacute;r and Chinese Turkest&aacute;n runs for 350 miles
+(omitting curves) through a desolate upland lying well to the north of
+the Muztagh-Karakoram range. Finally in the north-east corner of Kashm&iacute;r
+the frontier impinges on the great Central Asian axis of the Kuenlun.
+From this point it turns southwards and separates Chinese Tibet from the
+salt Lingzi Thang plains and the Indus valley in Kashm&iacute;r, and the
+eastern part of the native state of Bashahr, which physically form a
+portion of Tibet.</p>
+
+<p><b>Boundary with United Provinces.</b>&mdash;The south-east corner of Bashahr is a
+little to the north of the great Ked&aacute;rn&aacute;th peak in the Central Him&aacute;laya
+and of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> source of the Jamna. Here the frontier strikes to the west
+dividing Bashahr from Teri Garhw&aacute;l, a native state under the control of
+the government of the United Provinces. Turning again to the south it
+runs to the junction of the Tons and Jamna, separating Teri Garhw&aacute;l from
+Sirm&uacute;r and some of the smaller Simla Hill States. Henceforth the Jamna
+is with small exceptions the boundary between the Panj&aacute;b and the United
+Provinces.</p>
+
+<p><b>Boundary with Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n.</b>&mdash;We must now return to our starting-point at
+the eastern extremity of the Hindu Kush, and trace the boundary with
+Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n. The frontier runs west and south-west along the Hindu Kush
+to the Dorah pass dividing Chitr&aacute;l from the Afgh&aacute;n province of Wakhan,
+and streams which drain into the Indus from the head waters of the Oxus.
+At the Dorah pass it turns sharply to the south, following a great spur
+which parts the valley of the Chitr&aacute;l river (British) from that of its
+Afgh&aacute;n affluent, the Bashgol. Below the junction of the two streams at
+Arnawai the Chitr&aacute;l changes its name and becomes the Kunar. Near this
+point the "Durand" line begins. In 1893 an agreement was made between
+the Amir Abdurrahman and Sir Mortimer Durand as representative of the
+British Government determining the frontier line from Chandak in the
+valley of the Kunar, twelve miles north of Asmar, to the Persian border.
+Asmar is an Afgh&aacute;n village on the left bank of the Kunar to the south of
+Arnawai. In 1894 the line was demarcated along the eastern watershed of
+the Kunar valley to Nawakotal on the confines of Bajaur and the country
+of the Mohmands.</p>
+
+<p>Thence the frontier, which has not been demarcated, passes through the
+heart of the Mohmand country to the K&aacute;bul river and beyond it to our
+frontier post in the Khaibar at Landikh&aacute;na.</p>
+
+<p>From this point the line, still undemarcated, runs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> on in a
+south-westerly direction to the Safed Koh, and then strikes west along
+it to the Sikar&aacute;m mountain near the Paiwar Kotal at the head of the
+Kurram valley. From Sikar&aacute;m the frontier runs south and south-east
+crossing the upper waters of the Kurram, and dividing our possessions
+from the Afgh&aacute;n province of Khost. This line was demarcated in 1894.</p>
+
+<p>At the south of the Kurram valley the frontier sweeps round to the west
+leaving in the British sphere the valley of the Toch&iacute;. Turning again to
+the south it crosses the upper waters of the Toch&iacute; and passes round the
+back of Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n by the Shawal valley and the plains about W&aacute;na to
+Domand&iacute; on the Gomal river, where Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n, Biluchist&aacute;n, and the
+North West Frontier Province meet. The Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n boundary was
+demarcated in 1895.</p>
+
+<p><b>Political and Administrative Boundaries.</b>&mdash;The boundary described above
+defines spheres of influence, and only in the Kurram valley does it
+coincide with that of the districts for whose orderly administration we
+hold ourselves responsible. All we ask of Waz&iacute;rs, Afr&iacute;d&iacute;s, or Mohmands
+is to leave our people at peace; we have no concern with their quarrels
+or blood feuds, so long as they abide in their mountains or only leave
+them for the sake of lawful gain. Our administrative boundary, which
+speaking broadly we took over from the Sikhs, usually runs at the foot
+of the hills. A glance at the map will show that between Pesh&aacute;war and
+Koh&aacute;t the territory of the independent tribes comes down almost to the
+Indus. At this point the hills occupied by the Jow&aacute;k&iacute; section of the
+Afr&iacute;d&iacute; tribe push out a great tongue eastwards. Our military frontier
+road runs through these hills, and we actually pay the tribesmen of the
+Koh&aacute;t pass for our right of way. Another tongue of tribal territory
+reaches right down to the Indus, and almost severs the Pesh&aacute;war and
+Haz&aacute;ra districts. Further<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> north the frontier of Haz&aacute;ra lies well to the
+east of the Indus.</p>
+
+<p><b>Frontier with Biluchist&aacute;n.</b>&mdash;At Domand&iacute; the frontier turns to the east,
+and following the Gomal river to its junction with the Zhob at Kaj&uacute;r&iacute;
+Kach forms the boundary of the two British administrations. Henceforth
+the general direction of the line is determined by the trend of the
+Sulim&aacute;n range. It runs south to the Vehoa pass, where the country of the
+Path&aacute;ns of the North West Frontier Province ends and that of the Hill
+and Plain Biluches subject to the Panj&aacute;b Government begins. From the
+Vehoa pass to the Kah&aacute; torrent the line is drawn so as to leave Biluch
+tribes with the Panj&aacute;b and Path&aacute;n tribes with the Biluchist&aacute;n Agency.
+South of the Kah&aacute; the division is between Biluch tribes, the Marr&iacute;s and
+Bugt&iacute;s to the west being managed from Quetta, and the Gurch&aacute;n&iacute;s and
+Maz&aacute;r&iacute;s, who are largely settled in the plains, being included in Dera
+Gh&aacute;zi Kh&aacute;n, the trans-Indus district of the Panj&aacute;b. At the south-west
+corner of the Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n district the Panj&aacute;b, Sind, and Biluchist&aacute;n
+meet. From this point the short common boundary of the Panj&aacute;b and Sind
+runs east to the Indus.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Southern Boundary.</b>&mdash;East of the Indus the frontier runs south-east
+for about fifty miles parting Sind from the Bah&aacute;walpur State, till a
+point is reached where Sind, R&aacute;jput&aacute;na, and Bah&aacute;walpur join. A little
+further to the east is the southern extremity of Bah&aacute;walpur at 70&deg; 8' E.
+and 27&deg; 5' N. From this point a line drawn due east would at a distance
+of 370 miles pass a few miles to the north of the south end of Gurgaon
+and a few miles to the south of the border of the Narnaul tract of
+Pati&aacute;la. Between Narnaul and the south-east corner of the Bah&aacute;walpur
+State the great R&aacute;jput&aacute;na desert, mainly occupied in this quarter by
+Bikaner, thrusts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> northwards a huge wedge reaching almost up to the
+Sutlej. To the west of the wedge is Bah&aacute;walpur and to the east the
+British district of Hiss&aacute;r. The apex is less than 100 miles from Lahore,
+while a line drawn due south from that city to latitude 27'5&deg; north
+would exceed 270 miles in length. The Jaipur State lies to the south and
+west of Narnaul, while Gurgaon has across its southern frontiers Alwar
+and Bharatpur, and near the Jamna the Muttra district of the United
+Provinces.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>MOUNTAINS, HILLS, AND PLAINS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>The Great Northern Rampart.</b>&mdash;The huge mountain rampart which guards the
+northern frontier of India thrusts out in the north-west a great bastion
+whose outer walls are the Hindu Kush and the Muztagh-Karakoram ranges.
+Behind the latter with a general trend from south-east to north-west are
+the great valley of the Indus to the point near Gilgit where it turns
+sharply to the south, and a succession of mountain chains and glens
+making up the Himalayan tract, through which the five rivers of the
+Panj&aacute;b and the Jamna find their way to the plains. To meet trans-Indus
+extensions of the Him&aacute;laya the Hindu Kush pushes out from its main axis
+great spurs to the south, flanking the valleys which drain into the
+Indus either directly or through the K&aacute;bul river.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Him&aacute;laya.</b>&mdash;Tibet, which from the point of view of physical geography
+includes a large and little known area in the Kashm&iacute;r State to the north
+of the Karakoram range, is a lofty, desolate, wind swept plateau with a
+mean elevation of about 15,000 feet. In the part of it situated to the
+north of the north-west corner of Nip&aacute;l lies the Manasarowar lake, in
+the neighbourhood of which three great Indian rivers, the Tsanpo or
+Brahmap&uacute;tra, the Sutlej, and the Indus, take their rise. The Indus flows
+to the north-west for 500 miles and then turns abruptly to the south to
+seek its distant home in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> Indian Ocean. The Tsanpo has a still
+longer course of 800 miles eastwards before it too bends southwards to
+flow through Assam into the Bay of Bengal. Between the points where
+these two giant rivers change their direction there extends for a
+distance of 1500 miles the vast congeries of mountain ranges known
+collectively as the "Him&aacute;laya" or "Abode of Snow." As a matter of
+convenience the name is sometimes confined to the mountains east of the
+Indus, but geologically the hills of Buner and Sw&aacute;t to the north of
+Pesh&aacute;war probably belong to the same system. In Sanskrit literature the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+Himalaya is also known as "Himavata," whence the classical Emodus.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig2" id="fig2"></a>
+<img src="images/fig002tb.jpg" width="500" height="458" alt="Fig. 2. Orographical Map." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2. Orographical Map.</span><br /><span class="link"><a href="images/fig002.jpg">View larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Kum&aacute;on Him&aacute;laya.</b>&mdash;The Him&aacute;laya may be divided longitudinally into
+three sections, the eastern or Sikkim, the mid or Kum&aacute;on, and the
+north-western or Lad&aacute;kh. With the first we are not concerned. The Kum&aacute;on
+section lies mainly in the United Provinces, but it includes the sources
+of the Jamna, and contains the chain in the Panj&aacute;b which is at once the
+southern watershed of the Sutlej and the great divide between the two
+river systems of Northern India, the Gangetic draining into the Bay of
+Bengal, and the Indus carrying the enormous discharge of the north-west
+Him&aacute;laya, the Muztagh-Karakoram, and the Hindu Kush ranges into the
+Indian Ocean. Simla stands on the south-western end of this watershed,
+and below it the Him&aacute;laya drops rapidly to the Siw&aacute;lik foot-hills and to
+the plains. Jakko, the <i>deod&aacute;r</i>-clad hill round which so much of the
+life of the summer capital of India revolves, attains a height of 8000
+feet. The highest peak within a radius of 25 miles of Simla is the Chor,
+which is over 12,000 feet high, and does not lose its snow cap till May.
+Hattu, the well-known hill above Narkanda, which is 40 miles from Simla
+by road, is 1000 feet lower. But further west in Bashahr the higher
+peaks range from 16,000 to 22,000 feet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<a name="fig3" id="fig3"></a>
+<img src="images/img003.jpg" width="650" height="390" alt="Fig. 3. Nanga Parvat." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 3. Nanga Parvat.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>The Inner Him&aacute;laya or Z&aacute;nskar Range.</b>&mdash;The division of the Him&aacute;laya into
+the three sections named above is convenient for descriptive purposes.
+But its chief axis runs through all the sections. East of Nip&aacute;l it
+strikes into Tibet not very far from the source of the Tsanpo, is soon
+pierced by the gorge of the Sutlej, and beyond it forms the southern
+watershed of the huge Indus valley. In the west this great rampart is
+known as the Z&aacute;nskar range. For a short distance it is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> boundary
+between the Panj&aacute;b and Kashm&iacute;r, separating two outlying portions of the
+K&aacute;ngra district, Lahul and Spit&iacute;, from Lad&aacute;kh. In this section the peaks
+are from 19,000 to 21,000 feet high, and the Baral&aacute;cha pass on the road
+from the Kulu valley in K&aacute;ngra to Leh, the capital of Lad&aacute;kh, is at an
+elevation of about 16,500 feet. In Kashm&iacute;r the Z&aacute;nskar or Inner Him&aacute;laya
+divides the valley of the Indus from those of the Chen&aacute;b and Jhelam. It
+has no mountain to dispute supremacy with Everest (29,000 feet), or
+Kinchinjunga in the Eastern Him&aacute;laya, but the inferiority is only
+relative. The twin peaks called Nun and Kun to the east of Sr&iacute;nagar
+exceed 23,000 feet, and in the extreme north-west the grand mountain
+mass of Nanga Parvat towers above the Indus to a height of 26,182 feet.
+The lowest point in the chain is the Zojil&aacute; (11,300 feet) on the route
+from Sr&iacute;nagar, the capital of Kashm&iacute;r, to Leh on the Indus</p>
+
+<p>The road from Sr&iacute;nagar to Gilgit passes over the Burzil pass at an
+elevation of 13,500 feet.</p>
+
+<p>The Zojil&aacute; is at the top of the beautiful valley of the Sind river, a
+tributary of the Jhelam. The lofty Z&aacute;nskar range blocks the inward flow
+of the monsoon, and once the Zojil&aacute; is crossed the aspect of the country
+entirely changes. The land of forest glades and green pastures is left
+behind, and a region of naked and desolate grandeur begins.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The waste of snow ... is the frontier of barren Tibet, where sandy
+wastes replace verdant meadows, and where the wild ridges, jutting
+up against the sky, are kept bare of vegetation, their strata
+crumbling under the destructive action of frost and water, leaving
+bare ribs of gaunt and often fantastic outline.... The colouring of
+the mountains is remarkable throughout Lad&aacute;kh and nowhere more so
+than near the Fotul&aacute; (a pass on the road to Leh to the south of the
+Indus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> gorge).... As we ascend the peaks suggest organ pipes, so
+vertical are the ridges, so jagged the ascending outlines. And each
+pipe is painted a different colour ... pale slate green, purple,
+yellow, grey, orange, and chocolate, each colour corresponding with
+a layer of the slate, shale, limestone, or trap strata" (Neve's
+<i>Picturesque Kashmir</i>, pp. 108 and 117).</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 577px;">
+<a name="fig4" id="fig4"></a>
+<img src="images/img004.jpg" width="577" height="600" alt="Fig. 4. Burzil Pass." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 4. Burzil Pass.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In all this desolation there are tiny oases where level soil and a
+supply of river water permit of cultivation and of some tree growth.</p>
+
+<p><b>Water divide near Baral&aacute;cha and Rotang Passes in Kulu.</b>&mdash;We have seen
+that the Indus and its greatest tributary, the Sutlej, rise beyond the
+Him&aacute;laya in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> Tibetan plateau. The next great water divide is in the
+neighbourhood of the Baral&aacute;cha pass and the Rotang pass, 30 miles to the
+south of it. The route from Simla to Leh runs at a general level of 7000
+to 9000 feet along or near the Sutlej-Jamna watershed to Narkanda (8800
+feet). Here it leaves the Hindust&aacute;n-Tibet road and drops rapidly into
+the Sutlej gorge, where the Lur&iacute; bridge is only 2650 feet above sea
+level. Rising steeply on the other side the Jalaur&iacute; pass on the
+watershed between the Sutlej and the Bi&aacute;s is crossed at an elevation of
+10,800 feet. A more gradual descent brings the traveller to the Bi&aacute;s at
+L&aacute;rj&iacute;, 3080 feet above sea level. The route then follows the course of
+the Bi&aacute;s through the beautiful Kulu valley to the Rotang pass (13,326
+feet), near which the river rises. The upper part of the valley is
+flanked on the west by the short, but very lofty Bara Bang&aacute;hal range,
+dividing Kulu from K&aacute;ngra and the source of the Bi&aacute;s from that of the
+R&aacute;v&iacute;. Beyond the Rotang is Lahul, which is divided by a watershed from
+Spit&iacute; and the torrents which drain into the Sutlej. On the western side
+of this watershed are the sources of the Chandra and Bh&aacute;ga, which unite
+to form the river known in the plains as the Chen&aacute;b.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mid Him&aacute;laya or Pang&iacute; Range.</b>&mdash;The Mid Him&aacute;layan or Pang&iacute; range, striking
+west from the Rotang pass and the northern end of the Bara Bang&aacute;hal
+chain, passes through the heart of Chamba dividing the valley of the
+Chen&aacute;b (Pang&iacute;) from that of the R&aacute;v&iacute;. After entering Kashm&iacute;r it crosses
+the Chen&aacute;b near the Kolahoi cone (17,900 feet) and the head waters of
+the Jhelam. Thence it continues west over Haramukh (16,900 feet), which
+casts its shadow southwards on the Wular lake, to the valley of the
+Kishnganga, and probably across it to the mountains which flank the
+magnificent K&aacute;gan glen in Haz&acirc;ra.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig5" id="fig5"></a>
+<img src="images/img005.jpg" width="600" height="412" alt="Fig. 5. Rotang Pass." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 5. Rotang Pass.</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig6" id="fig6"></a>
+<img src="images/img006.jpg" width="600" height="443" alt="Fig. 6. Mt Haramukh." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 6. Mt Haramukh.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Outer Him&aacute;laya or Dhauladh&aacute;r-Pir Panj&aacute;l Range.</b>&mdash;The Outer Him&aacute;laya also
+starts from a point near the Rotang pass, but some way to the south of
+the offset of the Mid Himalayan chain. Its main axis runs parallel to
+the latter, and under the name of the Dhauladh&aacute;r (white ridge) forms the
+boundary of the Chamba State and K&aacute;ngra, behind whose headquarters, at
+Dharms&aacute;la it stands up like a huge wall. It has a mean elevation of
+15,000 feet, but rises as high as 16,000. It passes from Chamba into
+Bhadarw&aacute;h in Kashm&iacute;r, and crossing the Chen&aacute;b is carried on as the P&iacute;r
+Panj&aacute;l range through the south of that State. With an elevation of only
+14,000 or 15,000 feet it is a dwarf as compared with the giants of the
+Inner Himalayan and Muztagh-Karakoram chains. But it hides them from the
+dwellers in the Panj&aacute;b, and its snowy crest is a very striking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> picture
+as seen in the cold weather from the plains of R&aacute;walpind&iacute;, Jhelam, and
+Gujr&aacute;t. The Outer Him&aacute;laya is continued beyond the gorges of the Jhelam
+and Kishnganga rivers in Kajn&aacute;g and the hills of the Haz&aacute;ra district.
+Near the eastern extremity of the Dhauladh&aacute;r section of the Outer
+Him&aacute;laya it sends out southwards between Kulu and Mand&iacute; a lower
+offshoot. This is crossed by the Babbu (9480 feet) and Dulch&iacute; passes,
+connecting Kulu with K&aacute;ngra through Mand&iacute;. Geologically the Kulu-Mand&iacute;
+range appears to be continued to the east of the Bi&aacute;s and across the
+Sutlej over Hattu and the Chor to the hills near Mas&uacute;r&iacute; (Mussoorie), a
+well-known hill station in the United Provinces. Another offshoot at the
+western end of the Dhauladh&aacute;r passes through the beautiful hill station
+of Dalhousie, and sinks into the low hills to the east of the R&aacute;v&iacute;,
+where it leaves Chamba and enters the British district of Gurd&aacute;spur.</p>
+
+<p><b>River Valleys and Passes in the Him&aacute;laya.</b>&mdash;While these principal chains
+can be traced from south-east to north-west over hundreds of miles it
+must be remembered that the Him&aacute;laya is a mountain mass from 150 to 200
+miles broad, that the main axes are linked together by subsidiary cross
+chains dividing the head waters of great rivers, and flanked by long and
+lofty ridges running down at various angles to the gorges of these
+streams and their tributaries. The typical Himalayan river runs in a
+gorge with mountains dipping down pretty steeply to its sides. The lower
+slopes are cultivated, but the land is usually stony and uneven, and as
+a whole the crops are not of a high class. The open valleys of the
+Jhelam in Kashm&iacute;r and of the Bi&aacute;s in Kulu are exceptions. Passes in the
+Him&aacute;laya are not defiles between high cliffs, but cross the crest of a
+ridge at a point where the chain is locally depressed, and snow melts
+soonest. In the Outer and Mid Him&aacute;laya the line<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> of perpetual snow is at
+about 16,000 feet, but for six months of the year the snow-line comes
+down 5000 feet lower. In the Inner Him&aacute;laya and the Muztagh-Karakoram,
+to which the monsoon does not penetrate, the air is so dry that less
+snow falls and the line is a good deal higher.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig7" id="fig7"></a>
+<img src="images/img007.jpg" width="600" height="428" alt="Fig. 7. R. Jhelam in Kashm&iacute;r&mdash;View towards Mohand Marg." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 7. R. Jhelam in Kashm&iacute;r&mdash;View towards Mohand Marg.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span><b>Himalayan Scenery.</b>&mdash;Certain things strike any observant traveller in the
+Him&aacute;laya. One is the comparative absence of running or still water,
+except in the height of the rainy season, away from the large rivers.
+The slope is so rapid that ordinary falls of rain run off with great
+rapidity. The mountain scenery is often magnificent and the forests are
+beautiful, but the absence of water robs the landscape of a charm which
+would make it really perfect. Where this too is present, as in the
+valley of the Bi&aacute;s in Kulu and those of the Jhelam and its tributaries
+in Kashm&iacute;r and Haz&aacute;ra, the eye has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> its full fruition of content.
+Another is the silence of the forests. Bird and beast are there, but
+they are little in evidence. A third feature which can hardly be missed
+is the contrast between the northern and the southern slopes. The former
+will often be clothed with forest while the latter is a bare stony slope
+covered according to season with brown or green grass interspersed with
+bushes of indigo, barberry, or the hog plum (Prinsepia utilis). The
+reason is that the northern side enjoys much more shade, snow lies
+longer, and the supply of moisture is therefore greater. The grazier for
+the same reason is less tempted to fire the hill side in order to
+promote the growth of grass, a practice which is fatal to all forest
+growth. The rich and varied flora of the Him&aacute;laya will be referred to
+later.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 436px;">
+<a name="fig8" id="fig8"></a>
+<img src="images/img008.jpg" width="436" height="600" alt="Fig. 8. Near N&aacute;ran in K&aacute;gan Glen, Haz&aacute;ra." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 8. Near N&aacute;ran in K&aacute;gan Glen, Haz&aacute;ra.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Muztagh-Karakoram Ranges.</b>&mdash;The Muztagh-Karakoram mountains form the
+northern watershed of the Indus. The range consists of more than one
+main axis. The name Karakoram is appropriated to the eastern part of the
+system which originates at E. longitude 79&deg; near the Pangong lake in the
+Tibetan plateau a little beyond the boundary of Kashm&iacute;r. Beyond the
+Karakoram pass (18,550 ft.) is a lofty bleak upland with salt lakes
+dotted over its surface. Through this inhospitable region and over the
+Karakoram pass and the Sasser-l&aacute; (17,500 ft.) the trade route from
+Yarkand to Leh runs. The road is only open for three months in the year,
+and the dangers and hardships are great. In 1898 Dr Bullock Workman and
+his wife marched along it across the Shyok river, up the valley of the
+Nubra, and over the Sasser-l&aacute; to the Karakoram pass. The scenery is an
+exaggeration of that described by Dr Neve as seen on the road from the
+Zoji-l&aacute; to Leh. There is a powerful picture of its weird repellent
+grandeur in the Workmans' book entitled <i>In the Ice World of Him&aacute;laya</i>
+(pp. 28-29, 30-32). The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> poet who had found ideas for a new Paradiso in
+the Vale of Kashm&iacute;r might here get suggestions for a new Inferno.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig9" id="fig9"></a>
+<img src="images/fig009.tb.jpg" width="500" height="485" alt="Fig. 9. Muztagh-Karakoram and Himalayan Ranges in
+Kashm&iacute;r." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/fig009.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 9. Muztagh-Karakoram and Himalayan Ranges in
+Kashm&iacute;r.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>The Karakoram range culminates in the north-west near the Muztagh pass
+in a group of majestic peaks including K 2 or Mount Godwin Austen
+(28,265 feet), Gasherbrum, and Masherbrum, which tower over and feed the
+vast Boltoro glacier. The first of these giants is the second largest
+mountain in the world. The Duke of the Abruzzi ascended it to the height
+of 24,600 feet, and so established a climbing record. The Muztagh chain
+carries on the northern bastion to the valley of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> the Hunza river and
+the western extremity of the Hindu Kush. It has several peaks exceeding
+25,000 feet. The most famous is Rakiposhi which looks down on Hunza from
+a height of 25,550 feet.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Hindu Kush.</b>&mdash;The Muztagh chain from the south-east, the Sarikol from
+the north-east, and the Hindu Kush from the south-west, meet at a point
+to the north of Hunza. The last runs westward and south-westward for
+about 200 miles to the Dorah pass (14,800 feet), separating the valleys
+which drain into the Indus from the head waters of the Oxus, and Hunza
+and Gilgit in Kashm&iacute;r and Chitr&aacute;l in British India from the Afgh&aacute;n
+province of Wakhan. The highest point in the main axis, Sad Istragh
+(24,171 feet), is in this section. But the finest mountain scenery in
+the Hindu Kush is in the great spurs it thrusts out southwards to flank
+the glens which feed the Gilgit and Chitr&aacute;l rivers. Tirach M&iacute;r towers
+above Chitr&aacute;l to a height of 25,426 feet. From Tibet to the Dorah pass
+the northern frontier of India is impregnable. It is pierced by one or
+two difficult trade routes strewn with the bones of pack animals, but no
+large army has ever marched across it for the invasion of India. West of
+the Dorah pass the general level of the Hindu Kush is a good deal lower
+than that of its eastern section. The vital point in the defences of
+India in this quarter lies near Charik&aacute;r to the north of K&aacute;bul, where
+the chain thins out, and three practicable passes debouch on the valley
+of the K&aacute;bul river. It is this fact that gives the town of K&aacute;bul its
+great strategic importance. The highest of the three passes, the Kaoshan
+or Hindu Kush (dead Hindu), crosses the chain at an elevation of 14,340
+feet. It took its own name from the fate that befel a Hindu army when
+attempting to cross it, and has handed it on to the whole range. It is
+the pass which the armies of Alexander<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> and B&aacute;bar used. The historical
+road for the invasion of India on this side has been by Charik&aacute;r and the
+valley of the K&aacute;bul river to its junction with the Kunar below
+Jal&aacute;l&aacute;b&aacute;d, thence up the Kunar valley and over one of the practicable
+passes which connect its eastern watershed with the Panjkora and Sw&aacute;t
+river valleys, whence the descent on Pesh&aacute;war is easy. This is the route
+by which Alexander led the wing of the Grecian army which he commanded
+in person, and the one followed by B&aacute;bar in 1518-19. Like Alexander,
+B&aacute;bar fought his way through Bajaur, and crossed the Indus above Attock.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig10" id="fig10"></a>
+<img src="images/fig010.tb.jpg" width="500" height="239" alt="Fig. 10. The Khaibar Road." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/fig010.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 10. The Khaibar Road.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Khaibar.</b>&mdash;A British force advancing on K&aacute;bul from Pesh&aacute;war has never
+marched by the Kunar and K&aacute;bul valley route. It has always taken the
+Khaibar road, which only follows the Kabul river for less than one-third
+of the 170 miles which separate Pesh&aacute;war from the Amir's capital. The
+military road from Pesh&aacute;war to Landikh&aacute;na lies far to the south of the
+river, from which it is shut off by difficult and rugged country held by
+the Mohmands.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Safed Koh.</b>&mdash;From Landikh&aacute;na the political boundary runs south-west to
+the Safed Koh (white mountain) and is continued westwards along that
+range to the Paiwar Kotal or pass (8450 feet). The Safed Koh forms the
+watershed of the K&aacute;bul and Kurram rivers. It is a fine pine clad chain
+with a general level of 12,000 feet, and its skyline is rarely free from
+snow. It culminates in the west near Paiwar Kotal in Sikar&aacute;m (15,620
+feet). To the west of the Pesh&aacute;war and Koh&aacute;t districts is a tangle of
+hills and valleys formed by outlying spurs of the Safed Koh. This
+difficult country is in the occupation of Afr&iacute;d&iacute;s and Orakzais, who are
+under our political control.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Kurram Valley.</b>&mdash;The line of advance into Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n through the
+Kurram valley is easy, and Lord Roberts used it when he marched towards
+K&aacute;bul in 1898. After the war we annexed the valley, leaving however the
+head waters of the Kurram in Afgh&aacute;n territory. The road to K&aacute;bul leaves
+the river far to the south before it crosses our frontier at Paiwar
+Kotal.</p>
+
+<p><b>Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n Hills.</b>&mdash;Between the Kurram valley and the Gomal river is a
+large block of very rough mountainous country known as Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n from
+the turbulent clan which occupies it. In the north it is drained by the
+Toch&iacute;. Westwards of the Toch&iacute; valley the country rises into lofty
+mountains. The upper waters of the Toch&iacute; and its affluents drain two
+fine glens known as Birmal and Shawal to the west of the country of the
+Mahsud Waz&iacute;rs. The Toch&iacute; valley is the direct route from India to
+Ghazn&iacute;, and nine centuries ago, when that decayed town was the capital
+of a powerful kingdom, it must often have heard the tramp of armed men.
+The loftiest peaks in Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n, Shuid&aacute;r (11,000 feet) and P&iacute;rghal
+(11,600 feet), overhang Birmal. Further south, W&aacute;na, our post in
+south-west Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n, overlooks from its plateau the Gomal valley.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>The Gomal Pass as a trade route.</b>&mdash;East of Kaj&uacute;r&iacute; Kach the Gomal flows
+through tribal territory to the Gomal pass from which it debouches into
+the plains of the Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n district. "The Gomal route is the
+oldest of all trade routes. Down it there yearly pours a succession of
+<i>k&aacute;filas</i> (caravans) led and followed up by thousands of well-armed
+Path&aacute;n traders, called Powindahs, from the plains of Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n to
+India. The Powindahs mostly belong to the Ghilzai tribes, and are not
+therefore true Afgh&aacute;ns<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>. Leaving their women and children encamped
+within British territory on our border, and their arms in the keeping of
+our frontier political officials, the Powindah makes his way southwards
+with his camel loads of fruit and silk, bales of camel and goat hair or
+sheepskin goods, carpets and other merchandise from K&aacute;bul and Bokh&aacute;ra,
+and conveys himself through the length and breadth of the Indian
+peninsula.... He returns yearly to the cool summits of the Afgh&aacute;n hills
+and the open grassy plains, where his countless flocks of sheep and
+camels are scattered for the summer grazing" (Holdich's <i>India</i>, pp.
+80-81).</p>
+
+<p><b>Physical features of hilly country between Pesh&aacute;war and the Gomal
+river.</b>&mdash;The physical features of the hill country between Pesh&aacute;war and
+the Gomal pass may best be described in the words of Sir Thomas Holdich:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Natural landscape beauty, indeed, may here be measured to a
+certain extent by altitude. The low ranges of sun-scorched,
+blackened ridge and furrow formation which form the approaches to
+the higher altitudes of the Afgh&aacute;n upland, and which are almost as
+regularly laid out by the hand of nature in some parts of the
+frontier as are the parallels ... of the engineer who is besieging
+a fortress&mdash;these are by no means 'things of beauty,' and it is
+this class of formation and this form<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> of barren desolation that is
+most familiar to the frontier officer.... Shades of delicate purple
+and grey will not make up for the absence of the living green of
+vegetation.... But with higher altitudes a cooler climate and
+snow-fed soil is found, and as soon as vegetation grasps a
+root-hold there is the beginning of fine scenery. The upper
+pine-covered slopes of the Safed Koh are as picturesque as those of
+the Swiss Alps; they are crowned by peaks whose wonderful altitudes
+are frozen beyond the possibility of vegetation, and are usually
+covered with snow wherever snow can lie. In Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n, hidden away
+in the higher recesses of its great mountains, are many valleys of
+great natural beauty, where we find the spreading poplar and the
+ilex in all the robust growth of an indigenous flora.... Among the
+minor valleys Birmal perhaps takes precedence by right of its
+natural beauty. Here are stretches of park-like scenery where
+grass-covered slopes are dotted with clumps of <i>deod&aacute;r</i> and pine
+and intersected with rivulets hidden in banks of fern; soft green
+glades open out to view from every turn in the folds of the hills,
+and above them the silent watch towers of P&iacute;rghal and Shuid&aacute;r ...
+look down from their snow-clad heights across the Afgh&aacute;n uplands to
+the hills beyond Ghazn&iacute;." (Holdich's <i>India</i>, pp. 81-82.)</p></div>
+
+<p><b>The Sulim&aacute;n Range.</b>&mdash;A well-marked mountain chain runs from the Gomal to
+the extreme south-west corner of the Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n district where the
+borders of Biluchist&aacute;n, Sind, and the Panj&aacute;b meet. It culminates forty
+miles south of the Gomal in the fine Kaisargarh mountain (11,295 feet),
+which is a very conspicuous object from the plains of the Deraj&aacute;t. On
+the side of Kaisargarh there is a shrine called Takht i Sulim&aacute;n or
+Throne of Solomon, and this is the name by which Englishmen usually know
+the mountain, and which has been passed on to the whole range.
+Proceeding southwards<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> the general elevation of the chain drops
+steadily. But Fort Munro, the hill station of the Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n
+district, 200 miles south of the Takht, still stands 6300 feet above sea
+level, and it looks across at the fine peak of Ekbhai, which is more
+than 1000 feet higher. In the south of the Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n district the
+general level of the chain is low, arid the Giand&aacute;ri hill, though only
+4160 feet above the sea, stands out conspicuously. Finally near where
+the three jurisdictions meet the hills melt into the Kachh Gand&aacute;va
+plain. Sir Thomas Holdich's description of the rugged Path&aacute;n hills
+applies also to the Sulim&aacute;n range. Kaisargarh is a fine limestone
+mountain crowned by a forest of the edible <i>chilgoza</i> pine. But the
+ordinary tree growth, where found at all, is of a much humbler kind,
+consisting of gnarled olives and dwarf palms.</p>
+
+<p><b>Passes and torrents in Sulim&aacute;n Hills.</b>&mdash;The drainage of the western
+slopes of the Sulim&aacute;n range finding no exit on that side has had to wear
+out ways for itself towards the plains which lie between the foot of the
+hills and the Indus. This is the explanation of the large number of
+passes, about one hundred, which lead from the plains into the Sulim&aacute;n
+hills. The chief from north to south are the Vehoa, the Sangarh, the
+Khair, the Kah&aacute;, the Ch&aacute;char, and the Sir&iacute;, called from the torrents
+which flow through them to the plains. There is an easy route through
+the Ch&aacute;char to Biluchist&aacute;n. But unfortunately the water of the torrent
+is brackish.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sub Him&aacute;laya or Siw&aacute;liks.</b>&mdash;In its lowest ridges the Him&aacute;laya drops to a
+height of about 5000 feet. But the traveller to any of the summer
+resorts in the mountains passes through a zone of lower hills
+interspersed sometimes with valleys or "duns." These consist of Tertiary
+sandstones, clays, and boulder conglomerates, the d&eacute;bris in fact which
+the Him&aacute;laya has dropped in the course<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> of ages. To this group of hills
+and valleys the general name of Siw&aacute;liks is given. East of the Jhelam it
+includes the N&aacute;han hills to the north of Amb&aacute;la, the low hills of
+K&aacute;ngra, Hoshy&aacute;rpur, Gurd&aacute;spur, and Jammu, and the P&aacute;bb&iacute; hills in Gujr&aacute;t.
+But it is to the west of the Jhelam that the system has its greatest
+extension. Practically the whole of the soil of the plains of the
+Attock, R&aacute;walpindi, and Jhelam districts consists of disintegrated
+Siw&aacute;lik sandstone, and differs widely in appearance and agricultural
+quality from the alluvium of the true Panj&aacute;b plains. The low hills of
+these districts belong to the same system, but the Salt Range is only in
+part Siw&aacute;lik. Altogether Siw&aacute;lik deposits in the Panj&aacute;b cover an area of
+13,000 square miles. Beyond the Indus the hills of the Koh&aacute;t district
+and a part of the Sulim&aacute;n range are of Tertiary age.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Great Panj&aacute;b Plain.</b>&mdash;The passage from the highlands to the plains is
+as a rule abrupt, and the contrast between the two is extraordinary.
+This is true without qualification of the tract between the Jamna and
+the Jhelam. It is equally true of British districts west of the Jhelam
+and south of the Salt Range and of lines drawn from K&aacute;lab&aacute;gh on the west
+bank of the Indus southwards to Pani&aacute;la and thence north-west through
+the Pezu pass to the Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n hills. In all that vast plain, if we
+except the insignificant hills in the extreme south-west of the province
+ending to the north in the historic ridge at Delhi, some hillocks of
+gneiss near Tosh&aacute;m in Hiss&aacute;r, and the curious little isolated rocks at
+Kir&aacute;na, Chiniot, and S&aacute;ngla near the Chen&aacute;b and Jhelam, the only
+eminences are petty ridges of windblown sand and the "<i>thehs</i>" or mounds
+which represent the accumulated d&eacute;bris of ancient village sites. At the
+end of the Jurassic period and later this great plain was part of a sea
+bed. Far removed as the Indian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> ocean now is the height above sea level
+of the Panj&aacute;b plain east of the Jhelam is nowhere above 1000 feet. Delhi
+and Lahore are both just above the 700 feet line. The hills mentioned
+above are humble time-worn outliers of the very ancient Aravalli system,
+to which the hills of R&aacute;jput&aacute;na belong. Kir&aacute;na and S&aacute;ngla were already
+of enormous age, when they were islands washed by the waves of the
+Tertiary sea. A description of the different parts of the vast Panj&aacute;b
+plain, its great stretches of firm loam, and its tracts of sand and sand
+hills, which the casual observer might regard as pure desert, will be
+given in the paragraphs devoted to the different districts.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Salt Range.</b>&mdash;The tract west of the Jhelam, and bounded on the south
+by the Salt Range cis-Indus, and trans-Indus by the lines mentioned
+above, is of a more varied character. Time worn though the Salt Range
+has become by the waste of ages, it still rises at Sakesar, near its
+western extremity, to a height of 5000 feet. The eastern part of the
+range is mostly in the Jhelam district, and there the highest point is
+Chail (3700 feet). The hill of Tilla (3242 feet), which is a marked
+feature of the landscape looking westwards from Jhelam cantonment, is on
+a spur running north-east from the main chain. The Salt Range is poorly
+wooded, the dwarf acacia or <i>phul&aacute;h&iacute;</i> (Acacia modesta), the olive, and
+the <i>sanattha</i> shrub (Dodonea viscosa) are the commonest species. But
+these jagged and arid hills include some not infertile valleys, every
+inch of which is put under crop by the crowded population. To geologists
+the range is of special interest, including as it does at one end of the
+scale Cambrian beds of enormous antiquity and at the other rocks of
+Tertiary age. Embedded in the Cambrian strata there are great deposits
+of rock salt at Kheora, where the Mayo mine is situated.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> At K&aacute;lab&aacute;gh
+the Salt Range reappears on the far side of the Indus. Here the salt
+comes to the surface, and its jagged pinnacles present a remarkable
+appearance.</p>
+
+<p><b>Country north of the Salt Range.</b>&mdash;The country to the north of the Salt
+Range included in the districts of Jhelam, R&aacute;walpind&iacute;, and Attock is
+often ravine-bitten and seamed with the white sandy beds of torrents.
+Generally speaking it is an arid precarious tract, but there are fertile
+stretches which will be mentioned in the descriptions of the districts.
+The general height of the plains north of the Salt Range is from 1000
+feet to 2000 feet above sea level. The rise between Lahore and
+R&aacute;walpind&iacute; is just over a thousand feet. Low hills usually form a
+feature of the landscape, pleasing at a distance or when softened by the
+evening light, but bare and jagged on a nearer view. The chief hills are
+the M&aacute;rgalla range between Haz&aacute;ra and R&aacute;walpind&iacute;, the K&aacute;lachitta and the
+Khairimurat hills running east and west through Attock and the very dry
+and broken Narrara hills on the right bank of the Indus in the same
+district. Between the M&aacute;rgalla and K&aacute;lachitta hills is the M&aacute;rgalla pass
+on the main road from R&aacute;walpind&iacute; to the passage of the Indus at Attock,
+and therefore a position of considerable strategical importance. The
+K&aacute;lachitta (black and white) chain is so called because the north side
+is formed of nummulitic limestone and the south mainly of a dark purple
+sandstone. The best tree-growth is therefore on the north side.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pesh&aacute;war, Koh&aacute;t, and Bannu.</b>&mdash;Across the Indus the Pesh&aacute;war and Bannu
+districts are basins ringed with hills and drained respectively by the
+K&aacute;bul and Kurram rivers with their affluents. Between these two basins
+lies the maze of bare broken hills and valleys which make up the Koh&aacute;t
+district. The cantonment of Koh&aacute;t is 1700 feet above sea level and no
+hill in the district<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> reaches 5000 feet. Near the Koh&aacute;t border in the
+south-west of the Pesh&aacute;war district are the Khattak hills, the
+culmination of which at Ghaibana Sir has a height of 5136 feet, and the
+military sanitarium of Cher&aacute;t in the same chain is 600 feet lower. On
+the east the Maid&aacute;ni hills part Bannu from Isakhel, the trans-Indus
+<i>tahs&iacute;l</i> of Mianw&aacute;li, and on the south the Marwat hills divide it from
+Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n. Both are humble ranges. The highest point in the
+Marwat hills is Shekhbud&iacute;n, a bare and dry limestone rock rising to an
+elevation of over 4500 feet.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>RIVERS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>The Panj&aacute;b Rivers.</b>&mdash;"Panj&aacute;b" is a Persian compound word, meaning "five
+waters," and strictly speaking the word denotes the country between the
+valley of the Jhelam and that of the Sutlej. The intermediate rivers
+from west to east are the Chen&aacute;b, the R&aacute;v&iacute;, and the Bi&aacute;s. Their combined
+waters at last flow into the Panjnad or "five rivers" at the south-west
+corner of the Mult&aacute;n district, and the volume of water which 44 miles
+lower down the Panjnad carries into the Indus is equal to the discharge
+of the latter. The first Aryan settlers knew this part of India as the
+land of the seven rivers (<i>sapla sindhavas</i>), adding to the five
+mentioned above the Indus and the Sarasvat&iacute;. The old Vedic name is more
+appropriate than Panj&aacute;b if we substitute the Jamna for the Sarasvat&iacute; or
+Sarust&iacute;, which is now a petty stream.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig11" id="fig11"></a>
+<img src="images/fig011tb.jpg" width="500" height="473" alt="Fig. 11. Panj&aacute;b Rivers." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/fig011.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 11. Panj&aacute;b Rivers.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>River Valleys.</b>&mdash;The cold weather traveller who is carried from Delhi to
+R&aacute;walpind&iacute; over the great railway bridges at points chosen because there
+the waters of the rivers are confined by nature, or can be confined by
+art, within moderate limits, has little idea of what one of these rivers
+is like in flood time. He sees that, even at such favoured spots,
+between the low banks there is a stretch of sand far exceeding in width
+the main channel, where a considerable volume of water is running, and
+the minor depressions, in which a sluggish and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> shallow flow may still
+be found. If, leaving the railway, he crosses a river by some bridge of
+boats or local ferry, he will find still wider expanses of sand
+sometimes bare and dry and white, at others moist and dark and covered
+with dwarf tamarisk. He may notice that, before he reaches the sand and
+the tamarisk scrub, he leaves by a gentle or abrupt descent the dry
+uplands, and passes into a lower, greener, and perhaps to his
+inexperienced eye more fertile seeming tract. This is the valley, often
+miles broad, through which the stream has moved in ever-shifting
+channels in the course of centuries. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> finds it hard to realize that,
+when the summer heats melt the Himalayan snows, and the monsoon
+currents, striking against the northern mountain walls, are precipitated
+in torrents of rain, the rush of water to the plains swells the river
+20, 30, 40, or even 50 fold. The sandy bed then becomes full from bank
+to bank, and the silt laden waters spill over into the cultivated
+lowlands beyond. Accustomed to the stable streams of his own land, he
+cannot conceive the risks the riverside farmer in the Panj&aacute;b runs of
+having fruitful fields smothered in a night with barren sand, or lands
+and well and house sucked into the river-bed. So great and sudden are
+the changes, bad and good, wrought by river action that the loss and
+gain have to be measured up year by year for revenue purposes. Nor is
+the visitor likely to imagine that the main channel may in a few seasons
+become a quite subsidiary or wholly deserted bed. Like all streams, e.g.
+the Po, which flow from the mountains into a flat terrain, the Panj&aacute;b
+rivers are perpetually silting up their beds, and thus, by their own
+action, becoming diverted into new channels or into existing minor ones,
+which are scoured out afresh. If our traveller, leaving the railway at
+R&aacute;walpindi, proceeds by tonga to the capital of Kashm&iacute;r, he will find
+between Koh&aacute;la and B&aacute;ram&uacute;la another surprise awaiting him. The noble but
+sluggish river of the lowlands, which he crossed at the town of Jhelam,
+is here a swift and deep torrent, flowing over a boulder bed, and
+swirling round waterworn rocks in a gorge hemmed in by mountains. That
+is the typical state of the Himalayan rivers, though the same Jhelam
+above B&aacute;ram&uacute;la is an exception, flowing there sluggishly through a very
+flat valley into a shallow lake.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Indus Basin.</b>&mdash;The river Sindh (Sanskrit, Sindhu), more familiar to
+us under its classical name of the Indus,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> must have filled with
+astonishment every invader from the west, and it is not wonderful that
+they called after it the country that lay beyond. Its basin covers an
+area of 373,000 square miles. Confining attention to Asia these figures,
+large though they seem, are far exceeded by those of the Yangtsze-Kiang.
+The area of which a description is attempted in this book is, with the
+exception of a strip along the Jamna and the part of Kashm&iacute;r lying
+beyond the Muztagh-Karakoram range, all included in the Indus basin. But
+it does not embrace the whole of it. Part is in Tibet, part in
+Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n and Biluchist&aacute;n, and part in Sindh, through which province
+the Indus flows for 450 miles, or one-quarter of its whole course of
+1800 miles. It seems likely that the Jamna valley was not always an
+exception, or at least that that river once flowed westwards through
+R&aacute;jput&aacute;na to the Indian ocean. The five great rivers of the Panj&aacute;b all
+drain into the Indus, and the Ghagar with its tributary, the Sarust&iacute;,
+which now, even when in flood, loses itself in the sands of Bikaner,
+probably once flowed down the old Hakra bed in Bah&aacute;walpur either into
+the Indus or by an independent bed now represented by an old flood
+channel of the Indus in Sindh, the Hakro or Nara, which passes through
+the Rann of Kachh.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Indus outside British India.</b>&mdash;To the north of the Manasarowar lake
+in Tibet is Kail&aacute;s, the Hindu Olympus. On the side of this mountain the
+Indus is said to rise at a height of 17,000 feet. After a course of 200
+miles or more it crosses the south-east boundary of the Kashm&iacute;r State at
+an elevation of 13,800 feet. From the Kashm&iacute;r frontier to Mt Haramosh
+west of Gilgit it flows steadily to the north-west for 350 miles. After
+125 miles Leh, the capital of Lad&aacute;kh, is reached at a height of 10,500
+feet, and here the river is crossed by the trade route to Yarkand. A
+little below Leh<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> the Indus receives the Z&aacute;nskar, which drains the
+south-east of Kashm&iacute;r. After another 150 miles it flows through the
+basin, in which Skardo, the principal town in Baltist&aacute;n, is situated.
+Above Skardo a large tributary, the Shyok, flows in from the east at an
+elevation of 8000 feet. The Shyok and its affluent, the Nubra, rise in
+the giant glaciers to the south-west of the Karakoram pass. After the
+Skardo basin is left behind the descent is rapid. The river rushes down
+a tremendous gorge, where it appears to break through the western
+Him&aacute;laya, skirts Haramosh, and at a point twenty-five miles east of
+Gilgit bends abruptly to the south. Shortly after it is joined from the
+west by the Gilgit river, and here the bed is about 4000 feet above sea
+level. Continuing to flow south for another twenty miles it resumes its
+westernly course to the north of Nanga Parvat and persists in it for 100
+miles. Our political post of Chil&aacute;s lies in this section on the south
+bank. Fifty or sixty miles west of Chil&aacute;s the Indus turns finally to the
+south. From J&aacute;lkot, where the Kashm&iacute;r frontier is left, to Palos&iacute; below
+the Mahaban mountain it flows for a hundred miles through territory over
+which we only exercise political control. Near Palos&iacute;, 812 miles from
+the source, the river enters British India. In Kashm&iacute;r the Indus and the
+Shyok in some places flow placidly over alluvial flats, and at others
+with a rapid and broken current through narrow gorges. At Skardo their
+united stream is said, even in winter, to be 500 feet wide and nine or
+ten feet deep. If one of the deep gorges, as sometimes happens, is
+choked by a landslip, the flood that follows when the barrier finally
+bursts may spread devastation hundreds of miles away. To the north of
+the fertile Chach plain in Attock there is a wide stretch of land along
+the Indus, which still shows in its stony impoverished soil the effects
+of the great flood of 1841.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig12" id="fig12"></a>
+<img src="images/img012.jpg" width="600" height="425" alt="Fig. 12. The Indus at Attock." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 12. The Indus at Attock.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig13" id="fig13"></a>
+<img src="images/img013.jpg" width="600" height="421" alt="Fig. 13. Indus at K&aacute;firkot, D.I. Kh&aacute;n dt." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 13. Indus at K&aacute;firkot, D.I. Kh&aacute;n dt.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Indus in British India.</b>&mdash;After reaching British India the Indus soon
+becomes the boundary dividing Haz&aacute;ra and Pesh&aacute;war, two districts of the
+North West Frontier Province. Lower down it parts Pesh&aacute;war from the
+Panj&aacute;b district of Attock. In this section after a time the hills recede
+on both sides, and the stream is wide and so shallow that it is fordable
+in places in the cold weather. There are islands, ferry boats and rafts
+can ply, and the only danger is from sudden freshets. Ohind, where
+Alexander crossed, is in this section. A more famous passage is at
+Attock just below the junction of the K&aacute;bul river. Here the heights
+again approach the Indus on either bank. The volume of water is vastly
+increased by the union of the K&aacute;bul river, which brings down the whole
+drainage of the southern face of the Hindu Kush. From the north it
+receives near Jal&aacute;l&aacute;b&aacute;d the Kunar river, and near Charsadda in Pesh&aacute;war
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> Sw&aacute;t, which with its affluent the Panjkora drains D&iacute;r, Bajaur, and
+Sw&aacute;t. In the cold weather looking northwards from the Attock fort one
+sees the K&aacute;bul or Landai as a blue river quietly mingling with the
+Indus, and in the angle between them a stretch of white sand. But during
+floods the junction is the scene of a wild turmoil of waters. At Attock
+there are a railway bridge, a bridge of boats, and a ferry. The bed of
+the stream is 2000 feet over sea level. For ninety miles below Attock
+the river is confined between bare and broken hills, till it finally
+emerges into the plains from the gorge above K&aacute;lab&aacute;gh, where the Salt
+Range impinges on the left bank. Between Attock and K&aacute;lab&aacute;gh the right
+bank is occupied by Pesh&aacute;war and Koh&aacute;t and the left by Attock and
+Mianw&aacute;l&iacute;. In this section the Indus is joined by the Haro and So&aacute;n
+torrents, and spanned at Khush&aacute;lgarh by a railway bridge. This is the
+only other masonry<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> bridge crossing it in the Panj&aacute;b. Elsewhere the
+passage has to be made by ferry boats or by boat bridges, which are
+taken down in the rainy season. At K&aacute;lab&aacute;gh the height above sea level
+is less than 1000 feet. When it passes the western extremity of the Salt
+Range the river spreads out into a wide lake-like expanse of waters. It
+has now performed quite half of its long journey. Henceforth it receives
+no addition from the east till the Panjnad in the south-west corner of
+the Muzaffargarh district brings to it the whole tribute of the five
+rivers of the Panj&aacute;b. Here, though the Indian ocean is still 500 miles
+distant, the channel is less than 300 feet above the sea. From the west
+it receives an important tributary in the Kurram, which, with its
+affluent the Toch&iacute;, rises in Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n. The torrents from the Sulim&aacute;n
+Range are mostly used up for irrigation before they reach the Indus, but
+some of them mingle their waters with it in high floods. Below K&aacute;lab&aacute;gh
+the Indus is a typical lowland river of great size, with many sandy
+islands in the bed and a wide valley subject to its inundations.
+Opposite Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n the valley is seventeen miles across. As a
+plains river the Indus runs at first through the Mianw&aacute;l&iacute; district of
+the Panj&aacute;b, then divides Mianw&aacute;l&iacute; from Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n, and lastly
+parts Muzaffargarh and the Bah&aacute;walpur State from the Panj&aacute;b frontier
+district of Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Jhelam.</b>&mdash;The Jhelam, the most westernly of the five rivers of the
+Panj&aacute;b, is called the Veth in Kashmir and locally in the Panj&aacute;b plains
+the Vehat. These names correspond to the Bihat of the Muhammadan
+historians and the Hydaspes of the Greeks, and all go back to the
+Sanskrit Vitasta. Issuing from a deep pool at Vern&aacute;g to the east of
+Isl&aacute;m&aacute;b&aacute;d in Kashm&iacute;r it becomes navigable just below that town, and
+flows north-west in a lazy stream for 102 miles through Sr&iacute;nagar, the
+summer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> capital, into the Wular lake, and beyond it to B&aacute;ram&uacute;la. The
+banks are quite low and often cultivated to the river's edge. But across
+the flat valley there is on either side a splendid panorama of
+mountains. From B&aacute;ram&uacute;la the character of the Jhelam suddenly changes,
+and for the next 70 miles to Koh&aacute;la, where the traveller crosses by a
+fine bridge into the Panj&aacute;b, it rushes down a deep gorge, whose sides
+are formed by the Kajn&aacute;g mountains on the right, and the P&iacute;r Panj&aacute;l on
+the left, bank. Between B&aacute;ram&uacute;la and Koh&aacute;la there is a drop from 5000 to
+2000 feet. At Domel, the stage before Koh&aacute;la the Jhelam receives from
+the north the waters of the Kishnganga, and lower down it is joined by
+the Kunh&aacute;r, which drains the K&aacute;gan glen in Haz&aacute;ra. A little above Koh&aacute;la
+it turns sharply to the south, continuing its character as a mountain
+stream hemmed in by the hills of R&aacute;walpind&iacute; on the right bank and of the
+P&uacute;nch State on the left. The hills gradually sink lower and lower, but
+on the left side only disappear a little above the cantonment of Jhelam,
+where there is a noble railway bridge. From Jhelam onwards the river is
+of the usual plains' type. After dividing the districts of Jhelam (right
+bank) and Gujr&aacute;t (left), it flows through the Sh&aacute;hpur and Jhang
+districts, falling finally into the Chen&aacute;b at Trimmu, 450 miles from its
+source. There is a second railway bridge at Haranpur on the Sind S&aacute;gar
+line, and a bridge of boats at Khush&aacute;b, in the Sh&aacute;hpur district. The
+noblest and most-varied scenery in the north-west Himalaya is in the
+catchment area of the Jhelam. The Kashm&iacute;r valley and the valleys which
+drain into the Jhelam from the north, the Liddar, the Lol&aacute;b, the Sind,
+and the K&aacute;gan glen, display a wealth of beauty unequalled elsewhere. Nor
+does this river wholly lose its association with beauty in the plains.
+Its very rich silt gives the lands on its banks the green charm of rich
+crops and pleasant trees.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>The Chen&aacute;b.</b>&mdash;The Chen&aacute;b (more properly Ch&iacute;n&aacute;b or river of China) is the
+Asikn&iacute; of the Vedas and the Akesines of the Greek historians. It is
+formed by the union of the Chandra and Bh&aacute;ga, both of which rise in
+Lahul near the B&aacute;ral&aacute;cha pass. Having become the Chandrabh&aacute;ga the river
+flows through P&aacute;ng&iacute; in Chamba and the south-east of Kashm&iacute;r. Near
+Kishtw&aacute;r it breaks through the P&iacute;r Panj&aacute;l range, and thenceforwards
+receives the drainage of its southern slopes. At Akhn&uacute;r it becomes
+navigable and soon after it enters the Panj&aacute;b district of Si&aacute;lkot. A
+little later it is joined from the west by the Taw&iacute;, the stream above
+which stands Jammu, the winter capital of Kashm&iacute;r. The Chen&aacute;b parts
+Si&aacute;lkot and Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la on the left bank from Gujr&aacute;t and Sh&aacute;hpur on the
+right. At Waz&iacute;r&aacute;b&aacute;d, near the point where Si&aacute;lkot, Gujr&aacute;t, and
+Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la meet, it is crossed by the Alexandra railway bridge. Leaving
+Sh&aacute;hpur and Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la behind, the Chen&aacute;b flows through Jhang to its
+junction with the Jhelam at Trimmu. In this section there is a second
+railway bridge at Chund Bharw&aacute;na. The united stream runs on under the
+name of Chen&aacute;b to be joined on the north border of the Mult&aacute;n district
+by the R&aacute;v&iacute; and on its southern border by the Sutlej. Below its junction
+with the latter the stream is known as the Panjnad. In the plains the
+Chen&aacute;b cannot be called an attractive river, and its silt is far
+inferior to that of the Jhelam.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="img014" id="img014"></a>
+<img src="images/img014.jpg" width="600" height="500" alt="Fig. 14. Fording the River at Lahore." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 14. Fording the River at Lahore.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The R&aacute;v&iacute;.</b>&mdash;The R&aacute;v&iacute; was known to the writers of the Vedic hymns as the
+Parushn&iacute;, but is called in classical Sanskrit Ir&aacute;vat&iacute;, whence the
+Hydraotes of the Greek historians. It rises near the Rotang pass in
+K&aacute;ngra, and flows north-west through the southern part of Chamba. Below
+the town of Chamba, it runs as a swift slaty-blue mountain stream, and
+here it is spanned by a fine bridge. Passing on to the north of the hill
+station of Dalhousie<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> it reaches the Kashmir border, and turning to the
+south-west flows along it to Basol&iacute; where Kashm&iacute;r, Chamba, and the
+British district of Gurd&aacute;spur meet. At this point it is 2000 feet above
+the sea level. It now forms the boundary of Kashm&iacute;r and Gurd&aacute;spur, and
+finally near Madhopur, where the head-works of the B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b canal are
+situated, it passes into the Gurd&aacute;spur district. Shortly after it is
+joined from the north by a large torrent called the Ujh, which rises in
+the Jammu hills. After reaching the Si&aacute;lkot border the R&aacute;v&iacute; parts that
+district first from Gurd&aacute;spur and then from Amritsar, and, passing
+through the west of Lahore, divides Montgomery and Lyallpur, and flowing
+through the north of Mult&aacute;n joins the Chen&aacute;b near the Jhang border. In
+Mult&aacute;n there is a remarkable straight reach in the channel known as the
+S&iacute;dhnai, which has been utilized for the site of the head-works of a
+small canal. The Degh, a torrent which rises in the Jammu hills and has
+a long course<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> through the Si&aacute;lkot and Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la districts, joins the
+R&aacute;v&iacute; when in flood in the north of the Lyallpur district. But its waters
+will now be diverted into the river higher up in order to safeguard the
+Upper Chen&aacute;b canal. Lahore is on the left bank of the R&aacute;v&iacute;. It is a mile
+from the cold weather channel, but in high floods the waters have often
+come almost up to the Fort. At Lahore the North Western Railway and the
+Grand Trunk Road are carried over the R&aacute;v&iacute; by masonry bridges. There is
+a second railway bridge over the S&iacute;dhnai reach in Mult&aacute;n. Though the
+R&aacute;v&iacute;, like the Jhelam, has a course of 450 miles, it has a far smaller
+catchment area, and is really a somewhat insignificant stream. In the
+cold weather, the canal takes such a heavy toll from it that below
+M&aacute;dhopur the supply of water is mainly drawn from the Ujh, and in
+Montgomery one may cross the bed dryshod for months together. The valley
+of the R&aacute;v&iacute; is far narrower than those of the rivers described in the
+preceding paragraphs, and the floods are most uncertain, but when they
+occur are of very great value.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="img015" id="img015"></a>
+<img src="images/img015.jpg" width="600" height="441" alt="Fig. 15. Bi&aacute;s at Man&aacute;l&iacute;." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 15. Bi&aacute;s at Man&aacute;l&iacute;.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>The Bi&aacute;s.</b>&mdash;The Bi&aacute;s (Sanskrit, Vipasa; Greek, Hyphasis) rises near the
+Rotang pass at a height of about 13,000 feet. Its head-waters are
+divided from those of the R&aacute;v&iacute; by the Bara Bang&aacute;hal range. It flows for
+about sixty miles through the beautiful Kulu valley to L&aacute;rj&iacute; (3000
+feet). It has at first a rapid course, but before it reaches Sult&aacute;npur
+(4000 feet), the chief village in Kulu, some thirty miles from the
+source, it has become, at least in the cold weather, a comparatively
+peaceful stream fringed with alder thickets. Heavy floods, however,
+sometimes cover fields and orchards with sand and boulders. There is a
+bridge at Man&aacute;l&iacute; (6100 feet), a very lovely spot, another below Nagar,
+and a third at L&aacute;rj&iacute;. Near L&aacute;rj&iacute; the river turns to the west down a bold
+ravine and becomes for a time the boundary between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> Kulu and the Mand&iacute;
+State. Near the town of Mand&iacute;, where it is bridged, it bends again, and
+winds in a north-west and westerly direction through low hills in the
+south of K&aacute;ngra till it meets the Siw&aacute;liks on the Hoshy&aacute;rpur border. In
+this reach there is a bridge of boats at Dera Gop&iacute;pur on the main road
+from Jalandhar and Hoshy&aacute;rpur to Dharms&aacute;la. Elsewhere in the south of
+K&aacute;ngra the traveller can cross without difficulty on a small bed
+supported on inflated skins. Sweeping round the northern end of the
+Siw&aacute;liks the Bi&aacute;s, having after long parting again approached within
+about fifteen miles of the R&aacute;v&iacute;, turns definitely to the south, forming
+henceforth the dividing line between Hoshy&aacute;rpur and Kap&uacute;rthala (left
+bank) and Gurd&aacute;spur and Amritsar (right). Finally above the Harike ferry
+at a point where Lahore, Amritsar, Ferozepur, and Kap&uacute;rthala nearly
+meet, it falls into the Sutlej. The North Western<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> Railway crosses it by
+a bridge near the Bi&aacute;s station and at the same place there is a bridge
+of boats for the traffic on the Grand Trunk Road. The chief affluents
+are the Chakk&iacute;, the torrent which travellers to Dharms&aacute;la cross by a
+fine bridge twelve miles from the railhead at Path&aacute;nkot, and the Black
+Bein in Hoshy&aacute;rpur and Kap&uacute;rthala. The latter is a winding drainage
+channel, which starts in a swamp in the north of the Hoshy&aacute;rpur
+district. The Bi&aacute;s has a total course of 390 miles. Only for about
+eighty miles or so is it a true river of the plains, and its floods do
+not spread far.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Sutlej.</b>&mdash;The Sutlej is the Shatadru of Vedic hymns and the Zaradros
+of Greek writers. The peasant of the Panj&aacute;b plains knows it as the N&iacute;l&iacute;
+or Ghara. After the Indus it is the greatest of Panj&aacute;b rivers, and for
+its source we have to go back to the Manasarowar lakes in Tibet. From
+thence it flows for 200 miles in a north-westerly direction to the
+British frontier near Shipk&iacute;. A little beyond the Spit&iacute; river brings it
+the drainage of the large tract of that name in K&aacute;ngra and of part of
+Western Tibet. From Shipk&iacute; it runs for forty miles in deep gorges
+through Kun&aacute;war in the Bashahr State to Ch&iacute;n&iacute;, a beautiful spot near the
+Wangtu bridge, where the Hindustan-Tibet road crosses to the left bank.
+A little below Ch&iacute;n&iacute; the B&aacute;spa flows in from the southeast. The fall
+between the source and Ch&iacute;n&iacute; is from 15,000 to 7500 feet. There is
+magnificent cliff scenery at Rog&iacute; in this reach. Forty miles below Ch&iacute;n&iacute;
+the capital of Bashahr, R&aacute;mpur, on the south bank, is only 3300 feet
+above sea level. There is a second bridge at R&aacute;mpur, and from about this
+point the river becomes the boundary of Bashahr and Kulu, the route to
+which from Simla passes over the Lur&iacute; bridge (2650 feet) below N&aacute;rkanda.
+Beyond Lur&iacute; the Sutlej runs among low hills through several of the Simla
+Hill States. It pierces the Siw&aacute;liks<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> at the Hoshy&aacute;rpur border and then
+turns to the south, maintaining that trend till R&uacute;par and the head-works
+of the Sirhind canal are reached. For the next hundred miles to the Bi&aacute;s
+junction the general direction is west. Above the Harike ferry the
+Sutlej again turns, and flows steadily, though with many windings, to
+the south-west till it joins the Chen&aacute;b at the south corner of the
+Mult&aacute;n district. There are railway bridges at Phillaur, Ferozepur, and
+Adamw&aacute;han. In the plains the Sutlej districts are&mdash;on the right bank
+Hoshy&aacute;rpur, Jalandhar, Lahore, and Montgomery, and on the left Amb&aacute;la,
+Ludhi&aacute;na and Ferozepur. Below Ferozepur the river divides Montgomery and
+Mult&aacute;n from Bah&aacute;walpur (left bank). The Sutle; has a course of 900
+miles, and a large catchment area in the hills. Notwithstanding the
+heavy toll taken by the Sirhind canal, its floods spread pretty far in
+Jalandhar and Ludhi&aacute;na and below the Bi&aacute;s junction many monsoon canals
+have been dug which inundate a large area in the lowlands of the
+districts on either bank and of Bah&aacute;walpur. The dry bed of the Hakra,
+which can be traced through Bah&aacute;walpur, Bikaner, and Sindh, formerly
+carried the waters of the Sutlej to the sea.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Ghagar and the Sarusti.</b>&mdash;The Ghagar, once a tributary of the Hakra,
+rises within the Sirm&uacute;r State in the hills to the east of K&aacute;lka. A few
+miles south of K&aacute;lka it crosses a narrow neck of the Amb&aacute;la district,
+and the bridge on the Amb&aacute;la-Kalka railway is in this section. The rest
+of its course, till it loses itself in the sands of Bikaner, is chiefly
+in Pati&aacute;la and the Karn&aacute;l and Hiss&aacute;r districts. It is joined by the Umla
+torrent in Karn&aacute;l and lower down the Sarust&iacute; unites with it in Pati&aacute;la
+just beyond the Karn&aacute;l border. It is hard to believe that the Sarust&iacute; of
+to-day is the famous Sarasvat&iacute; of the Vedas, though the little
+ditch-like channel that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> bears the name certainly passes beside the
+sacred sites of Thanesar and Pehowa. A small sandy torrent bearing the
+same name rises in the low hills in the north-east of the Amb&aacute;la
+district, but it is doubtful if its waters, which finally disappear into
+the ground, ever reach the Thanesar channel. That seems rather to
+originate in the overflow of a rice swamp in the plains, and in the cold
+weather the bed is usually dry. In fact, till the Sarust&iacute; receives above
+Pehowa the floods of the M&aacute;rkanda torrent, it is a most insignificant
+stream. The M&aacute;rkanda, when in flood, carries a large volume of water,
+and below the junction the small channel of the Sarust&iacute; cannot carry the
+tribute received, which spreads out into a shallow lake called the
+Sainsa <i>jh&iacute;l</i>. This has been utilized for the supply of the little
+Sarust&iacute; canal, which is intended to do the work formerly effected in a
+rude way by throwing <i>bands</i> or embankments across the bed of the
+stream, and forcing the water over the surrounding lands. The same
+wasteful form of irrigation was used on a large scale on the Ghagar and
+is still practised on its upper reaches. Lower down earthen <i>bands</i> have
+been superceded by a masonry weir at Otu in the Hiss&aacute;r district. The
+northern and southern Ghagar canals, which irrigate lands in Hiss&aacute;r and
+Bikaner, take off from this weir.</p>
+
+<p><b>Action of Torrents.</b>&mdash;The Ghagar is large enough to exhibit all the three
+stages which a <i>cho</i> or torrent of intermittent flow passes through.
+Such a stream begins in the hills with a well-defined boulder-strewn
+bed, which is never dry. Reaching the plains the bed of a cho becomes a
+wide expanse of white sand, hardly below the level of the adjoining
+country, with a thread of water passing down it in the cold weather. But
+from time to time in the rainy season the channel is full from bank to
+bank and the waters spill far and wide over the fields. Sudden spates
+sometimes sweep away men and cattle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> before they can get across. If, as
+in Hoshy&aacute;rpur, the <i>chos</i> flow into a rich plain from hills composed of
+friable sandstone and largely denuded of tree-growth, they are in their
+second stage most destructive. After long delay an Act was passed in
+1900, which gives the government large powers for the protection of
+trees in the Siw&aacute;liks and the reclamation of torrent beds in the plains.
+The process of recovery cannot be rapid, but a measure of success has
+already been attained. It must not be supposed that the action of <i>chos</i>
+in this second stage is uniformly bad. Some carry silt as well as sand,
+and the very light loam which the great M&aacute;rkanda <i>cho</i> has spread over
+the country on its banks is worth much more to the farmer than the stiff
+clay it has overlaid. Many <i>chos</i> do not pass into the third stage, when
+all the sand has been dropped, and the bed shrinks into a narrow
+ditch-like channel with steep clay banks. The inundations of torrents
+like the Degh and the Ghagar after this stage is reached convert the
+soil into a stiff impervious clay, where flood-water will lie for weeks
+without being absorbed into the soil. In Karn&aacute;l the wretched and
+fever-stricken tract between the Ghagar and the Sarust&iacute; known as the
+Nail&iacute; is of this character.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Jamna.</b>&mdash;The Jamna is the Yamuna of Sanskrit writers. Ptolemy's and
+Pliny's versions, Diamouna and Jomanes, do not deviate much from the
+original. It rises in the Kum&aacute;on Him&aacute;laya, and, where it first meets the
+frontier of the Simla Hill States, receives from the north a large
+tributary called the Tons. Henceforth, speaking broadly, the Jamna is
+the boundary of the Panj&aacute;b and the United Provinces. On the Panj&aacute;b bank
+are from north to south the Sirm&uacute;r State, Amb&aacute;la, Karn&aacute;l, Rohtak, Delhi,
+and Gurg&aacute;on. The river leaves the Panj&aacute;b where Gurg&aacute;on and the district
+of Mathra, which belongs to the United Provinces, meet, and finally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+falls into the Ganges at Allah&aacute;b&aacute;d. North of Mathra Delhi is the only
+important town on its banks. The Jamna is crossed by railway bridges
+between Delhi and Meerut and between Amb&aacute;la and Sah&aacute;ranpur.</p>
+
+<p><b>Changes in Rivers.</b>&mdash;Allusion has already been made to the changes which
+the courses of Panj&aacute;b rivers are subject to in the plains. The Indus
+below K&aacute;lab&aacute;gh once ran through the heart of what is now the Thal
+desert. We know that in 1245 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> Mult&aacute;n was in the Sind S&aacute;gar Do&aacute;b
+between the Indus and the united streams of the Jhelam, Chen&aacute;b, and
+R&aacute;v&iacute;. The Bi&aacute;s had then no connection with the Sutlej, but ran in a bed
+of its own easily to be traced to-day in the Montgomery and Mult&aacute;n
+districts, and joined the Indus between Mult&aacute;n and Uch. The Sutlej was
+still flowing in the Hakra bed. Indeed its junction with the Bi&aacute;s near
+Harike, which probably led to a complete change in the course of the
+Bi&aacute;s, seems only to have taken place within the last 150 years<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Extent of Geological Record.</b>&mdash;Although the main part of the Panj&aacute;b plain
+is covered by a mantle of comparatively recent alluvium, the provinces
+described in this book display a more complete record of Indian
+geological history than any other similar area in the country. The
+variety is so great that no systematic or sufficient description could
+be attempted in a short chapter, and it is not possible, therefore, to
+do more in these few pages than give brief sketches of the patches of
+unusual interest.</p>
+
+<p><b>Aravall&iacute; System.</b>&mdash;In the southern and south-eastern districts of the
+Panj&aacute;b there are exposures of highly folded and metamorphosed rocks
+which belong to the most ancient formations in India. These occupy the
+northern end of the Aravall&iacute; hills, which form but a relic of what must
+have been at one time a great mountain range, stretching roughly
+south-south-west through R&aacute;jput&aacute;na into the Bombay Presidency. The
+northern ribs of the Aravall&iacute; series disappear beneath alluvial cover in
+the Delhi district, but the rocks still underlie the plains to the west
+and north-west, their presence being revealed by the small promontories
+that peep through the alluvium near the Chen&aacute;b river, standing up as
+small hills near Chiniot in the Sh&aacute;hpur, Jhang, and Lyallpur districts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Salt Range in the Jhelam and Sh&aacute;hpur districts, with a western
+continuation in the Mianw&aacute;l&iacute; district to and beyond the Indus, is the
+most interesting part of the Panj&aacute;b to the geologist. It contains
+notable records of three distinct eras in geological history. In
+association with the well-known beds of rock-salt, which are being
+extensively mined at Kheora, occur the most ancient fossiliferous
+formations known in India, corresponding in age with the middle and
+lower part of the Cambrian system of Europe. These very ancient strata
+immediately overlie the red marls and associated rock-salt beds, and it
+is possible that they have been thrust over bodily to occupy this
+position, as we have no parallel elsewhere for the occurrence of great
+masses of salt in formation older than the Cambrian.</p>
+
+<p>The second fragment of geological history preserved in the Salt Range is
+very much younger, beginning with rocks which were formed in the later
+part of the Carboniferous period. The most remarkable feature in this
+fragment is a boulder-bed, resting unconformably on the Cambrian strata
+and including boulders of various shapes and sizes, which are often
+faceted and striated in a way indicative of glacial action. Several of
+the boulders belong to rocks of a peculiar and unmistakable character,
+such as are found <i>in situ</i> on the western flanks of the Aravall&iacute; Range,
+some 750 miles to the south. The glacial conditions which gave rise to
+these boulder-beds were presumably contemporaneous with those that
+produced the somewhat similar formation lying at the base of the great
+coal-bearing system in the Indian peninsula. The glacial boulder-bed
+thus offers indirect evidence as to the age of the Indian coal-measures,
+for immediately above this bed in the Salt Range there occur sandstones
+containing fossils which have affinities with the Upper Carboniferous
+formations of Australia,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> and on these sandstones again there lie
+alternations of shales and limestones containing an abundance of fossils
+that are characteristic of the Permo-Carboniferous rocks of Russia.
+These are succeeded by an apparently conformable succession of beds of
+still younger age, culminating in a series of shales, sandstones, and
+limestones of unmistakably Triassic age.</p>
+
+<p>There is then an interruption in the record, and the next younger series
+preserved occurs in the western part of the Salt Range as well as in the
+hills beyond the Indus. This formation is of Upper Jurassic age,
+corresponding to the well-known beds of marine origin preserved in
+Cutch. Then follows again a gap in the record, and the next most
+interesting series of formations found in the Salt Range become of great
+importance from the economic as well as from the purely scientific point
+of view; these are the formations of Tertiary age.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest of the Tertiary strata include a prominent limestone
+containing Nummulitic fossils, which are characteristic of these Lower
+Tertiary beds throughout the world. Here, as in many parts of
+North-Western India, the Nummulitic limestones are associated with coal
+which has been largely worked. The country between the Salt Range
+plateau and the hilly region away to the north is covered by a great
+stretch of comparatively young Tertiary formations, which were laid down
+in fresh water after the sea had been driven back finally from this
+region. The incoming of fresh-water conditions was inaugurated by the
+formation of beds which are regarded as equivalent in age to those known
+as the Upper Nari in Sind and Eastern Baluchist&aacute;n, but the still later
+deposits, belonging to the well-known Siw&aacute;lik series, are famous on
+account of the great variety and large size of many of the vertebrate
+fossil remains which they have yielded. In these beds to the north<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> of
+the Salt Range there have been found remains of Dinotherium, forms
+related to the ancestors of the giraffe and various other mammals, some
+of them, like the Sivatherium, Mastodon, and Stegodon, being animals of
+great size. On the northern side of the Salt Range three fairly
+well-defined divisions of the Siw&aacute;lik series have been recognised, each
+being conspicuously fossiliferous&mdash;a feature that is comparatively rare
+in the Siw&aacute;lik hills further to the south-east, where these rocks were
+first studied. The Siw&aacute;lik series of the Salt Range are thus so well
+developed that this area might be conveniently regarded as the type
+succession for the purpose of correlating isolated fragmentary
+occurrences of the same general series in northern and western India. To
+give an idea as to the age of these rocks, it will be sufficient to
+mention that the middle division of the series corresponds roughly to
+the well-known deposits of Pikermi and Samos.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kashmir</b> deserves special mention, as it is a veritable paradise for the
+geologist. Of the variety of problems that it presents one might mention
+the petrological questions connected with the intrusion of the great
+masses of granite, and their relation to the slates and associated
+metamorphic rocks. Of fossiliferous systems there is a fine display of
+material ranging in age from Silurian to Upper Trias, and additional
+interest is added by the long-continued volcanic eruptions of the
+"Panj&aacute;l trap." Students of recent phenomena have at their disposal
+interesting problems in physiography, including a grand display of
+glaciers, and the extensive deposits of so-called <i>karewas</i>, which
+appear to have been formed in drowned valleys, where the normal
+fluviatile conditions are modified by those characteristic of lakes. The
+occurrence of sapphires in Z&aacute;nskar gives the State also an interest to
+the mineralogist and connoisseur of gem-stones.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Of this kaleidoscopic assemblage of questions the ones of most immediate
+interest are connected with the Silurian-Trias succession in the Kashm&iacute;r
+valley, for here we have a connecting-link between the marine formations
+of the Salt Range area and those which are preserved in greater
+perfection in Spit&iacute; and other parts of the Tibetan highlands, stretching
+away to the south-east at the back of the great range of crystalline
+snow-covered peaks.</p>
+
+<p>In this interesting part of Kashm&iacute;r the most important feature to Indian
+geologists is the occurrence of plant remains belonging to genera
+identical with those that occur in the lower part of the great
+coal-bearing formation of Peninsular India, known as the Gondw&aacute;na
+system. Until these discoveries were made in Kashm&iacute;r about ten years ago
+the age of the base of the Gondw&aacute;nas was estimated only on indirect
+evidence, partly due to the assumption that glacial conditions in the
+Salt Range and those at the base of the Gondw&aacute;nas were contemporaneous,
+and partly due to analogy with the coal measures of Australia and South
+Africa. In Kashm&iacute;r the characteristic plant remains of the Lower
+Gondw&aacute;nas are found associated with marine fossils in great abundance,
+and these permit of a correlation of the strata with the upper part of
+the Carboniferous system of the European standard stratigraphical scale.</p>
+
+<p>Kashm&iacute;r seems to have been near the estuary of one of the great rivers
+that formerly flowed over the ancient continent of <i>Gondw&aacute;naland</i> (when
+India and South Africa formed parts of one continental mass) into the
+great Eurasian Ocean known as <i>Tethys</i>. As the deposits formed in this
+great ocean give us the principal part of our data for forming a
+standard stratigraphical scale, the plants which were carried out to sea
+become witnesses of the kind of flora that flourished during the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> main
+Indian coal period; they thus enable us with great precision to fix the
+position of the fresh-water Gondw&aacute;nas in comparison with the marine
+succession.</p>
+
+<p><b>Spit&iacute;.</b>&mdash;With &aacute; brief reference to one more interesting patch among the
+geological records of this remarkable region, space will force us to
+pass on to consideration of minerals of economic value. The line of
+snow-covered peaks, composed mainly of crystalline rocks and forming a
+core to the Him&aacute;laya in a way analogous to the granitic core of the
+Alps, occupies what was once apparently the northern shore of
+Gondw&aacute;naland, and to the north of it there stretched the great ocean of
+Tethys, covering the central parts of Asia and Europe, one of its
+shrunken relics being the present Mediterranean Sea. The bed of this
+ocean throughout many geological ages underwent gradual depression and
+received the sediments brought down by the rivers from the continent
+which stretched away to the south. The sedimentary deposits thus formed
+near the shore-line or further out in deep water attained a thickness of
+well over 20,000 feet, and have been studied in the <i>tahs&iacute;l</i> of Spit&iacute;,
+on the northern border of Kum&aacute;on, and again on the eastern Tibetan
+plateau to the north of Darjeeling. A reference to the formations
+preserved in Spit&iacute; may be regarded as typical of the geological history
+and the conditions under which these formations were produced.</p>
+
+<p><b>Succession of Fossiliferous Beds.</b>&mdash;In age the fossiliferous beds range
+from Cambrian right through to the Tertiary epoch; between these
+extremes no single period was passed without leaving its records in some
+part of the great east-to-west Tibetan basin. At the base of the whole
+succession there lies a series of schists which have been largely
+metamorphosed, and on these rest the oldest of the fossiliferous series,
+which, on account of their occurring in the region of snow, has been
+named the <i>Haimanta system</i>. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> upper part of the Haimanta system has
+been found to contain the characteristic trilobites of the Cambrian
+period of Europe. Over this system lie beds which have yielded in
+succession Ordovician and Silurian fossils, forming altogether a compact
+division which has been distinguished locally as the <i>Muth system</i>. Then
+follows the so-called <i>Kan&aacute;war system</i>, which introduces Devonian
+conditions, followed by fossils characteristic of the well-known
+mountain limestone of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Then occurs a break in the succession which varies in magnitude in
+different localities, but appears to correspond to great changes in the
+physical geography which widely affect the Indian region. This break
+corresponds roughly to the upper part of the Carboniferous system of
+Europe, and has been suggested as a datum line for distinguishing in
+India an older group of fossiliferous systems below (formed in an area
+that has been distinguished by the name <i>Dravidian</i>), from the younger
+group above, which has been distinguished by the name <i>Aryan</i>.</p>
+
+<p>During the periods that followed this interruption the bed of the great
+Eurasian Ocean seems to have subsided persistently though
+intermittently. As the various sediments accumulated the exact position
+of the shore-line must have changed to some extent to give rise to the
+conditions favourable for the formation at one time of limestone, at
+another of shale and at other times of sandy deposits. The whole column
+of beds, however, seems to have gone on accumulating without any folding
+movements, and they are consequently now found lying apparently in
+perfect conformity stage upon stage, from those that are Permian in age
+at the base, right through the Mesozoic group, till the time when
+Tertiary conditions were inaugurated and the earth movements began which
+ultimately drove back the ocean and raised the bed, with its accumulated
+load<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> of sediments, into the great folds that now form the Him&aacute;layan
+Range. This great mass of Aryan strata includes an enormous number of
+fossil remains, giving probably a more complete record of the gradual
+changes that came over the marine fauna of Tethys than any other area of
+the kind known. One must pass over the great number of interesting
+features still left unmentioned, including the grand architecture of the
+Sub-Him&aacute;laya and the diversity of formations in different parts of the
+Frontier Province; for the rest of the available space must be devoted
+to a brief reference to the minerals of value.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rock-salt</b>, which occurs in abundance, is possibly the most important
+mineral in this area. The deposits most largely worked are those which
+occur in the well-known Salt Range, covering parts of the districts of
+Jhelam, Sh&aacute;hpur, and Mianw&aacute;l&iacute;. Near the village of Kheora the main seam,
+which is being worked in the Mayo mines, has an aggregate thickness of
+550 feet, of which five seams, with a total thickness of 275 feet,
+consist of salt pure enough to be placed on the table with no more
+preparation than mere pulverising. The associated beds are impregnated
+with earth, and in places there occur thin layers of potash and
+magnesian salts. In this area salt quarrying was practised for an
+unknown period before the time of Akbar, and was continued in a
+primitive fashion until it came under the control of the British
+Government with the occupation of the Panj&aacute;b in 1849. In 1872 systematic
+mining operations were planned, and the general line of work has been
+continued ever since, with an annual output of roughly 100,000 tons.</p>
+
+<p>Open quarries for salt are developed a short distance to the
+east-north-east of K&aacute;lab&aacute;gh on the Indus, and similar open work is
+practised near Koh&aacute;t in the North<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> West Frontier Province, where the
+quantity of salt may be regarded as practically inexhaustible. At
+Bah&aacute;dur Khel the salt lies at the base of the Tertiary series, and can
+be traced for a distance of about eight miles with an exposed thickness
+of over 1000 feet, sometimes standing up as hills of solid salt above
+the general level of the plains. In this area the production is
+naturally limited by want of transport and the small local demand, the
+total output from the quarries being about 16,000 tons per annum. A
+small quantity of salt (generally about 4000 tons a year), is raised
+also from open quarries in the Mand&iacute; State, where the rock-salt beds,
+distinctly impure and earthy, lie near the junction between Tertiary
+formations and the older unfossiliferous groups.</p>
+
+<p><b>Coal</b> occurs at numerous places in association with the Nummulitic
+limestones of Lower Tertiary age, in the Panj&aacute;b, in the North West
+Frontier Province, and in the Jammu division of Kashm&iacute;r. The largest
+output has been obtained from the Salt Range, where mines have been
+opened up on behalf of the North Western Railway. The mines at Dandot in
+the Jhelam district have considerable fluctuations in output, which,
+however, for many years ranged near 50,000 tons. These mines, having
+been worked at a financial loss, were finally abandoned by the Railway
+Company in 1911, but a certain amount of work is still being continued
+by local contractors. At Bh&aacute;ganw&aacute;la, 19 miles further east, in the
+adjoining district of Sh&aacute;hpur, coal was also worked for many years for
+the North Western State Railway, but the maximum output in any one year
+never exceeded 14,000 tons, and in 1900, owing to the poor quality of
+material obtained, the collieries were closed down. Recently, small
+outcrop workings have been developed in the same formation further west
+on the southern scarp of the Salt Range at Tejuw&aacute;la in the Sh&aacute;hpur
+district.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Gold</b> to a small amount is washed from the gravel of the Indus and some
+other rivers by native workers, and large concessions have been granted
+for systematic dredging, but these enterprises have not yet reached the
+commercially paying stage.</p>
+
+<p><b>Other Metals.</b>&mdash;Prospecting has been carried on at irregular intervals in
+Kulu and along the corresponding belt of schistose rocks further west in
+Kashm&iacute;r and Chitr&aacute;l. The copper ores occur as sulphides along certain
+bands in the chloritic and micaceous schists, similar in composition and
+probably in age to those worked further east in Kum&aacute;on, in Nip&aacute;l, and in
+Sikkim. In Lahul near the Shigr&iacute; glacier there is a lode containing
+<b>antimony</b> sulphide with ores of <b>zinc</b> and <b>lead</b>, which would almost
+certainly be opened up and developed but for the difficulty of access
+and cost of transport to the only valuable markets.</p>
+
+<p><b>Petroleum</b> springs occur among the Tertiary formations of the Panj&aacute;b and
+Biluchist&aacute;n, and a few thousand gallons of oil are raised annually.
+Prospecting operations have been carried on vigorously during the past
+two or three years, but no large supplies have so far been proved. The
+principal oil-supplies of Burma and Assam have been obtained from rocks
+of Miocene age, like those of Persia and the Caspian region, but the
+most promising "shows" in North West India have been in the older
+Nummulitic formations, and the oil is thus regarded by some experts as
+the residue of the material which has migrated from the Miocene beds
+that probably at one time covered the Nummulitic formations, but have
+since been removed by the erosive action of the atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alum</b> is manufactured from the pyritous shales of the Mianw&aacute;l&iacute; district,
+the annual output being generally about 200 to 300 tons. Similar shales
+containing pyrites are known to occur in other parts of this area, and
+possibly the industry might be considerably extended, as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> annual
+requirements of India, judged by the import returns, exceed ten times
+the native production of alum.</p>
+
+<p><b>Borax</b> is produced in Lad&aacute;kh and larger quantities are imported across
+the frontier from Tibet. In the early summer one frequently meets herds
+of sheep being driven southwards across the Himalayan passes, each sheep
+carrying a couple of small saddle-bags laden with borax or salt, which
+is bartered in the Panj&aacute;b bazars for Indian and foreign stores for the
+winter requirements of the snow-blocked valleys beyond the frontier.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sapphires.</b>&mdash;The sapphires of Z&aacute;nskar have been worked at intervals since
+the discovery of the deposit in 1881, and some of the finest stones in
+the gem market have been obtained from this locality, where work is,
+however, difficult on account of the great altitude and the difficulty
+of access from the plains.</p>
+
+<p><b>Limestone.</b>&mdash;Large deposits of Nummulitic limestone are found in the
+older Tertiary formations of North-West India. It yields a pure lime and
+is used in large quantities for building purposes. The constant
+association of these limestones with shale beds, and their frequent
+association with coal, naturally suggest their employment for the
+manufacture of cement; and special concessions have recently been given
+by the Panj&aacute;b Government with a view of encouraging the development of
+the industry. The nodular impure limestone, known generally by the name
+of <i>kankar</i>, contains sufficient clay to give it hydraulic characters
+when burnt, and much cement is thus manufactured. The varying
+composition of <i>kankar</i> naturally results in a product of irregular
+character, and consequently cement so made can replace Portland cement
+only for certain purposes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Slate</b> is quarried in various places for purely local use. In the K&aacute;ngra
+valley material of very high quality is obtained and consequently
+secures a wide distribution,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> limited, however, by competition with
+cheaply made tiles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gypsum</b> occurs in large quantities in association with the rock-salt of
+the Salt Range, but the local demand is small. There are also beds of
+potash and magnesian salts in the same area, but their value and
+quantity have not been thoroughly proved.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig16a" id="fig16a"></a>
+<img src="images/fig016a1.jpg" width="600" height="496" alt="January to February." title="" />
+<span class="caption">January to February.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig016a2.jpg" width="600" height="448" alt="March to May" title="" />
+<span class="caption">March to May</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig16b" id="fig16b"></a>
+<img src="images/fig016b1.jpg" width="600" height="448" alt="June to September" title="" />
+<span class="caption">June to September</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig016b2.jpg" width="600" height="460" alt="October to December." title="" />
+<span class="caption">October to December.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Normal Rainfall.">
+<tr><td align='center' colspan="2"><i>Normal Rainfall.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I. N.W.F. Province.</td><td align='left'>II. Kashmir.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>III. Panj&aacute;b E. and N.</td><td align='left'>IV. Panj&aacute;b S.W.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<h4>Fig. 16. Rainfall of different Seasons.</h4>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>CLIMATE</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Types of Climate.</b>&mdash;The climate of the Panj&aacute;b plains is determined by
+their distance from the sea and the existence of formidable mountain
+barriers to the north and west. The factor of elevation makes the
+climate of the Himalayan tracts very different from that of the plains.
+Still more striking is the contrast between the Indian Himalayan climate
+and the Central Asian Trans-Himalayan climate of Spit&iacute;, Lahul, and
+Lad&aacute;kh.</p>
+
+<p><b>Zones.</b>&mdash;A broad division into six zones may be recognised:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="A broad division into six zones">
+<tr><td align='right'>A 1. Trans-Himalayan.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>B 2. Himalayan.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>C. Plains</td><td align='left'>3. North Western.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>4. Submontane.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>5. Central and South Eastern.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>6. South Western.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><b>Trans-Himalayan Climate.</b>&mdash;Spit&iacute;, Lahul, and Lad&aacute;kh are outside the
+meteorological influences which affect the rest of the Indian Empire.
+The lofty ranges of the Him&aacute;laya interpose an almost insurmountable
+barrier between them and the clouds of the monsoon. The rainfall is
+extraordinarily small, and, considering the elevation of the inhabited
+parts, 10,000 to 14,000 feet, the snowfall there is not heavy. The air
+is intensely dry and clear, and the daily and seasonal range of
+temperature is extreme. Leh, the capital of Lad&aacute;kh (11,500 feet), has an
+average<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> rainfall (including snow) of about 3 inches. The mean
+temperature is 43&deg; Fahr., varying from 19&deg; in January to 64&deg; in July.
+But these figures give no idea of the rigours of the severe but healthy
+climate. The daily range is from 25 to 30 degrees, or double what we are
+accustomed to in England. Once 17&deg; below zero was recorded. In the rare
+dry clear atmosphere the power of the solar rays is extraordinary.
+"Rocks exposed to the sun may be too hot to lay the hand upon at the
+same time that it is freezing in the shade."</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/fig017tb.jpg" width="500" height="494" alt="Fig. 17. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for January." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/fig017.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 17. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for January.</span>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig018tb" id="fig018tb"></a>
+<img src="images/fig018tb.jpg" width="500" height="507" alt="Fig. 18. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for July." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/fig018.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 18. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for July.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Indian Zones&mdash;Meteorological factors.</b>&mdash;The distribution of pressure
+in India, determined mainly by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> changes of temperature, and itself
+determining the direction of the winds and the character of the weather,
+is shown graphically in figures 17 and 18. The winter or north-east
+monsoon does not penetrate into the Panj&aacute;b, where light westernly and
+northernly winds prevail during the cold season. What rain is received
+is due to land storms originating beyond the western frontier. The
+branch of the summer or south-west monsoon which chiefly affects the
+Panj&aacute;b is that which blows up the Bay of Bengal. The rain-clouds
+striking the Eastern Him&aacute;laya are deflected to the west and forced up
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> Gangetic plain by south-westernly winds. The lower ranges of the
+Panj&aacute;b Him&aacute;laya receive in this way very heavy downpours. The rain
+extends into the plains, but exhausts itself and dies away pretty
+rapidly to the south and west. The Bombay branch of the monsoon mostly
+spends itself on the Gh&aacute;ts and in the Deccan. But a part of it
+penetrates from time to time to the south-east Panj&aacute;b, and, if it is
+sucked into the Bay current, the result is widespread rain.</p>
+
+<p><b>Himalayan Zone.</b>&mdash;The impressions which English people get of the climate
+of the Him&aacute;laya, or in Indian phrase "the Hills," are derived mainly
+from stations like Simla and Murree perched at a height of from 6500 to
+7500 feet on the outer ranges. The data of meteorologists are mainly
+taken from the same localities. Places between 8000 and 10,000 feet in
+height and further from the plains enjoy a finer climate, being both
+cooler and drier in summer. But they are less accessible, and weakly
+persons would find the greater rarity of the air trying.</p>
+
+<p>In the first fortnight of April the plains become disagreeably warm, and
+it is well to take European children to the Hills. The Panj&aacute;b Government
+moves to Simla in the first fortnight of May. By that time Simla is
+pretty warm in the middle of the day, but the nights are pleasant. The
+mean temperature of the 24 hours in May and June is 65&deg; or 66&deg;, the mean
+maximum and minimum being 78&deg; and 59&deg;. Thunderstorms with or without
+hail are not uncommon in April, May, and June. In a normal year the
+monsoon clouds drift up in the end of June, and the next three months
+are "the Rains." Usually it does not rain either all day or every day;
+but sometimes for weeks together Simla is smothered in a blanket of grey
+mist. Normally the rain comes in bursts with longer or shorter breaks
+between. About<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> the third week of September the rains often cease quite
+suddenly, the end being usually proclaimed by a thunderstorm. Next
+morning one wakes to a new heaven and a new earth, a perfectly cloudless
+sky, and clean, crisp, cool air. This ideal weather lasts for the next
+three months. Even in December the days are made pleasant by bright
+sunshine, and the range of temperature is much less than in the plains.
+In the end of December or beginning of January the night thermometer
+often falls lower at Amb&aacute;la and R&aacute;walpind&iacute; than at Simla and Murree.
+After Christmas the weather becomes broken, and in January and February
+falls of snow occur. It is a disagreeable time, and English residents
+are glad to descend to the plains. In March also the weather is often
+unsettled. The really heavy falls of snow occur at levels much higher
+than Simla. These remarks apply <i>mutatis mutandis</i> to Dharms&aacute;la,
+Dalhousie, and Murree. Owing to its position right under a lofty
+mountain wall Dharms&aacute;la is a far wetter place than Simla. Murree gets
+its monsoon later, and the summer rainfall is a good deal lighter. In
+winter it has more snow, being nearer the source of origin of the
+storms. Himalayan valleys at an elevation of 5000 feet, such as the Vale
+of Kashm&iacute;r, have a pleasant climate. The mean temperature of Sr&iacute;nagar
+(5255 feet) varies from 33&deg; in January to 75&deg; in July, when it is
+unpleasantly hot, and Europeans often move to Gulmarg. Kashm&iacute;r has a
+heavy snowfall even in the Jhelam valley. Below 4000 feet, especially in
+confined river valleys the Himalayan climate is often disagreeably hot
+and stuffy.</p>
+
+<p><b>Climate of the Plains.</b>&mdash;The course of the seasons is the same in the
+plains. The jaded resident finds relief when the rains cease in the end
+of September. The days are still warm, but the skies are clear, the air<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+dry, and the nights cool. November is rainless and in every way a
+pleasant month. The clouds begin to gather before Christmas, but rain
+often holds off till January. Pleasant though the early months of the
+cold weather are, they lay traps for the unwary. In October and November
+the daily range of temperature is very large, exceeding 30&deg;, and the
+fall at sunset very sudden. Care is needed to avoid a chill and the
+fever that follows. Clear and dry though the air is, the blue of the
+skies is pale owing to a light dust haze in the upper atmosphere. For
+the same reason the Himalayan snows except after rain are veiled from
+dwellers in the plains at a distance of 30 miles from the foot-hills.
+The air in these months before the winter rains is wonderfully still. In
+the three months after Christmas the Panj&aacute;b is the pathway of a series
+of small storms from the west, preceded by close weather and occurring
+usually at intervals of a few weeks. After a day or two of wet weather
+the sky clears, and the storm is followed by a great drop in the
+temperature. The traveller who shivers after a January rain-storm finds
+it hard to believe that the Panj&aacute;b plain is a part of the hottest region
+of the Old World which stretches from the Sah&aacute;ra to Delhi. If he had to
+spend the period from May to July there he would have small doubts on
+the subject. The heat begins to be unpleasant in April, when hot
+westernly winds prevail. An occasional thunderstorm with hail relieves
+the strain for a little. The warmest period of the year is May and June.
+But the intense dry heat is healthier and to many less trying than the
+mugginess of the rainy season. The dust-storms which used to be common
+have become rarer and lighter with the spread of canal irrigation in the
+western Panj&aacute;b. The rains ought to break at Delhi in the end of June and
+at Lahore ten days or a fortnight later. There is often a long break
+when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> the climate is particularly trying. The nights are terribly hot.
+The outer air is then less stifling than that of the house, and there is
+the chance of a little comparative coolness shortly before dawn. Many
+therefore prefer to sleep on the roof or in the verandah. September,
+when the rains slacken, is a muggy, unpleasant, and unhealthy month. But
+in the latter half of it cooler nights give promise of a better time.</p>
+
+<p><b>Special features of Plain Zones.</b>&mdash;The submontane zone has the most
+equable and the pleasantest climate in the plains. It has a rainfall of
+from 30 to 40 inches, five-sevenths or more of which belongs to the
+monsoon period (June-September). The north-western area has a longer and
+colder winter and spring. In the end of December and in January the keen
+dry cold is distinctly trying. The figures in Statement I, for
+R&aacute;walpind&iacute; and Pesh&aacute;war, are not very characteristic of the zone as a
+whole. The average of the rainfall figures, 13 inches for Pesh&aacute;war and
+32 for R&aacute;walpind&iacute;, would give a truer result. The monsoon rains come
+later and are much less abundant than in the submontane zone. Their
+influence is very feeble in the western and south-western part of the
+area. On the other hand the winter rains, are heavier than in any other
+part of the province. Delhi and Lahore represent the extreme conditions
+of the central and south-eastern plains. The latter is really on the
+edge of the dry south-western area. The eastern districts of the zone
+have a shorter and less severe cold weather than the western, an earlier
+and heavier monsoon, but scantier winter rains. The total rainfall
+varies from 16 to 30 inches. The south-western zone, with a rainfall of
+from 5 to 15 inches, is the driest part of India proper except northern
+Sindh and western R&aacute;jput&aacute;na. Neither monsoon current affects it much. At
+Mult&aacute;n there are only about fifteen days in the whole year on which any
+rain falls.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3>HERBS, SHRUBS, AND TREES</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Affinities of Panj&aacute;b Flora.</b>&mdash;It is hopeless to describe except in the
+broadest outline the flora of a tract covering an area of 250,000 square
+miles and ranging in altitude from a few hundred feet to a height 10,000
+feet above the limit of flowering plants. The nature of the vegetation
+of any tract depends on rainfall and temperature, and only secondarily
+on soil. A desert is a tract with a dry substratum and dry air, great
+heat during some part of the year, and bright sunshine. The soil may be
+loam or sand, and as regards vegetation a sandy desert is the worst
+owing to the rapid drying up of the subsoil after rain. In the third of
+the maps appended to Schimper's <i>Plant Geography</i> by far the greater
+part of the area dealt with in this book is shown as part of the vast
+desert extending from the Sah&aacute;ra to Manchuria. Seeing that the monsoon
+penetrates into the province and that it is traversed by large snow-fed
+rivers the Panj&aacute;b, except in parts of the extreme western and
+south-western districts, is not a desert like the Sah&aacute;ra or Gob&iacute;, and
+Schimper recognised this by marking most of the area as semi-desert.
+Still the flora outside the Hills and the submontane tract is
+predominantly of the desert type, being xerophilous or
+drought-resisting. The adaptations which enable plants to survive in a
+tract deficient in moisture are of various kinds. The roots may be
+greatly developed to enable them to tap the subsoil moisture,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> the
+leaves may be reduced in size, converted into thorns, or entirely
+dispensed with, in order to check rapid evaporation, they may be covered
+with silky or felted hairs, a modification which produces the same
+result, or their internal tissue may be succulent or mucilaginous. In
+the plants of the Panj&aacute;b plains there is no difficulty in recognising
+these features of a drought-resisting flora. Schimper's map shows in the
+north-east of the area a wedge thrust in between the plains' desert and
+the dry elevated alpine desert cut off from the influence of the monsoon
+by the lofty barrier of the Inner Him&aacute;laya. This consists of two parts,
+monsoon forest, corresponding roughly with the Himalayan area Cis R&aacute;v&iacute;
+above the 5000 feet contour, and dry woodland of a semi-tropical stamp,
+consisting, of the adjoining foot-hills and submontane tract. This wedge
+is in fact treated as part of the zone, which in the map (after Drude)
+prefixed to Willis' <i>Manual and Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and
+Ferns</i>, is called Indo-Malayan, and which embraces the Malayan
+Archipelago and part of North Australia, Burma, and practically the
+whole of India except the Panj&aacute;b, Sindh, and R&aacute;jput&aacute;na. In Drude's map
+the three countries last mentioned are included in a large zone called
+"the Mediterranean and Orient." This is a very broad classification, and
+in tracing the relationships of the Panj&aacute;b flora it is better to treat
+the desert area of North Africa, which in Tripoli and Egypt extends to
+the coast, apart from the Mediterranean zone. It is a familiar fact
+that, as we ascend lofty mountains like those of the Him&aacute;laya, we pass
+through belts or regions of vegetation of different types. The air
+steadily becomes rarer and therefore colder, especially at night, and at
+the higher levels there is a marked reduction in the rainfall. When the
+alpine region, which in the Him&aacute;laya may be taken as beginning at 11,000
+feet, is reached,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> the plants have as a rule bigger roots, shorter
+stems, smaller leaves, but often larger and more brilliantly coloured
+flowers. These are adaptations of a drought-resisting kind.</p>
+
+<p><b>Regions.</b>&mdash;In this sketch it will suffice to divide the tract into six
+regions:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="65%" summary="Regions.">
+<tr><td align='left'>Plains</td><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Panj&aacute;b dry plain.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'>Salt Range and North West Plateau, from the frontier to Pabb&iacute; Hills.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>3.</td><td align='left'>Submontane Hills on east bank of Jhelam.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Hills</td><td align='right'>4.</td><td align='left'>Sub-Him&aacute;laya, 2000-5000 feet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>5.</td><td align='left'>Temperate Him&aacute;laya, 5000-11,000 feet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>6.</td><td align='left'>Alpine Him&aacute;laya, 11,000-16,000 feet.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>Of course a flora does not fit itself into compartments, and the changes
+of type are gradual.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panj&aacute;b Dry Plain.</b>&mdash;The affinities of the flora of the Panj&aacute;b plains
+south of the Salt Range and the submontane tract are, especially in the
+west, with the desert areas of Persia, Arabia, and North Africa, though
+the spread of canal irrigation is modifying somewhat the character of
+the vegetation. The soil and climate are unsuited to the growth of large
+trees, but adapted to scrub jungle of a drought-resisting type, which at
+one time covered very large areas from the Jamna to the Jhelam. The soil
+on which this sparse scrub grew is a good strong loam, but the rainfall
+was too scanty and the water-level too deep to admit of much cultivation
+outside the valleys of the rivers till the labours of canal engineers
+carried their waters to the uplands. East of the Sutlej the Bikaner
+desert thrusts northwards a great wedge of sandy land which occupies a
+large area in Bah&aacute;walpur, Hiss&aacute;r, Ferozepur, and Pati&aacute;la. Soil of this
+description is free of forest growth, and the monsoon rainfall in this
+part of the province is sufficient to encourage an easy, but very
+precarious, cultivation of autumn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> millets and pulses. The great Thal
+desert to the south of the Salt Range between the valleys of the Jhelam
+and the Indus has a similar soil, but the scantiness of the rainfall has
+confined cultivation within much narrower limits. Between the Sutlej and
+the Jhelam the uplands between the river valleys are known locally as
+B&aacute;rs. The largest of the truly indigenous trees of the Panj&aacute;b plains are
+the <i>far&aacute;sh</i> (Tamarix articulata) and the thorny <i>k&iacute;kar</i> (Acacia
+Arabica). The latter yields excellent wood for agricultural implements,
+and fortunately it grows well in sour soils. Smaller thorny acacias are
+the <i>n&iacute;mbar</i> or <i>raunj</i> (Acacia leucophloea) and the <i>khair</i> (Acacia
+Senegal). The dwarf tamarisk, <i>pilch&iacute;</i> or <i>jhao</i> (Tamarix dioica), grows
+freely in moist sandy soils near rivers. The scrub jungle consists
+mostly of <i>jand</i> (Prosopis spicigera), a near relation of the Acacias,
+<i>j&aacute;l</i> or <i>van</i> (Salvadora oleoides), and the coral-flowered <i>kar&iacute;l</i> or
+leafless caper (Capparis aphylla). All these show their desert
+affinities, the <i>jand</i> by its long root and its thorns, the <i>j&aacute;l</i> by its
+small leathery leaves, and the <i>kar&iacute;l</i> by the fact that it has managed
+to dispense with leaves altogether. The <i>jand</i> is a useful little tree,
+and wherever it grows the natural qualities of the soil are good. The
+sweetish fruit of the <i>j&aacute;l</i>, known as <i>p&iacute;lu</i>, is liked by the people,
+and in famines they will even eat the berries of the leafless caper.
+Other characteristic plants of the Panj&aacute;b plains are under Leguminosae,
+the <i>khip</i> (Crotalaria burhia), two Farsetias (<i>far&iacute;d k&iacute; b&uacute;ti</i>), and the
+<i>jaw&aacute;sa</i> or camel thorn (Alhagi camelorum), practically leafless, but
+with very long and stout spines; under Capparidaceae several Cleomes,
+species of Corchorus (Tiliaceae), under Zygophyllaceae three
+Mediterranean genera, Tribulus, Zygophyllum, and Fagonia, under
+Solanaceae several Solanums and Withanias, and various salsolaceous
+Chenopods known as <i>l&aacute;na</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig19" id="fig19"></a>
+<img src="images/img019.jpg" width="600" height="461" alt="Fig. 19. Banian or Bor trees." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 19. Banian or Bor trees.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the sandier tracts the <i>ak</i> (Calotropis procera, N.O.
+Asclepiadaceae), the <i>harmal</i> (Peganum harmala, N.O. Rutaceae), and the
+colocynth gourd (Citrullus colocynthis, N.O. Cucurbitaceae), which,
+owing to the size of its roots, manages to flourish in the sands of
+African and Indian deserts, grow abundantly. Common weeds of cultivation
+are Fumaria parviflora, a near relation of the English fumitory, Silene
+conoidea, and two Spergulas (Caryophyllaceae), and Sisymbrium Irio
+(Cruciferae). A curious little Orchid, Zeuxine sulcata, is found growing
+among the grass on canal banks. The American yellow poppy, Argemone
+Mexicana, a noxious weed, has unfortunately established itself widely in
+the Panj&aacute;b plain. Two trees of the order Leguminosae, the <i>shisham</i> or
+<i>t&aacute;l&iacute;</i> (Dalbergia Sissoo) and the <i>siris</i> (Albizzia lebbek), are
+commonly planted on Panj&aacute;b roads. The true home<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> of the former is in
+river beds in the low hills or in ravines below the hills. But it is a
+favourite tree on roads and near wells throughout the province, and
+deservedly so, for it yields excellent timber. The <i>siris</i> on the other
+hand is an untidy useless tree. The <i>k&iacute;kar</i> might be planted as a
+roadside tree to a greater extent. Several species of figs, especially
+the <i>p&iacute;pal</i> (Ficus religiosa) and <i>bor</i> or banian (Ficus Indica) are
+popular trees.</p>
+
+<p><b>Salt Range and North-West Plains.</b>&mdash;-Our second region may be taken as
+extending from the Pabb&iacute; hills on the east of the Jhelam in Gujr&aacute;t to
+our administrative boundary beyond the Indus, its southern limit being
+the Salt Range. Here the flora is of a distinctly Mediterranean type.
+Poppies are as familiar in R&aacute;walpindi as they are in England or Italy,
+and Hypecoum procumbens, a curious Italian plant of the same order, is
+found in Attock. The abundance of Crucifers is also a Mediterranean
+feature. Eruca sativa, the oil-seed known as <i>t&aacute;ram&iacute;ra</i> or <i>jami&aacute;n</i>,
+which sows itself freely in waste land and may be found growing even on
+railway tracks in the R&aacute;walpind&iacute; division, is an Italian and Spanish
+weed. Malcolmia strigosa, which spreads a reddish carpet over the
+ground, and Malcolmia Africana are common Crucifers near R&aacute;walpind&iacute;. The
+latter is a Mediterranean species. The Salt Range genera Diplotaxis and
+Moricandia are Italian, and the peculiar Notoceras Canariensis found in
+Attock is also a native of the Canary Islands. Another order,
+Boraginaceae, which is very prominent in the Mediterranean region, is
+also important in the North-West Panj&aacute;b, though the showier plants of
+the order are wanting. One curious Borage, Arnebia Griffithii, seems to
+be purely Asiatic. It has five brown spots on its petals, which fade and
+disappear in the noonday sunshine. These are supposed to be drops of
+sweat which fell from Muhammad's forehead, hence the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> plant is called
+<i>paighambar&iacute; ph&uacute;l</i> or the prophet's flower. Among Composites Calendulas
+and Carthamus oxyacantha or the <i>pohl&iacute;</i>, a near relation of the
+Carthamus which yields the saffron dye, are abundant. Both are common
+Mediterranean genera. Silybum Marianum, a handsome thistle with large
+leaves mottled with white, extends from Britain to R&aacute;walpind&iacute;.
+Interesting species are Tulipa stellata and Tulipa chrysantha. The
+latter is a Salt Range plant, as is the crocus-like Merendera Persica,
+and the yellow Iris Aitchisoni. A curious plant found in the same hills
+is the cactus-like Boucerosia (N.O. Asclepiadaceae), recalling to
+botanists the more familiar Stapelias of the same order. Another
+leafless Asclepiad, Periploca aphylla, which extends westwards to Arabia
+and Nubia and southwards to Sindh, is, like Boucerosia, a typical
+xerophyte adapted to a very dry soil and atmosphere. The thorny Acacias,
+A. eburnea and A. modesta (vern. <i>phul&aacute;h&iacute;</i>), of the low bare hills of
+the N.W. Panj&aacute;b are also drought-resisting plants.</p>
+
+<p><b>Submontane Region.</b>&mdash;The Submontane region consists of a broad belt below
+the Siw&aacute;liks extending from the Jamna nearly to the Jhelam, and may be
+said to include the districts of Amb&aacute;la, Karn&aacute;l (part), Hoshy&aacute;rpur,
+K&aacute;ngra (part), Haz&aacute;ra (part), Jalandhar, Gurd&aacute;spur, Si&aacute;lkot, Gujr&aacute;t
+(part). In its flora there is a strong infusion of Indo-Malayan
+elements. An interesting member of it is the Butea frondosa, a small
+tree of the order Leguminosae. It is known by several names, <i>dh&aacute;k</i>,
+<i>chichra</i>, <i>pal&aacute;h</i>, and <i>pal&aacute;s</i>. Putting out its large orange-red
+flowers in April it ushers in the hot weather. It has a wide range from
+Ceylon to Bengal, where it has given its name to the town of Dacca and
+the battlefield of Plassy (Pal&aacute;si). From Bengal it extends all the way
+to Haz&aacute;ra. There can be no doubt that a large part of the submontane
+region was once <i>dh&aacute;k</i> forest. Tracts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> in the north of Karn&aacute;l&mdash;Chachra,
+in Jalandhar&mdash;Dardh&aacute;k, and in Gujr&aacute;t&mdash;Pal&aacute;h&iacute;, have taken their names
+from this tree. It coppices very freely, furnishes excellent firewood
+and good timber for the wooden frames on which the masonry cylinders of
+wells are reared, it exudes a valuable gum, its flowers yield a dye, and
+the dry leaves are eaten by buffaloes. A tree commonly planted near
+wells and villages in the submontane tract is the <i>dhrek</i> (Melia
+azedarach, N.O. Meliaceae), which is found as far west as Persia and is
+often called by English people the Persian lilac. The <i>bahera</i>
+(Terminalia belerica, N.O. Combretaceae), a much larger tree, is
+Indo-Malayan. Common shrubs are the <i>marwan</i> (Vitex negundo, N.O.
+Verbenaceae), Plumbago Zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae), the <i>b&aacute;nsa</i> or
+<i>bhekar</i> (Adhatoda vasica, N.O. Acanthaceae). The last is Indo-Malayan.
+Among herbs Cassias, which do not occur in Europe, are common. The
+curious cactus-like Euphorbia Royleana grows abundantly and is used for
+making hedges.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sub-Him&aacute;laya.</b>&mdash;A large part of the Sub-Himalayan region belongs to the
+Siw&aacute;liks. The climate is fairly moist and subject to less extremes of
+heat and cold than the regions described above. A strong infusion of
+Indo-Malayan types is found and a noticeable feature is the large number
+of flowering trees and shrubs. Such beautiful flowering trees as the
+<i>simal</i> or silk-cotton tree (Bombax Malabaricum, N.O. Malvaceae), the
+<i>amalt&aacute;s</i> (Cassia fistula), Albizzia mollis and Albizzia stipulata,
+Erythrina suberosa, Bauhinia purpurea and Bauhinia variegata, all
+belonging to the order Leguminosae, are unknown in Europe, but common in
+the Indo-Malayan region. This is true also of Oroxylum Indicum (N.O.
+Bignoniaceae) with its remarkable long sword-like capsules, and of the
+<i>kam&iacute;la</i> (Mallotus Philippinensis), which abounds in the low hills, but
+may escape the traveller's notice<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> as its flowers have no charm of form
+or colour. He will in spring hardly fail to observe another Indo-Malayan
+tree, the <i>dh&aacute;w&iacute;</i> (Woodfordia floribunda, N.O. Lythraceae) with its
+bright red flowers. Shrubs with conspicuous flowers are also common,
+among which may be noted species of Clematis, Capparis spinosa, Kydia
+calycina, Mimosa rubicaulis, Hamiltonia suaveolens, Caryopteris
+Wallichiana, and Nerium Oleander. The latter grows freely in sandy
+torrent beds. Rhus cotinus, which reddens the hillsides in May, is a
+native also of Syria, Italy, and Southern France. Other trees to be
+noticed are a wild pear (Pyrus pashia), the olive (Olea cuspidata), the
+<i>khair</i> (Acacia catechu) useful to tanners, the <i>tun</i> (Cedrela toona),
+whose wood is often used for furniture, the <i>dh&aacute;man</i> (Grewia
+oppositifolia, N.O. Tiliaceae), and several species of fig. The most
+valuable products however of the forests of the lower hills are the
+<i>ch&iacute;r</i> or <i>ch&iacute;l</i> pine (Pinus longifolia), and a giant grass, the bamboo
+(Dendrocalamus strictus), which attains a height of from 20 to 40 feet.
+Shrubs which grow freely on stony hills are the <i>sanattha</i> or <i>mendru</i>
+(Dodonaea viscosa, N.O. Sapindaceae), which is a valuable protection
+against denudation, as goats pass it by, the <i>garna</i>, which is a species
+of Carissa, and Plectranthus rugosus. Climbers are common. The great
+Hiptage madablota (N.O. Malpighiaceae), the Bauhinia Vahlii or elephant
+creeper, and some species of the parasitic Loranthus, deserve mention,
+also Acacia caesia, Pueraria tuberosa, Vallaris Heynei, Porana
+paniculata, and several vines, especially Vitis lanata with its large
+rusty leaves. Characteristic herbs are the sweet-scented Viola patrinii,
+the slender milkwort; Polygala Abyssinica, a handsome pea, Vigna
+vexillata, a borage, Trichodesma Indicum, a balsam, Impatiens balsamina,
+familiar in English gardens, the beautiful delicate little blue
+Evolvulus alsinoides, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> showy purple convolvulus, Ipomaea hederacea,
+and a curious lily, Gloriosa superba.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig20" id="fig20"></a>
+<img src="images/img020.jpg" width="600" height="479" alt="Fig. 20. Deod&aacute;rs and Hill Temple." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 20. Deod&aacute;rs and Hill Temple.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Temperate Him&aacute;laya.</b>&mdash;The richest part of the temperate Himalayan flora
+is probably in the 7500-10,000 zone. Above 10,000 feet sup-alpine
+conditions begin, and at 12,000 feet tree growth becomes very scanty and
+the flora is distinctly alpine. The <i>ch&iacute;r</i> pine so common in
+sub-Himalayan forests extends up to 6500 feet. At this height and 1000
+feet lower the <i>ban</i> oak (Quercus incana), grey on the lower side of the
+leaf, which is so common at Simla, abounds. Where the <i>ch&iacute;l</i> stops, the
+<i>kail</i> or blue pine (Pinus excelsa), after the <i>deod&aacute;r</i> the most
+valuable product of Himalayan forests, begins. Its zone may be taken as
+from 7000 to 9000 feet. To the same zone belong the <i>kelu</i> or <i>deod&aacute;r</i>
+(Cedrus Libani), the glossy leaved <i>mohru</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> oak (Quercus dilatata),
+whose wood is used for making charcoal, and two small trees of the Heath
+order, Rhododendron arborea and Pieris ovalifolia. The former in April
+and May lightens up with its bright red flowers the sombre Simla
+forests. The <i>kharshu</i> or rusty-leaved oak (Quercus semecarpifolia)
+affects a colder climate than its more beautiful glossy-leaved relation,
+and may almost be considered sub-alpine. It is common on Hattu, and the
+oaks there present a forlorn appearance after rain with funereal mosses
+dripping with moisture hanging from their trunks. The firs, Picea
+morinda, with its grey tassels, and Abies Pindrow with its dark green
+yew-like foliage, succeed the blue pine. Picea may be said to range from
+8000 to 10,000 feet, and the upper limit of Abies is from 1000 to 2000
+feet higher. These splendid trees are unfortunately of small commercial
+value. The yew, Taxus baccata, is found associated with them. Between
+5000 and 8000 feet, besides the oaks and other broad-leaved trees
+already noticed, two relations of the dogwood, Cornus capitata and
+Cornus macrophylla, a large poplar, Populus ciliata, a pear, Pyrus
+lanata, a holly, Ilex dipyrena, an elm and its near relation, Celtis
+australis, and species of Rhus and Euonymus, may be mentioned. Cornus
+capitata is a small tree, but it attracts notice because the heads of
+flowers surrounded by bracts of a pale yellow colour have a curious
+likeness to a rose, and the fruit is in semblance not unlike a
+strawberry. Above 8000 feet several species of maple abound.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+which has been introduced into English shrubberies. The great vine, The
+<i>chin&aacute;r</i> or Platanus orientalis, found as far west as Sicily, grows to
+splendid proportions by the quiet waterways of the Vale of Kashm&iacute;r. The
+undergrowth in temperate Himalayan forests consists largely of
+barberries, Desmodiums, Indigoferas, roses, brambles, Spiraeas,
+Viburnums, honeysuckles with their near relation, Leycesteria formosa,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+Vitis Himalayana, whose leaves turn red in autumn, climbs up many of the
+trees. Of the flowers it is impossible to give any adequate account. The
+flora is distinctly Mediterranean in type; the orders in Collett's
+<i>Flora Simlensis</i> which are not represented in the Italian flora contain
+hardly more than 5 per cent. of the total genera. The plants included in
+some of these non-Mediterranean orders are very beautiful, for example,
+the Begonias, the Amphicomes (Bignoniaceae), Chirita bifolia and
+Platystemma violoides (Gesneraceae), and Hedychium (Scitamineae). More
+important members of the flora are species of Clematis, including the
+beautiful white Clematis montana, anemones, larkspurs, columbine,
+monkshoods, St John's worts, geraniums, balsams, species of Astragalus,
+Potentillas, Asters, ragworts, species of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> Cynoglossum, gentians and
+Swertias, Androsaces and primroses, Wulfenia and louseworts, species of
+Strobilanthes, Salvias and Nepetas, orchids, irises, Ophiopogon, Smilax,
+Alliums, lilies, and Solomon's seal. Snake plants (Arisaema) and their
+relation Sauromatum guttatum of the order Araceae are very common in the
+woods. The striped spathe in some species of Arisaema bears a curious
+resemblance to the head of a cobra uplifted to strike. Orchids decrease
+as one proceeds westwards, but irises are much more common in Kashm&iacute;r
+than in the Simla hills. The Kashm&iacute;r fritillaries include the beautiful
+Crown Imperial.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 454px;">
+<a name="fig21" id="fig21"></a>
+<img src="images/img021.jpg" width="454" height="600" alt="Fig. 21. Firs in Him&aacute;laya." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 21. Firs in Him&aacute;laya.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig22" id="fig22"></a>
+<img src="images/img022.jpg" width="600" height="436" alt="Fig. 22. Chin&aacute;rs." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 22. Chin&aacute;rs.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig23" id="fig23"></a>
+<img src="images/img023.jpg" width="600" height="497" alt="Fig. 23. Rhododendron campanulatum." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 23. Rhododendron campanulatum.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p><b>Alpine Him&aacute;laya.</b>&mdash;In the Alpine Him&aacute;laya the scanty tree-growth is
+represented by willows, junipers, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> birches. After 12,000 or 12,500
+feet it practically disappears. A dwarf shrub, Juniperus recurva, is
+found clothing hillsides a good way above the two trees of the same
+genus. Other alpine shrubs which may be noticed are two rhododendrons,
+which grow on cliffs at an elevation of 10,000 to 14,000 feet, R.
+campanulatum and R. lepidotum, Gaultheria nummularioides with its
+black-purple berry, and Cassiope fastigiata, all belonging to the order
+Ericaceae. The herbs include beautiful primulas, saxifrages, and
+gentians, and in the bellflower order species of Codonopsis and
+Cyananthus. Among Composites may be mentioned the tansies, Saussureas,
+and the fine Erigeron multiradiatus common in the forest above Narkanda.
+In the bleak uplands beyond the Him&aacute;laya tree-growth is very scanty, but
+in favoured localities willows and the pencil cedar, Juniperus
+pseudosabina, are found. The people depend for fuel largely on a hoary
+bush of the Chenopod order, Eurotia ceratoides. In places a profusion of
+the red Tibetan roses, Rosa Webbiana, lightens up the otherwise dreary
+scene.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3>FORESTS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Rights of State in Waste.</b>&mdash;Under Indian rule the State claimed full
+power of disposing of the waste, and, even where an exclusive right in
+the soil was not maintained, some valuable trees, e.g. the <i>deod&aacute;r</i> in
+the Him&aacute;laya, were treated as the property of the R&aacute;ja. Under the tenure
+prevailing in the hills the soil is the R&aacute;ja's, but the people have a
+permanent tenant right in any land brought under cultivation with his
+permission. In Kulu the British Government asserted its ownership of the
+waste. In the south-western Panj&aacute;b, where the scattered hamlets had no
+real boundaries, ample waste was allotted to each estate, and the
+remainder was claimed as State property.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kinds of Forest.</b>&mdash;The lands in the Panj&aacute;b over which authority, varying
+through many degrees from full ownership unburdened with rights of user
+down to a power of control exercised in the interests of the surrounding
+village communities, may be roughly divided into</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Kinds of Forest">
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>)</td><td align='left'>Mountain forests;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>)</td><td align='left'>Hill forests;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>c</i>)</td><td align='left'>Scrub and grass <i>Jangal</i> in the Plains.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>The first are forests of <i>deod&aacute;r</i>, blue pine, fir, and oak in the
+Him&aacute;laya above the level of 5000 feet. The hill<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> forests occupy the
+lower spurs, the Siw&aacute;liks in Hoshy&aacute;rpur, etc., and the low dry hills of
+the north-west. A strong growth of <i>ch&iacute;r</i> pine (Pinus longifolia) is
+often found in the Him&aacute;laya between 3000 and 5000 feet. Below 3000 feet
+is scrub forest, the only really valuable product being bamboo. The
+hills in the north-western districts of the Panj&aacute;b and N.W.F. Province,
+when nature is allowed to have its way, are covered with low scrub
+including in some parts a dwarf palm (Nannorhops Ritchieana), useful for
+mat making, and with a taller, but scantier growth of <i>phul&aacute;h&iacute;</i> (Acacia
+modesta) and wild olive. What remains of the scrub and grass <i>jangal</i> of
+the plains is to be found chiefly in the B&aacute;r tracts between the Sutlej
+and the Jhelam. Much of it has disappeared, or is about to disappear,
+with the advance of canal irrigation. Dry though the climate is the B&aacute;r
+was in good seasons a famous grazing area. The scrub consisted mainly of
+<i>jand</i> (Prosopis spicigera), <i>j&aacute;l</i> (Salvadora oleoides), the <i>kar&iacute;l</i>
+(Capparis aphylla) and the <i>far&aacute;sh</i> (Tamarix articulata).</p>
+
+<p><b>Management and Income of Forests.</b>&mdash;The Forest Department of the Panj&aacute;b
+has existed singe 1864, when the first Conservator was appointed. In
+1911-12 it managed 8359 square miles in the Panj&aacute;b consisting of:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="50%" cellspacing="0" summary="Management and Income of Forests">
+<tr><td align='left'>Reserved Forests</td><td align='left'>1844</td><td align='left'>square miles</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Protected Forests</td><td align='left'>5203</td><td align='left'>square miles</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Unclassed Forests</td><td align='left'>1312</td><td align='left'>square miles</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>It was also in charge of 235 square miles of reserved forest in the
+Haz&aacute;ra district of the N.W.F. Province, and of 364 miles of fine
+mountain forest in the native State of Bashahr. In addition a few
+reserved forests have been made over as grazing areas to the Military
+Department, and Deputy Commissioners are in charge of a very large area
+of unclassed forest.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>No forest can be declared "reserved" or "protected" unless it is owned
+in whole or in part by the State. It is enough if the trees or some of
+them are the property of the Government. In order to safeguard all
+private rights a special forest settlement must be made before a forest
+can be declared to be "reserved." In the case of a protected forest it
+is enough if Government is satisfied that the rights of the State and of
+private persons have been recorded at a land revenue settlement. After
+deducting income belonging to the year 1909-10 realized in 1910-11, the
+average income of the two years ending 1911-12 was &pound;81,805 (Rs.
+1,227,082) and the average expenditure &pound;50,954 (Rs. 764,309).</p>
+
+<p><b>Sources of Income.</b>&mdash;In the mountain forests the chief source of income
+is the <i>deod&aacute;r</i>, which is valuable both for railway sleepers and as
+building timber. The blue pine is also of commercial value. <i>Deod&aacute;r</i>,
+blue pine, and some <i>ch&iacute;r</i> are floated down the rivers to depots in the
+plains. Firwood is inferior to cedar and pine, and the great fir forests
+are too remote for profitable working at present. There are fine
+mountain forests in Chitr&aacute;l, on the Safed Koh, and in Western
+Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n, but these have so far not even been fully explored. The
+value of the hill forests may be increased by the success which has
+attended the experimental extraction of turpentine from the resin of the
+<i>ch&iacute;r</i> pine. The bamboo forests of K&aacute;ngra are profitable. At present an
+attempt is being made to acclimatize several species of Eucalyptus in
+the low hills. The scrub <i>jangal</i> in the plains yields good fuel. As the
+area is constantly shrinking it is fortunate that the railways have
+ceased to depend on this source of supply, coal having to a great extent
+taken the place of wood. To prevent shortage of fuel considerable areas
+in the tracts commanded by the new canals are being reserved for
+irrigated forests. A forest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> of this class covering an area of 37 square
+miles and irrigated from the Upper B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b Canal has long existed at
+Changa Manga in the Lahore district.</p>
+
+<p><b>Forests in Kashm&iacute;r.</b>&mdash;The extensive and valuable Kashm&iacute;r forests are
+mountain and hill forests, the former, which cover much the larger area
+yielding, <i>deod&aacute;r</i>, blue pine, and firs, and the latter <i>ch&iacute;r</i> pine. The
+total area exceeds 2600 square miles.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>BEASTS, BIRDS, FISHES, AND INSECTS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Fauna.</b>&mdash;With the spread of cultivation and drainage the Panj&aacute;b plains
+have ceased to be to anything like the old extent the haunt of wild
+beasts and wild fowl. The lion has long been extinct and the tiger has
+practically disappeared. Leopards are to be found in low hills, and
+sometimes stray into the plains. Wolves are seen occasionally, and
+jackals are very common. The black buck (Antilope cerricapra) can still
+be shot in many places. The graceful little <i>chink&aacute;ra</i> or ravine deer
+(Gazella Bennetti) is found in sandy tracts, and the hogdeer or <i>p&aacute;rha</i>
+(Cervus porcinus) near rivers. The <i>n&iacute;lgai</i> (Boselaphus tragocamelus) is
+less common. Monkeys abound in the hills and in canal-irrigated tracts
+in the Eastern districts, where their sacred character protects them
+from destruction, though they do much damage to crops. Peafowl are to be
+seen in certain tracts, especially in the eastern Panj&aacute;b. They should
+not be shot where the people are Hindus or anywhere near a Hindu shrine.
+The great and lesser bustards and several kinds of sand grouse are to be
+found in sandy districts. The grey partridge is everywhere, and the
+black can be got near the rivers. The <i>s&iacute;s&iacute;</i> and the <i>chikor</i> are the
+partridges of the hills, which are also the home of fine varieties of
+pheasants including the <i>mon&aacute;l</i>. Quail frequent the ripening fields in
+April and late in September. Duck of various kinds abound where there
+are <i>jh&iacute;ls</i>, and snipe are to be got in marshy ground. The green<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+parrots, crows, and vultures are familiar sights. Both the sharp-nosed
+(Garialis Gangetica, vern. <i>ghari&aacute;l</i>) and the blunt-nosed (Crocodilus
+palustris, vern. magar) crocodiles haunt the rivers. The fish are
+tasteless; the <i>rohu</i> and <i>mahseer</i> are the best. Poisonous snakes are
+the <i>karait</i>, the <i>cobra</i>, and Russell's viper. The first is sometimes
+an intruder into houses. Lizards and mongooses are less unwelcome
+visitors. White ants attack timber and ruin books, and mosquitoes and
+sandflies add to the unpleasant features of the hot weather. The best
+known insect pest is the locust, but visitations on a large scale are
+rare. Of late years much more damage has been done by an insect which
+harbours in the cotton bolls.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;">
+<a name="fig24" id="fig24"></a>
+<img src="images/img024.jpg" width="372" height="600" alt="Fig. 24. Big game in Lad&aacute;kh." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 24. Big game in Lad&aacute;kh.</span>
+</div>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Key</span>: 1, 3, 7, 9, Chiru or Tibetan Antelope. 2, Argal&iacute; or Ovis Ammon. 4,
+6, 8, Bharal or Ovis nahura. 5, Yak or Bos grunniens. 10, 11, 12, Uri&aacute;l
+or Ovis Vignei. 13, Bear skin.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><b>Game of the Mountains.</b>&mdash;If sport in the plains has ceased to be first
+rate, it is otherwise in the hills. Some areas and the heights at which
+the game is to be found are noted below:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="80%" cellspacing="0" summary="Game of the Mountains">
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>)</td><td align='left'>Goats and goat-antelopes:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Ibex (Capra Sibirica) 10,000-14,000 ft. Kashm&iacute;r, Lahul, Bashahr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'>M&aacute;rkhor (Capra Falconeri). Kashm&iacute;r, Astor, Gilgit, Sulim&aacute;n hills.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>3.</td><td align='left'>Th&aacute;r (Hemitragus jemlaicus), 9000-14,000ft. Kashm&iacute;r, Chamba.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>4.</td><td align='left'>Gural (Cemas goral), 3000-8000 ft. Kashm&iacute;r, Chamba, Simla hills, Bashahr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>5.</td><td align='left'>Serow (Nemorhaedus bubalinus), 6000-12,000ft. From Kashm&iacute;r eastwards.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>)</td><td align='left'>Sheep:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Bharal (Ovis nahura), 10,000-12,000 ft. and over. Lad&aacute;kh, Bashahr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'>Argal&iacute; (Ovis Ammon). Lad&aacute;kh.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>3.</td><td align='left'>Uri&aacute;l (Ovis Vignei) Salt Range, Sulim&aacute;n hills.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>c</i>)</td><td align='left'>Antelopes:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Chiru or Tibetan Antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni). Lad&aacute;kh.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>d</i>)</td><td align='left'>Oxen&mdash;Y&aacute;k (Bos grunniens). Lad&aacute;kh.</td><td align='left'>The domesticated <i>y&aacute;k</i> is invaluable as a beast of burden in the Trans-Himalayan tract. The royal fly whisk or <i>chaur&iacute;</i> is made from pure white y&aacute;k tails.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>e</i>)</td><td align='left'>Stag:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>B&aacute;rasingha (Cervus Duvanceli). Foot of Him&aacute;laya in Kashm&iacute;r.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>f</i>)</td><td align='left'>Bears:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Red or Brown (Ursus Arctos), 10,000-13,000ft. Kashm&iacute;r, Chamba, Bashahr, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'>Black (Ursus torquatus), 6000-12,000 ft. Same regions, but at lower elevations. The small bear of the southern Sulim&aacute;n hills known as <i>mam</i> is now considered a variety of the black bear.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>g</i>)</td><td align='left'>Leopards:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Snow Leopard (Felis Uncia), 9000-15,000 ft. Kashm&iacute;r, Chamba, Bashahr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'>Ordinary Leopard (Felis Pardus). Lower hills.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig25" id="fig25"></a>
+<img src="images/img025.jpg" width="600" height="477" alt="Fig. 25. Y&aacute;ks." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 25. Y&aacute;ks.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Shooting in Hills</span></h4>
+
+<p><b>Shooting in Hills.</b>&mdash;The finest shooting in the north-west Him&aacute;laya is
+probably to be got in Lad&aacute;kh and Baltist&aacute;n, but the trip is somewhat
+expensive and requires more time than may be available. In many areas
+licenses have to be obtained, and the conditions limit the number of
+certain animals, and the size of heads, that may be shot. For example,
+the permit in Chamba may allow the shooting of two red bear and two
+<i>th&aacute;r</i>, and when these have been got the sportsman must turn his
+attention to black bear and <i>gural</i>. Any one contemplating a shooting
+expedition in the Him&aacute;laya should get from one who has the necessary
+experience very complete instructions as to weapons, tents, clothing,
+stores, etc.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Sport in the Plains</span></h4>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) <b>Black Buck Shooting.</b>&mdash;To get a good idea of what shooting in the
+plains is like Major Glasford's <i>Rifle and Romance in the Indian Jungle</i>
+may be consulted. As regards larger game the favourite sport is black
+buck shooting. A high velocity cordite rifle is dangerous to the country
+people, and some rifle firing black powder should be used. It is well to
+reach the home of the herd<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> soon after sunrise while it is still in the
+open, and not among the crops. There will usually be one old buck in
+each herd. He himself is not watchful, but his does are, and the herd
+gallops off with great leaps at the first scent of danger, the does
+leading and their lord and master bringing up the rear. If by dint of
+careful and patient stalking you get to some point of vantage, say 100
+yards from the big buck, it is worth while to shoot. Even if the bullet
+finds its mark the quarry may gallop 50 yards before it drops. Good
+heads vary from 20" to 24" or even more.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 277px;">
+<a name="fig26" id="fig26"></a>
+<img src="images/img026.jpg" width="277" height="500" alt="Fig. 26. Black buck." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 26. Black buck.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) <b>Small game in Plains.</b>&mdash;The cold weather shooting begins with the
+advent of the quail in the end of September and ends when they reappear
+among the ripening wheat in April. The duck arrive from the Central
+Asian lakes in November and duck and snipe shooting lasts till February
+in districts where there are <i>jh&iacute;ls</i> and swampy land. For a decent shot
+30 couple of snipe is a fair bag. To get duck the <i>jh&iacute;l</i> should be
+visited at dawn and again in the evening, and it is well to post several
+guns in favourable positions in the probable line of flight. 40 or 50
+birds would be a good morning's bag. In drier tracts the bag will
+consist of partridges and a hare or two, or, if the country is sandy,
+some sand-grouse and perhaps a bustard.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h3>THE PEOPLE: NUMBERS, RACES, AND LANGUAGES</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Growth of Population.</b>&mdash;It is probable that in the 64 years since
+annexation the population of the Panj&aacute;b has increased by from 40 to 50
+per cent. The first reliable census was taken in 1881. The figures for
+the four decennial enumerations are:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="70%" cellspacing="0" summary="Growth of Population.">
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left" rowspan="2">Year</td>
+<td align="center" colspan="3">Panj&aacute;b.</td>
+<td align="right" rowspan="2">N.W.F. Province</td>
+<td align="right" rowspan="2">Kashm&iacute;r</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="center">British</td>
+<td align="center">Native States</td>
+<td align="center">Total</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>1881</td>
+<td align="right">17,274,597</td>
+<td align="right">3,861,683</td>
+<td align="right">21,136,280</td>
+<td align="right">1,543,726</td>
+<td align="right"></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>1891</td>
+<td align="right">19,009,368</td>
+<td align="right">4,263,280</td>
+<td align="right">23,272,648 </td>
+<td align="right">1,857,504</td>
+<td align="right">2,543.952</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>1901</td>
+<td align="right">20,330,337</td>
+<td align="right">4,424,398</td>
+<td align="right">24,754,735</td>
+<td align="right">2,041,534</td>
+<td align="right">2,905,578</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>1911</td>
+<td align="right">19,974,956</td>
+<td align="right">4,212,974</td>
+<td align="right">24,187,730</td>
+<td align="right">2,196,933</td>
+<td align="right">3,158,126</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p><b>Incidence of Population in Panj&aacute;b.</b>&mdash;The estimated numbers of independent
+tribes dwelling within the British sphere of influence is 1,600,000. The
+incidence of the population on the total area of the Panj&aacute;b including
+native States is 177 per square mile, which may be compared with 189 in
+France and 287 in the British Isles. As the map shows, the density is
+reduced by the large area of semi-desert country in the south-west and
+by the mountainous tract in the north-east. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> distribution of the
+population is the exact opposite of that which prevails in Great
+Britain. There are only 174 towns as compared with 44,400 villages, and
+nearly nine-tenths of the people are to be found in the latter. Some of
+the so-called towns are extremely small, and the average population per
+town is but 14,800 souls. There are no large towns in the European
+sense. The biggest, Delhi and Lahore, returned respectively 232,837 and
+228,687 persons.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig27" id="fig27"></a>
+<img src="images/fig027tb.jpg" width="500" height="434" alt="Fig. 27. Map showing density of population." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/fig027.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 27. Map showing density of population.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig28" id="fig28"></a>
+<img src="images/img028tb.jpg" width="500" height="442" alt="Fig. 28. Map showing increase and decrease of
+population." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img028.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 28. Map showing increase and decrease of
+population.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Growth stopped by Plague.</b>&mdash;The growth of the population between 1881 and
+1891 amounted to 10 p.c. Plague,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> which has smitten the Panj&aacute;b more
+severely than any other province, appeared in 1896, and its effect was
+seen in the lower rate of expansion between 1891 and 1901.
+Notwithstanding great extensions of irrigation and cultivation in the
+Rechna Do&aacute;b the numbers declined by 2 p.c. between 1901 and 1911. In the
+ten years from 1901 to 1910 in the British districts alone over two
+million people died of plague and the death-rate was raised to 12 p.c.
+above the normal. It actually exceeded the birth-rate by 2 p.c. Of the
+total deaths in the decade nearly one in four was due to plague.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> The
+part which has suffered most is the rich submontane tract east of the
+Chen&aacute;b, Lahore and Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la, and some of the south-eastern districts.
+A glance at the map will show how large the loss of population has been
+there. It is by no means entirely due to plague. The submontane
+districts were almost over-populated, and many of their people have
+emigrated as colonists, tenants, and labourers to the waste tracts
+brought under cultivation by the excavation of the Lower Chen&aacute;b and
+Jhelam canals. The districts which have received very marked additions
+of population from this cause are Jhang (21 p.c.), Sh&aacute;hpur (30 p.c.), and
+Lyallpur (45 p.c.). Deaths from plague have greatly increased the
+deficiency of females, which has always been a noteworthy feature. In
+1911 the proportion had very nearly fallen to four females for every
+five males.</p>
+
+<p><b>Increase and Incidence in N.W.F. Province.</b>&mdash;The incidence of the
+population in the area covered by the five districts of the N.W.F.
+Province is 164 per square mile. The district figures are given in the
+map in the margin. The increase between 1901 and 1911 in these districts
+was 7&frac12; p.c. There have been no severe outbreaks of plague like those
+which have decimated the population of some of the Panj&aacute;b districts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 527px;">
+<a name="fig29" id="fig29"></a>
+<img src="images/img029.jpg" width="527" height="577" alt="Fig. 29. Map showing density of population in N.W.F.
+Province." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 29. Map showing density of population in N.W.F.
+Province.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>General figures for the territory of the Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja of Kashm&iacute;r are
+meaningless. In the huge Indus valley the incidence is only 4 persons
+per sq. mile. In Jammu and Kashm&iacute;r it is 138. The map taken from the
+Census<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> Report gives the details. The increase in the decade was on
+paper 8&frac12; p.c., distributed between 5&frac14; in Jammu, 12 in Kashm&iacute;r, and
+14 in the Indus valley. A great part of the increase in the last must be
+put down to better enumeration.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 581px;">
+<a name="fig30" id="fig30"></a>
+<img src="images/img030.jpg" width="581" height="663" alt=" Fig. 30. Map showing density of population in Kashmir." title="" />
+<span class="caption"> Fig. 30. Map showing density of population in Kashmir.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Health and duration of life.</b>&mdash;The climate of the Panj&aacute;b plains has
+produced a vigorous, but not a long-lived, race. The mean age of the
+whole population in the British districts is only 25. The normal
+birth-rate of the Panj&aacute;b is about 41 per 1000, which exceeds the English
+rate in the proportion of 5 to 3. In 1910 the recorded birth-rate in the
+N.W.F. Province was 38 per 1000. Till plague appeared the Panj&aacute;b
+death-rate averaged 32 or 33 per 1000, or more than double that of
+England. The infantile mortality is enormous, and one out of every four
+or five children fails to survive its first year. The death-rate in the
+N.W.F. Province was 27 per 1000 in 1910. In the ten years ending 1910
+plague pushed up the average death-rate in the Panj&aacute;b to 43&frac12; per
+1000. Even now malarial fever is a far worse foe than plague. The
+average annual deaths in the ten years ending 1910 were:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="35%" cellspacing="0" summary="Health and duration of life.">
+<tr><td align='left'>Fevers</td><td align='right'>450,376</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Plague</td><td align='right'>202,522</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Other diseases</td><td align='right'>231,473</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Total</td><td align='right'>884,371</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Fever is very rife in October and November, and these are the most
+unhealthy months in the year, March and April being the best. The
+variations under fevers and plague from year to year are enormous. In
+1907 the latter claimed 608,685 victims, and the provincial death-rate
+reached the appalling figure of 61 per 1000. Next year the plague
+mortality dropped to 30,708, but there were 697,058 deaths from fever.
+There is unfortunately no reason to believe that plague has spent its
+force or that the people as a whole will in the near future generally
+accept the protective measures of inoculation and evacuation.
+Vaccination, the prejudice against which has largely disappeared, has
+robbed the small-pox goddess of many offerings. As a general cause of
+mortality the effect of cholera in the Panj&aacute;b is now insignificant. But
+it is still to be feared in the Kashm&iacute;r valley, especially in the
+picturesque but filthy summer capital. Syphilis is very common in the
+hill country in the north-east of the province. Blindness and leprosy
+are both markedly on the decrease. Both infirmities are common in
+Kashm&iacute;r, especially the former. The rigours of the climate in a large
+part of the State force the people to live day and night for the seven
+winter months almost entirely in dark and smoky huts, and it is small
+wonder that their eyesight is ruined.</p>
+
+<p><b>Occupations.</b>&mdash;The Panj&aacute;b is preeminently an agricultural country, and
+the same is true in an almost greater degree of the N.W.F. Province and
+Kashm&iacute;r. The typical holding is that of the small landowner tilling from
+3 to 10 acres with his own hands with or without help from village
+menials. The tenant class is increasing, but there are still three
+owners to two tenants. Together they make up 50 p.c. of the population
+of the Panj&aacute;b, and 5 p.c. is added for farm labourers. Altogether,
+according to the census returns 58 p.c. of the population<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> depends for
+its support on the soil, 20.5 on industries, chiefly the handicrafts of
+the weaver, potter, leather worker, carpenter, and blacksmith, 9.4 on
+trade, 2.5 on professions, and 9.6 on other sources of livelihood.</p>
+
+<p><b>Measures taken to protect agriculturists.</b>&mdash;In a country owned so largely
+by small farmers, the first task of the Government must be to secure
+their welfare and contentment. Before plague laid its grasp on the rich
+central districts it was feared that they were becoming congested, and
+the canal colonization schemes referred to in a later chapter were
+largely designed to relieve them. But there is a much subtler foe to
+whose insidious attacks small owners are liable, the temptation to abuse
+their credit till their acres are loaded with mortgages and finally
+lost. So threatening had this economic disease for years appeared that
+at last in 1900 the Panj&aacute;b Alienation of Land Act was passed, which
+forbade sales by people of agricultural tribes to other classes without
+the sanction of the district officer, and greatly restricted the power
+of mortgaging. The same restrictions are in force in the N.W.F.
+Province. The Act is popular with those for whose benefit it was
+devised, and has effected its object of checking land alienation and
+probably to some extent discouraged extravagance. It has been
+supplemented by a still more valuable measure, the Co-operative Credit
+Societies Act. The growth of these societies in the Panj&aacute;b has been very
+remarkable, a notable contrast to the very slow advance of the similar
+movement in England. In 1913-14 there were 3261 village banks with
+155,250 members and a working capital of 133&frac34; <i>lakhs</i> or &pound;885,149,
+besides 38 central banks with a capital of 42&frac34; <i>lakhs</i> or about
+&pound;285,000. Village banks held deposits amounting to nearly 37 <i>lakhs</i>,
+more than half of which was received from non-members, and lent out
+71&frac12; <i>lakhs</i> in the year to their members.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Tribal Composition.</b>&mdash;Table I based on the Census returns shows the
+percentages of the total population belonging to the chief tribes. The
+classification into "land-holding, etc." is a rough one.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;">
+<a name="fig31" id="fig31"></a>
+<img src="images/img031.jpg" width="425" height="600" alt="Fig. 31. Jat Sikh Officers (father and son)." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 31. Jat Sikh Officers (father and son).</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Jats.</b>&mdash;The Panj&aacute;b is <i>par excellence</i> the home of the Jats. Everywhere
+in the plains, except in the extreme north-west corner of the province,
+they form<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> a large element in the population. In the east they are
+Hindus, in the centre Sikhs and Muhammadans, and in the west
+Muhammadans. The Jat is a typical son of the soil, strong and sturdy,
+hardworking and brave, a fine soldier and an excellent farmer, but
+slow-witted and grasping. The Sikh Jat finds an honourable outlet for
+his overflowing energy in the army and in the service of the Crown
+beyond the bounds of India. When he misses that he sometimes takes to
+dacoity. Unfortunately he is often given to strong drink, and, when his
+passions or his greed are aroused, can be exceedingly brutal. Jat in the
+Western Panj&aacute;b is applied to a large number of tribes, whose ethnical
+affinities are somewhat dubious.</p>
+
+<p><b>R&aacute;jputs.</b>&mdash;R&aacute;jputs are found in considerable numbers all over the
+province except in a few of the western and south-western districts. As
+farmers they are much hampered by caste rules which forbid the
+employment of their women in the fields, and the prohibition of widow
+remarriage is a severe handicap. They are generally classed as poor
+cultivators, and this is usually, but by no means universally, a true
+description. The Dogra R&aacute;jputs of the low hills are good soldiers. They
+are numerous in K&aacute;ngra and in the Jammu province of Kashm&iacute;r.</p>
+
+<p><b>Brahmans.</b>&mdash;The Brahmans of the eastern plains and north-eastern hills
+are mostly agriculturists, and the Muhi&aacute;l Brahman of the north-western
+districts is a landowner and a soldier. In the hills the Brahman is
+often a shopkeeper. The priestly Brahman is found everywhere, but his
+spiritual authority has always been far less in the Panj&aacute;b than in most
+parts of India.</p>
+
+<p><b>Biluches.</b>&mdash;When the frontier was separated off the Biluch district of
+Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n with its strong tribal organization under chiefs or
+<i>tumand&aacute;rs</i> was left in the Panj&aacute;b. The Biluches are a frank, manly,
+truthful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> race, free from fanaticism and ready as a rule to follow their
+chiefs. They are fine horsemen. Unfortunately it is difficult to get
+them to enlist.</p>
+
+<p><b>Path&aacute;ns.</b>&mdash;Both politically and numerically the Path&aacute;ns are the
+predominant tribe in the N.W.F. Province, and are of importance in parts
+of the Panj&aacute;b districts of Attock and Mianw&aacute;l&iacute;. The Path&aacute;n is a democrat
+and often a fanatic, more under the influence of <i>mullahs</i> than of the
+<i>maliks</i> or headmen of his tribe. He has not the frank straightforward
+nature of the Biluch, is untiring in pursuit of revenge, and is not free
+from cruelty. But, when he has eaten the <i>Sark&aacute;r's</i> salt, he is a very
+brave and dashing soldier, and he is a faithful host to anyone whom he
+has admitted under his roof.</p>
+
+<p><b>Aw&aacute;ns.</b>&mdash;The home of the Aw&aacute;n in the Panj&aacute;b is the Salt Range and the
+parts of Attock and Mianw&aacute;l&iacute;, lying to the north of it, and this tract
+of country is known as the Aw&aacute;nk&aacute;r&iacute;. In the N.W.F. Province they are,
+after the Path&aacute;ns, by far the largest tribe, and are specially numerous
+in Pesh&aacute;war and Haz&aacute;ra.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shekhs.</b>&mdash;Of the Shekhs about half are Kuresh&iacute;s, Sad&iacute;k&iacute;s, and Ans&aacute;r&iacute;s of
+foreign origin and high social standing. The rest are new converts to
+Isl&aacute;m, often of the sweeper caste originally.</p>
+
+<p><b>Saiyyids.</b>&mdash;Saiyyids are unsatisfactory landowners, and are kept going by
+the offerings of their followers. They are mostly Shias. It is not
+necessary to believe that they are all descended from the Prophet's
+son-in-law, Ali. A native proverb with pardonable exaggeration says:
+"The first year I was a weaver (Jul&aacute;ha), the next year a Shekh. This
+year, if prices rise, I shall be a Saiyyid."</p>
+
+<p><b>Trading Castes.</b>&mdash;Aroras are the traders of the S.W. Panj&aacute;b and of the
+N.W.F. Province. They share the Central Panj&aacute;b with the Khatr&iacute;s, who
+predominate in the north-western districts. The Khatr&iacute; of the
+R&aacute;walpind&iacute;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> division is often a landowner and a first-class fighting
+man. Some of our strongest Indian civil officials have been Aroras. In
+the Delhi division the place of the Arora and Khatr&iacute; is taken by the
+Bania, and in K&aacute;ngra by the S&uacute;d or the Brahman. Khojas and Par&aacute;chas are
+Muhammadan traders.</p>
+
+<p><b>Artizans and Menials.</b>&mdash;Among artizans and menials Sun&aacute;rs (goldsmiths),
+R&aacute;jes (masons), Loh&aacute;rs (blacksmiths), and Tarkh&aacute;ns (carpenters) take the
+first rank.</p>
+
+<p><b>Impure Castes.</b>&mdash;The vast majority of the impure castes, the
+"untouchables" of the Hindu religion, are scavengers and workers in
+leather. The sweeper who embraces Isl&aacute;m becomes a Musall&iacute;. The Sikh
+Mazhb&iacute;s, who are the descendants of sweeper converts, have done
+excellent service in our Pioneer regiments. The Hindu of the Panj&aacute;b in
+his avoidance of "untouchables" has never gone to the absurd lengths of
+the high caste Madr&aacute;s&iacute;, and the tendency is towards a relaxation of
+existing restrictions.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mendicants.</b>&mdash;Men of religion living on charity, wandering <i>fak&iacute;rs</i>, are
+common sights, and beggars are met with in the cities, who sometimes
+exhibit their deformities with unnecessary insistence.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kashm&iacute;r&iacute;s.</b>&mdash;According to the census return the number of Kashm&iacute;r&iacute;
+Musulm&aacute;ns, who make up 60 p.c. of the inhabitants of the Jhelam valley,
+was 765,442. They are no doubt mostly descendants of various Hindu
+castes, perhaps in the main of Hill Brahmans, but Isl&aacute;m has wiped out
+all tribal distinctions. Sir Walter Lawrence wrote of them: "The
+Kashm&iacute;r&iacute; is unchanged in spite of the splendid Moghal, the brutal
+Afgh&aacute;n, and the bully Sikh. Warriors and statesmen came and went; but
+there was no egress, and no wish ... in normal times to leave their
+homes. The outside world was far, and from all accounts inferior to the
+pleasant valley.... So<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> the Kashm&iacute;r&iacute;s lived their self-centred life,
+conceited, clever, and conservative."</p>
+
+<p>The Hindu Kashm&iacute;r&iacute; Pandits numbered 55,276.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tribes of Jammu.</b>&mdash;Agricultural Brahmans are numerous in the Jammu
+province. Thakkars and Meghs are important elements of the population of
+the outer hills. The former are no doubt by origin R&aacute;jputs, but they
+have cast off many R&aacute;jput customs. The Meghs are engaged in weaving and
+agriculture, and are regarded as more or less impure by the higher
+castes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 614px;">
+<a name="fig32" id="fig32"></a>
+<img src="images/img032.jpg" width="614" height="600" alt="Fig. 32. Blind Beggar." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 32. Blind Beggar.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>G&uacute;jars.</b>&mdash;G&uacute;jars in the Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja's territories are almost always
+graziers. In 1911 they numbered 328,003.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dard Tribes of Astor and Gilgit.</b>&mdash;The people of Astor and Gilgit are
+Dards speaking Shina and professing Isl&aacute;m. Sir Aurel Stein wrote of
+them: "The Dard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> race which inhabits the valleys N. of (the Inner
+Him&aacute;laya) as far as the Hindu Kush is separated from the Kashm&iacute;r&iacute;
+population by language as well as by physical characteristics.... There
+is little in the Dard to enlist the sympathies of the casual observer.
+He lacks the intelligence, humour, and fine physique of the Kashm&iacute;r&iacute;,
+and, though undoubtedly far braver than the latter, has none of the
+independent spirit and manly bearing which draw us towards the Path&aacute;n
+despite all his failings. But I can never see a Dard without thinking of
+the thousands of years of struggle they have carried on with the harsh
+climate and the barren soil of their mountains<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig33" id="fig33"></a>
+<img src="images/img033.jpg" width="600" height="462" alt="Fig. 33. Dards." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 33. Dards.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Kanj&uacute;t&iacute;s.</b>&mdash;The origin of the Kanj&uacute;t&iacute;s of Hunza is uncertain, and so are
+the relationships of their language.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Mongoloid Population of Lad&aacute;kh.</b>&mdash;The population of Lad&aacute;kh and B&aacute;ltist&aacute;n
+is Mongoloid, but the B&aacute;lt&iacute;s (72,439) have accepted Isl&aacute;m and polygamy,
+while the Lad&aacute;kh&iacute;s have adhered to Buddhism and polyandry.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<a name="fig34" id="fig34"></a>
+<img src="images/img034.jpg" width="650" height="600" alt="Fig. 34. Map showing races." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img034large.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 34. Map showing races.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Ethnological theories.</b>&mdash;In <i>The People of India</i> the late Sir Herbert
+Risley maintained that the inhabitants of R&aacute;jput&aacute;na, nearly the whole of
+the Panj&aacute;b, and a large part of Kashm&iacute;r, whatever their caste or social
+status, belonged with few exceptions to a single racial type, which he
+called Indo-Aryan. The Biluches of Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n and the Path&aacute;ns of
+the N.W.F. Province formed part of another group which he called
+Turko-Iranian. The people of a strip of territory on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> the west of the
+Jamna he held to be of the same type as the bulk of the inhabitants of
+the United Provinces, and this type he called Aryo-Dravidian. Finally
+the races occupying the hills in the north-east and the adjoining part
+of Kashm&iacute;r were of Mongol extraction, a fact which no one will dispute.
+Of the Indo-Aryan type Sir Herbert Risley wrote: "The stature is mostly
+tall, complexion fair, eyes dark, hair on face plentiful, head long,
+nose narrow and prominent, but not specially long." He believed that the
+Panj&aacute;b was occupied by Aryans, who came into the country from the west
+or north-west with their wives and children, and had no need to contract
+marriages with the earlier inhabitants. The Aryo-Dravidians of the
+United Provinces resulted from a second invasion or invasions, in which
+the Aryan warriors came alone and had to intermarry with the daughters
+of the land, belonging to the race which forms the staple of the
+population of Central India and Madras. This theory was based on
+measurements of heads and noses, and it seems probable that deductions
+drawn from these physical characters are of more value than any evidence
+based on the use of a common speech. But it is hard to reconcile the
+theory with the facts of history even in the imperfect shape in which
+they have come down to us, or to believe that Sakas, Yuech&iacute;, and White
+Huns (see historical section) have left no traces of their blood in the
+province. If such there are, they may perhaps be found in some of the
+tribes on both sides of the Salt Range, such as Gakkhars, Janj&uacute;as, Aw&aacute;ns
+Tiw&aacute;nas, Ghebas, and Johdras, who are fine horsemen and expert
+tent-peggers, not "tall heavy men without any natural aptitude for
+horsemanship," as Sir Herbert Risley described his typical Panj&aacute;b&iacute; (p.
+59 of his book).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 571px;">
+<a name="fig35" id="fig35"></a>
+<img src="images/img035tb.jpg" width="571" height="600" alt="Fig. 35. Map showing distribution of languages." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img035.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 35. Map showing distribution of languages.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Languages.</b>&mdash;In the area dealt with in this book no less than eleven
+languages are spoken, and the dialects<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> are very numerous. It is only
+possible to tabulate the languages and indicate on the map the
+localities in which they are spoken. For the Panj&aacute;b the figures of the
+recent census are:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="The People">
+<tr><td align='left'>A.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Tibeto-Chinese</td><td align='right'>41,607</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>B.</td><td align='left'>Aryan:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>)</td><td align='left'>Iranian:</td><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'>Pashtu</td><td align='right'>67,174</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>3.</td><td align='left'>Biluch&iacute;</td><td align='right'>70,675</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>4.</td><td align='left'>Kohist&aacute;n&iacute;</td><td align='right'>26</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>)</td><td align='left'>Indian:</td><td align='right'>5.</td><td align='left'>Kashm&iacute;r&iacute;</td><td align='right'>7,190</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>6.</td><td align='left'>Pah&aacute;r&iacute;</td><td align='right'>993,363</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>7.</td><td align='left'>Lahnd&iacute;</td><td align='right'>4,253,566</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>8.</td><td align='left'>Sindh&iacute;</td><td align='right'>24</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>9.</td><td align='left'>Panj&aacute;b&iacute;</td><td align='right'>14,111,215</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>10.</td><td align='left'>Western Hindi</td><td align='right'>3,826,467</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>11.</td><td align='left'>R&aacute;jasth&aacute;n&iacute;</td><td align='right'>725,850</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>The eastern part of the Indus valley in Kashm&iacute;r forming the provinces of
+Lad&aacute;kh and B&aacute;ltist&aacute;n is occupied by a Mongol population speaking
+Tibeto-Chinese dialects. Kashm&iacute;r&iacute; is the language of Kashm&iacute;r Proper, and
+various dialects of the Shina-Khow&aacute;r group comprehensively described as
+Kohist&aacute;n&iacute; are spoken in Astor, Gilgit, and Chil&aacute;s, and to the west of
+Kashm&iacute;r territory in Chitr&aacute;l and the Kohist&aacute;n or mountainous country at
+the top of the Sw&aacute;t river valley. Though Kashm&iacute;r&iacute; and the Shina-Khow&aacute;r
+tongues belong to the Aryan group, their basis is supposed to be
+non-Sanskritic, and it is held that there is a strong non-Sanskritic or
+Pis&aacute;cha element also in Lahnd&iacute; or western Panj&aacute;b&iacute;, which is also the
+prevailing speech in the Haz&aacute;ra and Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n districts of the
+N.W.F. Province, and is spoken in part of the Jammu province of Kashm&iacute;r.
+Pashtu is the common language in Pesh&aacute;war, Koh&aacute;t, and Bannu, and is
+spoken on the western frontiers of Haz&aacute;ra and Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n, and in
+the independent tribal territory in the west between the districts of
+the N.W.F. Province and the Durand Line and immediately adjoining the
+Pesh&aacute;war district on the north. R&aacute;jasth&aacute;n&iacute; is a collective name for the
+dialects of R&aacute;jput&aacute;na, which overflow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> into the Panj&aacute;b, occupying a
+strip along the southern frontier from Bah&aacute;walpur to Gurg&aacute;on. The
+infiltration of English words and phrases into the languages of the
+province is a useful process and as inevitable as was the enrichment of
+the old English speech by Norman-French. But for the present the results
+are apt to sound grotesque, when the traveller, who expects a train to
+start at the appointed time, is told: "<i>tren late hai, lekin singal down
+hogaya</i>" (the train is late, but the signal has been lowered), or the
+criticism is passed on a popular officer: "<i>bahut affable hai, lekin
+hand shake nah&iacute;n kart&aacute;</i>" (very affable, but doesn't shake hands).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3>THE PEOPLE (<i>continued</i>): RELIGIONS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Religions in N.W.F. Province.</b>&mdash;In the N.W.F. Province an overwhelming
+majority of the population professes Isl&aacute;m. In 1911 there were 2,039,994
+Musalm&aacute;ns as compared with 119,942 Hindus, 30,345 Sikhs, and 6585
+Christians.</p>
+
+<p><b>Religions in Kashm&iacute;r.</b>&mdash;In Kashm&iacute;r the preponderance of Muhammadans is
+not so overwhelming. The figures are:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="40%" cellspacing="0" summary="Religions in Kashm&iacute;r.">
+<tr><td align='left'>Muhammadans</td><td align='right'>2,398,320</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Hindus</td><td align='right'>690,390</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Buddhists</td><td align='right'>36,512</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sikhs</td><td align='right'>31,553</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>The Hindus belong mostly to the Jammu province, where nearly half of the
+population professes that faith. The people of Kashm&iacute;r, B&aacute;ltist&aacute;n, Astor
+and Gilgit, Chil&aacute;s and Hunza Nag&aacute;r, are Musalm&aacute;ns. The Lad&aacute;kh&iacute;s are
+Buddhists.</p>
+
+<p><b>Religions in Panj&aacute;b.</b>&mdash;The distribution by religions of the population of
+the Panj&aacute;b and its native States in 1911 was:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="55%" cellspacing="0" summary="Religions in Panj&aacute;b.">
+<tr><td align='left'>Muhammadans</td><td align='right'>12,275,477 or 51 p.c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Hindus</td><td align='right'>8,773,621 or 36 p.c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sikhs</td><td align='right'>2,883,729 or 12 p.c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Others, chiefly Christian (199,751)</td><td align='right'>254,923 or 1 p.c.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig36" id="fig36"></a>
+<img src="images/img036tb.jpg" width="600" height="537" alt="Fig. 36. Map showing distribution of religions." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img036.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 36. Map showing distribution of religions.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The strength of the Muhammadans is in the districts west of the Bi&aacute;s and
+the Sutlej below its junction with the Bi&aacute;s. 83 p.c. of the subjects of
+the Naw&aacute;b of Bah&aacute;walpur are also Muhammadans. In all this western region
+there are few Hindus apart from the shopkeepers and traders. On the
+other hand the hill country in the north-east is purely Hindu, except on
+the borders of Tibet, where the scanty population professes Buddhism.
+While Hinduism is the predominant faith in the south-east, quite a
+fourth of the people there are Musalm&aacute;ns. Sikhs nowhere form a majority.
+The districts in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> eastern part of the Central Plains where they
+constitute more than one-fifth of the population are indicated in the
+map. In six districts, Lahore, Montgomery, Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la, Lyallpur,
+Hoshy&aacute;rpur, and Amb&aacute;la the proportion is between 10 and 20 p.c.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 482px;">
+<a name="fig37" id="fig37"></a>
+<img src="images/img037.jpg" width="482" height="600" alt="Fig. 37. Raghun&aacute;th Temple, Jammu." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 37. Raghun&aacute;th Temple, Jammu.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Growth and Decline in numbers.</b>&mdash;There was a slight rise in the number of
+Muhammadans between 1901 and 1911. Their losses in the central
+districts, where the plague scourge has been heaviest, were
+counterbalanced by gains in the western tract, where its effect has been
+slight. On the other hand the decrease under Hindus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> amounts to nearly
+15 p.c. The birth-rate is lower and the death-rate higher among Hindus
+than among Musalm&aacute;ns, and their losses by plague in the central and some
+of the south-eastern districts have been very heavy. A change of
+sentiment on the part of the Sikh community has led to many persons
+recording themselves as Sikhs who were formerly content to be regarded
+as Hindus. It must be remembered that one out of four of the recorded
+Hindus belongs to impure castes, who even in the Panj&aacute;b pollute food and
+water by their touch and are excluded from the larger temples. Since
+1901 a considerable number of Ch&uacute;hras or Sweepers have been converted to
+Isl&aacute;m and Christianity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig38" id="fig38"></a>
+<img src="images/img038.jpg" width="600" height="456" alt="Fig. 38. Golden Temple, Amritsar." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 38. Golden Temple, Amritsar.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Sikhs.</b>&mdash;Notwithstanding heavy losses by plague Sikhs have increased by
+37 p.c. A great access of zeal has led to many more Sikhs becoming
+<i>Kesdh&aacute;r&iacute;s</i>. <i>Sajhdh&aacute;r&iacute;s</i> or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> <i>M&uacute;nas</i>, who form over one-fifth of the
+whole Sikh community, were in 1901 classed as Hindus. They are followers
+of B&aacute;ba N&aacute;nak, cut their hair, and often smoke. When a man has taken the
+"<i>pahul</i>," which is the sign of his becoming a <i>Kesdh&aacute;r&iacute;</i> or follower of
+Guru Govind, he must give up the <i>hukka</i> and leave his hair unshorn. The
+future of Sikhism is with the <i>Kesdh&aacute;r&iacute;s</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig39" id="fig39"></a>
+<img src="images/img039.jpg" width="600" height="546" alt="Fig. 39. Mosque in Lahore City." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 39. Mosque in Lahore City.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Muhammadans.</b>&mdash;In the eastern districts the conversions to Isl&aacute;m were
+political, and Hindu and Muhammadan R&aacute;jputs live peaceably together in
+the same village. The Musalm&aacute;ns have their mosque for the worship of
+Allah, but were, and are still, not quite sure that it is prudent wholly
+to neglect the godlings. The conversion of the western Panj&aacute;b was the
+result largely of missionary effort. <i>P&iacute;r&iacute; mur&iacute;d&iacute;</i> is a great
+institution there. Every man should be the "<i>mur&iacute;d</i>" or pupil of some
+holy man<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> or <i>p&iacute;r</i>, who combines the functions in the Roman Catholic
+Church of spiritual director in this world and the saint in heaven. The
+<i>p&iacute;r</i> may be the custodian of some little saint's tomb in a village, or
+of some great shrine like that of Baba Far&iacute;d at P&aacute;kpattan, or Bah&aacute;wal
+Hakk at Mult&aacute;n, or Taunsa Sharif in Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n, or Golra in
+R&aacute;walpind&iacute;. His own holiness may be more official than personal. About
+1400 A.D. the Kashm&iacute;r&iacute;s were offered by their Sult&aacute;n Sikandar the choice
+between conversion and exile, and chose the easier alternative. Like the
+western Panj&aacute;b&iacute;s they are above all things saint-worshippers. The
+ejaculations used to stimulate effort show this. The embankment builder
+in the south-western Panj&aacute;b invokes the holy breath of Bah&aacute;wal Hakk, and
+the Kashm&iacute;r&iacute; boatman's cry "Y&aacute; P&iacute;r, dast g&iacute;r," "Oh Saint, lend me a
+hand," is an appeal to their national saint.</p>
+
+<p><b>Effect of Education.</b>&mdash;The Musalm&aacute;ns of the western Panj&aacute;b have a great
+dislike to Sikhs, dating from the period of the political predominance
+of the latter. So far the result of education has been to accentuate
+religious differences and animosities. Both Sikhs and Musalm&aacute;ns are
+gradually dropping ideas and observances retained in their daily life
+after they ceased to call themselves Hindus. On the other hand, within
+the Hindu fold laxity is now the rule rather than the exception, and the
+neglect of the old ritual and restrictions is by no means confined to
+the small but influential reforming minority which calls itself &Aacute;rya
+Sam&aacute;j.</p>
+
+<p><b>Christians.</b>&mdash;The number of Christians increased threefold between 1901
+and 1911. The Presbyterian missionaries have been especially successful
+in attracting large numbers of outcastes into the Christian Church.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 413px;">
+<a name="fig40" id="fig40"></a>
+<img src="images/img040.jpg" width="413" height="600" alt="Fig. 40. God and Goddess, Chamba." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 40. God and Goddess, Chamba.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Hinduism in the Panj&aacute;b.</b>&mdash;Hinduism has always been, and to-day is more
+than ever, a very elastic term. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> Census Superintendent, himself a
+high caste Hindu, wrote: "The definition which would cover the Hindu of
+the modern times is that he should be born of parents not belonging to
+some recognised religion other than Hinduism, marry within the same
+limits, believe in God, respect the cow, and cremate the dead." There is
+room in its ample folds for the &Aacute;rya Sam&aacute;jist, who rejects idol worship
+and is divesting himself of caste prejudices and marriage restrictions,
+and the most orthodox San&aacute;tan dharmist, who carries out the whole
+elaborate daily ritual of the Brahmanical religion, and submits to all
+its complicated rules; for the ordinary Hindu trader, who is equally
+orthodox by profession, but whose ordinary religious exercises are
+confined to bathing in the morning; for the villager of the eastern
+districts, who often has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> the name of Parameshvar or the Supreme Lord on
+his lips, but who really worships the godlings, G&uacute;g&aacute; P&iacute;r, Sarwar or
+Sult&aacute;n P&iacute;r, S&iacute;tla (the small-pox goddess), and others, whose little
+shrines we see round the village site; and for the childish idolaters of
+Kulu, who carry their local deities about to visit each other at fairs,
+and would see nothing absurd in locking them all up in a dungeon if rain
+held off too long.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig41" id="fig41"></a>
+<img src="images/img041.jpg" width="600" height="462" alt="Fig. 41. A Kulu godling and his attendants." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 41. A Kulu godling and his attendants.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h3>THE PEOPLE (<i>continued</i>): EDUCATION</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Educational progress.</b>&mdash;According to the census returns of 1911 there are
+not four persons per 100 in the province who are "literate" in the sense
+of being able to read and write a letter. The proportion of literacy
+among Hindus and Sikhs is three times as great as among Muhammadans. In
+1911-12 one boy in six of school-going age was at school or college and
+one girl in 37. This may seem a meagre result of sixty years of work,
+for the Government and Christian missionaries, who have had an
+honourable connection with the educational history of the province,
+began their efforts soon after annexation, and a Director of Public
+Instruction was appointed as long ago as 1856. But a country of small
+peasant farmers is not a very hopeful educational field, and the rural
+population was for long indifferent or hostile. If an ex-soldier of the
+<i>Kh&aacute;lsa</i> had expressed his feelings, he would have used words like those
+of the "Old Pind&aacute;r&iacute;" in Lyall's poem, while the Muhammadan farmer, had
+he been capable of expressing his hostility, might have argued that the
+teaching his son could get in a village school would help him not at all
+in his daily work. Things are better now. We have improved our scheme of
+teaching, and of late raised the pay of the teachers, which is, however,
+still hardly adequate. Till a better class of teachers can be secured
+for primary schools, the best<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> educational theories will not bear fruit
+in practice. The old indifference is weakening, and the most hopeful
+sign is the increasing interest taken in towns in female education, a
+matter of the first importance for the future of the country.</p>
+
+<p><b>Present position.</b>&mdash;The present position is as follows:&mdash;The Government
+has made itself directly or indirectly responsible for the education of
+the province. At the headquarters of each district there is a high
+school for boys controlled by the Education Department. In each district
+there are Government middle schools, Anglo-vernacular or Vernacular,
+and primary schools, managed by the Municipal Committees and District
+Boards. Each middle school has a primary, and each high school a primary
+and a middle, department. For the convenience of pupils who cannot
+attend school while living at home hostels are attached to many middle
+and high schools. Fees are very moderate. In middle schools, where the
+income covers 56 p.c. of the expenditure, they range from R. 1 (16
+pence) monthly in the lowest class in which they are levied to Rs. 4 (5
+shillings) in the highest class. In rural primary schools the children
+of agriculturists are exempt because they pay local rate, and others,
+when not exempt on the score of poverty, pay nominal fees. Besides the
+Government schools there are aided schools of the above classes usually
+of a sectarian character, and these, if they satisfy the standards laid
+down, receive grants. There is a decreasing, but still considerable,
+class of private schools, which make no attempt to satisfy the
+conditions attached to these grants. The <i>mullah</i> in the mosque teaches
+children passages of the Kur&aacute;n by rote, or the shopkeeper's son is
+taught in a Mah&aacute;jan&iacute; school native arithmetic and the curious script in
+which accounts are kept. A boys' school of a special kind is the Panj&aacute;b
+Chiefs' College at Lahore,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> intended for the sons of princes and men of
+high social position.</p>
+
+<p><b>Technical Schools.</b>&mdash;In an agricultural country like the Panj&aacute;b there is
+not at present any large field for technical schools. The best are the
+Mayo School of Art and the Railway Technical School at Lahore. The
+latter is successful because its pupils can readily find employment in
+the railway workshops. Mr Kipling, the father of the poet, when
+principal of the former, did much for art teaching, and the present
+principal, Bhai R&aacute;m Singh, is a true artist. The Government Engineering
+School has recently been remodelled and removed to Ras&uacute;l, where the
+head-works of the Lower Jhelam canal are situated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig42" id="fig42"></a>
+<img src="images/img042.jpg" width="600" height="409" alt="Fig. 42. A School in the time preceding annexation." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 42. A School in the time preceding annexation.<br />(<i>From a picture book said to have been prepared for the Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Dal&iacute;p
+Singh.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Female Education.</b>&mdash;Female education is still a tender plant, but of late
+growth has been vigorous. The Victoria<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> May School in Lahore founded in
+1908 has developed into the Queen Mary College, which provides an
+excellent education for girls of what may be called the upper middle
+class. There is a separate class for married ladies. Hitherto they have
+only been reached by the teaching given in their own homes by missionary
+ladies, whose useful work is now being imitated by the Hindu community
+in Lahore. There is an excellent Hindu Girls' Boarding School in
+Jalandhar. The Sikhs and the body of reformers known as the Dev Sam&aacute;j
+have good girls' schools at Ferozepore. The best mission schools are the
+Kinnaird High School at Lahore and the Alexandra School at Amritsar. The
+North India School of Medicine for Women at Ludhi&aacute;na, also a missionary
+institution, does admirable work. In the case of elementary schools the
+difficulty of getting qualified teachers is even greater than as regards
+boys' schools.</p>
+
+<p><b>Education of European Children.</b>&mdash;There are special arrangements for the
+education of European and Anglo-Indian children. In this department the
+Roman Catholics have been active and successful. The best schools are
+the Lawrence Asylum at San&aacute;war, Bishop Cotton's School, Auckland House,
+and St Bede's at Simla, St Denys', the Lawrence Asylum, and the Convent
+School at Murree.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Panj&aacute;b University.</b>&mdash;The Panj&aacute;b University was constituted in 1882,
+but the Government Arts College and Oriental College, the Medical
+College and the Law School at Lahore, which are affiliated with it, are
+of older date. The University is an examining body like London
+University. Besides the two Arts Colleges under Government management
+mentioned above there are nine private Arts Colleges aided by Government
+grants and affiliated to the University. Four of these are in Lahore,
+two, the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> the Di&aacute;l Singh Colleges, are Hindu
+institutions, one, the Isl&aacute;mia College, is Muhammadan, the fourth is the
+popular and efficient Forman Christian College. Four out of five art
+students read in Lahore. Of the Arts colleges outside Lahore the most
+important is the St Stephen's College at Delhi. The Kh&aacute;lsa School and
+College at Amritsar is a Sikh institution. The Veterinary College at
+Lahore is the best of its kind in India, and the Agricultural College at
+Lyallpur is a well-equipped institution, which at present attracts few
+pupils, but may play a very useful r&ocirc;le in the future. There is little
+force in the reproach that we built up a super-structure of higher
+education before laying a broad foundation of primary education. There
+is more in the charge that the higher educational food we have offered
+has not been well adapted to the intellectual digestions of the
+recipients.</p>
+
+<p><b>Education in N.W.F. Province, Native States, and I Kashm&iacute;r.</b>&mdash;The Panj&aacute;b
+Native States and Kashm&iacute;r are much more backward as regards education
+than the British Province. As is natural in a tract in which the
+population is overwhelmingly Musalm&aacute;n by religion and farming by trade
+the N.W.F. Province lags behind the Panj&aacute;b. Six colleges in the States
+and the N.W.F. Province are affiliated to the Panj&aacute;b University.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h3>ROADS AND RAILWAYS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Roads.</b>&mdash;The alignment of good roads in the plains of the Panj&aacute;b is easy,
+and the deposits of calcareous nodules or <i>kankar</i> often found near the
+surface furnish good metalling material. In the west the rainfall is so
+scanty and in many parts wheeled traffic so rare that it is often wise
+to leave the roads unmetalled. There are in the Panj&aacute;b over 2000 miles
+of metalled, and above 20,000 miles of unmetalled roads. The greatest
+highway in the world, the Grand Trunk, which starts from Calcutta and
+ends at Pesh&aacute;war, passes through the province from Delhi in the
+south-east to Attock in the extreme north-west corner, and there crosses
+the Indus and enters the N.W.F. Province. The greater part of the
+section from Karn&aacute;l to Lahore had been completed some years before the
+Mutiny, that from Lahore to Pesh&aacute;war was finished in 1863-64. A great
+loop road connects our arsenal at Ferozepore with the Grand Trunk Road
+at Lahore and Ludhi&aacute;na. The fine metalled roads from Amb&aacute;la to K&aacute;lka,
+and K&aacute;lka to Simla have lost much of their importance since the railway
+was brought to the hill capital. Beyond Simla the K&aacute;lka-Simla road is
+carried on for 150 miles to the Shipk&iacute; Pass on the borders of Tibet,
+being maintained as a very excellent hill road adapted to mule carriage.
+A fine tonga road partly in the plains and partly in the hills joins
+Murree with R&aacute;walpind&iacute;.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> From Murree it drops into the Jhelam valley
+crossing the river and entering Kashm&iacute;r at Koh&aacute;la. It is carried up the
+gorge of the Jhelam to B&aacute;ram&uacute;la and thence through the Kashm&iacute;r valley to
+Sr&iacute;nagar. A motor-car can be driven all the way from R&aacute;walpind&iacute; to
+Sr&iacute;nagar. In the N.W.F. Province a great metalled road connects
+Pesh&aacute;war, Koh&aacute;t, Bannu, and Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 562px;">
+<a name="fig43" id="fig43"></a>
+<img src="images/img043.jpg" width="562" height="600" alt="Fig. 43. Poplar lined road to Sr&iacute;nagar." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 43. Poplar lined road to Sr&iacute;nagar.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Railways. Main Lines.</b>&mdash;It is just over fifty years since the first
+railway, a short line joining Lahore and Amritsar, was opened in 1862.
+Three years later Lahore was linked up with Mult&aacute;n and the small
+steamers which then plied on the Indus. Amritsar was connected with
+Delhi in 1870, and Lahore with Pesh&aacute;war in 1883. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> line from Pesh&aacute;war
+to Lahore, and branching thence to Kar&aacute;ch&iacute; and Delhi may be considered
+the Trunk Line. The railway service has been enormously developed in the
+past thirty years. In 1912 there were over 4000 miles of open lines.
+There are now three routes from Delhi to Lahore:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig44" id="fig44"></a>
+<img src="images/img044tb.jpg" width="500" height="446" alt="Fig. 44. Map showing railways." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img044.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 44. Map showing railways.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The N.W. Railway <i>via</i> Meerut and Sah&aacute;ranpur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> (on east of Jamna),
+and Amb&aacute;la, Ludhi&aacute;na, Jalandhar, Amritsar;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The Southern Panj&aacute;b Railway <i>via</i> Jind, Rohtak, Bhatinda, and
+Ferozepore;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) The Delhi-Amb&aacute;la-K&aacute;lka branch of the East Indian Rallway from
+Delhi through Karn&aacute;l to Amb&aacute;la, and thence by the N.W. Railway. This is
+the shortest route.</p>
+
+<p>The Southern Panj&aacute;b Railway also connects Delhi with Kar&aacute;ch&iacute; through its
+junction with the N.W. Railway at Samasata to the south of Bah&aacute;walpur.
+Another route is by a line passing through Rew&aacute;r&iacute; and the Merta
+junction. Kar&aacute;ch&iacute; is the natural seaport of the central and western
+Panj&aacute;b. The S.P. Railway now gives an easy connection with Ferozepore
+and Ludhi&aacute;na, and the enormous export of wheat, cotton, etc. from the
+new canal colonies is carried by several lines which converge at
+Khanew&aacute;l, a junction on the main line, a little north of Mult&aacute;n.</p>
+
+<p><b>Railways. Minor Lines.</b>&mdash;The Sind S&aacute;gar branch starting from L&aacute;la Musa
+between Lahore and Amritsar with smaller lines taking off further north
+at Golra and Campbellpur serves the part of the province lying north of
+the Salt Range. These lines converge at Kundian in the Mianw&aacute;l&iacute;
+district, and a single line runs thence southwards to points on the
+Indus opposite Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n and Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n, and turning
+eastwards rejoins the trunk line at Sher Sh&aacute;h near Mult&aacute;n. There are a
+number of branch lines in the plains, some owned by native States.
+Strategically a very important one is that which crossing the Indus by
+the Khush&aacute;lgarh bridge unites R&aacute;walpind&iacute; with Koh&aacute;t. The only hill
+railway is that from K&aacute;lka to Simla. A second is now under construction
+which, when completed, will connect R&aacute;walpind&iacute; with Sr&iacute;nagar. All these
+lines with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> exception of the branch of the E.I. Railway mentioned
+above are worked by the staff of the N. W. State Railway, whose manager
+controls inside and outside the Panj&aacute;b some 5000 miles of open line. The
+interest earned in 1912 was 4&frac12; p.c., a good return when it is
+considered that the parts of the system to the north of the Salt Range
+and the Sind S&aacute;gar railway were built primarily for strategic reasons.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<h3>CANALS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Importance of Canals.</b>&mdash;One need have no hesitation in placing among the
+greatest achievements of British rule in the Panj&aacute;b the magnificent
+system of irrigation canals which it has given to the province. Its
+great alluvial plain traversed by large rivers drawing an unfailing
+supply of water from the Himalayan snows affords an ideal field for the
+labours of the canal engineer. The vastness of the arid areas which
+without irrigation yield no crops at all or only cheap millets and
+pulses makes his works of inestimable benefit to the people and a source
+of revenue to the State.</p>
+
+<p><b>Canals before annexation.</b>&mdash;In the west of the province we found in
+existence small inundation canals dug by the people with some help from
+their rulers. These only ran during the monsoon season, when the rivers
+were swollen. In 1626 Sh&aacute;hjah&aacute;n's Persian engineer, Ali Mard&aacute;n Kh&aacute;n,
+brought to Delhi the water of the canal dug by Firoz Sh&aacute;h as a monsoon
+channel and made perennial by Akbar. But during the paralysis of the
+central power in the eighteenth century the channels became silted up.
+The same able engineer dug a canal from the R&aacute;v&iacute; near M&aacute;dhopur to water
+the royal gardens at Lahore. What remained of this work at annexation
+was known as the Hasl&iacute;.</p>
+
+<p><b>Extent of Canal Irrigation.</b>&mdash;In 1911-12, when the deficiency of the
+rainfall made the demand for water<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> keen, the canals of the Panj&aacute;b and
+the N.W.F. Province irrigated 8&frac12; millions of acres. The figures are:</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Panj&aacute;b</i></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="Panj&aacute;b">
+<tr><th align='left'>A.</th><th align='left'>Permanent Canals</th><th align='right'>Acres</th><th align='right'>Interest<br />earned %</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>1. Western Jamna</td><td align='right'>775,450</td><td align='right'>7&frac34;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>2. Sirhind</td><td align='right'>1,609,458</td><td align='right'>8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>3. Upper B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b</td><td align='right'>1,156,808</td><td align='right'>11&frac12;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>4. Lower Chen&aacute;b</td><td align='right'>2,334,090</td><td align='right'>34</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>5. Lower Jhelam</td><td align='right'>801,649</td><td align='right'>10&#8531;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'>B.</th><td align='left'>Monsoon Canals</td><td align='right'>1,654,437</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Total</span></td><td align='right'>8,331,892</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><i>N.W. Frontier Province</i></p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="N.W. Frontier Province">
+<tr><th align='left'>&nbsp;</th><th align='right'>Acres</th><th align='right'>Interest<br />earned %</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'> Lower Sw&aacute;t River</td><td align='right'>157,650</td><td align='right'>9&frac34;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Two minor Canals</td><td align='right'>67,510</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Total</span></td><td align='right'>225,160</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p>On the Sirhind Canal, on which the demand fluctuates greatly with the
+character of the season, the area was twice the normal. The three canals
+of the Triple Project will, when fully developed, add 1,871,000 acres to
+the irrigated area of the Panj&aacute;b, and the Upper Sw&aacute;t Canal will increase
+that of the N.W.F. Province by 381,000 acres. The canals will therefore
+in a year of drought be able to water over ten millions of acres without
+taking account of possible extensions if a second canal should be drawn
+from the Sutlej. The money spent from imperial funds on Panj&aacute;b canals
+has exceeded twelve millions sterling, and no money has ever been better
+spent. In, when the area irrigated was a good deal less than in, the
+value of the crops raised by the use of canal water was estimated at
+about 207 millions of rupees or nearly &pound;14,000,000. It is only possible
+to note very briefly the steps by which this remarkable result has been
+achieved.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 391px;">
+<a name="fig45" id="fig45"></a>
+<img src="images/img045tb.jpg" width="391" height="500" alt="Fig. 45. Map&mdash;Older Canals." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img045.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 45. Map&mdash;Older Canals.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Western Jamna Canal.</b>&mdash;Soon after the assumption of authority at Delhi in
+1803 the question of the old Canal from the Jamna was taken up. The
+Delhi Branch was reopened in 1819, and the H&aacute;ns&iacute; Branch six years later.
+In the famine year nearly 400,000 acres were irrigated. For more than
+half a century that figure represented the irrigating capacity of the
+canal. The English engineers in the main retained the faulty Moghal
+alignment, and waterlogging of the worst description developed. The
+effect on the health of the people was appalling. After long delay the
+canal was remodelled. The result has been most satisfactory in every
+way. In the last decade of the nineteenth century the Sirsa Branch and
+the Nardak Distributary were added, to carry water to parts of the
+Karn&aacute;l and Hiss&aacute;r districts where any failure of the monsoon resulted in
+widespread loss of crops. If a scheme to increase the supply can be
+carried out, further extension in tracts now very liable to famine will
+become possible. In the six years ending the interest earned exceeded 8
+p.c.</p>
+
+<p><b>Upper B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b Canal.</b>&mdash;The headworks of the Upper B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b Canal are
+above M&aacute;dhopur near the point where the R&aacute;v&iacute; leaves the hills. The work
+was started soon after annexation, but only finished in 1859. Irrigation
+has grown from 90,000 acres in to 533,000 in, 861,000 in 1900-1, and
+1,157,000 in. The later history of the canal consists mainly of great
+extensions in the arid Lahore district, and the irrigation there is now
+three-fifths of the whole. In parts of Amritsar, and markedly near the
+city, waterlogging has become a grave evil, but remedial measures have
+now been undertaken. The interest earned on the capital expenditure in
+the six years ending averaged 11&frac12; p.c.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sirhind Canal.</b>&mdash;A quarter of a century passed after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> the Upper B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b
+Canal began working before the water of the Sutlej was used for
+irrigation. The Sirhind Canal weir is at Rupar where the river emerges
+from the Siw&aacute;liks. Pati&aacute;la, J&iacute;nd, and N&aacute;bha contributed to the cost, and
+own three of the five branches. But the two British branches are
+entitled to nearly two-thirds of the water, which is utilized in the
+Ludhi&aacute;na and Ferozepore districts and in the Far&iacute;dkot State. The soil of
+the tract commanded is for the most part a light sandy loam, and in
+years of good rainfall it repays dry cultivation. The result is that the
+area watered fluctuates largely. But in the six years ending the
+interest earned averaged 7 p.c., and the power of expansion in a bad
+year is a great boon to the peasantry.</p>
+
+<p><b>Canal extensions in Western Panj&aacute;b.</b>&mdash;In the last quarter of a century
+the chief task of the Canal Department in the Panj&aacute;b has been the
+extension of irrigation to the Rechna and Jech Do&aacute;bs and the lower part
+of the B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b. All three contained large areas of waste belonging to
+the State, mostly good soil, but incapable of cultivation owing to the
+scanty rainfall. Colonization has therefore been an important part of
+all the later canal projects. The operations have embraced the
+excavation of five canals.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lower Chen&aacute;b Canal.</b>&mdash;The Lower Chen&aacute;b Canal is one of the greatest
+irrigation works in the world, the area commanded being 3-1/3 million
+acres, the average discharge four or five times that of the Thames at
+Teddington, and the average irrigated area 2&frac14; million acres. There
+are three main branches, the Rakh, the Jhang, and the Gugera. The supply
+is secured by a great weir built across the Chen&aacute;b river at Kh&aacute;nk&iacute; in
+the Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la district, and the irrigation is chiefly in the
+Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la, Lyallpur, and Jhang districts. In the four years ending the
+average interest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> earned was 28 p.c., and in future the rate should
+rarely fall below 30 p.c. The capital expenditure has been a little over
+&pound;2,000,000. The interest charges were cleared about five years after the
+starting of irrigation, and the capital has already been repaid to the
+State twice over.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;">
+<a name="fig46" id="fig46"></a>
+<img src="images/img046tb.jpg" width="385" height="500" alt="Fig. 46. Map&mdash;Canals." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img046.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 46. Map&mdash;Canals.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Lower Jhelam Canal.</b>&mdash;The Lower Jhelam Canal, which waters the tract
+between the Jhelam and Chen&aacute;b in the Sh&aacute;hpur and Jhang districts, is a
+smaller and less profitable work. The culturable commanded area is about
+one million acres. The head-works are at Ras&uacute;l in the Gujr&aacute;t district.
+Irrigation began in 1901. In the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> four years ending 1911-12 the average
+area watered was 748,000 acres and the interest earned exceeded 10 p.c.</p>
+
+<p><b>Triple Project&mdash;Upper Jhelam and Upper Chen&aacute;b Canals and Lower B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b
+Canal.</b>&mdash;The Lower Chen&aacute;b Canal takes the whole available supply of the
+Chen&aacute;b river. But it does not command a large area in the Rechna Do&aacute;b
+lying in the west of Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la, in which rain cultivation is very risky
+and well cultivation is costly. No help can be got from the R&aacute;v&iacute;, as the
+Upper B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b Canal exhausts its supply. Desirable as the extension of
+irrigation in the areas mentioned above is, the problem of supplying it
+might well have seemed insuperable. The bold scheme known as the Triple
+Project which embraces the construction of the Upper Jhelam, Upper
+Chen&aacute;b, and Lower B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b Canals, is based on the belief that the
+Jhelam river has even in the cold weather water to spare after feeding
+the Lower Jhelam Canal. The true <i>raison d'&ecirc;tre</i> of the Upper Jhelam
+Canal, whose head-works are at Mangla in Kashm&iacute;r a little north of the
+Gujr&aacute;t district, is to throw a large volume of water into the Chen&aacute;b at
+Kh&aacute;nk&iacute;, where the Lower Chen&aacute;b Canal takes off, and so set free an equal
+supply to be taken out of the Chen&aacute;b higher up at Mer&aacute;la in Si&aacute;lkot,
+where are the head-works of the Upper Chen&aacute;b Canal. But the Upper Jhelam
+Canal will also water annually some 345,000 acres in Gujr&aacute;t and Sh&aacute;hpur.
+The Upper Chen&aacute;b Canal will irrigate 648,000 acres mostly in Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la,
+and will be carried across the R&aacute;v&iacute; by an aqueduct at Balloke in the
+south of Lahore. Henceforth the canal is known as the Lower B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b,
+which will water 882,000 acres, mostly owned by the State, in the
+Montgomery and Mult&aacute;n districts. On the other two canals the area of
+Government land is not large. The Triple Project is approaching
+completion, and irrigation from the Upper Chen&aacute;b<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> Canal has begun. The
+engineering difficulties have been great, and the forecast does not
+promise such large gains as even the Lower Jhelam Canal. But a return of
+7&frac12; p.c. is expected.</p>
+
+<p><b>Monsoon or Inundation Canals.</b>&mdash;The numerous monsoon or inundation
+canals, which take off from the Indus, Jhelam, Chen&aacute;b, R&aacute;v&iacute;, and Sutlej,
+though individually petty works, perform an important office in the
+thirsty south-western districts. By their aid a <i>khar&iacute;f</i> crop can be
+raised without working the wells in the hot weather, and with luck the
+fallow can be well soaked in autumn, and put under wheat and other
+spring crops. For the maturing of these crops a prudent cultivator
+should not trust to the scanty cold weather rainfall, but should
+irrigate them from a well. The Sidhnai has a weir, but may be included
+in this class, for there is no assured supply at its head in the R&aacute;v&iacute; in
+the winter. In 1910-11 the inundation canals managed by the State
+watered 1,800,000 acres. There are a number of private canals in
+Ferozepore, Sh&aacute;hpur, and the hill district of K&aacute;ngra. In Ferozepore the
+district authorities take a share in the management.</p>
+
+<p><b>Colonization of Canal Lands.</b>&mdash;The colonization of huge areas of State
+lands has been an important part of new canal schemes in the west of the
+Panj&aacute;b. When the Lower Chen&aacute;b Canal was started the population of the
+vast B&aacute;r tract which it commands consisted of a few nomad cattle owners
+and cattle thieves. It was a point of honour to combine the two
+professions. Large bodies of colonists were brought from the crowded
+districts of the central Panj&aacute;b. The allotments to peasants usually
+consisted of 55 acres, a big holding for a man who possibly owned only
+four or five acres in his native district. There were larger allotments
+known as yeoman and capitalist grants, but the peasants are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> the only
+class who have turned out quite satisfactory farmers. Colonization began
+in 1892 and was practically complete by 1904, when over 1,800,000 acres
+had been allotted. To save the peasants from the evils which an
+unrestricted right of transfer was then bringing on the heads of many
+small farmers in the Panj&aacute;b it was decided only to give them permanent
+inalienable tenant right. The Panj&aacute;b Alienation of Land Act, No. XIII of
+1900, has supplied a remedy generally applicable, and the peasant
+grantees are now being allowed to acquire ownership on very easy terms.
+The greater part of the colony is in the new Lyallpur district, which
+had in 1911 a population of 857,511 souls.</p>
+
+<p>On the Lower Jhelam Canal the area of colonized land exceeds 400,000
+acres. A feature of colonization on that canal is that half the area is
+held on condition of keeping up one or more brood mares, the object
+being to secure a good class of remounts. Succession to these grants is
+governed by primogeniture. On the Lower B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b Canal a very large
+area is now being colonized.</p>
+
+<p><b>Canals of the N.W.F. Province.</b>&mdash;Hemmed in as the N.W.F. Province is
+between the Indus and the Hills, its canals are insignificant as
+compared with the great irrigation works of the Panj&aacute;b. The only ones of
+any importance are in the Pesh&aacute;war Valley. These draw their supplies
+from the K&aacute;bul, B&aacute;ra, and Sw&aacute;t rivers, but the works supplied by the
+first two streams only command small areas. The Lower Sw&aacute;t Canal was
+begun in 1876, but the tribesmen were hostile and the diggers had to
+sleep in fortified enclosures. The work was not opened till 1885. A reef
+in the river has made it possible to dispense with a permanent weir. The
+country is not an ideal one for irrigation, being much cut up by
+ravines. But a large area has been brought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> under command, and the
+irrigation has more than once exceeded 170,000 acres. In 1911-12 it was
+157,650 acres, and the interest earned was 9&frac34; p.c. The Upper Sw&aacute;t
+Canal, which was opened in April 1914, was a more ambitious project,
+involving the tunnelling at the M&aacute;lakand of 11,000 feet of solid rock.
+The commanded area is nearly 450,000 acres, including 40,000 beyond our
+administrative frontier. The estimated cost is Rs. 18,240,000 or over
+&pound;1,200,000 and the annual irrigation expected is 381,562 acres.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 442px;">
+<a name="fig47" id="fig47"></a>
+<img src="images/img047tb.jpg" width="442" height="500" alt="Fig. 47. Map of Canals of Pesh&aacute;war district." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img047.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 47. Map of Canals of Pesh&aacute;war district.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+
+<h3>AGRICULTURE AND CROPS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Classification by Zones.</b>&mdash;In order to give an intelligible account of
+the huge area embraced by the Panj&aacute;b, N.W.F. Province, and Kashm&iacute;r it is
+necessary to make a division of the area into zones. Classification must
+be on very broad lines based on differences of altitude, rainfall, and
+soil, leading to corresponding differences in the cultivation and the
+crops. For statistical purposes districts must be taken as a whole,
+though a more accurate classification would divide some of them between
+two zones.</p>
+
+<p><b>Classes of Cultivation.</b>&mdash;The broadest division of cultivation is into
+irrigated and unirrigated, the former including well (<i>ch&aacute;h&iacute;</i>), canal
+(<i>nahr&iacute;</i>), and <i>&aacute;b&iacute;</i>. The last term describes a small amount of land
+watered from tanks or <i>jh&iacute;ls</i> in the plains and a larger area in the
+hills irrigated by <i>kuhls</i> or small artificial channels. "Unirrigated"
+embraces cultivation dependent on rain (<i>b&aacute;r&aacute;n&iacute;</i>) or on flooding or
+percolation from rivers (<i>sail&aacute;b</i>). (See Table II.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Harvests.</b>&mdash;There are two harvests, the autumn or <i>khar&iacute;f</i>, and the
+spring or <i>rab&iacute;</i>. The autumn crops are mostly sown in June and July and
+reaped from September to December. Cotton is often sown in March. Cane
+planted in March and cut in January and February is counted as a
+<i>khar&iacute;f</i> crop. The spring crops are sown from the latter part of
+September to the end of December.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> They are reaped in March and April.
+Roughly in the Panj&aacute;b three-fifths of the crops belong to the spring
+harvest. In the N.W.F. Province the proportion is somewhat higher. In
+Kashm&iacute;r the autumn crop is by far the more important.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig48" id="fig48"></a>
+<img src="images/img048.jpg" width="600" height="471" alt="Fig. 48. Persian Wheel Well and Ekka." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 48. Persian Wheel Well and Ekka.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Implements of Husbandry and Wells.</b>&mdash;The implements of husbandry are
+simple but effective in a land where as a rule there is no advantage in
+stirring up the soil very deep. With his primitive plough (<i>hal</i>) and a
+wooden clodcrusher (<i>soh&aacute;ga</i>) the peasant can produce a tilth for a crop
+like cane which it would be hard to match in England. There are two
+kinds of wells, the <i>charsa</i> or rope and bucket well and the <i>harat</i> or
+Persian wheel.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rotations.</b>&mdash;The commonest rotation in ordinary loam soils is to put in a
+spring and autumn crop in succession<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> and then let the land lie fallow
+for a year. Unless a good deal of manure is available this is the course
+to follow, even in the case of irrigated land. Some poor hard soils are
+only fit for crops of coarse rice sown after the embanked fields have
+been filled in the monsoon by drainage from surrounding waste. Other
+lands are cropped only in the autumn because the winter rainfall is very
+scanty. Flooded lands are often sown only for the spring harvest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig49" id="fig49"></a>
+<img src="images/img049.jpg" width="600" height="493" alt="Fig. 49. A drove of goats&mdash;Lahore." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 49. A drove of goats&mdash;Lahore.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Cattle, Sheep, and Goats.</b>&mdash;In 1909 there were in the British districts
+of the Panj&aacute;b 4&frac14; million bullocks and 625,000 male buffaloes
+available to draw 2,169,000 ploughs and 288,000 carts, thresh the corn,
+and work a quarter of a million wells, besides sugar, oil, and flour
+mills. The cattle of the hills, N.W. Panj&aacute;b, and riverain tracts are
+undersized, but in the uplands of the Central Panj&aacute;b and S.E. districts
+fine oxen are used. The horned cattle share 18 millions of pasture land,
+much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> extremely poor, with 4 million sheep and 5&frac12; million goats.
+Hence the enormous area devoted to fodder crops.</p>
+
+<p><b>Zones.</b>&mdash;Six zones can be distinguished, but, as no district is wholly
+confined to the mountain zone, it must for statistical purposes be
+united to the submontane zone:</p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="90%" cellspacing="0" summary="Zones">
+
+<tr>
+<td style="width: 10%;">(<i>a</i>)<br /><br />(<i>b</i>)</td>
+<td style="width: 25%;">Mountain above 5000 feet<br /><br />Submontane</td>
+<td style="width: 65%;"><big>{</big>Panj&aacute;b&mdash;K&aacute;ngra, Simla, Native States in Hills, Amb&aacute;la, Hoshy&aacute;rpur.<br /><big>{</big><br />
+<big>{</big>N.W.F. Province. Haz&aacute;ra, Kashm&iacute;r&mdash;whole</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>(<i>c</i>)</td>
+<td>North Central Plain</td>
+<td>Panj&aacute;b&mdash;Gujr&aacute;t, Si&aacute;lkot, Gurd&aacute;spur,
+Amritsar, Jalandhar, Ludhi&aacute;na, Kap&uacute;rthala, Malerkotla, Pow&aacute;dh tract in Phulkian States.</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>(<i>d</i>)</td>
+<td>North-West Area</td>
+<td>Panj&aacute;b&mdash;R&aacute;walpind&iacute;, Jhelam,
+Attock, Mianw&aacute;l&iacute;. N.W.F.P.&mdash;Pesh&aacute;war, Koh&aacute;t, Bannu.</td>
+
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>(<i>e</i>)</td>
+<td>South-Western Plains</td>
+<td>Panj&aacute;b&mdash;Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la, Lahore,
+Sh&aacute;hpur, Jhang, Lyallpur, Montgomery, Mult&aacute;n, Muzaffargarh, Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute;
+Kh&aacute;n, Bah&aacute;walpur. N.W.F.P.&mdash;Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n.
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>(<i>f</i>)</td>
+<td>South-Eastern Area</td>
+<td>Panj&aacute;b&mdash;Karn&aacute;l, Rohtak, Gurg&aacute;on,
+Hiss&aacute;r, Ferozepore, Far&iacute;dkot, Jangal tract in
+Phulkian States, Native States territory adjoining Gurg&aacute;on and Rohtak.
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+
+
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Mountain and Submontane Zones.</b>&mdash;In the Mountain Zone the fields are
+often very minute, consisting of narrow terraces supported by stone
+revetments built up the slopes of hills. That anyone should be ready to
+spend time and labour on such unpromising material is a sign of pressure
+of population on the soil, which is a marked feature of some hill
+tracts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig50" id="fig50"></a>
+<img src="images/img050.jpg" width="600" height="481" alt="Fig. 50. A steep bit of hill cultivation, Haz&aacute;ra." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 50. A steep bit of hill cultivation, Haz&aacute;ra.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Below 8000 feet the great crop is maize. Potatoes have been introduced
+near our hill stations. The chief pulse of the mountain zone is <i>kulath</i>
+(Dolichos biflorus), eaten by the very poor. Wheat ascends to 8000 or
+9000 feet, and at the higher levels is reaped in August. Barley is grown
+at much greater heights. Buckwheat (<i>&uacute;gal</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> <i>tr&uacute;mba</i>, <i>dr&aacute;w&iacute;</i>),
+amaranth (<i>chaul&aacute;&iacute;</i>, <i>ganh&aacute;r</i>, <i>sari&aacute;ra</i>), and a tall chenopod (<i>bathu</i>)
+are grown in the mountain zone. Buckwheat is common on poor stony lands.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig51" id="fig51"></a>
+<img src="images/img051.jpg" width="600" height="473" alt="Fig. 51. Preparing rice field in the Hills." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 51. Preparing rice field in the Hills.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The only comparatively flat land is on the banks above river beds, which
+are devoted to rice cultivation, the water being conducted to the
+embanked fields by an elaborate system of little canals or <i>kuhls</i>. This
+is the only irrigation in the mountains, and is much valued. The
+Submontane Zone has a rainfall of from 30 to 40 inches. Well irrigation
+is little used and the dry crops are generally secure. Wheat and maize
+are the great staples, but gram and <i>char&iacute;</i>, i.e. <i>jow&aacute;r</i> grown for
+fodder, are also important. Some further information about Kashm&iacute;r
+agriculture will be found in a later chapter. For<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> full details about
+classes of cultivation and crops in all the zones Tables II, III and IV
+should be consulted.</p>
+
+<p><b>North Central Panj&aacute;b Plain.</b>&mdash;The best soils and the finest tillage are
+to be found in the North Central Zone. Gujr&aacute;t has been included in it,
+though it has also affinities in the north with the North-West area, and
+in the south with the South-Western plain. The rainfall varies from 25
+to 35 inches. One-third of the cultivated area is protected by wells,
+and the well cultivation is of a very high class in Ludhi&aacute;na and
+Jalandhar, where heavily manured maize is followed by a fine crop of
+wheat, and cane is commonly grown. In parts of Si&aacute;lkot and Gujr&aacute;t the
+well cultivation is of a different type, the area served per well being
+large and the object being to protect a big acreage of wheat in the
+spring harvest. The chief crops in this zone are wheat and <i>char&iacute;</i>. The
+latter is included under "Other Fodder" in Tables III and IV.</p>
+
+<p><b>North-Western Area.</b>&mdash;The plateau north of the Salt Range has a very
+clean light white sandy loam soil requiring little ploughing and no
+weeding. It is often very shallow, and this is one reason for the great
+preference for cold weather crops. <i>Khar&iacute;f</i> crops are more liable to be
+burned up. Generally speaking the rainfall is from 15 to 25 inches, the
+proportion falling in the winter and spring being larger than elsewhere.
+There is, except in Pesh&aacute;war and Bannu, where the conditions involve a
+considerable divergence from the type of this zone, practically no canal
+irrigation. The well irrigation is unimportant and in most parts
+consists of a few acres round each well intensively cultivated with
+market-gardening crops. The dry crops are generally very precarious. In
+Mianw&aacute;l&iacute; the Indus valley is a fine tract, but the harvests fluctuate
+greatly with the extent of the floods. The Thal in Mianw&aacute;l&iacute; to the south
+of the Sind S&aacute;gar railway is really a part of the next zone.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>The South-Western Plains.</b>&mdash;This zone contains nine districts. With the
+exception of the three on the north border of the zone they have a
+rainfall of from 5 to 10 inches. Of these six arid districts, only one,
+Montgomery, has any dry cultivation worth mentioning. In the zone as a
+whole three-fourths of the cultivation is protected by canals or wells,
+or by both. In the lowlands near the great rivers cultivation depends on
+the floods brought to the land direct or through small canals which
+carry water to parts which the natural overflow would not reach. In the
+uplands vast areas formerly untouched by the plough have been brought
+under tillage by the help of perennial canals, and the process of
+reclamation is still going on. The Thal is a large sandy desert which
+becomes more and more worthless for cultivation as one proceeds
+southwards. In the north the people have found out of late years that
+this unpromising sand can not only yield poor <i>khar&iacute;f</i> crops, but is
+worth sowing with gram in the spring harvest. The expense is small, and
+a lucky season means large profits. In Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n a large area of
+"<i>pat</i>" below the hills is dependent for cultivation on torrents. The
+favourite crop in the embanked fields into which the water is diverted
+is <i>jow&aacute;r</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>The South-Eastern Plains.</b>&mdash;In the south-eastern Panj&aacute;b except in Hiss&aacute;r
+and the native territory on the border of R&aacute;jput&aacute;na, the rainfall is
+from 20 to 30 inches. In Hiss&aacute;r it amounts to some 15 inches. These are
+averages; the variations in total amount and distribution over the
+months of the year are very great. In good seasons the area under dry
+crops is very large, but the fluctuations in the sown acreage are
+extraordinary, and the matured is often far below the sown area. The
+great crops are gram and mixtures of wheat or barley with gram in the
+spring, and <i>b&aacute;jra</i> in the autumn, harvest. Well cultivation is not of
+much importance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> generally, though some of it in the Jamna riverain is
+excellent. The irrigated cultivation depends mainly on the Western Jamna
+and Sirhind canals, and the great canal crops are wheat and cotton. This
+is the zone in which famine conditions are still most to be feared.</p>
+
+<p>In the Panj&aacute;b as a whole about one-third of the cultivated area is
+yearly put under wheat, which with <i>b&aacute;jra</i> and maize is the staple food
+of the people. A large surplus of wheat and oil-seeds is available for
+export.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;">
+<a name="fig52" id="fig52"></a>
+<img src="images/img052.jpg" width="420" height="600" alt="Fig. 52. Carved doorway." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 52. Carved doorway.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+
+<h3>HANDICRAFTS AND MANUFACTURES</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Handicrafts.</b>&mdash;The chief handicrafts of the province are those of the
+weaver, the shoemaker, the carpenter, the potter, and the worker in
+brass and copper. The figures of the 1911 census for each craft
+including dependents were: weavers 883,000; shoemakers 540,000;
+carpenters 381,000; potters and brickmakers 349,000; metalworkers
+240,000. The figures for weavers include a few working in factories. The
+hand-spun cotton-cloth is a coarse strong fabric known as "<i>khaddar</i>"
+with a single warp and weft. "<i>Khes</i>" is a better article with a double
+warp and weft. "<i>S&uacute;s&iacute;</i>" is a smooth cloth with coloured stripes used for
+women's trousers. A superior kind of checked "<i>khes</i>" known as
+"<i>gabr&uacute;n</i>" is made at Ludhi&aacute;na. The native process of weaving is slow
+and the weavers are very poor. The Salvation Army is trying to introduce
+an improved hand loom. Fine "<i>lung&iacute;s</i>" or turbans of cotton with silk
+borders are made at Ludhi&aacute;na, Mult&aacute;n, Pesh&aacute;war, and elsewhere. Effective
+cotton printing is carried on by very primitive methods at Kot Kam&aacute;lia
+and Lahore. Ludhi&aacute;na and Lahore turn out cotton <i>dar&iacute;s</i> or rugs. Coarse
+woollen blankets or <i>lo&iacute;s</i> are woven at various places, and coloured<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+felts or <i>namdas</i> are made at Ludhi&aacute;na, Khush&aacute;b, and Pesh&aacute;war. Excellent
+imitations of Persian carpets are woven at Amritsar, and the Sr&iacute;nagar
+carpets do credit to the Kashm&iacute;r&iacute;s' artistic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> taste. The best of the
+Amritsar carpets are made of <i>pashm</i>, the fine underwool of the Tibetan
+sheep, and <i>pashm&iacute;na</i> is also used as a material for <i>choghas</i>
+(dressing-gowns), etc. Coarse woollen cloth or <i>pattu</i> is woven in the
+K&aacute;ngra hills for local use. At Mult&aacute;n useful rugs are made whose fabric
+is a mixture of cotton and wool. More artistic are the Biluch rugs made
+by the Biluch women with geometrical patterns. These are excellent in
+colouring. They are rather difficult to procure as they are not made for
+sale. The weaving of China silk is a common industry in Amritsar,
+Bah&aacute;walpur, Mult&aacute;n, and other places. The <i>phulk&aacute;r&iacute;</i> or silk embroidery
+of the village maidens of Hiss&aacute;r and other districts of the Eastern
+Panj&aacute;b, and the more elaborate gold and silver wire embroideries of the
+Delhi <i>baz&aacute;rs</i>, are excellent. The most artistic product of the plains
+is the ivory carving of Delhi. As a wood-carver the Panj&aacute;b&iacute; is not to be
+compared with the Kashm&iacute;r&iacute;. His work is best fitted for doorways and the
+bow windows or <i>bokh&aacute;rchas</i> commonly seen in the streets of old towns.
+The best carvers are at Bhera, Chiniot, Amritsar, and Bat&aacute;la. The
+European demand has produced at Simla and other places an abundant
+supply of cheap articles of little merit. The inlaid work of Chiniot and
+Hoshy&aacute;rpur is good, as is the lacquer-work of P&aacute;kpattan. The papier
+mach&eacute; work of Kashm&iacute;r has much artistic merit (Fig. 55), and some of the
+repouss&eacute; silver work of Kashm&iacute;r is excellent.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;">
+<a name="fig53" id="fig53"></a>
+<img src="images/img053.jpg" width="370" height="600" alt="Fig. 53. Shoemaker&#39;s craft." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 53. Shoemaker&#39;s craft.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The craft of the <i>thathera</i> or brass worker is naturally most prominent
+in the Eastern Panj&aacute;b, because Hindus prefer brass vessels for cooking
+purposes. Delhi is the great centre, but the trade is actively carried
+on at other places, and especially at Jag&aacute;dhr&iacute;.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 432px;">
+<a name="fig54" id="fig54"></a>
+<img src="images/img054.jpg" width="432" height="600" alt="Fig. 54. Carved windows." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 54. Carved windows.</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p>
+<p>Unglazed pottery is made practically in every village. The blue
+enamelled pottery of Mult&aacute;n and the glazed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> Delhi china ware are
+effective. The manufacture of the latter is on a very petty scale.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig55" id="fig55"></a>
+<img src="images/img055.jpg" width="600" height="463" alt="Fig. 55. Papier mach&eacute; work of Kashm&iacute;r." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 55. Papier mach&eacute; work <b>of</b> Kashm&iacute;r.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Factories.</b>&mdash;The factory industries of the Panj&aacute;b are still very small.
+In 1911 there were 268 factories employing 28,184 hands. The typical
+Panj&aacute;b factory is a little cotton ginning or pressing mill. The grinding
+of flour and husking of rice are sometimes part of the same business.
+The number of these mills rose in the 20 years ending 1911 from 12 to
+202, and there are complaints that there are now too many factories.
+Cotton-spinning has not been very successful and the number of mills in
+1911, eight, was the same as in 1903-4. The weaving is almost entirely
+confined to yarn of low counts. Part is used by the hand-loom weavers
+and part is exported to the United Provinces. Good woollen fabrics are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
+turned out at a factory at Dh&aacute;riw&aacute;l in the Gurd&aacute;spur district. There
+were in 1911 fifteen flour mills, ten ironworks, three breweries, and
+one distillery.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig56" id="fig56"></a>
+<img src="images/img056.jpg" width="600" height="421" alt="Fig. 56. The Potter." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 56. The Potter.<br />(<i>From a picture book said to have been prepared for Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Dal&iacute;p
+Singh.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Joint-Stock Companies.</b>&mdash;The Panj&aacute;b has not reached the stage where the
+joint-stock business successfully takes the place of the family banking
+or factory business. In 1911 there were 194 joint-stock companies. But
+many of these were provident societies, the working of which has been
+attended with such abuses that a special act has been passed for their
+control. A number of banks and insurance companies have also sprung up
+of late years. Of some of these the paid up capital is absurdly small,
+and the recent collapse of the largest and of two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> smaller native banks
+has drawn attention to the extremely risky nature of the business done.
+Of course European and Hindu family banking businesses of the old type
+stand on quite a different footing. Some of the cotton and other mills
+are joint-stock concerns.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+
+<h3>EXPORTS AND IMPORTS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Trade.</b>&mdash;In 1911-12 the exports from the Panj&aacute;b, excluding those by land
+to Central Asia, Lad&aacute;kh, and Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n, were valued at Rs.
+27,63,21,000 (&pound;18,421,000), of which 61 p.c. went to Kar&aacute;ch&iacute; and about
+10 p.c. to Calcutta and Bombay. Of the total 27 p.c. consisted of wheat,
+nearly the whole of which was dispatched to Kar&aacute;ch&iacute;. All other grains
+and pulses were about equal in value to the wheat. "Gram and other
+pulses" (18 p.c. of total exports) was the chief item. Raw cotton
+accounts for 15, and oil-seeds for 10 p.c. The imports amounted in value
+to Rs. 30,01,28,000 (&pound;20,008,000), little more than one-third being
+received from Kar&aacute;ch&iacute;. Cotton piece goods (Foreign 22, Indian 8&frac12;
+p.c.) make up one-third of the total. The other important figures are
+sugar 12, and metals 11 p.c. The land trade with Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n, Central
+Asia, and Lad&aacute;kh is insignificant, but interesting as furnishing an
+example of modes of transport which have endured for many centuries, and
+of the pursuit of gain often under appalling physical difficulties.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+
+<h3>HISTORY&mdash;PRE-MUHAMMADAN PERIOD, 500 B.C.&mdash;1000 A.D.</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>In Hindu period relations of Panj&aacute;b were with western kingdoms.</b>&mdash;The
+large tract included in the British province of the Panj&aacute;b which lies
+between the Jamna and the Ghagar is, having regard to race, language,
+and past history, a part of Hindust&aacute;n. Where "Panj&aacute;b" is used without
+qualification in this section the territories west of the Ghagar and
+south of Kashm&iacute;r are intended. The true relations of the Panj&aacute;b and
+Kashm&iacute;r during the Hindu period were, except for brief intervals, with
+Persia, Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n, and Turkist&aacute;n rather than with the great kingdoms
+founded in the valley of the Ganges and the Jamna.</p>
+
+<p><b>Normal division into petty kingdoms and tribal confederacies.</b>&mdash;The
+normal state of the Panj&aacute;b in early times was to be divided into a
+number of small kingdoms and tribal republics. Their names and the areas
+which they occupied varied from time to time. Names of kingdoms that
+have been rescued from oblivion are Gandh&aacute;ra, corresponding to Pesh&aacute;war
+and the valley of the K&aacute;bul river, Urasa or Haz&aacute;ra, where the name is
+still preserved in the Orash plain, T&aacute;xila, which may have corresponded
+roughly to the present districts of R&aacute;walpind&iacute; and Attock with a small
+part of Haz&aacute;ra, Abhisara or the low hills of Jammu, Kashm&iacute;r, and
+Trigartta, with its capital Jalandhara, which occupied most of the
+Jalandhar division<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> north of the Sutlej and the states of Chamba, Suket,
+and Mand&iacute;. The historians of Alexander's campaigns introduce us also to
+the kingdoms of the elder Poros on both banks of the Jhelam, of the
+younger Poros east of the Chen&aacute;b, and of Sophyt&eacute;s (Saubhut&iacute;) in the
+neighbourhood of the Salt Range. We meet also with tribal confederacies,
+such as in Alexander's time those of the Kathaioi on the upper, and of
+the Malloi on the lower, R&aacute;v&iacute;.</p>
+
+<p><b>Invasion by Alexander, 327-325 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span></b>&mdash;The great Persian king, Darius, in
+512 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> pushed out the boundary of his empire to the Indus, then
+running in a more easternly course than to-day<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>. The army with which
+Xerxes invaded Greece included a contingent of Indian bowmen<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>. When
+Alexander overthrew the Persian Empire and started on the conquest of
+India, the Indus was the boundary of the former. His remarkable campaign
+lasted from April, 327 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, when he led an army of 50,000 or 60,000
+Europeans across the Hindu Kush into the K&aacute;bul valley, to October, 325,
+when he started from Sindh on his march to Persia through Makr&aacute;n. Having
+cleared his left flank by a campaign in the hills of Buner and Sw&aacute;t, he
+crossed the Indus sixteen miles above Attock near Torbela. The King of
+T&aacute;xila, whose capital was near the Margalla pass on the north border of
+the present R&aacute;walpind&iacute; district, had prudently submitted as soon as the
+Macedonian army appeared in the K&aacute;bul valley. From the Indus Alexander
+marched to T&aacute;xila, and thence to the Jhelam (Hydaspes), forming a camp
+near the site now occupied by the town of that name in the country of
+Poros. The great army of the Indian king was drawn up to dispute the
+passage probably not very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> far from the eastern end of the present
+railway bridge. Favoured by night and a monsoon rain-storm&mdash;it was the
+month of July, 326 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>&mdash;Alexander succeeded in crossing some miles
+higher up into the Karr&iacute; plain under the low hills of Gujr&aacute;t. Here,
+somewhere near the line now occupied by the upper Jhelam Canal, the
+Greek soldiers gave the first example of a feat often repeated since,
+the rout of a large and unwieldy Indian army by a small, but mobile and
+well-led, European force. Having defeated Poros, Alexander crossed the
+Chen&aacute;b (Akesines), stormed S&aacute;ngala, a fort of the Kathaioi on the upper
+R&aacute;v&iacute; (Hydraotes) and advanced as far as the Bi&aacute;s (Hyphasis). But the
+weary soldiers insisted that this should be the bourn of their eastward
+march, and, after setting up twelve stone altars on the farther side,
+Alexander in September, 326 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, reluctantly turned back. Before he
+left the Panj&aacute;b he had hard fighting with the Malloi on the lower R&aacute;v&iacute;,
+and was nearly killed in the storm of one of their forts. Alexander
+intended that his conquests should be permanent, and made careful
+arrangements for their administration. But his death in June, 323 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>,
+put an end to Greek rule in India. Chandra Gupta Maurya expelled the
+Macedonian garrisons, and some twenty years later Seleukos Nicator had
+to cede to him Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n.</p>
+
+<p><b>Maurya Dominion and Empire of A&#351;oka, 323-231 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span></b>&mdash;Chandra Gupta is
+the Sandrakottos, to whose capital at Pataliputra (Patna) Seleukos sent
+Megasthenes in 303 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> The Greek ambassador was a diligent and truthful
+observer, and his notes give a picture of a civilized and complex system
+of administration. If Chandra Gupta was the David, his grandson,
+A&#351;oka, was the Solomon of the first Hindu Empire. His long reign,
+lasting from 273 to 231 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, was with one exception a period of
+profound peace deliberately maintained by an emperor who, after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> his
+conversion to the teaching of Gautama Buddha, thought war a sin.
+A&#351;oka strove to lead his people into the right path by means of pithy
+abstracts of the moral law of his master graven on rocks and pillars. It
+is curious to remember that this missionary king was peacefully ruling a
+great empire in India during the twenty-four years of the struggle
+between Rome and Carthage, which we call the first Punic War. Of the
+four Viceroys who governed the outlying provinces of the empire one had
+his headquarters at T&aacute;xila. One of the rock edicts is at Mansehra in
+Haz&aacute;ra and another at Sh&aacute;hb&aacute;zgarh&iacute; in Pesh&aacute;war. From this time and for
+many centuries the dominant religion in the Panj&aacute;b was Buddhism, but the
+religion of the villages may then have been as remote from the State
+creed as it is to-day from orthodox Brahmanism.</p>
+
+<p><b>Graeco-Bactrian and Graeco-Parthian Rule.</b>&mdash;The Panj&aacute;b slipped from the
+feeble grasp of A&#351;oka's successors, and for four centuries it looked
+not to the Ganges, but to the K&aacute;bul and the Oxus rivers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig57" id="fig57"></a>
+<img src="images/img057.jpg" width="600" height="245" alt="Fig. 57. Coin&mdash;obverse and reverse of Menander." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 57. Coin&mdash;obverse and reverse of Menander.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Up to the middle of the first century of our era it was first under
+Graeco-Bactrian, and later under Graeco-Parthian, rule directly, or
+indirectly through local rulers with Greek names or S&aacute;ka Satraps. The
+S&aacute;kas, one of the central Asian shepherd hordes, were pushed out of
+their pastures on the upper Jaxartes by another horde,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> the Yuech&iacute;.
+Shadowy Hellenist Princes have left <b>us</b> only their names on coins; one
+Menander, who ruled about 150 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, is an exception. He anticipated the
+feats of later rulers of K&aacute;bul by a temporary conquest of North-Western
+India, westwards to the Jamna and southwards to the sea.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Kush&aacute;n Dynasty.</b>&mdash;The Yuech&iacute; in turn were driven southward to the
+Oxus and the K&aacute;bul valley and under the Kush&aacute;n dynasty established their
+authority in the Panj&aacute;b about the middle of the first century. The most
+famous name is that of Kanishka, who wrested from China Kashg&aacute;r,
+Yarkand, and Khotan, and assembled <b>a</b> notable council of sages of the law
+in Kashm&iacute;r. His reign may be dated from 120 to 150 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> His capital was
+at Purushapura (Pesh&aacute;war), near which he built the famous relic tower of
+Buddha, 400 feet high. Beside the tower was a large monastery still
+renowned in the ninth and tenth centuries as a home of sacred learning.
+The rule of Kush&aacute;n kings in the Panj&aacute;b lasted till the end of the first
+quarter of the third century. To their time belong the Buddhist
+sculptures found in the tracts near their Pesh&aacute;war capital (see also
+page <a href='#Page_204'><b>204</b></a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The Gupta Empire.</b>&mdash;Of the century preceding the establishment in 320
+B.C. of the Gupta dynasty at Patna we know nothing. The Panj&aacute;b probably
+again fell under the sway of petty r&aacute;jas and tribal confederacies,
+though the Kush&aacute;n rule was maintained in Pesh&aacute;war till 465 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, when it
+was finally blotted out by the White Huns. These savage invaders soon
+after defeated Skanda Gupta, and from this blow the Gupta Empire never
+recovered. At the height of its power in 400 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> under Chandra Gupta
+II, known as Vikramaditya, who is probably the original of the
+Bikramaj&iacute;t of Indian legends, it may have reached as far west as the
+Chen&aacute;b.</p>
+
+<p><b>The White Huns or Ephthalites.</b>&mdash;In the beginning of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> the sixth century
+the White Hun, Mahirakula, ruled the Panj&aacute;b from Sakala, the modern
+Si&aacute;lkot. He was a worshipper of &#350;iva, and a deadly foe of the
+Buddhist cult, and has been described as a monster of cruelty.</p>
+
+<p>The short-lived dominion of the White Huns was destroyed by the Turks
+and Persians about the year 565 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Panj&aacute;b in seventh century <span class="smcap">A.D.</span></b>&mdash;From various sources, one of the most
+valuable being the Memoirs of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Hiuen Tsang,
+who travelled in India from 630 to 644 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, we know something of
+Northern India in the first half of the seventh century. Hiuen Tsang was
+at Kanauj as a guest of a powerful king named Harsha, whose first
+capital was at Thanesar, and who held a suzerainty over all the r&aacute;jas
+from the Brahmaputra to the Bi&aacute;s. West of that river the king of Kashm&iacute;r
+was also overlord of T&aacute;xila, Urasa, Parnotsa (Punch), R&aacute;japur&iacute; (Rajaur&iacute;)
+and Sinhapura, which seems to have included the Salt Range. The Pesh&aacute;war
+valley was probably ruled by the Turk&iacute; Shahiya kings of K&aacute;bul. The rest
+of the Panj&aacute;b was divided between a kingdom called by Hiuen Tsang
+Tsekhia, whose capital was somewhere near Si&aacute;lkot, and the important
+kingdom of Sindh, in which the Indus valley as far north as the Salt
+Range was included. Harsha died in 647 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> and his empire collapsed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kashm&iacute;r under Hindu Kings.</b>&mdash;For the next century China was at the height
+of its power. It established a suzerainty over Kashm&iacute;r, Udy&aacute;na (Sw&aacute;t),
+Yas&iacute;n, and Chitr&aacute;l. The first was at this period a powerful Hindu
+kingdom. Its annals, as recorded in Kalhana's R&aacute;jatarangin&iacute;, bear
+henceforward a real relation to history. In 733 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> King Muktapida
+L&aacute;lit&aacute;ditya received investiture from the Chinese Emperor. Seven years
+later he defeated the King of Kanauj on the Ganges. A ruler who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> carried
+his arms so far afield must have been very powerful in the Northern
+Panj&aacute;b. The remains of the wonderful M&aacute;rtand temple, which he built in
+honour of the Sun God, are a standing memorial of his greatness. The
+history of Kashm&iacute;r under its Hindu kings for the next 400 years is for
+the most part that of a wretched people ground down by cruel tyrants. A
+notable exception was Avantidharman&mdash;855-883 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>&mdash;whose minister,
+Suyya, carried out very useful drainage and irrigation works.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig58" id="fig58"></a>
+<img src="images/img058.jpg" width="600" height="418" alt="Fig. 58. M&aacute;rtand Temple." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 58. M&aacute;rtand Temple.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Panj&aacute;b, 650-1000 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span></b>&mdash;We know little of Panj&aacute;b history in the 340
+years which elapsed between the death of Harsha and the beginning of the
+Indian raids of the Sultans of Ghazn&iacute; in 986-7 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> The conquest of the
+kingdom of Sindh by the Arab general, Muhammad K&aacute;sim, occurred some
+centuries earlier, in 712 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> Mult&aacute;n, the city of the Sun-worshippers,
+was occupied, and part<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> at least of the Indus valley submitted to the
+youthful conqueror. He and his successors in Sindh were tolerant rulers.
+No attempt was made to occupy the Central Panj&aacute;b, and when the Turkish
+Sult&aacute;n, Sabaktagin, made his first raid into India in 986-7 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, his
+opponent was a powerful r&aacute;ja named Jaip&aacute;l, who ruled over a wide
+territory extending from the Hakra to the frontier hills on the
+north-west. His capital was at Bhatinda. Just about the time when the
+rulers of Ghazn&iacute; were laying the train which ended at Delhi and made it
+the seat of a great Muhammadan Empire, that town was being founded in
+993-4 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> by the Tunwar R&aacute;jputs, who then held sway in that
+neighbourhood.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
+
+<h3>HISTORY (<i>continued</i>). THE MUHAMMADAN PERIOD, 1000-1764 A.D.</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>The Ghaznevide Raids.</b>&mdash;In the tenth century the Turks were the
+janissaries of the Abbaside Caliphs of Baghd&aacute;d, and ambitious soldiers
+of that race began to carve out kingdoms. One Alptagin set up for
+himself at Ghazn&iacute;, and was succeeded in 976 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> by his slave
+Sabaktagin, who began the long series of Indian raids which stained with
+blood the annals of the next half-century. His son, Mahm&uacute;d of Ghazn&iacute;, a
+ruthless zealot and robber abroad, a patron of learning and literature
+at home, added the Panj&aacute;b to his dominions. In the first 26 years of the
+eleventh century he made seventeen marauding excursions into India. In
+the first his father's opponent, Jaip&aacute;l, was beaten in a vain effort to
+save Pesh&aacute;war. Ten years later his successor, Anandp&aacute;l, at the head of a
+great army, again met the Turks in the Khaibar. The valour of the
+Ghakkars had practically won the day, when Anandp&aacute;l's elephant took
+fright, and this accident turned victory into rout. In one or other of
+the raids Mult&aacute;n and Lahore were occupied, and the temples of K&aacute;ngra
+(Nagarkot) and Thanesar plundered. In 1018 the Turkish army marched as
+far east as Kanauj. The one permanent result of all these devastations
+was the occupation of the Panj&aacute;b. The Turks made Lahore the capital.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Decline of Buddhism.</b>&mdash;The iconoclastic raids of Mahm&uacute;d probably gave the
+<i>coup de gr&acirc;ce</i> to Buddhism. Its golden age may be put at from 250 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>
+to 200 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> Brahmanism gradually emerged from retirement and reappeared
+at royal courts. It was quite ready to admit Buddha to its pantheon, and
+by so doing it sapped the doctrine he had taught. The Chinese pilgrim,
+Fahien, in the early part of the fifth century could still describe
+Buddhism in the Panj&aacute;b as "very flourishing," and he found numerous
+monasteries. The religion seems however to have largely degenerated into
+a childish veneration of relics.</p>
+
+<p><b>Conquest of Delhi.</b>&mdash;For a century and a quarter after the death of
+Mahm&uacute;d in 1030 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> his line maintained its sway over a much diminished
+empire. In 1155 the Afgh&aacute;n chief of Ghor, Al&aacute; ud d&iacute;n, the "World-burner"
+(Jah&aacute;n-soz), levelled Ghazn&iacute; with the ground. For a little longer the
+Ghaznevide Turkish kings maintained themselves in Lahore. Between 1175
+and 1186 Muhammad Ghor&iacute;, who had set up a new dynasty at Ghazn&iacute;,
+conquered Mult&aacute;n, Peshawar, Si&aacute;lkot, and Lahore, and put an end to the
+line of Mahm&uacute;d. The occupation of Sirhind brought into the field Prithv&iacute;
+R&aacute;ja, the Chauh&aacute;n R&aacute;jput king of Delhi. In 1191 he routed Muhammad Ghor&iacute;
+at Nar&aacute;ina near Karn&aacute;l. But next year the Afgh&aacute;n came back with a huge
+host, and this time on the same battlefield fortune favoured him.
+Prithv&iacute; R&aacute;ja was taken and killed, and Muhammad's slave, Kutbudd&iacute;n
+Aibak, whom he left to represent him in India, soon occupied Delhi. In
+1203 Muhammad Ghor&iacute; had to flee for his life after a defeat near the
+Oxus. The Ghakkars seized the chance and occupied Lahore. But the old
+lion, though wounded, was still formidable. The Ghakkars were beaten,
+and, it is said, converted. A year or two later they murdered their
+conqueror in his tent near the Indus.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Turkish and Afgh&aacute;ns Sult&aacute;ns of Delhi.</b>&mdash;He had no son, and his strong
+viceroy, Kutbudd&iacute;n Aibak, became in 1206 the first of the 33 Muhammadan
+kings, who in five successive dynasties ruled from Delhi a kingdom of
+varying dimensions, till the last of them fell at P&aacute;nipat in 1526, and
+B&aacute;bar, the first of the Moghals, became master of their red fort palace.
+The blood-stained annals of these 320 years can only be lightly touched
+on. Under vigorous rulers like the Turk&iacute; Slave kings, Altamsh
+(1210-1236) and Balban (1266-1287), a ferocious and masterful boor like
+Al&aacute; ud d&iacute;n Khalj&iacute; (1296-1316), or a ferocious but able man of culture
+like Muhammad Tughlak (1325-1351), the local governors at Lahore and
+Mult&aacute;n were content to be servants. In the frequent intervals during
+which the royal authority was in the hands of sottish wastrels, the
+chance of independence was no doubt seized.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mongol Invasions.</b>&mdash;In 1221 the Mongol cloud rose on the north-west
+horizon. The cruelty of these camel-riding Tatars and the terror they
+inspired may perhaps be measured by the appalling picture given of their
+bestial appearance. In 1221, Chingiz Kh&aacute;n descended on the Indus at the
+heels of the King of Khwarizm (Khiva), and drove him into Sindh. Then
+there was a lull for twenty years, after which the Mongol war hordes
+ruined and ravaged the Panj&aacute;b for two generations. Two great Panj&aacute;b
+governors, Sher Kh&aacute;n under Balban and Tughlak under Al&aacute; ud d&iacute;n Khalj&iacute;,
+maintained a gallant struggle against these savages. In 1297 and 1303
+the Mongols came to the gates of Delhi, but the city did not fall, and
+soon after they ceased to harry Northern India. During these years the
+misery of the common people must often have been extreme. When foreign
+raids ceased for a time they were plundered by their own rulers. In the
+Panj&aacute;b the fate of the peasantry must have depended chiefly on the
+character<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> of the governor for the time being, and of the local
+feudatories or <i>zam&iacute;nd&aacute;rs</i>, who were given the right to collect the
+State's share of the produce on condition of keeping up bodies of armed
+men for service when required.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Invasion of Tim&uacute;r.</b>&mdash;The long reign of Muhammad Tughlak's successor,
+Firoz Sh&aacute;h (1351-1388), son of a Hindu R&aacute;jput princess of Dip&aacute;lpur,
+brought relief to all classes. Besides adopting a moderate fiscal
+policy, he founded towns like Hiss&aacute;r and Fateh&aacute;b&aacute;d, dug canals from the
+Jamna and the Sutlej, and carried out many other useful works. On his
+death the realm fell into confusion. In 1398-99 another appalling
+calamity fell upon it in the invasion of Tim&uacute;rlang (Tamerlane), Kh&aacute;n of
+Samarkand. He entered India at the head of 90,000 horsemen, and marched
+by Mult&aacute;n, Dip&aacute;lpur, Sirsa, Kaithal, and P&aacute;nipat to Delhi. What lust of
+blood was to the Mongols, religious hatred was to Tim&uacute;r and his Turks.
+Ten thousand Hindus were put to the sword at Bhatner and 100,000
+prisoners were massacred before the victory at Delhi. For the three
+days' sack of the royal city Tim&uacute;r was not personally responsible. Sated
+with the blood of lakhs of infidels sent "to the fires of Hell" he
+marched back through K&aacute;ngra and Jammu to the Indus. Six years later the
+House of Tughlak received a deadly wound when the Waz&iacute;r, Ikb&aacute;l Khan,
+fell in battle with Khizr Kh&aacute;n, the governor of Mult&aacute;n.</p>
+
+<p><b>The later Dynasties.</b>&mdash;The Saiyyids, who were in power from 1414 to 1451,
+only ruled a small territory round Delhi. The local governors and the
+Hindu chiefs made themselves independent. Sikandar Lod&iacute; (1488-1518)
+reduced them to some form of submission, but his successor, Ibrah&iacute;m,
+drove them into opposition by pushing authority further than his power
+justified. An Afgh&aacute;n noble, Daulat Kh&aacute;n, rebelled in the Panj&aacute;b. There
+is always an ear at K&aacute;bul listening to the first sounds of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> discord and
+weakness between Pesh&aacute;war and Delhi. B&aacute;bar, a descendant of Tim&uacute;r, ruled
+a little kingdom there. In 1519 he advanced as far as Bhera. Five years
+later his troops burned the Lahore <i>baz&aacute;r</i>, and sacked Dip&aacute;lpur. The
+next winter saw B&aacute;bar back again, and this time Delhi was his goal. On
+the 21st of April, 1526, a great battle at P&aacute;nipat again decided the
+fate of India, and B&aacute;bar entered Delhi in triumph.</p>
+
+<p><b>Akbar and his successors.</b>&mdash;He soon bequeathed his Indian kingdom to his
+son Hum&aacute;yun, who lost it, but recovered it shortly before his death by
+defeating Sikandar Sur at Sirhind. In 1556 Akbar succeeded at the age of
+13, and in the same year Bahram Kh&aacute;n won for his master a great battle
+at P&aacute;nipat and seated the Moghals firmly on the throne. For the next
+century and a half, till their power declined after the death of
+Aurangzeb in 1707, K&aacute;bul and Delhi were under one rule, and the Panj&aacute;b
+was held in a strong grasp. When it was disturbed the cause was
+rebellions of undutiful sons of the reigning Emperor, struggles between
+rival heirs on the Emperor's death, or attempts to check the growing
+power of the Sikh Gurus. The empire was divided into <i>s&uacute;bahs</i>, and the
+area described in this book embraced <i>s&uacute;bahs</i> Lahore and Mult&aacute;n, and
+parts of <i>s&uacute;bahs</i> Delhi and K&aacute;bul. Kashm&iacute;r and the trans-Indus tract
+were included in the last.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Sult&aacute;ns of Kashm&iacute;r.</b>&mdash;The Hindu rule in Kashm&iacute;r had broken down by
+the middle of the twelfth century. A long line of Musalm&aacute;n Sult&aacute;ns
+followed. Two notable names emerge in the end of the fourteenth and the
+first half of the fifteenth century, Sikandar, the "Idol-breaker," who
+destroyed most of the Hindu temples and converted his people to Isl&aacute;m,
+and his wise and tolerant successor, Zain-ul-&aacute;bid&iacute;n. Akbar conquered
+Kashm&iacute;r in 1587.</p>
+
+<p><b>Moghal Royal Progresses to Kashm&iacute;r.</b>&mdash;His successors often moved from
+Delhi by Lahore, Bhimbar, and the P&iacute;r<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> Panj&aacute;l route to the Happy Valley
+in order to escape the summer heats. Bernier has given us a graphic
+account of Aurangzeb's move to the hills in 1665. On that occasion his
+total following was estimated to amount to 300,000 or 400,000 persons,
+and the journey from Delhi to Lahore occupied two months. The burden
+royal progresses on this scale must have imposed on the country is
+inconceivable. Jah&aacute;ng&iacute;r died in his beloved Kashm&iacute;r. He planted the road
+from Delhi to Lahore with trees, set up as milestones the <i>kos min&aacute;rs</i>,
+some of which are still standing, and built fine <i>sarais</i> at various
+places.</p>
+
+<p><b>Prosperity of Lahore under Akbar, Jah&aacute;ng&iacute;r, and Sh&aacute;hjah&aacute;n.</b>&mdash;The reigns
+of Akbar and of his son and grandson were the heyday of Lahore. It was
+the halfway house between Delhi and Kashm&iacute;r, and between Agra and K&aacute;bul.
+The Moghal Court was often there. Akbar made the city his headquarters
+from 1584 to 1598. Jah&aacute;ng&iacute;r was buried and Sh&aacute;hjah&aacute;n was born at Lahore.
+The mausoleum of the former is at Sh&aacute;hdara, a mile or two from the city.
+Sh&aacute;hjah&aacute;n made the Sh&aacute;lim&aacute;r garden, and Ali Mard&aacute;n Kh&aacute;n's Canal, the
+predecessor of our own Upper B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b Canal, was partly designed to
+water it. Lahore retained its importance under Aurangzeb, till he became
+enmeshed in the endless Deccan wars, and his successor, Bah&aacute;dur Shah,
+died there in 1712.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>B&aacute;ba N&aacute;nak, the first Guru.</b>&mdash;According to Sikh legend B&aacute;bar in one of
+his invasions had among his prisoners their first Guru, B&aacute;ba N&aacute;nak, and
+tried to make him a Musalm&aacute;n. N&aacute;nak was born in 1469 at Talwand&iacute;, now
+known as Nank&aacute;na S&aacute;hib, 30 miles to the south-west of Lahore, and died
+twelve years after B&aacute;bar's victory at P&aacute;nipat. He journeyed all over
+India, and, if legend speaks true, even visited Mecca. His propaganda
+was a peaceful one. A man of the people himself, he had a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> message to
+deliver to a peasantry naturally impatient of the shackles of orthodox
+Hinduism. Sikhism is the most important of all the later dissents from
+Brahmanism, which represent revolts against idolatry, priestly
+domination, and the bondage of caste and ritual. These things N&aacute;nak
+unhesitatingly condemned, and in the opening lines of his Japj&iacute;, the
+morning service which every true Sikh must know by heart, he asserted in
+sublime language the unity of God.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 428px;">
+<a name="fig59" id="fig59"></a>
+<img src="images/img059.jpg" width="428" height="600" alt="Fig. 59. B&aacute;ba N&aacute;nak and the Musician Mard&aacute;na." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 59. B&aacute;ba N&aacute;nak and the Musician Mard&aacute;na.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>The Gurus between N&aacute;nak and Govind.</b>&mdash;The first three successors of N&aacute;nak
+led the quiet lives of great eastern saints. They managed to keep on
+good terms with the Emperor and generally also with his local
+representatives. The fifth Guru, Arjan (1581-1606), began the welding of
+the Sikhs into a body fit to play a part in secular politics. He
+compiled their sacred book, known as the <i>Granth S&aacute;hib</i>, and made
+Amritsar the permanent centre of their faith. The tenets of these early
+Gurus chimed in with the liberal sentiments of Akbar, and he treated
+them kindly. Arjan was accused of helping Khusru, Jah&aacute;ng&iacute;r's rebellious
+son, and is alleged to have died after suffering cruel tortures.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto there had been little ill-will between monotheistic Sikhs and
+Muhammadans. Henceforth there was ever-increasing enmity. The peasant
+converts to the new creed had many scores against Turk officials to pay
+off, while the new leader Hargovind (1606-1645), had the motive of
+revenge. He was a Guru of a new type, a lover of horses and hawks, and a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>
+man of war. He kept up a bodyguard, and, when danger threatened, armed
+followers flocked to his standard. The easy-going Jah&aacute;ng&iacute;r (1605-1627)
+on the whole treated him well. Sh&aacute;hjah&aacute;n (1627-1659) was more strict or
+less prudent, and during his reign there were several collisions between
+the imperial troops and the Guru's followers. Hargovind<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> was succeeded
+by his grandson, Har Rai (1645-1661). The new Guru was a man of peace.
+Har Rai died in 1661, having nominated his younger son, Harkrishn, a
+child of six, as his successor. His brother, R&aacute;m Rai, disputed his
+claim, but Aurangzeb confirmed Harkrishn's appointment. He died of small
+pox in 1664 and was succeeded by his uncle, Teg Bah&aacute;dur (1664-1675),
+whose chief titles to fame are his execution in 1675, his prophecy of
+the coming of the English, and the fact that he was the father of the
+great tenth Guru, Govind. It is said that when in prison at Delhi he
+gazed southwards one day in the direction of the Emperor's <i>zan&aacute;na</i>.
+Charged with this impropriety, he replied: "I was looking in the
+direction of the Europeans, who are coming to tear down thy <i>pardas</i> and
+destroy thine empire."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 429px;">
+<a name="fig60" id="fig60"></a>
+<img src="images/img060.jpg" width="429" height="600" alt="Fig. 60. Guru Govind Singh." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 60. Guru Govind Singh.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Guru Govind Singh.</b>&mdash;When Govind (1675-1708) succeeded his father,
+Aurangzeb had already started on the course of persecution which fatally
+weakened the pillars of Turkish rule. Govind grew up with a rooted
+hatred of the Turks, and a determination to weld his followers into a
+league of fighting men or <i>Kh&aacute;lsa</i> (Ar. <i>kh&aacute;lis</i> = pure), admission into
+which was by the <i>pahul</i>, a form of military baptism. Sikhs were
+henceforth to be <i>Singhs</i> (lions). They were forbidden to smoke, and
+enjoined to wear the five k's, <i>kes</i>, <i>kangha</i>, <i>kripan</i>, <i>kachh</i>, and
+<i>kara</i> (uncut hair, comb, sword, short drawers, and steel bracelet). He
+established himself at Anandpur beyond the Hoshy&aacute;rpur Siw&aacute;liks. Much of
+his life was spent in struggles with his neighbours, the R&aacute;jput Hill
+R&aacute;jas, backed from time to time by detachments of imperial troops from
+Sirhind. In 1705 two of his sons were killed fighting and two young
+grandsons were executed at Sirhind. He himself took refuge to the south
+of the Sutlej, but finally decided to obey a summons from Aurangzeb, and
+was on the way to the Deccan when the old Emperor died. The Guru<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> took
+up his residence on the banks of the God&aacute;var&iacute;, and died there in 1708.</p>
+
+<p><b>B&aacute;nda.</b>&mdash;Before his death he had converted the Hindu ascetic B&aacute;nda, and
+sent him forth on a mission of revenge. B&aacute;nda defeated and slew the
+governor of Sirhind, Waz&iacute;r Kh&aacute;n, and sacked the town. Doubtless he
+dreamed of making himself Guru. But he was really little more than a
+condottiere, and his orthodoxy was suspect. He was defeated and captured
+in 1715 at Gurd&aacute;spur. Many of his followers were executed and he himself
+was tortured to death at Delhi, where the members of an English mission
+saw a ghastly procession of Sikh prisoners with 2000 heads carried on
+poles. The blow was severe, and for a generation little was heard of the
+Sikhs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Invasions of N&aacute;dir Sh&aacute;h and Ahmad Sh&aacute;h.</b>&mdash;The central power was weak, and
+a new era of invasions from the west began. N&aacute;dir Sh&aacute;h, the Turkman
+shepherd, who had made himself master of Persia, advanced through the
+Panj&aacute;b. Zakaria Kh&aacute;n, the governor of Lahore, submitted and the town was
+saved from sack. A victory at Karn&aacute;l left the road to Delhi open, and in
+March, 1738, the Persians occupied the capital. A shot fired at N&aacute;dir
+Sh&aacute;h in the Ch&aacute;ndn&iacute; Chauk led to the nine hours' massacre, when the
+Dar&iacute;ba ran with blood, and 100,000 citizens are said to have perished.
+The Persians retired laden with booty, including the peacock throne and
+the Kohinur diamond. The Sikhs harassed detachments of the army on its
+homeward march. N&aacute;dir Sh&aacute;h was murdered nine years later, and his power
+passed to the Afgh&aacute;n leader, the Dur&aacute;n&iacute; Ahmad Sh&aacute;h.</p>
+
+<p>Between 1748 and 1767 this remarkable man, who could conquer but could
+not keep, invaded India eight times. Lahore was occupied in 1748, but at
+Sirhind the skill of M&iacute;r Mannu, called Mu&iacute;n ul Mulk, gave the advantage
+to the Moghals. Ahmad Sh&aacute;h retreated, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> Mu&iacute;n ul Mulk was rewarded
+with the governorship of the Panj&aacute;b. He was soon forced to cede to the
+Afgh&aacute;n the revenue of four districts. His failure to fulfil his compact
+led to a third invasion in 1752, and Mu&iacute;n ul Mulk, after a gallant
+defence of Lahore, had to submit. In 1755-56 Ahmad Sh&aacute;h plundered Delhi
+and then retired, leaving his son, Tim&uacute;r, to represent him at Lahore.
+Meanwhile the Sikhs had been gathering strength. Then, as now, they
+formed only a fraction of the population. But they were united by a
+strong hatred of Muhammadan rule, and in the disorganized state of the
+country even the loose organization described below made them
+formidable. Owing to the weakness of the government the Panj&aacute;b became
+dotted over with forts, built by local chiefs, who undoubtedly lived
+largely by plunder. The spiritual organization under a Guru being gone,
+there gradually grew up a political and military organization into
+twelve <i>misls</i>, in which "a number of chiefs agreed, after a somewhat
+democratic and equal fashion, to fight under the general orders of some
+powerful leader" against the hated Muhammadans. The <i>misls</i> often fought
+with one another for a change. In the third quarter of the eighteenth
+century <i>Sard&aacute;r</i> Jassa Singh of Kap&uacute;rthala, head of the Ahluw&aacute;lia
+<i>misl</i>, was the leading man among the Sikhs. Tim&uacute;r having defiled the
+tank at Amritsar, Jassa Singh avenged the insult by occupying Lahore in
+1756, and the Afgh&aacute;n prince withdrew across the Indus. Ad&iacute;na Beg, the
+governor of the Jalandhar Do&aacute;b, called in the Mahrattas, who drove the
+Sikhs out in 1758. Ahmad Sh&aacute;h's fifth invasion in 1761 was rendered
+memorable by his great victory over the Mahratta confederacy at P&aacute;nipat.
+When he returned to K&aacute;bul, the Sikhs besieged his governor, Z&iacute;n Kh&aacute;n, in
+Sirhind. Next year Ahmad Sh&aacute;h returned, and repaid their audacity by a
+crushing defeat near Barn&aacute;la.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>They soon rallied, and, in 1763, under Jassa Singh Ahluw&aacute;lia and R&aacute;ja
+Ala Singh of Pati&aacute;la razed Sirhind to the ground. After the sack the
+Sikh horsemen rode over the plains between Sirhind and Karn&aacute;l, each man
+claiming for his own any village into which in passing he had thrown
+some portion of his garments. This was the origin of the numerous petty
+chiefships and confederacies of horsemen, which, along with the Phulkian
+States, the British Government took under its protection in 1808. In
+1764 the chiefs of the Bhang&iacute; <i>misl</i> occupied Lahore.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX</h2>
+
+<h3>HISTORY (<i>continued</i>). THE SIKH PERIOD, 1764-1849 A.D.</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Rise of Ranj&iacute;t Singh.</b>&mdash;The Bhang&iacute;s held Lahore with brief intervals for
+25 years. In 1799, Ranj&iacute;t Singh, basing his claim on a grant from Sh&aacute;h
+Zam&aacute;n, the grandson of Ahmad Sh&aacute;h, drove them out, and inaugurated the
+remarkable career which ended with his death in 1839. When he took
+Lahore the future Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja was only nineteen years of age. He was the
+head of the Sukarchakia <i>misl</i>, which had its headquarters at
+Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la. Mean in appearance, his face marked and one eye closed by
+the ravages of smallpox, he was the one man of genius the Jat tribe has
+produced. A splendid horseman, a bold leader, a cool thinker untroubled
+with scruples, an unerring judge of character, he was bound to rise in
+such times. He set himself to put down every Sikh rival and to profit by
+the waning of the Dur&aacute;n&iacute; power to make himself master of their
+possessions in the Panj&aacute;b. Pluck, patience, and guile broke down all
+opposition among the M&aacute;njha Sikhs. The Sikh chiefs to the south of the
+Sutlej were only saved from the same fate by throwing themselves in 1808
+on the protection of the English, who six years earlier had occupied
+Delhi, and by taking under their protection the blind old Emperor, Sh&aacute;h
+&Aacute;lam, had virtually proclaimed themselves the paramount power in India.
+For 44 years he had been only a piece in the game played by Mahrattas,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>
+Rohillas, and the English in alliance with the Naw&aacute;b Waz&iacute;r of Oudh.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;">
+<a name="fig61" id="fig61"></a>
+<img src="images/fig061.jpg" width="401" height="600" alt="Fig. 61. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Ranj&iacute;t Singh." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 61. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Ranj&iacute;t Singh.<br />(<i>From a picture book said to have been prepared for Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Dal&iacute;p
+Singh.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>British supremacy established in India.</b>&mdash;In the first years of the
+nineteenth century the Marquess of Wellesley had made up his mind that
+the time was ripe to grasp supreme power in India. The motive was
+largely self-preservation. India was included in Napoleon's vast plans
+for the overthrow of England, and Sindhia, with his army trained in
+European methods of warfare by French officers, seemed a likely
+confederate. Colonel Arthur Wellesley's hard-won battle at Assaye in
+September, 1803, and Lord Lake's victories on the Hindan and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> at Lasw&aacute;r&iacute;
+in the same year, decided the fate of India. Delhi was occupied, and
+Daulat Rao Sindhia ceded to the company territory reaching from F&aacute;zilka
+on the Sutlej to Delhi on the Jamna, and extending along that river
+northwards to Karn&aacute;l and southwards to Mew&aacute;t. F&aacute;zilka and a large part
+of Hiss&aacute;r then formed a wild desert tract called Bhatti&aacute;na, over which
+no effective control was exercised till 1818. In 1832 "the Delhi
+territory" became part of the North-West Provinces, from which it was
+transferred to the Panj&aacute;b after the Mutiny.</p>
+
+<p><b>Relations of Ranj&iacute;t Singh with English.</b>&mdash;In December, 1808, Ranj&iacute;t Singh
+was warned that by the issue of the war with Sindhia the Cis-Sutlej
+chiefs had come under British protection. The Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja was within an ace
+of declaring war, or let the world think so, but his statesmanlike
+instincts got the better of mortified ambition, and in April, 1809, he
+signed a treaty pledging himself to make no conquests south and east of
+the Sutlej. The compact so reluctantly made was faithfully observed. In
+1815, as the result of war with the Gurkhas, the R&aacute;jput hill states
+lying to the south of the Sutlej came under British protection.</p>
+
+<p><b>Extension of Sikh Kingdom in Panj&aacute;b.</b>&mdash;As early as 1806, when he reduced
+Jhang, Ranj&iacute;t Singh began his encroachments on the possessions of the
+Dur&aacute;n&iacute;s in the Panj&aacute;b. Next year, and again in 1810 and 1816, Mult&aacute;n was
+attacked, but the strong fort was not taken till 1818, when the old
+Naw&aacute;b, Muzaffar Kh&aacute;n, and five of his sons, fell fighting at the gate.
+Kashm&iacute;r was first attacked in 1811 and finally annexed in 1819. Called
+in by the great Katoch R&aacute;ja of K&aacute;ngra, Sans&aacute;r Chand, in 1809, to help
+him against the Gurkhas, Ranj&iacute;t Singh duped both parties, and became
+master of the famous fort. Many years later he annexed the whole of the
+K&aacute;ngra hill states. By 1820 the Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja was supreme from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> Sutlej to
+the Indus, though his hold on Haz&aacute;ra was weak. Pesh&aacute;war became tributary
+in 1823, but it was kept in subjection with much difficulty. Across the
+Indus the position of the Sikhs was always precarious, and revenue was
+only paid when an armed force could be sent to collect it. As late as
+1837 the great Sikh leader, Har&iacute; Singh Nalwa, fell fighting with the
+Afgh&aacute;ns at Jamr&uacute;d. The Barakzai, Dost Muhammad, had been the ruler of
+K&aacute;bul since 1826. In 1838, when the English launched their ill-starred
+expedition to restore Sh&aacute;h Shuja to his throne, Ranj&iacute;t Singh did not
+refuse his help in the passage through the Panj&aacute;b. But he was worn out
+by toils and excesses, and next year the weary lion of the Panj&aacute;b died.
+He had known how to use men. He employed Jat blades and Brahman and
+Muhammadan brains. Khatr&iacute;s put both at his service. The best of his
+local governors was Diw&aacute;n S&aacute;wan Mal, who ruled the South-West Panj&aacute;b
+with much profit to himself and to the people. After 1820 the three
+Jammu brothers, R&aacute;jas Dhi&aacute;n Singh, Suchet Singh, and Gul&aacute;b Singh, had
+great power.</p>
+
+<p><b>Successors of Ranj&iacute;t Singh.</b>&mdash;From 1839 till 1846 an orgy of bloodshed
+and intrigue went on in Lahore. Kharak Singh, the Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja's son, died
+in 1840, and on the same day occurred the death of his son Nao Nih&aacute;l
+Singh, compassed probably by the Jammu R&aacute;jas. Sher Singh, and then the
+child, Dal&iacute;p Singh, succeeded. In September, 1843, Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Sher Singh,
+his son Part&aacute;b Singh, and R&aacute;ja Dhi&aacute;n Singh were shot by Aj&iacute;t Singh and
+Lehna Singh of the great Sindhanw&aacute;lia house. The death of Dhi&aacute;n Singh
+was avenged by his son, H&iacute;ra Singh, who proclaimed Dal&iacute;p Singh as
+Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja and made himself chief minister. When he in turn was killed
+R&aacute;n&iacute; Jindan, the mother of Dal&iacute;p Singh, her brother Jow&aacute;hir Singh, and
+her favourite, L&aacute;l Singh, took the reins.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="fig62" id="fig62"></a>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 271px;">
+<img src="images/img062.jpg" width="271" height="400" alt="Fig. 62. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Kharak Singh." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 62. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Kharak Singh.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig63" id="fig63"></a>
+<img src="images/img063.jpg" width="300" height="400" alt="Fig. 63. Nao Nih&aacute;l Singh." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 63. Nao Nih&aacute;l Singh.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 261px;">
+<a name="fig64" id="fig64"></a>
+<img src="images/img064.jpg" width="261" height="400" alt="Fig. 64. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Sher Singh." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 64. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Sher Singh.<br />(<i>From a picture book said to have been prepared for Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Dal&iacute;p
+Singh.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>The First Sikh War and its results.</b>&mdash;In 1845 these intriguers, fearing
+the <i>Kh&aacute;lsa</i> army which they could not control, yielded to its cry to be
+led across the Sutlej in the hope that its strength would be broken in
+its conflict with the Company's forces. The valour displayed by the Sikh
+soldiery on the fields of Mudk&iacute;, Ferozesh&aacute;h (Pherushahr), and Sobr&aacute;on
+was rendered useless by the treachery of its rulers, and Lahore was
+occupied in February, 1846. By the treaty signed on 9th March, 1846, the
+Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja ceded the territories in the plains between the Sutlej and
+Bi&aacute;s, and in the hills between the Bi&aacute;s and the Indus. Kashm&iacute;r and
+Haz&aacute;ra were made over by the Company to R&aacute;ja Gul&aacute;b Singh for a payment
+of 75 lakhs, but next year he induced the Lahore Darb&aacute;r to take over
+Haz&aacute;ra and give him Jammu in exchange. After R&aacute;ja L&aacute;l Singh had been
+banished for instigating Shekh Im&aacute;m ud din to resist the occupation of
+Kashm&iacute;r by Gul&aacute;b Singh, an agreement was executed, in December, 1846,
+between the Government and the chief Sikh <i>Sard&aacute;rs</i> by which a Council
+of Regency was appointed to be controlled by a British Resident at
+Lahore. The office was given to Henry Lawrence.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Second Sikh War.</b>&mdash;These arrangements were destined to be
+short-lived. Diw&aacute;n S&aacute;wan Mal's son, Mulr&aacute;j, mismanaged Mult&aacute;n and was
+ordered to resign. In April, 1848, two English officers sent to instal
+his Sikh successor were murdered. Herbert Edwardes, with the help of
+Muhammadan tribesmen and Bah&aacute;walpur troops, shut up Mulr&aacute;j in Mult&aacute;n,
+but the fort was too strong for the first British regular force, which
+arrived in August, and it did not fall till January, 1849. During that
+winter a formidable Sikh revolt against English domination broke out.
+Its leader was <i>Sard&aacute;r</i> Chatar Singh, Governor of Haz&aacute;ra. The troops
+sent by the <i>Darb&aacute;r</i> to Mult&aacute;n under Chatar Singh's son, Sher Singh,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
+marched northwards in September to join their co-religionists.</p>
+
+<p>On the 13th of January, 1849, Lord Gough fought a very hardly contested
+battle at Chilianw&aacute;la. If this was but a doubtful victory, that won six
+weeks later at Gujr&aacute;t was decisive. On 12th March, 1849, the soldiers of
+the <i>Kh&aacute;lsa</i> in proud dejection laid down their weapons at the feet of
+the victor, and dispersed to their homes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig65" id="fig65"></a>
+<img src="images/img065.jpg" width="600" height="564" alt="" title="" />
+
+<span class="caption">Fig. 65. Zamzama Gun<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Annexation.</b>&mdash;The cause they represented was in no sense a national one.
+The Sikhs were a small minority of the population, the bulk of the
+people being Muhammadans, to whom the English came as deliverers. On the
+30th of March, 1849, the proclamation annexing the Panj&aacute;b was read at
+Lahore.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX</h2>
+
+<h3>HISTORY (<i>continued</i>). THE BRITISH PERIOD, 1849-1913</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Administrative Arrangements in Panj&aacute;b.</b>&mdash;Lord Dalhousie put the
+government of the province under a Board of Administration consisting of
+the two Lawrences, Henry and John, and Charles Mansel. The Board was
+abolished in 1853 and its powers vested in a Chief Commissioner. A
+Revenue or Financial Commissioner and a Judicial Commissioner were his
+principal subordinates. John Lawrence, the first and only Chief
+Commissioner of the Panj&aacute;b, became its first Lieutenant-Governor on the
+1st of January, 1859. The raising of the Panj&aacute;b to the full rank of an
+Indian province was the fitting reward of the great part which its
+people and its officers, with their cool-headed and determined chief,
+had played in the suppression of the Mutiny. The overthrow of the
+<i>Kh&aacute;lsa</i> left the contending parties with the respect which strong men
+feel for each other; the services of the Sikhs in 1857 healed their
+wounded pride and removed all soreness.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 480px;">
+<a name="fig66" id="fig66"></a>
+<img src="images/img066.jpg" width="480" height="600" alt="Fig. 66. Sir John Lawrence." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 66. Sir John Lawrence.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Administration, 1849-1859.</b>&mdash;When John Lawrence laid down his office in
+the end of February, 1859, ten years of work by himself and the able
+officers drafted by Lord Dalhousie into the new province had established
+order on a solid foundation. A strong administration suited to a manly
+and headstrong people had been organised. In the greater part of the
+province rights in land had been determined and recorded. The principle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
+of a moderate assessment of the land revenue had been laid down and
+partially carried out in practice. The policy of canal and railway
+development, which was to have so great a future in the Panj&aacute;b, had been
+definitely started. The province had been divided into nine divisions
+containing 33 districts. The Divisional Commissioners were
+superintendents of revenue and police<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> with power to try the gravest
+criminal offences and to hear appeals in civil cases. The Deputy
+Commissioner of districts had large civil, criminal, and fiscal powers.
+A simple criminal and civil code was enforced. The peace of the frontier
+was secured by a chain of fortified outposts watching the outlets from
+the hills, behind which were the cantonments at the headquarters of the
+districts linked together by a military road. The posts and the
+cantonments except Pesh&aacute;war were garrisoned by the Frontier Force, a
+splendid body of troops consisting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> ultimately of seven infantry and
+five cavalry regiments, with some mule batteries. This force was till
+1885 subject to the orders of the Lieutenant Governor. It never wanted
+work, for before the Mutiny troops had to be employed seventeen times
+against the independent tribesmen. East of the Indus order was secured
+by the disarmament of the people, the maintenance, in addition to civil
+police, of a strong body of military police, and the construction of
+good roads. Just before Lawrence left the construction of the
+Amritsar-Mult&aacute;n railway was begun, and a few weeks after his departure
+the Upper B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b Canal was opened.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 435px;">
+<a name="fig67" id="fig67"></a>
+<img src="images/img067.jpg" width="435" height="600" alt="Fig. 67. John Nicolson&#39;s Monument at Delhi." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 67. John Nicolson&#39;s Monument at Delhi.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Administration, 1859-1870.</b>&mdash;The next eleven years occupied by the
+administrations of Sir Robert Montgomery and Sir Donald Macleod were a
+quiet time in which results already achieved were consolidated. The
+Penal Code was extended to the Panj&aacute;b in 1862, and a Chief Court with a
+modest establishment of two judges in 1865 took the place of the
+Judicial Commissioner. In the same year a Settlement Commissioner was
+appointed to help the Financial Commissioner in the control of land
+revenue settlements. Two severe famines marked the beginning and the
+close of this period. Omitting the usual little frontier excitements, it
+is necessary to mention the troublesome Ambela campaign in 1863 in the
+country north of Pesh&aacute;war, which had for its object the breaking up of
+the power of a nest of Hindust&aacute;n&iacute; fanatics, and the Black Mountain
+expedition, in 1868, on the Haz&aacute;ra border, in which no fewer than 15,000
+men were employed. Sir Henry Durand, who succeeded Sir Donald Macleod,
+after seven months of office lost his life by an accident in the
+beginning of 1871.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 498px;">
+<a name="fig68" id="fig68"></a>
+<img src="images/img068.jpg" width="498" height="600" alt="Fig. 68. Sir Robert Montgomery." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 68. Sir Robert Montgomery.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Administration, 1871-1882.</b>&mdash;The next eleven years divided between the
+administrations of Sir Henry Davies (1871-1877) and Sir Robert Egerton
+(1877-1882) produced more striking events. In 1872 a small body of
+fanatics belonging to a Sikh sect known as K&uacute;kas or Shouters marched
+from the Ludhi&aacute;na district and attacked the headquarters of the little
+Muhammadan State of Malerkotla. They were repulsed and 68 men
+surrendered to the Pati&aacute;la authorities. The Deputy Commissioner of
+Ludhi&aacute;na blew 49 of them from the guns, and the rest were executed after
+summary trial by the Commissioner. Such strong measures were not
+approved by the Government, but it must be remembered that these madmen
+had killed ten and wounded seventeen men, and that their lives were
+justly forfeit. On the 1st of January,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> 1877, Queen Victoria's
+assumption of the title of Empress of India (<i>Kaisar-i-Hind</i>) was
+announced at a great <i>Darb&aacute;r</i> at Delhi. In 1877 Kashm&iacute;r, hitherto
+controlled by the Lieutenant-Governor, was put directly under the
+Government of India. The same year and the next the province was tried
+by famine, and in 1878-80 it was the base from which our armies marched
+on K&aacute;bul and Kandah&aacute;r, while its resources in camels were strained to
+supply transport. Apart from this its interest in the war was very great
+because it is the chief recruiting ground of the Indian army and its
+chiefs sent contingents to help their suzerain. The first stage of the
+war was closed by the treaty of Gandamak in May, 1879, by which Yak&uacute;b<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>
+Kh&aacute;n surrendered any rights he possessed over Khaibar and the Kurram as
+far as Shutargardan.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig69" id="fig69"></a>
+<img src="images/img069.jpg" width="600" height="588" alt="Fig. 69. Panj&aacute;b Camels&mdash;Lahore." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 69. Panj&aacute;b Camels&mdash;Lahore.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Administration, 1882-1892.</b>&mdash;During the Lieutenant-Governorships of Sir
+Charles Aitchison (1882-1887) and Sir James Lyall (1887-1892) there was
+little trouble on the western frontier. In 1891 the need had arisen of
+making our power felt up to the Pam&iacute;rs. The setting up of a British
+agency at Gilgit was opposed in 1891 by the fighting men of Hunza and
+Nagar. Colonel Durand advanced rapidly with a small force and when a
+determined assault reduced the strong fort of Nilt,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> trouble was at an
+end once and for all. Within the Panj&aacute;b the period was one of quiet
+development. The Sirhind Canal was opened in 1882, and the weir at
+Kh&aacute;nk&iacute; for the supply of the Lower Chen&aacute;b Canal was finished in 1892.
+New railways were constructed. Lord Ripon's policy of Local
+Self-government found a strong supporter in Sir Charles Aitchison, and
+Acts were passed dealing with the constitution and powers of municipal
+committees and district boards. In 1884 and 1885 a large measure of
+reorganization was carried out. A separate staff of divisional,
+district, and subordinate civil judges was appointed. The divisional
+judges were also sessions judges. The ten commissioners were reduced to
+six, and five of them were relieved of all criminal work by the sessions
+judges. The Deputy Commissioner henceforth was a Revenue Collector and
+District Magistrate with large powers in criminal cases. The revenue
+administration was at the same time being improved by the reforms
+embodied in the Panj&aacute;b Land Revenue and Tenancy Acts passed at the
+beginning of Sir James Lyall's administration.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 448px;">
+<a name="fig70" id="fig70"></a>
+<img src="images/img070.jpg" width="448" height="600" alt="Fig. 70. Sir Charles Aitchison." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 70. Sir Charles Aitchison.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Administration, 1892-1902.</b>&mdash;The next two administrations, those of Sir
+Dennis Fitzpatrick (1892-97) and Sir Mackworth Young (1897-1902) were
+crowded with important events. Throughout the period the colonization of
+the vast area of waste commanded by the Lower Chen&aacute;b Canal was carried
+out, and the Lower Jhelam Canal was formally opened six months before
+Sir Mackworth Young left. The province suffered from famine in 1896-97
+and again in 1899-1900. In October, 1897, a worse enemy appeared in the
+shape of plague, but its ravages were not very formidable till the end
+of the period. The Panj&aacute;b was given a small nominated Legislative
+Council in 1897, which speedily proved itself a valuable instrument for
+dealing with much-needed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> provincial legislation. But the most important
+Panj&aacute;b Act of the period, XIII of 1900, dealing with Land Alienation was
+passed by the Viceroy's Legislative Council. In 1901 a Political Agent
+was appointed as the intermediary between the Panj&aacute;b Government and the
+Phulkian States. On the frontier the conclusion of the Durand Agreement
+in 1893 might well have raised hopes of quiet times. But the reality was
+otherwise. The establishment of a British officer at W&aacute;na to exercise
+control over Southern Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n in 1894 was forcibly resisted by the
+Mahs&uacute;d Waz&iacute;rs, and an expedition had to be sent into their country. The
+Mehtar or Chief of Chitr&aacute;l, who was in receipt of a subsidy from the
+British Government, died in 1892. A period of great confusion followed
+fomented by the ambitions of Umra Kh&aacute;n of Jandol. Finally we recognised
+as Mehtar the eldest son, who had come uppermost in the struggle, and
+sent an English officer as British Agent to Chitr&aacute;l. Umra Kh&aacute;n got our
+prot&eacute;g&eacute; murdered, and besieged the Agent in the Chitr&aacute;l fort. He
+withdrew however on the approach of a small force from Gilgit.
+Shuja-ul-Mulk was recognised as Mehtar. This little trouble occurred in
+1895. Two years later a storm-cloud suddenly burst over the frontier,
+such as we had never before experienced. It spread rapidly from the
+Toch&iacute; to Sw&aacute;t, tribe after tribe rising and attacking our posts. It is
+impossible to tell here the story of the military measures taken against
+the different offending tribes. The most important was the campaign in
+Tirah against the Orakzais and Afr&iacute;d&iacute;s, in which 30,000 men were engaged
+for six months. In 1900 attacks on the peace of the border by the Mahs&uacute;d
+Waz&iacute;rs had to be punished by a blockade, and in the cold weather of
+1901-2 small columns harried the hill country to enforce their
+submission. By this time the connection of the Panj&aacute;b Government with
+frontier affairs, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> had gradually come to involve responsibility
+with little real power, had ceased. On the 25th of October, 1901, the
+North-West Frontier Province was constituted and Colonel (afterwards Sir
+Harold) Deane became its first Chief Commissioner, an office which he
+held till 1908, when he was succeeded by Major (now Sir George) Roos
+Keppel.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 458px;">
+<a name="fig71" id="fig71"></a>
+<img src="images/img071.jpg" width="458" height="600" alt="Fig. 71. Sir Denzil Ibbetson." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 71. Sir Denzil Ibbetson.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="fig72" id="fig72"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 325px;">
+<img src="images/img072.jpg" width="325" height="350" alt="Fig. 72. Sir Michael O&#39;Dwyer." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 72. Sir Michael O&#39;Dwyer.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Administration, 1902-1913.</b>&mdash;The last eleven years have embraced the
+Lieutenant Governorship of Sir Charles Rivaz (1902-1907), the too brief
+administration of Sir Denzil Ibbetson (1907-1908), and that of Sir Louis
+Dane (1908-1913). Throughout the period plague has been a disturbing
+factor, preventing entirely the growth of population which the rapid
+development of the agricultural resources of the province would
+otherwise have secured. It was among the causes stimulating the unrest
+which came to a head in 1907. A terrible earthquake occurred in 1905.
+Its centre was in K&aacute;ngra, where 20,000 persons perished under the ruins
+of their houses. The colonization of the Crown waste on the Lower Jhelam
+Canal was nearly finished during Sir Charles Rivaz's administration.
+Before he left the Triple Canal Project, now approaching completion, had
+been undertaken. Other measures of importance to the rural population
+were the passing of the Co-operative Credit Societies' Act in 1903, and
+the organization in 1905 of a provincial Agricultural Department. The
+seditious movement which troubled Bengal had its echo in some parts of
+the Panj&aacute;b in the end of 1906 and the spring of 1907. A bill dealing
+with the rights and obligations of the Crown tenants in the new Canal
+Colonies was at the time before the Local Legislature. Excitement
+fomented from outside spread among the prosperous colonists on the Lower
+Chen&aacute;b Canal. There was a disturbance in Lahore in connection with the
+trial of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> newspaper editor, the ringleaders being students. When Sir
+Denzil Ibbetson took the reins into his strong hands in March, 1907, the
+position was somewhat critical. The disturbance at Lahore was followed
+by a riot at R&aacute;walpind&iacute;. The two leading agitators were deported, a
+measure which was amply justified by their reckless actions and which
+had an immediate effect. Lord Minto decided to withhold his assent from
+the Colony Bill, and it has recently been replaced by a measure which
+has met with general acceptance. When Sir Denzil Ibbetson took office he
+was already suffering from a mortal disease. In the following January he
+gave up the unequal struggle,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> and shortly afterwards died. Sir Louis
+Dane became Lieutenant Governor in May, 1908. A striking feature of his
+administration was the growth of co-operative credit societies or
+village banks. At the Coronation <i>Darb&aacute;r</i> on 12th December, 1911, the
+King-Emperor announced the transfer of the capital of India to Delhi. As
+a necessary consequence the city and its suburbs were severed from the
+province, with which they had been connected for 55 years. In 1913 Sir
+Louis Dane was succeeded by Sir Michael O'Dwyer.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI</h2>
+
+<h3>ARCHAEOLOGY AND COINS</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig73" id="fig73"></a>
+<img src="images/img073.jpg" width="600" height="416" alt="Fig. 73. Group of Chamba Temples." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 73. Group of Chamba Temples.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Hindu and Buddhist Remains.</b>&mdash;The scholar who ended his study of Indian
+history with the close of the first millennium of the Christian era
+would expect to find a fruitful field for the study of ancient monuments
+of the Hindu faith in the plains of the Panj&aacute;b. He would look for a
+great temple of the Sun God at Mult&aacute;n, and at places like Lahore and
+K&aacute;ngra, Thanesar and Pihowa, for shrines rich with graven work outside
+and with treasures of gold and precious stones within. But he would look
+in vain. The Muhammadan invaders of the five centuries which elapsed
+between Mahm&uacute;d of Ghazn&iacute; and the Moghal B&aacute;bar were above all things
+idol-breakers, and their path was marked by the destruction and
+spoliation of temples. Even those invaders who remained as conquerors
+deemed it a pious work to build their mosques with the stones of ruined
+fanes. The transformation, as in the case of the great Kuwwat ul Isl&aacute;m
+mosque beside the Kutb Min&aacute;r, did not always involve the complete
+obliteration of idolatrous emblems. K&aacute;ngra was not too remote to be
+reached by invading armies, and the visitor to Nurpur on the road from
+Path&aacute;nkot to Dharms&aacute;la can realize how magnificent some of the old Hindu
+buildings were, and how utterly they were destroyed. The smaller
+buildings to be found in the remoter parts of the hills escaped, and
+there are characteristic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> groups of stone temples at Chamba and still
+older shrines dating from the eighth century at Barmaur and Chitr&aacute;d&iacute; in
+the same state. The ruins of the great temple of the Sun, built by
+L&aacute;lit&aacute;ditya in the same period, at M&aacute;rtand<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> near Isl&aacute;m&aacute;b&aacute;d in the
+Kashm&iacute;r State are very striking. The smaller, but far better preserved,
+temple at Payer is probably of much later date. Round the pool of Kat&aacute;s,
+one of &#350;iva's eyes, a great place of Hindu pilgrimage in the Salt
+Range, there is little or nothing of antiquarian value, but there are
+interesting remains at Malot in the same neighbourhood. It is possible
+that when the mounds that mark the sites of ancient villages come to be
+excavated valuable relics of the Hindu period will be brought to light.
+The forces of nature or the violence of man have wiped out all traces of
+the numerous Buddhist monasteries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> which the Chinese pilgrims found in
+the Panj&aacute;b. Inscriptions of A&#351;oka? graven on rocks survive at
+Sh&aacute;hb&aacute;zgarh&iacute; and Mansehra in the North-West Frontier Province. Two
+pillars with inscriptions of the Missionary Emperor stand at Delhi. They
+were brought from Topra near the Jamna in Amb&aacute;la and from Meerut by
+Firoz Sh&aacute;h. The traveller by train from Jhelam to R&aacute;walpind&iacute; can see to
+the west of the line at Manki&aacute;la a great <i>st&uacute;pa</i> raised to celebrate the
+self-sacrifice of the Bodhisattva who gave his life to feed a starving
+tigress. There is a ruined <i>st&uacute;pa</i> at Su&iacute; Vih&aacute;r in the Bah&aacute;walpur State.
+The Chinese pilgrims described the largest of Indian <i>st&uacute;pas</i> built by
+Kanishka near Pesh&aacute;war to enshrine precious relics of Gautama Buddha and
+a great monastery<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> beside it. Recent excavations have proved the truth
+of the conjecture that the two mounds at Sh&aacute;hj&iacute; k&iacute; dher&iacute; covered the
+remains of these buildings, and the six-sided crystal reliquary
+containing three small fragments of bone has after long centuries been
+disinterred and is now in the great pagoda at Rangoon. In the Lahore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>
+museum there is a rich collection of the sculptures recovered from the
+Pesh&aacute;war Valley, the ancient Gandh&aacute;ra. They exhibit strong traces of
+Greek influence. The best age of Gandh&aacute;ra sculpture was probably over
+before the reign of Kanishka. The site of the famous town of T&aacute;xila is
+now a protected area, and excavation there may yield a rich reward.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 432px;">
+<a name="fig74" id="fig74"></a>
+<img src="images/img074.jpg" width="432" height="600" alt="Fig. 74. Payer Temple." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 74. Payer Temple.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 391px;">
+<a name="fig75" id="fig75"></a>
+<img src="images/img075.jpg" width="391" height="600" alt="Fig. 75. Reliquary." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 75. Reliquary.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig76" id="fig76"></a>
+<img src="images/img076.jpg" width="600" height="561" alt="Fig. 76. Colonnade in Kuwwat ul Isl&aacute;m Mosque." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 76. Colonnade in Kuwwat ul Isl&aacute;m Mosque.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Muhammadan Architecture.</b>&mdash;The Muhammadan architecture of North-Western
+India may be divided into three periods:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="50%" cellspacing="0" summary="Muhammadan Architecture.">
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>)</td><td align='left'>The Path&aacute;n</td><td align='left'>1191-1320</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>)</td><td align='left'>The Tughlak</td><td align='left'>1320-1556</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>c</i>)</td><td align='left'>The Moghal</td><td align='left'>1556-1753</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 436px;">
+<a name="fig77" id="fig77"></a>
+<img src="images/img077.jpg" width="436" height="600" alt="Fig. 77. Kutb Min&aacute;r." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 77. Kutb Min&aacute;r.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>In the Path&aacute;n period the royal builders drew their inspiration from
+Ghazn&iacute;, but their work was also much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> affected by Hindu influences for
+two reasons. They used the materials of Hindu temples in constructing
+their mosques and they employed masons imbued with the traditions of
+Hindu art. The best specimens of this period are to be found in the
+group of buildings in Old Delhi or <i>Kila' Rai Pithora</i>, close to
+Mahraul&iacute; and eleven miles to the south of the present city. These
+buildings are the magnificent <i>Kuwwat ul Isl&aacute;m</i> (Might of Islam) Mosque
+(1191-1225), with its splendid tower, the <i>Kutb Min&aacute;r</i> (1200-1220), from
+which the <i>mu'azzin</i> called the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> faithful to prayer, the tomb of the
+Emperor Altamsh (1238), and the great gateway built in 1310 by Al&aacute; ud
+d&iacute;n Khalj&iacute;. In the second period, named after the house that occupied
+the imperial throne when it began, all traces of Hindu influence have
+vanished, and the buildings display the austere and massive grandeur
+suited to the faith of the desert prophet unalloyed by foreign elements.
+This style in its beginning is best seen in the cyclopean ruins of
+Tughlak&aacute;b&aacute;d and the tomb of the Emperor Tughlak Sh&aacute;h, and in some
+mosques in and near Delhi. Its latest phase is represented by Sher
+Sh&aacute;h's mosque in the Old Fort or <i>Pur&aacute;na Kila'</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> To some the simple
+grandeur of this style will appeal more strongly than the splendid, but
+at times almost effeminate, beauty of the third period. Noted examples
+of Moghal architecture in the Panj&aacute;b are to be found in Sh&aacute;hjah&aacute;ri's red
+fort<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> palace and <i>Jama' Masjid</i> at New Delhi or Sh&aacute;hjah&aacute;n&aacute;b&aacute;d,
+Hum&aacute;yun's tomb on the road from Delhi to Mahraul&iacute;, the fort palace, the
+B&aacute;dsh&aacute;h&iacute; and Waz&iacute;r Kh&aacute;n's mosques, at Lahore, and Jah&aacute;ng&iacute;r's mausoleum
+at Sh&aacute;hdara. A very late building in this style is the tomb of Naw&aacute;b
+Safdar Jang (1753) near Delhi. A further account of some of the most
+famous Muhammadan buildings will be found in the paragraphs devoted to
+the chief cities of the province. The architecture of the British period
+scarcely deserves notice.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig78" id="fig78"></a>
+<img src="images/img078.jpg" width="600" height="445" alt="Fig. 78. Tomb of Emperor Tughlak Sh&aacute;h." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 78. Tomb of Emperor Tughlak Sh&aacute;h.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig79" id="fig79"></a>
+<img src="images/img079.jpg" width="600" height="380" alt="Fig. 79. Jama Masjid, Delhi." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 79. Jama Masjid, Delhi.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig80" id="fig80"></a>
+<img src="images/img080.jpg" width="600" height="449" alt="Fig. 80. Tomb of Emperor Hum&aacute;yun." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 80. Tomb of Emperor Hum&aacute;yun.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig81" id="fig81"></a>
+<img src="images/img081.jpg" width="600" height="496" alt="Fig. 81. B&aacute;dsh&aacute;h&iacute; Mosque, Lahore." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 81. B&aacute;dsh&aacute;h&iacute; Mosque, Lahore.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Coins.</b>&mdash;Among the most interesting of the archaeological remains are the
+coins which are found in great abundance on the frontier and all over
+the Panj&aacute;b. These take us back through the centuries to times before<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>
+the invasion of India by Alexander, and for the obscure period
+intervening between the Greek occupation of the Frontier and the
+Muhammadan conquest, they are our main source of history. The most
+ancient of the Indian monetary issues are the so-called punch-marked
+coins, some of which were undoubtedly in existence before the Greek
+invasion. Alexander himself left no permanent traces of his progress
+through the Panj&aacute;b and Sindh, but about the year 200 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, Greeks from
+Bactria, an outlying province of the Seleukidan Empire, once more
+appeared on the Indian Frontier, which they effectively occupied for
+more than a century. They struck the well-known Graeco-Bactrian coins;
+the most famous of the Indo-Greek princes were Apollodotos and Menander.
+Towards the close of this dynasty, parts of Sindh and Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n were
+conquered by S&aacute;ka Scythians from Central Asia. They struck what are
+termed the Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins bearing names in
+legible Greek legends&mdash;Manes, Azes, Azilises, Gondophares, Abdagases.
+Both Greeks and S&aacute;kas were overthrown by the Kush&aacute;ns. The extensive gold
+and copper Kush&aacute;n currency, with inscriptions in the Greek script,
+contains the names of Kadphises, Kanishka, Huvishka, and others. In
+addition to the coins of these foreign dynasties, there are the purely
+Indian currencies, e.g. the coins of T&aacute;xila, and those bearing the names
+of such tribes as the Odumbaras, Kunindas, and Yaudheyas. The White Huns
+overthrew the Kush&aacute;n Empire in the fifth century. After their own fall<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>
+in the sixth century, there are more and more debased types of coinage
+such as the ubiquitous <i>Gadhiya paisa</i>, a degraded Sassanian type. In
+the ninth century we again meet with coins bearing distinct names, the
+"bull and horseman" currency of the Hindu kings of K&aacute;bul. We have now
+reached the beginning of the Muhammadan rule in India. Muhammad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> bin
+S&aacute;m was the founder of the first Path&aacute;n dynasty of Delhi, and was
+succeeded by a long line of Sult&aacute;ns. The Path&aacute;n and Moghal coins bear
+Arabic and Persian legends. There were mints at Lahore, Mult&aacute;n,
+H&aacute;fiz&aacute;b&aacute;d, Kalanaur, Deraj&aacute;t, Pesh&aacute;war, Sr&iacute;nagar and Jammu. An issue of
+coins peculiar to the Panj&aacute;b is that of the Sikhs. Their coin legends,
+partly Persian, partly Panj&aacute;b&iacute;, are written in the Persian and Gurm&uacute;kh&iacute;
+scripts. Amongst Sikh mints were Amritsar, Lahore, Mult&aacute;n, Dera,
+Anandgarh, Jhang, and Kashm&iacute;r.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 570px;">
+<a name="fig82" id="fig82"></a>
+<img src="images/img082.jpg" width="570" height="800" alt=" Fig. 82. Coins." title="" />
+<span class="caption"> Fig. 82. Coins.</span>
+<h4>1. Silver punch-marked coin. 2. Drachma of Sophytes (Panj&aacute;b Satrap about
+time of Alexander). 3. Hemidrachma of Azes. 4. Copper coin of T&aacute;xila. 5.
+Silver Kuninda coin. 6. Stater of Wema Kadphises. 7. Stater of Kanishka.
+8. Later Kush&aacute;n stater. 9. White Hun silver piece. 10. Gadhiya <i>paisa</i>.
+11. Silver coin of Spalapat&iacute; Deva, Hindu King of K&aacute;bul.</h4>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a>CHAPTER XXII</h2>
+
+<h3>ADMINISTRATION&mdash;GENERAL</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Panj&aacute;b Districts.</b>&mdash;The administrative unit in the Panj&aacute;b is the district
+in charge of a Deputy Commissioner. The districts are divided into
+<i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, each on the average containing four, and are grouped together
+in divisions managed by Commissioners. There are 28 districts and five
+divisions. An ordinary Panj&aacute;b district has an area of 2000 to 3000
+square miles and contains from 1000 to 2000 village estates. Devon, the
+third in size of the English counties, is about equal to an average
+Panj&aacute;b district.</p>
+
+<p><b>Branches of Administration.</b>&mdash;The provincial governments of India are
+organized in three branches, Executive, Judicial, and Revenue, and a
+number of special departments, such as Forests and Irrigation. Under
+"Judicial" there are two subdivisions, civil and criminal. The tendency
+at first is for powers in all three branches to be concentrated in the
+hands of single individuals, development tends to specialization, but it
+is a matter of controversy how far the separation of executive and
+magisterial functions can be carried without jeopardy to the common
+weal.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Lieutenant Governor.</b>&mdash;At the head of the whole administration is the
+Lieutenant Governor, who holds office for five years. He has a strong
+Secretariat to help in the dispatch of business. The experiment of
+governing the Panj&aacute;b by a Board was speedily given up, and for sixty
+years it has enjoyed the advantage of one man government, the Lieutenant
+Governor controlling all subordinate authorities and being himself only
+controlled<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> by the Governor General in Council. The independence of the
+Courts in the exercise of judicial functions is of course safeguarded.</p>
+
+<p><b>Official hierarchy.</b>&mdash;The following is a list of the official hierarchy
+in the different branches of the administration:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="50%" cellspacing="0" summary="Official hierarchy.">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>A.</i></td><td align='left'>Lieutenant Governor.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>B.</i></td><td align='left'>Five Judges of Chief Court (<i>j</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>C.</i></td><td align='left'>Two Financial Commissioners (<i>r</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>D.</i></td><td align='left'>Five Commissioners, (<i>e</i>) and (<i>r</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>E.</i></td><td align='left'>Sixteen Divisional and Sessions Judges (<i>j</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>F.</i></td><td align='left'>Deputy Commissioners, (<i>e</i>), (<i>r</i>) and (<i>crim</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>G.</i></td><td align='left'>District Judges (<i>civ</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>H.</i></td><td align='left'>Subordinate Judges (<i>civ</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>J.</i></td><td align='left'>Assistant and Extra Assistant Commissioners, (<i>e</i>), (<i>j</i>) and (<i>r</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>K.</i></td><td align='left'>Tahs&iacute;ld&aacute;rs (<i>e</i>), (<i>r</i>) and (<i>crim</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>L.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Munsifs</i> (<i>civ</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>M.</i></td><td align='left'><i>N&aacute;ib-Tahs&iacute;ld&aacute;rs</i>, (<i>e</i>) (<i>r</i>) and (<i>j</i>).</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The letters in brackets indicate the classes of functions which the
+official concerned usually exercises. Translated into a diagram we have
+the following:</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/225.jpg" width="800" height="484" alt="" title="Translated into a diagram we have
+the following" />
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Tahs&iacute;ld&aacute;rs and Assistant and Extra Assistant Commissioners.</b>&mdash;Thus the
+chain of executive authority runs down to the <i>tahs&iacute;ld&aacute;r's</i> assistant or
+<i>n&aacute;ib</i> through the Commissioner and the Deputy Commissioner, the
+<i>tahs&iacute;ld&aacute;r</i> being directly responsible to the latter. The Assistant and
+Extra Assistant Commissioners are the Deputy Commissioner's Assistants
+at headquarters, and as such are invested with powers in all branches.
+The <i>tahs&iacute;ld&aacute;r</i>, a very important functionary, is in charge of a
+<i>tahs&iacute;l</i>. He is linked on to the village estates by a double chain, one
+official consisting of the <i>kanungos</i> and the <i>patw&aacute;ris</i> or village
+accountants whom they supervise, the other non-official consisting of
+the village headmen and the <i>zaild&aacute;rs</i>, each of whom is the intermediary
+between the revenue and police staffs and the villages.</p>
+
+<p><b>Subdivisional Officers.</b>&mdash;In some heavy districts one or more <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>
+are formed into a subdivision and put in charge of a resident Assistant
+or Extra Assistant Commissioner, exercising such independent authority
+as the Deputy Commissioner thinks fit to entrust to him.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Deputy Commissioner and his Assistants.</b>&mdash;As the officer responsible
+for the maintenance of order the Deputy Commissioner is District
+Magistrate and has large powers both for the prevention and punishment
+of crime. The District Superintendent is his Assistant in police
+matters. The Civil Surgeon is also under his control, and he has an
+Indian District Inspector of Schools to assist him in educational
+business. The Deputy Commissioner is subject to the control of the
+Divisional Commissioner.</p>
+
+<p><b>Financial Commissioners.</b>&mdash;In all matters connected with land, excise,
+and income tax administration the Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner
+are subject to the control of the Financial Commissioners, who are also
+the final appellate authority in revenue cases. As<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> chief district
+revenue officer the Deputy Commissioner's proper title is "Collector," a
+term which indicates his responsibility for the realization of all
+Government revenues. In districts which are canal irrigated the amount
+is in some cases very large.</p>
+
+<p><b>Settlement Officers, etc.</b>&mdash;With the periodical revisions of the land
+revenue assessment the Deputy Commissioner has no direct concern. That
+very responsible duty is done by a special staff of Settlement Officers,
+selected chiefly from among the Assistant Commissioners and working
+under the Commissioners and Financial Commissioners. The Director of
+Land Records, the Registrar of Co-operative Credit Societies, and in
+some branches of his work the Director of Agriculture and Industries,
+are controlled by the Financial Commissioners.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Chief Court.</b>&mdash;It must be admitted that Panj&aacute;b&iacute;s are very litigious
+and that in some tracts they are extremely vindictive and reckless of
+human life. The volume of litigation is swollen by the fact that the
+country is one of small-holders subject as regards inheritance and other
+matters to an uncodified customary law, which may vary from tribe to
+tribe and tract to tract. A suit is to the Panj&aacute;b&iacute; a rubber, the last
+game of which he will play in Lahore, if the law permits. It is not
+therefore extraordinary that the Chief Court constituted in 1865 with
+two judges has now five, and that even this number has in the past
+proved insufficient. In the same way the cadre of divisional and
+sessions judges had in 1909 to be raised from 12 to 16.</p>
+
+<p><b>Administration of N. W. F. Province.</b>&mdash;In the N. W. F. Province no
+Commissioner is interposed between the district officers and the Chief
+Commissioner, under whom the Revenue Commissioner and the Judicial
+Commissioner occupy pretty much the position of the Financial
+Commissioners and the Chief Court in the Panj&aacute;b.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Departments.</b>&mdash;The principal departments are the Railway, Post Office,
+Telegraphs, and Accounts, under the Government of India, and Irrigation,
+Roads and Buildings, Forests, Police, Medical, and Education, under the
+Lieutenant Governor. In matters affecting the rural population, as a
+great part of the business of the Forest Department must do, the
+Conservator of Forests is subject to the control of the Financial
+Commissioners, whose relations with the Irrigation Department are also
+very intimate.</p>
+
+<p><b>Legislative Council.</b>&mdash;From 1897 to 1909 the Panj&aacute;b had a local
+Legislative Council of nine nominated members, which passed a number of
+useful Acts. Under 9 Edward VII, cap. 4, an enlarged council with
+increased powers has been constituted. It consists of 24 members of whom
+eight are elected, one by the University, one by the Chamber of
+Commerce, three by groups of Municipal and cantonment committees, and
+three by groups of district boards. The other sixteen members are
+nominated by the Lieutenant Governor, and at least six of them must be
+persons not in Government service. The right of interpellation has been
+given, and also some share in shaping the financial arrangements
+embodied in the annual budget.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII"></a>CHAPTER XXIII</h2>
+
+<h3>ADMINISTRATION&mdash;LOCAL</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Municipalities.</b>&mdash;It is matter for reflection that, while the effect of
+British administration has been to weaken self-government in villages,
+half a century of effort has failed to make it a living thing in towns
+and districts. The machinery exists, but outside a few towns the result
+is poor. The attempt was made on too large a scale, municipal
+institutions being bestowed on places which were no more than villages
+with a <i>baz&aacute;r</i>. This has been partially corrected of late years. A new
+official entity, the "notified area," has been invented to suit the
+requirements of such places. While there were in 1904 139 municipalities
+and 48 notified areas, in 1911-12 the figures were 107 and 104
+respectively. Even in the latter year 32 of the municipalities had
+incomes not exceeding &pound;1000 (Rs. 15,000). The total income of the 104
+towns was Rs. 71,41,000 (&pound;476,000), of which Rs. 44,90,000 (&pound;300,000)
+were derived from taxation. Nearly 90 p.c. of the taxation was drawn
+from octroi, a hardy plant which has survived much economic criticism.
+The expenditure was Rs. 69,09,000 (&pound;461,000), of which Rs. 40,32,000
+(&pound;269,000) fall under the head of "Public Health and Convenience." The
+incidence of taxation was Rs. 2.6 or a little over three shillings a
+head<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><b>District Boards.</b>&mdash;The district boards can at present in practice only be
+treated as consultative bodies, and well handled can in that capacity
+play a useful r&ocirc;le. Their income is mainly derived from the local rate,
+a surcharge of one-twelfth on the land revenue. In 1911-12 the income
+was Rs. 53,74,000 (&pound;358,000) and the expenditure Rs. 54,44,500
+(&pound;363,000). The local rate contributed 51 p.c. and contributions from
+Government 23 p.c. of the former figure. Public works took up 41 and
+Education about 20 p.c. of the expenditure.</p>
+
+<p><b>Elections.</b>&mdash;Some of the seats in most of the municipalities and boards
+are filled by election when any one can be induced to vote. Public
+spirit is lacking and, as a rule, except when party or sectarian spirit
+is rampant, the franchise is regarded with indifference.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"></a>CHAPTER XXIV</h2>
+
+<h3>REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Financial Relations with Government of India.</b>&mdash;Local governments
+exercise their financial powers in strict subordination to the
+Government of India, which alone can borrow, and which requires the
+submission for its sanction of the annual provincial budgets. To ensure
+a reasonable amount of decentralization the Supreme Government has made
+financial contracts with the provinces under which they receive definite
+shares of the receipts, and are responsible for definite shares of the
+expenditure, under particular heads. The existing contract dates only
+from 1911-12 (see Table V).</p>
+
+<p><b>Income and Expenditure.</b>&mdash;Excluding income from railways, post offices,
+telegraphs, salt, and sales of excise opium, which are wholly imperial,
+the revenue of the Panj&aacute;b in 1911-12 was &pound;5,057,000 (Rs. 758,56,000), of
+which the provincial share was &pound;2,662,200 (Rs. 399,33,000), to which
+have to be added &pound;251,800 (Rs. 37,77,000) on account of assignments made
+by the Government of India to the province. This brought up the total to
+&pound;2,914,000 (Rs. 437,10,000). The expenditure was &pound;2,691,933 (Rs.
+403,79,000). This does not include &pound;983,000 spent from loan funds on
+irrigation works, chiefly the great Triple Project. The large
+expenditure on railways is imperial. Of the gross income more than
+three-fourths is derived from the land (Land Revenue, 46 p.c.,
+Irrigation, chiefly canal water rates, 29 p.c., and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> Forests, 1&frac34;
+p.c.). The balance consists of Excise 8&frac12; p.c., Stamps, 7 p.c., Income
+Tax over 2 p.c., and other heads 5&frac34; p.c.</p>
+
+<p><b>Land Revenue.</b>&mdash;Certain items are included under the Land Revenue head
+which are no part of the assessment of the land. The real land revenue
+of the Panj&aacute;b is about &pound;2,000,000 and falls roughly at the rate of
+eighteen pence per cultivated acre (Table II). It is not a land tax, but
+an extremely moderate quit rent. In India the ruler has always taken a
+share of the produce of the land from the persons in whom he recognised
+a permanent right to occupy it or arrange for its tillage. The title of
+the R&aacute;ja to his share and the right of the occupier to hold the land he
+tilled and pass it on to his children both formed part of the customary
+law of the country. Under Indian rule the R&aacute;ja's share was often
+collected in kind, and the proportion of the crop taken left the tiller
+of the soil little or nothing beyond what was needed for the bare
+support of himself and his family. What the British Government did was
+to commute the share in kind into a cash demand and gradually to limit
+its amount to a reasonable figure. The need of moderation was not
+learned without painful experience, but the Panj&aacute;b was fortunate in this
+that, except as regards the Delhi territory, the lesson had been learned
+and a reasonable system evolved in the United Provinces before the
+officers it sent to the Panj&aacute;b began the regular assessments of the
+districts of the new province. A land revenue settlement is usually made
+for a term of 20 or 30 years. Since 1860 the limit of the government
+demand has been fixed at one-half of the rental, but this figure is very
+rarely approached in practice. Between a quarter and a third would be
+nearer the mark. A large part of the land is tilled by the owners, and
+the rent of the whole has to be calculated from the data for the part,
+often not more than a third<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> or two-fifths of the whole, cultivated by
+tenants at will. The calculation is complicated by the fact that kind
+rents consisting of a share of the crop are in most places commoner than
+cash rents and are increasing in favour. The determination of the cash
+value of the rent where the crop is shared is a very difficult task.
+There is a large margin for error, but there can be no doubt that the
+net result has almost always been undervaluation. It is probable that
+the share of the produce of the fields which the land revenue absorbs
+rarely exceeds one-seventh and is more often one-tenth or less. A clear
+proof of the general moderation of Panj&aacute;b assessments is furnished by
+the fact that in the three years ending 1910-11 the recorded prices in
+sales amounted to more than Rs. 125 per rupee of land revenue of the
+land sold, which may be taken as implying a belief on the part of
+purchasers that the landlord's rent is not double, but five or six times
+the land revenue assessment, for a man would hardly pay Rs. 125 unless
+he expected to get at least six or seven rupees annual profit.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fluctuating Assessments.</b>&mdash;The old native plan of taking a share of the
+crop, though it offered great opportunity for dishonesty on both sides,
+had at least the merit of roughly adjusting the demand to the character
+of the seasons. It was slowly realized that there were parts of the
+province where the harvests were so precarious that even a very moderate
+fixed cash assessment was unsuitable. Various systems of fluctuating
+cash assessment have therefore been introduced, and one-fourth of the
+total demand is now of this character, the proportion having been
+greatly increased by the adoption of the fluctuating principle in the
+new canal colonies.</p>
+
+<p><b>Suspensions and Remissions.</b>&mdash;Where fixity is retained the strain in bad
+seasons is lessened by a free use of suspensions, and, if the amounts of
+which the collection<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> has been deferred accumulate owing to a succession
+of bad seasons, resort is had to remission.</p>
+
+<p><b>Irrigation Income and Expenditure.</b>&mdash;In a normal year in the Panj&aacute;b over
+one-fourth of the total crops is matured by the help of Government
+Canals, and this proportion will soon be largely increased. In 1911-12
+the income from canals amounted to &pound;1,474,000, and the working expenses
+to &pound;984,000, leaving a surplus of &pound;490,000. Nearly the whole of the
+income is derived from water rates, which represent the price paid by
+the cultivator for irrigation provided by State expenditure. The rates
+vary for different crops and on different canals. The average incidence
+may be roughly put at Rs. 4 or a little over five shillings per acre. In
+calculating the profit on canals allowance is made for land revenue
+dependent on irrigation, amounting to nearly &pound;400,000.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXV" id="CHAPTER_XXV"></a>CHAPTER XXV</h2>
+
+<h3>PANJ&Aacute;B DISTRICTS AND DELHI</h3>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig83" id="fig83"></a>
+<img src="images/img083tb.jpg" width="500" height="396" alt=" Fig. 83. Skeleton District Map of Panj&aacute;b." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img083.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption"> Fig. 83. Skeleton District Map of Panj&aacute;b.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Districts and Divisions.</b>&mdash;The Panj&aacute;b now consists of 28 districts
+grouped in five divisions. In descriptions of districts and states
+boundaries, railways, and roads, which appear on the face of the inset
+maps, are omitted. Details regarding cultivation and crops will be found
+in Tables II, III and IV, and information as to places of note in
+Chapter <span class="smcap">XXX</span>. The revenue figures of Panj&aacute;b districts in this chapter
+relate to the year 1911-12.</p>
+
+<p><b>Delhi Enclave.</b>&mdash;On the transfer of the capital of India to Delhi part of
+the area of the old district of that name comprising 337 estates was
+removed from the jurisdiction of the Panj&aacute;b Government and brought under
+the immediate authority of the Government of India (Act No. XIII of
+1912). The remainder of the district was divided between Rohtak and
+Gurg&aacute;on, and the headquarters of the Delhi division were transferred to
+Amb&aacute;la.</p>
+
+<p>The area of the new province is only 528 square miles, and the
+population including that of the City is estimated at 396,997. The
+cultivated area is 340 square miles, more than half of which is
+cultivated by the owners themselves. The principal agricultural tribe is
+the Hindu J&aacute;ts, who are hard-working and thrifty peasant farmers. The
+land revenue is Rs. 4,00,203 (&pound;26,680). The above figures only relate to
+the part of the enclave formerly included in the Panj&aacute;b<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>. The head of
+the administration has the title of Chief Commissioner.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 464px;">
+<a name="fig84" id="fig84"></a>
+<img src="images/img084tb.jpg" width="464" height="500" alt="Fig. 84. Delhi Enclave." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img084.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 84. Delhi Enclave.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area,
+14,832 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+10,650 sq. m.
+Pop. 3,704,608;
+68 p.c. H.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 66,99,136
+= &pound;446,609.</div>
+
+<p><b>The Amb&aacute;la division</b>&mdash;includes four of the five districts
+of the South-Eastern Plains, the submontane
+district of Amb&aacute;la, and the hill district of
+Simla. It is with the exception of Lahore
+the smallest division, but it ranks first in
+cultivated area and third in population. It
+is twice the size of Wales<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> and has twice its population.
+The Commissioner is in political charge of the hill state
+of Sirm&uacute;r and of five petty states in the plains.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 464px;">
+<a name="fig85" id="fig85"></a>
+<img src="images/img085tb.jpg" width="464" height="500" alt="Fig. 85. Hiss&aacute;r with portions of Phulkian States etc." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 85. Hiss&aacute;r with portions of Phulkian States etc.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 5213 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+4201 sq.m.
+Pop. 804,809;
+67 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 9,76,749
+= &pound;67,117.</div>
+
+<p><b>Hiss&aacute;r District.</b>&mdash;Hiss&aacute;r is the south-western district
+of the division and has a long common
+boundary with Bikaner. It is divided into
+five <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, Hiss&aacute;r, H&aacute;nsi, Bhiw&aacute;n&iacute;, Fateh&aacute;b&aacute;d,
+and Sirsa. There are four natural
+divisions, N&aacute;l&iacute;, B&aacute;gar, Roh&iacute;, and Hari&aacute;na.
+The overflow of the Ghagar, which runs through the
+north of the district, has transformed the lands on either
+bank into hard intractable clay, which yields nothing to
+the husbandman without copious floods. This is the N&aacute;l&iacute;.
+The B&aacute;gar is a region of rolling sand stretching along the
+Bikaner border from Sirsa to Bhiw&aacute;n&iacute;. In Sirsa to the east<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>
+of the B&aacute;gar is a plain of very light reddish loam known as
+the Roh&iacute;, partly watered by the Sirhind Canal. South of
+the Ghagar the loam in the east of the district is firmer,
+and well adapted to irrigation, which much of it obtains
+from branches of the Western Jamna Canal. This tract
+is known as Hari&aacute;na, and has given its name to a famous
+breed of cattle. The Government cattle farm at Hiss&aacute;r
+covers an area of 65 square miles. North of the Fateh&aacute;b&aacute;d
+<i>tahs&iacute;l</i> and surrounded by villages belonging to the
+Phulkian States is an island of British territory called
+Budhl&aacute;da. It belongs to the Jangal Des, and has the
+characteristic drought-resisting sandy loam and sand of
+that tract. Much of Budhl&aacute;da is watered by the Sirhind
+Canal. Of the total area of the district only about
+9 p.c. is irrigated. The water level is so far from the
+surface that well irrigation is usually impossible, and
+the source of irrigation is canals.</p>
+
+<p>Hiss&aacute;r suffered severely from the disorders which
+followed on the collapse of the Moghal Empire and its
+ruin was consummated by the terrible famine of 1783.
+The starving people died or fled and for years the country
+lay desolate. It passed into the hands of the British 20
+years later, but for another 20 years our hold on this
+outlying territory was loose and ineffective. In 1857
+the troops at H&aacute;nsi, Hiss&aacute;r, and Sirsa rose and killed all
+the Europeans who fell into their hands. The Muhammadan
+tribes followed their example, and for a time
+British authority ceased to exist. The district was
+part of the Delhi territory transferred to the Panj&aacute;b in
+1858.</p>
+
+<p>The rainfall is scanty, averaging 15 inches, and extremely
+capricious. No other district suffers so much from
+famine as Hiss&aacute;r. The crops are extraordinarily insecure,
+with a large surplus in a good season and practically
+nothing when the rains fail badly. They consist mainly
+of the cheap pulses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> and millets. With such fluctuating
+harvests it is impossible to collect the revenues with any
+regularity, and large sums have to be suspended in bad
+seasons.</p>
+
+<p>Such industries as exist are mostly in H&aacute;nsi and
+Bhiw&aacute;n&iacute;, where there are mills for ginning and pressing
+cotton. Cotton cloths tastefully embroidered with silk,
+known as <i>phulk&aacute;r&iacute;s</i>, are a well-known local product.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 459px;">
+<a name="fig86" id="fig86"></a>
+<img src="images/img086tb.jpg" width="459" height="500" alt="Fig. 86. Delhi Enclave." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img086.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 86. Delhi Enclave.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 2248 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1815 sq. m.
+Pop. 714,834.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 16,66,364
+= &pound;111,091.</div>
+
+<p><b>Rohtak</b>&mdash;became a British possession in 1803, but it
+was not till after the Mutiny that it was
+brought wholly under direct British administration.
+The old district consisted of the
+three <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> of Rohtak, Goh&aacute;na, and Jhajar,
+but on the breaking up of the Delhi district the Sonepat
+<i>tahs&iacute;l</i> was added.</p>
+
+<p>Rohtak is practically a purely agricultural tract with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>
+large villages, but no towns of any importance. By far
+the most important agricultural tribe is the Hindu J&aacute;ts.
+They are strong-bodied sturdy farmers, who keep fine oxen
+and splendid buffaloes, and live in large and well organized
+village communities. 37 p.c. of the cultivation is protected
+by canal and well irrigation, the former being by
+far the more important. The district consists mainly of
+a plain of good loam soil. There have been great canal
+extensions in this plain, which under irrigation is very
+fertile, yielding excellent wheat, cotton, and cane.
+There is a rich belt of well irrigation in the Jamna valley,
+and in the south of the district there are parts where
+wells can be profitably worked. Belts of uneven sandy
+land are found especially in the west and south. The
+dry cultivation is most precarious, for the rainfall is
+extremely variable. In the old district it averages 20
+inches. But averages in a tract like Rohtak mean very
+little. The chief crops are the two millets and gram.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 2264 sq.m.
+Cultd Area,
+1701 sq. m.
+Pop. 729,167.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 15,98,333
+= &pound;106,556.</div>
+
+<p><b>Gurg&aacute;on</b> contains six <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, Rew&aacute;r&iacute;, Gurg&aacute;on, Nuh,
+Firozpur, Palwal, and Ballabgarh. The
+southern part of the district projects into
+R&aacute;jput&aacute;na, and in its physical and racial
+characteristics really belongs to that region.</p>
+
+<p>Rew&aacute;r&iacute; is the only town of any importance. It has
+a large trade with R&aacute;jput&aacute;na. Apart from this the
+interests of the district are agricultural. In Gurg&aacute;on
+the Jamna valley is for the most part narrow and very
+poor. The plain above it in the Palwal <i>tahs&iacute;l</i> has a fertile
+loam soil and is irrigated by the Agra Canal. The Hindu
+J&aacute;ts of this part of the district are good cultivators.
+The rest of Gurg&aacute;on consists mostly of sand and sandy
+loam and low bare hills. In Rew&aacute;r&iacute; the skill and industry
+of the Hindu Ah&iacute;rs have produced wonderful results
+considering that many of the wells are salt and much of
+the land very sandy. The lazy and thriftless Meos of
+the southern part<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> of the district are a great contrast to
+the Ah&iacute;rs. They are Muhammadans.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig87" id="fig87"></a>
+<img src="images/img087tb.jpg" width="500" height="372" alt="Fig. 87." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img087.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 87.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>About a quarter of the area is protected by irrigation
+from wells, the Agra Canal, and embankments or "<i>bands</i>,"
+which catch and hold up the hill drainages. Owing to
+the depth and saltness of many of the wells the cultivation
+dependent on them is far from secure, and the "<i>band</i>"
+irrigation is most precarious. The large dry area is
+subject to extensive and complete crop failures. The
+average rainfall over a series of years is 24 inches, but its
+irregularities from year to year are extreme. The district
+is a poor one, and for its resources bears the heaviest
+assessment in the Panj&aacute;b. It requires the most careful
+revenue management. There are brine wells at Sult&aacute;npur,
+but the demand for the salt extracted is now very small.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 3153 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1744 sq. m.
+Pop. 799,787;
+70 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 12,92,620
+=&pound;86,175.</div>
+
+<p><b>Karn&aacute;l</b> is midway in size between Rohtak and Hiss&aacute;r.
+One-third of the cultivation is now protected
+by irrigation, two-fifths of the irrigation
+being from wells and three-fifths from the
+Western Jamna Canal. There are four <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>
+Thanesar, Karn&aacute;l, Kaithal, and P&aacute;nipat. The peasantry
+consists mostly of hardworking Hindu J&aacute;ts, but there
+are also many Hindu and Muhammadan R&aacute;jput villages.
+The chief towns are P&aacute;nipat, Karn&aacute;l, and Kaithal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 467px;">
+<a name="fig88" id="fig88"></a>
+<img src="images/img088tb.jpg" width="467" height="500" alt="Fig. 88." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img088.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 88.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The district falls broadly into two divisions, the
+boundary between them being the southern limit of the
+floods of the Sarust&iacute; in years of heavy rainfall. The
+marked features of the northern division is the effect which
+the floods of torrents of intermittent flow, the Sarust&iacute;,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>
+M&aacute;rkanda, Umla, and Ghagar have on agriculture. Some
+tracts are included like the Andarw&aacute;r and the outlying
+villages of the Pow&aacute;dh<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> in Kaithal which are fortunately
+unaffected by inundation, and have good well irrigation.
+The country between the Umla and M&aacute;rkanda in Thanesar
+gets rich silt deposits and is generally fertile. The
+Kaithal Nail&iacute; is the tract affected by the overflow of the
+Sarust&iacute;, Umla, and Ghagar. It is a wretched fever-stricken
+region where a short lived race of weakly people
+reap precarious harvests. The southern division is on
+the whole a much better country. It includes the whole
+of Karn&aacute;l and P&aacute;nipat, the south of Kaithal, and a
+small tract in the extreme east of the Thanesar <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>.
+North of Karn&aacute;l the Jamna valley or Kh&aacute;dir is unhealthy
+and has in many parts a poor soil. South of Karn&aacute;l it
+is much better in every respect. Above the Kh&aacute;dir is
+the B&aacute;ngar, a plain of good loam. North of Karn&aacute;l
+its cultivation is protected by wells and the people are
+in fair circumstances. South of that town it is watered
+by the Western Jamna Canal. Another slight rise brings
+one to the Nardak of the Karn&aacute;l and Kaithal <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>.
+Till the excavation of the Sirsa branch of the Western
+Jamna Canal and of the Nardak Distributary much of
+the Nardak was covered with <i>dh&aacute;k</i> jangal, and the
+cultivation was of the most precarious nature, for in this
+part of the district the rainfall is both scanty and
+capricious, and well cultivation is only possible in the
+north. The introduction of canal irrigation has effected an
+enormous change. Wheat and gram are the great crops.</p>
+
+<p>Historically Karn&aacute;l is one of the most interesting
+districts. The Nardak is the scene of the great struggle
+celebrated in the Mah&aacute;bh&aacute;rata. The district contains
+the holy city of Thanesar, once the capital of a great
+Hindu kingdom. It has found climate a more potent
+instrument of ruin than the sword of Mahm&uacute;d of Ghazn&iacute;,
+who sacked it in 1014. It still on the occasion of Eclipse
+fairs attracts enormous crowds of pilgrims. Pihowa is
+another very sacred place. Nar&aacute;ina, a few miles to the
+north-west of Karn&aacute;l, was the scene of two famous
+fights<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>, and three times, in 1526, 1556, and 1761, the
+fate of India was decided at P&aacute;nipat.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 1851 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1174 sq. m.
+Pop. 689,970.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 11,47,688
+= &pound;76,513</div>
+
+<p><b>Amb&aacute;la</b> is a submontane district of very irregular<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>
+shape. It includes two small hill tracts,
+Morn&iacute; and Kasaul&iacute;. There is little irrigation,
+for in most parts the rainfall is ample.
+Wheat is the chief crop. The population
+has been declining in the past 20 years.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 489px;">
+<a name="fig89" id="fig89"></a>
+<img src="images/img089tb.jpg" width="489" height="500" alt="Fig. 89." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img089.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 89.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The only town of importance is Amb&aacute;la. Jag&aacute;dhr&iacute;
+is a busy little place now connected through private
+enterprise by a light railway with the N. W. Railway.
+The district consists of two parts almost severed from one
+another physically and wholly different as regards people,
+language, and agricultural prosperity. The R&uacute;par subdivision
+in the north-west beyond the Ghagar has a fertile
+soil, and, except in the N&aacute;l&iacute;, as the tract flooded by the
+Ghagar is called, a vigorous J&aacute;t peasantry, whose native
+tongue is Panj&aacute;b&iacute;. The three south-eastern <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>,
+Amb&aacute;la,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> Nar&aacute;ingarh, and Jag&aacute;dhr&iacute;, are weaker in every
+respect. The loam is often quite good, but interspersed
+with it are tracts of stubborn clay largely put under
+precarious rice crops. The J&aacute;ts are not nearly so good
+as those of R&uacute;par, and R&aacute;jputs, who are mostly Musulm&aacute;ns,
+own a large number of estates.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 101 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+15 sq. m.
+Pop. in Feb.
+1911, 39,320.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 17,484
+= &pound;1166.</div>
+
+<p>Simla consists of three little tracts in the hills known
+as Bharaul&iacute;, Kotkhai, and Kotgarh, and of
+patches of territory forming the cantonments
+of Dagshai, Sub&aacute;thu, Solon, and Jutogh, the
+site of the Lawrence Military School at
+San&aacute;war, and the great hill station of Simla.
+Bharaul&iacute; lies south-west of Simla in the direction of
+Kasaul&iacute;. Kotkhai is in the valley of the Gir&iacute;, a tributary
+of the Jamna. Kotgarh is on the Sutlej and borders on
+the Bashahr State. The Deputy Commissioner of Simla
+is also Superintendent or Political Officer of 28 hill states.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area,
+19,934 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+7762 sq. m.
+Pop. 3,967,724.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 61,64,172
+= &pound;410,945.</div>
+
+<p><b>Jalandhar Division.</b>&mdash;More than half the area of the
+Jalandhar division is contributed by the huge
+district of K&aacute;ngra, which stretches from the
+Plains to the lofty snowy ranges on the borders
+of Tibet. The other districts are Hoshy&aacute;rpur
+in the submontane zone, Jalandhar and Ludhi&aacute;na,
+which belong to the Central Plains, and Ferozepore,
+which is part of the South-Eastern Panj&aacute;b. Sikhs are
+more numerous than in any other division, but are outnumbered
+by both Hindus and Muhammadans. The
+Commissioner has political charge of the hill states of
+Mand&iacute; and Suket and of Kap&uacute;rthala in the Plains.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 9878 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+918 sq. m.
+Pop. 770,386;
+94 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 9,26,661
+= &pound;61,777.</div>
+
+<p><b>K&aacute;ngra</b> is the largest district in the Panj&aacute;b. It
+includes three tracts of very different character:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="K&aacute;ngra">
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>)</td><td align='left'>Spit&iacute; and Lahul, area exceeding 4400 square miles, forming part of Tibet;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>)</td><td align='left'>Kulu and Sar&aacute;j;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>c</i>)</td><td align='left'>K&aacute;ngra proper, area 2939 square miles.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig90" id="fig90"></a>
+<img src="images/img090tb.jpg" width="500" height="453" alt="Fig. 90." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img090.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 90.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Lahul,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> Spit&iacute;, Kulu, and Sar&aacute;j form a subdivision in
+charge of an Assistant Commissioner. The people of
+K&aacute;ngra are Hindus. Isl&aacute;m never penetrated into these
+hills as a religion, though the R&aacute;jput R&aacute;jas of K&aacute;ngra
+became loyal subjects of the Moghal Emperors. In its
+last days Ranj&iacute;t Singh called in as an ally against the
+Gurkhas remained as a hated ruler. The country was
+ceded to the British Government in 1846. The R&aacute;jas
+were chagrined that we did not restore to them their
+royal authority, but only awarded them the status of
+<i>jag&iacute;rd&aacute;rs</i>. An outbreak, which was easily suppressed,
+occurred in 1848. Since then K&aacute;ngra has enjoyed 65
+years of peace.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> A Gurkha regiment is stationed at the
+district headquarters at Dharms&aacute;la. The cultivation
+ranges from the rich maize and rice fields of Kulu and
+K&aacute;ngra to the poor buckwheat and <i>kulath</i> on mountain
+slopes. Rice is irrigated by means of <i>kuhls</i>, ingeniously
+constructed channels to lead the water of the torrents on
+to the fields.</p>
+
+<p><b>Spit&iacute; and Lahul.</b>&mdash;Spit&iacute;, or rather Pit&iacute;, is a country of
+great rugged mountains, whose bare red and yellow
+rocks rise into crests of everlasting snow showing clear
+under a cloudless blue sky. There is no rain, but in winter
+the snowfall is heavy. The highest of the mountains
+exceeds 23,000 feet. Pit&iacute; is drained by the river of the
+same name, which after passing through Bashahr falls I
+into the Sutlej at an elevation of 11,000 feet. Of the few
+villages several stand at a height of from 13,000 to 14,000
+feet. The route to Pit&iacute; from Kulu passes over the Hamtu
+Pass (14,200 feet) and the great Shigr&iacute; glacier. The people
+are Buddhists. They are governed by their hereditary
+ruler or Nono assisted by five elders, the Assistant
+Commissioner exercising a general supervision. Indian
+laws do not apply to the sparse population of this remote
+canton, which has a special regulation of its own. Lahul
+lies to the west of Pit&iacute;, from which it is separated by a
+lofty range. It is entered from Kulu by the Rotang
+Pass (13,000 feet) and the road from it to Lad&aacute;kh passes
+over the Baral&aacute;cha (16,350 feet). The whole country is
+under snow from December to April, but there is very
+little rain. The two streams, the Chandra and Bh&aacute;ga,
+which unite to form the Chen&aacute;b, flow through Lahul and
+the few villages are situated at a height of 10,000 feet in
+their elevated valleys. The people are Buddhists. In
+summer the population is increased by "Gadd&iacute;" shepherds
+from K&aacute;ngra, who drive lean flocks in the beginning of
+June over the Rotang and take them back from the
+Alpine pastures<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> in the middle of September fat and well
+liking.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig91" id="fig91"></a>
+<img src="images/img091.jpg" width="600" height="424" alt="Fig. 91. Bi&aacute;s at Man&aacute;l&iacute;." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 91. Bi&aacute;s at Man&aacute;l&iacute;.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Kulu and Sar&aacute;j.</b>&mdash;The Kulu Valley, set in a mountain
+frame and with the Bi&aacute;s, here a highland stream, running
+through the heart of it, is one of the fairest parts of the
+Panj&aacute;b Him&aacute;laya. Man&aacute;l&iacute;, at the top of the Valley on
+the road to the Rotang, is a very beautiful spot. Kulu
+is connected with K&aacute;ngra through Mand&iacute; by the Babbu
+and Dulch&iacute; passes. The latter is generally open the whole
+year round. The headquarters are at Sult&aacute;npur, but
+the Assistant Commissioner lives at Nagar. In Kulu
+the cultivation is often valuable and the people are well
+off. The climate is good and excellent apples and pears
+are grown by European settlers. Inner and outer Sar&aacute;j
+are connected by the Jalaori Pass on the watershed of the
+Sutlej and Bi&aacute;s. Sar&aacute;j is a much rougher and poorer
+country than Kulu. There are good <i>deod&aacute;r</i> forests in
+the Kulu subdivision.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> In 1911 the population of Kulu,
+Sar&aacute;j, Lahul, and Pit&iacute;, numbered 124,803. The Kulu
+people are a simple folk in whose primitive religion local
+godlings of brass each with his little strip of territory take
+the place of the Brahmanic gods. It is a quaint sight to
+see their ministers carrying them on litters to the fair at
+Sult&aacute;npur, where they all pay their respects to a little
+silver god known as Raghun&aacute;thj&iacute;, who is in a way their
+suzerain.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig92" id="fig92"></a>
+<img src="images/img092.jpg" width="600" height="450" alt="Fig. 92. Religious Fair in Kulu." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 92. Religious Fair in Kulu.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>K&aacute;ngra proper is bounded on the north by the lofty
+wall of the Dhaula Dh&aacute;r and separated from Kulu by
+the mountains of Bara Bang&aacute;hal. It consists of the
+five <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> of K&aacute;ngra, Palampur, Nurpur, Dera, and
+Ham&iacute;rpur. The first two occupy the rich and beautiful
+K&aacute;ngra Valley. They are separated from the other three
+<i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> by a medley of low hills with a general trend from
+N.W. to S.E.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> They are drained by the Bi&aacute;s, and are
+much more broken and poorer than the K&aacute;ngra Valley.
+The tea industry, once important, is now dead so far
+as carried on by English planters. The low hills have
+extensive <i>ch&iacute;r</i> pine forests. They have to be managed
+mainly in the interests of the local population, and are
+so burdened with rights that conservation is a very
+difficult problem. In 1911 the population of the five
+<i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> amounted to 645,583. The most important tribes
+are Brahmans, R&aacute;jputs, and hardworking G&iacute;rths. The
+hill Brahman is usually a farmer pure and simple.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 444px;">
+<a name="fig93" id="fig93"></a>
+<img src="images/img093.jpg" width="444" height="600" alt="93. Kulu Women." title="" />
+<span class="caption">93. Kulu Women.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 448px;">
+<a name="fig94" id="fig94"></a>
+<img src="images/img094tb.jpg" width="448" height="500" alt="Fig. 94." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img094.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 94.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 2247 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1128 sq. m.
+Pop. 918,569;
+54 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 14,22,527
+= &pound;494,835.</div>
+
+<p><b>Hoshy&aacute;rpur</b> became a British possession in 1846 after
+the first Sikh War. It is a typically submontane
+district. A line of low bare hills
+known as the Solasingh&iacute; Range divides it
+from K&aacute;ngra. Further west the Kat&aacute;r dh&aacute;r,
+a part of the Siw&aacute;liks, runs through the heart
+of the district.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> Between these two ranges lies the fertile
+Jaswan Dun corresponding to the Una <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>. The other
+three <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, Garhshankar, Hoshy&aacute;rpur, and Das&uacute;ya,
+are to the west of the Kat&aacute;r dh&aacute;r. Una is drained
+by the Soan, a tributary of the Sutlej. The western
+<i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> have a light loam soil of great fertility, except
+where it has been overlaid by sand from the numerous
+<i>chos</i> or torrents which issue from the Siw&aacute;liks. The
+denudation of that range was allowed to go on for an
+inordinate time with disastrous results to the plains
+below. At last the Panj&aacute;b Land Preservation (<i>Chos</i>)
+Act II of 1890 gave the Government power to deal with
+the evil, but it will take many years to remedy the
+mischief wrought by past inaction. The rainfall averages
+about 32 inches and the crops are secure. The population
+has fallen off by 93,000 in 20 years, a striking instance of
+the ravages of plague. The chief tribes are J&aacute;ts, R&aacute;jputs,
+and G&uacute;jars.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 1431 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1069 sq. m.
+Pop. 801,920;
+45 p.c. M.
+33 p.c. H.
+22 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 14,77,661
+= &pound;98,511.</div>
+
+<p><b>Jalandhar District.</b>&mdash;Modern though the town of
+Jalandhar looks it was the capital of a
+large Hindu kingdom, which included also
+Hoshy&aacute;rpur, Mand&iacute;, Suket, and Chamba, and
+in the ninth century was a rival of Kashm&iacute;r
+(page <a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a>). The present district is with the
+exception of Simla the smallest, and for its
+size the richest, in the province. It contains four <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>,
+Nawashahr, Phillaur, Jalandhar, and Nakodar. About
+45 p.c. of the cultivation is protected by 28,000 wells.
+Behind the long river frontage on the Sutlej is the Bet,
+divided by a high bank from the more fertile uplands.
+The soil of the latter is generally an excellent loam, but
+there is a good deal of sand in the west of the district.
+The rainfall averages about 26 inches and the climate is
+healthy. The well cultivation is the best in the Panj&aacute;b.
+Between 1901 and 1911 the population declined by 13 p.c.
+J&aacute;ts and Arains,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> both excellent cultivators, are the predominant
+tribes. British rule dates from 1846.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig95" id="fig95"></a>
+<img src="images/img095tb.jpg" width="500" height="432" alt="Fig. 95." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img095.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 95.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 1452 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1143 sq. m.
+Pop. 517,192;
+40 p.c. S.
+35 p.c. M
+25 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 11,57,399
+= &pound;77,160.</div>
+
+<p><b>Ludhi&aacute;na</b> on the opposite bank of the Sutlej is also a
+very small district. It consists of a river
+Bet and Uplands with generally speaking a
+good loam soil. But there are very sandy
+outlying estates in the Jangal Des surrounded
+by Pati&aacute;la and J&iacute;nd villages.  There are
+three <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, Samr&aacute;la, Ludhi&aacute;na, and Jagr&aacute;on.
+Of the cultivated area 26 p.c. is irrigated, from
+wells (19) and from the Sirhind Canal (7). Wheat and
+gram are the principal crops. Between 1901 and 1911
+the population fell from 673,097 to 517,192, the chief
+cause of decline being plague.</p>
+
+<p>Sturdy hard-working J&aacute;ts are the backbone of the
+peasantry. They furnish many recruits to the Army.
+Ludhi&aacute;na<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> is a thriving town and an important station
+on the N.W. Railway. Our connection with Ludhi&aacute;na
+began in 1809, and the district assumed practically its
+present shape in 1846 after the first Sikh War.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig96" id="fig96"></a>
+<img src="images/img096tb.jpg" width="500" height="479" alt="Fig. 96." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img096.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 96.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 4286 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+3504 sq. m.
+Pop. 959,657;
+44 p.c. M.
+29 p.c. H.
+27 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 11,79,924
+= &pound;78,661.</div>
+
+<p><b>Ferozepore</b> is a very large district. The Far&iacute;dkot
+State nearly cuts it in two. The northern
+division includes the <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> of Ferozepore,
+Z&iacute;ra, and Moga, the last with an outlying
+tract known as Mahr&aacute;j, which forms an
+island surrounded by the territory of several
+native states. The southern division contains
+the <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> of Muktsar and F&aacute;zilka. Our connection with
+Ferozepore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> began in 1809, and, when the widow of the
+last Sikh chief of Ferozepore died in 1835, we assumed
+direct responsibility for the administration of a considerable
+part of the district. Two of the great battles of the
+first Sikh War, Mudk&iacute; and Ferozesh&aacute;h or more properly
+Pherushahr, were fought within its borders. Mamdot with
+an area of about 400 square miles ceased to be independent
+in 1855, but the descendant of the last ruler still holds
+it in <i>jag&iacute;r</i>. F&aacute;zilka was added in 1864 when the Sirsa
+district was broken up. Of the cultivated area 47&frac12; p.c.
+is irrigated by the Sirhind Canal, the Grey Inundation
+Canals, and wells. For the most part the district is
+divided into three tracts, the riverain, Hith&aacute;r or Bet,
+with a poor clay soil<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> and a weak population, the Ut&aacute;r,
+representing river deposits of an older date when the
+Sutlej ran far west of its present bed, and the Roh&iacute;, an
+upland plain of good sandy loam, now largely irrigated
+by the Sirhind Canal. The Grey Canals furnish a far
+less satisfactory source of irrigation to villages in the
+Bet and Ut&aacute;r. In different parts of this huge district the
+rainfall varies from 10 to 22 inches. The chief crops
+are gram and wheat. The J&aacute;ts are the chief tribe. In
+the Uplands they are a fine sturdy race, but unfortunately
+they are addicted to strong drink, and violent crime is
+rife. Ferozepore has a large cantonment and arsenal
+and a big trade in grain. It is an important railway
+junction.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 499px;">
+<a name="fig97" id="fig97"></a>
+<img src="images/img097tb.jpg" width="499" height="500" alt="Fig. 97." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img097.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 97.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area,
+12,387 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+7924 sq. m.
+Pop 4,656,629;
+57 p.c. M.
+24 p.c. H.
+16 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 70,53,856
+= &pound;470,257.</div>
+
+<p><b>Lahore Division.</b>&mdash;Lahore is the smallest division, but
+the first in population. Its political importance
+is great as the home of the Sikhs
+of the M&aacute;njha, and because the capital of
+the province and the sacred city of the
+<i>Kh&aacute;lsa</i> are both within its limits. It contains
+the five districts of Gurd&aacute;spur, Si&aacute;lkot,
+Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la, Lahore, and Amritsar. The Commissioner
+is in political charge of the Chamba State.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig98" id="fig98"></a>
+<img src="images/img098tb.jpg" width="500" height="469" alt="Fig. 98." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img098.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 98.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 1809 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1281 sq. m.
+Pop. 836,771;
+49  p.c.  M.
+34  p.c. H.
+14&frac12; p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 17,68,412
+= &pound;117,894.</div>
+
+<p><b>Gurd&aacute;spur</b> is a submontane district with a good
+rainfall and a large amount of irrigation.
+The crops are secure except in part of the
+Shakargarh <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>. 27 p.c. of the cultivated
+area is irrigated, 16 by wells and 11 by the
+Upper B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b Canal. Irrigation is only
+allowed from the Canal for the Autumn
+harvest. The chief crop is wheat and the area under
+cane is unusually large. Of late years plague has been
+very fatal and the population fell from 940,334 in 1901
+to 836,771 in 1911. J&aacute;ts, R&aacute;jputs, Arains, G&uacute;jars, and
+Brahmans, are the chief agricultural tribes, the first being
+by far the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> important element. There are four
+<i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, Bat&aacute;la, Gurd&aacute;spur, and Path&aacute;nkot in the B&aacute;r&iacute;
+Do&aacute;b, and Shakargarh to the west of the R&aacute;v&iacute;. Bat&aacute;la
+is one of the most fertile and prosperous tracts in the
+Panj&aacute;b and Gurd&aacute;spur is also thriving. Path&aacute;nkot is
+damp, fever stricken, and unprosperous. It lies mostly
+in the plains but contains a considerable area in the low
+hills and higher up two enclaves, Bakloh and Dalhousie,
+surrounded by Chamba villages. Shakargarh is much
+more healthy, and is better off than Path&aacute;nkot. There is
+good duck and snipe shooting to be got in some parts of
+the district, as the drainage from the hills collects in
+swamps and <i>jh&iacute;ls</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;">
+<a name="fig99" id="fig99"></a>
+<img src="images/img099tb.jpg" width="401" height="500" alt="Fig. 99." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img099.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 99.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 1991 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1427 sq. m.
+Pop. 979,553;
+62 p.c. M.
+25 p.c. H.
+8 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 14,79,390
+= &pound;98,626.</div>
+
+<p><b>Si&aacute;lkot</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> is another secure and fully cultivated submontane
+district. It lies wholly in the Rechna
+Do&aacute;b and includes a small well-watered hilly
+tract, Bajw&aacute;t, on the borders of Jammu.
+The R&aacute;v&iacute; divides Si&aacute;lkot from Amritsar
+an the Chen&aacute;b separates it from Gujr&aacute;t.
+The Degh and some smaller torrents run
+through the district. In the south there is much hard
+sour clay, part hitherto unculturable. But irrigation
+from the Upper Chen&aacute;b Canal will give a new value to it.
+There are five <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, Zafarw&aacute;l, Si&aacute;lkot, Daska, Pasr&uacute;r,
+and Raya.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> The chief crop is wheat which is largely
+grown on the wells, numbering 22,000. The pressure of
+the population on the soil was considerable, but since
+1891 the total has fallen from 1,119,847 to 979,553 as the
+result of plague and emigration to the new canal colonies.
+Christianity has obtained a considerable number of converts
+in Si&aacute;lkot. The J&aacute;ts form the backbone of the
+peasantry. R&aacute;jputs and Arains are also important tribes,
+but together they are not half as numerous as the J&aacute;ts.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;">
+<a name="fig100" id="fig100"></a>
+<img src="images/img100tb.jpg" width="440" height="500" alt=" Fig. 100." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img100.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 100.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 4802 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+2166 sq. m.
+Pop. 923,419.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 15,43,440
+= &pound;102,896.</div>
+
+<p><b>Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> is a very large district in the Rechna
+Do&aacute;b, with five <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, Waz&iacute;r&aacute;b&aacute;d, Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la,
+Sharakpur, H&aacute;fiz&aacute;b&aacute;d, and Kh&aacute;ng&aacute;h
+Dogr&aacute;n. The rainfall varies from 20 inches
+on the Si&aacute;lkot border to ten or eleven in the
+extreme south-west corner of the district. Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la
+is naturally divided into three tracts: the Riverain of the
+R&aacute;v&iacute; and Chen&aacute;b, the B&aacute;ngar or well tract, and the B&aacute;r
+once very partially cultivated, but now commanded by
+the Lower and Upper Chen&aacute;b Canals. Enormous development
+has taken place in the H&aacute;fiz&aacute;b&aacute;d and Kh&aacute;ng&aacute;h
+Dogr&aacute;n <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> in the 20 years since the Lower Chen&aacute;b
+Canal was opened. Of late years the rest of the district
+has suffered from plague and emigration, and has not
+prospered. But a great change will be effected by
+irrigation from the Upper Chen&aacute;b Canal, which is just
+beginning. In the east of the district much sour clay
+will become culturable land, and the B&aacute;r will be transformed
+as in the two <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> watered by the older canal.
+Of the cultivated area 73&frac12; p.c. is irrigated, 36&frac12; from
+wells and 37 from canals. The chief crops are wheat
+and gram. There is, as is usual in the Western Panj&aacute;b,
+a great preponderance of Spring crops. The J&aacute;ts are far
+and away the strongest element in the population.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 1601 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1184 sq. m.
+Pop. 880,728;
+46 p.c. M.
+29 p.c. S.
+24 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 12,70,799
+= &pound;84,720.</div>
+
+<p><b>Amritsar</b> is a small district lying in the B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b
+between Gurd&aacute;spur and Lahore. 62 p.c. of
+the cultivated area is irrigated, half from
+12,000 wells and half from the Upper B&aacute;r&iacute;
+Do&aacute;b Canal.  Unfortunately much waterlogging
+exists, due to excessive use of canal
+water and defective drainage. Measures are
+now being taken to deal with this great evil, which has
+made the town of Amritsar and other parts of the district
+liable to serious outbreaks of fever. There are two small
+riverain tracts on the Bi&aacute;s and R&aacute;v&iacute; and a poor piece of
+country in Ajn&aacute;la<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> flooded by the Sakk&iacute;. The main part of
+the district is a monotonous plain of fertile loam. The two
+western <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, Amritsar and Tarn T&aacute;ran, are prosperous,
+Ajn&aacute;la is depressed. The rainfall is moderate averaging
+21 or 22 inches, and the large amount of irrigation makes
+the harvests secure. The chief crops are wheat and gram.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 433px;">
+<a name="fig101" id="fig101"></a>
+<img src="images/img101tb.jpg" width="433" height="500" alt="Fig. 101." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img101.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 101.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Sikh J&aacute;ts of the M&aacute;njha to the south of the Grand
+Trunk Road form by far the most important element in
+the population. Between 1901 and 1911 there was a
+falling off from 1,023,828 to 880,728. Besides its religious
+importance the town of Amritsar is a great
+trade centre.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig102" id="fig102"></a>
+<img src="images/img102tb.jpg" width="500" height="462" alt="Fig. 102." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img102.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 102.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 2824 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1866 sq. m.
+Pop. 1,036,158.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 991,815
+= &pound;66,121.</div>
+
+<p><b>Lahore</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> lies in the B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b to the south-west of
+Amritsar. It is a much larger district,
+though, like Amritsar, it has only three
+<i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, Lahore, Kas&uacute;r, and Ch&uacute;nian. 76 p.c.
+of the cultivated area is irrigated, 23 from
+wells and 53 from canals. There has been an enormous
+extension of irrigation from the Upper B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b Canal
+in the past 30 years. Accordingly, though the rainfall
+is somewhat scanty, the crops are generally secure.
+The principal are wheat and gram. The district consists
+of the Riverain on the Bi&aacute;s and R&aacute;v&iacute;, the latter extending
+to both sides<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> of the river, and the plain of the M&aacute;njha,
+largely held by strong and energetic Sikh J&aacute;ts. In the
+R&aacute;v&iacute; valley industrious Arains predominate. Railway
+communications are excellent. Trade activity is not
+confined to the city of Lahore. Kas&uacute;r, Ch&uacute;nian, and
+Raiwind are important local centres.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area,
+21,361 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+8099 sq.m.
+Pop. 3,353,052;
+87 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 50,43,587
+= &pound;336,239.</div>
+
+<p>The <b>R&aacute;walpind&iacute; Division</b> occupies the N.W. of the
+Panj&aacute;b. It is in area the second largest
+division, but in population the smallest.
+Five-sixths of the people profess the faith
+of Islam. It includes six districts, Gujr&aacute;t,
+Jhelam, R&aacute;walpindi, Attock, Mianw&aacute;l&iacute;, and
+Sh&aacute;hpur. This is the division from which the Panj&aacute;b
+Musalm&aacute;ns, who form so valuable an element in our
+army, are drawn.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig103" id="fig103"></a>
+<img src="images/img103tb.jpg" width="500" height="374" alt="Fig. 103." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img103.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 103.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 2357 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1369 sq. m.
+Pop. 784,011.
+Land Rev.
+Ra. 887,220
+= &pound;59,148.</div>
+
+<p><b>Gujr&aacute;t</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> lies in the Jech Do&aacute;b. The two northern
+<i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, Gujr&aacute;t and Khari&aacute;n, have many of
+the features of a submontane tract. In the
+former the Pabb&iacute;, a small range of low bare
+hills, runs parallel to the Jhelam, and the
+outliers of the Him&aacute;laya in Kashm&iacute;r are not far from
+the northern border of the district. The uplands of
+these two <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> slope pretty rapidly from N.E. to S.W.,
+and contain much light soil. They are traversed by sandy
+torrents, dry in winter, but sometimes very destructive
+in the rains. Ph&aacute;lia on the other hand is a typical plain's
+<i>tahs&iacute;l</i>. It has on the Chen&aacute;b a wide riverain, which also
+separates the uplands of the Gujr&aacute;t <i>tahs&iacute;l</i> from that river.
+The Jhelam valley is much narrower. Above the present
+Chen&aacute;b alluvial tract there is in Ph&aacute;lia a well tract known
+as the Hith&aacute;r whose soil consists of older river deposits,
+and at a higher level a B&aacute;r, which will now receive
+irrigation from the Upper Jhelam Canal and become a
+rich agricultural tract. 26 p.c. of the cultivated area is
+irrigated from wells. J&aacute;ts and G&uacute;jars are the great agricultural
+tribes, the former predominating. The climate
+is mild and the rainfall sufficient. The chief crops are
+wheat and <i>b&aacute;jra</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 2813 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1162 sq. m.
+Pop. 511,575;
+88 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Ra. 752,758
+= &pound;50,183.</div>
+
+<p>The <b>Jhelam district</b> lies to the north of the river of
+the same name. The district is divided into
+three <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, Jhelam, Chakw&aacute;l, Pind D&aacute;dan
+Kh&aacute;n. The river frontage is long, extending
+for about 80 miles, and the river valley
+is about eight miles wide. The district
+contains part of the Salt Range, from the eastern end of
+which the N&iacute;l&iacute; and Tilla spurs strike northwards, enclosing
+very broken ravine country called the Khuddar. The Pabb&iacute;
+tract, embracing the Chakw&aacute;l <i>tahs&iacute;l</i> and the north of the
+Jhelam <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>, is much less broken, though it too is scored
+by deep ravines and traversed by torrents, mostly flowing
+north-west into the Soh&aacute;n river.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> Two large torrents, the
+Kah&aacute; and the Bunh&aacute;r, drain into the Jhelam. There are
+some fertile valleys enclosed in the bare hills of the Salt
+Range. The average rainfall is about 20 inches and the
+climate is good. It is hot in summer, but the cold weather
+is long, and sometimes for short periods severe. There
+is little irrigation and the harvests are by no means
+secure. The chief crops are wheat and <i>b&aacute;jra</i>. The country
+breeds fine horses, fine cattle, and fine men. Numerically
+J&aacute;ts, R&aacute;jputs, and Aw&aacute;ns are the principal tribes, but
+the Janjuas and Gakkhars, though fewer in number, are
+an interesting element in the population, having great
+traditions behind them. Aw&aacute;ns, Janjuas, and Gakkhars
+supply valuable recruits to the army. Most of the villages
+are far from any railway.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig104" id="fig104"></a>
+<img src="images/img104tb.jpg" width="500" height="385" alt="Fig. 104." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img104.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 104.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 2010 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+937 sq. m.
+Pop. 547,827;
+83 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 674,650
+= &pound;44,977.</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 422px;">
+<a name="fig105" id="fig105"></a>
+<img src="images/img105tb.jpg" width="422" height="500" alt="Fig. 105." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img105.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 105.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>R&aacute;walpind&iacute;</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> is the smallest district in the division.
+Along the whole eastern border the Jhelam,
+which runs in a deep gorge, divides it from
+Kashm&iacute;r. There are four <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, Murree,
+Kah&uacute;ta, R&aacute;walpind&iacute;, and G&uacute;jar Kh&aacute;n. The
+first is a small wedge of mountainous
+country between Kashm&iacute;r and Haz&aacute;ra. The hills are
+continued southwards at a lower level in the Kah&uacute;ta
+<i>tahs&iacute;l</i> parallel with the Jhelam. The greater part of the
+district consists of a high plateau of good light loam, in
+parts much eaten into by ravines. Where, as often
+happens, it is not flat the fields have to be carefully
+banked up.  The plateau is drained by the Soh&aacute;n
+and the K&aacute;nsh&iacute;.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> The latter starting in the south
+of Kah&uacute;ta runs through the south-east of the G&uacute;jar
+Kh&aacute;n <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>, and for some miles forms the boundary of
+the R&aacute;walpind&iacute; and Jhelam districts. The district is
+very fully cultivated except in the hills. In the plains
+the rainfall is sufficient and the soil very cool and clean,
+except in the extreme west, where it is sometimes gritty,
+and, while requiring more, gets less, rain. The chief
+crops are wheat, the <i>Khar&iacute;f</i> pulses and <i>b&aacute;jra</i>.  The
+climate is good. The cold weather is long, and, except
+in January and February, when the winds from the
+snows are very trying, it is pleasant. In the plains the
+chief tribes are R&aacute;jputs and Aw&aacute;ns. Gakkhars are of
+some importance in Kah&uacute;ta. In the Murree the leading
+tribes are the Dh&uacute;nds and the Satt&iacute;s, the latter a fine
+race, keen on military service.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig106" id="fig106"></a>
+<img src="images/img106.jpg" width="600" height="404" alt="Fig. 106. Shop in Murree Baz&aacute;r." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 106. Shop in Murree Baz&aacute;r.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>R&aacute;walpind&iacute;</b> is the largest cantonment in Northern
+India. From it the favourite hill station of Murree is
+easily reached, and soon after leaving Murree the traveller
+crosses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> the Jhelam by the Koh&aacute;la bridge and enters the
+territory of the Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja of Kashm&iacute;r.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 4025 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1678 sq. m.
+Pop. 519,273;
+91 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 672,851
+=&pound;44,857.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 432px;">
+<a name="fig107" id="fig107"></a>
+<img src="images/img107tb.jpg" width="432" height="500" alt="Fig. 107." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img107.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 107.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Attock district.</b>&mdash;Though Attock is twice the size of
+R&aacute;walpind&iacute; it has a smaller population.
+Nature has decreed that it should be sparsely
+peopled. The district stretches from the Salt
+Range on the south to the Haz&aacute;ra border
+on the north.  It contains itself the fine
+K&aacute;lachitta<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> range in the north, the small and barren Khair&iacute;
+M&uacute;rat range in the centre, and a line of bare hills running
+parallel with the Indus in the west. That river forms
+the western boundary for 120 miles, dividing Attock
+from Pesh&aacute;war and Koh&aacute;t. It receives in the Attock
+district two tributaries, the Haro and the So&aacute;n. There
+are four <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, Attock, Fatehjang, Pindigheb, and
+Talagang. The northern <i>tahs&iacute;l</i> of Attock is most favoured
+by nature. It contains the Chach plain, part of which
+has a rich soil and valuable well irrigation, also on the
+Haz&aacute;ra border a small group of estates watered by cuts
+from the Haro. The south of the <i>tahs&iacute;l</i> is partly sandy
+and partly has a dry gritty or stony soil. Here the
+crops are very insecure. The rest of the district is a
+plateau. The northern part consists of the <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> of
+Fatehjang and Pindigheb drained by the So&aacute;n and its
+tributary the Sil. The southern is occupied by <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>
+Talagang, a rough plateau with deep ravines and torrents
+draining northwards into the So&aacute;n. In the valleys of
+the Sil and So&aacute;n some good crops are raised. The soil
+of the plateau is very shallow, and the rainfall being
+scanty the harvest is often dried up. The chief crops
+are wheat and <i>b&aacute;jra</i>. Aw&aacute;ns form the bulk of the
+agricultural population.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 5395 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1020 sq. m.
+Pop. 341,377;
+88 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 359,836
+= &pound;23,989.</div>
+
+<p><b>Mianw&aacute;l&iacute;</b> is one of the largest districts, but has the
+smallest population of any except Simla.
+The Indus has a course of about 180 miles
+in Mianw&aacute;l&iacute;. In the north it forms the
+boundary between the Mianw&aacute;l&iacute; <i>tahs&iacute;l</i> and
+the small Isakhel <i>tahs&iacute;l</i> on the right bank. In
+the south it divides the huge Bhakkar <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>, which is bigger
+than an average district, from the Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n
+district of the N.W.F. Province. It is joined from the
+west by the Kurram, which has a short course in the south
+of the Isakhel <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>. The Salt Range extends into the
+district, throwing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> off from its western extremity a spur
+which runs north to the Indus opposite K&aacute;lab&aacute;gh. Four
+tracts may be distinguished, two large and two small.
+North and east of the Salt Range is the Khuddar or
+ravine country, a little bit of the Aw&aacute;nk&aacute;r&iacute; or Aw&aacute;n's
+land, which occupies a large space in Attock. West of
+the Indus in the north the wild and desolate Bhang&iacute;-Khel
+glen with its very scanty and scattered cultivation runs
+north to the Koh&aacute;t Hills. The rest of the district consists
+of the wide and flat valley of the Indus and the Thal or
+Uplands. In the north the latter includes an area of
+strong thirsty loam, but south of the railway it is a huge
+expanse of sand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> rising frequently into hillocks and ridges
+with some fertile bottoms of better soil. Except in the
+north the Thal people used to make their living almost
+entirely as shepherds and camel owners. There were
+scattered little plots of better soil where wells were sunk,
+and the laborious and careful cultivation was and is
+Dutch in its neatness. Some millets were grown in the
+autumn and the sandhills yielded melons. The people
+have now learned that it is worth while to gamble with
+a spring crop of gram, and this has led to an enormous
+extension of the cultivated area. But even now in Mianw&aacute;l&iacute;
+this is a comparatively small fraction of the total
+area. There is a small amount of irrigation from wells
+and in the neighbourhood of Isakhel from canal cuts
+from the Kurram. Owing to the extreme scantiness of
+the rainfall the riverain depends almost entirely on
+the Indus floods, to assist the spread of which a number
+of embankments are maintained. Everywhere in Mianw&aacute;l&iacute;
+the areas both of crops sown and of crops that ripen
+fluctuate enormously, and much of the revenue has
+accordingly been put on a fluctuating basis. The chief
+crops are wheat, <i>b&aacute;jra</i>, and gram. Jats<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> are in a great
+majority Cis-Indus, but Path&aacute;ns are important in Isakhel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 274px;">
+<a name="fig108" id="fig108"></a>
+<img src="images/img108tb.jpg" width="274" height="500" alt="Fig. 108." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img108.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 108.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 4791 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1933 sq. m.
+Pop. 648,989.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 16,96,272
+= &pound;113,085.</div>
+
+<p><b>Sh&aacute;hpur</b> is also a very large district with the three
+<i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> of Bhera, Sh&aacute;hpur, and Sargodha in
+the Jech Do&aacute;b, and on the west of the
+Jhelam the huge Khush&aacute;b <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>, which in
+size exceeds the other three put together.
+The principal tribes are Jats Cis-Jhelam, Aw&aacute;ns in
+the Salt Range, and Jats and Tiw&aacute;nas in Khush&aacute;b. The
+Tiw&aacute;na Maliks have large estates on both sides of the
+river and much local influence. East of the Jhelam the
+colonization of the B&aacute;r after the opening of the Lower
+Jhelam Canal has led to a great increase of population
+and a vast extension<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> of the cultivated area, 71 p.c.
+of which is irrigated. The part of the district in the
+Jech Do&aacute;b consists of the river valleys of the Chen&aacute;b
+and Jhelam, the Ut&aacute;r, and the B&aacute;r. The Chen&aacute;b
+riverain is poor, the Jhelam very fertile with good well
+irrigation. In the north of the district the Ut&aacute;r, a tract
+of older alluvium, lies between the present valley of the
+Jhelam and the B&aacute;r. It has hitherto been largely
+irrigated by public and private inundation canals, but
+this form of irrigation may be superseded by the excavation
+of a new distributary from the Lower Jhelam Canal.
+Till the opening of that canal the B&aacute;r was a vast
+grazing area with a little cultivation on scattered wells
+and in natural hollows. North of the Kir&aacute;na Hill
+the soil is excellent and the country is now a sheet of
+cultivation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> In the south of the B&aacute;r much of the land
+is too poor to be worth tillage. The Khush&aacute;b <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>
+consists of the Jhelam riverain, the Salt Range with
+some fertile valleys hidden amid barren hills, the Moh&aacute;r
+below the hills with a thirsty soil dependent on extremely
+precarious torrent floods, and the Thal, similar to that
+described on page <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a>. The rainfall of the district is
+scanty averaging eleven or twelve inches. The chief
+crops are wheat, <i>b&aacute;jra</i> and <i>jow&aacute;r</i>, <i>char&iacute;</i> and cotton.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig109" id="fig109"></a>
+<img src="images/img109tb.jpg" width="500" height="416" alt="Fig. 109." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img109.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 109.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area,
+28,652 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+9160 sq. m.
+Pop. 3,772,728;
+78 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 81,48,103
+= &pound;542,872.</div>
+
+<p>The <b>Mult&aacute;n</b> division consists of the six districts of
+the S.W. Panj&aacute;b, Montgomery, Lyallpur,
+Jhang, Mult&aacute;n, Muzaffargarh, and Dera
+Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n.  Muhammadans are in an
+overwhelming majority. Wheat and cotton
+are the chief crops.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 4649 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1080 sq. m.
+Pop. 535,299;
+75 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 434,563
+= &pound;28,971.</div>
+
+<p>The <b>Montgomery</b> district takes its name from Sir Robert
+Montgomery (page <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a>). It lies in the B&aacute;r&iacute;
+Do&aacute;b between the Sutlej and the R&aacute;v&iacute;. It
+consists of the two R&aacute;v&iacute; <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> of Gugera
+and Montgomery, and the two Sutlej <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>
+of Dip&aacute;lpur and P&aacute;kpattan. The trans-R&aacute;v&iacute;
+area of the Montgomery district was transferred to
+Lyallpur in April, 1913. It is included in the figures for
+area and population given in the margin.</p>
+
+<p>The backbone of the district is a high and dry tract
+known as the Ganj&iacute; or Bald B&aacute;r. The advent of the
+Lower B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b Canal will entirely change the character
+of this desert. Its south-eastern boundary is a high
+bank marking the course of the old bed of the Bi&aacute;s.
+Below this is the wide Sutlej valley. The part beyond
+the influence of river floods depends largely on
+the Kh&aacute;nw&aacute;h and Soh&aacute;g P&aacute;ra inundation Canals. The
+R&aacute;v&iacute; valley to the north-west of the B&aacute;r is naturally
+fertile and has good well irrigation. But it has suffered
+much by the failure of the R&aacute;v&iacute; floods.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig110" id="fig110"></a>
+<img src="images/img110tb.jpg" width="500" height="357" alt="Fig. 110." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img110.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 110.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>The peasantry<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> belongs largely to various tribes described
+vaguely as J&aacute;ts. The most important are K&aacute;thias,
+Watt&uacute;s, and Kharrals. The last gave trouble in 1857
+and were severely punished. The Dip&aacute;lpur Kambohs are
+much more hard-working than these semi-pastoral J&aacute;ts.
+There is already a small canal colony on the Soh&aacute;g P&aacute;ra
+Canals and arrangements for the colonization of the
+Ganj&iacute; B&aacute;r are now in progress.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 3156 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+2224 sq. m.
+Pop. 857,711;
+61 p.c. M.
+18 p.c. H.
+17 p.c. S.
+4 p.c. Ch.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 37,55,139
+= &pound;237,009.</div>
+
+<p>The <b>Lyallpur district</b> occupies most of the S&aacute;ndal B&aacute;r,
+which a quarter of a century ago was a
+desert producing scrub jungle and, if rains
+were favourable, excellent grass. It was the
+home of a few nomad graziers. The area of
+the district, which was formed in 1904 and
+added to from time to time, has been taken
+out of the Crown Waste of the Jhang and Montgomery
+districts on its colonization after the opening of the Lower
+Chen&aacute;b Canal.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> Some old villages near the present borders
+of these two districts have been included. The colonization
+of the S&aacute;ndal B&aacute;r has been noticed on pages 139-140.
+The figures for area and population given in the margin
+are for the district as it was before the addition of the
+trans-R&aacute;v&iacute; area of Montgomery.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig111" id="fig111"></a>
+<img src="images/img111tb.jpg" width="500" height="411" alt="Fig. 111." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img111.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 111.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Lyallpur is divided into the four <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> of Lyallpur,
+J&aacute;ranwala, Samundr&iacute;, and Toba Tek Singh. It consists
+almost entirely of a flat plain of fertile loam with fringes
+of poor land on the eastern, western, and southern edges.
+The cultivated area is practically all canal irrigated. The
+rainfall of 10 inches does not encourage dry cultivation.
+The chief crops are wheat, the oil seed called <i>toria</i>,
+cotton, and gram. The area of the first much exceeds
+that of the other three put together. There is an
+enormous export of wheat and oil seeds to Kar&aacute;ch&iacute;.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig112" id="fig112"></a>
+<img src="images/img112tb.jpg" width="500" height="443" alt="Fig. 112." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img112.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 112.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 3363 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1214 sq. m.
+Pop. 515,526;
+82 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 11,67,965
+= &pound;77,864.</div>
+
+<p><b>Jhang</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> now consists of a wedge of country lying between
+Lyallpur on the east and Sh&aacute;hpur, Mianw&aacute;l&iacute;,
+and Muzaffargarh on the west. It contains
+the valleys of the Chen&aacute;b and Jhelam rivers,
+which unite to the south-west of the district
+headquarters and flow as a single stream
+to the southern boundary. The valley of the Jhelam
+is pretty and fertile, that of the Chen&aacute;b exactly the
+reverse. In the west of the district part of the Thal is
+included in the boundary. The high land between the
+river valleys is much of it poor. Irrigation from the
+Lower Jhelam Canal is now available. There is a fringe
+of high land on the east of the Chen&aacute;b valley, partly
+commanded by the Lower Chen&aacute;b Canal. Jhang is divided
+into the three large <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> of Jhang, Chiniot, and Shorkot.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>
+The rainfall is about ten inches and the summer long and
+very hot. The chief crops are wheat, <i>jow&aacute;r</i>, and <i>char&iacute;</i>.
+The Si&aacute;ls are few in number, but are the tribe that stands
+highest in rank as representing the former rulers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig113" id="fig113"></a>
+<img src="images/img113tb.jpg" width="500" height="475" alt="Fig. 113." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img113.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 113.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 6107 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1756 sq. m.
+Pop. 814,871;
+82 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 13,74,472
+= &pound;91,631.</div>
+
+<p><b>Mult&aacute;n</b> occupies the south of the B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b. The
+R&aacute;v&iacute; flows from east to west across the north
+of the district and falls into the Chen&aacute;b
+within its boundary. The Sutlej meets the
+combined stream of the Jhelam, Chen&aacute;b, and
+R&aacute;v&iacute; at the south-west corner of the district.</p>
+
+<p>A part of the Kab&iacute;rw&aacute;la <i>tahs&iacute;l</i> lies beyond the R&aacute;v&iacute;.
+The other four <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> are Mult&aacute;n, Shuj&aacute;b&aacute;d, Lodhran,
+and Mails&iacute;. In a very hot district with an average rainfall
+of six inches cultivation must depend on irrigation
+or river floods.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> The present sources of irrigation are
+inundation canals from the Chen&aacute;b and Sutlej supplemented
+by well irrigation, and the Sidhnai Canal from
+the R&aacute;v&iacute;. The district consists of the river valleys,
+older alluvial tracts slightly higher than these valleys,
+but which can be reached by inundation canals<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>, and the
+high central B&aacute;r, which is a continuation of the Ganj&iacute;
+B&aacute;r in Montgomery. Part of this will be served by the
+new Lower B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b Canal. The population consists
+mainly of miscellaneous tribes grouped together under
+the name of Jats, the ethnological significance of which
+in the Western Panj&aacute;b is very slight. They are Muhammadans.
+The district is well served by railways.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 6052 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1163 sq. m.
+Pop. 569,461;
+87 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 873,491
+= &pound;58,233.</div>
+
+<p><b>Muzaffargarh</b> is with the exception of K&aacute;ngra the
+biggest Panj&aacute;b district. It forms a large
+triangle with its apex in the south at the
+junction of the Indus and Panjnad. On
+the west the Indus forms the boundary
+for 180 miles. On the east Muzaffargarh has
+a river boundary with Bah&aacute;walpur and Mult&aacute;n, but,
+where it marches with Jhang, is separated from it by the
+area which that district possesses in the Sind S&aacute;gar Do&aacute;b.
+There are four <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, Leia, Sin&aacute;nwan, Muzaffargarh, and
+Alipur, the first being equal in area to a moderately sized
+district. The greater part of Leia and Sin&aacute;nwan is
+occupied by the Thal. The southern tongue of the
+Thal extends into the Muzaffargarh <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>. The rest
+of that district is a heavily inundated or irrigated tract,
+the part above flood level being easily reached by inundation
+canals. Dry cultivation is impossible with a yearly
+rainfall of about six inches. The chief crop is wheat. In
+the south of the district the people live in frail grass huts,
+and when the floods<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> are out transfer themselves and
+their scanty belongings to wooden platforms.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;">
+<a name="fig114" id="fig114"></a>
+<img src="images/img114tb.jpg" width="283" height="500" alt="Fig. 114." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img114.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 114.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 5325 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1723 sq. m.
+Pop. 499,860;
+88 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 542,473
+= &pound;36,165.</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n district.</b>&mdash;When the N. W. Frontier
+Province was separated from the Panj&aacute;b, the
+older province retained all the trans-Indus
+country in which Biluches were the predominant
+tribe. The Panj&aacute;b therefore kept
+Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n. It has a river frontage
+on the Indus about 230 miles in length and on the
+west is bounded by the Sulim&aacute;n Range, part of which
+is included within the district. The Deputy Commissioner
+of Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n and the Commissioner of
+Mult&aacute;n spend part of the hot weather at Fort Munro.
+The wide Indus valley is known as the Sindh. The
+tract between it and the Hills is the Pach&aacute;dh. It is
+seamed by hill torrents, three of which, the Vehoa, the
+Sangarh, and the Kah&aacute;, have a thread of water even in
+the cold season. The heat in summer is extreme, and
+the <i>luh</i>, a moving current of hot air, claims its human
+victims from time to time. The cultivation in the Sindh
+depends on the river floods and inundation canals, helped
+by wells. In the Pach&aacute;dh dams are built to divert the
+water of the torrents into embanked fields. The cultivated
+area is recorded as 1723 square miles, but this is enormously
+in excess of the cropped areas, for a very large part of
+the embanked area is often unsown. The encroachments
+of the Indus have enforced the transfer of the district
+headquarters from Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n to a new town at
+Choratta. Biluches are the dominant tribe both in
+numbers and political importance. They with few exceptions
+belong to one or other of the eight organized clans
+or tumans, Kasr&aacute;nis, Sor&iacute; Lunds, Khosas, Lagh&aacute;r&iacute;s, Tibb&iacute;
+Lunds, Gurch&aacute;n&iacute;s, Drishaks, and Maz&aacute;r&iacute;s. The most
+important clans are Maz&aacute;r&iacute;s, Lagh&aacute;r&iacute;s, and Gurch&aacute;n&iacute;s.
+Care has been taken to uphold the authority of the
+chiefs. The Deputy Commissioner is political officer for
+such of the independent Biluch tribes across the administrative
+frontier as are not included in the Biluchist&aacute;n
+Agency. Regular troops have all been removed from the
+district. The peace of the borderland is maintained by
+a tribal militia under the command of a British officer.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 270px;">
+<a name="fig115" id="fig115"></a>
+<img src="images/img115tb.jpg" width="270" height="500" alt="Fig. 115." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img115.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 115.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXVI"></a>CHAPTER XXVI</h2>
+
+<h3>THE PANJ&Aacute;B NATIVE STATES</h3>
+
+
+<h3>1. <i>The Phulkian States</i></h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 7599 sq. m.
+Pop. 1,928,724.
+Rev.
+Rs. 118,00,000
+= &pound;786,666.</div>
+
+<p><b>Phulkian States.</b>&mdash;The three Phulkian States of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span>
+Pati&aacute;la, J&iacute;nd, and N&aacute;bha form a political
+agency under the Panj&aacute;b Government. They
+occupy, with Bah&aacute;walpur and Hiss&aacute;r, the
+bulk of that great wedge of light loam and
+sand which R&aacute;jput&aacute;na, physically considered, pushes
+northwards almost to the Sutlej. In the Phulkian States
+this consists of two tracts, the Pow&aacute;dh and the Jangal
+Des. The former, which occupies the north and north-east
+of their territory, possesses a light fertile loam soil
+and a very moderate natural water level, so that well
+irrigation is easy. The Jangal Des is a great tract of
+sandy loam and sand in the south-west. Water lies too
+deep for the profitable working of wells, but the harvests
+are far less insecure than one would suppose looking to
+the scantiness of the rainfall. The soil is wonderfully cool
+and drought-resisting. The dry cultivation consists of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>
+millets in the Autumn, and of gram and mixed crops
+of wheat or barley and gram in the Spring, harvest.
+The three states have rather more than a one-third
+share in the Sirhind Canal, their shares <i>inter se</i> being
+Pati&aacute;la 83&middot;6, N&aacute;bha 8&middot;8, and J&iacute;nd 7&middot;6. Portions of the
+Pow&aacute;dh and Jangal Des are irrigated. In the case of
+the Pow&aacute;dh there has been in some places over irrigation
+considering how near the surface the water table is.
+The Nirw&aacute;na<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> <i>tahs&iacute;l</i> in Pati&aacute;la and the part of J&iacute;nd
+which lies between Karn&aacute;l and Rohtak is a bit of the
+B&aacute;ngar tract of the south-eastern Panj&aacute;b, with a strong
+loam soil and a naturally deep water level. The former
+receives irrigation from the Sirsa, and the latter from the
+H&aacute;nsi, branch of the Western Jamna Canal. The outlying
+tracts to the south of Rohtak and Gurg&aacute;on, acquired
+after the Mutiny, are part of the dry sandy R&aacute;jput&aacute;na
+desert, in which the <i>Khar&iacute;f</i> is the chief harvest, and the
+millets and gram the principal crops. In addition
+Pati&aacute;la has an area of 294 square miles of territory
+immediately below and in the Simla Hills. The territory
+of the Phulkian States is scattered and intermixed, and
+they have islands in British districts and <i>vice versa</i>, a
+natural result of their historic origin and development.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;">
+<a name="fig116" id="fig116"></a>
+<img src="images/img116.jpg" width="390" height="600" alt="Fig. 116. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja of Pati&aacute;la." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 116. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja of Pati&aacute;la.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Phul was the sixth in descent from Bary&aacute;m, a Sidhu
+J&aacute;t, to whom B&aacute;bar gave the <i>Chaudhr&aacute;yat</i> of the wild
+territory to the south-west of Delhi, making him in
+effect a Lord of the Marches.</p>
+
+<h4>
+<i>Tree showing relationship of the three Houses</i>.</h4>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/285.jpg" width="550" height="168" alt="" title="Tree showing relationship of the three Houses" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The century and more which elapsed between the
+grant and Phul's death in 1652 were filled with continual
+fighting with the Bhatt&iacute;s. Phul's second son R&aacute;ma
+obtained from the Governor of S&iacute;rhind the <i>Chaudhr&aacute;yat</i>
+of the Jangal Des. When Ahmad Sh&aacute;h defeated the
+Sikhs near Barn&aacute;la in 1762, R&aacute;ma's son, &Aacute;la Singh, was
+one of his prisoners.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> He was a chief of such importance
+that his conqueror gave him the title of R&aacute;ja and the
+right to coin money. But &Aacute;la Singh found it prudent
+to join next year in the capture of Sirhind. From
+the division of territory which followed the separate
+existence of the Phulkian States begins. The manner in
+which they came in 1809 under British protection has
+already been related. The R&aacute;ja of Pati&aacute;la was our
+ally in the Gurkha War in 1814, and received the
+Pinjaur <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>. The active loyalty displayed in 1857 was
+suitably rewarded by accessions of territory. The right
+of adoption was conferred, and special arrangements
+made to prevent lapse, if nevertheless the line in any
+state failed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 5412 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+4515 sq. m.
+Pop. 1,407,659;
+40 p.c. H.
+38 p.c. S.
+22 p.c. M.
+Rev.
+Rs. 82,00,000
+=&pound;546,666.</div>
+
+<p><b>Pati&aacute;la</b> occupies five-sevenths of the Phulkian inheritance
+The predominant agricultural tribe is
+the J&aacute;ts, over three-fourths of whom are
+Sikhs. The cultivated area is four-fifths of
+the total area. Over one-fourth of the former
+is irrigated, 27 p.c. from wells, and the rest
+from the two canals. In an area extending
+with breaks from Simla to the R&aacute;jput&aacute;na desert the
+variations of agriculture are of course extreme. The
+state is excellently served by railways.</p>
+
+<p><b>Niz&aacute;mats.</b>&mdash;There are five <i>niz&aacute;mats</i> or districts,
+Pinjaur, Amargarh, Karmgarh, An&aacute;hadgarh, and Mohindargarh.
+Their united area is equivalent to that of two
+ordinary British districts. The Pinjaur <i>niz&aacute;mat</i> with
+headquarters at R&aacute;jpura covers only 825 square miles.
+Of its four <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> Pinjaur contains the submontane and
+hill tract, part of the latter being quite close to Simla.
+The other three <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> R&aacute;jpura, Bannur, and Ghanaur
+are in the Pow&aacute;dh. The Amargarh <i>niz&aacute;mat</i> with an
+area of 855 square miles comprises the three <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> of
+Fatehgarh, S&aacute;hibgarh, and Amargarh. The first two
+are rich and fertile<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> well tracts. Amargarh is in the Jangal
+Des to the south-west of S&aacute;hibgarh. It receives irrigation
+from the Kotla branch of the Sirhind Canal. The Karmgarh
+<i>niz&aacute;mat</i> with an area of 1835 square miles contains
+the four <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> of Pati&aacute;la, Bhaw&aacute;nigarh, Sun&aacute;m, and
+Nirw&aacute;na. The headquarters are at Bhaw&aacute;nigarh. The
+first three are partly in the Pow&aacute;dh, and partly in the
+Jangal Des. Nirw&aacute;na is in the B&aacute;ngar. There is much
+irrigation from the Sirhind and Western Jamna Canals.
+The An&aacute;hadgarh <i>niz&aacute;mat</i> lies wholly in the Jangal Des.
+It has an area of 1836 square miles, and is divided into
+three <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, An&aacute;hadgarh, Bhikhi, and Govindgarh. The
+headquarters are at Barn&aacute;la or An&aacute;hadgarh. The Mohindarpur
+<i>niz&aacute;mat</i> lies far away to the south on the borders
+of Jaipur and Alwar (see map on page <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a>). Its area is
+only 576 miles and it has two <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, Mohindargarh or
+K&aacute;naud and Narnaul. K&aacute;naud is the headquarters.</p>
+
+<p>The history down to 1763 has already been related.
+R&aacute;ja &Aacute;la Singh died in 1765 and was succeeded by his
+grandson Amar Singh (1765-1781), who was occupied in
+continual warfare with his brother and his neighbours, as
+became a Sikh chieftain of those days. His son, S&aacute;hib
+Singh (1781-1813), came under British protection in
+1809. Karm Singh (1813-1845), his successor, was our
+ally in the Gurkha War. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Narindar Singh,
+K.C.S.I. (1845-1862), was a wise and brave man, who
+gave manful and most important help in 1857. His
+son, Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Mohindar Singh (1862-1876), succeeded at
+the age of ten and died 14 years later. His eldest son,
+Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Rajindar Singh (1876-1900), was only four
+when he succeeded and died at the age of 28. Another
+long minority, that of the present Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Bhupindar
+Singh, only came to an end a few years ago. In the last
+fifty years Pati&aacute;la has in consequence of three minorities
+been governed, and as a rule successfully governed, for
+long periods<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> by Councils of Regency. The State in 1879
+sent a contingent of 1100 men to the Afgh&aacute;n War. It
+maintains an Imperial Service Force consisting of two
+fine regiments of infantry and one of cavalry. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja
+Rajindar Singh went with one of these regiments to the
+Tirah Expedition.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 1259 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1172 sq. m.
+Pop. 248,887;
+78 p.c. H. and J.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>
+14 p.c. M.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8&nbsp;  "&nbsp; S.</span><br />
+Rev.
+Rs. 19,00,000
+= &pound;126,666.</div>
+
+<p><b>J&iacute;nd.</b>&mdash;A third of the population of J&iacute;nd consists
+of Hindu and Sikh J&aacute;ts. There are two
+<i>niz&aacute;mats</i>, Sangr&uacute;r and J&iacute;nd, the latter divided
+into the <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> of J&iacute;nd and D&aacute;dr&iacute; (map on
+page <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a>). The Sangr&uacute;r villages are interspersed
+among those of the other Phulkian
+States, and form a part of the Jangal Des.
+J&iacute;nd is in the B&aacute;ngar, and D&aacute;dr&iacute;, separated from
+J&iacute;nd by the Rohtak district, is partly in Hari&aacute;na and
+partly in the sandy R&aacute;jput&aacute;na desert. The rainfall
+varies from 17 inches at Sangr&uacute;r to ten inches at D&aacute;dr&iacute;.
+Sangr&uacute;r is irrigated by the Sirhind, and J&iacute;nd by the
+Western Jamna, Canal. D&aacute;dr&iacute; is a dry sandy tract,
+in which the Autumn millets are the chief crop. The
+revenue in 1911-12 was 19 <i>l&aacute;khs</i> (&pound;126,700). For
+imperial service J&iacute;nd keeps up a fine battalion of
+infantry 600 strong. The real founder of the state was
+Gajpat Singh, who was a chief of great vigour. He
+conquered J&iacute;nd and in 1774 deprived his relative, the chief
+of N&aacute;bha, of Sangr&uacute;r. He died in 1789. His successor,
+R&aacute;ja Bh&aacute;g Singh, was a good ally of the British Government.
+He died after a long and successful career in
+1819. His son, Fateh Singh, only survived him by three
+years. Sangat Singh succeeded to troublous times and
+died childless in 1834. His second cousin, R&aacute;ja Sar&uacute;p
+Singh, was only allowed to inherit the territory acquired
+by Gajpat Singh, from whom he derived his claim. But
+the gallant and valuable services rendered by R&aacute;ja Sar&uacute;p
+Singh in 1857<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> enabled him to enlarge his State by the grant
+of the D&aacute;dr&iacute; territory and of
+thirteen villages near Sangr&uacute;r.
+He died in 1864. His son
+Raghub&iacute;r Singh (1864-1887)
+was a vigorous and successful
+ruler. He gave loyal help in
+the K&uacute;ka outbreak and in the
+Second Afgh&aacute;n War. His grandson,
+the present Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Ranbir
+Singh, K.C.S.I., was only eight
+when he succeeded, and J&iacute;nd
+was managed by a Council of
+Regency for a number of years. Full powers were given
+to the chief in 1899.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 312px;">
+<a name="fig117" id="fig117"></a>
+<img src="images/img117.jpg" width="312" height="400" alt="Fig. 117. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja of J&iacute;nd." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 117. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja of J&iacute;nd.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 928 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+806 sq. m.
+Pop. 248,887;
+51 p.c. H. and J.
+31 p.c. S.
+18 p.c. M.
+Rev.
+Rs. 17,00,000
+= &pound;113,300.</div>
+
+<p><b>N&aacute;bha</b> consists of twelve patches of territory in the
+north scattered among the possessions of
+Pati&aacute;la, J&iacute;nd, and Far&iacute;dkot, and two other
+patches in the extreme south on the border
+of Gurg&aacute;on. The northern section of the
+state is divided into the eastern <i>niz&aacute;mat</i> of
+Amloh in the Pow&aacute;dh and the western
+<i>niz&aacute;mat</i> of Phul in the Jangal Des. Both now receive
+irrigation from the Sirhind Canal. The B&aacute;wal <i>niz&aacute;mat</i> is
+part of the arid R&aacute;jput&aacute;na desert. J&aacute;ts, who are mostly
+Sikhs, constitute 30 p.c. of the population.</p>
+
+<p>The State is well served by railways, N&aacute;bha itself
+being on the R&aacute;jpura-Bhatinda line. The Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja
+maintains a battalion of infantry for imperial service.
+Ham&iacute;r Singh, one of the chiefs who joined in the capture
+of Sirhind, may be considered the first R&aacute;ja. He died in
+1783 and was succeeded by his young son, Jaswant
+Singh. When he grew to manhood Jaswant Singh
+proved a very capable chief and succeeded in aggrandising
+his State, which he ruled for 57 years. His son, Deoindar
+Singh (1840&mdash;47),<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> was deposed, as he was considered to have
+failed to support the British Government when the Khalsa
+army crossed the Sutlej in 1845. A fourth of the N&aacute;bha
+territory was confiscated. Bharpur Singh, who became
+chief in 1857, did excellent service at that critical time, and
+the B&aacute;wal <i>niz&aacute;mat</i> was his reward. He was succeeded by
+his brother, Bhagw&aacute;n Singh, in 1863. With Bhagw&aacute;n
+Singh the line died out in 1871,
+but under the provisions of the
+<i>sanad</i> granted after the Mutiny
+a successor was selected from
+among the Badr&uacute;khan chiefs in
+the person of the late Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja
+Sir Hira Singh. No choice could
+have been more happy. Hira
+Singh for 40 years ruled his
+State on old fashioned lines
+with much success. Those who
+had the privilege of his friendship
+will not soon forget the
+alert figure wasted latterly by disease, the gallant bearing,
+or the obstinate will of a Sikh chieftain of a type now
+departed. His son, Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Ripudaman Singh, succeeded
+in 1911.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<a name="fig118" id="fig118"></a>
+<img src="images/img118.jpg" width="316" height="400" alt="Fig. 118. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Sir
+Hira Singh." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 118. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Sir
+Hira Singh.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4>2. <i>Other Sikh States</i></h4>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 630 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+424 sq. m.
+Pop. 268,163.
+Rev.
+Rs. 14,00,000
+= &pound;93,333,
+exclusive of
+Rs. 13,00,000
+= &pound;86,666
+derived from the
+Oudh estates.</div>
+
+<p><b>Kap&uacute;rthala.</b>&mdash;The main part consists of a strip of
+territory mostly in the valley of the Bi&aacute;s,
+and interposed between that river and Jalandhar.
+This is divided into the four <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>
+of Bholath, Dhilwan, Kap&uacute;rthala, and Sult&aacute;npur.
+There is a small island of territory
+in Hoshy&aacute;rpur, and a much larger one, the
+Phagw&aacute;ra <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>, projecting southwards from
+the border<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> of that district into Jalandhar. Two-thirds of
+the area is cultivated and the proportion of high-class
+crops is large. The chief agricultural tribes are the
+Muhammadan Arains and the J&aacute;ts, most of whom are
+Sikhs.</p>
+
+<p>The real founder of the Kap&uacute;rthala house was Sard&aacute;r
+Jassa Singh Ahluw&aacute;lia, who in 1763, when Sirhind fell,
+was the leading Sikh chief in the Panj&aacute;b. He captured
+Kap&uacute;rthala in 1771 and made it his headquarters, and
+died in 1783. A distant relative, B&aacute;gh Singh, succeeded.
+His successor, Fateh Singh, was a sworn brother of Ranj&iacute;t
+Singh, with whom he exchanged turbans. But an alliance
+between the weak and the strong is not free from fears,
+and in 1826 Fateh Singh, who had large possessions south
+of the Sutlej, fled thither and asked the protection of the
+British Government. He returned however to Kap&uacute;rthala
+in 1827, and the Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja never pushed matters
+with Fateh Singh to extremities. The latter died in
+1836. His successor, Nih&aacute;l Singh, was a timid man,
+and his failure to support the British in 1845 led to the
+loss of his Cis-Sutlej estates.
+In 1849 he took the English
+side and was given the title
+of R&aacute;ja. Randh&iacute;r Singh
+succeeded in 1852. His
+conspicuous services in the
+Mutiny were rewarded with
+the grant of estates in Oudh.
+The present Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja, Sir
+Jagatj&iacute;t Singh Bah&aacute;dur,
+G.C.S.I., is a grandson of
+Randh&iacute;r Singh. He was a
+young child when he succeeded
+in 1877. The State maintains a battalion of
+infantry for imperial service.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;">
+<a name="fig119" id="fig119"></a>
+<img src="images/img119.jpg" width="321" height="400" alt="Fig. 119. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Sir Jagatj&iacute;t
+Singh Bah&aacute;dur, G.C.S.I." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 119. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Sir Jagatj&iacute;t
+Singh Bah&aacute;dur, G.C.S.I.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 329px;">
+<a name="fig120" id="fig120"></a>
+<img src="images/img120.jpg" width="329" height="400" alt="Fig. 120. R&aacute;ja Brijindar Singh." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 120. R&aacute;ja Brijindar Singh.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 642 sq. m.
+Pop. 130,925.
+Rev.
+Rs. 11,50,000
+= &pound;76,666.</div>
+
+<p><b>Far&iacute;dkot</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> is a small wedge of territory which almost
+divides the Ferozepore district in two. The
+population is composed of Sikhs 42&frac12;, Hindus
+and Jains 29, and Musalmans 28&frac12; p.c. Sikh
+J&aacute;ts are the strongest tribe. The country
+is flat. In the west it is very sandy, but in the east
+the soil is firmer and is
+irrigated in part by the Sirhind
+Canal. The Chief, like
+the Phulkians, is a Sidhu
+Bar&aacute;r J&aacute;t, and, though not
+a descendant of Phul, unites
+his line with the Phulkians
+further back.  The present
+R&aacute;ja, Brijindar Singh, is 17
+years of age, and the State
+is managed by a Council of
+Regency.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 168 sq.m.
+Pop. 55,915.
+Rev.
+Rs. 221,000
+= &pound;14,733.</div>
+
+<p><b>Kalsia</b> consists of a number of patches of territory in
+Amb&aacute;la and an enclave in Ferozepore known
+as Chirak. The founder of the State was
+one of the J&aacute;ts from the Panj&aacute;b, who swept
+over Amb&aacute;la after the capture of Sirhind
+in 1763, and carved out petty principalities, of which
+Kalsia is the only survivor (page <a href='#Page_180'><b>180</b></a>). The capital is
+Chachraul&iacute;, eight or nine miles north-west of Jag&aacute;dhr&iacute;.
+The present Chief, Sard&aacute;r R&aacute;v&iacute; Sher Singh, is a minor.</p>
+
+
+<h4>3. <i>The Muhammadan States</i></h4>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area,
+15,917 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1853 sq. m.
+Pop. 780,641;
+84 p.c. M.
+Rev.
+Rs. 35,00,000
+= &pound;233,333.</div>
+
+<p><b>Bah&aacute;walpur</b> is by far the largest of the Panj&aacute;b States.
+But the greater part of it is at present
+desert, and the population, except in the
+river tract, is very sparse. Bah&aacute;walpur
+stretches from Ferozepore on the north to
+the Sindh border. It has a river frontage
+exceeding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> 300 miles on the Sutlej, Panjnad, and
+Indus. The cultivated area in 1903-4 was 1451
+square miles, and of this 83 p.c. was irrigated and
+10 p.c. flooded. The rainfall is only five inches and
+the climate is very hot. South and east of the rivers
+is a tract of low land known as the "Sindh," which
+widens out to the south. It is partly flooded and
+partly irrigated by inundation canals with the help of
+wells. Palm groves are a conspicuous feature in the
+Sindh. Behind it is a great stretch of strong loam or
+"<i>pat</i>," narrow in the south, but widening out in the north.
+It is bounded on the south-east by a wide depression
+known as the Hakra,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> probably at one time the bed
+of the Sutlej. At present little cultivation is possible
+in the <i>pat</i>, but there is some hope that a canal taking out
+on the right bank of the Sutlej in Ferozepore may bring
+the water of that river back to it. South of the Hakra
+is a huge tract of sand and sand dunes, known as the
+Roh&iacute; or Cholist&aacute;n, which is part of the R&aacute;jput&aacute;na desert.
+There are three <i>niz&aacute;mats</i>, Minchin&aacute;b&aacute;d in the north,
+Bah&aacute;walpur in the middle, and Kh&aacute;npur in the south.
+The capital, Bah&aacute;walpur, is close to the bridge at Adamw&aacute;han
+by which the N.W. Railway crosses the Sutlej.
+The ruling family belongs to the Abb&aacute;s&iacute; D&aacute;udpotra clan,
+and came originally from Sindh. Sadik Muhammad
+Kh&aacute;n, who received the title of Naw&aacute;b from N&aacute;dir
+Sh&aacute;h, when he invaded the Deraj&aacute;t in 1739, may be
+considered the real founder of the State. The Naw&aacute;b
+Muhummad Bah&aacute;wal Khan III, threatened with invasion
+by Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Ranj&iacute;t Singh, made a treaty with the
+British Government in 1833. He was our faithful ally
+in the first Afgh&aacute;n War, and gave valuable help against
+Diw&aacute;n Mulr&aacute;j in 1848. The next three reigns extending
+from 1852 to 1866 were brief and troubled. Naw&aacute;b
+Sadik Muhummad Kh&aacute;n IV, who succeeded in 1866,
+was a young child, and for the next thirteen years the
+State was managed by Captain Minchin and Captain
+L. H. Grey as Superintendents. The young Naw&aacute;b was
+installed in 1879, and henceforth ruled with the help
+of a Council. In the Afgh&aacute;n War of 1879-1880 Bah&aacute;walpur
+did very useful service. The Naw&aacute;b died in 1899.
+A short minority followed during which Colonel L. H. Grey
+again became Superintendent. The young Naw&aacute;b, Muhammad
+Bah&aacute;wal Kh&aacute;n V, had but a brief reign. He
+was succeeded by the present Chief, Naw&aacute;b Sadik
+Muhummad Kh&aacute;n V, a child of eight or nine years. The
+State is managed by a Council aided by the advice of the
+political Agent.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> From 1903 to 1913, the Agent for the
+Phulkian States was in charge, but a separate Agent has
+recently been appointed for Bah&aacute;walpur and Far&iacute;dkot.
+An efficient camel corps is maintained for imperial service.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 481px;">
+<a name="fig121" id="fig121"></a>
+<img src="images/img121.jpg" width="481" height="500" alt="Naw&aacute;b Sadik Muhammad Kh&aacute;n." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Naw&aacute;b Sadik Muhammad Kh&aacute;n.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 167 sq. m.
+Pop. 71,144.
+Rev.
+Rs. 900,000
+= &pound;60,000.</div>
+
+<p><b>Malerkotla</b> consists of a strip of territory to the south
+of the Ludhi&aacute;na district.  The capital is
+connected with Ludhi&aacute;na by railway. The
+Naw&aacute;b keeps up a company of Sappers and
+Miners for imperial service. He is an
+Afgh&aacute;n, and his ancestor held a position of trust under
+the Moghal Empire, and became independent on its
+decline. The independence of his successor was menaced
+by Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Ranj&iacute;t Singh when Malerkotla came under
+British protection in 1809.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pataud&iacute;, Duj&aacute;na, and Loh&aacute;ru.</b>&mdash;The three little Muhammadan
+States of Loh&aacute;ru, Duj&aacute;na, and Pataud&iacute; are relics
+of the policy which in the opening years of the nineteenth
+century sought rigorously to limit our responsibilities to
+the west of the Jamna. Together they have an area of
+275 square miles, a population of 59,987 persons, and a
+revenue of Rs. 269,500 (&pound;18,000). The Chief of Loh&aacute;ru,
+Naw&aacute;b Am&iacute;r ud d&iacute;n Ahmad Kh&aacute;n, K.C.I.E., is a man of
+distinction.</p>
+
+
+<h4>4. <i>Hindu Hill States</i></h4>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 1200 sq. m.
+pop. 181,110.
+Rev.
+Rs. 500,000
+= &pound;33,333.</div>
+
+<p><b>Mand&iacute;</b> is a tract of mountains and valleys drained by
+the Bi&aacute;s. With Suket, with which for many
+generations it formed one kingdom, it is a
+wedge thrust up from the Sutlej between
+K&aacute;ngra and Kulu. Three-fifths of the area
+is made up of forests and grazing lands. The <i>deod&aacute;r</i>
+and blue pine forests on the Kulu border are valuable.
+At Guma and Drang an impure salt, fit for cattle, is
+extracted from shallow cuttings. A considerable part of
+the revenue is derived from the price and duty. The
+chiefs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> are Chandarb&aacute;ns&iacute; R&aacute;jputs. The direct line came
+to an end in 1912 with the death of Bhaw&aacute;n&iacute; Sen, but to
+prevent lapse the British Government has chosen as
+successor a distant relative, Jogindar Singh, who is still a
+child.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 448px;">
+<a name="fig122" id="fig122"></a>
+<img src="images/img122tb.jpg" width="448" height="500" alt="Fig. 122." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img122.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 122.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 420 sq. m.
+Pop. 54,928.
+Rev.
+Rs. 200,000
+= &pound;13,333.</div>
+
+<p><b>Suket</b> lies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> between Mand&iacute; and the Sutlej. Its R&aacute;ja,
+Ugar Sen, like his distant relative, the R&aacute;ja
+of Mand&iacute;, came under British protection in
+1846. His great-grandson, R&aacute;ja Bhim Sen,
+is the present chief.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 1198 sq. m.
+Pop. 138,520.
+Rev.
+Rs. 600,000
+= &pound;40,000.</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;">
+<a name="fig123" id="fig123"></a>
+<img src="images/img123.jpg" width="362" height="400" alt="Fig. 123. The late R&aacute;ja Surindar Bikram Park&aacute;sh, K.C.S.I.,
+of Sirm&uacute;r." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 123. The late R&aacute;ja Surindar Bikram Park&aacute;sh, K.C.S.I.,
+of Sirm&uacute;r.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Sirm&uacute;r</b> (<b>N&aacute;han</b>) lies to the north of the Amb&aacute;la
+district, and occupies the greater part of the
+catchment area of the Gir&iacute;, a tributary of
+the Jamna. It is for the most part a
+mountain tract, the Chor to the north of the
+Gir&iacute; rising to a height of 11,982 feet. The capital, N&aacute;han
+(3207 feet), near the southern border is in the Siw&aacute;lik
+range. In the south-east of the State is the rich valley
+known as the Ki&aacute;rda D&uacute;n, reclaimed and colonized by
+R&aacute;ja Shamsh&eacute;r Park&aacute;sh. There are valuable <i>deod&aacute;r</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> and
+<i>s&aacute;l</i> forests. A good road connects N&aacute;han with Bar&aacute;ra
+on the N.W. Railway. In 1815 the British Government
+having driven out the Gurkhas put Fateh Park&aacute;sh on
+the throne of his ancestors. His troops fought on the
+English side in the first Sikh War. His successors, R&aacute;ja
+Sir Shamsher Park&aacute;sh, G.C.S.I. (1856-98), and R&aacute;ja
+Sir Surindar Bikram Park&aacute;sh, K.C.S.I. (1898-1911),
+managed their State with conspicuous success. The
+present R&aacute;ja, Amar Park&aacute;sh, is 25 years of age. In the
+second Afgh&aacute;n War in 1880, Sirm&uacute;r sent a contingent
+to the frontier, and the Sappers and Miners, which it
+keeps up for imperial service, accompanied the Tirah
+Expedition of 1897.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 3216 sq. m.
+Pop. 135,989.
+Rev. 4 <i>l&aacute;khs</i>
+= &pound;26,700.</div>
+
+<p><b>Chamba</b> lies to the N. of K&aacute;ngra from which it is
+divided by the Dhauladh&aacute;r (map, p. 284).
+The southern and northern parts of the State
+are occupied respectively by the basins of
+the R&aacute;v&iacute; and the Chandrabh&aacute;g&aacute; or Chen&aacute;b. Chamba is
+a region of lofty mountains with some fertile valleys
+in the south and west. Only about one-nineteenth
+of the area is cultivated. The snowy range of the Mid-Him&aacute;laya
+separates the R&aacute;v&iacute; valley from that of the
+Chandrabh&aacute;g&aacute;, and the great Z&aacute;nsk&aacute;r chain with its
+outliers occupies the territory beyond the Chen&aacute;b, where
+the rainfall is extremely small and Tibetan conditions
+prevail. The State contains fine forests and excellent
+sport is to be got in its mountains. There are five
+<i>waz&aacute;rats</i> or districts, Brahmaur or Barmaur, Chamba,
+Bhattoyat, Chaura, and P&aacute;ng&iacute;.</p>
+
+<p>The authentic history of this S&uacute;rajbans&iacute; Rajput
+principality goes back to the seventh century. It came
+into the British sphere in 1846. During part of the reign
+of R&aacute;ja Sh&aacute;m Singh (1873-1904), the present R&aacute;ja, Sir
+Bhure Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., administered the State as
+Waz&iacute;r,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> filling a difficult position with loyalty and honour.
+He is a R&aacute;jput gentleman of the best type. The R&aacute;ja
+owns the land of the State, but the people have a permanent
+tenant right in cultivated land.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;">
+<a name="fig124" id="fig124"></a>
+<img src="images/img124.jpg" width="275" height="400" alt="Fig. 124. R&aacute;ja Sir Bhure Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 124. R&aacute;ja Sir Bhure Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Simla Hill States.</b>&mdash;The Deputy Commissioner of
+Simla is political officer with the title of Superintendent
+of nineteen, or, including the tributaries of Bashahr,
+Keonthal, and Jubbal, of 28 states with a total area of
+6355 square miles, a population of 410,453, and revenues
+amounting to a little over ten <i>l&aacute;khs</i> (&pound;66,000). The
+States vary in size from the patch of four square miles
+ruled by the Th&aacute;kur of Bija to the 388r square miles
+included in Bashahr. Only four other States have areas
+exceeding 125 square miles, namely, Bil&aacute;spur (448),
+Keonthal (359), Jubbal (320), and Hind&uacute;r or Nalagarh
+(256). Excluding feudatories the revenues vary from
+Rs. 900 (or a little over &pound;1 a week) in Mangal to Rs. 190,000
+(&pound;12,666)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> in Bil&aacute;spur. The chiefs are all R&aacute;jputs, who
+came under our protection at the close of the Gurkha
+War.</p>
+
+<p>The watershed of the Sutlej and Jamna runs through
+the tract. The range which forms the watershed of the
+Sutlej and the Jamna starts from the Shinka Pass on the
+south border of Bashahr and passes over Hattu and
+Simla. In Bashahr it divides the catchment areas of
+the Rup&iacute;n and P&aacute;bar rivers, tributaries of the Tons and
+therefore of the Jamna, from those of the B&aacute;spa and the
+Nogl&iacute;, which are affluents of the Sutlej. West of Bashahr
+the chief tributary of the Jamna is the Gir&iacute; and of the
+Sutlej the G&aacute;mbhar, which rises near Kasaul&iacute;. In the
+east Bashahr has a large area north of the Sutlej drained
+by its tributary the Spit&iacute; and smaller streams. In the
+centre the Sutlej is the northern boundary of the Simla
+Hill States. In the west Bil&aacute;spur extends across that
+river. The east of Bashahr is entirely in the Sutlej
+basin.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 448 sq. m.
+Pop. 93,107.
+Rev. Rs. 190,000
+= &pound;12,666.</div>
+
+<p><b>Bil&aacute;spur.</b>&mdash;This is true also of Bil&aacute;spur or Kahl&uacute;r (map,
+p. 284), which has territory on both banks of
+the river. The capital, Bil&aacute;spur, is on the left
+bank only 1455 feet above sea level. The
+present R&aacute;ja Bije Chand, C.S.I., succeeded in 1889.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 3881 sq. m.
+Pop. 93,203.
+Rev. Rs. 95,000
+= &pound;6233.</div>
+
+<p><b>Bashahr.</b>&mdash;The chain which forms the watershed of
+the Sutlej and Jamna rises from about
+12,000 feet at Hattu in the west to nearly
+20,000 feet on the Tibet border.  Two
+peaks in the chain exceed 20,000 feet. Further north
+Raldang to the east of Ch&iacute;n&iacute; is 21,250 feet high, and
+in the north-east on the Tibet border there are two
+giants about 1000 feet higher. Generally speaking the
+Sutlej runs in a deep gorge but at Ch&iacute;n&iacute; and Sar&aacute;han
+the valley widens out. The main valley of the P&aacute;bar is
+not so narrow as that of the Sutlej, while the side valleys
+descend in easy slopes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> to the river beds. The B&aacute;spa has
+a course of 35 miles. In the last ten miles it falls 2000
+feet and is hemmed in by steep mountains. Above this
+gorge the B&aacute;spa valley is four or five miles wide and
+consists of a succession of plateaux rising one above the
+other from the river's banks. Bashahr is divided into
+two parts, Bashahr proper and Kun&aacute;war. The latter
+occupies the Sutlej valley in the north-east of the State.
+It covers an area of about 1730 square miles and is very
+sparsely peopled. In the north of Kun&aacute;war the predominant
+racial type is Mongoloid and the religion is
+Buddhism. The capital of Bashahr, R&aacute;mpur, on the
+left bank of the Sutlej is at an elevation of 3300 feet.
+The Gurkhas never succeeded in conquering Kun&aacute;war.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span>
+They occupied Bashahr, but in 1815 the British Government
+restored the authority of the R&aacute;ja. The present
+chief, Shamsher Singh, is an old man, who succeeded as
+long ago as 1850. He is incapable of managing the State
+and an English officer is at present in charge.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig125" id="fig125"></a>
+<img src="images/img125tb.jpg" width="500" height="405" alt="Fig. 125. Bashahr." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img125.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 125. Bashahr.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVII" id="CHAPTER_XXVII"></a>CHAPTER XXVII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE NORTH WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE</h3>
+
+
+<h4>1. <i>Districts</i></h4>
+
+<p><b>The Province.</b>&mdash;The N. W. F. Province consists of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span>
+five British districts, Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n, Bannu, Koh&aacute;t,
+Pesh&aacute;war, and Haz&aacute;ra with a total area of 13,193 square
+miles, of which rather less than one-third is cultivated.
+Of the cultivated area 70 p.c. depends solely on the
+rainfall. In addition the Chief Commissioner as Agent
+to the Governor General controls beyond the administrative
+boundary territory occupied by independent tribes,
+which covers approximately an area of 25,500 square
+miles. In 1911 the population of British districts was
+2,196,933 and that of tribal territory is estimated to
+exceed 1,600,000. In the districts 93 persons in every
+hundred profess the creed of Islam and over 38 p.c. are
+Path&aacute;ns.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 3780 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+851 sq. m.
+Pop. 256,120.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 306,240
+= &pound;20,416.</div>
+
+<p><b>Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n</b> lies to the north of Dera Gh&aacute;zi
+Kh&aacute;n and is very similar to it in its
+physical features. It is divided into the
+three <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> of T&aacute;nk, Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n,
+and Kul&aacute;chi. It has a long river frontage
+on the west, and is bounded on the east by
+the Sulim&aacute;n Range. The Kachchh&iacute; of Dera Ismail
+Kh&aacute;n corresponds to the Sindh of Dera Gh&aacute;zi Kh&aacute;n,
+but is much narrower and is not served by inundation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span>
+canals, except in the extreme north, where the Pah&aacute;rpur
+Canal has recently been dug. It depends on floods and
+wells. The D&aacute;man or "Skirt" of the hills is like the
+Pach&aacute;dh of Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n a broad expanse of strong
+clayey loam or <i>pat</i> seamed by torrents and cultivated by
+means of dams and embanked fields. The climate is
+intensely hot in summer, and the average rainfall only
+amounts to ten inches. Between one-fourth and one-fifth
+of the area is cultivated. The Pach&aacute;dh is a camel-breeding
+tract.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 404px;">
+<a name="fig126" id="fig126"></a>
+<img src="images/img126.jpg" width="404" height="600" alt="Fig. 126. Sir Harold Deane." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 126. Sir Harold Deane.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;">
+<a name="fig127" id="fig127"></a>
+<img src="images/img127tb.jpg" width="330" height="500" alt="Fig. 127. NORTH-WEST FRONTIER-PROVINCE" title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img127.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 127. North-West Frontier-Province.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig128" id="fig128"></a>
+<img src="images/img128tb.jpg" width="500" height="498" alt="128. Map of Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n" title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img127.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">128. Map of Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n<br />with trans-border territory
+of Largha Sher&aacute;nis and Ustar&aacute;nas.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Path&aacute;ns predominate in the D&aacute;man and Jats in the
+Kachchh&iacute;.  The Bhittann&iacute;s in the north of the district<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span>
+are an interesting little tribe. The hill section lies outside
+our administrative border, but like the L&aacute;rgha Sher&aacute;n&iacute;s
+in the south are under the political control of the Deputy
+Commissioner. A good metalled road, on which there is
+a <i>tonga</i> service, runs northwards from Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n
+to Bannu.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 1641 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+818 sq. m.
+Pop. 250,086.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 304,004
+= &pound;20,267.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig129" id="fig129"></a>
+<img src="images/img129tb.jpg" width="500" height="481" alt="Fig. 129." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img129.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 129.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Bannu.</b>&mdash;The small Bannu district occupies a basin
+surrounded by hills and drained by the
+Kurram and its affluent, the Toch&iacute;. It is
+cut off from the Indus by the Isakhel <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>
+of Mianw&aacute;l&iacute; and by a horn of the Dera
+Ismail Kh&aacute;n district. Bannu is now connected with
+K&aacute;lab&aacute;gh in Mianw&aacute;l&iacute; by a narrow gauge railway. An
+extension of this line from Laki to T&aacute;nk in the Dera
+Ismail Kh&aacute;n district has been sanctioned. There are two
+<i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, Bannu and Marwat. The cultivated area is about
+one-half of the total area. About 30 p.c. of the cultivation
+is protected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> by irrigation from small canals taking out of
+the streams. Most of the irrigation is in the Bannu <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>.
+The greater part of Marwat is a dry sandy tract yielding in
+favourable seasons large crops of gram. But the harvests
+on unirrigated land are precarious, for the annual rainfall
+is only about 12 inches. The irrigated land in Bannu is
+heavily manured and is often double-cropped. Wheat
+accounts for nearly half of the whole crops of the district.
+The Marwats are a frank manly race of good physique.
+The Bann&uacute;ch&iacute;s are hard-working, but centuries of plodding
+toil on a wet soil has spoiled their bodily development,
+and had its share in imparting to their character qualities
+the reverse of admirable. The Deputy Commissioner
+has also political charge of some 17,884 tribesmen living
+across the border. There are good metalled roads to
+Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n and Koh&aacute;t, and also one on the Toch&iacute;
+route.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 2973 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+512 sq. m.
+Pop. 222,690.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 275,462
+= &pound;18,364.</div>
+
+<p><b>Koh&aacute;t</b> is a large district, but most of it is unfit for
+tillage and only one-sixth is actually cultivated.
+The chief crops are wheat, 44, and
+<i>b&aacute;jra</i>, 26 p.c. The district stretches east
+and west for 100 miles from Khush&aacute;lgarh
+on the Indus to Thal at the mouth of the Kurram valley.
+The two places are now connected by a railway which
+passes through the district headquarters at Koh&aacute;t
+close to the northern border. There are three <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>,
+Koh&aacute;t, Hangu, and Ter&iacute;, the last a wild tract of bare
+hills and ravines occupying the south of the district and
+covering more than half its area. Two small streams,
+the Koh&aacute;t Toi and the Ter&iacute; Toi, drain into the Indus.
+The rainfall is fair, but very capricious. The cold weather
+lasts long and the chill winds that blow during part of
+it are very trying. The chief tribes are the Bangash
+Path&aacute;ns of Hangu and the Khattak Path&aacute;ns of Ter&iacute;.
+The Kh&aacute;n of Ter&iacute; is head of the Khattaks, a manly race<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span>
+which sends many soldiers to our army. He enjoys the
+revenue of the <i>tahs&iacute;l</i> subject to a quit rent of Rs. 20,000.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig130" id="fig130"></a>
+<img src="images/img130tb.jpg" width="500" height="345" alt="Fig. 130." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img130.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 130.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Hangu</b> contains in Upper and Lower Miranzai the most
+fertile land in the district, but the culturable area of
+the <i>tahs&iacute;l</i> is small and only one-tenth of it is under the
+plough. Perennial streams run through the Miranzai
+valleys, and the neighbouring hills support large flocks
+of sheep and goats. Koh&aacute;t contains a number of salt
+quarries, the most important being at Bah&aacute;dur Khel
+near the Bannu border. The Thal subdivision consisting
+of the Hangu <i>tahs&iacute;l</i> is in charge of an Assistant Commissioner
+who manages our political relations with transfrontier
+tribes living west of Fort Lockhart on the Sam&aacute;na
+Range. The Deputy Commissioner is in direct charge of
+the Pass Afr&iacute;d&iacute;s and the Jow&aacute;k&iacute;s and Orakzais in the
+neighbourhood of Koh&aacute;t. He and his Assistant between
+them look after our relations with 144,000 trans-border
+Path&aacute;ns. The Sam&aacute;na Rifles, one of the useful irregular
+corps which keep the peace of the Borderland, have their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span>
+headquarters at Hangu.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig131" id="fig131"></a>
+<img src="images/img131tb.jpg" width="500" height="450" alt="Fig. 131." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img131.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 131.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 2611 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1398 sq. m.
+Pop. 865,000
+Land Rev
+Rs. 11,37,504
+= &pound;75,834.</div>
+
+<p><b>Pesh&aacute;war</b> is a large basin encircled by hills.  The
+gorge of the Indus separates it from Attock
+and Haz&aacute;ra. The basin is drained by the
+K&aacute;bul river, whose chief affluents in Pesh&aacute;war
+are the Sw&aacute;t and the B&aacute;ra.  The
+district is divided into the five <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> of Pesh&aacute;war,
+Charsadda, Naushahra, Mard&aacute;n, and Sw&aacute;b&iacute;. The last
+two form the Mard&aacute;n subdivision. Nearly 40 p.c. of
+the cultivation is protected by irrigation mainly from
+canals large and small. The most important are the
+Lower Sw&aacute;t, the K&aacute;bul River, and the B&aacute;ra River,
+Canals. The irrigated area will soon be much increased
+by the opening of the Upper Sw&aacute;t Canal. The cold
+weather climate is on the whole pleasant, though too
+severe in December and January. The three months
+from August to October are a very unhealthy time. The
+soil except in the stony lands near the hills is a fertile
+loam. The cold weather<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> rainfall is good, and the Spring
+harvest is by far the more important of the two. Wheat
+is the chief crop. Half of the people are Path&aacute;ns, the
+rest are known generically as Hindk&iacute;s. The principal
+Hindk&iacute; tribe is that of the Aw&aacute;ns. Besides managing his
+own people the Deputy Commissioner has to supervise
+our relations with 240,000 independent tribesmen across
+the border. The Assistant Commissioner at Mard&aacute;n,
+where the Corps of Guides is stationed, is in charge of our
+dealings with the men of Buner and the Y&uacute;safzai border.
+The N.W. Railway runs past the city of Pesh&aacute;war to
+Jamr&uacute;d, and there is a branch line from Naushahra to
+Dargai at the foot of the Malakand Pass.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig132" id="fig132"></a>
+<img src="images/img132tb.jpg" width="500" height="477" alt="Fig. 132." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img132.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 132.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Area, 2858 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+673 sq. m.
+Pop. 603,028.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 512,897
+= &pound;34,193.</div>
+
+<p><b>Haz&aacute;ra</b> is a typical montane and submontane district with a copious
+rainfall and a good climate. It has every kind of cultivation from
+narrow terraced <i>kals&iacute;</i> fields built laboriously up steep mountain
+slopes to very rich lands watered by canal cuts from the Dor or Haro.
+Haz&aacute;ra is divided into three <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i>, Haripur, Abbott&aacute;b&aacute;d, and
+Mansehra. Between a fourth and a fifth of this area is culturable and
+cultivated. In this crowded district the words are synonymous. The above
+figure does not include the 204 square miles of Feudal Tan&aacute;wal. The
+rainfall is copious and the crops generally speaking secure. The
+principal are maize 42 and wheat 25 p.c. Haz&aacute;ra was part of the
+territory made over to R&aacute;ja Gul&aacute;b Singh in 1846, but he handed it back
+in exchange for some districts near Jammu. The maintenance of British
+authority in Haz&aacute;ra in face of great odds by the Deputy Commissioner,
+Captain James Abbott,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> during the Second Sikh War is a bright page in
+Panj&aacute;b history, honourable alike to himself and his faithful local
+allies. The population is as mixed as the soils. Path&aacute;ns are numerous,
+but they are split up into small tribes. The Sw&aacute;t&iacute;s of Mansehra are the
+most important section. After Path&aacute;ns G&uacute;jars and Aw&aacute;ns are the chief
+tribes. The Gakkhars, though few in number, hold much land and a
+dominant position in the Kh&aacute;npur tract on the R&aacute;walpind&iacute; border. The
+Deputy Commissioner is also responsible for our relations with 98,000
+trans-border tribesmen. The district is a wedge interposed between
+Kashm&iacute;r on the east and Pesh&aacute;war and the tribal territory north of
+Pesh&aacute;war on the west. The Indus becomes the border<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> about eight miles to
+the north of Amb, and the district consists mainly of the areas drained
+by its tributaries the Unh&aacute;r, Siran, Dor, and Haro. On the eastern side
+the Jhelam is the boundary with Kashmir from Koh&aacute;la to a point below
+Domel, where the Kunh&aacute;r meets it. Thence the Kunh&aacute;r is the boundary to
+near Garh&iacute; Hab&iacute;bullah. To the south of Garh&iacute; the watershed of the Kunh&aacute;r
+and Jhelam is close to these rivers and the country is very rough and
+poor. West of Garh&iacute; it is represented by the chain which separates the
+Kunh&aacute;r and Siran Valleys and ends on the frontier at Musa k&aacute; Musalla
+(13,378 feet). This chain includes one peak over 17,000 feet, M&aacute;l&iacute; k&aacute;
+Parvat, which is the highest in the district. The Kunh&aacute;r rises at the
+top of the K&aacute;gan Glen, where it has a course of about 100 miles to
+B&aacute;lakot. Here the glen ends, for the fall between B&aacute;lakot and Garh&iacute;
+Hab&iacute;bullah is comparatively small. There is a good mule road from Garh&iacute;
+Hab&iacute;bullah to the B&aacute;busar Pass at the top of the K&aacute;gan Glen, and beyond
+it to Chil&aacute;s. There are rest-houses, some very small, at each stage from
+B&aacute;lakot to Chil&aacute;s. The K&aacute;gan is a beautiful mountain glen. At places the
+narrow road looks sheer down on the river hundreds of feet below,
+rushing through a narrow gorge with the logs from the <i>deod&aacute;r</i> forests
+tossing on the surface, and the sensation, it must be confessed, is not
+wholly pleasant. But again it passes close to some quiet pretty stretch
+of this same Kunh&aacute;r. There are side glens, one of which opposite Naran
+contains the beautiful Safarmulk Lake. Near the top of the main glen the
+Lulusar Lake at a height of 11,167 feet and with an average depth of 150
+feet is passed on the left. In the lower part of the glen much maize is
+grown. As one ascends almost the last crop to be seen is a coarse barley
+sown in June and reaped in August. Where the trees and the crops end the
+rich grass pastures begin. K&aacute;gan covers between one-third<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> and
+one-fourth of the whole district. The Siran flows through the beautiful
+Bhogarmang Glen, at the foot of which it receives from the west the
+drainage of the Konsh Glen. Forcing its way through the rough Tan&aacute;wal
+hills, it leaves Feudal Tan&aacute;wal and Badhnak on its right, and finally
+after its junction with the Dor flows round the north of the Gandgarh
+Range and joins the Indus below Torbela. The bare Gandgarh Hills run
+south from Torbela parallel with the Indus. The Dor rises in the hills
+to the south of Abbott&aacute;b&aacute;d and drains the Haripur plain. A range of
+rough hills divides the Dor valley from that of the Haro, which again is
+separated from R&aacute;walpind&iacute; by the Kh&aacute;npur Range. To the west of the Siran
+the Unh&aacute;r flows through Agror and Feudal Tan&aacute;wal, and joins the Indus a
+little above Amb. Irrigation cuts are taken from all these streams, and
+the irrigated cultivation is often of a very high character. The best
+cultivation of the district is in the Haripur plain and the much smaller
+Orash and Pakhl&iacute; plains and in the Haro valley. There is much
+unirrigated cultivation in the first, and it is generally secure except
+in the dry tract in the south-west traversed by the new railway from
+Sarai K&aacute;la. The little Orash plain below Abbott&aacute;b&aacute;d is famous for its
+maize and the Pakhl&iacute; plain for its rice.</p>
+
+<p>Feudal Tan&aacute;wal is a very rough hilly country between the Siran on the
+east and the Black Mountain and the river Indus on the west. It is the
+appanage of the Kh&aacute;ns of Amb and Phulra.</p>
+
+<p>North of Feudal Tan&aacute;wal is Agror. In 1891 the rights of the last Kh&aacute;n
+were declared forfeit for abetment of raids by trans-bordermen.</p>
+
+<p>There are fine forests in Haz&aacute;ra, but unfortunately the <i>deod&aacute;r</i> is
+confined to the K&aacute;gan Glen and the Upper Siran. Nathiagal&iacute;, the summer
+headquarters of the Chief Commissioner, is in the Dungagal&iacute; Range. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span>
+Serai K&aacute;la-Sr&iacute;nagar railway will run through Haz&aacute;ra. There is a good
+mule road from Murree to Abbott&aacute;b&aacute;d through the Gal&iacute;s.</p>
+
+
+<h4>2. <i>Tribal Territory</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;">
+<a name="fig133" id="fig133"></a>
+<img src="images/img133.jpg" width="281" height="400" alt="Fig. 133. Sir George Roos Keppel." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 133. Sir George Roos Keppel.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Feudal Tan&aacute;wal mentioned above occupies the southern corner of the tract
+of independent tribal territory lying between the Haz&aacute;ra border and the
+Indus. North of Tan&aacute;wal on the left bank of the river a long narrow
+chain known as the Black Mountain rises in its highest peaks to a height
+of nearly 10,000 feet. The western slopes are occupied by Hasanzais,
+Akazais, and Chagarzais,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> who are Path&aacute;ns belonging to the great
+Y&uacute;safzai clan, and these three sections also own lands on the right bank
+of the Indus. They have been very troublesome neighbours to the British
+Government. The eastern slopes of the Black Mountain are occupied by
+Saiyyids and Sw&aacute;t&iacute;s, and the latter also hold the glens lying further
+north, the chief of which is Allai.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;">
+<a name="fig134" id="fig134"></a>
+<img src="images/img134tb.jpg" width="377" height="500" alt="Fig. 134." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img134.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 134.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The mountainous tract on the Pesh&aacute;war border lying to the west of
+Tan&aacute;wal and the territory of the Black Mountain tribes formed part of
+the ancient Udy&aacute;na, and its archaeological remains are of much interest.
+It is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> drained by the Barandu, a tributary of the Indus. Its people are
+mainly Y&uacute;safzai Path&aacute;ns, the principal section being the Bunerw&aacute;ls.
+These last bear a good character for honesty and courage, but are slaves
+to the teachings of their <i>mullas</i>. The Y&uacute;safzais have been bad
+neighbours. The origin of the trouble is of old standing, dating back to
+the welcome given by the tribesmen in 1824 to a band of Hind&uacute;st&aacute;n&iacute;
+fanatics, whose leader was Saiyyid Ahmad Sh&aacute;h of Bareilly. Their
+headquarters, first at Sit&aacute;na and afterwards at Malka, became Caves of
+Adullam for political refugees and escaped criminals, and their
+favourite pastime was the kidnapping of Hindu shopkeepers. In 1863 a
+strong punitive expedition under Sir Neville Chamberlain suffered heavy
+losses before it succeeded in occupying the Ambela Pass. The door being
+forced the Y&uacute;safzais themselves destroyed Malka as a pledge of their
+submission. Our political relations with the Y&uacute;safzais are managed by
+the Assistant Commissioner at Mard&aacute;n.</p>
+
+<p>The rest of the tribal territory between the Pesh&aacute;war district and the
+Hindu Kush is included in the D&iacute;r, Sw&aacute;t, and Chitr&aacute;l political agency.
+It is a region of mountains and valleys drained by the Sw&aacute;t, Panjkora,
+and Chitr&aacute;l or Y&aacute;rkhun rivers, all three affluents of the K&aacute;bul river.
+Six tracts are included in the Agency.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) <b>Sw&aacute;t.</b>&mdash;A railway now runs from Naushahra in the Pesh&aacute;war district
+to Dargai, which lies at the foot of the Malakand, a little beyond our
+administrative boundary. An old Buddhist road crosses the pass and
+descends on the far side into Sw&aacute;t. We have a military post at Chakdarra
+on the Sw&aacute;t river, and a military road passing through D&iacute;r connects
+Chakdarra with Kila Drosh in Chitr&aacute;l. Most of the Sw&aacute;t&iacute;s, who are
+Y&uacute;safzais of the Akozai section, occupy a rich valley above 70 miles in
+length watered by the Sw&aacute;t river above its junction with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> the Panjkora.
+Rice is extensively grown, and a malarious environment has affected the
+physique and the character of the people. The Sw&aacute;t&iacute; is priest-ridden and
+treacherous. Even his courage has been denied, probably unjustly. Sw&aacute;t&iacute;
+fanaticism has been a source of much trouble on the Pesh&aacute;war border. The
+last serious outbreak was in 1897, when a determined, but unsuccessful,
+attack was made on our posts at Chakdarra and the Malakand Pass. The
+Sw&aacute;t&iacute;s are Y&uacute;safzai Path&aacute;ns of the Akozai clan, and are divided into
+five sections, one of which is known as R&aacute;n&iacute;zai.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) <b>Sam R&aacute;n&iacute;zai.</b>&mdash;A small tract between the Pesh&aacute;war border and the
+hills is occupied by the Sam R&aacute;n&iacute;zais, who were formerly servants and
+tenants of the R&aacute;n&iacute;zais, but are now independent.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) <b>Utm&aacute;n Khel.</b>&mdash;The country of the Utm&aacute;n Khels begins where the
+Pesh&aacute;war boundary turns to the south. This tribe occupies the tract on
+both sides of the Sw&aacute;t river to the west of Sw&aacute;t and Sam R&aacute;n&iacute;zai. On the
+south-west the Sw&aacute;t river divides the Utm&aacute;n Khels from the Mohmands.
+Their country is very barren, but a good many of them cultivate land in
+the Pesh&aacute;war district. The Utm&aacute;n Khels are quite independent of the
+surrounding tribes and have been troublesome neighbours to ourselves.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) <b>Bajaur.</b>&mdash;Bajaur is a very mountainous tract lying to the
+north-west of the Utm&aacute;n Khel country and between it and the Durand line.
+It includes four valleys, through which flow the Rud river and its
+affluents with the exception of that known as Jandol. The valley of the
+last is now included in D&iacute;r. The Rud, also known as the Bajaur, is a
+tributary of the Panjkora. The people consist mainly of Mamunds and
+other sections of the Tarkanr&iacute; clan, which is related to the Y&uacute;safzais.
+They own a very nominal allegiance to the Kh&aacute;n of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> Nawagai, who is
+recognised as the hereditary head of the Tarkanr&iacute;s. They manage their
+affairs in quasi-republican fashion through a council consisting of the
+particular party which for the time being has got the upper hand.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) <b>D&iacute;r.</b>&mdash;D&iacute;r is the mountainous country drained by the Panjkora and
+its tributaries, to the north of its junction with the Rud river in
+Bajaur. It is separated from Chitr&aacute;l by the Uchiri Range, which forms
+the watershed of the Panjkora and Kunar rivers. The military road to
+Kila Drosh crosses this chain by the Lowari Pass at a height of 10,200
+feet. The people of D&iacute;r are mostly Y&uacute;safzais, relations of the Sw&aacute;t&iacute;s,
+whom they much resemble in character. They pay one-tenth of their
+produce to their overlord, the Kh&aacute;n of D&iacute;r, when he is strong enough to
+take it. The higher parts of the country have a good climate and contain
+fine <i>deod&aacute;r</i> forests. The Kh&aacute;n derives much of his income from the
+export of timber, which is floated down the Panjkora and Sw&aacute;t rivers.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>f</i>) <b>Chitr&aacute;l.</b>&mdash;The Path&aacute;n country ends at the Lowari Pass. Beyond,
+right up to the main axis of the Hindu Kush, is Chitr&aacute;l. It comprises
+the basin of the Y&aacute;rkhun or Chitr&aacute;l river from its distant source in the
+Shawar Shur glacier to Arnawai, where it receives from the west the
+waters of the Bashgul, and is thenceforth known as the Kunar. Its
+western boundary is the Durand line, which follows a lofty chain
+sometimes called the K&aacute;firist&aacute;n range. Another great spur of the Hindu
+Kush known as the Shandur range divides Chitr&aacute;l on the east from the
+basin of the Yas&iacute;n river and the territories included in the Gilgit
+Agency (see Chapter <span class="smcap">XXVIII</span>). Chitr&aacute;l is a fine country with a few
+fertile valleys, good forests below 11,000 feet, and splendid, if
+desolate, mountains in the higher ranges. The Chitr&aacute;l&iacute;s are a quiet
+pleasure-loving people, fond of children and of dancing, hawking, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span>
+polo. They are no cowards and no fanatics, but have little regard for
+truth or good faith. The common language is Khow&aacute;r (see page <a href='#Page_112'><b>112</b></a>). The
+chief, known as the Mehtar, has his headquarters at Chitr&aacute;l, a large
+village on the river of the same name. It is dominated at a distance by
+the great snow peak of Tirach M&iacute;r (see page <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a>). The British garrison is
+stationed at Kila Drosh on the river bank about halfway between Chitr&aacute;l
+and the Lowari Pass<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 461px;">
+<a name="fig135" id="fig135"></a>
+<img src="images/img135tb.jpg" width="461" height="500" alt="Fig. 135." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img135.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 135.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Mohmands and Mallagor&iacute;s.</b>&mdash;South of the Utm&aacute;n Khel country and north of
+the Khaibar are the rugged and barren hills held by that part of the
+Mohmand tribe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> which lives inside the Durand line. The clan can muster
+about 20,000 fighting men and is as convenient a neighbour as a nest of
+hornets. The southern edge of the tract, where it abuts on the Khaibar,
+is held by the little Mallagor&iacute; tribe, which is independent of the
+Mohmands. Their country is important strategically because a route
+passes through it by which the Khaibar can be outflanked. It is included
+in the charge of the Political Agent for the Khaibar.</p>
+
+<p><b>Afr&iacute;d&iacute;s.</b>&mdash;The pass and the tract lying to the south of it including the
+Baz&aacute;r valley and part of Tirah are the home of the six sections of the
+Pass Afr&iacute;d&iacute;s, the most important being the Zakha Khel, whose winter home
+is in the Khaibar and the Baz&aacute;r valley, a barren glen hemmed in by
+barren hills, the entrance to which is not far from Ali Masjid. Its
+elevation is 3000 to 4000 feet. The valleys in Tirah proper, where the
+Pass Afr&iacute;d&iacute;s for the most part spend the summer, are two or three
+thousand feet higher. When the snow melts there is excellent pasturage.
+The climate is pleasant in summer, but bitterly cold in winter. The B&aacute;ra
+river with its affluents drains the glens of Tirah. The Aka Khel
+Afr&iacute;d&iacute;s, who have no share in the Pass allowances, own a good dear of
+land in the lower B&aacute;ra valley and winter in the adjoining hills. The
+fighting strength of the above seven sections may be put at 21,000. When
+they have been able to unite they have shown themselves formidable
+enemies, for they are a strong and manly race, and they inhabit a very
+difficult country<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>. But the Afr&iacute;d&iacute; clan is torn by dissensions. Blood
+feuds divide house from house, and the sections are constantly at feud
+one with another. Apart from other causes of quarrel there is the
+standing division into two great factions, Gar and Samil, which prevails
+among Afr&iacute;d&iacute;s and Orakzais. Afr&iacute;d&iacute;s enlist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> freely in our regiments and
+in the Khaibar Rifles, and have proved themselves excellent soldiers.
+The eighth section of the Afr&iacute;d&iacute;s, the Adam Khel, who hold the Koh&aacute;t
+Pass and the adjoining hills, have very little connection with the rest
+of the clan. The Jow&aacute;k&iacute;s, against whom an expedition had to be sent in
+the cold weather of 1877-78, are a sub-section of the Adam Khel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 408px;">
+<a name="fig136" id="fig136"></a>
+<img src="images/img136.jpg" width="408" height="600" alt="Fig. 136. Khaibar Rifles." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 136. Khaibar Rifles.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Orakzais, Chamkann&iacute;s, and Zaimukhts.</b>&mdash;The Orakzais, who in numbers are
+even stronger than the Pass and Aka Khel Afr&iacute;d&iacute;s, occupy the south of
+Tirah, the Sam&aacute;n&aacute; Range on the border of Koh&aacute;t, and the valley of the
+Kh&aacute;nk&iacute; river. The tribal territory extends westwards as far as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> the
+Khurmana, a tributary of the Kurram. The Orakzais do some trade and Sikh
+<i>banias</i> and artizans are to be found in some of their villages. The
+clan is honey-combed with feuds. North-west of the Orakzais beyond the
+Khurmana are the Chamkann&iacute;s, and on the south is a small tribe of
+vigorous mountaineers called Zaimukhts. One of these Zaimukhts, Sarwar
+Kh&aacute;n, nicknamed Chikai, was a notorious frontier robber, and a person of
+considerable importance on the border till his death in 1903.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Kurram Valley.</b>&mdash;The Kurram Valley, which is drained by the Kurram
+river and its affluents, lies to the south of the lofty Safed Koh range,
+and reaches from Thal in Koh&aacute;t to the Peiwar Kotal on the borders of
+Afgh&aacute;n Khost. It has an area of nearly 1300 square miles and in 1911 the
+population was estimated at 60,941 souls. Though under British
+administration, it does not form a part of any British district. The
+people are Path&aacute;ns of various clans, the predominant element being the
+Tur&iacute;s, who are Shias by religion and probably of Turkish origin. It was
+at their request that the valley was annexed in 1892. The political
+agent has his headquarters at Parachin&aacute;r in Upper Kurram, which is
+divided from Lower Kurram by a spur of the Khost hills, through which
+the river has cut a passage. Such part of the Indian penal law as is
+suitable has been introduced, and civil rights are governed by the
+customary law of the Tur&iacute;s. A complete record of rights in land and
+water has been framed, and the land revenue demand is 88,000 rupees
+(&pound;5889). Upper Kurram is a wide and fertile valley set in a frame of
+pine-clad hills. It is not fully cultivated, but has great
+possibilities, especially in the matter of fruit growing. The snowfall
+is heavy in winter, but the summer climate is excellent. Lower Kurram is
+a poor and narrow glen unpleasantly hot and cold according to the season
+of the year.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> Parachin&aacute;r is connected with the railhead at Thal by a
+good <i>tonga</i> road.</p>
+
+<p><b>Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n.</b>&mdash;The country of the Darwesh Khel and Mahsud Waz&iacute;rs extends
+from the Kurram valley to the Gomal river. It is divided into the North
+Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n (2300 square miles) and the South Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n (2700 square
+miles) Agencies. North Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n consists of four valleys and some
+barren plateaux. The principal valley is that of Daur (700 square miles)
+drained by the Toch&iacute;. In 1894 the Dauris sought refuge from Darwesh Khel
+inroads by asking for British administration. In the eyes of the Darwesh
+Khel they are a race of clodhoppers. Their sole virtue consists in
+patient spade industry in the stiff rich soil of their valley, their
+vices are gross, and their fanaticism is extreme. The political agent's
+headquarters are at Miram Shah. South Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n is the home of the
+troublesome Mahsuds, who can muster 11,000 fighting men. But parts of
+the country, e.g. the W&aacute;na plain, are held by the Darwesh Khel. Much of
+South Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n consists of bare hills and valleys and stony plains
+scored with torrents, which are dry most of the year. The streams are
+salt. Part of the hinterland is however a more inviting tract with
+grassy uplands and hills clad with oak, pine, and <i>deod&aacute;r</i>. W&aacute;na, where
+the political agent has his headquarters, was occupied on the invitation
+of the Darwesh Khel in 1894.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sher&aacute;n&iacute;s.</b>&mdash;The Sher&aacute;n&iacute; country stretches along the Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n
+border from the Gomal to the Vihoa torrent. The L&aacute;rgha or lower part has
+been under direct administration since 1899, the Upper part belongs to
+the Biluchist&aacute;n Agency.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tribal Militias.</b>&mdash;In the greater part of India beyond the border there
+is no British administration. Respect for our authority and the peace of
+the roads are upheld,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> and raiding on British territory is restrained,
+by irregular forces raised from among the tribesmen. There are Hunza and
+Nagar levies, Chitr&aacute;l and D&iacute;r levies, Khaibar Rifles, Sam&aacute;na Rifles, and
+Kurram, North Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n, and South Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n militias.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig137" id="fig137"></a>
+<img src="images/img137.jpg" width="600" height="462" alt="Fig. 137. North Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n Militia and Border Post." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 137. North Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n Militia and Border Post.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVIII" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII"></a>CHAPTER XXVIII</h2>
+
+<h3>KASHM&Iacute;R AND JAMMU</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Kashm&iacute;r.</b>&mdash;Some account has already been given of the topography and
+scenery of the wide territory, covering an area about equal to that of
+the Panj&aacute;b less the Amb&aacute;la division, ruled by the Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja of Kashm&iacute;r
+and Jammu. The population, races, languages, and religions have been
+referred to in Chapters <span class="smcap">IX</span> and <span class="smcap">X</span>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Modern history.</b>&mdash;Some mention has been made of the early history of
+Kashm&iacute;r (pages 165, 166, 172, 173). Even the hard Sikh rule was a relief
+to a country which had felt the tyranny of the Dur&aacute;n&iacute; governors who
+succeeded the Moghals. Under the latter small kingships had survived in
+the Jammu hills, but the Jammuw&aacute;l Rajas met at Ranj&iacute;t Singh's hands the
+same fate as the K&aacute;ngra R&aacute;jas. Three cadets of the Jammu royal house,
+the brothers Dhi&aacute;n Singh, Suchet Singh, and Gul&aacute;b Singh, were great men
+at his court. In 1820 he made the last R&aacute;ja of Jammu. Gul&aacute;b Singh was a
+man fit for large designs. In 20 years he had made himself master of
+Bhadr&aacute;wah, Kishtw&aacute;r, Lad&aacute;kh, and B&aacute;ltist&aacute;n, and held the casket which
+enclosed the jewel of Kashm&iacute;r. He acquired the jewel itself for 75 lakhs
+by treaty with the British at the close of the first Sikh war.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Excluding a large but little-known and almost uninhabited tract beyond
+the Muztagh and Karakoram mountains, the drainage of which is northwards
+into Central Asia, the country consists of the valleys of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> Chen&aacute;b,
+Jhelam, and Indus, that of the last amounting to three-fourths of the
+whole. There is a trifling area to the west of Jammu, which contains the
+head-waters of small streams which find their way into the R&aacute;v&iacute;.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 423px;">
+<a name="fig138" id="fig138"></a>
+<img src="images/img138.jpg" width="423" height="600" alt="Fig. 138. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja of Kashm&iacute;r." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 138. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja of Kashm&iacute;r.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig139" id="fig139"></a>
+<img src="images/img139tb.jpg" width="500" height="476" alt="Fig. 139. Sketch Map of Chen&aacute;b and Jhelam Valleys (Jammu
+and Kashm&iacute;r)." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img139.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 139. Sketch Map of Chen&aacute;b and Jhelam Valleys (Jammu
+and Kashm&iacute;r).</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>Divisions.</b>&mdash;The following broad divisions may be recognised:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="70%" cellspacing="0" summary="Divisions.">
+<tr><td align='left'>1. Chen&aacute;b Valley</td><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>) Plain and Kand&iacute; or Low Hills.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>) Uplands of Kishtw&aacute;r and Bhadr&aacute;wah.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2. Jhelam Valley</td><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>) Vale of Kashm&iacute;r with adjoining glens and hills.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>) Gorge below B&aacute;ram&uacute;la and Kishnganga Valley.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3. Indus Valley</td><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>) Lad&aacute;kh including Z&aacute;nskar and Rupshu.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>) B&aacute;ltist&aacute;n.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>(<i>c</i>) Astor and Gilgit.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Chen&aacute;b Valley.</b>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <i>Plain and Kand&iacute;.</i> This tract extends from M&iacute;rpur
+on the Jhelam to Kathua near the R&aacute;v&iacute; and close to the head-works of the
+Upper B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b Canal at M&aacute;dhopur. It is coterminous with the Panj&aacute;b
+districts of Jhelam, Gujr&aacute;t, Si&aacute;lkot, and Gurd&aacute;spur, and comprises four
+of the five districts of the Jammu Province, M&iacute;rpur, Ri&aacute;s&iacute;, Jammu, and
+Jasrota, and a part of the fifth, Udhampur. The plain is moist and
+unhealthy. The rough country behind with a stony and thirsty red soil
+covered in its natural state with <i>garna</i> (Carissa spinarum), <i>sanatan</i>
+(Dodonaea viscosa), and <i>bhekar</i> (Adhatoda vasica) does not suffer in
+this respect. The chief crops of the Kand&iacute; are wheat, barley, and rape
+in the spring, and maize and <i>b&aacute;jra</i> in the autumn, harvest. Behind the
+Kand&iacute; is a higher and better tract, including Naoshera, with wide
+valleys, in which maize replaces <i>b&aacute;jra</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Uplands.</i> The greater part of the Upper Chen&aacute;b Valley is occupied
+by Kishtw&aacute;r and <i>Jag&iacute;r</i> Bhadr&aacute;wah. The rainfall is heavy and there is
+copious irrigation from <i>kuhls</i> (page <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a>), but elevation and rapid
+drainage make the climate healthy. In the upper parts snow and cold
+winds sometimes prevent the ripening of the crops. The poppy is grown in
+Kishtw&aacute;r and Bhadr&aacute;wah. Kishtw&aacute;r is a part of the Udhampur district.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jhelam Valley.</b>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <i>Vale of Kashm&iacute;r with adjoining glens and
+mountains.</i> This first division of the Jhelam Valley extends from the
+source above Vern&aacute;g to B&aacute;ram&uacute;la, and embraces not only the Vale of
+Kashm&iacute;r, over 80 miles long and from 20 to 25 miles in breadth, but the
+glens which drain into it and the mountains that surround<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> it. It
+therefore includes cultivation of all sorts from rich irrigated rice
+fields to narrow plots terraced up mountain slopes on which buckwheat
+and the beardless Tibetan barley are grown. The administrative divisions
+are the <i>waz&aacute;rat</i> or district of South Kashmir and the southern part of
+North Kashm&iacute;r. The central valley has an elevation of 6000 feet. It was
+undoubtedly once a lake bed. Shelving fan-shaped "<i>karewas</i>" spread out
+into it from the bases of the hills. The object of the Kashm&iacute;r&iacute; is to
+raise as much rice as he possibly can on the alluvium of his valley and
+on the rich soil deposited on the banks of mountain streams. Manure and
+facilities for irrigation exist in abundance, and full use is made of
+them in the cultivation of the favourite crop. <i>Kangn&iacute;</i> takes the place
+of rice in many fields if there is any deficiency of water. On reclaimed
+swamps near the Jhelam heavy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> crops of maize are raised. The tillage for
+wheat and barley is as careless as that for rice is careful. The
+cultivation of saffron (Crocus sativus) on <i>karewas</i> is famous, but the
+area is now limited, as the starving people ate up the bulbs in the
+great famine of 1877 and recovery is slow. Saffron is used as a pigment
+for the sectarian marks on the forehead of the orthodox Hindu and also
+as a condiment. The little floating vegetable gardens on the Dal lake
+are a very curious feature. The "<i>demb</i>" lands on the borders of the
+same lake are a rich field for the market gardener's art. He fences a
+bit of land with willows, and deposits on it weeds and mud from the lake
+bed. He is of the boatman or Hanz caste, whose reputation is by no means
+high, and can himself convey by water his vegetables and fruits to the
+Sr&iacute;nagar market. The production of fruit in Kashm&iacute;r is very large, and
+the extension of the railway to Sr&iacute;nagar should lead to much improvement
+in the quality and in the extent of the trade. It may also improve the
+prospects of sericulture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig140" id="fig140"></a>
+<img src="images/img140.jpg" width="600" height="418" alt="Fig. 140. Takht i Sulim&aacute;n in Winter." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 140. Takht i Sulim&aacute;n in Winter.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Jhelam Gorge and Valley of Kishnganga.</i> The Jhelam gorge below
+B&aacute;ram&uacute;la is narrow and the cultivation is usually terraced. The
+Kishnganga joins the Jhelam near Muzaffar&aacute;b&aacute;d. The Muzaffar&aacute;b&aacute;d district
+includes the Jhelam gorge and the lower part of the valley of the
+Kishnganga. The upper part is in the Uttarmachhipura <i>tahs&iacute;l</i> of the
+district of North Kashm&iacute;r.</p>
+
+<p><b>Indus Valley.</b>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <i>Lad&aacute;kh including Z&aacute;nskar and Rupshu.</i> Some
+description of Lad&aacute;kh and its scenery has already been given in Chapter
+II. It may be divided into Rupshu, Z&aacute;nskar, and Lad&aacute;kh proper with Leh
+as its centre. Rupshu in the south-east is a country of great brackish
+lakes in no part less than 13,500 feet above sea level. At such a height
+cultivation must be very difficult, but a little beardless Tibetan
+barley is raised. The scanty population consists mainly of nomad
+shepherds. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> Lad&aacute;kh the people are divided into shepherds or
+<i>champas</i>, who roam over the Alpine pastures, and Lad&aacute;kh&iacute;s, who till
+laboriously every available patch of culturable land in the river
+valleys. Though both are Buddhists they rarely intermarry. Z&aacute;nskar to
+the N.W. of Rupshu is drained by the river of the same name, which flows
+northwards to join the Indus below Leh. It forms part of the Kargil
+<i>tahs&iacute;l</i>. Z&aacute;nskar is a bleak inaccessible region where the people and
+cattle remain indoors for six months of the year. Its breed of ponies is
+famous. In Lad&aacute;kh proper cultivation ranges from 9000 to 15,000 feet.
+The sandy soil must be manured and irrigated, and is often refreshed by
+top-dressings of fresh earth from the hill sides. The crops are wheat
+and barley, rape, lucerne, peas and beans, in spring, and buckwheat,
+millets, and turnips, in autumn. There is a great lack of wood for
+building and for fuel, and the deficiency in the latter case has to be
+supplied by cow-dung cakes. Notwithstanding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> their hard life the people
+are cheerful and fairly well off, for polyandry has prevented
+overcrowding.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig141" id="fig141"></a>
+<img src="images/img141.jpg" width="600" height="349" alt="Fig. 141. Lad&aacute;kh Hills." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 141. Lad&aacute;kh Hills.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>B&aacute;ltist&aacute;n.</i> In B&aacute;ltist&aacute;n, which lies to the N.W. of Lad&aacute;kh, they
+are Muhammadans and there is much more pressure on the soil. They are a
+cheery race and very fond of polo. To support their families the men
+have to work as carriers on the roads to Leh and Gilgit. They tend the
+cattle in the pastures, keep the irrigation channels and the walls of
+the terraced fields in repair, and do the ploughing. The rest of the
+work of cultivation is left to the women. The climate is very severe and
+most of the rivers are frozen in winter. On the other hand near the
+Indus on the Skardo plain (7250 feet) and in the Rondu gorge further
+west, the heat is intense in July and August. The dreary treeless stony
+Deosai Plains on the road to Kashm&iacute;r have an elevation of 13,000 feet.
+The cultivation and crops are much the same as in Lad&aacute;kh. Excellent
+fruit is grown, and there is a considerable export of apricots. Gold
+washing is carried on with profit.</p>
+
+<p>Lad&aacute;kh and B&aacute;ltist&aacute;n together form the Lad&aacute;kh <i>waz&aacute;rat</i>, divided into
+the three <i>tahs&iacute;ls</i> of Lad&aacute;kh, Kargil, and Skardo.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Astor and Gilgit.</i>&mdash;Where the Gilgit road from Kashm&iacute;r descends
+from the Burzil pass (13,500 feet) the country of Astor is reached. It
+is drained by the Astor river, which joins the Indus to the south of
+Bunj&iacute;. The bridge which crosses it at Ramgh&aacute;t is only 3800 feet above
+sea level. The village of Astor itself is at a height of 7853 feet. The
+cultivation is of the same description as that in B&aacute;ltist&aacute;n.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> The aspect
+of the country is bleak till the Indus is crossed, and Gilgit (4890
+feet) is reached. Here there is a fertile well-watered oasis from which
+on every side great mountain peaks are visible. The lands are heavily
+manured. Rice, maize, millet, buckwheat, cotton, wheat, barley, rape,
+and lucerne are grown. There<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> is a second and easier road to Gilgit
+from India over the B&aacute;busar pass at the top of the K&aacute;gan Glen in Haz&aacute;ra.
+But the posts are sent by the Kashm&iacute;r road. The Astor&iacute;s and Gilgit&iacute;s are
+a simple easy-going folk, and, like the B&aacute;lt&iacute;s, very fond of polo. A
+British Political Agent is stationed at Gilgit. He is responsible to the
+Government of India for the administration of Hunza, Nagar, and Yas&iacute;n,
+and of the little republics in the neighbourhood of Chil&aacute;s. Hunza and
+Nagar lie to the north of Gilgit near the junction of the Muztagh and
+Hindu Kush ranges, and Yas&iacute;n far to the west about the upper waters of
+the Gilgit river.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 349px;">
+<a name="fig142" id="fig142"></a>
+<img src="images/img142.jpg" width="349" height="600" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 142. Zojil&aacute; Pass (page <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Astor and Gilgit also Gul&aacute;b Singh's Dogras replaced the Sikh troops.
+But across the Indus Gul&aacute;b Singh was never strong, and after 1852 that
+river was his boundary. He died in 1857, having proved himself a hard
+and unscrupulous, but a capable and successful ruler. His son, Randh&iacute;r
+Singh, was a better man, but a worse king. A good Hindu, tolerant, and a
+friend of learning, he had not the force of character to control the
+corrupt official class, and the people suffered much in consequence. He
+was a loyal ally in the Mutiny. In 1860 his forces recovered Gilgit, a
+conquest which for years after was a fruitful source of suffering to his
+Cis-Indus subjects. The present Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja, Sir Prat&aacute;p Singh, G.C.S.I.,
+succeeded in 1885. While he lived his brother, R&aacute;ja Amar Singh, played a
+very important part in Kashm&iacute;r affairs. From 1887 to 1905 the
+administration was managed by a small council, of which after 1891 the
+Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja was President and R&aacute;ja Amar Singh Vice-President. It was
+abolished in 1905. There are now under the Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja a chief minister and
+ministers in charge of the home and revenue departments. Judicial
+business is controlled by the Judge of the High Court. Death sentences
+must be confirmed by the Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja. The highest executive officers are
+the governors<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> of Jammu and Kashm&iacute;r, and the <i>Waz&iacute;rs Waz&aacute;rat</i> of Lad&aacute;kh
+and Gilgit. In Jammu and Kashm&iacute;r each of the eight districts is in
+charge of a <i>Waz&iacute;r Waz&aacute;rat</i>. In connection with the land revenue
+settlement, forests, etc., the services of British officers have been
+lent to the State. The Government of India is represented at Sr&iacute;nagar by
+a Resident, and a political agent at Gilgit exercises a general
+supervision over the <i>Waz&iacute;r Waz&aacute;rat</i>.</p>
+
+<p>During the reign of the present Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja great reforms have been
+effected. The construction of the Gilgit road has done away with the
+blood tax, which the conveyance of supplies to that remote post formerly
+involved. The land revenue settlement has largely substituted cash for
+kind payments and done away with many abuses. Official corruption and
+oppression have been scotched, but would speedily revive if vigilance
+were relaxed. The different peoples ruled by the Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja are easily
+governed if properly treated, and violent crime is rare.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p><i>Note.</i> In the map appended to Dr Arthur Neve's <i>Thirty Years in
+Kashm&iacute;r</i> the heights of Gasherbrum and Masherbrum (see page <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a>) are
+given respectively as 26,360 and 25,560 feet, and that of Hidden Peak,
+S.E. of Gasherbrum, as 26,470 feet. These with <i>K</i><sup>2</sup> are the highest
+mountains round the Baltoro Glacier. Further east is the Siachen, "the
+greatest glacier in Asia," which feeds the Nubra river (page <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a>). N.E.
+of the Siachen is the Teram Kangr&iacute; mountain, the height of which does
+not probably exceed 25,000 feet. The actual height of the Nun Kun (page
+<a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>) is 23,447 feet. Dr Neve gives that of the Karakoram Pass as 18,110
+feet, not 18,550 as stated on page <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIX" id="CHAPTER_XXIX"></a>CHAPTER XXIX</h2>
+
+<h3>CITIES</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Delhi</b> (28.38 N., 77.13 E.).&mdash;Of imperial cities the most interesting are
+those which have felt the tragedies as well as enjoyed the glories of
+Empire. From this point of view Delhi, notwithstanding its small extent
+and modern foundation, may be grouped with Rome, Constantinople, and
+Paris. In the matter of size it is in the same class as Edinburgh. The
+present Delhi or Sh&aacute;hjah&aacute;n&aacute;b&aacute;d is a creation of the middle of the
+seventeenth century, and the oldest of the Delhis in the neighbourhood
+goes back only to the fourth century of our era. The latter endured for
+six or seven centuries. It was the capital of the Tunwar and Chauh&aacute;n
+R&aacute;jas, and takes its second name of Rai Pithora's Kila' or Fort from the
+last Hindu King of Delhi, the famous Prithv&iacute; R&aacute;ja. The early Muhammadan
+kings occupied it and adorned it with splendid buildings. Firoz Sh&aacute;h
+Tughlak's city of Firoz&aacute;b&aacute;d occupied part of the present Delhi and the
+country lying immediately to the south of it. The other so-called towns
+Sir&iacute;, Tughlak&aacute;b&aacute;d, and Indarpat or Pur&aacute;n&aacute; Kila' (Old Fort) were
+fortified royal residences round which other dwelling-houses and shops
+sprang up.</p>
+
+<p>The visitor to Delhi will be repaid if he can devote a week to the City
+and the neighbourhood. It is impossible here to give any adequate
+account of the objects of historic and architectural interest. No
+visitor should be without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> Mr H. C. Fanshawe's <i>Delhi Past and Present</i>,
+a work of great interest. The value of the text is enhanced by good maps
+and excellent illustrations. In the Civil Station, which lies to the
+north of the City and east of the Ridge, is Ludlow Castle, from the roof
+of which General Wilson and his Staff watched the assault on 14th
+September, 1857, when Delhi was retaken. Ludlow Castle is now the Delhi
+Club. Between it and the northern rampart of the City, a defence against
+the Mahrattas built by British officers fifty years earlier, grim
+fighting took place on that historic day when the little British and
+Indian force, till then rather besieged than besiegers, was at last
+strong enough to attack. Here are the sites of the four batteries which
+breached that rampart, and here is the grave of John Nicholson and the
+statue recently erected in his honour (page <a href='#Page_190'><b>190</b></a>). The Ridge to which the
+little army had clung obstinately from May to September in scorching
+heat and drenching rain, undismayed by repeated assaults and the ravages
+of cholera, starts about half-a-mile to the west of the Mor&iacute; bastion, at
+the north-west corner of the city wall, and runs north by east to
+Waz&iacute;r&aacute;b&aacute;d on an old bed of the Jamna. Ascending to the Flagstaff Tower
+one looks down to-day on the Circuit House and the site of the principal
+camps at the great <i>darb&aacute;r</i> of 1911. Here was the old Cantonment and its
+parade ground, on which the main encampment of the British force stood
+in 1857. The position was strong, being defended by the ridge on the
+east and the Najafgarh Canal on the west. It is open to the south, where
+are the Savz&iacute; Mand&iacute; (Vegetable Market), now the site of factories, and
+the Roshan&aacute;ra Gardens. It was on this side that the mutineers made their
+most dangerous attacks. The road along the Ridge from the Flagstaff
+Tower passes the Chauburj&iacute; Mosque and Hindu Rao's house, which was the
+principal target of the City batteries and was gallantly held by Major
+Reid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> with his Sirmur Gurkhas, the Guides, and the 60th Rifles. Beyond
+Hindu Rao's house is one of the stone pillars of A&#351;oka, which Firoz
+Sh&aacute;h Tughlak transported to Delhi. Still further south is the Mutiny
+Memorial. As one reads the tale of the losses of the different regiments
+one realizes in some measure the horrors and the heroism of which the
+Ridge was witness.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 314px;">
+<a name="fig143" id="fig143"></a>
+<img src="images/img143.jpg" width="314" height="400" alt="Fig. 143. Delhi Mutiny Monument." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 143. Delhi Mutiny Monument.</span>
+
+<p>'In memory of the officers and soldiers, British and native, of the
+Delhi Field Force who were killed in action or died of wounds or disease
+between the 30th May and 20th September 1857.'</p>
+
+<p>'This monument has been erected by the comrades who lament their loss
+and by the Govmt: they served so well.'</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="fig144" id="fig144"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/img144.jpg" width="310" height="400" alt="Fig. 144. Kashm&iacute;r Gate." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 144. Kashm&iacute;r Gate.</span>
+</div>
+<p><b>The City.</b>&mdash;When visiting the City from the Civil Lines it is well to
+follow the road, which passing the Kudsia Gardens leads straight to the
+Kashm&iacute;r Gate, one of two places in India (the Lucknow Residency is the
+other) which must stir with grateful pride the heart of the most
+phlegmatic of Englishmen. The road from the Gate to the Fort and the
+Jama Masjid is rich in memories of the Mutiny. It has on its left S.
+James' Church, with memorial tablets within and outside the shot-riddled
+globe which once surmounted its dome. Further on are the obelisk to the
+telegraph officers who stuck to their posts on the fatal 11th of May,
+and on a gateway of the Old Magazine a record of the heroism of the nine
+devoted men, who blew it up, losing five of their number in the
+explosion. Passing under the railway bridge one comes out on the open
+space in front of Sh&aacute;hjah&aacute;n's palace fort, which was finished about 1648
+<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> To the beautiful buildings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> erected by his father Aurangzeb added
+the little Mot&iacute; Masjid or Pearl Mosque. But he never lived at Delhi
+after 1682. The palace is therefore associated with the tragedies and
+squalor of the decline and fall of the Moghal Empire rather than with
+its glories. In 1739 it was robbed of the Kohinur and the Peacock throne
+by N&aacute;dir Shah, in 1788 it saw the descendants of Akbar tortured and the
+aged Emperor blinded by the hateful Ghul&aacute;m K&aacute;dir, and on 16th May, 1857
+the mutineers massacred fifty Christians captive within its walls. When
+viewing the public and private halls of audience, known as the Diw&aacute;n i
+'&Aacute;m and the Diw&aacute;n i Kh&aacute;ss, it is however natural to think rather of
+scenes of splendour such as Bernier described when Aurangzeb sat in
+royal apparel on the Peacock throne with a king's ransom in the aigrette
+of his turban and the rope of pearls which hung from his neck. On such
+an occasion, the pillars of the Diw&aacute;n i '&Aacute;m were hung with gold brocades
+and the floors covered with rich silken carpets. Half the court outside
+was occupied by a magnificent tent and the arcade galleries surrounding
+it were decked with brocades and covered with costly carpets.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> The marble
+Diw&aacute;n i Kh&aacute;ss with its lovely pillars decorated with gold and precious
+stones is surely the most splendid withdrawing room that a monarch ever
+possessed. There is nothing in the Moorish palace at Granada which can
+for a moment be compared with these two halls. For a description of them
+and of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> other buildings in the Fort the reader must refer to Mr
+Fanshawe's book. In the Viceroyalty of Lord Curzon and since much has
+been done to restore their surroundings to some semblance of their
+former state. But the heavy British barracks occupied by the little
+garrison are very incongruous with the remains of Moghal grandeur.
+Leaving the Fort by the Southern or Delhi Gate and turning to the right
+one is faced by the Jama Masjid, another monument of the taste of
+Sh&aacute;hjah&aacute;n. The gateway and the lofty ascent into this House of God are
+very fine. The mosque in the regular beauty and grandeur of its lines,
+appealing to the sublimity rather than to the mystery of religion, is a
+fitting symbol of the faith for whose service it was raised. South of
+the Jama Masjid in a part of the city once included in Firoz&aacute;b&aacute;d stands
+the Kal&aacute;n or K&aacute;la Masjid with low cupolas and heavy square black
+pillars, a striking example of the sombre architecture of the Tughlak
+period. A narrow street called the Dar&iacute;ba leads from the Jama Masjid to
+the wide Ch&aacute;ndn&iacute; (Silver) Chauk. The Dar&iacute;ba was formerly closed by the
+Kh&uacute;n&iacute; Darw&aacute;za or Gate of Blood, so called because here occurred that
+terrible massacre of the citizens of Delhi which N&aacute;dir Shah witnessed
+from the neighbouring Golden Mosque. Besides its width there is nothing
+remarkable about the Ch&aacute;ndn&iacute; Chauk. But the visitor in quest of silver
+work, jewellery, or embroidery will find there many shopkeepers ready to
+cater for his wants. It was while passing down the Ch&aacute;ndn&iacute; Chauk in an
+elephant procession on 23rd December, 1912, that Lord Hardinge was
+wounded by a bomb thrown from one of the houses. From the Chauk one may
+pass through the Queen's Gardens and Road to the opening in the wall
+where the K&aacute;bul Gate once stood and so leave the City. A tablet in the
+vicinity marks the spot where John Nicholson fell.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 456px;">
+<a name="fig145" id="fig145"></a>
+<img src="images/img145tb.jpg" width="456" height="600" alt="Fig. 145. Map of Delhi City." title="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/img145.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 145. Map of Delhi City.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When visiting the old Delhis it is a good plan to drive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> again through
+the City and to leave it by the Delhi Gate. Hum&aacute;yun's tomb, an early and
+simple, but striking, specimen of Moghal architecture, is reached at a
+distance of four miles along the Mathra road. Outside the City the road
+first leaves on the left side the ruined citadel of Firoz Sh&aacute;h
+containing the second A&#351;oka pillar. North and south of this citadel
+the town of Firoz&aacute;b&aacute;d once lay. It ended where the Pur&aacute;n&aacute; Kila' or Old
+Fort, the work of Sher Sh&aacute;h and Hum&aacute;yun, now stands, a conspicuous
+object from the road about three miles from Delhi. The red sandstone
+gateway very narrow in proportion to its height is a noble structure,
+and within the walls is Sher Sh&aacute;h's mosque. The fort and mosque are the
+last important works of the second or Tughlak period. Hindus call the
+site of the Old Fort, Indarpat. If any part of Delhi has a claim to
+antiquity it is this, for it is alleged to be one of the five "pats" or
+towns over which the war celebrated in the Mah&aacute;bh&aacute;rata was waged. A
+recent cleaning of part of the interior of the fort brought to light
+bricks belonging to the Gupta period. From Hum&aacute;yun's tomb a cross road
+leads to the Gurg&aacute;on road and the Kutb. But the visitor who has seen
+enough of buildings for the day may proceed further down the Mathra road
+and reach the headworks of the Agra Canal at Okhla by a side road. The
+view looking back to Delhi up the Jamna is fine.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Kutb Min&aacute;r.</b>&mdash;Starting for the Kutb from Hum&aacute;yun's tomb (page <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>)
+the Darg&aacute;h of the great Chist&iacute; saint and political intriguer, Niz&aacute;m ud
+d&iacute;n Aulia, is passed on the left. He died in 1324 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> Just at the point
+where the cross road meets the Gurg&aacute;on road is the tomb of Safdar Jang,
+the second of the Naw&aacute;b Waz&iacute;rs of Oudh. He died after the middle of the
+eighteenth century, and the building is wonderfully good considering
+that it is one of the latest important monuments of the Moghal period.
+Six miles to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> the south of Safdar Jang's tomb the entrance to the Kutb
+Min&aacute;r enclosure is reached. The great Kuwwat ul Isl&aacute;m mosque of
+Kutbudd&iacute;n Aibak (page 204) was constructed out of the materials of a
+Jain temple which stood on the site. Evidence of this is to be found in
+the imperfectly defaced sculptures on the pillars. An iron pillar nearly
+24 feet in height dating back probably to the sixth century stands in
+the court. The splendid column known as the Kutb Min&aacute;r (page <a href='#Page_205'><b>205</b></a>), begun
+by Kutbudd&iacute;n and completed by his successor Shams ud d&iacute;n Altamsh, was
+the minaret of the mosque from which the <i>mu'azzin</i> called the faithful
+to prayer. The disappointment that may be felt when it is seen from a
+distance is impossible on a nearer view. Its height is now 238 feet, but
+it was formerly surmounted "by a majestic cupola of red granite." Close
+by is the Alai Darwaza, a magnificent gateway built by Al&aacute; ud d&iacute;n
+Tughlak in 1310, about 90 years after the Min&aacute;r was finished. Five miles
+east of the Kutb are the cyclopean ruins of Tughlak&aacute;b&aacute;d (page <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Delhi past and present.</b>&mdash;The Delhi of Aurangzeb was as much a camp as a
+city. When the Emperor moved to Agra or Kashm&iacute;r the town was emptied of
+a large part of its inhabitants. It contained one or two fine <i>baz&aacute;rs</i>,
+and nobles and rich merchants and shopkeepers had good houses, set
+sometimes in pleasant gardens. But the crowds of servants and followers
+occupied mud huts, whose thatched roofs led to frequent and widespread
+fires. In that insanitary age these may have been blessings in disguise.
+"In Delhi," wrote Bernier, "there is no middle state. A man must either
+be of the highest rank or live miserably.... For two or three who wear
+decent apparel there may always be reckoned seven or eight poor, ragged,
+and miserable beings." The ordinary street architecture of modern Delhi
+is mean enough, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> posterity will not open an eyelid to look at the
+public buildings which its present rulers have erected in the city. But
+at least the common folk of Delhi are better housed, fed, and clad than
+ever before. It is now a clean well-managed town with a good water
+supply, and it has become an important railway centre and a thriving
+place of trade. Since 1881 the population has steadily increased from
+173,393 to 232,837 in 1911. In 1911-12 the imports into Delhi City from
+places outside the Panj&aacute;b amounted to 9,172,302 maunds. There are some
+fifteen cotton ginning, spinning, and weaving mills, besides flour
+mills, iron foundries, two biscuit manufactories, and a brewery. The
+city is well supplied with hospitals including two for women only.
+Higher education has been fostered by S. Stephen's College in charge of
+the Cambridge Missionary brotherhood. The Hindu college has not been
+very successful. Delhi has had famous "hak&iacute;ms," practising the Y&uacute;n&aacute;ni or
+Arabic system of medicine, which is taught in a flourishing school known
+as the Madrasa i Tibbiya.</p>
+
+<p><b>Imperial Darb&aacute;rs.</b>&mdash;In this generation the plain to the north of the
+Ridge has been the scene of three splendid <i>darb&aacute;rs</i>. When on 1st
+January, 1877, Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India
+(<i>Kaisar i Hind</i>) it seemed fitting that the proclamation of the fact to
+the princes and peoples of India should be made by Lord Lytton at the
+old seat of imperial power. On 1st January, 1903, Lord Curzon held a
+<i>darb&aacute;r</i> on the same spot to proclaim the coronation of King Edward the
+VIIth. Both these splendid ceremonies were surpassed by the <i>darb&aacute;r</i> of
+12th December, 1911, when King George and Queen Mary were present in
+person, and the Emperor received the homage of the ruling chiefs, the
+great officials, and the leading men of the different provinces. The
+King and Queen entered Delhi on 7th December, and in the week that
+followed the craving of the Indian peoples<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> for "<i>darshan</i>" or a sight
+of their sovereign was abundantly gratified. None who saw the spectacles
+of that historic week will ever forget them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig146" id="fig146"></a>
+<img src="images/img146.jpg" width="500" height="222" alt="Fig. 146. Darb&aacute;r Medal." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 146. Darb&aacute;r Medal.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>New Imperial Capital.&mdash;The turn of Fortune's Wheel has again made Delhi
+an imperial city. The transfer of the seat of government from Calcutta
+announced by the King Emperor at the <i>darb&aacute;r</i>, is now being carried out.
+The site will probably extend from Safdar Jang's tomb to a point lying
+to the west of Firoz Sh&aacute;h's citadel.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lahore</b> (31.34 N., 74.21 E.). The capital of the Panj&aacute;b lies on the east
+bank of the R&aacute;v&iacute;, which once flowed close to the Fort, but has moved a
+mile or two to the west. In high floods the waters still spread over the
+lowlands between the R&aacute;v&iacute; and the Fort. Lahore lies nearly halfway
+between Delhi and Pesh&aacute;war, being nearer to the latter than to the
+former.</p>
+
+<p><b>Early History.</b>&mdash;Practically we know nothing of its history till Mahm&uacute;d
+conquered the Panj&aacute;b and put a garrison in a fort at Lahore. Henceforth
+its history was intimately connected with Muhammadan rule in India.
+Whether north-western India was ruled from Ghazn&iacute; or from Delhi, the
+chief provincial governor had his headquarters at Lahore. In the best
+days of Moghal rule<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> Agra and Lahore were the two capitals of the
+Empire. Lahore lay on the route to K&aacute;bul and Kashm&iacute;r, and it was
+essential both to the power and to the pleasures of the Emperors that it
+should be strongly held and united to Delhi and Agra by a Royal or
+<i>B&aacute;dsh&aacute;h&iacute;</i> Road. The City and the Suburbs in the reign of Sh&aacute;hjah&aacute;n
+probably covered three or four times the area occupied by the town in
+the days of Sikh rule. All round the city are evidences of its former
+greatness in ruined walls and domes.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Civil Station.</b>&mdash;The An&aacute;rkal&iacute; gardens and the buildings near them
+mark the site of the first Civil Station. John Lawrence's house, now
+owned by the R&aacute;ja of Punch, is beyond the Chauburj&iacute; on the Mult&aacute;n Road.
+The Civil Lines have stretched far to the south-east in the direction of
+the Cantonment, which till lately took its name from the tomb of Mian
+M&iacute;r, Jahang&iacute;r's spiritual master. The soil is poor and arid. Formerly
+the roads were lined with dusty tamarisks. But of late better trees have
+been planted, and the Mall is now quite a fine thoroughfare. The
+Lawrence Hall Gardens and the grounds of Government House show what can
+be done to produce beauty out of a bad soil when there is no lack of
+water. There is little to praise in the architecture or statuary of
+modern Lahore. The marble canopy over Queen Victoria's statue is however
+a good piece of work. Of the two cathedrals the Roman Catholic is the
+better building. The Montgomery Hall with the smaller Lawrence Hall
+attached, a fine structure in a good position in the public gardens, is
+the centre of European social life in Lahore. Government House is close
+by, on the opposite side of the Mall. Its core, now a unique and
+beautiful dining-room with domed roof and modern oriental decoration, is
+the tomb of Muhammad K&aacute;sim Kh&aacute;n, a cousin of Akbar. Jamad&aacute;r Khush&aacute;l
+Singh, a well-known man in Ranj&iacute;t Singh's reign, built a house round the
+tomb. After annexation, Henry<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> Lawrence occupied it for a time, and Sir
+Robert Montgomery adopted it as Government House. It is now much
+transformed. Beyond Government House on the road to the Cantonment are
+the Club and the Panj&aacute;b Chiefs' College, the only successful attempt in
+Lahore to adapt oriental design to modern conditions.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig147" id="fig147"></a>
+<img src="images/img147.jpg" width="600" height="570" alt="Fig. 147. Street in Lahore." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 147. Street in Lahore.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>The Indian City.</b>&mdash;In its streets and <i>baz&aacute;rs</i> Lahore is a truly eastern
+city, and far more interesting than Delhi, so far as private buildings
+are concerned. In public edifices it possesses some fine examples of
+Moghal architecture. Every visitor should drive through the town to the
+Fort past Waz&iacute;r Kh&aacute;n's mosque. Under British rule the height of the city
+wall has been reduced by one-half and the moat filled in and converted
+into a garden. Waz&iacute;r Kh&aacute;n's mosque founded in 1634 by a Panj&aacute;b&iacute;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>
+minister of Sh&aacute;hjah&aacute;n, is a noble building profusely adorned with glazed
+tiles and painted panels. The Golden Mosque was constructed 120 years
+later about the same time as Safdar Jang's tomb at Delhi. The palace
+fort, built originally by Akbar, contains also the work of his three
+successors. The Sh&iacute;sh Mahal or Hall of Mirrors, which witnessed the
+cession of the Panj&aacute;b to the Queen of England, was begun by Sh&aacute;hjah&aacute;n
+and finished by Aurangzeb. The armoury contains a curious collection of
+weapons. The B&aacute;dsh&aacute;h&iacute; Mosque opposite with its beautiful marble domes
+and four lofty minarets of red sandstone was founded in 1673 in the
+reign of Aurangzeb. The cupolas were so shaken by an earthquake in 1840
+that they had to be removed. Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja Ranj&iacute;t Singh used the mosque as a
+magazine. In the space between it and the Fort he laid out the pretty
+orange garden known as the Huz&uacute;r&iacute; B&aacute;gh and set in it the marble
+<i>b&aacute;radar&iacute;</i> which still adorns it. Close by are his own tomb and that of
+Arjan D&aacute;s, the fifth Guru.</p>
+
+<p><b>Buildings outside Lahore.</b>&mdash;The best example of Moghal architecture is
+not at Lahore itself, but at Shahdara across the R&aacute;v&iacute;. Here in a fine
+garden is the Mausoleum of Jah&aacute;ng&iacute;r with its noble front and four
+splendid towers. It enshrines an exquisite sarcophagus, which was
+probably once in accordance with the Emperor's wish open to the sunlight
+and the showers. Near by are the remains of the tombs of his beautiful
+and imperious consort, Nur Jah&aacute;n, and of her brother Asaf Kh&aacute;n, father
+of the lady of the T&aacute;j. Another building associated with Jah&aacute;ng&iacute;r is
+An&aacute;rkali's tomb beside the Civil Secretariat. The white marble
+sarcophagus is a beautiful piece of work placed now in most
+inappropriate surroundings. The tomb was reared by the Emperor to
+commemorate the unhappy object of his youthful love. Half-a-mile off on
+the Mult&aacute;n road is the Chauburj&iacute;, once the gateway of the Garden<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> of
+Zebunnissa a learned daughter of Aurangzeb. The garden has disappeared,
+but the gateway, decorated with blue and green tiles, though partially
+ruined, is still a beautiful object. On the other side of Lahore on the
+road to Amritsar are the Shalim&aacute;r Gardens laid out by Sh&aacute;hjah&aacute;n for the
+ladies of his court. When the paved channels are full and the fountains
+are playing, and the lights of earthen lamps are reflected in the water,
+Shalim&aacute;r is still a pleasant resort.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig148" id="fig148"></a>
+<img src="images/img148.jpg" width="600" height="440" alt="Fig. 148. Sh&aacute;hdara." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 148. Sh&aacute;hdara.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Museum in An&aacute;rkal&iacute; contains much of interest to Indians and
+Europeans. The "house of wonders" is very popular with the former. It
+includes a very valuable collection of Buddhist sculptures. Opposite the
+museum is the famous Zamzama gun (page <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Growth of Lahore.</b> As the headquarters of an important Government and of
+a great railway system<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> Lahore has prospered. Owing to the influx of
+workers the population has risen rapidly from 157,287 in 1881 to 228,687
+in 1911. The railway alone affords support to 30,000 people, of whom
+8000 are employed in the workshops.</p>
+
+<p><b>Amritsar</b> (31.38 N., 74.53 E.) is a modern town founded in the last
+quarter of the sixteenth century by the fourth Guru, R&aacute;m D&aacute;s, on a site
+granted to him by Akbar. Here he dug the Amrita Saras or Pool of
+Immortality, leaving a small platform in the middle as the site of that
+Har Mandar, which rebuilt is to-day, under the name of the Darb&aacute;r S&aacute;hib,
+the centre of Sikh devotion. The fifth Guru, Arjan D&aacute;s, completed the
+Har Mandar. Early in the eighteenth century Amritsar became without any
+rival the Mecca of the Sikhs, who had now assumed an attitude of warlike
+resistance to their Muhammadan rulers. Once and again they were driven
+out, but after the victory at Sirhind in 1763 they established
+themselves securely in Amritsar, and rebuilt the temple which Ahmad Sh&aacute;h
+had burned. Ranj&iacute;t Singh covered the Darb&aacute;r S&aacute;hib with a copper gilt
+roof, whence Englishmen commonly call it the Golden Temple. He laid out
+the R&aacute;m B&aacute;gh, still a beautiful garden, and constructed the strong fort
+of Govindgarh outside the walls.</p>
+
+<p><b>Trade and Manufactures.</b>&mdash;Amritsar lies in a hollow close to a branch of
+the Upper B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b Canal. Waterlogging is a great evil and accounts for
+the terrible epidemics of fever, which have occurred from time to time.
+The population has fluctuated violently, and at the last census was
+152,756, or little larger than in 1881. Long before annexation the shawl
+industry was famous. The caprice of fashion a good many years ago
+decreed its ruin, but carpet weaving, for which Amritsar is still
+famous, fortunately did something to fill the gap. Amritsar has also
+been an entrep&ocirc;t of trade with other Asiatic countries.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> It has imported
+raw silk from Bokh&aacute;ra, and later from China, and woven it into cloth. It
+has dealt in China tea, but that is a decreasing trade, in opium from
+Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n, and in <i>charas</i> from Central Asia. There is a considerable
+export of foreign piece goods to Kashm&iacute;r and the N. W. F. Province.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mult&aacute;n</b> (30.1 N., 71.3 E.), though now the smallest of the four great
+towns of the Panj&aacute;b, is probably the most ancient. It is very doubtful
+whether it is the fortress of the Malloi, in storming which Alexander
+was wounded. But when Hiuen Tsang visited it in 741 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> it was a
+well-known place with a famous temple of the Sun God. Muhammad K&aacute;sim
+conquered it in 712 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> (page <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>). It was not till the savage
+Karmatian heretics seized Mult&aacute;n towards the end of the tenth century
+that the temple, which stood in the fort, was destroyed. It was
+afterwards rebuilt, but was finally demolished by order of Aurangzeb,
+who set up in its place a mosque. Under the Moghals Mult&aacute;n was an
+important town, through which the trade with Persia passed. Its later
+history has already been noticed (pages 183 and 186).</p>
+
+<p><b>The Fort</b> contains the celebrated Prahl&aacute;dpur&iacute; temple, much damaged during
+the siege in 1848, but since rebuilt. Its proximity to the tomb of
+Bah&aacute;wal Hakk, a very holy place in the eyes of the Muhammadans of the
+S.W. Panj&aacute;b and Sindh, has at times been a cause of anxiety to the
+authorities. Bah&aacute;wal Hakk and B&aacute;ba Far&iacute;d, the two great saints of the
+S.W. Panj&aacute;b, were contemporaries and friends. They flourished in the
+thirteenth century, and it probably would be true to ascribe largely to
+their influence the conversion of the south-west Panj&aacute;b to Isl&aacute;m, which
+was so complete and of which we know so little. The tomb of Bah&aacute;wal Hakk
+was much injured during the siege, but afterwards repaired. Outside is a
+small monument marking the resting place of the brave old Naw&aacute;b
+Muzaffar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> Kh&aacute;n. Another conspicuous object is the tomb of Rukn ud d&iacute;n
+'Alam, grandson of Bah&aacute;wal Hakk. An obelisk in the fort commemorates the
+deaths of the two British officers who were murdered on the outbreak of
+the revolt. A simpler epitaph would have befitted men who died in the
+execution of their duty.</p>
+
+<p><b>Trade and Manufactures.</b>&mdash;Though heat and dust make the climate of Mult&aacute;n
+trying, it is a very healthy place. The population rose steadily from
+68,674 in 1881 to 99,243 in 1911. The chief local industries are silk
+and cotton weaving and the making of shoes. Mult&aacute;n has also some
+reputation for carpets, glazed pottery and enamel, and of late for tin
+boxes. A special feature of its commerce is the exchange of piece goods,
+shoes, and sugar for the raw silk, fruits, spices, and drugs brought in
+by Afgh&aacute;n traders. The Civil Lines lie to the south of the city and
+connect it with the Cantonment, which is an important military station.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pesh&aacute;war</b> (34.1 N., 71.35 E.) is 276 miles from Lahore and 190 from
+K&aacute;bul. There is little doubt that the old name was Purushapura, the town
+of Purusha, though Abu Rihan (Albiruni), a famous Arab geographer, who
+lived in the early part of the eleventh century, calls it Parsh&aacute;war,
+which Akbar corrupted into Pesh&aacute;war, or the frontier fort. As the
+capital of King Kanishka it was in the second century of the Christian
+era a great centre of Buddhism (page <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a>). Its possession of Buddha's
+alms bowl and of yet more precious relics of the Master deposited by
+Kanishka in a great <i>stupa</i> (page <a href='#Page_203'><b>203</b></a>) made it the first place to be
+visited by the Chinese pilgrims who came to India between 400 and 630
+<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> Hiuen Tsang tells us the town covered 40 li or 6&frac34; miles. Its
+position on the road to K&aacute;bul made it a place of importance under the
+Moghal Empire. On its decline Pesh&aacute;war became part of the dominions of
+the Dur&aacute;n&iacute; rulers of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> K&aacute;bul, and finally fell into the hands of Ranj&iacute;t
+Singh. His Italian general Avitabile ruled it with an iron rod. In 1901
+it became the capital of the new N. W. F. Province.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Town</b> lies near the B&aacute;ra stream in a canal-irrigated tract. On the
+north-west it is commanded by the B&aacute;la Hiss&aacute;r, a fort outside the walls.
+The suburbs with famous fruit gardens are on the south side, and the
+military and civil stations to the west. The people to be seen in the
+<i>baz&aacute;rs</i> of Pesh&aacute;war are more interesting than any of its buildings. The
+Gor Khatr&iacute;, part of which is now the <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>, from which a bird's-eye
+view of the town can be obtained, was successively the site of a
+Buddhist monastery, a Hindu temple, a rest-house built by Jah&aacute;ng&iacute;r's
+Queen, Nur Jah&aacute;n, and the residence of Avitabile. The most noteworthy
+Muhammadan building is Muhabbat Kh&aacute;n's mosque. Avitabile used to hang
+people from its minarets. The Hindu merchants live in the quarter known
+as Andar Shahr, the scene of destructive fires in 1898 and 1913.
+Pesh&aacute;war is now a well-drained town with a good water supply. It is an
+entrep&ocirc;t of trade with K&aacute;bul and Bokh&aacute;ra. From the former come raw silk
+and fruit, and from the latter gold and silver thread and lace <i>en
+route</i> to Kashm&iacute;r. The K&aacute;bul&iacute; and Bokh&aacute;ran traders carry back silk
+cloth, cotton piece goods, sugar, tea, salt, and Kashm&iacute;r shawls.</p>
+
+<p><b>Simla</b> (31.6 N., 77.1 E.) lies on a spur of the Central Him&aacute;laya at a
+mean height exceeding 7000 feet. A fine hill, Jakko, rising 1000 feet
+higher, and clothed with <i>deod&aacute;r</i>, oak, and rhododendron, occupies the
+east of the station and many of the houses are on its slopes. The other
+heights are Prospect Hill and Observatory Hill in the western part of
+the ridge. Viceregal Lodge is a conspicuous object on the latter, and
+below, between it and the Annandale race-course, is a fine glen, where
+the visitor in April from the dry and dusty plains can gather<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> yellow
+primroses (Primula floribunda) from the dripping rocks. The beautiful
+Elysium Hill is on a small spur running northwards from the main ridge.
+Simla is 58 miles by cart road from K&aacute;lka, at the foot of the hills, and
+somewhat further by the narrow gauge railway.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 474px;">
+<a name="fig149" id="fig149"></a>
+<img src="images/img149.jpg" width="474" height="600" alt="Fig. 149. Trans-border traders in Pesh&aacute;war." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 149. Trans-border traders in Pesh&aacute;war.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>History.</b>&mdash;Part of the site was retained at the close of the Gurkha war
+in 1816, and the first English house, a wooden cottage with a thatched
+roof, was built three years later. The first Governor General to spend
+the summer in Simla was Lord Amherst in 1827. After the annexation of
+the Panj&aacute;b in 1849 Lord Dalhousie went there every year, and from 1864
+Simla may be said to have become the summer capital of India. It became
+the summer headquarters of the Panj&aacute;b Government twelve years later. The
+thirty houses of 1830 have now increased to about 2000. Six miles
+distant on the beautiful Mah&aacute;su Ridge the Viceroy has a "Retreat," and
+on the same ridge and below it at Mashobra there are a number of
+European houses. There are excellent hotels in Simla, and the cold
+weather tourist can pay it a very pleasant visit, provided he avoids the
+months of January and February.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sr&iacute;nagar</b> (34.5 N., 74.5 E.), the summer capital of the Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja of
+Kashm&iacute;r, is beautifully situated on both banks of the river Jhelam at a
+level of 5250 feet above the sea. To the north are the Hariparvat or
+Hill of Vishnu with a rampart built by Akbar and the beautiful Dal lake.
+Every visitor must be rowed up its still waters to the N&aacute;s&iacute;m B&aacute;gh, a
+grove of plane (<i>chen&acirc;r</i>) trees, laid out originally in the reign of the
+same Emperor. Between the lake and the town is the Munsh&iacute; B&aacute;gh, in and
+near which are the houses of Europeans including the Residency.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> The
+splendid plane trees beside the river bank, to which house boats are
+moored, and the beautiful gardens attached to some of the houses, make
+this a very charming quarter. The Takht i Sulim&aacute;n to the west of
+Sr&iacute;nagar is crowned by a little temple, whose lower walls are of great
+age. The town itself is intersected by evil-smelling canals and consists
+in the main of a jumble of wooden houses with thatched roofs. Sanitary
+abominations have been cleansed from time to time by great fires and
+punished<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span> by severe outbreaks of cholera. The larger part of the
+existing city is on the left side. The visitor may be content to view
+the parts of the town to be seen as he is rowed down the broad waterway
+from the Munsh&iacute; B&aacute;gh passing under picturesque wooden bridges, and
+beside temples with shining metal roofs and the beautiful mosque of Sh&aacute;h
+Hamad&aacute;n. On the left bank below the first bridge is the Shergarh&iacute; with
+the Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja's houses and the Government Offices. Opposite is a fine
+<i>gh&aacute;t</i> or bathing place with stone steps. Between the third and fourth
+bridges on the right bank is Sh&aacute;h Hamad&aacute;n's mosque, a carved cedar house
+with Buddhist features, totally unlike the ordinary Indian mosque. The
+stone mosque close by on the opposite side, built by Mir Jah&aacute;n, was
+seemingly rejected by Muhammadans as founded by a woman, and is now a
+State granary. The Jama Masjid is on the north side, but not on the
+river bank. The tomb of the great king, Zain ul &Aacute;bid&iacute;n, is below the
+fourth bridge, which bears his name. In the same quarter are the
+storehouses of the dealers in carpets and art wares and the Mission
+School. The last should be visited by anyone who wishes to see what a
+manly education can make of material in some respects unpromising.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig150" id="fig150"></a>
+<img src="images/img150.jpg" width="600" height="446" alt="Fig. 150 Mosque of the Sh&aacute;h Hamad&aacute;n." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 150 Mosque of the Sh&aacute;h Hamad&aacute;n.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXX" id="CHAPTER_XXX"></a>CHAPTER XXX</h2>
+
+<h3>OTHER PLACES OF NOTE</h3>
+
+
+<h4>I. PANJ&Aacute;B.</h4>
+
+<p class="center">(<i>a</i>) <i>Amb&aacute;la Division.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>Amb&aacute;la</b>, 30&middot;2 N.&mdash;76&middot;4 E. Population 80,131, of which 54,223 in
+Cantonments. A creation of British rule. It became the headquarters of
+the Political Agent for the Cis-Sutlej States in 1823, and the
+Cantonment was established in 1843. The Native City and the Civil Lines
+lie some miles to the N.W. of the Cantonment. Headquarters of district
+and division.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bhiw&aacute;n&iacute;</b> (<b>Hiss&aacute;r</b>), 28&middot;5 N.&mdash;76&middot;8 E. Headquarters of <i>tahs&iacute;l</i> in Hiss&aacute;r.
+Population 31,100. On Rew&aacute;r&iacute;&mdash;Ferozepore branch of R&aacute;jput&aacute;na&mdash;M&aacute;lwa
+Railway. Has a brisk trade with R&aacute;jput&aacute;na.</p>
+
+<p><b>H&aacute;ns&iacute;</b> (<b>Hiss&aacute;r</b>), 29&middot;7 N.&mdash;75&middot;6 E. Headquarters of <i>tahsil</i>. Population
+14,576. A very ancient town. In centre of canal tract of Hiss&aacute;r, and a
+local centre of the cotton trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hiss&aacute;r</b>, 29&middot;1 N.&mdash;75&middot;4 E. Headquarters of district. Population 17,162.
+Founded by the Emperor Firoz Sh&aacute;h Tughlak, who supplied it with water by
+a canal taken from the Jamna. This was the origin of the present Western
+Jamna Canal. Is now a place of small importance.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jag&aacute;dhr&iacute;</b> (<b>Amb&aacute;la</b>), 30&middot;1 N.&mdash;77&middot;2 E. Headquarters of <i>tahsil</i>. Population
+12,045. Connected with the N.W. Railway by a light railway. The iron and
+brass ware of Jag&aacute;dhr&iacute; are well known.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kaithal</b> (<b>Karn&aacute;l</b>), 29&middot;5 N.&mdash;76&middot;2 E. Headquarters of subdivision and
+<i>tahsil</i>. Population 12,912. A town of great antiquity. Kaithal is a
+corruption of Kapisthala&mdash;the monkey town, a name still appropriate.
+Tim&uacute;r halted here on his march to Delhi. Was the headquarters of the
+Bhais of Kaithal, who held high rank among the Cis-Sutlej Sikh chiefs.
+Kaithal lapsed in 1843.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Karn&aacute;l</b>, 29&middot;4 N.&mdash;76&middot;6 E. Headquarters of district. Population 21,961. On
+Delhi&mdash;K&aacute;lka Railway. Till the Western Jamna Canal was realigned it was
+most unhealthy, and the Cantonment was given up in 1841 on this account.
+The health of the town is still unsatisfactory. Trade unimportant.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kasauli</b> (<b>Amb&aacute;la</b>), 30&middot;5 N.&mdash;76&middot;6 E. Small hill station overlooking K&aacute;lka.
+Height 6000 feet. The Pasteur Institute for the treatment of rabies is
+at Kasauli, and the Lawrence Military School at San&aacute;war, three miles
+off.</p>
+
+<p><b>P&aacute;nipat</b> (<b>Karn&aacute;l</b>), 29&middot;2 N.&mdash;76&middot;6 E. Headquarters of <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>. Population
+26,342. On Delhi&mdash;K&aacute;lka Railway. An important place in Hindu and
+Muhammadan times (pages 172 and 179). Local manufactures, brass vessels,
+cutlery, and glass.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pihowa</b> (<b>Karn&aacute;l</b>), 29&middot;6 N.&mdash;76&middot;3 E. A very sacred place on the holy stream
+Sarusti.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rew&aacute;r&iacute;</b> (<b>Gurg&aacute;on</b>), 28&middot;1 N.&mdash;76&middot;4 E. Headquarters of <i>tahsil</i>. Population
+24,780. Junction of main line and Rew&aacute;r&iacute;&mdash;Bhatinda branch of
+R&aacute;jput&aacute;na&mdash;M&aacute;lwa Railway. Trade in grain and sugar with R&aacute;jput&aacute;na.</p>
+
+<p><b>R&uacute;par</b> (<b>Amb&aacute;la</b>), 30&middot;6 N.&mdash;76&middot;3 E. Headquarters of subdivision and
+<i>tahs&iacute;l</i>. Population 6935. Exchange market for products of Hills and
+Plains. Headworks of Sirhind Canal are at R&uacute;par.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sirsa</b> (<b>Hiss&aacute;r</b>), 29&middot;3 N.&mdash;75&middot;2 E. Headquarters of subdivision and
+<i>tahsil</i>. Population 14,629. Sirsa or Sars&uacute;t&iacute; was an important place in
+Muhammadan times. Deserted in the great famine of 1783 it was refounded
+in 1838. On the Rew&aacute;r&iacute;&mdash;Bhatinda Branch of the R&aacute;jput&aacute;na&mdash;M&aacute;lwa Railway.
+Has a brisk trade with R&aacute;jput&aacute;na.</p>
+
+<p><b>Thanesar</b> (<b>Karn&aacute;l</b>), 29&middot;6 N.&mdash;76&middot;5 E. See pages 165 and 168. Noted place
+of pilgrimage. Headquarters of a <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>. Population 4719. The old
+Hindu temples were utterly destroyed apparently when Thanesar was sacked
+by Mahm&uacute;d in 1014. There is a fine tomb of a Muhammadan Saint, Shekh
+Chill&iacute;.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">(<i>b</i>) <i>Jalandhar Division.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>Aliw&aacute;l</b>, 30&middot;6 N.&mdash;75&middot;4 E. Scene of Sir Harry Smith's victory over the
+Sikhs on 28th January, 1846.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dharms&aacute;la</b> (<b>K&aacute;ngra</b>), 32&middot;1 N.&mdash;76&middot;1 E. Headquarters of district. On a spur
+of the Dhauladh&aacute;r Range. A Gurkha regiment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> is stationed here. The
+highest part of Dharms&aacute;la is over 7000 feet, and the scenery is very
+fine, but the place is spoiled as a hill station by the excessive
+rainfall, which averages over 120 inches. In the earthquake of 1905,
+1625 persons, including 25 Europeans, perished.</p>
+
+<p><b>F&aacute;zilka</b> (<b>Ferozepore</b>), 30&middot;3 N.&mdash;74&middot;3 E. Headquarters of sub-division and
+<i>tahs&iacute;l</i>. Population 10,985. Terminus of F&aacute;zilka extension of
+R&aacute;jput&aacute;na&mdash;M&aacute;lwa Railway, and connected with Ludhi&aacute;na by a line which
+joins the Southern Panj&aacute;b Railway at Macleodganj. A grain mart.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ferozepore</b>, 30&middot;6 N.&mdash;74&middot;4 E. Headquarters of district. Population 50,836
+including 26,158 in Cantonment. (See page <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Ferozesh&aacute;h</b> (<b>Ferozepore</b>), 30&middot;5 N.&mdash;74&middot;5 E. The real name is Pherushahr.
+Sir Hugh Gough defeated the Sikhs here after two days' hard fighting on
+Dec. 21-22, 1845.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jalandhar</b>, 31&middot;2 N.&mdash;75&middot;3 E. Headquarters of district. Population 69,318,
+including 13,964 in Cantonment. The Cantonment lies four miles to the
+S.E. of the native town and three miles from the Civil Lines. (See page
+<a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a>.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Jaw&aacute;la Mukh&iacute;</b> (<b>K&aacute;ngra</b>), 31&middot;5 N.&mdash;76&middot;2 E. Celebrated place of Hindu
+pilgrimage with a famous temple of the goddess Jaw&aacute;lamukh&iacute;, built over
+some jets of combustible gas.</p>
+
+<p><b>K&aacute;ngra</b>, 30&middot;5 N.&mdash;76&middot;2 E. Headquarters of <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>. Ancient name
+Nagarkot. The celebrated temple and the fort of the Katoch kings of
+K&aacute;ngra were destroyed in the earthquake of 1905. (See pages 168, 171,
+183.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Ludhi&aacute;na</b>, 30&middot;6 N.&mdash;75&middot;5 E. Headquarters of district. Population 44,170.
+The manufacture of <i>pashm&iacute;na</i> shawls was introduced in 1833 by
+Kashm&iacute;r&iacute;s. Ludhi&aacute;na is well known for its cotton fabrics and turbans (p.
+152).</p>
+
+<p><b>Mudk&iacute;</b> (<b>Ferozepore</b>), 30&middot;5 N.&mdash;74&middot;5 E. The opening battle of the 1st Sikh
+War was fought here on 18th December, 1845.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">(<i>c</i>) <i>Lahore Division.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>Bat&aacute;la</b> (<b>Gurd&aacute;spur</b>), 30&middot;5 N.&mdash;75&middot;1 E. Headquarters of <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>.
+Population 26,430. Chief town in Gurd&aacute;spur district on the
+Amritsar&mdash;Path&aacute;nkot Railway. Cotton, silk, leathern goods, and soap are
+manufactured, and there is a large trade in grain and sugar. The Baring
+Anglo-Vernacular High School for Christian boys is a well-known
+institution.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Dalhousie</b> (<b>Gurd&aacute;spur</b>), 33&middot;3 N.&mdash;75&middot;6 E. A well-known hill station at
+height of 7687 feet, 51 miles N.W. of Path&aacute;nkot, from which it is
+reached by tonga. The Commissioner of Lahore and the Deputy Commissioner
+of Gurd&aacute;spur spend part of the hot weather at Dalhousie. It is a very
+pretty and healthy place, with the fine K&aacute;latop Forest in Chamba close
+by, and is deservedly popular as a summer resort.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la</b>, 32&middot;9 N.&mdash;74&middot;1 E. Headquarters of district. Population
+29,472. An active trade centre. Ranj&iacute;t Singh was born, and the tomb of
+his father, Mah&aacute;n Singh is, at Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kas&uacute;r</b> (<b>Lahore</b>), 31&middot;8 N&mdash;74&middot;3 E. Headquarters of <i>tahs&iacute;l</i> in Lahore.
+Population 24,783. Between Raiwind and Ferozepore on N.W. Railway, and
+has direct railway communication with Amritsar. A very ancient place and
+now an active local trade centre.</p>
+
+<p><b>Nank&aacute;na-S&aacute;hib</b> (<b>Gujr&aacute;nwala</b>), 31&middot;6 N.&mdash;73&middot;8 E. In south of Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la
+district on Chichoki&mdash;Shorkot Railway. Venerated by Sikhs as the early
+home of B&aacute;ba N&aacute;nak.</p>
+
+<p><b>Si&aacute;lkot</b>, 32&middot;3 N.&mdash;74&middot;3 E. Headquarters of district. Population 64,869,
+of which 16,274 in Cantonment. A very old place connected with the
+legendary history of Raja S&aacute;liv&aacute;han and his two sons P&uacute;ran and R&aacute;ja
+Ras&aacute;lu. (See also page <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a>.) The Cantonment is about a mile and a half
+from the town. Si&aacute;lkot is an active trade centre. Its hand-made paper
+was once well known, but the demand has declined. Tents, tin boxes,
+cricket and tennis bats, and hockey sticks, are manufactured.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tarn T&aacute;ran</b> (<b>Amritsar</b>), 31&middot;3 N.&mdash;74&middot;6 E. Headquarters of <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>.
+Population 4260. On Amritsar&mdash;Kas&uacute;r Railway. The tank is said to have
+been dug by Guru Arjan and it and the temple beside it are held in great
+reverence by the Sikhs. The water is supposed to cure leprosy. The leper
+asylum at Tarn T&aacute;ran in charge of the Rev. E. Guilford of the Church
+Missionary Society is an admirable institution. Clay figures of this
+popular missionary can be bought in the <i>baz&aacute;r</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">(<i>d</i>) <i>R&aacute;walpind&iacute; Division.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>Attock</b> (<b>Atak</b>), 32&middot;5 N.&mdash;72&middot;1 E. The fort was built by Akbar to protect
+the passage of the Indus. In the river gorge below is a whirlpool
+between two jutting slate rocks, called Kam&aacute;lia and Jam&aacute;lia after two
+heretics who were flung into the river in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> Akbar's reign. The bridge
+which carries the railway across the Indus still makes Attock a position
+of military importance. Population 630.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bhera</b> (<b>Sh&aacute;hpur</b>), 32&middot;3 N.&mdash;72&middot;6 E. Headquarters of <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>. Population
+15,202. A very ancient town which was sacked by Mahm&uacute;d and two centuries
+later by Chingiz Kh&aacute;n. Has an active trade. The wood-carvers of Bhera
+are skilful workmen. Woollen felts are manufactured.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chilianw&aacute;la</b> (<b>Chelianw&aacute;la</b>) (<b>Gujr&aacute;t</b>), 32&middot;7 N.&mdash;73&middot;6 E. Famous battlefield
+(page <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Gujr&aacute;t</b>, 32&middot;3 N.&mdash;74&middot;5 E. Headquarters of district. Population 19,090. An
+old place, famous in recent history for the great battle on 22 February,
+1849 (page <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>). Has a brisk local trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hasn Abd&aacute;l</b> (<b>Attock</b>) 33&middot;5 N.&mdash;72&middot;4 E. On N.W. Railway. Shrine of B&aacute;ba
+Wal&iacute; Kandah&aacute;r&iacute; on hill above village. Below is the Sikh shrine of the
+Panja S&aacute;hib, the rock in which bears the imprint of B&aacute;ba N&aacute;nak's five
+fingers (<i>panja</i>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Jhelam</b>, 32&middot;6 N.&mdash;73&middot;5 E. Headquarters of district and an important
+cantonment. Population 19,678, of which 7380 in cantonment. Has only
+become a place of any importance under British rule. Is an important
+depot for Kashmir timber trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>K&aacute;lab&aacute;gh</b> (<b>Mianw&aacute;l&iacute;</b>), 32&middot;6 N.&mdash;71&middot;3 E. Population 6654. Picturesquely
+situated below hills which are remarkable for the fantastic shapes
+assumed by salt exposed on the surface. The K&aacute;lab&aacute;gh salt is in favour
+from its great purity. The Malik of K&aacute;lab&aacute;gh is the leading man in the
+Aw&aacute;n tribe.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kat&aacute;s</b> (<b>Jhelam</b>), 32&middot;4 N.&mdash;72&middot;6 E. A sacred pool in the Salt Range and a
+place of Hindu pilgrimage. The tears of &#350;iva weeping for the loss of
+his wife Sat&iacute; formed the Kat&aacute;ksha pool in the Salt Range and Pushkar at
+Ajmer.</p>
+
+<p><b>Khewra</b> (<b>Jhelam</b>), 32&middot;4 N.&mdash;73&middot;3 E. In Salt Range five and a half miles
+N.E. of Pindd&aacute;dankh&aacute;n. The famous Mayo Salt Mine is here.</p>
+
+<p><b>Malot</b> (<b>Jhelam</b>), 32&middot;4 N.&mdash;72&middot;5 E. Nine miles W. of Kat&aacute;s (see above).
+Fort and temple on a spur of the Salt Range. Temple in early Kashmir
+style (<i>Archaeological Survey Reports</i>, Vol. v. pp. 85-90).</p>
+
+<p><b>Manki&aacute;la</b> (<b>Maniky&aacute;la</b>) (<b>R&aacute;walpindi</b>), 33&middot;3 N.&mdash;74&middot;2 E. A little village
+close to which are the remains of a great Buddhist <i>st&uacute;pa</i> and of a
+number of monasteries (page <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Murree</b> (<b>Marr&iacute;</b>) (<b>R&aacute;walpindi</b>), 33&middot;5 N.&mdash;73&middot;2 E. Hill Station<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> near Kashm&iacute;r
+road on a spur of the Him&aacute;laya&mdash;height 7517 feet&mdash;39 miles from
+R&aacute;walpind&iacute;, from which visitors are conveyed by tonga. The views from
+Murree are magnificent and the neighbourhood of the Haz&aacute;ra Gal&iacute;s is an
+attraction. But the climate is not really bracing. The summer
+headquarters of the Northern Army are at Murree, and before 1876 the
+Panj&aacute;b Government spent the hot weather there. The Commissioner and
+Deputy Commissioner of R&aacute;walpind&iacute; take their work there for several
+months.</p>
+
+<p><b>Murt&iacute;</b> (<b>Jhelam</b>), 32&middot;4 N.&mdash;72&middot;6 E. In Gandh&aacute;la valley on bank of Kat&aacute;s
+stream. Remains of a Buddhist <i>st&uacute;pa</i> and of a Jain temple.
+(<i>Archaeological Survey Reports</i>, Vol. II. pp. 88 and 90.)</p>
+
+<p><b>R&aacute;walpind&iacute;</b>, 33&middot;4 N.&mdash;73&middot;7 E. Headquarters of district and division, and
+the most important cantonment in Northern India. Population 86,483, of
+which 39,841 in Cantonment. It owes its importance entirely to British
+rule. Large carrying trade with Kashm&iacute;r. Contains the N.W. Railway
+Locomotive and Carriage works and several private factories, also a
+branch of the Murree brewery. There is an important arsenal. The Park,
+left fortunately mainly in its natural state, is an attractive feature
+of the cantonment.</p>
+
+<p><b>Roht&aacute;s</b> (<b>Jhelam</b>), 32&middot;6 N.&mdash;73&middot;5 E. Ten miles N.W. of Jhelam on the far
+side of the gorge where the Kah&aacute; torrent breaks through a spur of the
+Tilla Range. Fine remains of a very large fort built by the Emperor Sher
+Sh&aacute;h Sur&iacute;.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sakesar</b> (<b>Sh&aacute;hpur</b>), 31&middot;3 N.&mdash;71&middot;6 E. Highest point of Salt Range, 5010
+feet above sea level. The Deputy Commissioners of Sh&aacute;hpur, Mianw&aacute;l&iacute;, and
+Attock spend part of the hot weather at Sakesar.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sh&aacute;hdher&iacute;</b> (<b>R&aacute;walpind&iacute;</b>), 33&middot;2 N.&mdash;72&middot;5 E. On the Haz&aacute;ra border and near
+the Margalla Pass. Site of the famous city of T&aacute;xila (Takshasil&aacute;). See
+pages 161, 165, and 204. Excavation is now being carried out with
+interesting results.</p>
+
+<p><b>T&aacute;xila</b>. See Sh&aacute;hdher&iacute;.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">(<i>e</i>) <i>Mult&aacute;n Division.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>Chiniot</b> (<b>Jhang</b>), 31&middot;4 N.&mdash;73&middot;0 E. Headquarters of <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>. Population
+14,085. A very old town near the left bank of the Chen&aacute;b. Famous for
+brasswork and wood-carving. The Muhammadan Khoja traders have large
+business connections with Calcutta, Bombay, and Kar&aacute;ch&iacute;. Fine mosque of
+the time of Sh&aacute;hjah&aacute;n.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Kam&aacute;lia</b> (<b>Lyallpur</b>), 30&middot;4 N.&mdash;72&middot;4 E. Population 8237. An old town.
+Cotton printing with hand blocks is a local industry. The town should
+now prosper as it is a station on the Chichoki&mdash;Shorkot Road Railway and
+irrigation from the Lower Chen&aacute;b Canal has reached its neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lyallpur</b>, 31&middot;3 N.&mdash;73&middot;9 E. Fine new Colony town. Headquarters of
+district. Population 19,578. Large wheat trade with Kar&aacute;ch&iacute;, and has a
+number of cotton ginning and pressing factories.</p>
+
+<p><b>Montgomery</b>, 30&middot;4 N.&mdash;73&middot;8 E. Headquarters of district. Population 8129.
+May become a place of some importance with the opening of the Lower B&aacute;r&iacute;
+Do&aacute;b Canal. Hitherto one of the hottest and dreariest stations in the
+Panj&aacute;b, but healthy.</p>
+
+<p><b>P&aacute;kpattan</b>, 30&middot;2 N.&mdash;73&middot;2 E. Headquarters of <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>. Population 7912.
+On Sutlej Valley Railway. Anciently known as Ajodhan and was a place of
+importance. Contains shrine of the great Saint Far&iacute;d ul Hakk wa ud D&iacute;n
+Shakarganj (1173-1265). Visited by Tim&uacute;r in 1398. There is a great
+annual festival attracting crowds of pilgrims, who come even from
+Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n. There is great competition to win eternal bliss by getting
+first through the gate at the entrance to the shrine.</p>
+
+
+<h4>II. <span class="smcap">Panj&aacute;b Native States</span>.</h4>
+
+<p><b>Bah&aacute;walpur</b>, 29&middot;2 N.&mdash;71&middot;5 E. Capital of State on N.W. Railway 65 miles
+south of Mult&aacute;n. Population 18,414. There is a large palace built by
+Naw&aacute;b Muhammad Sad&iacute;k Muhammad Kh&aacute;n IV in 1882.</p>
+
+<p><b>Barn&aacute;la</b> (<b>Pati&aacute;la</b>), 32&middot;2 N.&mdash;75&middot;4 E. Headquarters of An&aacute;hadgarh Niz&aacute;mat
+on R&aacute;jpura-Bhatinda branch of N.W. Railway. Population 5341. For the
+famous battle see page <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bhatinda</b> (<b>Pati&aacute;la</b>), 30&middot;1 N.&mdash;75&middot;0 E. Also called Govindgarh. Old names
+are Vikramagarh and Bhatrinda. Historically a place of great interest
+(page <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a>). Fell into decay in later Muhammadan times. Is now a great
+railway junction and a nourishing grain mart. The large fort is a
+conspicuous object for many miles round. Population 15,037.</p>
+
+<p><b>Brahmaur</b>, 32&middot;3 N.&mdash;76&middot;4 E. The old capital of Chamba, now a small
+village. Has three old temples. One of Lakshana Dev&iacute; has an inscription
+of Meru Varma, who ruled Chamba in the seventh century.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Chamba</b>, 32&middot;3 N.&mdash;76&middot;1 E. Capital of State picturesquely situated on a
+plateau above right bank of R&aacute;v&iacute;. Population 5523. The white palace is a
+conspicuous object. There is an excellent hospital and an interesting
+museum. The group of temples near the palace is noteworthy (page <a href='#Page_201'><b>201</b></a>).
+That of Lakshm&iacute; Nar&aacute;yan perhaps dates from the tenth century. The R&aacute;v&iacute;
+is spanned at Chamba by a fine bridge.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ch&iacute;n&iacute;</b> (<b>Bashahr</b>), 31&middot;3 N.&mdash;78&middot;2 E. Headquarters of Kan&aacute;war near the right
+bank of Sutlej. Elevation 9085 feet. Was a favourite residence of Lord
+Dalhousie. There is a Moravian Mission Station at Ch&iacute;n&iacute;.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kap&uacute;rthala</b>, 31&middot;2 N.&mdash;75&middot;2 E. Capital of State. Contains Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja's
+palace. Population 16,367.</p>
+
+<p><b>Malerkotla</b>, 30&middot;3 N.&mdash;75&middot;6 E. Capital of State. Population 23,880.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mand&iacute;</b>, 31&middot;4 N.&mdash;76&middot;6 E. Capital of State. Population 7896. On the Bi&aacute;s,
+131 miles from Path&aacute;nkot, with which it is connected by the
+Path&aacute;nkot&mdash;Palampur&mdash;Baijn&aacute;th road. There is a fine iron bridge spanning
+the Bi&aacute;s. It is a mart for trade with Lad&aacute;kh and Y&aacute;rkand.</p>
+
+<p><b>N&aacute;bha</b>, 30&middot;2 N.&mdash;76&middot;1 E. Capital of State. Population 13,620, as compared
+with 18,468 in 1901. Founded in 1755 by Ham&iacute;r Singh (page <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a>). Since
+irrigation from the Sirhind Canal has been introduced the environs have
+become waterlogged and the town is therefore unhealthy.</p>
+
+<p><b>N&aacute;han</b>, 30&middot;3 N.&mdash;77&middot;2 E. Capital of Sirm&uacute;r State. Elevation 3207 feet.
+Population 6341. There is a good iron foundry at N&aacute;han.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pati&aacute;la</b>, 30&middot;2 N.&mdash;76&middot;3 E. Capital of State. Population 46,974. On
+R&aacute;jpura-Bhatinda Branch of N.W. Railway. Contains fine gardens and
+modern buildings. The old palace is in the centre of the town. Pati&aacute;la
+is a busy mart for local trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pattan Mun&aacute;ra</b> (<b>Bah&aacute;walpur</b>), 28&middot;1 N.&mdash;70&middot;2 E. There are the ruins here of
+a large city and of a Buddhist monastery. They are situated in the south
+of the State five miles east of Rah&iacute;m Y&aacute;r Kh&aacute;n Station.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sangr&uacute;r</b> (<b>J&iacute;nd</b>), 30&middot;1 N.&mdash;75&middot;6 E. Became the capital of J&iacute;nd State in
+1827. Population 9041. On Ludhi&aacute;na&mdash;Dhur&iacute;&mdash;Jakhal Railway.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sirhind</b> (<b>Pati&aacute;la</b>), 30&middot;4 N.&mdash;76&middot;3 E. Properly Sahrind. On N.W. Railway.
+Population 3843. The idea that the name is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span> Sir-Hind = head of India is
+a mistake. An old town of great importance in Muhammadan period (pages
+177 and 180). The ruins extend for several miles. There are two fine
+tombs known as those of the Master and his Disciple dating probably from
+the fourteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><b>Su&iacute; Vehar</b> (<b>Bah&aacute;walpur</b>), 29&middot;2 N.&mdash;71&middot;3 E. Six miles from Samasata. Site
+of a ruined Buddhist <i>st&uacute;pa</i>. An inscription found at Su&iacute; Veh&aacute;r belongs
+to the reign of Kanishka (page <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Uch</b> (<b>Bah&aacute;walpur</b>), 29&middot;1 N.&mdash;71&middot;4 E. On the Sutlej near the point where it
+joins the Chen&aacute;b. Consists now of three villages. But it was in early
+Muhammadan times a place of great importance, and a centre of learning.
+It is still very sacred in the eyes of Musalm&aacute;ns.</p>
+
+
+<h4>III. <span class="smcap">North West Frontier Province</span>.</h4>
+
+<p class="center">(<i>a</i>) <i>Districts.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>Abbott&aacute;b&aacute;d</b>, 34&middot;9 N.&mdash;73&middot;1 E. Headquarters of district and a cantonment
+with four battalions of Gurkhas. Population 11,506. At south end of
+Orash Plain 4120 feet above sea level. Appropriately named after Captain
+James Abbott (page <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Bannu.</b> See Edwardes&aacute;b&aacute;d.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cher&aacute;t</b> (<b>Pesh&aacute;war</b>), 33&middot;5 N.&mdash;71&middot;5 E. Small hill sanitarium in Pesh&aacute;war
+near Koh&aacute;t border, 4500 feet above sea level.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n</b>, 31&middot;5 N.&mdash;70&middot;6 E. Headquarters of district and a
+cantonment. Population 35,131, including 5730 in cantonment. The Powinda
+caravans pass through Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n on their march to and from India.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dungagal&iacute;</b> (<b>Haz&aacute;ra</b>), 34&middot;6 N.&mdash;73&middot;2 E. Small sanitarium, elevation 7800
+feet, in Haz&aacute;ra Gal&iacute;s, two miles from Nathiagal&iacute;. Moshpur&iacute; rises above
+it to a height of 9232 feet.</p>
+
+<p><b>Edwardes&aacute;b&aacute;d</b> (<b>Bannu</b>), 33&middot;0 N.&mdash;70&middot;4 E. Headquarters of Bannu district
+and a cantonment. Founded by Lieutenant (afterwards Sir Herbert)
+Edwardes in 1848. Population 16,865. It is unhealthy owing to the heavy
+irrigation in the neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fort Lockhart</b> (<b>Koh&aacute;t</b>), 33&middot;3 N.&mdash;70&middot;6 E. Important military outpost on
+Sam&aacute;na Range, elevation 6743 feet. Saragarh&iacute;, heroically defended by
+twenty-one Sikhs in 1897 against several thousand Orakzais, is in the
+neighbourhood.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Koh&aacute;t</b>, 33&middot;3 N.&mdash;71&middot;3 E. Headquarters of district and a cantonment.
+Population 22,654, including 5957 in Cantonment. On Khush&aacute;lgarh&mdash;Thal
+Branch of N.W. Railway.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mansehra</b> (<b>Haz&aacute;ra</b>), 34&middot;2 N.&mdash;73&middot;1 E. Headquarters of <i>tahs&iacute;l</i>. The two
+rock edicts of A&#351;oka are in the neighbourhood (pages 163 and 202).</p>
+
+<p><b>Nathiagal&iacute;</b> (<b>Haz&aacute;ra</b>), 34&middot;5 N.&mdash;73&middot;6 E. Summer headquarters of Chief
+Commissioner of N.W.F. Province in Haz&aacute;ra Gal&iacute;s. Elevation 8200 feet. It
+is a beautiful little hill station. M&iacute;ran J&aacute;ni (9793 feet) is close by,
+and on a clear day Nanga Parvat can be seen in the far distance.</p>
+
+<p><b>Naushahra</b> (<b>Pesh&aacute;war</b>), 34 N.&mdash;72 E. Population 25,498, including 14,543
+in cantonment. On railway 27 miles east of Pesh&aacute;war. Ris&aacute;lpura, a new
+cavalry cantonment, is in the neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shek&#7717;bud&iacute;n</b>, 32&middot;2 N.&mdash;70&middot;5 E. Small hill station on N&iacute;la Koh on border
+of Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n and Bannu districts. Elevation 4516 feet. It is on a
+bare limestone rock with very scanty vegetation and is hot in summer in
+the daytime. Water is scarce. The Deputy Commissioners of Bannu and Dera
+Ismail Kh&aacute;n spend part of the hot weather at Shek&#7717;bud&iacute;n.</p>
+
+<p><b>Thal</b> (<b>Koh&aacute;t</b>), 33&middot;2 N.&mdash;70&middot;3 E. Important military outpost at entrance of
+Kurram Valley. Terminus of Khush&aacute;lgarh&mdash;Thal branch of N.W. Railway.</p>
+
+<p><b>Thandi&aacute;n&iacute;</b> (<b>Haz&aacute;ra</b>), 34&middot;1 N.&mdash;73&middot;2 E. Small hill station in Gal&iacute;s sixteen
+miles N.E. of Abbott&aacute;b&aacute;d. Elevation about 8800 feet. A beautifully
+situated place chiefly resorted to by residents of Abbott&aacute;b&aacute;d and
+Missionaries.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">(<i>b</i>) <i>Agencies and Independent Territory.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>Ali Masjid</b> (<b>Khaibar</b>), 34&middot;2 N.&mdash;71&middot;5 E. Village and fort in Khaibar,
+10&frac14; miles from Jamr&uacute;d. Elevation 2433 feet.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ambela</b> (<b>Indep. Territory</b>), 34&middot;2 N.&mdash;72&middot;4 E. Pass in Buner, which gave
+its name to the Ambela campaign of 1863 (page <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Chakdarra</b> (<b>D&iacute;r</b>, <b>Sw&aacute;t</b>, and <b>Chitr&aacute;l</b>), 34&middot;4 N.&mdash;72&middot;8 E. Military post to
+N.E. of Malakand Pass on south bank of Sw&aacute;t River.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chitr&aacute;l</b>, 35&middot;5 N.&mdash;71&middot;5 E. A group of villages forming capital of Chitr&aacute;l
+State. There is a small <i>baz&aacute;r</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jamr&uacute;d</b> (<b>Khaibar</b>), 34 N.&mdash;71&middot;2 E. Just beyond Pesh&aacute;war boundary at mouth
+of Khaibar. Terminus of railway. 10&frac12; miles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span> west of Pesh&aacute;war. There
+is a fort and a large <i>sarai</i>. Elevation 1670 feet.</p>
+
+<p><b>Land&iacute; Kotal</b> (<b>Khaibar</b>), 34&middot;6 N.&mdash;71&middot;8 E. 20 miles from Jamr&uacute;d. Fort
+garrisoned by Khaibar Rifles at highest point of Khaibar route.
+Elevation 3373 feet. Afgh&aacute;n frontier 6 miles beyond.</p>
+
+<p><b>Malakand</b> (<b>D&iacute;r</b>, <b>Sw&aacute;t</b>, and <b>Chitr&aacute;l</b>), 34&middot;3 N.&mdash;71&middot;6 E. Pass leading into
+Sw&aacute;t Valley from Pesh&aacute;war district.</p>
+
+<p><b>M&iacute;ram Sh&aacute;h</b> (<b>N. Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n</b>), 33&middot;6 N.&mdash;70&middot;7 E. Headquarters of North
+Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n Agency in Toch&iacute; Valley 3050 feet above the sea.</p>
+
+<p><b>Parachin&aacute;r</b> (<b>Kurram</b>), 33&middot;5 N.&mdash;70&middot;4 E. Headquarters of Kurram Agency and
+of Kurram Militia. Climate temperate. Population 2364.</p>
+
+<p><b>W&aacute;na</b> (<b>S. Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n</b>), 37&middot;2 N.&mdash;69&middot;4 E. Headquarters of South Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n
+Agency. In a wide valley watered by W&aacute;na Toi. There is much irrigation
+and the place is unhealthy, though the elevation of the Valley is from
+4300 to 5800 feet.</p>
+
+
+<h4>IV. <span class="smcap">Kashm&iacute;r and Jammu</span>.</h4>
+
+<p><b>B&aacute;ram&uacute;la</b>, 34&middot;1 N.&mdash;74&middot;2 E. Situated at the point where the Jhelam gorge
+ends and the Vale of Kashm&iacute;r begins. Travellers who intend to go to
+Sr&iacute;nagar by water board their house boats here. There is an excellent
+poplar-lined road from B&aacute;ram&uacute;la to Sr&iacute;nagar and a bad road to Gulmarg.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chil&aacute;s</b>, 35&middot;4 N.&mdash;74&middot;2 E. See page <a href='#Page_323'><b>323</b></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gulmarg</b>, 34&middot;1 N.&mdash;74&middot;4 E. S.W. of Sr&iacute;nagar. It is a favourite hot
+weather resort of Europeans. The Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja has a house here. The forest
+scenery is beautiful, especially on the way to the limit of trees at
+Khilanmarg. Good golf links on beautiful turf.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gurais</b>, 34&middot;7 N.&mdash;74&middot;8 E. A beautiful valley drained by the head waters
+of the Kishnganga. It lies between Bandipura and the Burzil Pass on the
+road to Gilgit.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hunza</b>, 36&middot;4 N.&mdash;74&middot;7 E. (See page <a href='#Page_323'><b>323</b></a>.) Hunza is a group of villages.
+The Raj&aacute;'s (or Tham's) fort, Baltit castle, at an elevation of 7000 feet
+is splendidly situated in full view of Rakaposhi, distant 20 miles. It
+is overhung by the enormous mass of snow peaks said to be called in the
+language of the country Boiohaghurduanasur (the peak of the galloping
+horse).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Isl&aacute;m&aacute;b&aacute;d</b>, 33&middot;4 N.&mdash;75&middot;1 E. About 40 miles by river from Sr&iacute;nagar, near
+the point where the Jhelam ceases to be navigable. Achabal and M&aacute;rtand
+are easily visited from Isl&aacute;m&aacute;b&aacute;d, and it is the starting point for the
+Liddar Valley and Pahlgam. It is a dirty insanitary place.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jammu</b>, 32&middot;4 N.&mdash;74&middot;5 E. Capital of the Jammu province and winter
+residence of the Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja. Connected with Si&aacute;lkot by rail. Situated
+above the ravine in which the Taw&iacute; flows. At a distance the white-washed
+temples with gilded pinnacles look striking. The town was once much more
+prosperous than it is to-day.</p>
+
+<p><b>Leh</b>, 34&middot;2 N.&mdash;77&middot;5 E. Capital of Lad&aacute;kh. On the Indus 11,500 feet above
+sea-level. The meeting place of caravans from India and Y&aacute;rkand. The
+Central Asian caravans arrive in Autumn, when the <i>baz&aacute;r</i>, in a wide
+street lined with poplars, becomes busy. The Waz&iacute;r Waz&aacute;rat has his
+headquarters here, and there is a small garrison in the mud fort. The
+old palace of the Gyalpo (King) is a large pile on a ridge overhanging
+the town. There are Moravian and Roman Catholic missions at Leh.</p>
+
+<p><b>M&aacute;rtand</b>, 33&middot;4 N.&mdash;75&middot;1 E. Remains of a remarkable temple of the Sun god
+three miles east of Isl&aacute;m&aacute;b&aacute;d (pages 166 and 201).</p>
+
+<p><b>Payer</b> (erroneously <b>Payech</b>). Nineteen miles from Sr&iacute;nagar containing a
+beautiful and well-preserved temple of the Sun god, dated variously from
+the fifth to the thirteenth century (page <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Punch</b>, 33&middot;4 N.&mdash;74&middot;9 E. Capital of the <i>j&aacute;g&iacute;r</i> of the R&aacute;ja of Punch, a
+feudatory of the Kashm&iacute;r State. 3300 feet above sea level. There is a
+brisk trade in grain and <i>gh&iacute;</i>. Decent roads connect Punch with
+R&aacute;walpind&iacute; and Ur&iacute; on the Jhelam. Cart Road into Kashm&iacute;r. Kashm&iacute;r&iacute;s call
+the place Prunts and its old name was Parnotsa.</p>
+
+<p><b>Skardo</b>, 35&middot;3 N.&mdash;75&middot;6 E. Old capital of B&aacute;ltist&aacute;n. 7250 feet above
+sea-level. In a sandy basin lying on both sides of the Indus, and about
+five miles in width. A <i>tahs&iacute;ld&aacute;r</i> is stationed at Skardo.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Table I.</span> <i>Tribes of Panj&aacute;b (including Native States) and N.W.F.
+Province</i><a name="FNanchor_1_4" id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>.</h4>
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%" cellspacing="0" summary="Table I.">
+
+<tr>
+
+<th align="center" colspan="3"> Landholding etc.</th>
+<th align="center" colspan="3">Traders</th>
+<th align="center" colspan="3">Artizans and menials</th>
+<th align="center" colspan="3">Impure Castes</th>
+
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Tribe</td>
+<td align="right">Panj&aacute;b<br />p.c.</td>
+<td align="right">N.W.F.P.<br />p.c.</td>
+<td align="left">Tribe</td>
+<td align="right">Panj&aacute;b<br />p.c.</td>
+<td align="right">N.W.F.P.<br />p.c.</td>
+<td align="left">Tribe</td>
+<td align="right">Panj&aacute;b<br />p.c.</td>
+<td align="right">N.W.F.P.<br />p.c.</td>
+<td align="left">Tribe</td>
+<td align="right">Panj&aacute;b<br />p.c.</td>
+<td align="right">N.W.F.P.<br />p.c.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Jats</td>
+<td align="right">20.5</td>
+<td align="right">3.9</td>
+<td align="left">Aroras</td>
+<td align="right">2.8</td>
+<td align="right">3.1</td>
+<td align="left">Loh&aacute;rs and<br />Tarkh&aacute;ns<a name="FNanchor_2_4" id="FNanchor_2_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_4" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></td>
+<td align="right">4.0</td>
+<td align="right">3.3</td>
+<td align="left">Ch&uacute;hra<a name="FNanchor_8_4" id="FNanchor_8_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_4" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></td>
+<td align="right">5.1</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Rajputs</td>
+<td align="right">6.8</td>
+<td align="right">.7</td>
+<td align="left">Khatr&iacute;s</td>
+<td align="right">1.8</td>
+<td align="right">1.2</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left">Chamár<a name="FNanchor_9_4" id="FNanchor_9_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_4" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></td>
+<td align="right">4.7</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Arains and<br />Kambohs</td>
+<td align="right"> 4.8</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="left">Banias</td>
+<td align="right">1.7</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="left">Jul&aacute;has<a name="FNanchor_3_4" id="FNanchor_3_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_4" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></td>
+<td align="right">2.6</td>
+<td align="right">1.7</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Brahmans</td>
+<td align="right"> 4.2</td>
+<td align="right">.6</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left">Jh&iacute;nwar and<br />M&aacute;chhi<a name="FNanchor_10_4" id="FNanchor_10_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></td>
+<td align="right">2.6</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">G&uacute;jars</td>
+<td align="right">2.5</td>
+<td align="right">5.2</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left">Kumh&aacute;r<a name="FNanchor_5_4" id="FNanchor_5_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_4" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></td>
+<td align="right">2.3</td>
+<td align="right">1.0</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Biloch</td>
+<td align="right">2.2</td>
+<td align="right">1.2</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left">Nai<a name="FNanchor_6_4" id="FNanchor_6_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_4" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></td>
+<td align="right">1.4</td>
+<td align="right">1.1</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Aw&aacute;n</td>
+<td align="right">1.8</td>
+<td align="right">12.6</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left">Tel&iacute;<a name="FNanchor_7_4" id="FNanchor_7_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_4" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></td>
+<td align="right">1.2</td>
+<td align="right">.3</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Shekhs inc.<br />Kuresh&iacute;</td>
+<td align="right">1.7</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Kanet</td>
+<td align="right">1.7</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Sain&iacute;s, M&aacute;l&iacute;s,<br />Malli&aacute;rs</td>
+<td align="right">1.3</td>
+<td align="right">1.8</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Path&aacute;ns</td>
+<td align="right">1.2</td>
+<td align="right">38.3</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Saiyy&iacute;ds</td>
+<td align="right">1.0</td>
+<td align="right">4.4</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_4" id="Footnote_1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_4"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>Only tribes amounting in number to 1 p.c. of total population shown.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_4" id="Footnote_2_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_4"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>Blacksmiths and Carpenters.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_4" id="Footnote_3_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_4"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>Weavers.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_4" id="Footnote_10_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>Water carriers.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_4" id="Footnote_5_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_4"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>Potter.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_4" id="Footnote_6_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_4"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>Barber.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_4" id="Footnote_7_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_4"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>Oilman.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_4" id="Footnote_8_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_4"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>Scavenger.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_4" id="Footnote_9_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_4"><span class="label">[9]</span></a>Leather-worker.</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Table II.</span> <i>Rainfall, Cultivation, Population, and Land Revenue.</i></h4>
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%" cellspacing="0" summary="Table II.">
+
+
+<tr>
+<th align="left" style="width: 12%;" rowspan="2">Zone</th>
+<th align="left" style="width: 13%;" rowspan="2">District</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 8%;" rowspan="2">Rainfall in Inches</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 8%;" rowspan="2">No. of Masonary Wells</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 8%;" rowspan="2">Cultivated Area<br />Acres 1922-1912</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 5%;" colspan="7">Classes of Cultivation, p.c.</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 8%;" rowspan="2">Population 1911</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 8%;" rowspan="2">Land Revenue in 1911-1912 in hundreds of rupees</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+
+<th align="right" style="width: 5%;">Well</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 5%;">Canal</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 5%;">Ab&iacute;</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 5%;">Total Irrd.</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 5%;">Moist</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 5%;">Dry</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 5%;">Total Unirrd.</th>
+
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left" rowspan="9">Mountain and<br />Submontane</td>
+<td align="left">K&aacute;nga</td>
+<td align="right">125</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">587,826</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">20</td>
+<td align="right">20</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">80</td>
+<td align="right">80</td>
+<td align="right">770,386</td>
+<td align="right">9,267</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Simla</td>
+<td align="right">68</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">9,984</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">90</td>
+<td align="right">94</td>
+<td align="right">39,320</td>
+<td align="right">175</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Amb&aacute;la</td>
+<td align="right">35</td>
+<td align="right">2,154</td>
+<td align="right">750,515</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">90</td>
+<td align="right">94</td>
+<td align="right">689,970</td>
+<td align="right">11,477</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Hoshy&aacute;rpur</td>
+<td align="right">36</td>
+<td align="right">6,841</td>
+<td align="right">722,122</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">92</td>
+<td align="right">92</td>
+<td align="right">918,569</td>
+<td align="right">14,225</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Total British<br />dts. Panj&aacute;b</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">9,000</td>
+<td align="right">2,070,447</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">6&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">10&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">88</td>
+<td align="right">89&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">2,418,245</td>
+<td align="right">35,144<br />(1.10.0)<a name="FNanchor_1_5" id="FNanchor_1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_5" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Haz&aacute;ra<br />(N.W.F.P.)</td>
+<td align="right">46</td>
+<td align="right">353</td>
+<td align="right">430,872</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">90</td>
+<td align="right">90</td>
+<td align="right">603,028</td>
+<td align="right">5,129<br />(1.3.1)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Kashm&iacute;r and<br />Jammu</td>
+<td align="right">35<a name="FNanchor_3_5" id="FNanchor_3_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_5" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">1,750,056</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">32</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">68</td>
+<td align="right">2,893,066</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Indus Valley<a name="FNanchor_2_5" id="FNanchor_2_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_5" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></td>
+<td align="right">5<a name="FNanchor_4_5" id="FNanchor_4_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_5" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">121,952</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">100</td>
+<td align="right">210,315<a name="FNanchor_10_5" id="FNanchor_10_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Total Kashm&iacute;r</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">1,872,008</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">30</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">70</td>
+<td align="right">3,103,381</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left" rowspan="7">North Central<br /> Panj&aacute;b Plain<br />(British Districts)</td>
+<td align="left">Gujr&aacute;t</td>
+<td align="right">28</td>
+<td align="right">10,221</td>
+<td align="right">845,023</td>
+<td align="right">26</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">26</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">68</td>
+<td align="right">74</td>
+<td align="right">784,011</td>
+<td align="right">8,445</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Si&aacute;lkot</td>
+<td align="right">35</td>
+<td align="right">23,010</td>
+<td align="right">941,558</td>
+<td align="right">54</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">58</td>
+<td align="right">9</td>
+<td align="right">33</td>
+<td align="right">42</td>
+<td align="right">979,553</td>
+<td align="right">14,847</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Gurd&aacute;spur</td>
+<td align="right">35</td>
+<td align="right">6,439</td>
+<td align="right">844,403</td>
+<td align="right">16</td>
+<td align="right">11</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">27</td>
+<td align="right">14</td>
+<td align="right">59</td>
+<td align="right">73</td>
+<td align="right">836,771</td>
+<td align="right">15,410</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Amritsar</td>
+<td align="right">24</td>
+<td align="right">12,386</td>
+<td align="right">787,229</td>
+<td align="right">31</td>
+<td align="right">31</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">62</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">34</td>
+<td align="right">38</td>
+<td align="right">880,728</td>
+<td align="right">12,746</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Jalandhar</td>
+<td align="right">28</td>
+<td align="right">28,289</td>
+<td align="right">695,571</td>
+<td align="right">44</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">44</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">51</td>
+<td align="right">56</td>
+<td align="right">801,920</td>
+<td align="right">14,871</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Ludhi&aacute;na</td>
+<td align="right">28</td>
+<td align="right">9,991</td>
+<td align="right">754,373</td>
+<td align="right">19</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">26</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">70</td>
+<td align="right">74</td>
+<td align="right">517,192</td>
+<td align="right">11,103</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Total</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">90,336</td>
+<td align="right">4,868,157</td>
+<td align="right">32</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">41</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">52</td>
+<td align="right">59</td>
+<td align="right">4,800,175</td>
+<td align="right">77,422<br />(1.9.5)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left" rowspan="9">North-West<br />Area</td>
+<td align="left">R&aacute;walp&iacute;nd&iacute;</td>
+<td align="right">33</td>
+<td align="right">947</td>
+<td align="right">598,371</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">99</td>
+<td align="right">99</td>
+<td align="right">547,827</td>
+<td align="right">6,754</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Jhelam</td>
+<td align="right">26</td>
+<td align="right">4,103</td>
+<td align="right">754,585</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">92</td>
+<td align="right">96</td>
+<td align="right">511,175</td>
+<td align="right">7,576</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Attock</td>
+<td align="right">19</td>
+<td align="right">6,850</td>
+<td align="right">1,031,962</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">96</td>
+<td align="right">97</td>
+<td align="right">519,273</td>
+<td align="right">6,741</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Mianw&aacute;li</td>
+<td align="right">12</td>
+<td align="right">7,128</td>
+<td align="right">748,255</td>
+<td align="right">17</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">19</td>
+<td align="right">38&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">42&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">81</td>
+<td align="right">341,377</td>
+<td align="right">4,866</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Total Panj&aacute;b</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">19,028</td>
+<td align="right">3,133,173</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">83</td>
+<td align="right">93</td>
+<td align="right">1,919,652</td>
+<td align="right">25,937<br />(0.13.3)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Pesh&aacute;war</td>
+<td align="right">13</td>
+<td align="right">6,597</td>
+<td align="right">894,803</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">33</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">38&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">59&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">61&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">865,009</td>
+<td align="right">11,375</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Koh&aacute;t</td>
+<td align="right">18</td>
+<td align="right">467</td>
+<td align="right">327,949</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">12</td>
+<td align="right">12&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">87</td>
+<td align="right">87&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">222,690</td>
+<td align="right">2,755</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Bannu</td>
+<td align="right">13</td>
+<td align="right">11</td>
+<td align="right">523,688</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">24</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">24</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">76</td>
+<td align="right">76</td>
+<td align="right">256,086</td>
+<td align="right">3,040</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Total<br />N.W.F.P.</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">7,075</td>
+<td align="right">1,746,440</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">24&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">30</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">69</td>
+<td align="right">70</td>
+<td align="right">1,343,785</td>
+<td align="right">17,170<br />(0.15.8)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left" rowspan="11">South-Western<br />Plains</td>
+<td align="left">Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la</td>
+<td align="right">24</td>
+<td align="right">10,926</td>
+<td align="right">1,179,348</td>
+<td align="right">37</td>
+<td align="right">40</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">77</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">19</td>
+<td align="right">23</td>
+<td align="right">923,419</td>
+<td align="right">10,497</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Lahore</td>
+<td align="right">21</td>
+<td align="right">13,828</td>
+<td align="right">1,462,108</td>
+<td align="right">31</td>
+<td align="right">43&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">75&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">19&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">24&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1,036,158</td>
+<td align="right">11,301</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Sh&aacute;hpur</td>
+<td align="right">14</td>
+<td align="right">6,403</td>
+<td align="right">1,267,566</td>
+<td align="right">14</td>
+<td align="right">55</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">69</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">25</td>
+<td align="right">31</td>
+<td align="right">648,989</td>
+<td align="right">8,701</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Jhang</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">11,588</td>
+<td align="right">723,733</td>
+<td align="right">36</td>
+<td align="right">46</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">82</td>
+<td align="right">16</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">18</td>
+<td align="right">515,526</td>
+<td align="right">6,429</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Lyallpur</td>
+<td align="right">9</td>
+<td align="right">121</td>
+<td align="right">1,373,892</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">99</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">99</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">857,711</td>
+<td align="right">12,736</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Lyallpur</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">10,472</td>
+<td align="right">815,355</td>
+<td align="right">27</td>
+<td align="right">28</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">56</td>
+<td align="right">25</td>
+<td align="right">19</td>
+<td align="right">44</td>
+<td align="right">555,219</td>
+<td align="right">6,225</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Mult&aacute;n</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">20,132</td>
+<td align="right">1,081,030</td>
+<td align="right">58&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">26</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">85&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">13&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">14&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">814,871</td>
+<td align="right">15,865</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Muzaffargarh</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">14,053</td>
+<td align="right">553,643</td>
+<td align="right">36</td>
+<td align="right">33</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">73</td>
+<td align="right">27</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">27</td>
+<td align="right">569,461</td>
+<td align="right">7,316</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute;<br />Kh&aacute;n</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">9,564</td>
+<td align="right">1,035,011</td>
+<td align="right">25&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">16</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">42</td>
+<td align="right">53&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">56</td>
+<td align="right">499,860</td>
+<td align="right">5,752</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Total Panj&aacute;b<br />districts</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">97,087</td>
+<td align="right">9,491,686</td>
+<td align="right">28</td>
+<td align="right">46</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">75</td>
+<td align="right">14&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">10&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">25</td>
+<td align="right">6,420,814</td>
+<td align="right">84,822<br />(0.14.4)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">D.I.  Kh&aacute;n<br />N.W.F.P.</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">795</td>
+<td align="right">544,746</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">17</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">26</td>
+<td align="right">11</td>
+<td align="right">63</td>
+<td align="right">74</td>
+<td align="right">256,120</td>
+<td align="right">3,062<br />(0.9.0)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left" rowspan="8">South-Eastern<br />Plains<br />(British<br />Districts)</td>
+<td align="left">Karn&aacute;l</td>
+<td align="right">30</td>
+<td align="right">7,827</td>
+<td align="right">1,148,876</td>
+<td align="right">13</td>
+<td align="right">21</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">37</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">57</td>
+<td align="right">63</td>
+<td align="right">799,787</td>
+<td align="right">10,833</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Delhi<a name="FNanchor_6_5" id="FNanchor_6_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_5" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">7,133</td>
+<td align="right">555,057</td>
+<td align="right">19</td>
+<td align="right">18</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">37</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">57</td>
+<td align="right">63</td>
+<td align="right">657,604</td>
+<td align="right">8,563</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Gurgaon</td>
+<td align="right">26</td>
+<td align="right">6,594</td>
+<td align="right">988,613</td>
+<td align="right">13</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">24</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">72&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">76</td>
+<td align="right">643,177</td>
+<td align="right">12,182</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Gurgaon</td>
+<td align="right">21</td>
+<td align="right">2,450</td>
+<td align="right">974,200</td>
+<td align="right">4&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">30</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">34&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">65&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">65&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">541,489</td>
+<td align="right">9,660</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Rohtak</td>
+<td align="right">21</td>
+<td align="right">2,450</td>
+<td align="right">974,200</td>
+<td align="right">4&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">30</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">34&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">65&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">65&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">541,489</td>
+<td align="right">9,660</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Hiss&aacute;r</td>
+<td align="right">16</td>
+<td align="right">720</td>
+<td align="right">2,691,478</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">11&frac14;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">11&frac14;</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac14;</td>
+<td align="right">86&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">88&frac34;</td>
+<td align="right">804,809</td>
+<td align="right">8,582</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Ferozepore</td>
+<td align="right">21</td>
+<td align="right">7,940</td>
+<td align="right">2,248,322</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">40&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">47&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">50&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">52&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">959,657</td>
+<td align="right">12,066</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Total Panj&aacute;b<br />districts</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">32,664</td>
+<td align="right">8,606,546</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">22&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">29&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">67</td>
+<td align="right">70&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">4,306,523</td>
+<td align="right">61,886<br />(0.11.6)</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_5" id="Footnote_1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_5"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>Rate per cultivated acre in rupees (Rupee 1 = 16 pence).</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_5" id="Footnote_2_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_5"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>= Ladákh, Baltistán, Astor, and Gilgit.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_5" id="Footnote_3_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_5"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>At Jammu.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_5" id="Footnote_4_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_5"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>At Gilgit. Leh 3, Skardo 5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_5" id="Footnote_10_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>Including Frontier <i>Iláka</i> 264,750.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_5" id="Footnote_6_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_5"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>The Delhi district has been broken
+  up, and, with the exception of the area now administered by the Government of India, has been divided between
+  Rohtak and Gurgaon.</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h4>
+<span class="smcap">Table III.</span> <i>Diagrams relating to Cultivation.</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 583px;">
+<img src="images/imgtable3atb.jpg" width="583" height="700" alt="" title="Table III." />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/imgtable3a.jpg">View larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/imgtable3btb.jpg" width="600" height="495" alt="" title="Table III." />
+
+<span class="link"><a href="images/imgtable3b.jpg">View larger image</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p>[1] Only tribes amounting in number to 1 p.c. of total population shown.</p>
+
+<h4>TABLE IV. <i>Percentages of Principal Crops</i><a name="FNanchor_1_9" id="FNanchor_1_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_9" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>.</h4>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%" cellspacing="0" summary="Table IV.">
+
+<tr>
+<th align="left" style="width: 12%;" rowspan="2">Zone</th>
+<th align="left" style="width: 13%;" rowspan="2">District</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 6%;" rowspan="2">Wheat</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 6%;" rowspan="2">Barley</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 6%;" rowspan="2">Rape <i>Toria</i><br />and<br /><i>Tara Mira</i></th>
+<th align="center" style="width: 9%;" colspan="2">Pulses</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 6%;" rowspan="2">Fodder<br />(both<br />harvests)</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 6%;" rowspan="2">Maize</th>
+<th align="center" style="width: 9%;" colspan="2">Millets</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 6%;" rowspan="2">Rice</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 6%;" rowspan="2">Cotton</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 6%;" rowspan="2">Cane</th>
+<th align="right" style="width: 9%;" rowspan="2">Other crops<br />(both harvests)</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+
+<th align="right">Gram</th>
+<th align="right">Other Pulses<br />(both harvests)</th>
+<th align="right">B&aacute;jra</th>
+<th align="right">Jow&aacute;r</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left" rowspan="9">Mountain and<br />Submontane<br />Zone</td>
+<td align="right">K&aacute;ngra</td>
+<td align="right">32</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">21</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">15</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">14&frac12;</td>
+
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Simla</td>
+<td align="right">31</td>
+<td align="right">15</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">13</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">32</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Amb&aacute;la</td>
+<td align="right">26</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">17</td>
+<td align="right">9</td>
+<td align="right">11</td>
+<td align="right">10&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Hoshy&aacute;rpur</td>
+<td align="right">33</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">17</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">17&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">7&frac12;<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Total Panj&aacute;b<br />districts</td>
+<td align="right">30</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">13</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">16</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">11<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Haz&aacute;ra N.W.F.P.</td>
+<td align="right">26</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">43</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">2<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Kashm&iacute;r and Jammu</td>
+<td align="right">21</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="center" colspan="2">7</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">38</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">9</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Indus Valley</td>
+<td align="right">29</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="center" colspan="2">12</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">47</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;<br />Total Kashm&iacute;r</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;<br />23</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;<br />4</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;<br />&mdash;</td>
+<td align="center" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br />8</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;<br />&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;<br />35&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;<br />&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;<br />8</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;<br />&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;<br />&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&nbsp;<br />12&frac12;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left" rowspan="7">North Central<br />Panj&aacute;b Plain<br />(British Districts)</td>
+<td align="right">Gujr&aacute;t</td>
+<td align="right">42</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">15</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Si&aacute;lkot</td>
+<td align="right">43</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">15</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">6&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Gurd&aacute;spur</td>
+<td align="right">36</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">13</td>
+<td align="right">11</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">6&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">4&frac12;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Amritsar</td>
+<td align="right">36</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">16</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">20</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">4&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Jalandhar</td>
+<td align="right">33</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">15</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">23</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Ludhi&aacute;na</td>
+<td align="right">28</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">11</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">12<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Total</td>
+<td align="right">37</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">11</td>
+<td align="right">18</td>
+<td align="right">14</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">4&frac12;<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left" rowspan="9">North-West<br />Area</td>
+<td align="right">R&aacute;walpind&iacute; </td>
+<td align="right">41</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">19</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">17</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Jhelam</td>
+<td align="right">47</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">21</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Attock</td>
+<td align="right">50</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">9</td>
+<td align="right">7&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">19</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Mianw&aacute;l&iacute;</td>
+<td align="right">34</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">19</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">19</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">4&frac12;<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Total Panj&aacute;b<br />Districts</td>
+<td align="right">43</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">11</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">19</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">5<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Pesh&aacute;war</td>
+<td align="right">36&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">16</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">18&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">4&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Koh&aacute;t</td>
+<td align="right">43</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">27&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Bannu</td>
+<td align="right">49</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">24</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac14;</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac14;</td>
+<td align="right">4<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Total N.W.F.P.</td>
+<td align="right">41</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">8&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">13&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">4<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left" rowspan="12">South-Western<br />Plains</td>
+<td align="right">Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la</td>
+<td align="right">40</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">15&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">12</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Lahore</td>
+<td align="right">37</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">16</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">15</td>
+<td align="right">4&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">9</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Shahpur</td>
+<td align="right">44</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Jhang</td>
+<td align="right">47</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">4&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">5&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">13&frac12;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Lyallpur</td>
+<td align="right">42&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">13</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">4&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">9</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Montgomery</td>
+<td align="right">41</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">13</td>
+<td align="right">4&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">17</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Mult&aacute;n</td>
+<td align="right">41</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">13</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">9</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">8&frac12;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Muzaffargarh</td>
+<td align="right">44&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">6&frac12;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n</td>
+<td align="right">27</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">5&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">9</td>
+<td align="right">23</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Dera Gh&aacute;z&iacute; Kh&aacute;n</td>
+<td align="right">27</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">5&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">9</td>
+<td align="right">23</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">2<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Total Panj&aacute;b</td>
+<td align="right">40&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">9</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">10</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">8&frac12;<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">D.I. Kh&aacute;n<br />N.W.F.P.</td>
+<td align="right">31</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">13</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">22</td>
+<td align="right">9</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">9&frac12;<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left" rowspan="9">South-Eastern<br />Plains<br />(British Districts)</td>
+<td align="right">R&aacute;walpind&iacute; </td>
+<td align="right">41</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">19</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">17</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Karn&aacute;l</td>
+<td align="right">21</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">26&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">4&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">6&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">5&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">11&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Rohtak</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">34&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">21</td>
+<td align="right">14</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">6&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac12;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Gurg&aacute;on</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">13</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">20</td>
+<td align="right">12</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">25</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Hissar</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">28</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">26</td>
+<td align="right">6&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">9&frac12;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Ferozepore</td>
+<td align="right">28</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">31&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Total Panj&aacute;b<br />districts</td>
+<td align="right">14</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">28&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">15</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">7&frac12;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Grand total<br />Panj&aacute;b</td>
+<td align="right">31</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">16</td>
+<td align="right">6&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">8&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">9</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+<td align="right">2&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">4&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">1&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Grand total<br />N.W.F.P.</td>
+<td align="right">36</td>
+<td align="right">8&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">3</td>
+<td align="right">7</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">3&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">16&frac12;</td>
+<td align="right">8</td>
+<td align="right">4</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">2</td>
+<td align="right">1</td>
+<td align="right">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_9" id="Footnote_1_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_9"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>In case of Panj&aacute;b districts figures relate to <i>Kharif</i> 1910 and
+<i>Rabi</i> 1911.</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Table V</span> <i>Revenue and Expenditure</i>, 1911-12.</h4>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%" cellspacing="0" summary="Table V.">
+
+<tr>
+<th align="left" style="width: 24%;" rowspan="3">Heads</th>
+<th align="center" style="width: 38%;" colspan="3">Income</th>
+<th align="center" style="width: 38%;" colspan="3">Expenditure</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th align="right" rowspan="2">Total in<br />Rs. 000</th>
+<th align="center" colspan="2">Provincial</th>
+<th align="right" rowspan="2">Total in<br />Rs. 000</th>
+<th align="center" colspan="2">Provincial</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th align="right">Share</th>
+<th align="right">Amount in<br />Rs. 000</th>
+<th align="right">Share</th>
+<th align="right">Amount in<br />Rs. 000</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Land Revenue</td>
+<td align="right">3,47,92</td>
+<td align="right">Half</td>
+<td align="right">1,73,96</td>
+<td align="right">47,76</td>
+<td align="right">Whole</td>
+<td align="right">47,76</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Stamps</td>
+<td align="right">52,57</td>
+<td align="right">Half</td>
+<td align="right">26,29</td>
+<td align="right">1,77</td>
+<td align="right">Half</td>
+<td align="right">89</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Excise</td>
+<td align="right">64,00</td>
+<td align="right">Half</td>
+<td align="right">32,00</td>
+<td align="right">1,71</td>
+<td align="right">Half</td>
+<td align="right">86</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Income-tax</td>
+<td align="right">16,22</td>
+<td align="right">Half</td>
+<td align="right">8,11</td>
+<td align="right">11</td>
+<td align="right">Half</td>
+<td align="right">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Forests</td>
+<td align="right">13,10</td>
+<td align="right">Whole</td>
+<td align="right">13,10</td>
+<td align="right">7,64</td>
+<td align="right">Whole</td>
+<td align="right">7,65</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Registration</td>
+<td align="right">3,16</td>
+<td align="right">Whole</td>
+<td align="right">3,16</td>
+<td align="right">1,20</td>
+<td align="right">Whole</td>
+<td align="right">1,20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">General Administration</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">18,33</td>
+<td align="right">Various</td>
+<td align="right">13,65</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Law and Justice<br />&mdash;Courts</td>
+<td align="right">4,35</td>
+<td align="right">Whole</td>
+<td align="right">4,35</td>
+<td align="right">42,18</td>
+<td align="right">Whole</td>
+<td align="right">42,18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Law and Justice<br />&mdash;Jails</td>
+<td align="right">3,41</td>
+<td align="right">Whole</td>
+<td align="right">3,41</td>
+<td align="right">12,24</td>
+<td align="right">Whole</td>
+<td align="right">12,24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Police</td>
+<td align="right">1,80</td>
+<td align="right">Whole</td>
+<td align="right">1,80</td>
+<td align="right">58,57</td>
+<td align="right">Whole</td>
+<td align="right">58,57</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Education</td>
+<td align="right">3,64</td>
+<td align="right">Whole</td>
+<td align="right">3,64</td>
+<td align="right">23,27</td>
+<td align="right">Whole</td>
+<td align="right">23,27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Irrigation&mdash;<br />Major Works</td>
+<td align="right">2,13,08</td>
+<td align="right">Half</td>
+<td align="right">1,06,54</td>
+<td align="right">1,36,42</td>
+<td align="right">Half</td>
+<td align="right">68,21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Irrigation&mdash;<br />Minor Works</td>
+<td align="right">7,99</td>
+<td align="right">Various</td>
+<td align="right">56</td>
+<td align="right">11,17</td>
+<td align="right">Various</td>
+<td align="right">1,07</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Civil Works</td>
+<td align="right">6,93</td>
+<td align="right">Various</td>
+<td align="right">6,20</td>
+<td align="right">67,90</td>
+<td align="right">Various</td>
+<td align="right">62,70</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Medical</td>
+<td align="right">6,93</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">Whole</td>
+<td align="right">21,20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">All other heads<a name="FNanchor_1_11" id="FNanchor_1_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_11" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td>
+<td align="right">27,60</td>
+<td align="right">Nil and<br />various</td>
+<td align="right">16,21</td>
+<td align="right">56,96</td>
+<td align="right">Whole various<br />and nil</td>
+<td align="right">41,29<br />&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">Total</td>
+<td align="right">8,03,93</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">3,99,33</td>
+<td align="right">5,13,25</td>
+<td align="right">&mdash;</td>
+<td align="right">4,02,79</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_11" id="Footnote_1_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_11"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>Under Income "Salt," "Tribute," "Interest," "Miscellaneous," and
+"All other heads." Under Expenditure "Political," "Scientific,"
+"Pensions," "Stationery," "All other items."</p></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="kashmir" id="kashmir"></a>
+<img src="images/imgkashmirmaptb.jpg" width="700" height="542" alt="" title="Kashmir" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/imgkashmirmap.jpg">View larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<a name="punjab" id="punjab"></a>
+<img src="images/imgpunjab-maptb.jpg" width="700" height="565" alt="" title="Punjab" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/imgpunjab-map.jpg">View larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+
+<ul class="none"><li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abbott, Captain J.; <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>, <a href='#Page_300'><b>300</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abbott&aacute;b&aacute;d; <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a>, <a href='#Page_303'><b>303</b></a>, <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Adamwah&aacute;n railway bridge; <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>, <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ad&iacute;na Beg; <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Administration, British;  <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>-<a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">General; <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a>-<a href='#Page_221'><b>221</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Local; <a href='#Page_222'><b>222</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Afgh&aacute;n War; 1878-1880 <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Afr&iacute;d&iacute;s <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>, <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a>, <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Agriculture <a href='#Page_101'><b>101</b></a>, <a href='#Page_102'><b>102</b></a>, <a href='#Page_143'><b>143</b></a>, Tables II, III, IV</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Agriculturists, Legislation to protect; <a href='#Page_102'><b>102</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Agror; <a href='#Page_303'><b>303</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ah&iacute;rs; <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a>, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ahmad Sh&aacute;h; <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a>, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aitchison, Sir Charles; <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Akazais; <a href='#Page_303'><b>303</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Akbar; <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">&Aacute;la Singh, R&aacute;ja; <a href='#Page_273'><b>273</b></a>, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Al&aacute; ud d&iacute;n; <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alexander the Great; <a href='#Page_161'><b>161</b></a>-<a href='#Page_162'><b>162</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alexandra railway bridge; <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ali Masjid; <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alptagin; <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Altamsh; <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alum; <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amb; <a href='#Page_303'><b>303</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amb&aacute;la division; <a href='#Page_225'><b>225</b></a>-<a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">district; <a href='#Page_233'><b>233</b></a>-<a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town and cantonment; <a href='#Page_347'><b>347</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ambela; <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a>, <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>, <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amritsar district; <a href='#Page_249'><b>249</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>, <a href='#Page_339'><b>339</b></a>, <a href='#Page_340'><b>340</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anandp&aacute;l R&aacute;ja; <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arains; <a href='#Page_242'><b>242</b></a>, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>, <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aravall&iacute;s; <a href='#Page_50'><b>50</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Archaeology; <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a>-<a href='#Page_208'><b>208</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Areas; <a href='#Page_2'><b>2</b></a>-<a href='#Page_3'><b>3</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arjan Guru; <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aroras; <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">A&#351;oka; <a href='#Page_162'><b>162</b></a>, <a href='#Page_163'><b>163</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Attock, Fort; <a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a>, <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a>, <a href='#Page_350'><b>350</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Attock district; <a href='#Page_257'><b>257</b></a>, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aurangzeb; <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a>, <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aw&aacute;ns; <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a>, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a>-<a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a>, <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>-<a href='#Page_300'><b>300</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">B&aacute;bar; <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a>, <a href='#Page_273'><b>273</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">B&aacute;busar pass; <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bah&aacute;walpur State; <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a>-<a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_353'><b>353</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bajaur; <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Balban; <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">B&aacute;nda; <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Banias; <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bannu district; <a href='#Page_295'><b>295</b></a>, <a href='#Page_296'><b>296</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">B&aacute;r; <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">B&aacute;ra river; <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a>, <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">B&aacute;ral&aacute;cha pass; <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>, <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">B&aacute;ram&uacute;la; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>, <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b Canal, Upper; <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a>, <a href='#Page_249'><b>249</b></a>, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lower; <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Barn&aacute;la; <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a>, <a href='#Page_353'><b>353</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bashahr State; <a href='#Page_287'><b>287</b></a>-<a href='#Page_290'><b>290</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">B&aacute;spa river; <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a>, <a href='#Page_289'><b>289</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Baz&aacute;r valley; <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bein torrent; <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bhakkar; <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bhittann&iacute;s; <a href='#Page_294'><b>294</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bhupindar Singh, Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja of Pati&aacute;la; <a href='#Page_275'><b>275</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bhure Singh, R&aacute;ja of Chamba; <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bi&aacute;s river; <a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a>-<a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>, <a href='#Page_162'><b>162</b></a>, <a href='#Page_237'><b>237</b></a>, <a href='#Page_249'><b>249</b></a>, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">railway bridge; <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bil&aacute;spur State; <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Biloches; <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a>, <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a>, <a href='#Page_269'><b>269</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Birmal; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Black buck; <a href='#Page_94'><b>94</b></a>, <a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Black Mountain Expedition; <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boltoro glacier; <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Borax; <a href='#Page_60'><b>60</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boundaries; <a href='#Page_3'><b>3</b></a>-<a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brahmans; <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a>, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>, <a href='#Page_240'><b>240</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brijindar Singh, R&aacute;ja of Far&iacute;dkot; <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buddhism; <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a>, <a href='#Page_115'><b>115</b></a>, <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>, <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a>, <a href='#Page_289'><b>289</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bunh&aacute;r torrent; <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Burzil pass; <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Canals; <a href='#Page_132'><b>132</b></a>-<a href='#Page_141'><b>141</b></a>, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carving in wood and ivory; <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Castes; <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chagarzais; <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chail; <a href='#Page_29'><b>29</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chakdarra; <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>, <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a>, <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chakk&iacute; torrent; <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chamba State; <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>, <a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_201'><b>201</b></a>, <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chamberlain, Sir Neville; <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chamkann&iacute;s; <a href='#Page_310'><b>310</b></a>, <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chandrabh&aacute;ga river; <a href='#Page_2'><b>2</b></a>, <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">(see also Chen&aacute;b)</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chandra Gupta; <a href='#Page_162'><b>162</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chatar Singh, Sardar; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>-<a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chen&aacute;b river; <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>, <a href='#Page_247'><b>247</b></a>, <a href='#Page_249'><b>249</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>, <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>, <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a>, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cher&aacute;t; <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a>, <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chil&aacute;s; <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a>, <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a>, <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chilianw&aacute;la; <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>, <a href='#Page_351'><b>351</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chingiz Kh&aacute;n; <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ch&iacute;n&iacute;; <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a>, <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a>, <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chitr&aacute;l; <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>, <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a>, <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a>, <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chitr&aacute;l and D&iacute;r levies; <a href='#Page_313'><b>313</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cholera; <a href='#Page_101'><b>101</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chor mountain; <a href='#Page_285'><b>285</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chos; <a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Christians; <a href='#Page_119'><b>119</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chund Bharw&aacute;na railway bridge; <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Climate; <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a>-<a href='#Page_70'><b>70</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coal; <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coins <a href='#Page_208'><b>208</b></a>-<a href='#Page_211'><b>211</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colleges; <a href='#Page_125'><b>125</b></a>, <a href='#Page_126'><b>126</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colonization of Canal lands; <a href='#Page_136'><b>136</b></a>, <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a>, <a href='#Page_140'><b>140</b></a>, <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Co-operative Credit Societies; <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>, <a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Crops; <a href='#Page_146'><b>146</b></a>-<a href='#Page_150'><b>150</b></a>, Tables III-IV</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cultivation; <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a>-<a href='#Page_150'><b>150</b></a>, Tables II-III</span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dalhousie, Lord; <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dalhousie hill station; <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a>, <a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a>, <a href='#Page_350'><b>350</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dal&iacute;p Singh, Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja; <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dandot; <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dane, Sir Louis; <a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Darb&aacute;r 1877; <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a>-<a href='#Page_333'><b>333</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">1903; <a href='#Page_333'><b>333</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Coronation 1911; <a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a>, <a href='#Page_333'><b>333</b></a>, <a href='#Page_334'><b>334</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dards; <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a>, <a href='#Page_108'><b>108</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Darius; <a href='#Page_161'><b>161</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Darwesh Khel; <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Daulat R&aacute;o Sindhia; <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Daur valley; <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Davies, Sir Henry; <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Deane, Sir Harold; <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Degh torrent; <a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a>, <a href='#Page_247'><b>247</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Delhi; <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>, <a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a>, <a href='#Page_205'><b>205</b></a>-<a href='#Page_208'><b>208</b></a>, <a href='#Page_224'><b>224</b></a>, <a href='#Page_225'><b>225</b></a>, <a href='#Page_325'><b>325</b></a>-<a href='#Page_334'><b>334</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Delhi-Amb&aacute;la-Kalka Railway; <a href='#Page_130'><b>130</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Deod&aacute;r; <a href='#Page_80'><b>80</b></a>, <a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a>, <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a>, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dera Gop&iacute;pur; <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dera Gh&aacute;zi Kh&aacute;n district; <a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a>-<a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dera Ismail Kh&aacute;n district; <a href='#Page_294'><b>294</b></a>, <a href='#Page_295'><b>295</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town and cantonment; <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dharms&aacute;la; <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a>, <a href='#Page_238'><b>238</b></a>, <a href='#Page_348'><b>348</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dhauladh&aacute;r; <a href='#Page_16'><b>16</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dh&uacute;nds; <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">D&iacute;r; <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>-<a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Domel; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dorah pass; <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dor river; <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>, <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dost Muhammad, Am&iacute;r; <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Drishaks; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Duj&aacute;na State; <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dungagal&iacute;; <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Durand, Colonel; <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Durand, Sir Henry; <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Durand Line; <a href='#Page_4'><b>4</b></a>, <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>, <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a>, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a>, <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Earthquake of 1905; <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Education; <a href='#Page_119'><b>119</b></a>, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a>-<a href='#Page_126'><b>126</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Edwardes, Sir Herbert; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Edwardes&aacute;b&aacute;d; <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egerton, Sir Robert; <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ekbhai mountain; <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ethnology; <a href='#Page_109'><b>109</b></a>, <a href='#Page_110'><b>110</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Expenditure, Provincial; <a href='#Page_219'><b>219</b></a>-<a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a>, Table V</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Exports and Imports; <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Factories; <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a>, <a href='#Page_157'><b>157</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Famines; <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Far&iacute;dkot State; <a href='#Page_244'><b>244</b></a>, <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fateh Singh, Sard&aacute;r of Kap&uacute;rthala; <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fauna; <a href='#Page_90'><b>90</b></a>-<a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ferozepore district; <a href='#Page_243'><b>243</b></a>-<a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">railway bridge; <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town and cantonment; <a href='#Page_349'><b>349</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ferozesh&aacute;h, battle of; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>, <a href='#Page_244'><b>244</b></a>, <a href='#Page_349'><b>349</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fever, mortality from; <a href='#Page_100'><b>100</b></a>, <a href='#Page_101'><b>101</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Finance; <a href='#Page_219'><b>219</b></a>-<a href='#Page_222'><b>222</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fitzpatrick, Sir Dennis; <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flora; <a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a>-<a href='#Page_85'><b>85</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fluctuating assessments; <a href='#Page_221'><b>221</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Forests; <a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a>-<a href='#Page_89'><b>89</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fort Lockhart; <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fort Munro; <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a>, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fossils; <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a>, <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a>-<a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fotul&aacute;; <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gadd&iacute;s; <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gajpat Singh, Sard&aacute;r of Jind; <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Game; <a href='#Page_91'><b>91</b></a>-<a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gandamak, treaty of; <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gandgarh hills; <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ghagar torrent; <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>, <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a>, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a>, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a>, <a href='#Page_233'><b>233</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ghaibana Sir; <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ghakkhars; <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>, <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a>, <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a>, <a href='#Page_300'><b>300</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ghaznevide raids; <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Giand&aacute;ri hill; <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gilgit; <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>, <a href='#Page_321'><b>321</b></a>, <a href='#Page_323'><b>323</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gir&iacute; river; <a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a>, <a href='#Page_285'><b>285</b></a>, <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">G&iacute;rths; <a href='#Page_240'><b>240</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Godwin Austen Mt; <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gold; <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a>, <a href='#Page_322'><b>322</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gomal pass; <a href='#Page_25'><b>25</b></a>, <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gough, Lord; <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Govind Singh, Guru; <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a>, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Granth S&aacute;hib; <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grey Inundation Canals; <a href='#Page_244'><b>244</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">G&uacute;jars; <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a>, <a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a>, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>, <a href='#Page_300'><b>300</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gujr&aacute;nw&aacute;la district; <a href='#Page_249'><b>249</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_350'><b>350</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gujr&aacute;t battle; <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">district; <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_351'><b>351</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gul&aacute;b Singh, R&aacute;ja; <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a>, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>, <a href='#Page_219'><b>219</b></a>, <a href='#Page_314'><b>314</b></a>, <a href='#Page_323'><b>323</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gulmarg; <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gupta Empire; <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gurais; <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gurch&aacute;n&iacute;s; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gurd&aacute;spur district; <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>, <a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gurg&aacute;on district; <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a>, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gurkhas; <a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a>, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a>, <a href='#Page_289'><b>289</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gurus, Sikh; <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>-<a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hakra river; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Handicrafts; <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a>-<a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hangu; <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Haramukh mountain; <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Har&iacute;ke ferry; <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hari Singh Nalwa, Sard&aacute;r; <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Haro river; <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a>, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a>, <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>, <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a>, <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Harvests; <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hasanzais; <a href='#Page_303'><b>303</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hattu mountains; <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Haz&aacute;ra district; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>, <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a>-<a href='#Page_303'><b>303</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Him&aacute;laya; <a href='#Page_8'><b>8</b></a>-<a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a>, <a href='#Page_67'><b>67</b></a>, <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hindk&iacute;s; <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hindu Kush; <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a>, <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>, <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hindur; <a href='#Page_287'><b>287</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hindus and Hinduism; <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a>-<a href='#Page_118'><b>118</b></a>, <a href='#Page_119'><b>119</b></a>, <a href='#Page_120'><b>120</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">H&iacute;ra Singh Sir, R&aacute;ja of Nadha; <a href='#Page_278'><b>278</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hiss&aacute;r district; <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a>-<a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_347'><b>347</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">History; <a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a>-<a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hiuen Tsang; <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hoshy&aacute;rpur district; <a href='#Page_240'><b>240</b></a>, <a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a>, <a href='#Page_278'><b>278</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hum&aacute;yun; <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hunza town; <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hunza and Nagar; <a href='#Page_323'><b>323</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hunza-Nagar levies; <a href='#Page_313'><b>313</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">war; <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ibbetson, Sir Denzil; <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>, <a href='#Page_198'><b>198</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Imperial Service troops; <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a>, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a>, <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a>, <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Income and Expenditure; <a href='#Page_219'><b>219</b></a>, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a>, Table V</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indus river; <a href='#Page_34'><b>34</b></a>-<a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>, <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a>, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a>, <a href='#Page_281'><b>281</b></a>, <a href='#Page_296'><b>296</b></a>, <a href='#Page_300'><b>300</b></a>, <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inundation Canals; <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Isl&aacute;m&aacute;b&aacute;d; <a href='#Page_358'><b>358</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jagatj&iacute;t Singh, Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja of Kap&uacute;rthala; <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jah&aacute;ng&iacute;r; <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>, <a href='#Page_208'><b>208</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jains; <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jalandhar district; <a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a>, <a href='#Page_242'><b>242</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town and cantonment; <a href='#Page_349'><b>349</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jalandhara kingdom; <a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">J&aacute;lkot; <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jammu State; <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a>, <a href='#Page_314'><b>314</b></a>-<a href='#Page_317'><b>317</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_358'><b>358</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jamna river; <a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a>, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jamna Western Canal; <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a>, <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jamr&uacute;d; <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Janj&uacute;as; <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jassa Singh, Ahluw&aacute;ha Sard&aacute;r; <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jats; <a href='#Page_103'><b>103</b></a>, <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a>, <a href='#Page_234'><b>234</b></a>, <a href='#Page_240'><b>240</b></a>, <a href='#Page_242'><b>242</b></a>, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a>, <a href='#Page_249'><b>249</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jhang district; <a href='#Page_265'><b>265</b></a>, <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jhelam Canal, Lower; <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a>, <a href='#Page_137'><b>137</b></a>, <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>, <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>, <a href='#Page_265'><b>265</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Upper; <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jhelam district; <a href='#Page_253'><b>253</b></a>, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">river; <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>, <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>, <a href='#Page_253'><b>253</b></a>, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a>, <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>, <a href='#Page_265'><b>265</b></a>, <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town and cantonment; <a href='#Page_351'><b>351</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jind; <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a>, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a>, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Joint Stock Companies; <a href='#Page_157'><b>157</b></a>, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jow&aacute;kis; <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a>, <a href='#Page_310'><b>310</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jubbal State; <a href='#Page_287'><b>287</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kabul; <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a>, <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">river; <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>, <a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a>, <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">canal; <a href='#Page_140'><b>140</b></a>, <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">K&aacute;firistan range; <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">K&aacute;gan; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>, <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kah&aacute; torrent; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kaisargarh mountain; <a href='#Page_26'><b>26</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">K&aacute;lab&aacute;gh; <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a>, <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>, <a href='#Page_295'><b>295</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">K&aacute;lachitta range; <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kalsia State; <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kam&aacute;lia; <a href='#Page_353'><b>353</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kambohs; <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">K&aacute;ngra district; <a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a>-<a href='#Page_240'><b>240</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town and fort; <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a>, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a>, <a href='#Page_349'><b>349</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kanj&uacute;t&iacute;s; <a href='#Page_108'><b>108</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kankar; <a href='#Page_60'><b>60</b></a>, <a href='#Page_127'><b>127</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kaoshan pass; <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kap&uacute;rthala State; <a href='#Page_278'><b>278</b></a>, <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Karakoram; <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a>, <a href='#Page_324'><b>324</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Karn&aacute;l district; <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a>-<a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_348'><b>348</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kashm&iacute;r, Early History; <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a>, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>, <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Forests; <a href='#Page_89'><b>89</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Population; <a href='#Page_99'><b>99</b></a>, <a href='#Page_100'><b>100</b></a>, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>, <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Territories; <a href='#Page_2'><b>2</b></a>, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>, <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a>, <a href='#Page_16'><b>16</b></a>, <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a>, <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a>, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a>, <a href='#Page_314'><b>314</b></a>, <a href='#Page_324'><b>324</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kashm&iacute;r&iacute; Pandits; <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kasr&aacute;nis; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kat&aacute;s; <a href='#Page_201'><b>201</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">K&aacute;thias; <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Keonthal State; <a href='#Page_287'><b>287</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Keppel, Sir George Roos; <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khaibar; <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>, <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rifles; <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a>, <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a>, <a href='#Page_313'><b>313</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khair&iacute;m&uacute;rat hills; <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kh&aacute;nk&iacute; weir; <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>, <a href='#Page_310'><b>310</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kh&aacute;nw&aacute;h Canal; <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kharrals; <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khatr&iacute;s; <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khattaks; <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a>, <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kheora Salt Mine; <a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a>, <a href='#Page_351'><b>351</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khojas; <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khosas; <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khost; <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khowar; <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khurmana river; <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khush&aacute;lgarh railway bridge; <a href='#Page_130'><b>130</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kila Drosh; <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a>, <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kir&aacute;na hill; <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kishngang&aacute; river; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>, <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>, <a href='#Page_319'><b>319</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Koh&aacute;la; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>, <a href='#Page_257'><b>257</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Koh&aacute;t district; <a href='#Page_296'><b>296</b></a>-<a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">salt; <a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a>, <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a>, <a href='#Page_296'><b>296</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town and cantonment; <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kolahoi mountain; <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">K&uacute;ka rising; <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a>, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kulu; <a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a>, <a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a>, <a href='#Page_237'><b>237</b></a>, <a href='#Page_238'><b>238</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kunar river; <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>, <a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a>, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kun&aacute;war; <a href='#Page_289'><b>289</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kunh&aacute;r <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>, <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kurram militia; <a href='#Page_313'><b>313</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">river; <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>, <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a>, <a href='#Page_295'><b>295</b></a>, <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">valley; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a>, <a href='#Page_296'><b>296</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lad&aacute;kh; <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a>, <a href='#Page_65'><b>65</b></a>, <a href='#Page_109'><b>109</b></a>, <a href='#Page_112'><b>112</b></a>, <a href='#Page_319'><b>319</b></a>-<a href='#Page_321'><b>321</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lagh&aacute;r&iacute;s; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lahore city; <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>, <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>, <a href='#Page_334'><b>334</b></a>-<a href='#Page_339'><b>339</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">district; <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">division; <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">railway bridge; <a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lahul; <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a>, <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lake, Lord; <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Land Alienation Act, XIII of 1900; <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Land Revenue; <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a>, <a href='#Page_221'><b>221</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Landai river; <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Land&iacute; Kotal; <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Languages; <a href='#Page_110'><b>110</b></a>-<a href='#Page_113'><b>113</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">L&aacute;rj&iacute;; <a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lawrence Memorial School; <a href='#Page_234'><b>234</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lawrence, Sir Henry; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sir John; <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>-<a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Legislative Council; <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leh; <a href='#Page_35'><b>35</b></a>, <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a>, <a href='#Page_65'><b>65</b></a>, <a href='#Page_358'><b>358</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leprosy; <a href='#Page_101'><b>101</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Liddar valley; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lieutenant Governors; <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>-<a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Local Self Government; <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>, <a href='#Page_217'><b>217</b></a>, <a href='#Page_218'><b>218</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Loh&aacute;rs; <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Loh&aacute;ru State; <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lol&aacute;b valley; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Low&aacute;r&iacute; pass; <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a>, <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lower B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b Canal; <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chen&aacute;b Canal; <a href='#Page_136'><b>136</b></a>, <a href='#Page_137'><b>137</b></a>, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>, <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a>, <a href='#Page_265'><b>265</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jhelam Canal; <a href='#Page_137'><b>137</b></a>, <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>, <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sw&aacute;t Canal; <a href='#Page_140'><b>140</b></a>, <a href='#Page_141'><b>141</b></a>, <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ludhi&aacute;na district; <a href='#Page_242'><b>242</b></a>, <a href='#Page_243'><b>243</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_153'><b>153</b></a>, <a href='#Page_349'><b>349</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lulusar lake; <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lunds; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lur&iacute; bridge; <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lyall, Sir James; <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lyallpur district; <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a>, <a href='#Page_264'><b>264</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_353'><b>353</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Macleod, Sir Donald; <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mahaban mountain; <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mahirakula; <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mahm&uacute;d of Ghazn&iacute;; <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mahsud Waz&iacute;rs; <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>, <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Malakand pass; <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>, <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>, <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a>, <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Malerkotla State; <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">M&aacute;li k&aacute; parvat; <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Malka; <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mallagor&iacute;s; <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a>, <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mamdot; <a href='#Page_244'><b>244</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mamunds; <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Man&aacute;l&iacute;; <a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a>, <a href='#Page_237'><b>237</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mand&iacute; State; <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a>, <a href='#Page_284'><b>284</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mangal; <a href='#Page_287'><b>287</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mansehra; <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mard&aacute;n; <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a>, <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">M&aacute;rkanda torrent; <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">M&aacute;rtand temple; <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>, <a href='#Page_358'><b>358</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marwats; <a href='#Page_296'><b>296</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maz&aacute;r&iacute;s; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mazhb&iacute;s; <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Meghs; <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Menander; <a href='#Page_163'><b>163</b></a>, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mendicants; <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Meos; <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Metals; <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mianw&aacute;l&iacute; district; <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a>-<a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Miram Sh&aacute;h; <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Miranzai; <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Moghal Empire; <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a>-<a href='#Page_180'><b>180</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mohmands; <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a>, <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mongol invasions; <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Montgomery, Sir Robert; <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Montgomery district; <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_353'><b>353</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mudk&iacute; battle field; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>, <a href='#Page_282'><b>282</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Muhammad Ghor&iacute;; <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Muhammad Tughlak; <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a>, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Muhammadan Architecture; <a href='#Page_204'><b>204</b></a>-<a href='#Page_208'><b>208</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Muhammadan States; <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a>-<a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Muhammadans; <a href='#Page_118'><b>118</b></a>, <a href='#Page_119'><b>119</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>, <a href='#Page_291'><b>291</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mu&iacute;n ul Mulk; <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mulr&aacute;j, Diw&aacute;n; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>-<a href='#Page_282'><b>282</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mult&aacute;n district; <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a>, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">division; <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mult&aacute;n city; <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a>, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a>, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>, <a href='#Page_340'><b>340</b></a>, <a href='#Page_341'><b>341</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">district; <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a>-<a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">division; <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Municipalities; <a href='#Page_217'><b>217</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Murree; <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a>, <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a>, <a href='#Page_303'><b>303</b></a>, <a href='#Page_351'><b>351</b></a>, <a href='#Page_352'><b>352</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Musa k&aacute; Musalla mountain; <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Musall&iacute;s; <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mutiny of 1857; <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Muzaffargarh district; <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a>, <a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nabha State; <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a>, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a>, <a href='#Page_278'><b>278</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">N&aacute;dir Sh&aacute;h; <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">N&aacute;han State; <a href='#Page_285'><b>285</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">N&aacute;lagarh State; <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nanga parvat (mountain); <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nar&aacute;ina, battlefield of; <a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nardak; <a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nathiagal&iacute;; <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Naushahra; <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a>, <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">North West Frontier Province; <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>, <a href='#Page_291'><b>291</b></a>-<a href='#Page_313'><b>313</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">North Western Railway; <a href='#Page_120'><b>120</b></a>-<a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nun and Kun peaks; <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>, <a href='#Page_324'><b>324</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Occupations; <a href='#Page_101'><b>101</b></a>, <a href='#Page_102'><b>102</b></a>, <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a>-<a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">O'Dwyer, Sir Michael; <a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ohind; <a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Orakzais; <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>, <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a>, <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a>-<a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Otu weir; <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pabar river; <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pabb&iacute; hills; <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pah&aacute;rpur canal; <a href='#Page_292'><b>292</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paiwar Kotal; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pakhl&iacute; plain; <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">P&aacute;kpattan; <a href='#Page_353'><b>353</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Palos&iacute;; <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">P&aacute;ng&iacute;; <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a>, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Panipat; <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a>, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a>, <a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a>, <a href='#Page_348'><b>348</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Panjkora river; <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a>, <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a>, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Panjnad river; <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>,</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parachas; <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parachin&aacute;r; <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a>, <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pataud&iacute; State; <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Path&aacute;ns; <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a>, <a href='#Page_294'><b>294</b></a>, <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>, <a href='#Page_300'><b>300</b></a>, <a href='#Page_304'><b>304</b></a>, <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pati&aacute;la State; <a href='#Page_180'><b>180</b></a>, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a>-<a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pattan Mun&aacute;ra; <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Payech, see Payer</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Payer; <a href='#Page_201'><b>201</b></a>, <a href='#Page_358'><b>358</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pesh&aacute;war city; <a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a>, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a>, <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a>, <a href='#Page_341'><b>341</b></a>, <a href='#Page_342'><b>342</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">district; <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a>, <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Petroleum; <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phillaur; <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>, <a href='#Page_243'><b>243</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phulkian States; <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a>-<a href='#Page_278'><b>278</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pihowa; <a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a>, <a href='#Page_348'><b>348</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">P&iacute;rghal mountain; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pit&iacute;, <i>See</i> Spit&iacute;</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Plague; <a href='#Page_97'><b>97</b></a>-<a href='#Page_99'><b>99</b></a>, <a href='#Page_100'><b>100</b></a>, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Population; <a href='#Page_96'><b>96</b></a>-<a href='#Page_113'><b>113</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pottery; <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a>, <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Powindahs; <a href='#Page_25'><b>25</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pressure, barometric; <a href='#Page_65'><b>65</b></a>-<a href='#Page_67'><b>67</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Punch; <a href='#Page_358'><b>358</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Railways; <a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a>-<a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">R&aacute;jput Hill Chiefs (Simla); <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">R&aacute;jputs; <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a>, <a href='#Page_240'><b>240</b></a>, <a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a>, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a>, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a>, <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Raldang mountain; <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">R&aacute;mpur ;<a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>, <a href='#Page_289'><b>289</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ranbir Singh, Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja of J&iacute;nd; <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ranj&iacute;t Singh, Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja; <a href='#Page_181'><b>181</b></a>-<a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">R&aacute;v&iacute; river; <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>-<a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a>, <a href='#Page_247'><b>247</b></a>, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>, <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a>, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a>, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">R&aacute;walpindi cantonment and town; <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a>, <a href='#Page_352'><b>352</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">district; <a href='#Page_255'><b>255</b></a>-<a href='#Page_257'><b>257</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">division; <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Religions, Kashm&iacute;r; <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">N. W. F. Province; <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Panj&aacute;b; <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a>-<a href='#Page_117'><b>117</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ripon, Lord; <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ripudaman Singh, Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja of N&aacute;bha; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rivaz, Sir Charles <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rivers; <a href='#Page_32'><b>32</b></a>-<a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Road, Grand Trunk; <a href='#Page_127'><b>127</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roads; <a href='#Page_127'><b>127</b></a>, <a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rog&iacute; cliffs; <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rohtak district; <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a>, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roos-Keppel, Sir George; <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rotang pass; <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a>, <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">R&uacute;par; <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>, <a href='#Page_348'><b>348</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sabaktagin; <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a>, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">S&aacute;dik Muhammad Kh&aacute;n, Naw&aacute;b of Bah&aacute;walpur; <a href='#Page_281'><b>281</b></a>, <a href='#Page_282'><b>282</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sad Istragh mountains; <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Safarmulk lake; <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Safed Koh range; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a>, <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saiyyids; <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_304'><b>304</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sakesar; <a href='#Page_29'><b>29</b></a>, <a href='#Page_352'><b>352</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sakk&iacute; stream; <a href='#Page_250'><b>250</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salt; <a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a>, <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salt Range ;<a href='#Page_29'><b>29</b></a>, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>, <a href='#Page_253'><b>253</b></a>, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a>, <a href='#Page_257'><b>257</b></a>, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Geology of; <a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a>-<a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Flora of; <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a>, <a href='#Page_77'><b>77</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sam&aacute;na range; <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rifles; <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a>, <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sam R&aacute;n&iacute;zai; <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sangr&uacute;r; <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a>, <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sans&aacute;r Chand, R&aacute;ja; <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sapphires; <a href='#Page_60'><b>60</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sar&aacute;j; <a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a>, <a href='#Page_237'><b>237</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sarusti torrent; <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>, <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a>, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a>, <a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">canal; <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sasserl&aacute;; <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Satt&iacute;s; <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sh&aacute;h &Aacute;lam, Emperor; <a href='#Page_181'><b>181</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sh&aacute;hjah&aacute;n; <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sh&aacute;h Shuja; <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sh&aacute;hpur district; <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a>-<a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shawal; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shekhbud&iacute;n; <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a>, <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shekhs; <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sher Kh&aacute;n; <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sher Singh Mah&aacute;r&aacute;ja; <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shigr&iacute; glacier; <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shipk&iacute; pass; <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shooting; <a href='#Page_94'><b>94</b></a>, <a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shuid&aacute;r mountain; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shyok river; <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sialkot district; <a href='#Page_247'><b>247</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town and cantonment; <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a>, <a href='#Page_350'><b>350</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Si&aacute;ls; <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">S&iacute;dhnai canal; <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a>, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sikandar Lod&iacute;; <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sikar&aacute;m mountain; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sikh Jats; <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a>, <a href='#Page_250'><b>250</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a>, <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">wars; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">religion; <a href='#Page_117'><b>117</b></a>, <a href='#Page_118'><b>118</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sil torrent; <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Simla district; <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">hill station; <a href='#Page_67'><b>67</b></a>, <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a>, <a href='#Page_342'><b>342</b></a>-<a href='#Page_344'><b>344</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hill States; <a href='#Page_287'><b>287</b></a>-<a href='#Page_290'><b>290</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sind valley; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sirhind canal; <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a>, <a href='#Page_136'><b>136</b></a>, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a>, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a>, <a href='#Page_275'><b>275</b></a>, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a>, <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sirhind, town; <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a>, <a href='#Page_180'><b>180</b></a>, <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a>, <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sirm&uacute;r State; <a href='#Page_285'><b>285</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Siwaliks; <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a>, <a href='#Page_52'><b>52</b></a>, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sk&aacute;rdo; <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a>, <a href='#Page_321'><b>321</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Smallpox; <a href='#Page_101'><b>101</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">So&aacute;n torrent (Hoshy&aacute;rpur); <a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">(R&aacute;walpind&iacute;), <i>see</i> Soh&aacute;n</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sobr&aacute;on, battle of; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Soh&aacute;g P&aacute;ra Canals; <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Soh&aacute;n torrent; <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a>, <a href='#Page_253'><b>253</b></a>, <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Southern Panj&aacute;b Railway; <a href='#Page_130'><b>130</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spit&iacute;; <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a>, <a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a>, <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">river; <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>, <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">St&uacute;pas; <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">S&uacute;ds; <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sulim&aacute;n range; <a href='#Page_26'><b>26</b></a>, <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a>, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a>, <a href='#Page_290'><b>290</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sult&aacute;npur (Kulu); <a href='#Page_238'><b>238</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sult&aacute;npur (Kap&uacute;rthala); <a href='#Page_278'><b>278</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sun&aacute;rs; <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Surindar Bikram Park&aacute;sh, late R&aacute;ja of Sirm&uacute;r; <a href='#Page_285'><b>285</b></a>, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sutlej inundation canals; <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">river; <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>, <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>, <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a>, <a href='#Page_281'><b>281</b></a>, <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Takht i Sulim&aacute;n mountain; <a href='#Page_26'><b>26</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">hill (Kashm&iacute;r); <a href='#Page_318'><b>318</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tamerlane. <i>See</i> Tim&uacute;r</span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tan&aacute;wal; <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a>, <a href='#Page_303'><b>303</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tan&aacute;wal hills; <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tarkanr&iacute;s; <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tarkh&aacute;ns (carpenters); <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ter&iacute;; <a href='#Page_296'><b>296</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thakkars; <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thal desert; <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a>, <a href='#Page_259'><b>259</b></a>-<a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>, <a href='#Page_265'><b>265</b></a>, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thal (Koh&aacute;t); <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a>, <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a>, <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thandi&aacute;ni; <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thanesar; <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a>, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>, <a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a>, <a href='#Page_348'><b>348</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tilla hill; <a href='#Page_29'><b>29</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tim&uacute;r (Tamerlane); <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tirach Mir mountain; <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a>, <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tirah Campaign; <a href='#Page_176'><b>176</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tiw&aacute;nas; <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Toch&iacute; valley; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a>, <a href='#Page_296'><b>296</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tons, river; <a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Torrents, action of; <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a>, <a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trade; <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Traders; <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tribal militias; <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Triple Canal Project; <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">T&uacute;mans Biloch; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tur&iacute;s; <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uch; <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uchiri range; <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Udy&aacute;na; <a href='#Page_304'><b>304</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ujh torrent; <a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Umra Kh&aacute;n; <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Unh&aacute;r river; <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">University, Panj&aacute;b; <a href='#Page_125'><b>125</b></a>, <a href='#Page_126'><b>126</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Upper B&aacute;r&iacute; Do&aacute;b Canal; <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a>, <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>, <a href='#Page_247'><b>247</b></a>, <a href='#Page_249'><b>249</b></a>, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chen&aacute;b Canal; <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>, <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a>, <a href='#Page_249'><b>249</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jhelam Canal; <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>, <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sw&aacute;t Canal; <a href='#Page_141'><b>141</b></a>, <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Utman Khel; <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vaccination; <a href='#Page_101'><b>101</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">W&aacute;na; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a>, <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>, <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a>, <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Watt&uacute;s; <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Waz&iacute;rist&aacute;n; <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">hills; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">militias; <a href='#Page_313'><b>313</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Waz&iacute;rs Darwesh Khel; <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Madsud; <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Weavers; <a href='#Page_102'><b>102</b></a>, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a>, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wellesley, Marquis of; <a href='#Page_182'><b>182</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arthur; <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wells; <a href='#Page_143'><b>143</b></a>, <a href='#Page_144'><b>144</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Western Jamna Canal; <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a>, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a>, <a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a>, <a href='#Page_273'><b>273</b></a>, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wular lake; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yak&uacute;b Kh&aacute;n, Amir; <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Y&aacute;rkhun river; <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yas&iacute;n river; <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Young, Sir Mackworth; <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Y&uacute;safzais; <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>, <a href='#Page_304'><b>304</b></a>, <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>, <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zaimukhts; <a href='#Page_310'><b>310</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zakaria Kh&aacute;n; <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zakha Khel; <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zamzama gun; <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zansk&aacute;r; <a href='#Page_320'><b>320</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Him&aacute;laya; <a href='#Page_10'><b>10</b></a>, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">river; <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zojil&aacute;; <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> They are held to be of Turkish origin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Raverty's "The Mehran of Sind and its Tributaries," in
+<i>Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>, 1897.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Sand Buried Ruins Of Khotan</i>, pp. 14-15.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> See Sykes' <i>History of Persia</i>, pp. 179-180; also Herodotos
+III. 94 and 98 and IV. 44.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> "The Indians clad with garments made of cotton had bows of
+cane and arrows of cane tipped with iron."&mdash;Herodotos VII. 65.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> This gun, known to the readers of <i>Kim</i>, stands on the
+Lahore Mall. Whoever possesses it is supposed to be ruler of the
+Panj&aacute;b.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> See page <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Some estates lying to the east of the Jamna and belonging to the
+United Provinces have recently been added to the enclave.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> H. = Hindu, M. = Muhammadan, S. = Sikh.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Not shown in map.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> See page <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> This leading tribe in the Panj&aacute;b is known as J&aacute;t in the Hindi-speaking
+Eastern districts and as Jat elsewhere.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Ch.=Christian.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a>  There is a project for improving the water-supply of inundation
+canals in the west of the district by building a weir across the Chen&aacute;b
+below its junction with the Jhelam.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> J.=Jain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> For recent history see page <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> See page <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>.</p></div>
+
+
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PANJAB, NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE, AND KASHMIR***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 24562-h.txt or 24562-h.zip *******</p>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province, and
+Kashmir, by Sir James McCrone Douie
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir
+
+
+Author: Sir James McCrone Douie
+
+
+
+Release Date: February 10, 2008  [eBook #24562]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PANJAB, NORTH-WEST FRONTIER
+PROVINCE, AND KASHMIR***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Suzanne Lybarger, Asad Razzaki, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations and maps.
+      See 24562-h.htm or 24562-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/5/6/24562/24562-h/24562-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/5/6/24562/24562-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed between tilde characters was in bold face
+      in the original book (~this text is bold~).
+
+
+
+
+
+THE PANJAB, NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE AND KASHMIR
+
+by
+
+SIR JAMES DOUIE, M.A., K.C.S.I.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Seema Publications
+Seema Publications C-3/19, R. P. Bagh, Delhi-110007.
+First Indian Edition 1974
+
+Printed in India at Deluxe Offset Press, Daya Basti, Delhi-110035 and
+Published by Seema Publications, Delhi-110007.
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+In his opening chapter Sir James Douie refers to the fact that the area
+treated in this volume--just one quarter of a million square miles--is
+comparable to that of Austria-Hungary. The comparison might be extended;
+for on ethnographical, linguistic and physical grounds, the geographical
+unit now treated is just as homogeneous in composition as the Dual
+Monarchy. It is only in the political sense and by force of the ruling
+classes, temporarily united in one monarch, that the term
+_Osterreichisch_ could be used to include the Poles of Galicia, the
+Czechs of Bohemia and Moravia, the Szeklers, Saxons and more numerous
+Rumanians of Transylvania, the Croats, Slovenes and Italians of
+"Illyria," with the Magyars of the Hungarian plain.
+
+The term _Punjabi_ much more nearly, but still imperfectly, covers the
+people of the Panjab, the North-West Frontier Province, Kashmir and the
+associated smaller Native States. The Sikh, Muhammadan and Hindu Jats,
+the Kashmiris and the Rajputs all belong to the tall, fair, leptorrhine
+Indo-Aryan main stock of the area, merging on the west and south-west
+into the Biluch and Pathan Turko-Iranian, and fringed in the hill
+districts on the north with what have been described as products of the
+"contact metamorphism" with the Mongoloid tribes of Central Asia. Thus,
+in spite of the inevitable blurring of boundary lines, the political
+divisions treated together in this volume, form a fairly clean-cut
+geographical unit.
+
+Sir James Douie, in this work, is obviously living over again the happy
+thirty-five years which he devoted to the service of North-West India:
+his accounts of the physiography, the flora and fauna, the people and
+the administration are essentially the personal recollections of one who
+has first studied the details as a District Officer and has afterwards
+corrected his perspective, stage by stage, from the successively higher
+view-point of a Commissioner, the Chief Secretary, Financial
+Commissioner, and finally as Officiating Lieut.-Governor. No one could
+more appropriately undertake the task of an accurate and
+well-proportioned thumb-nail sketch of North-West India and, what is
+equally important to the earnest reader, no author could more obviously
+delight in his subject.
+
+  T. H. H.
+
+  ALDERLEY EDGE,
+
+  _March 9th, 1916._
+
+
+
+
+NOTE BY AUTHOR
+
+
+My thanks are due to the Government of India for permission to use
+illustrations contained in official publications. Except where otherwise
+stated the numerous maps included in the volume are derived from this
+source. My obligations to provincial and district gazetteers have been
+endless. Sir Thomas Holdich kindly allowed me to reproduce some of the
+charts in his excellent book on _India_. The accuracy of the sections on
+geology and coins may be relied on, as they were written by masters of
+these subjects, Sir Thomas Holland and Mr R. B. Whitehead, I.C.S.
+Chapter XVII could not have been written at all without the help
+afforded by Mr Vincent Smith's _Early History of India_. I have
+acknowledged my debts to other friends in the "List of Illustrations."
+
+  J. M. D.
+
+  _8 May 1916._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAP.                                                             PAGE
+
+       I. Areas and Boundaries                                         1
+
+      II. Mountains, Hills, and Plains                                 8
+
+     III. Rivers                                                      32
+
+      IV. Geology and Mineral Resources                               50
+
+       V. Climate                                                     64
+
+      VI. Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees                                    71
+
+     VII. Forests                                                     86
+
+    VIII. Beasts, Birds, Fishes, and Insects                          90
+
+      IX. The People: Numbers, Races, and Languages                   96
+
+       X. The People: Religions                                      114
+
+      XI. The People: Education                                      122
+
+     XII. Roads and Railways                                         127
+
+    XIII. Canals                                                     132
+
+     XIV. Agriculture and Crops                                      142
+
+      XV. Handicrafts and Manufactures                               152
+
+     XVI. Exports and Imports                                        159
+
+    XVII. History: Pre-Muhammadan Period, 500 B.C.-1000 A.D.         160
+
+  XVIII.  History: Muhammadan Period, 1000 A.D.-1764 A.D.            168
+
+    XIX.  History: Sikh Period, 1764 A.D.-1849 A.D.                  181
+
+     XX.  History: British Period, 1849 A.D.-1913 A.D.               188
+
+    XXI.  Archaeology and Coins                                      200
+
+    XXII. Administration: General                                    212
+
+   XXIII. Administration: Local                                      217
+
+    XXIV. Revenue and Expenditure                                    219
+
+     XXV. Panjab Districts and Delhi                                 224
+
+    XXVI. The Panjab Native States                                   271
+
+   XXVII. The North-west Frontier Province                           291
+
+  XXVIII. Kashmir and Jammu                                          314
+
+    XXIX. Cities                                                     325
+
+     XXX. Other Places of Note                                       347
+
+
+  TABLES
+
+  I.   Tribes of Panjab including Native States and of
+  N.W.F. Province                                                    359
+
+  II.   Rainfall, Cultivation, Population, and Land
+  Revenue                                                            360
+
+  III.   Agricultural Diagrams                                       362
+
+  IV.   Crops                                                        364
+
+  V.   Revenue and Expenditure of Panjab                             366
+
+
+  Index                                                              367
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  FIG.                                                             PAGE
+
+  1.  Arms of Panjab                                                  1
+
+  2.  Orographical Map (Holdich's _India_)                            9
+
+  3.  Nanga Parvat (Watson's _Gazetteer of Hazara_)                  11
+
+  4.  Burzil Pass (Sir Aurel Stein)                                  13
+
+  5.  Rotang Pass (J. Coldstream)                                    15
+
+  6.  Mt Haramukh (Sir Aurel Stein)                                  16
+
+  7.  R. Jhelam in Kashmir--View towards Mohand Marg
+  (Sir Aurel Stein)                                                  18
+
+  8.  Near Naran in Kagan Glen, Hazara (Watson's
+  _Gazetteer of Hazara_)                                             19
+
+  9.  Muztagh-Karakoram and Himalayan Ranges in
+  Kashmir (Holdich's _India_)                                        21
+
+  10.  The Khaibar Road (Holdich's _India_)                          23
+
+  11.  Panjab Rivers (Holdich's _India_)                             33
+
+  12.  The Indus at Attock (Sir Aurel Stein)                         37
+
+  13.  Indus at Kafirkot, D.I. Khan dt. (Sir Aurel Stein)            38
+
+  14.  Fording the River at Lahore (E. B. Francis)                   42
+
+  15.  Bias at Manali (J. Coldstream)                                44
+
+  16.  Rainfall of different Seasons (Blanford)                  62, 63
+
+  17.  Average Barometric and Wind Chart for January
+  (Blanford)                                                         65
+
+  18.  Average Barometric and Wind Chart for July
+  (Blanford)                                                         66
+
+  19.  Banian or Bor trees (Sir Aurel Stein)                         75
+
+  20.  Deodars and Hill Temple (J. Coldstream)                       80
+
+  21.  Firs in Himalaya (J. Coldstream)                              82
+
+  22.  Chinars (Sir Aurel Stein)                                     83
+
+  23.  Rhododendron campanulatum (J. Coldstream)                     84
+
+  24.  Big Game in Ladakh                                            92
+
+  25.  Yaks (J. Coldstream)                                          93
+
+  26.  Black Buck                                                    95
+
+  27.  Map showing density of population (_Panjab Census
+  Report_, 1911)                                                     97
+
+  28. Map showing increase and decrease of population
+  (_Panjab Census Report_, 1911)                                     98
+
+  29.  Map showing density of population in N.W.F.
+  Province (_N.W. Provinces Census Report_, 1911)                    99
+
+  30. Map showing density of population in Kashmir
+  (_Kashmir Census Report_, 1911)                                   100
+
+  31.  Jat Sikh Officers (Nand Ram)                                 103
+
+  32.  Blind Beggar (E. B. Francis)                                 107
+
+  33. Dards (Sir Aurel Stein)                                       108
+
+  34. Map showing races (from _The People of India_,
+  by Sir Herbert Risley. With permission of
+  W. Thacker and Co., London)                                       109
+
+  35. Map showing distribution of languages (_Panjab
+  Census Report_, 1911)                                             111
+
+  36. Map showing distribution of religions (_Panjab
+  Census Report_, 1911)                                             115
+
+  37. Raghunath Temple, Jammu                                       116
+
+  38. Golden Temple, Amritsar (Mrs B. Roe)                          117
+
+  39. Mosque in Lahore City (E. B. Francis)                         118
+
+  40. God and Goddess, Chamba (H.H. the Raja of
+  Chamba)                                                           120
+
+  41. A Kulu godling and his attendants (J. Coldstream)             121
+
+  42. A School in the time preceding annexation                     124
+
+  43. Poplar lined road to Srinagar (Miss M. B. Douie)              128
+
+  44. Map showing railways                                          129
+
+  45. Map--Older Canals                                             134
+
+  46. Map--Canals                                                   137
+
+  47. Map of Canals of Peshawar district                            141
+
+  48. Persian Wheel Well and Ekka (Sir Aurel Stein)                 143
+
+  49. A drove of goats--Lahore (E. B. Francis)                      144
+
+  50. A steep bit of hill cultivation, Hazara (Watson's
+  _Gazetteer of Hazara_)                                            146
+
+  51. Preparing rice field in the Hills (J. Coldstream)             147
+
+  52. Carved doorway (Sir Aurel Stein)                              151
+
+  53. Shoemaker's craft (Baden Powell _Panjab Manufactures_)        153
+
+  54. Carved windows (Sir Aurel Stein)                              155
+
+  55. Papier mache work of Kashmir (Baden Powell
+  _Panjab Manufactures_)                                            156
+
+  56. The Potter                                                    157
+
+  57. Coin--obverse and reverse of Menander                         163
+
+  58. Martand Temple (Miss Griffiths)                               166
+
+  59. Baba Nanak and the Musician Mardana                           174
+
+  60. Guru Govind Singh                                             176
+
+  61. Maharaja Ranjit Singh                                         182
+
+  62. Maharaja Kharak Singh                                         185
+
+  63. Nao Nihal Singh                                               185
+
+  64. Maharaja Sher Singh                                           185
+
+  65. Zamzama Gun (E. B. Francis)                                   187
+
+  66. Sir John Lawrence (from picture in National Portrait
+  Gallery)                                                          189
+
+  67. John Nicholson's Monument at Delhi (Lady Douie)               190
+
+  68. Sir Robert Montgomery                                         191
+
+  69. Panjab Camels at Lahore (E. B. Francis)                       193
+
+  70. Sir Charles Aitchison (Bourne and Shepherd)                   194
+
+  71. Sir Denzil Ibbetson (Albert Jenkins)                          198
+
+  72. Sir Michael O'Dwyer (R. Ramlal Bhairulal and Son)             199
+
+  73. Group of Chamba Temples (H.H. the Raja of Chamba)             201
+
+  74. Payer Temple--Kashmir (Sir Aurel Stein)                       202
+
+  75. Reliquary (Government of India)                               203
+
+  76. Colonnade in Kuwwat ul Islam Mosque                           204
+
+  77.  Kutb Minar (Miss M. B. Douie)                                205
+
+  78. Tomb of Emperor Tughlak Shah (Miss M. B. Douie)               206
+
+  79. Jama Masjid, Delhi                                            207
+
+  80. Tomb of Humayun (Miss M. B. Douie)                            207
+
+  81. Badshahi Mosque, Lahore (E. B. Francis)                       208
+
+  82. Coins                                                         210
+
+  83.  Skeleton District Map of Panjab                              223
+
+  84.  Delhi Enclave                                                225
+
+  85.  Hissar district with portions of the Phulkian States
+  etc.                                                              226
+
+  86.  Rohtak district                                              228
+
+  87.  Gurgaon district                                             230
+
+  88.  Karnal district                                              231
+
+  89.  Ambala district with Kalsia                                  233
+
+  90.  Kangra district                                              235
+
+  91.  Bias at Manali (J. Coldstream)                               237
+
+  92.  Religious Fair in Kulu (J. Coldstream)                       238
+
+  93.  Kulu Women (J. Coldstream)                                   239
+
+  94.  Hoshyarpur district                                          240
+
+  95.  Jalandhar district and Kapurthala                            242
+
+  96.  Ludhiana district and adjoining Native States                243
+
+  97.  Ferozepore district and Faridkot                             244
+
+  98.  Gurdaspur district                                           246
+
+  99.  Sialkot district                                             247
+
+  100.  Gujranwala district                                         248
+
+  101.  Amritsar district                                           250
+
+  102.  Lahore district                                             251
+
+  103.  Gujrat district                                             252
+
+  104. Jhelam district                                              254
+
+  105.  Rawalpindi district                                         255
+
+  106.  Shop in Murree Bazar (Lady Douie)                           256
+
+  107.  Attock district                                             257
+
+  108.  Mianwali district                                           259
+
+  109.  Shahpur district                                            261
+
+  110, Montgomery district                                          263
+
+  111. Lyallpur district                                            264
+
+  112. Jhang district                                               265
+
+  113. Multan district                                              266
+
+  114. Muzaffargarh district                                        268
+
+  115. Dera Ghazi Khan district                                     269
+
+  116. Maharaja of Patiala (C. Vandyk)                              272
+
+  117. Maharaja of Jind                                             277
+
+  118. Maharaja Sir Hira Singh of Nabha (Bourne and
+  Shepherd)                                                         278
+
+  119. Maharaja of Kapurthala                                       279
+
+  120.  Raja of Faridkot (Julian Rust)                              280
+
+  121.  Nawab of Bahawalpur                                         281
+
+  122.  Native States of Chamba, Mandi, Suket, Bilaspur             284
+
+  123.  Raja Surindar Bikram Parkash of Sirmur                      285
+
+  124.  Raja of Chamba (F. Bremner)                                 287
+
+  125.  Bashahr (Sketch Map by H. W. Emerson)                       289
+
+  126.  Sir Harold Deane (F. Bremner)                               292
+
+  127.  North-west Frontier Province                                293
+
+  128.  Dera Ismail Khan district                                   294
+
+  129.  Bannu district                                              295
+
+  130.  Kohat district                                              297
+
+  131.  Peshawar district                                           298
+
+  132.  Hazara district                                             300
+
+  133.  Sir George Roos Keppel (Maull and Fox)                      303
+
+  134.  Tribal Territory north of Peshawar                          304
+
+  135.  Tribal Territory to west of N.W.F. Province                 308
+
+  136.  Khaibar Rifles                                              310
+
+  137.  North Waziristan Militia and Border Post                    313
+
+  138.  Maharaja of Kashmir                                         315
+
+  139.  Jammu and Kashmir                                           316
+
+  140.  Takht i Suliman in Winter (Sir Aurel Stein)                 318
+
+  141.  Ladakh Hills (Mrs Wynyard Brown)                            320
+
+  142.  Zojila Pass (Mrs Wynyard Brown)                             322
+
+  143.  Delhi Mutiny Monument                                       327
+
+  144.  Kashmir Gate, Delhi                                         328
+
+  145.  Map of Delhi City                                           329
+
+  146.  Darbar Medal                                                334
+
+  147.  Street in Lahore (E. B. Francis)                            336
+
+  148.  Shahdara                                                    338
+
+  149. Trans-border traders in Peshawar                             343
+
+  150. Mosque of Shah Hamadan (F. Bremner)                          345
+
+
+  Map of territories of Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir   _at end of volume_
+  Map of Panjab                                         _at end of volume_
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+AREAS AND BOUNDARIES
+
+
+~Introductory.~--Of the provinces of India the Panjab must always have a
+peculiar interest for Englishmen. Invasions by land from the west have
+perforce been launched across its great plains. The English were the
+first invaders who, possessing sea power, were able to outflank the
+mountain ranges which guard the north and west of India. Hence the
+Panjab was the last, and not the first, of their Indian conquests, and
+the courage and efficiency of the Sikh soldiery, even after the guiding
+hand of the old Maharaja Ranjit Singh was withdrawn, made it also one of
+the hardest. The success of the early administration of the province,
+which a few years after annexation made it possible to use its resources
+in fighting men to help in the task of putting down the mutiny, has
+always been a matter of just pride, while the less familiar story of the
+conquests of peace in the first sixty years of British rule may well
+arouse similar feelings.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Arms of Panjab.]
+
+~Scope of work.~--A geography of the Panjab will fitly embrace an account
+also of the North-West Frontier Province, which in 1901 was severed
+from it and formed into a separate administration, of the small area
+recently placed directly under the government of India on the transfer
+of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi, and of the native states in
+political dependence on the Panjab Government. It will also be
+convenient to include Kashmir and the tribal territory beyond the
+frontier of British India which is politically controlled from Peshawar.
+The whole tract covers ten degrees of latitude and eleven of longitude.
+The furthest point of the Kashmir frontier is in 37 deg. 2' N., which is
+much the same as the latitude of Syracuse. In the south-east the Panjab
+ends at 27 deg. 4' N., corresponding roughly to the position of the
+southernmost of the Canary Islands. Lines drawn west from Peshawar and
+Lahore would pass to the north of Beirut and Jerusalem respectively.
+Multan and Cairo are in the same latitude, and so are Delhi and
+Teneriffe. Kashmir stretches eastwards to longitude 80 deg. 3' and the
+westernmost part of Waziristan is in 69 deg. 2' E.
+
+~Distribution of Area.~--The area dealt with is roughly 253,000 square
+miles. This is but two-thirteenths of the area of the Indian Empire, and
+yet it is less by only 10,000 square miles than that of Austria-Hungary
+including Bosnia and Herzegovina. The area consists of:
+
+                                                              sq. miles
+
+  (1) The Panjab                                                 97,000
+  (2) Native States dependent on Panjab Government               36,500
+  (3) Kashmir                                                    81,000
+  (4) North West Frontier Province                               13,000
+  (5) Tribal territory under the political control of the Chief
+  Commissioner of North West Frontier Province, roughly          25,500
+
+Approximately 136,000 square miles may be classed as highlands and
+117,000 as plains, and these may be distributed as follows over the
+above divisions:
+
+                                                  Highlands   Plains
+                                                  sq. miles   sq. miles
+
+  (1) Panjab, British                                11,000   86,000
+  (2) Panjab, Native States                          12,000   24,500
+  (3) Kashmir                                        81,000     --
+  (4) North West Frontier Province                    6,500    6,500
+  (5) Tribal Territory                               25,500     --
+
+On the north the highlands include the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan
+(Siwalik) tracts to the south and east of the Indus, and north of that
+river the Muztagh-Karakoram range and the bleak salt plateau beyond that
+range reaching almost up to the Kuenlun mountains. To the west of the
+Indus they include those spurs of the Hindu Kush which run into Chitral
+and Dir, the Buner and Swat hills, the Safed Koh, the Waziristan hills,
+the Suliman range, and the low hills in the trans-Indus districts of the
+North West Frontier Province.
+
+~Boundary with China.~--There is a point to the north of Hunza in Kashmir
+where three great mountain chains, the Muztagh from the south-east, the
+Hindu Kush from the south-west, and the Sarikol (an offshoot of the
+Kuenlun) from the north-east, meet. It is also the meeting-place of the
+Indian, Chinese, and Russian empires and of Afghanistan. Westwards from
+this the boundary of Kashmir and Chinese Turkestan runs for 350 miles
+(omitting curves) through a desolate upland lying well to the north of
+the Muztagh-Karakoram range. Finally in the north-east corner of Kashmir
+the frontier impinges on the great Central Asian axis of the Kuenlun.
+From this point it turns southwards and separates Chinese Tibet from the
+salt Lingzi Thang plains and the Indus valley in Kashmir, and the
+eastern part of the native state of Bashahr, which physically form a
+portion of Tibet.
+
+~Boundary with United Provinces.~--The south-east corner of Bashahr is a
+little to the north of the great Kedarnath peak in the Central Himalaya
+and of the source of the Jamna. Here the frontier strikes to the west
+dividing Bashahr from Teri Garhwal, a native state under the control of
+the government of the United Provinces. Turning again to the south it
+runs to the junction of the Tons and Jamna, separating Teri Garhwal from
+Sirmur and some of the smaller Simla Hill States. Henceforth the Jamna
+is with small exceptions the boundary between the Panjab and the United
+Provinces.
+
+~Boundary with Afghanistan.~--We must now return to our starting-point at
+the eastern extremity of the Hindu Kush, and trace the boundary with
+Afghanistan. The frontier runs west and south-west along the Hindu Kush
+to the Dorah pass dividing Chitral from the Afghan province of Wakhan,
+and streams which drain into the Indus from the head waters of the Oxus.
+At the Dorah pass it turns sharply to the south, following a great spur
+which parts the valley of the Chitral river (British) from that of its
+Afghan affluent, the Bashgol. Below the junction of the two streams at
+Arnawai the Chitral changes its name and becomes the Kunar. Near this
+point the "Durand" line begins. In 1893 an agreement was made between
+the Amir Abdurrahman and Sir Mortimer Durand as representative of the
+British Government determining the frontier line from Chandak in the
+valley of the Kunar, twelve miles north of Asmar, to the Persian border.
+Asmar is an Afghan village on the left bank of the Kunar to the south of
+Arnawai. In 1894 the line was demarcated along the eastern watershed of
+the Kunar valley to Nawakotal on the confines of Bajaur and the country
+of the Mohmands.
+
+Thence the frontier, which has not been demarcated, passes through the
+heart of the Mohmand country to the Kabul river and beyond it to our
+frontier post in the Khaibar at Landikhana.
+
+From this point the line, still undemarcated, runs on in a
+south-westerly direction to the Safed Koh, and then strikes west along
+it to the Sikaram mountain near the Paiwar Kotal at the head of the
+Kurram valley. From Sikaram the frontier runs south and south-east
+crossing the upper waters of the Kurram, and dividing our possessions
+from the Afghan province of Khost. This line was demarcated in 1894.
+
+At the south of the Kurram valley the frontier sweeps round to the west
+leaving in the British sphere the valley of the Tochi. Turning again to
+the south it crosses the upper waters of the Tochi and passes round the
+back of Waziristan by the Shawal valley and the plains about Wana to
+Domandi on the Gomal river, where Afghanistan, Biluchistan, and the
+North West Frontier Province meet. The Waziristan boundary was
+demarcated in 1895.
+
+~Political and Administrative Boundaries.~--The boundary described above
+defines spheres of influence, and only in the Kurram valley does it
+coincide with that of the districts for whose orderly administration we
+hold ourselves responsible. All we ask of Wazirs, Afridis, or Mohmands
+is to leave our people at peace; we have no concern with their quarrels
+or blood feuds, so long as they abide in their mountains or only leave
+them for the sake of lawful gain. Our administrative boundary, which
+speaking broadly we took over from the Sikhs, usually runs at the foot
+of the hills. A glance at the map will show that between Peshawar and
+Kohat the territory of the independent tribes comes down almost to the
+Indus. At this point the hills occupied by the Jowaki section of the
+Afridi tribe push out a great tongue eastwards. Our military frontier
+road runs through these hills, and we actually pay the tribesmen of the
+Kohat pass for our right of way. Another tongue of tribal territory
+reaches right down to the Indus, and almost severs the Peshawar and
+Hazara districts. Further north the frontier of Hazara lies well to the
+east of the Indus.
+
+~Frontier with Biluchistan.~--At Domandi the frontier turns to the east,
+and following the Gomal river to its junction with the Zhob at Kajuri
+Kach forms the boundary of the two British administrations. Henceforth
+the general direction of the line is determined by the trend of the
+Suliman range. It runs south to the Vehoa pass, where the country of the
+Pathans of the North West Frontier Province ends and that of the Hill
+and Plain Biluches subject to the Panjab Government begins. From the
+Vehoa pass to the Kaha torrent the line is drawn so as to leave Biluch
+tribes with the Panjab and Pathan tribes with the Biluchistan Agency.
+South of the Kaha the division is between Biluch tribes, the Marris and
+Bugtis to the west being managed from Quetta, and the Gurchanis and
+Mazaris, who are largely settled in the plains, being included in Dera
+Ghazi Khan, the trans-Indus district of the Panjab. At the south-west
+corner of the Dera Ghazi Khan district the Panjab, Sind, and Biluchistan
+meet. From this point the short common boundary of the Panjab and Sind
+runs east to the Indus.
+
+~The Southern Boundary.~--East of the Indus the frontier runs south-east
+for about fifty miles parting Sind from the Bahawalpur State, till a
+point is reached where Sind, Rajputana, and Bahawalpur join. A little
+further to the east is the southern extremity of Bahawalpur at 70 deg. 8' E.
+and 27 deg. 5' N. From this point a line drawn due east would at a distance
+of 370 miles pass a few miles to the north of the south end of Gurgaon
+and a few miles to the south of the border of the Narnaul tract of
+Patiala. Between Narnaul and the south-east corner of the Bahawalpur
+State the great Rajputana desert, mainly occupied in this quarter by
+Bikaner, thrusts northwards a huge wedge reaching almost up to the
+Sutlej. To the west of the wedge is Bahawalpur and to the east the
+British district of Hissar. The apex is less than 100 miles from Lahore,
+while a line drawn due south from that city to latitude 27'5 deg. north
+would exceed 270 miles in length. The Jaipur State lies to the south and
+west of Narnaul, while Gurgaon has across its southern frontiers Alwar
+and Bharatpur, and near the Jamna the Muttra district of the United
+Provinces.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+MOUNTAINS, HILLS, AND PLAINS
+
+
+~The Great Northern Rampart.~--The huge mountain rampart which guards the
+northern frontier of India thrusts out in the north-west a great bastion
+whose outer walls are the Hindu Kush and the Muztagh-Karakoram ranges.
+Behind the latter with a general trend from south-east to north-west are
+the great valley of the Indus to the point near Gilgit where it turns
+sharply to the south, and a succession of mountain chains and glens
+making up the Himalayan tract, through which the five rivers of the
+Panjab and the Jamna find their way to the plains. To meet trans-Indus
+extensions of the Himalaya the Hindu Kush pushes out from its main axis
+great spurs to the south, flanking the valleys which drain into the
+Indus either directly or through the Kabul river.
+
+~The Himalaya.~--Tibet, which from the point of view of physical geography
+includes a large and little known area in the Kashmir State to the north
+of the Karakoram range, is a lofty, desolate, wind swept plateau with a
+mean elevation of about 15,000 feet. In the part of it situated to the
+north of the north-west corner of Nipal lies the Manasarowar lake, in
+the neighbourhood of which three great Indian rivers, the Tsanpo or
+Brahmaputra, the Sutlej, and the Indus, take their rise. The Indus flows
+to the north-west for 500 miles and then turns abruptly to the south to
+seek its distant home in the Indian Ocean. The Tsanpo has a still
+longer course of 800 miles eastwards before it too bends southwards to
+flow through Assam into the Bay of Bengal. Between the points where
+these two giant rivers change their direction there extends for a
+distance of 1500 miles the vast congeries of mountain ranges known
+collectively as the "Himalaya" or "Abode of Snow." As a matter of
+convenience the name is sometimes confined to the mountains east of the
+Indus, but geologically the hills of Buner and Swat to the north of
+Peshawar probably belong to the same system. In Sanskrit literature the
+Himalaya is also known as "Himavata," whence the classical Emodus.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Orographical Map.]
+
+~The Kumaon Himalaya.~--The Himalaya may be divided longitudinally into
+three sections, the eastern or Sikkim, the mid or Kumaon, and the
+north-western or Ladakh. With the first we are not concerned. The Kumaon
+section lies mainly in the United Provinces, but it includes the sources
+of the Jamna, and contains the chain in the Panjab which is at once the
+southern watershed of the Sutlej and the great divide between the two
+river systems of Northern India, the Gangetic draining into the Bay of
+Bengal, and the Indus carrying the enormous discharge of the north-west
+Himalaya, the Muztagh-Karakoram, and the Hindu Kush ranges into the
+Indian Ocean. Simla stands on the south-western end of this watershed,
+and below it the Himalaya drops rapidly to the Siwalik foot-hills and to
+the plains. Jakko, the _deodar_-clad hill round which so much of the
+life of the summer capital of India revolves, attains a height of 8000
+feet. The highest peak within a radius of 25 miles of Simla is the Chor,
+which is over 12,000 feet high, and does not lose its snow cap till May.
+Hattu, the well-known hill above Narkanda, which is 40 miles from Simla
+by road, is 1000 feet lower. But further west in Bashahr the higher
+peaks range from 16,000 to 22,000 feet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Nanga Parvat.]
+
+~The Inner Himalaya or Zanskar Range.~--The division of the Himalaya into
+the three sections named above is convenient for descriptive purposes.
+But its chief axis runs through all the sections. East of Nipal it
+strikes into Tibet not very far from the source of the Tsanpo, is soon
+pierced by the gorge of the Sutlej, and beyond it forms the southern
+watershed of the huge Indus valley. In the west this great rampart is
+known as the Zanskar range. For a short distance it is the boundary
+between the Panjab and Kashmir, separating two outlying portions of the
+Kangra district, Lahul and Spiti, from Ladakh. In this section the peaks
+are from 19,000 to 21,000 feet high, and the Baralacha pass on the road
+from the Kulu valley in Kangra to Leh, the capital of Ladakh, is at an
+elevation of about 16,500 feet. In Kashmir the Zanskar or Inner Himalaya
+divides the valley of the Indus from those of the Chenab and Jhelam. It
+has no mountain to dispute supremacy with Everest (29,000 feet), or
+Kinchinjunga in the Eastern Himalaya, but the inferiority is only
+relative. The twin peaks called Nun and Kun to the east of Srinagar
+exceed 23,000 feet, and in the extreme north-west the grand mountain
+mass of Nanga Parvat towers above the Indus to a height of 26,182 feet.
+The lowest point in the chain is the Zojila (11,300 feet) on the route
+from Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir, to Leh on the Indus
+
+The road from Srinagar to Gilgit passes over the Burzil pass at an
+elevation of 13,500 feet.
+
+The Zojila is at the top of the beautiful valley of the Sind river, a
+tributary of the Jhelam. The lofty Zanskar range blocks the inward flow
+of the monsoon, and once the Zojila is crossed the aspect of the country
+entirely changes. The land of forest glades and green pastures is left
+behind, and a region of naked and desolate grandeur begins.
+
+     "The waste of snow ... is the frontier of barren Tibet, where sandy
+     wastes replace verdant meadows, and where the wild ridges, jutting
+     up against the sky, are kept bare of vegetation, their strata
+     crumbling under the destructive action of frost and water, leaving
+     bare ribs of gaunt and often fantastic outline.... The colouring of
+     the mountains is remarkable throughout Ladakh and nowhere more so
+     than near the Fotula (a pass on the road to Leh to the south of the
+     Indus gorge).... As we ascend the peaks suggest organ pipes, so
+     vertical are the ridges, so jagged the ascending outlines. And each
+     pipe is painted a different colour ... pale slate green, purple,
+     yellow, grey, orange, and chocolate, each colour corresponding with
+     a layer of the slate, shale, limestone, or trap strata" (Neve's
+     _Picturesque Kashmir_, pp. 108 and 117).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Burzil Pass.]
+
+In all this desolation there are tiny oases where level soil and a
+supply of river water permit of cultivation and of some tree growth.
+
+~Water divide near Baralacha and Rotang Passes in Kulu.~--We have seen
+that the Indus and its greatest tributary, the Sutlej, rise beyond the
+Himalaya in the Tibetan plateau. The next great water divide is in the
+neighbourhood of the Baralacha pass and the Rotang pass, 30 miles to the
+south of it. The route from Simla to Leh runs at a general level of 7000
+to 9000 feet along or near the Sutlej-Jamna watershed to Narkanda (8800
+feet). Here it leaves the Hindustan-Tibet road and drops rapidly into
+the Sutlej gorge, where the Luri bridge is only 2650 feet above sea
+level. Rising steeply on the other side the Jalauri pass on the
+watershed between the Sutlej and the Bias is crossed at an elevation of
+10,800 feet. A more gradual descent brings the traveller to the Bias at
+Larji, 3080 feet above sea level. The route then follows the course of
+the Bias through the beautiful Kulu valley to the Rotang pass (13,326
+feet), near which the river rises. The upper part of the valley is
+flanked on the west by the short, but very lofty Bara Bangahal range,
+dividing Kulu from Kangra and the source of the Bias from that of the
+Ravi. Beyond the Rotang is Lahul, which is divided by a watershed from
+Spiti and the torrents which drain into the Sutlej. On the western side
+of this watershed are the sources of the Chandra and Bhaga, which unite
+to form the river known in the plains as the Chenab.
+
+~Mid Himalaya or Pangi Range.~--The Mid Himalayan or Pangi range, striking
+west from the Rotang pass and the northern end of the Bara Bangahal
+chain, passes through the heart of Chamba dividing the valley of the
+Chenab (Pangi) from that of the Ravi. After entering Kashmir it crosses
+the Chenab near the Kolahoi cone (17,900 feet) and the head waters of
+the Jhelam. Thence it continues west over Haramukh (16,900 feet), which
+casts its shadow southwards on the Wular lake, to the valley of the
+Kishnganga, and probably across it to the mountains which flank the
+magnificent Kagan glen in Hazara.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Rotang Pass.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Mt Haramukh.]
+
+~Outer Himalaya or Dhauladhar-Pir Panjal Range.~--The Outer Himalaya also
+starts from a point near the Rotang pass, but some way to the south of
+the offset of the Mid Himalayan chain. Its main axis runs parallel to
+the latter, and under the name of the Dhauladhar (white ridge) forms the
+boundary of the Chamba State and Kangra, behind whose headquarters, at
+Dharmsala it stands up like a huge wall. It has a mean elevation of
+15,000 feet, but rises as high as 16,000. It passes from Chamba into
+Bhadarwah in Kashmir, and crossing the Chenab is carried on as the Pir
+Panjal range through the south of that State. With an elevation of only
+14,000 or 15,000 feet it is a dwarf as compared with the giants of the
+Inner Himalayan and Muztagh-Karakoram chains. But it hides them from the
+dwellers in the Panjab, and its snowy crest is a very striking picture
+as seen in the cold weather from the plains of Rawalpindi, Jhelam, and
+Gujrat. The Outer Himalaya is continued beyond the gorges of the Jhelam
+and Kishnganga rivers in Kajnag and the hills of the Hazara district.
+Near the eastern extremity of the Dhauladhar section of the Outer
+Himalaya it sends out southwards between Kulu and Mandi a lower
+offshoot. This is crossed by the Babbu (9480 feet) and Dulchi passes,
+connecting Kulu with Kangra through Mandi. Geologically the Kulu-Mandi
+range appears to be continued to the east of the Bias and across the
+Sutlej over Hattu and the Chor to the hills near Masuri (Mussoorie), a
+well-known hill station in the United Provinces. Another offshoot at the
+western end of the Dhauladhar passes through the beautiful hill station
+of Dalhousie, and sinks into the low hills to the east of the Ravi,
+where it leaves Chamba and enters the British district of Gurdaspur.
+
+~River Valleys and Passes in the Himalaya.~--While these principal chains
+can be traced from south-east to north-west over hundreds of miles it
+must be remembered that the Himalaya is a mountain mass from 150 to 200
+miles broad, that the main axes are linked together by subsidiary cross
+chains dividing the head waters of great rivers, and flanked by long and
+lofty ridges running down at various angles to the gorges of these
+streams and their tributaries. The typical Himalayan river runs in a
+gorge with mountains dipping down pretty steeply to its sides. The lower
+slopes are cultivated, but the land is usually stony and uneven, and as
+a whole the crops are not of a high class. The open valleys of the
+Jhelam in Kashmir and of the Bias in Kulu are exceptions. Passes in the
+Himalaya are not defiles between high cliffs, but cross the crest of a
+ridge at a point where the chain is locally depressed, and snow melts
+soonest. In the Outer and Mid Himalaya the line of perpetual snow is at
+about 16,000 feet, but for six months of the year the snow-line comes
+down 5000 feet lower. In the Inner Himalaya and the Muztagh-Karakoram,
+to which the monsoon does not penetrate, the air is so dry that less
+snow falls and the line is a good deal higher.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. R. Jhelam in Kashmir--View towards Mohand Marg.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Near Naran in Kagan Glen, Hazara.]
+
+~Himalayan Scenery.~--Certain things strike any observant traveller in the
+Himalaya. One is the comparative absence of running or still water,
+except in the height of the rainy season, away from the large rivers.
+The slope is so rapid that ordinary falls of rain run off with great
+rapidity. The mountain scenery is often magnificent and the forests are
+beautiful, but the absence of water robs the landscape of a charm which
+would make it really perfect. Where this too is present, as in the
+valley of the Bias in Kulu and those of the Jhelam and its tributaries
+in Kashmir and Hazara, the eye has its full fruition of content.
+Another is the silence of the forests. Bird and beast are there, but
+they are little in evidence. A third feature which can hardly be missed
+is the contrast between the northern and the southern slopes. The former
+will often be clothed with forest while the latter is a bare stony slope
+covered according to season with brown or green grass interspersed with
+bushes of indigo, barberry, or the hog plum (Prinsepia utilis). The
+reason is that the northern side enjoys much more shade, snow lies
+longer, and the supply of moisture is therefore greater. The grazier for
+the same reason is less tempted to fire the hill side in order to
+promote the growth of grass, a practice which is fatal to all forest
+growth. The rich and varied flora of the Himalaya will be referred to
+later.
+
+~Muztagh-Karakoram Ranges.~--The Muztagh-Karakoram mountains form the
+northern watershed of the Indus. The range consists of more than one
+main axis. The name Karakoram is appropriated to the eastern part of the
+system which originates at E. longitude 79 deg. near the Pangong lake in the
+Tibetan plateau a little beyond the boundary of Kashmir. Beyond the
+Karakoram pass (18,550 ft.) is a lofty bleak upland with salt lakes
+dotted over its surface. Through this inhospitable region and over the
+Karakoram pass and the Sasser-la (17,500 ft.) the trade route from
+Yarkand to Leh runs. The road is only open for three months in the year,
+and the dangers and hardships are great. In 1898 Dr Bullock Workman and
+his wife marched along it across the Shyok river, up the valley of the
+Nubra, and over the Sasser-la to the Karakoram pass. The scenery is an
+exaggeration of that described by Dr Neve as seen on the road from the
+Zoji-la to Leh. There is a powerful picture of its weird repellent
+grandeur in the Workmans' book entitled _In the Ice World of Himalaya_
+(pp. 28-29, 30-32). The poet who had found ideas for a new Paradiso in
+the Vale of Kashmir might here get suggestions for a new Inferno.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Muztagh-Karakoram and Himalayan Ranges in
+Kashmir.]
+
+The Karakoram range culminates in the north-west near the Muztagh pass
+in a group of majestic peaks including K 2 or Mount Godwin Austen
+(28,265 feet), Gasherbrum, and Masherbrum, which tower over and feed the
+vast Boltoro glacier. The first of these giants is the second largest
+mountain in the world. The Duke of the Abruzzi ascended it to the height
+of 24,600 feet, and so established a climbing record. The Muztagh chain
+carries on the northern bastion to the valley of the Hunza river and
+the western extremity of the Hindu Kush. It has several peaks exceeding
+25,000 feet. The most famous is Rakiposhi which looks down on Hunza from
+a height of 25,550 feet.
+
+~The Hindu Kush.~--The Muztagh chain from the south-east, the Sarikol from
+the north-east, and the Hindu Kush from the south-west, meet at a point
+to the north of Hunza. The last runs westward and south-westward for
+about 200 miles to the Dorah pass (14,800 feet), separating the valleys
+which drain into the Indus from the head waters of the Oxus, and Hunza
+and Gilgit in Kashmir and Chitral in British India from the Afghan
+province of Wakhan. The highest point in the main axis, Sad Istragh
+(24,171 feet), is in this section. But the finest mountain scenery in
+the Hindu Kush is in the great spurs it thrusts out southwards to flank
+the glens which feed the Gilgit and Chitral rivers. Tirach Mir towers
+above Chitral to a height of 25,426 feet. From Tibet to the Dorah pass
+the northern frontier of India is impregnable. It is pierced by one or
+two difficult trade routes strewn with the bones of pack animals, but no
+large army has ever marched across it for the invasion of India. West of
+the Dorah pass the general level of the Hindu Kush is a good deal lower
+than that of its eastern section. The vital point in the defences of
+India in this quarter lies near Charikar to the north of Kabul, where
+the chain thins out, and three practicable passes debouch on the valley
+of the Kabul river. It is this fact that gives the town of Kabul its
+great strategic importance. The highest of the three passes, the Kaoshan
+or Hindu Kush (dead Hindu), crosses the chain at an elevation of 14,340
+feet. It took its own name from the fate that befel a Hindu army when
+attempting to cross it, and has handed it on to the whole range. It is
+the pass which the armies of Alexander and Babar used. The historical
+road for the invasion of India on this side has been by Charikar and the
+valley of the Kabul river to its junction with the Kunar below
+Jalalabad, thence up the Kunar valley and over one of the practicable
+passes which connect its eastern watershed with the Panjkora and Swat
+river valleys, whence the descent on Peshawar is easy. This is the route
+by which Alexander led the wing of the Grecian army which he commanded
+in person, and the one followed by Babar in 1518-19. Like Alexander,
+Babar fought his way through Bajaur, and crossed the Indus above Attock.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. The Khaibar Road.]
+
+~The Khaibar.~--A British force advancing on Kabul from Peshawar has never
+marched by the Kunar and Kabul valley route. It has always taken the
+Khaibar road, which only follows the Kabul river for less than one-third
+of the 170 miles which separate Peshawar from the Amir's capital. The
+military road from Peshawar to Landikhana lies far to the south of the
+river, from which it is shut off by difficult and rugged country held by
+the Mohmands.
+
+~Safed Koh.~--From Landikhana the political boundary runs south-west to
+the Safed Koh (white mountain) and is continued westwards along that
+range to the Paiwar Kotal or pass (8450 feet). The Safed Koh forms the
+watershed of the Kabul and Kurram rivers. It is a fine pine clad chain
+with a general level of 12,000 feet, and its skyline is rarely free from
+snow. It culminates in the west near Paiwar Kotal in Sikaram (15,620
+feet). To the west of the Peshawar and Kohat districts is a tangle of
+hills and valleys formed by outlying spurs of the Safed Koh. This
+difficult country is in the occupation of Afridis and Orakzais, who are
+under our political control.
+
+~The Kurram Valley.~--The line of advance into Afghanistan through the
+Kurram valley is easy, and Lord Roberts used it when he marched towards
+Kabul in 1898. After the war we annexed the valley, leaving however the
+head waters of the Kurram in Afghan territory. The road to Kabul leaves
+the river far to the south before it crosses our frontier at Paiwar
+Kotal.
+
+~Waziristan Hills.~--Between the Kurram valley and the Gomal river is a
+large block of very rough mountainous country known as Waziristan from
+the turbulent clan which occupies it. In the north it is drained by the
+Tochi. Westwards of the Tochi valley the country rises into lofty
+mountains. The upper waters of the Tochi and its affluents drain two
+fine glens known as Birmal and Shawal to the west of the country of the
+Mahsud Wazirs. The Tochi valley is the direct route from India to
+Ghazni, and nine centuries ago, when that decayed town was the capital
+of a powerful kingdom, it must often have heard the tramp of armed men.
+The loftiest peaks in Waziristan, Shuidar (11,000 feet) and Pirghal
+(11,600 feet), overhang Birmal. Further south, Wana, our post in
+south-west Waziristan, overlooks from its plateau the Gomal valley.
+
+~The Gomal Pass as a trade route.~--East of Kajuri Kach the Gomal flows
+through tribal territory to the Gomal pass from which it debouches into
+the plains of the Dera Ismail Khan district. "The Gomal route is the
+oldest of all trade routes. Down it there yearly pours a succession of
+_kafilas_ (caravans) led and followed up by thousands of well-armed
+Pathan traders, called Powindahs, from the plains of Afghanistan to
+India. The Powindahs mostly belong to the Ghilzai tribes, and are not
+therefore true Afghans[1]. Leaving their women and children encamped
+within British territory on our border, and their arms in the keeping of
+our frontier political officials, the Powindah makes his way southwards
+with his camel loads of fruit and silk, bales of camel and goat hair or
+sheepskin goods, carpets and other merchandise from Kabul and Bokhara,
+and conveys himself through the length and breadth of the Indian
+peninsula.... He returns yearly to the cool summits of the Afghan hills
+and the open grassy plains, where his countless flocks of sheep and
+camels are scattered for the summer grazing" (Holdich's _India_, pp.
+80-81).
+
+~Physical features of hilly country between Peshawar and the Gomal
+river.~--The physical features of the hill country between Peshawar and
+the Gomal pass may best be described in the words of Sir Thomas Holdich:
+
+     "Natural landscape beauty, indeed, may here be measured to a
+     certain extent by altitude. The low ranges of sun-scorched,
+     blackened ridge and furrow formation which form the approaches to
+     the higher altitudes of the Afghan upland, and which are almost as
+     regularly laid out by the hand of nature in some parts of the
+     frontier as are the parallels ... of the engineer who is besieging
+     a fortress--these are by no means 'things of beauty,' and it is
+     this class of formation and this form of barren desolation that is
+     most familiar to the frontier officer.... Shades of delicate purple
+     and grey will not make up for the absence of the living green of
+     vegetation.... But with higher altitudes a cooler climate and
+     snow-fed soil is found, and as soon as vegetation grasps a
+     root-hold there is the beginning of fine scenery. The upper
+     pine-covered slopes of the Safed Koh are as picturesque as those of
+     the Swiss Alps; they are crowned by peaks whose wonderful altitudes
+     are frozen beyond the possibility of vegetation, and are usually
+     covered with snow wherever snow can lie. In Waziristan, hidden away
+     in the higher recesses of its great mountains, are many valleys of
+     great natural beauty, where we find the spreading poplar and the
+     ilex in all the robust growth of an indigenous flora.... Among the
+     minor valleys Birmal perhaps takes precedence by right of its
+     natural beauty. Here are stretches of park-like scenery where
+     grass-covered slopes are dotted with clumps of _deodar_ and pine
+     and intersected with rivulets hidden in banks of fern; soft green
+     glades open out to view from every turn in the folds of the hills,
+     and above them the silent watch towers of Pirghal and Shuidar ...
+     look down from their snow-clad heights across the Afghan uplands to
+     the hills beyond Ghazni." (Holdich's _India_, pp. 81-82.)
+
+~The Suliman Range.~--A well-marked mountain chain runs from the Gomal to
+the extreme south-west corner of the Dera Ghazi Khan district where the
+borders of Biluchistan, Sind, and the Panjab meet. It culminates forty
+miles south of the Gomal in the fine Kaisargarh mountain (11,295 feet),
+which is a very conspicuous object from the plains of the Derajat. On
+the side of Kaisargarh there is a shrine called Takht i Suliman or
+Throne of Solomon, and this is the name by which Englishmen usually know
+the mountain, and which has been passed on to the whole range.
+Proceeding southwards the general elevation of the chain drops
+steadily. But Fort Munro, the hill station of the Dera Ghazi Khan
+district, 200 miles south of the Takht, still stands 6300 feet above sea
+level, and it looks across at the fine peak of Ekbhai, which is more
+than 1000 feet higher. In the south of the Dera Ghazi Khan district the
+general level of the chain is low, arid the Giandari hill, though only
+4160 feet above the sea, stands out conspicuously. Finally near where
+the three jurisdictions meet the hills melt into the Kachh Gandava
+plain. Sir Thomas Holdich's description of the rugged Pathan hills
+applies also to the Suliman range. Kaisargarh is a fine limestone
+mountain crowned by a forest of the edible _chilgoza_ pine. But the
+ordinary tree growth, where found at all, is of a much humbler kind,
+consisting of gnarled olives and dwarf palms.
+
+~Passes and torrents in Suliman Hills.~--The drainage of the western
+slopes of the Suliman range finding no exit on that side has had to wear
+out ways for itself towards the plains which lie between the foot of the
+hills and the Indus. This is the explanation of the large number of
+passes, about one hundred, which lead from the plains into the Suliman
+hills. The chief from north to south are the Vehoa, the Sangarh, the
+Khair, the Kaha, the Chachar, and the Siri, called from the torrents
+which flow through them to the plains. There is an easy route through
+the Chachar to Biluchistan. But unfortunately the water of the torrent
+is brackish.
+
+~Sub Himalaya or Siwaliks.~--In its lowest ridges the Himalaya drops to a
+height of about 5000 feet. But the traveller to any of the summer
+resorts in the mountains passes through a zone of lower hills
+interspersed sometimes with valleys or "duns." These consist of Tertiary
+sandstones, clays, and boulder conglomerates, the debris in fact which
+the Himalaya has dropped in the course of ages. To this group of hills
+and valleys the general name of Siwaliks is given. East of the Jhelam it
+includes the Nahan hills to the north of Ambala, the low hills of
+Kangra, Hoshyarpur, Gurdaspur, and Jammu, and the Pabbi hills in Gujrat.
+But it is to the west of the Jhelam that the system has its greatest
+extension. Practically the whole of the soil of the plains of the
+Attock, Rawalpindi, and Jhelam districts consists of disintegrated
+Siwalik sandstone, and differs widely in appearance and agricultural
+quality from the alluvium of the true Panjab plains. The low hills of
+these districts belong to the same system, but the Salt Range is only in
+part Siwalik. Altogether Siwalik deposits in the Panjab cover an area of
+13,000 square miles. Beyond the Indus the hills of the Kohat district
+and a part of the Suliman range are of Tertiary age.
+
+~The Great Panjab Plain.~--The passage from the highlands to the plains is
+as a rule abrupt, and the contrast between the two is extraordinary.
+This is true without qualification of the tract between the Jamna and
+the Jhelam. It is equally true of British districts west of the Jhelam
+and south of the Salt Range and of lines drawn from Kalabagh on the west
+bank of the Indus southwards to Paniala and thence north-west through
+the Pezu pass to the Waziristan hills. In all that vast plain, if we
+except the insignificant hills in the extreme south-west of the province
+ending to the north in the historic ridge at Delhi, some hillocks of
+gneiss near Tosham in Hissar, and the curious little isolated rocks at
+Kirana, Chiniot, and Sangla near the Chenab and Jhelam, the only
+eminences are petty ridges of windblown sand and the "_thehs_" or mounds
+which represent the accumulated debris of ancient village sites. At the
+end of the Jurassic period and later this great plain was part of a sea
+bed. Far removed as the Indian ocean now is the height above sea level
+of the Panjab plain east of the Jhelam is nowhere above 1000 feet. Delhi
+and Lahore are both just above the 700 feet line. The hills mentioned
+above are humble time-worn outliers of the very ancient Aravalli system,
+to which the hills of Rajputana belong. Kirana and Sangla were already
+of enormous age, when they were islands washed by the waves of the
+Tertiary sea. A description of the different parts of the vast Panjab
+plain, its great stretches of firm loam, and its tracts of sand and sand
+hills, which the casual observer might regard as pure desert, will be
+given in the paragraphs devoted to the different districts.
+
+~The Salt Range.~--The tract west of the Jhelam, and bounded on the south
+by the Salt Range cis-Indus, and trans-Indus by the lines mentioned
+above, is of a more varied character. Time worn though the Salt Range
+has become by the waste of ages, it still rises at Sakesar, near its
+western extremity, to a height of 5000 feet. The eastern part of the
+range is mostly in the Jhelam district, and there the highest point is
+Chail (3700 feet). The hill of Tilla (3242 feet), which is a marked
+feature of the landscape looking westwards from Jhelam cantonment, is on
+a spur running north-east from the main chain. The Salt Range is poorly
+wooded, the dwarf acacia or _phulahi_ (Acacia modesta), the olive, and
+the _sanattha_ shrub (Dodonea viscosa) are the commonest species. But
+these jagged and arid hills include some not infertile valleys, every
+inch of which is put under crop by the crowded population. To geologists
+the range is of special interest, including as it does at one end of the
+scale Cambrian beds of enormous antiquity and at the other rocks of
+Tertiary age. Embedded in the Cambrian strata there are great deposits
+of rock salt at Kheora, where the Mayo mine is situated. At Kalabagh
+the Salt Range reappears on the far side of the Indus. Here the salt
+comes to the surface, and its jagged pinnacles present a remarkable
+appearance.
+
+~Country north of the Salt Range.~--The country to the north of the Salt
+Range included in the districts of Jhelam, Rawalpindi, and Attock is
+often ravine-bitten and seamed with the white sandy beds of torrents.
+Generally speaking it is an arid precarious tract, but there are fertile
+stretches which will be mentioned in the descriptions of the districts.
+The general height of the plains north of the Salt Range is from 1000
+feet to 2000 feet above sea level. The rise between Lahore and
+Rawalpindi is just over a thousand feet. Low hills usually form a
+feature of the landscape, pleasing at a distance or when softened by the
+evening light, but bare and jagged on a nearer view. The chief hills are
+the Margalla range between Hazara and Rawalpindi, the Kalachitta and the
+Khairimurat hills running east and west through Attock and the very dry
+and broken Narrara hills on the right bank of the Indus in the same
+district. Between the Margalla and Kalachitta hills is the Margalla pass
+on the main road from Rawalpindi to the passage of the Indus at Attock,
+and therefore a position of considerable strategical importance. The
+Kalachitta (black and white) chain is so called because the north side
+is formed of nummulitic limestone and the south mainly of a dark purple
+sandstone. The best tree-growth is therefore on the north side.
+
+~Peshawar, Kohat, and Bannu.~--Across the Indus the Peshawar and Bannu
+districts are basins ringed with hills and drained respectively by the
+Kabul and Kurram rivers with their affluents. Between these two basins
+lies the maze of bare broken hills and valleys which make up the Kohat
+district. The cantonment of Kohat is 1700 feet above sea level and no
+hill in the district reaches 5000 feet. Near the Kohat border in the
+south-west of the Peshawar district are the Khattak hills, the
+culmination of which at Ghaibana Sir has a height of 5136 feet, and the
+military sanitarium of Cherat in the same chain is 600 feet lower. On
+the east the Maidani hills part Bannu from Isakhel, the trans-Indus
+_tahsil_ of Mianwali, and on the south the Marwat hills divide it from
+Dera Ismail Khan. Both are humble ranges. The highest point in the
+Marwat hills is Shekhbudin, a bare and dry limestone rock rising to an
+elevation of over 4500 feet.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: They are held to be of Turkish origin.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+RIVERS
+
+
+~The Panjab Rivers.~--"Panjab" is a Persian compound word, meaning "five
+waters," and strictly speaking the word denotes the country between the
+valley of the Jhelam and that of the Sutlej. The intermediate rivers
+from west to east are the Chenab, the Ravi, and the Bias. Their combined
+waters at last flow into the Panjnad or "five rivers" at the south-west
+corner of the Multan district, and the volume of water which 44 miles
+lower down the Panjnad carries into the Indus is equal to the discharge
+of the latter. The first Aryan settlers knew this part of India as the
+land of the seven rivers (_sapla sindhavas_), adding to the five
+mentioned above the Indus and the Sarasvati. The old Vedic name is more
+appropriate than Panjab if we substitute the Jamna for the Sarasvati or
+Sarusti, which is now a petty stream.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Panjab Rivers.]
+
+~River Valleys.~--The cold weather traveller who is carried from Delhi to
+Rawalpindi over the great railway bridges at points chosen because there
+the waters of the rivers are confined by nature, or can be confined by
+art, within moderate limits, has little idea of what one of these rivers
+is like in flood time. He sees that, even at such favoured spots,
+between the low banks there is a stretch of sand far exceeding in width
+the main channel, where a considerable volume of water is running, and
+the minor depressions, in which a sluggish and shallow flow may still
+be found. If, leaving the railway, he crosses a river by some bridge of
+boats or local ferry, he will find still wider expanses of sand
+sometimes bare and dry and white, at others moist and dark and covered
+with dwarf tamarisk. He may notice that, before he reaches the sand and
+the tamarisk scrub, he leaves by a gentle or abrupt descent the dry
+uplands, and passes into a lower, greener, and perhaps to his
+inexperienced eye more fertile seeming tract. This is the valley, often
+miles broad, through which the stream has moved in ever-shifting
+channels in the course of centuries. He finds it hard to realize that,
+when the summer heats melt the Himalayan snows, and the monsoon
+currents, striking against the northern mountain walls, are precipitated
+in torrents of rain, the rush of water to the plains swells the river
+20, 30, 40, or even 50 fold. The sandy bed then becomes full from bank
+to bank, and the silt laden waters spill over into the cultivated
+lowlands beyond. Accustomed to the stable streams of his own land, he
+cannot conceive the risks the riverside farmer in the Panjab runs of
+having fruitful fields smothered in a night with barren sand, or lands
+and well and house sucked into the river-bed. So great and sudden are
+the changes, bad and good, wrought by river action that the loss and
+gain have to be measured up year by year for revenue purposes. Nor is
+the visitor likely to imagine that the main channel may in a few seasons
+become a quite subsidiary or wholly deserted bed. Like all streams, e.g.
+the Po, which flow from the mountains into a flat terrain, the Panjab
+rivers are perpetually silting up their beds, and thus, by their own
+action, becoming diverted into new channels or into existing minor ones,
+which are scoured out afresh. If our traveller, leaving the railway at
+Rawalpindi, proceeds by tonga to the capital of Kashmir, he will find
+between Kohala and Baramula another surprise awaiting him. The noble but
+sluggish river of the lowlands, which he crossed at the town of Jhelam,
+is here a swift and deep torrent, flowing over a boulder bed, and
+swirling round waterworn rocks in a gorge hemmed in by mountains. That
+is the typical state of the Himalayan rivers, though the same Jhelam
+above Baramula is an exception, flowing there sluggishly through a very
+flat valley into a shallow lake.
+
+~The Indus Basin.~--The river Sindh (Sanskrit, Sindhu), more familiar to
+us under its classical name of the Indus, must have filled with
+astonishment every invader from the west, and it is not wonderful that
+they called after it the country that lay beyond. Its basin covers an
+area of 373,000 square miles. Confining attention to Asia these figures,
+large though they seem, are far exceeded by those of the Yangtsze-Kiang.
+The area of which a description is attempted in this book is, with the
+exception of a strip along the Jamna and the part of Kashmir lying
+beyond the Muztagh-Karakoram range, all included in the Indus basin. But
+it does not embrace the whole of it. Part is in Tibet, part in
+Afghanistan and Biluchistan, and part in Sindh, through which province
+the Indus flows for 450 miles, or one-quarter of its whole course of
+1800 miles. It seems likely that the Jamna valley was not always an
+exception, or at least that that river once flowed westwards through
+Rajputana to the Indian ocean. The five great rivers of the Panjab all
+drain into the Indus, and the Ghagar with its tributary, the Sarusti,
+which now, even when in flood, loses itself in the sands of Bikaner,
+probably once flowed down the old Hakra bed in Bahawalpur either into
+the Indus or by an independent bed now represented by an old flood
+channel of the Indus in Sindh, the Hakro or Nara, which passes through
+the Rann of Kachh.
+
+~The Indus outside British India.~--To the north of the Manasarowar lake
+in Tibet is Kailas, the Hindu Olympus. On the side of this mountain the
+Indus is said to rise at a height of 17,000 feet. After a course of 200
+miles or more it crosses the south-east boundary of the Kashmir State at
+an elevation of 13,800 feet. From the Kashmir frontier to Mt Haramosh
+west of Gilgit it flows steadily to the north-west for 350 miles. After
+125 miles Leh, the capital of Ladakh, is reached at a height of 10,500
+feet, and here the river is crossed by the trade route to Yarkand. A
+little below Leh the Indus receives the Zanskar, which drains the
+south-east of Kashmir. After another 150 miles it flows through the
+basin, in which Skardo, the principal town in Baltistan, is situated.
+Above Skardo a large tributary, the Shyok, flows in from the east at an
+elevation of 8000 feet. The Shyok and its affluent, the Nubra, rise in
+the giant glaciers to the south-west of the Karakoram pass. After the
+Skardo basin is left behind the descent is rapid. The river rushes down
+a tremendous gorge, where it appears to break through the western
+Himalaya, skirts Haramosh, and at a point twenty-five miles east of
+Gilgit bends abruptly to the south. Shortly after it is joined from the
+west by the Gilgit river, and here the bed is about 4000 feet above sea
+level. Continuing to flow south for another twenty miles it resumes its
+westernly course to the north of Nanga Parvat and persists in it for 100
+miles. Our political post of Chilas lies in this section on the south
+bank. Fifty or sixty miles west of Chilas the Indus turns finally to the
+south. From Jalkot, where the Kashmir frontier is left, to Palosi below
+the Mahaban mountain it flows for a hundred miles through territory over
+which we only exercise political control. Near Palosi, 812 miles from
+the source, the river enters British India. In Kashmir the Indus and the
+Shyok in some places flow placidly over alluvial flats, and at others
+with a rapid and broken current through narrow gorges. At Skardo their
+united stream is said, even in winter, to be 500 feet wide and nine or
+ten feet deep. If one of the deep gorges, as sometimes happens, is
+choked by a landslip, the flood that follows when the barrier finally
+bursts may spread devastation hundreds of miles away. To the north of
+the fertile Chach plain in Attock there is a wide stretch of land along
+the Indus, which still shows in its stony impoverished soil the effects
+of the great flood of 1841.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. The Indus at Attock.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Indus at Kafirkot, D.I. Khan dt.]
+
+~The Indus in British India.~--After reaching British India the Indus soon
+becomes the boundary dividing Hazara and Peshawar, two districts of the
+North West Frontier Province. Lower down it parts Peshawar from the
+Panjab district of Attock. In this section after a time the hills recede
+on both sides, and the stream is wide and so shallow that it is fordable
+in places in the cold weather. There are islands, ferry boats and rafts
+can ply, and the only danger is from sudden freshets. Ohind, where
+Alexander crossed, is in this section. A more famous passage is at
+Attock just below the junction of the Kabul river. Here the heights
+again approach the Indus on either bank. The volume of water is vastly
+increased by the union of the Kabul river, which brings down the whole
+drainage of the southern face of the Hindu Kush. From the north it
+receives near Jalalabad the Kunar river, and near Charsadda in Peshawar
+the Swat, which with its affluent the Panjkora drains Dir, Bajaur, and
+Swat. In the cold weather looking northwards from the Attock fort one
+sees the Kabul or Landai as a blue river quietly mingling with the
+Indus, and in the angle between them a stretch of white sand. But during
+floods the junction is the scene of a wild turmoil of waters. At Attock
+there are a railway bridge, a bridge of boats, and a ferry. The bed of
+the stream is 2000 feet over sea level. For ninety miles below Attock
+the river is confined between bare and broken hills, till it finally
+emerges into the plains from the gorge above Kalabagh, where the Salt
+Range impinges on the left bank. Between Attock and Kalabagh the right
+bank is occupied by Peshawar and Kohat and the left by Attock and
+Mianwali. In this section the Indus is joined by the Haro and Soan
+torrents, and spanned at Khushalgarh by a railway bridge. This is the
+only other masonry bridge crossing it in the Panjab. Elsewhere the
+passage has to be made by ferry boats or by boat bridges, which are
+taken down in the rainy season. At Kalabagh the height above sea level
+is less than 1000 feet. When it passes the western extremity of the Salt
+Range the river spreads out into a wide lake-like expanse of waters. It
+has now performed quite half of its long journey. Henceforth it receives
+no addition from the east till the Panjnad in the south-west corner of
+the Muzaffargarh district brings to it the whole tribute of the five
+rivers of the Panjab. Here, though the Indian ocean is still 500 miles
+distant, the channel is less than 300 feet above the sea. From the west
+it receives an important tributary in the Kurram, which, with its
+affluent the Tochi, rises in Afghanistan. The torrents from the Suliman
+Range are mostly used up for irrigation before they reach the Indus, but
+some of them mingle their waters with it in high floods. Below Kalabagh
+the Indus is a typical lowland river of great size, with many sandy
+islands in the bed and a wide valley subject to its inundations.
+Opposite Dera Ismail Khan the valley is seventeen miles across. As a
+plains river the Indus runs at first through the Mianwali district of
+the Panjab, then divides Mianwali from Dera Ismail Khan, and lastly
+parts Muzaffargarh and the Bahawalpur State from the Panjab frontier
+district of Dera Ghazi Khan.
+
+~The Jhelam.~--The Jhelam, the most westernly of the five rivers of the
+Panjab, is called the Veth in Kashmir and locally in the Panjab plains
+the Vehat. These names correspond to the Bihat of the Muhammadan
+historians and the Hydaspes of the Greeks, and all go back to the
+Sanskrit Vitasta. Issuing from a deep pool at Vernag to the east of
+Islamabad in Kashmir it becomes navigable just below that town, and
+flows north-west in a lazy stream for 102 miles through Srinagar, the
+summer capital, into the Wular lake, and beyond it to Baramula. The
+banks are quite low and often cultivated to the river's edge. But across
+the flat valley there is on either side a splendid panorama of
+mountains. From Baramula the character of the Jhelam suddenly changes,
+and for the next 70 miles to Kohala, where the traveller crosses by a
+fine bridge into the Panjab, it rushes down a deep gorge, whose sides
+are formed by the Kajnag mountains on the right, and the Pir Panjal on
+the left, bank. Between Baramula and Kohala there is a drop from 5000 to
+2000 feet. At Domel, the stage before Kohala the Jhelam receives from
+the north the waters of the Kishnganga, and lower down it is joined by
+the Kunhar, which drains the Kagan glen in Hazara. A little above Kohala
+it turns sharply to the south, continuing its character as a mountain
+stream hemmed in by the hills of Rawalpindi on the right bank and of the
+Punch State on the left. The hills gradually sink lower and lower, but
+on the left side only disappear a little above the cantonment of Jhelam,
+where there is a noble railway bridge. From Jhelam onwards the river is
+of the usual plains' type. After dividing the districts of Jhelam (right
+bank) and Gujrat (left), it flows through the Shahpur and Jhang
+districts, falling finally into the Chenab at Trimmu, 450 miles from its
+source. There is a second railway bridge at Haranpur on the Sind Sagar
+line, and a bridge of boats at Khushab, in the Shahpur district. The
+noblest and most-varied scenery in the north-west Himalaya is in the
+catchment area of the Jhelam. The Kashmir valley and the valleys which
+drain into the Jhelam from the north, the Liddar, the Lolab, the Sind,
+and the Kagan glen, display a wealth of beauty unequalled elsewhere. Nor
+does this river wholly lose its association with beauty in the plains.
+Its very rich silt gives the lands on its banks the green charm of rich
+crops and pleasant trees.
+
+~The Chenab.~--The Chenab (more properly Chinab or river of China) is the
+Asikni of the Vedas and the Akesines of the Greek historians. It is
+formed by the union of the Chandra and Bhaga, both of which rise in
+Lahul near the Baralacha pass. Having become the Chandrabhaga the river
+flows through Pangi in Chamba and the south-east of Kashmir. Near
+Kishtwar it breaks through the Pir Panjal range, and thenceforwards
+receives the drainage of its southern slopes. At Akhnur it becomes
+navigable and soon after it enters the Panjab district of Sialkot. A
+little later it is joined from the west by the Tawi, the stream above
+which stands Jammu, the winter capital of Kashmir. The Chenab parts
+Sialkot and Gujranwala on the left bank from Gujrat and Shahpur on the
+right. At Wazirabad, near the point where Sialkot, Gujrat, and
+Gujranwala meet, it is crossed by the Alexandra railway bridge. Leaving
+Shahpur and Gujranwala behind, the Chenab flows through Jhang to its
+junction with the Jhelam at Trimmu. In this section there is a second
+railway bridge at Chund Bharwana. The united stream runs on under the
+name of Chenab to be joined on the north border of the Multan district
+by the Ravi and on its southern border by the Sutlej. Below its junction
+with the latter the stream is known as the Panjnad. In the plains the
+Chenab cannot be called an attractive river, and its silt is far
+inferior to that of the Jhelam.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. Fording the River at Lahore.]
+
+~The Ravi.~--The Ravi was known to the writers of the Vedic hymns as the
+Parushni, but is called in classical Sanskrit Iravati, whence the
+Hydraotes of the Greek historians. It rises near the Rotang pass in
+Kangra, and flows north-west through the southern part of Chamba. Below
+the town of Chamba, it runs as a swift slaty-blue mountain stream, and
+here it is spanned by a fine bridge. Passing on to the north of the hill
+station of Dalhousie it reaches the Kashmir border, and turning to the
+south-west flows along it to Basoli where Kashmir, Chamba, and the
+British district of Gurdaspur meet. At this point it is 2000 feet above
+the sea level. It now forms the boundary of Kashmir and Gurdaspur, and
+finally near Madhopur, where the head-works of the Bari Doab canal are
+situated, it passes into the Gurdaspur district. Shortly after it is
+joined from the north by a large torrent called the Ujh, which rises in
+the Jammu hills. After reaching the Sialkot border the Ravi parts that
+district first from Gurdaspur and then from Amritsar, and, passing
+through the west of Lahore, divides Montgomery and Lyallpur, and flowing
+through the north of Multan joins the Chenab near the Jhang border. In
+Multan there is a remarkable straight reach in the channel known as the
+Sidhnai, which has been utilized for the site of the head-works of a
+small canal. The Degh, a torrent which rises in the Jammu hills and has
+a long course through the Sialkot and Gujranwala districts, joins the
+Ravi when in flood in the north of the Lyallpur district. But its waters
+will now be diverted into the river higher up in order to safeguard the
+Upper Chenab canal. Lahore is on the left bank of the Ravi. It is a mile
+from the cold weather channel, but in high floods the waters have often
+come almost up to the Fort. At Lahore the North Western Railway and the
+Grand Trunk Road are carried over the Ravi by masonry bridges. There is
+a second railway bridge over the Sidhnai reach in Multan. Though the
+Ravi, like the Jhelam, has a course of 450 miles, it has a far smaller
+catchment area, and is really a somewhat insignificant stream. In the
+cold weather, the canal takes such a heavy toll from it that below
+Madhopur the supply of water is mainly drawn from the Ujh, and in
+Montgomery one may cross the bed dryshod for months together. The valley
+of the Ravi is far narrower than those of the rivers described in the
+preceding paragraphs, and the floods are most uncertain, but when they
+occur are of very great value.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. Bias at Manali.]
+
+~The Bias.~--The Bias (Sanskrit, Vipasa; Greek, Hyphasis) rises near the
+Rotang pass at a height of about 13,000 feet. Its head-waters are
+divided from those of the Ravi by the Bara Bangahal range. It flows for
+about sixty miles through the beautiful Kulu valley to Larji (3000
+feet). It has at first a rapid course, but before it reaches Sultanpur
+(4000 feet), the chief village in Kulu, some thirty miles from the
+source, it has become, at least in the cold weather, a comparatively
+peaceful stream fringed with alder thickets. Heavy floods, however,
+sometimes cover fields and orchards with sand and boulders. There is a
+bridge at Manali (6100 feet), a very lovely spot, another below Nagar,
+and a third at Larji. Near Larji the river turns to the west down a bold
+ravine and becomes for a time the boundary between Kulu and the Mandi
+State. Near the town of Mandi, where it is bridged, it bends again, and
+winds in a north-west and westerly direction through low hills in the
+south of Kangra till it meets the Siwaliks on the Hoshyarpur border. In
+this reach there is a bridge of boats at Dera Gopipur on the main road
+from Jalandhar and Hoshyarpur to Dharmsala. Elsewhere in the south of
+Kangra the traveller can cross without difficulty on a small bed
+supported on inflated skins. Sweeping round the northern end of the
+Siwaliks the Bias, having after long parting again approached within
+about fifteen miles of the Ravi, turns definitely to the south, forming
+henceforth the dividing line between Hoshyarpur and Kapurthala (left
+bank) and Gurdaspur and Amritsar (right). Finally above the Harike ferry
+at a point where Lahore, Amritsar, Ferozepur, and Kapurthala nearly
+meet, it falls into the Sutlej. The North Western Railway crosses it by
+a bridge near the Bias station and at the same place there is a bridge
+of boats for the traffic on the Grand Trunk Road. The chief affluents
+are the Chakki, the torrent which travellers to Dharmsala cross by a
+fine bridge twelve miles from the railhead at Pathankot, and the Black
+Bein in Hoshyarpur and Kapurthala. The latter is a winding drainage
+channel, which starts in a swamp in the north of the Hoshyarpur
+district. The Bias has a total course of 390 miles. Only for about
+eighty miles or so is it a true river of the plains, and its floods do
+not spread far.
+
+~The Sutlej.~--The Sutlej is the Shatadru of Vedic hymns and the Zaradros
+of Greek writers. The peasant of the Panjab plains knows it as the Nili
+or Ghara. After the Indus it is the greatest of Panjab rivers, and for
+its source we have to go back to the Manasarowar lakes in Tibet. From
+thence it flows for 200 miles in a north-westerly direction to the
+British frontier near Shipki. A little beyond the Spiti river brings it
+the drainage of the large tract of that name in Kangra and of part of
+Western Tibet. From Shipki it runs for forty miles in deep gorges
+through Kunawar in the Bashahr State to Chini, a beautiful spot near the
+Wangtu bridge, where the Hindustan-Tibet road crosses to the left bank.
+A little below Chini the Baspa flows in from the southeast. The fall
+between the source and Chini is from 15,000 to 7500 feet. There is
+magnificent cliff scenery at Rogi in this reach. Forty miles below Chini
+the capital of Bashahr, Rampur, on the south bank, is only 3300 feet
+above sea level. There is a second bridge at Rampur, and from about this
+point the river becomes the boundary of Bashahr and Kulu, the route to
+which from Simla passes over the Luri bridge (2650 feet) below Narkanda.
+Beyond Luri the Sutlej runs among low hills through several of the Simla
+Hill States. It pierces the Siwaliks at the Hoshyarpur border and then
+turns to the south, maintaining that trend till Rupar and the head-works
+of the Sirhind canal are reached. For the next hundred miles to the Bias
+junction the general direction is west. Above the Harike ferry the
+Sutlej again turns, and flows steadily, though with many windings, to
+the south-west till it joins the Chenab at the south corner of the
+Multan district. There are railway bridges at Phillaur, Ferozepur, and
+Adamwahan. In the plains the Sutlej districts are--on the right bank
+Hoshyarpur, Jalandhar, Lahore, and Montgomery, and on the left Ambala,
+Ludhiana and Ferozepur. Below Ferozepur the river divides Montgomery and
+Multan from Bahawalpur (left bank). The Sutle; has a course of 900
+miles, and a large catchment area in the hills. Notwithstanding the
+heavy toll taken by the Sirhind canal, its floods spread pretty far in
+Jalandhar and Ludhiana and below the Bias junction many monsoon canals
+have been dug which inundate a large area in the lowlands of the
+districts on either bank and of Bahawalpur. The dry bed of the Hakra,
+which can be traced through Bahawalpur, Bikaner, and Sindh, formerly
+carried the waters of the Sutlej to the sea.
+
+~The Ghagar and the Sarusti.~--The Ghagar, once a tributary of the Hakra,
+rises within the Sirmur State in the hills to the east of Kalka. A few
+miles south of Kalka it crosses a narrow neck of the Ambala district,
+and the bridge on the Ambala-Kalka railway is in this section. The rest
+of its course, till it loses itself in the sands of Bikaner, is chiefly
+in Patiala and the Karnal and Hissar districts. It is joined by the Umla
+torrent in Karnal and lower down the Sarusti unites with it in Patiala
+just beyond the Karnal border. It is hard to believe that the Sarusti of
+to-day is the famous Sarasvati of the Vedas, though the little
+ditch-like channel that bears the name certainly passes beside the
+sacred sites of Thanesar and Pehowa. A small sandy torrent bearing the
+same name rises in the low hills in the north-east of the Ambala
+district, but it is doubtful if its waters, which finally disappear into
+the ground, ever reach the Thanesar channel. That seems rather to
+originate in the overflow of a rice swamp in the plains, and in the cold
+weather the bed is usually dry. In fact, till the Sarusti receives above
+Pehowa the floods of the Markanda torrent, it is a most insignificant
+stream. The Markanda, when in flood, carries a large volume of water,
+and below the junction the small channel of the Sarusti cannot carry the
+tribute received, which spreads out into a shallow lake called the
+Sainsa _jhil_. This has been utilized for the supply of the little
+Sarusti canal, which is intended to do the work formerly effected in a
+rude way by throwing _bands_ or embankments across the bed of the
+stream, and forcing the water over the surrounding lands. The same
+wasteful form of irrigation was used on a large scale on the Ghagar and
+is still practised on its upper reaches. Lower down earthen _bands_ have
+been superceded by a masonry weir at Otu in the Hissar district. The
+northern and southern Ghagar canals, which irrigate lands in Hissar and
+Bikaner, take off from this weir.
+
+~Action of Torrents.~--The Ghagar is large enough to exhibit all the three
+stages which a _cho_ or torrent of intermittent flow passes through.
+Such a stream begins in the hills with a well-defined boulder-strewn
+bed, which is never dry. Reaching the plains the bed of a cho becomes a
+wide expanse of white sand, hardly below the level of the adjoining
+country, with a thread of water passing down it in the cold weather. But
+from time to time in the rainy season the channel is full from bank to
+bank and the waters spill far and wide over the fields. Sudden spates
+sometimes sweep away men and cattle before they can get across. If, as
+in Hoshyarpur, the _chos_ flow into a rich plain from hills composed of
+friable sandstone and largely denuded of tree-growth, they are in their
+second stage most destructive. After long delay an Act was passed in
+1900, which gives the government large powers for the protection of
+trees in the Siwaliks and the reclamation of torrent beds in the plains.
+The process of recovery cannot be rapid, but a measure of success has
+already been attained. It must not be supposed that the action of _chos_
+in this second stage is uniformly bad. Some carry silt as well as sand,
+and the very light loam which the great Markanda _cho_ has spread over
+the country on its banks is worth much more to the farmer than the stiff
+clay it has overlaid. Many _chos_ do not pass into the third stage, when
+all the sand has been dropped, and the bed shrinks into a narrow
+ditch-like channel with steep clay banks. The inundations of torrents
+like the Degh and the Ghagar after this stage is reached convert the
+soil into a stiff impervious clay, where flood-water will lie for weeks
+without being absorbed into the soil. In Karnal the wretched and
+fever-stricken tract between the Ghagar and the Sarusti known as the
+Naili is of this character.
+
+~The Jamna.~--The Jamna is the Yamuna of Sanskrit writers. Ptolemy's and
+Pliny's versions, Diamouna and Jomanes, do not deviate much from the
+original. It rises in the Kumaon Himalaya, and, where it first meets the
+frontier of the Simla Hill States, receives from the north a large
+tributary called the Tons. Henceforth, speaking broadly, the Jamna is
+the boundary of the Panjab and the United Provinces. On the Panjab bank
+are from north to south the Sirmur State, Ambala, Karnal, Rohtak, Delhi,
+and Gurgaon. The river leaves the Panjab where Gurgaon and the district
+of Mathra, which belongs to the United Provinces, meet, and finally
+falls into the Ganges at Allahabad. North of Mathra Delhi is the only
+important town on its banks. The Jamna is crossed by railway bridges
+between Delhi and Meerut and between Ambala and Saharanpur.
+
+~Changes in Rivers.~--Allusion has already been made to the changes which
+the courses of Panjab rivers are subject to in the plains. The Indus
+below Kalabagh once ran through the heart of what is now the Thal
+desert. We know that in 1245 A.D. Multan was in the Sind Sagar Doab
+between the Indus and the united streams of the Jhelam, Chenab, and
+Ravi. The Bias had then no connection with the Sutlej, but ran in a bed
+of its own easily to be traced to-day in the Montgomery and Multan
+districts, and joined the Indus between Multan and Uch. The Sutlej was
+still flowing in the Hakra bed. Indeed its junction with the Bias near
+Harike, which probably led to a complete change in the course of the
+Bias, seems only to have taken place within the last 150 years[2].
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 2: Raverty's "The Mehran of Sind and its Tributaries," in
+_Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal_, 1897.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES
+
+
+~Extent of Geological Record.~--Although the main part of the Panjab plain
+is covered by a mantle of comparatively recent alluvium, the provinces
+described in this book display a more complete record of Indian
+geological history than any other similar area in the country. The
+variety is so great that no systematic or sufficient description could
+be attempted in a short chapter, and it is not possible, therefore, to
+do more in these few pages than give brief sketches of the patches of
+unusual interest.
+
+~Aravalli System.~--In the southern and south-eastern districts of the
+Panjab there are exposures of highly folded and metamorphosed rocks
+which belong to the most ancient formations in India. These occupy the
+northern end of the Aravalli hills, which form but a relic of what must
+have been at one time a great mountain range, stretching roughly
+south-south-west through Rajputana into the Bombay Presidency. The
+northern ribs of the Aravalli series disappear beneath alluvial cover in
+the Delhi district, but the rocks still underlie the plains to the west
+and north-west, their presence being revealed by the small promontories
+that peep through the alluvium near the Chenab river, standing up as
+small hills near Chiniot in the Shahpur, Jhang, and Lyallpur districts.
+
+The Salt Range in the Jhelam and Shahpur districts, with a western
+continuation in the Mianwali district to and beyond the Indus, is the
+most interesting part of the Panjab to the geologist. It contains
+notable records of three distinct eras in geological history. In
+association with the well-known beds of rock-salt, which are being
+extensively mined at Kheora, occur the most ancient fossiliferous
+formations known in India, corresponding in age with the middle and
+lower part of the Cambrian system of Europe. These very ancient strata
+immediately overlie the red marls and associated rock-salt beds, and it
+is possible that they have been thrust over bodily to occupy this
+position, as we have no parallel elsewhere for the occurrence of great
+masses of salt in formation older than the Cambrian.
+
+The second fragment of geological history preserved in the Salt Range is
+very much younger, beginning with rocks which were formed in the later
+part of the Carboniferous period. The most remarkable feature in this
+fragment is a boulder-bed, resting unconformably on the Cambrian strata
+and including boulders of various shapes and sizes, which are often
+faceted and striated in a way indicative of glacial action. Several of
+the boulders belong to rocks of a peculiar and unmistakable character,
+such as are found _in situ_ on the western flanks of the Aravalli Range,
+some 750 miles to the south. The glacial conditions which gave rise to
+these boulder-beds were presumably contemporaneous with those that
+produced the somewhat similar formation lying at the base of the great
+coal-bearing system in the Indian peninsula. The glacial boulder-bed
+thus offers indirect evidence as to the age of the Indian coal-measures,
+for immediately above this bed in the Salt Range there occur sandstones
+containing fossils which have affinities with the Upper Carboniferous
+formations of Australia, and on these sandstones again there lie
+alternations of shales and limestones containing an abundance of fossils
+that are characteristic of the Permo-Carboniferous rocks of Russia.
+These are succeeded by an apparently conformable succession of beds of
+still younger age, culminating in a series of shales, sandstones, and
+limestones of unmistakably Triassic age.
+
+There is then an interruption in the record, and the next younger series
+preserved occurs in the western part of the Salt Range as well as in the
+hills beyond the Indus. This formation is of Upper Jurassic age,
+corresponding to the well-known beds of marine origin preserved in
+Cutch. Then follows again a gap in the record, and the next most
+interesting series of formations found in the Salt Range become of great
+importance from the economic as well as from the purely scientific point
+of view; these are the formations of Tertiary age.
+
+The oldest of the Tertiary strata include a prominent limestone
+containing Nummulitic fossils, which are characteristic of these Lower
+Tertiary beds throughout the world. Here, as in many parts of
+North-Western India, the Nummulitic limestones are associated with coal
+which has been largely worked. The country between the Salt Range
+plateau and the hilly region away to the north is covered by a great
+stretch of comparatively young Tertiary formations, which were laid down
+in fresh water after the sea had been driven back finally from this
+region. The incoming of fresh-water conditions was inaugurated by the
+formation of beds which are regarded as equivalent in age to those known
+as the Upper Nari in Sind and Eastern Baluchistan, but the still later
+deposits, belonging to the well-known Siwalik series, are famous on
+account of the great variety and large size of many of the vertebrate
+fossil remains which they have yielded. In these beds to the north of
+the Salt Range there have been found remains of Dinotherium, forms
+related to the ancestors of the giraffe and various other mammals, some
+of them, like the Sivatherium, Mastodon, and Stegodon, being animals of
+great size. On the northern side of the Salt Range three fairly
+well-defined divisions of the Siwalik series have been recognised, each
+being conspicuously fossiliferous--a feature that is comparatively rare
+in the Siwalik hills further to the south-east, where these rocks were
+first studied. The Siwalik series of the Salt Range are thus so well
+developed that this area might be conveniently regarded as the type
+succession for the purpose of correlating isolated fragmentary
+occurrences of the same general series in northern and western India. To
+give an idea as to the age of these rocks, it will be sufficient to
+mention that the middle division of the series corresponds roughly to
+the well-known deposits of Pikermi and Samos.
+
+~Kashmir~ deserves special mention, as it is a veritable paradise for the
+geologist. Of the variety of problems that it presents one might mention
+the petrological questions connected with the intrusion of the great
+masses of granite, and their relation to the slates and associated
+metamorphic rocks. Of fossiliferous systems there is a fine display of
+material ranging in age from Silurian to Upper Trias, and additional
+interest is added by the long-continued volcanic eruptions of the
+"Panjal trap." Students of recent phenomena have at their disposal
+interesting problems in physiography, including a grand display of
+glaciers, and the extensive deposits of so-called _karewas_, which
+appear to have been formed in drowned valleys, where the normal
+fluviatile conditions are modified by those characteristic of lakes. The
+occurrence of sapphires in Zanskar gives the State also an interest to
+the mineralogist and connoisseur of gem-stones.
+
+Of this kaleidoscopic assemblage of questions the ones of most immediate
+interest are connected with the Silurian-Trias succession in the Kashmir
+valley, for here we have a connecting-link between the marine formations
+of the Salt Range area and those which are preserved in greater
+perfection in Spiti and other parts of the Tibetan highlands, stretching
+away to the south-east at the back of the great range of crystalline
+snow-covered peaks.
+
+In this interesting part of Kashmir the most important feature to Indian
+geologists is the occurrence of plant remains belonging to genera
+identical with those that occur in the lower part of the great
+coal-bearing formation of Peninsular India, known as the Gondwana
+system. Until these discoveries were made in Kashmir about ten years ago
+the age of the base of the Gondwanas was estimated only on indirect
+evidence, partly due to the assumption that glacial conditions in the
+Salt Range and those at the base of the Gondwanas were contemporaneous,
+and partly due to analogy with the coal measures of Australia and South
+Africa. In Kashmir the characteristic plant remains of the Lower
+Gondwanas are found associated with marine fossils in great abundance,
+and these permit of a correlation of the strata with the upper part of
+the Carboniferous system of the European standard stratigraphical scale.
+
+Kashmir seems to have been near the estuary of one of the great rivers
+that formerly flowed over the ancient continent of _Gondwanaland_ (when
+India and South Africa formed parts of one continental mass) into the
+great Eurasian Ocean known as _Tethys_. As the deposits formed in this
+great ocean give us the principal part of our data for forming a
+standard stratigraphical scale, the plants which were carried out to sea
+become witnesses of the kind of flora that flourished during the main
+Indian coal period; they thus enable us with great precision to fix the
+position of the fresh-water Gondwanas in comparison with the marine
+succession.
+
+~Spiti.~--With a brief reference to one more interesting patch among the
+geological records of this remarkable region, space will force us to
+pass on to consideration of minerals of economic value. The line of
+snow-covered peaks, composed mainly of crystalline rocks and forming a
+core to the Himalaya in a way analogous to the granitic core of the
+Alps, occupies what was once apparently the northern shore of
+Gondwanaland, and to the north of it there stretched the great ocean of
+Tethys, covering the central parts of Asia and Europe, one of its
+shrunken relics being the present Mediterranean Sea. The bed of this
+ocean throughout many geological ages underwent gradual depression and
+received the sediments brought down by the rivers from the continent
+which stretched away to the south. The sedimentary deposits thus formed
+near the shore-line or further out in deep water attained a thickness of
+well over 20,000 feet, and have been studied in the _tahsil_ of Spiti,
+on the northern border of Kumaon, and again on the eastern Tibetan
+plateau to the north of Darjeeling. A reference to the formations
+preserved in Spiti may be regarded as typical of the geological history
+and the conditions under which these formations were produced.
+
+~Succession of Fossiliferous Beds.~--In age the fossiliferous beds range
+from Cambrian right through to the Tertiary epoch; between these
+extremes no single period was passed without leaving its records in some
+part of the great east-to-west Tibetan basin. At the base of the whole
+succession there lies a series of schists which have been largely
+metamorphosed, and on these rest the oldest of the fossiliferous series,
+which, on account of their occurring in the region of snow, has been
+named the _Haimanta system_. The upper part of the Haimanta system has
+been found to contain the characteristic trilobites of the Cambrian
+period of Europe. Over this system lie beds which have yielded in
+succession Ordovician and Silurian fossils, forming altogether a compact
+division which has been distinguished locally as the _Muth system_. Then
+follows the so-called _Kanawar system_, which introduces Devonian
+conditions, followed by fossils characteristic of the well-known
+mountain limestone of Europe.
+
+Then occurs a break in the succession which varies in magnitude in
+different localities, but appears to correspond to great changes in the
+physical geography which widely affect the Indian region. This break
+corresponds roughly to the upper part of the Carboniferous system of
+Europe, and has been suggested as a datum line for distinguishing in
+India an older group of fossiliferous systems below (formed in an area
+that has been distinguished by the name _Dravidian_), from the younger
+group above, which has been distinguished by the name _Aryan_.
+
+During the periods that followed this interruption the bed of the great
+Eurasian Ocean seems to have subsided persistently though
+intermittently. As the various sediments accumulated the exact position
+of the shore-line must have changed to some extent to give rise to the
+conditions favourable for the formation at one time of limestone, at
+another of shale and at other times of sandy deposits. The whole column
+of beds, however, seems to have gone on accumulating without any folding
+movements, and they are consequently now found lying apparently in
+perfect conformity stage upon stage, from those that are Permian in age
+at the base, right through the Mesozoic group, till the time when
+Tertiary conditions were inaugurated and the earth movements began which
+ultimately drove back the ocean and raised the bed, with its accumulated
+load of sediments, into the great folds that now form the Himalayan
+Range. This great mass of Aryan strata includes an enormous number of
+fossil remains, giving probably a more complete record of the gradual
+changes that came over the marine fauna of Tethys than any other area of
+the kind known. One must pass over the great number of interesting
+features still left unmentioned, including the grand architecture of the
+Sub-Himalaya and the diversity of formations in different parts of the
+Frontier Province; for the rest of the available space must be devoted
+to a brief reference to the minerals of value.
+
+~Rock-salt~, which occurs in abundance, is possibly the most important
+mineral in this area. The deposits most largely worked are those which
+occur in the well-known Salt Range, covering parts of the districts of
+Jhelam, Shahpur, and Mianwali. Near the village of Kheora the main seam,
+which is being worked in the Mayo mines, has an aggregate thickness of
+550 feet, of which five seams, with a total thickness of 275 feet,
+consist of salt pure enough to be placed on the table with no more
+preparation than mere pulverising. The associated beds are impregnated
+with earth, and in places there occur thin layers of potash and
+magnesian salts. In this area salt quarrying was practised for an
+unknown period before the time of Akbar, and was continued in a
+primitive fashion until it came under the control of the British
+Government with the occupation of the Panjab in 1849. In 1872 systematic
+mining operations were planned, and the general line of work has been
+continued ever since, with an annual output of roughly 100,000 tons.
+
+Open quarries for salt are developed a short distance to the
+east-north-east of Kalabagh on the Indus, and similar open work is
+practised near Kohat in the North West Frontier Province, where the
+quantity of salt may be regarded as practically inexhaustible. At
+Bahadur Khel the salt lies at the base of the Tertiary series, and can
+be traced for a distance of about eight miles with an exposed thickness
+of over 1000 feet, sometimes standing up as hills of solid salt above
+the general level of the plains. In this area the production is
+naturally limited by want of transport and the small local demand, the
+total output from the quarries being about 16,000 tons per annum. A
+small quantity of salt (generally about 4000 tons a year), is raised
+also from open quarries in the Mandi State, where the rock-salt beds,
+distinctly impure and earthy, lie near the junction between Tertiary
+formations and the older unfossiliferous groups.
+
+~Coal~ occurs at numerous places in association with the Nummulitic
+limestones of Lower Tertiary age, in the Panjab, in the North West
+Frontier Province, and in the Jammu division of Kashmir. The largest
+output has been obtained from the Salt Range, where mines have been
+opened up on behalf of the North Western Railway. The mines at Dandot in
+the Jhelam district have considerable fluctuations in output, which,
+however, for many years ranged near 50,000 tons. These mines, having
+been worked at a financial loss, were finally abandoned by the Railway
+Company in 1911, but a certain amount of work is still being continued
+by local contractors. At Bhaganwala, 19 miles further east, in the
+adjoining district of Shahpur, coal was also worked for many years for
+the North Western State Railway, but the maximum output in any one year
+never exceeded 14,000 tons, and in 1900, owing to the poor quality of
+material obtained, the collieries were closed down. Recently, small
+outcrop workings have been developed in the same formation further west
+on the southern scarp of the Salt Range at Tejuwala in the Shahpur
+district.
+
+~Gold~ to a small amount is washed from the gravel of the Indus and some
+other rivers by native workers, and large concessions have been granted
+for systematic dredging, but these enterprises have not yet reached the
+commercially paying stage.
+
+~Other Metals.~--Prospecting has been carried on at irregular intervals in
+Kulu and along the corresponding belt of schistose rocks further west in
+Kashmir and Chitral. The copper ores occur as sulphides along certain
+bands in the chloritic and micaceous schists, similar in composition and
+probably in age to those worked further east in Kumaon, in Nipal, and in
+Sikkim. In Lahul near the Shigri glacier there is a lode containing
+~antimony~ sulphide with ores of ~zinc~ and ~lead~, which would almost
+certainly be opened up and developed but for the difficulty of access
+and cost of transport to the only valuable markets.
+
+~Petroleum~ springs occur among the Tertiary formations of the Panjab and
+Biluchistan, and a few thousand gallons of oil are raised annually.
+Prospecting operations have been carried on vigorously during the past
+two or three years, but no large supplies have so far been proved. The
+principal oil-supplies of Burma and Assam have been obtained from rocks
+of Miocene age, like those of Persia and the Caspian region, but the
+most promising "shows" in North West India have been in the older
+Nummulitic formations, and the oil is thus regarded by some experts as
+the residue of the material which has migrated from the Miocene beds
+that probably at one time covered the Nummulitic formations, but have
+since been removed by the erosive action of the atmosphere.
+
+~Alum~ is manufactured from the pyritous shales of the Mianwali district,
+the annual output being generally about 200 to 300 tons. Similar shales
+containing pyrites are known to occur in other parts of this area, and
+possibly the industry might be considerably extended, as the annual
+requirements of India, judged by the import returns, exceed ten times
+the native production of alum.
+
+~Borax~ is produced in Ladakh and larger quantities are imported across
+the frontier from Tibet. In the early summer one frequently meets herds
+of sheep being driven southwards across the Himalayan passes, each sheep
+carrying a couple of small saddle-bags laden with borax or salt, which
+is bartered in the Panjab bazars for Indian and foreign stores for the
+winter requirements of the snow-blocked valleys beyond the frontier.
+
+~Sapphires.~--The sapphires of Zanskar have been worked at intervals since
+the discovery of the deposit in 1881, and some of the finest stones in
+the gem market have been obtained from this locality, where work is,
+however, difficult on account of the great altitude and the difficulty
+of access from the plains.
+
+~Limestone.~--Large deposits of Nummulitic limestone are found in the
+older Tertiary formations of North-West India. It yields a pure lime and
+is used in large quantities for building purposes. The constant
+association of these limestones with shale beds, and their frequent
+association with coal, naturally suggest their employment for the
+manufacture of cement; and special concessions have recently been given
+by the Panjab Government with a view of encouraging the development of
+the industry. The nodular impure limestone, known generally by the name
+of _kankar_, contains sufficient clay to give it hydraulic characters
+when burnt, and much cement is thus manufactured. The varying
+composition of _kankar_ naturally results in a product of irregular
+character, and consequently cement so made can replace Portland cement
+only for certain purposes.
+
+~Slate~ is quarried in various places for purely local use. In the Kangra
+valley material of very high quality is obtained and consequently
+secures a wide distribution, limited, however, by competition with
+cheaply made tiles.
+
+~Gypsum~ occurs in large quantities in association with the rock-salt of
+the Salt Range, but the local demand is small. There are also beds of
+potash and magnesian salts in the same area, but their value and
+quantity have not been thoroughly proved.
+
+[Illustration: January-February.]
+
+[Illustration: March to May.]
+
+
+  _Normal Rainfall._
+
+  I. N.W.F. Province.    II. Kashmir.
+  III. Panjab E. and N.  IV. Panjab S.W.
+
+
+Fig. 16. Rainfall of different Seasons.
+
+[Illustration: June to September.]
+
+[Illustration: October to December.]
+
+
+  _Normal Rainfall._
+
+  I. N.W.F. Province        II. Kashmir.
+  III. Panjab E. and N.     IV. Panjab S.W.
+
+
+Fig. 16 (_cont._). Rainfall of different Seasons.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CLIMATE
+
+
+~Types of Climate.~--The climate of the Panjab plains is determined by
+their distance from the sea and the existence of formidable mountain
+barriers to the north and west. The factor of elevation makes the
+climate of the Himalayan tracts very different from that of the plains.
+Still more striking is the contrast between the Indian Himalayan climate
+and the Central Asian Trans-Himalayan climate of Spiti, Lahul, and
+Ladakh.
+
+~Zones.~--A broad division into six zones may be recognised:
+
+  A 1. Trans-Himalayan.
+  B 2. Himalayan.
+  C. Plains      3. North Western.
+                 4. Submontane.
+                 5. Central and South Eastern.
+                 6. South Western.
+
+~Trans-Himalayan Climate.~--Spiti, Lahul, and Ladakh are outside the
+meteorological influences which affect the rest of the Indian Empire.
+The lofty ranges of the Himalaya interpose an almost insurmountable
+barrier between them and the clouds of the monsoon. The rainfall is
+extraordinarily small, and, considering the elevation of the inhabited
+parts, 10,000 to 14,000 feet, the snowfall there is not heavy. The air
+is intensely dry and clear, and the daily and seasonal range of
+temperature is extreme. Leh, the capital of Ladakh (11,500 feet), has an
+average rainfall (including snow) of about 3 inches. The mean
+temperature is 43 deg. Fahr., varying from 19 deg. in January to 64 deg. in July.
+But these figures give no idea of the rigours of the severe but healthy
+climate. The daily range is from 25 to 30 degrees, or double what we are
+accustomed to in England. Once 17 deg. below zero was recorded. In the rare
+dry clear atmosphere the power of the solar rays is extraordinary.
+"Rocks exposed to the sun may be too hot to lay the hand upon at the
+same time that it is freezing in the shade."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for January.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for July.]
+
+~The Indian Zones--Meteorological factors.~--The distribution of pressure
+in India, determined mainly by changes of temperature, and itself
+determining the direction of the winds and the character of the weather,
+is shown graphically in figures 17 and 18. The winter or north-east
+monsoon does not penetrate into the Panjab, where light westernly and
+northernly winds prevail during the cold season. What rain is received
+is due to land storms originating beyond the western frontier. The
+branch of the summer or south-west monsoon which chiefly affects the
+Panjab is that which blows up the Bay of Bengal. The rain-clouds
+striking the Eastern Himalaya are deflected to the west and forced up
+the Gangetic plain by south-westernly winds. The lower ranges of the
+Panjab Himalaya receive in this way very heavy downpours. The rain
+extends into the plains, but exhausts itself and dies away pretty
+rapidly to the south and west. The Bombay branch of the monsoon mostly
+spends itself on the Ghats and in the Deccan. But a part of it
+penetrates from time to time to the south-east Panjab, and, if it is
+sucked into the Bay current, the result is widespread rain.
+
+~Himalayan Zone.~--The impressions which English people get of the climate
+of the Himalaya, or in Indian phrase "the Hills," are derived mainly
+from stations like Simla and Murree perched at a height of from 6500 to
+7500 feet on the outer ranges. The data of meteorologists are mainly
+taken from the same localities. Places between 8000 and 10,000 feet in
+height and further from the plains enjoy a finer climate, being both
+cooler and drier in summer. But they are less accessible, and weakly
+persons would find the greater rarity of the air trying.
+
+In the first fortnight of April the plains become disagreeably warm, and
+it is well to take European children to the Hills. The Panjab Government
+moves to Simla in the first fortnight of May. By that time Simla is
+pretty warm in the middle of the day, but the nights are pleasant. The
+mean temperature of the 24 hours in May and June is 65 deg. or 66 deg., the mean
+maximum and minimum being 78 deg. and 59 deg.. Thunderstorms with or without
+hail are not uncommon in April, May, and June. In a normal year the
+monsoon clouds drift up in the end of June, and the next three months
+are "the Rains." Usually it does not rain either all day or every day;
+but sometimes for weeks together Simla is smothered in a blanket of grey
+mist. Normally the rain comes in bursts with longer or shorter breaks
+between. About the third week of September the rains often cease quite
+suddenly, the end being usually proclaimed by a thunderstorm. Next
+morning one wakes to a new heaven and a new earth, a perfectly cloudless
+sky, and clean, crisp, cool air. This ideal weather lasts for the next
+three months. Even in December the days are made pleasant by bright
+sunshine, and the range of temperature is much less than in the plains.
+In the end of December or beginning of January the night thermometer
+often falls lower at Ambala and Rawalpindi than at Simla and Murree.
+After Christmas the weather becomes broken, and in January and February
+falls of snow occur. It is a disagreeable time, and English residents
+are glad to descend to the plains. In March also the weather is often
+unsettled. The really heavy falls of snow occur at levels much higher
+than Simla. These remarks apply _mutatis mutandis_ to Dharmsala,
+Dalhousie, and Murree. Owing to its position right under a lofty
+mountain wall Dharmsala is a far wetter place than Simla. Murree gets
+its monsoon later, and the summer rainfall is a good deal lighter. In
+winter it has more snow, being nearer the source of origin of the
+storms. Himalayan valleys at an elevation of 5000 feet, such as the Vale
+of Kashmir, have a pleasant climate. The mean temperature of Srinagar
+(5255 feet) varies from 33 deg. in January to 75 deg. in July, when it is
+unpleasantly hot, and Europeans often move to Gulmarg. Kashmir has a
+heavy snowfall even in the Jhelam valley. Below 4000 feet, especially in
+confined river valleys the Himalayan climate is often disagreeably hot
+and stuffy.
+
+~Climate of the Plains.~--The course of the seasons is the same in the
+plains. The jaded resident finds relief when the rains cease in the end
+of September. The days are still warm, but the skies are clear, the air
+dry, and the nights cool. November is rainless and in every way a
+pleasant month. The clouds begin to gather before Christmas, but rain
+often holds off till January. Pleasant though the early months of the
+cold weather are, they lay traps for the unwary. In October and November
+the daily range of temperature is very large, exceeding 30 deg., and the
+fall at sunset very sudden. Care is needed to avoid a chill and the
+fever that follows. Clear and dry though the air is, the blue of the
+skies is pale owing to a light dust haze in the upper atmosphere. For
+the same reason the Himalayan snows except after rain are veiled from
+dwellers in the plains at a distance of 30 miles from the foot-hills.
+The air in these months before the winter rains is wonderfully still. In
+the three months after Christmas the Panjab is the pathway of a series
+of small storms from the west, preceded by close weather and occurring
+usually at intervals of a few weeks. After a day or two of wet weather
+the sky clears, and the storm is followed by a great drop in the
+temperature. The traveller who shivers after a January rain-storm finds
+it hard to believe that the Panjab plain is a part of the hottest region
+of the Old World which stretches from the Sahara to Delhi. If he had to
+spend the period from May to July there he would have small doubts on
+the subject. The heat begins to be unpleasant in April, when hot
+westernly winds prevail. An occasional thunderstorm with hail relieves
+the strain for a little. The warmest period of the year is May and June.
+But the intense dry heat is healthier and to many less trying than the
+mugginess of the rainy season. The dust-storms which used to be common
+have become rarer and lighter with the spread of canal irrigation in the
+western Panjab. The rains ought to break at Delhi in the end of June and
+at Lahore ten days or a fortnight later. There is often a long break
+when the climate is particularly trying. The nights are terribly hot.
+The outer air is then less stifling than that of the house, and there is
+the chance of a little comparative coolness shortly before dawn. Many
+therefore prefer to sleep on the roof or in the verandah. September,
+when the rains slacken, is a muggy, unpleasant, and unhealthy month. But
+in the latter half of it cooler nights give promise of a better time.
+
+~Special features of Plain Zones.~--The submontane zone has the most
+equable and the pleasantest climate in the plains. It has a rainfall of
+from 30 to 40 inches, five-sevenths or more of which belongs to the
+monsoon period (June-September). The north-western area has a longer and
+colder winter and spring. In the end of December and in January the keen
+dry cold is distinctly trying. The figures in Statement I, for
+Rawalpindi and Peshawar, are not very characteristic of the zone as a
+whole. The average of the rainfall figures, 13 inches for Peshawar and
+32 for Rawalpindi, would give a truer result. The monsoon rains come
+later and are much less abundant than in the submontane zone. Their
+influence is very feeble in the western and south-western part of the
+area. On the other hand the winter rains, are heavier than in any other
+part of the province. Delhi and Lahore represent the extreme conditions
+of the central and south-eastern plains. The latter is really on the
+edge of the dry south-western area. The eastern districts of the zone
+have a shorter and less severe cold weather than the western, an earlier
+and heavier monsoon, but scantier winter rains. The total rainfall
+varies from 16 to 30 inches. The south-western zone, with a rainfall of
+from 5 to 15 inches, is the driest part of India proper except northern
+Sindh and western Rajputana. Neither monsoon current affects it much. At
+Multan there are only about fifteen days in the whole year on which any
+rain falls.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HERBS, SHRUBS, AND TREES
+
+
+~Affinities of Panjab Flora.~--It is hopeless to describe except in the
+broadest outline the flora of a tract covering an area of 250,000 square
+miles and ranging in altitude from a few hundred feet to a height 10,000
+feet above the limit of flowering plants. The nature of the vegetation
+of any tract depends on rainfall and temperature, and only secondarily
+on soil. A desert is a tract with a dry substratum and dry air, great
+heat during some part of the year, and bright sunshine. The soil may be
+loam or sand, and as regards vegetation a sandy desert is the worst
+owing to the rapid drying up of the subsoil after rain. In the third of
+the maps appended to Schimper's _Plant Geography_ by far the greater
+part of the area dealt with in this book is shown as part of the vast
+desert extending from the Sahara to Manchuria. Seeing that the monsoon
+penetrates into the province and that it is traversed by large snow-fed
+rivers the Panjab, except in parts of the extreme western and
+south-western districts, is not a desert like the Sahara or Gobi,
+and Schimper recognised this by marking most of the area as
+semi-desert. Still the flora outside the Hills and the submontane
+tract is predominantly of the desert type, being xerophilous or
+drought-resisting. The adaptations which enable plants to survive in a
+tract deficient in moisture are of various kinds. The roots may be
+greatly developed to enable them to tap the subsoil moisture, the
+leaves may be reduced in size, converted into thorns, or entirely
+dispensed with, in order to check rapid evaporation, they may be covered
+with silky or felted hairs, a modification which produces the same
+result, or their internal tissue may be succulent or mucilaginous. In
+the plants of the Panjab plains there is no difficulty in recognising
+these features of a drought-resisting flora. Schimper's map shows in the
+north-east of the area a wedge thrust in between the plains' desert and
+the dry elevated alpine desert cut off from the influence of the monsoon
+by the lofty barrier of the Inner Himalaya. This consists of two parts,
+monsoon forest, corresponding roughly with the Himalayan area Cis Ravi
+above the 5000 feet contour, and dry woodland of a semi-tropical stamp,
+consisting, of the adjoining foot-hills and submontane tract. This wedge
+is in fact treated as part of the zone, which in the map (after Drude)
+prefixed to Willis' _Manual and Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and
+Ferns_, is called Indo-Malayan, and which embraces the Malayan
+Archipelago and part of North Australia, Burma, and practically the
+whole of India except the Panjab, Sindh, and Rajputana. In Drude's map
+the three countries last mentioned are included in a large zone called
+"the Mediterranean and Orient." This is a very broad classification, and
+in tracing the relationships of the Panjab flora it is better to treat
+the desert area of North Africa, which in Tripoli and Egypt extends to
+the coast, apart from the Mediterranean zone. It is a familiar fact
+that, as we ascend lofty mountains like those of the Himalaya, we pass
+through belts or regions of vegetation of different types. The air
+steadily becomes rarer and therefore colder, especially at night, and at
+the higher levels there is a marked reduction in the rainfall. When the
+alpine region, which in the Himalaya may be taken as beginning at 11,000
+feet, is reached, the plants have as a rule bigger roots, shorter
+stems, smaller leaves, but often larger and more brilliantly coloured
+flowers. These are adaptations of a drought-resisting kind.
+
+~Regions.~--In this sketch it will suffice to divide the tract into six
+regions:
+
+  Plains 1. Panjab dry plain.
+
+         2. Salt Range and North West Plateau, from
+            the frontier to Pabbi Hills.
+
+         3. Submontane Hills on east bank of Jhelam.
+
+  Hills  4. Sub-Himalaya, 2000-5000 feet.
+
+         5. Temperate Himalaya, 5000-11,000 feet.
+
+         6. Alpine Himalaya, 11,000-16,000 feet.
+
+Of course a flora does not fit itself into compartments, and the changes
+of type are gradual.
+
+~Panjab Dry Plain.~--The affinities of the flora of the Panjab plains
+south of the Salt Range and the submontane tract are, especially in the
+west, with the desert areas of Persia, Arabia, and North Africa, though
+the spread of canal irrigation is modifying somewhat the character of
+the vegetation. The soil and climate are unsuited to the growth of large
+trees, but adapted to scrub jungle of a drought-resisting type, which at
+one time covered very large areas from the Jamna to the Jhelam. The soil
+on which this sparse scrub grew is a good strong loam, but the rainfall
+was too scanty and the water-level too deep to admit of much cultivation
+outside the valleys of the rivers till the labours of canal engineers
+carried their waters to the uplands. East of the Sutlej the Bikaner
+desert thrusts northwards a great wedge of sandy land which occupies a
+large area in Bahawalpur, Hissar, Ferozepur, and Patiala. Soil of this
+description is free of forest growth, and the monsoon rainfall in this
+part of the province is sufficient to encourage an easy, but very
+precarious, cultivation of autumn millets and pulses. The great Thal
+desert to the south of the Salt Range between the valleys of the Jhelam
+and the Indus has a similar soil, but the scantiness of the rainfall has
+confined cultivation within much narrower limits. Between the Sutlej and
+the Jhelam the uplands between the river valleys are known locally as
+Bars. The largest of the truly indigenous trees of the Panjab plains are
+the _farash_ (Tamarix articulata) and the thorny _kikar_ (Acacia
+Arabica). The latter yields excellent wood for agricultural implements,
+and fortunately it grows well in sour soils. Smaller thorny acacias are
+the _nimbar_ or _raunj_ (Acacia leucophloea) and the _khair_ (Acacia
+Senegal). The dwarf tamarisk, _pilchi_ or _jhao_ (Tamarix dioica), grows
+freely in moist sandy soils near rivers. The scrub jungle consists
+mostly of _jand_ (Prosopis spicigera), a near relation of the Acacias,
+_jal_ or _van_ (Salvadora oleoides), and the coral-flowered _karil_ or
+leafless caper (Capparis aphylla). All these show their desert
+affinities, the _jand_ by its long root and its thorns, the _jal_ by its
+small leathery leaves, and the _karil_ by the fact that it has managed
+to dispense with leaves altogether. The _jand_ is a useful little tree,
+and wherever it grows the natural qualities of the soil are good. The
+sweetish fruit of the _jal_, known as _pilu_, is liked by the people,
+and in famines they will even eat the berries of the leafless caper.
+Other characteristic plants of the Panjab plains are under Leguminosae,
+the _khip_ (Crotalaria burhia), two Farsetias (_farid ki buti_), and the
+_jawasa_ or camel thorn (Alhagi camelorum), practically leafless, but
+with very long and stout spines; under Capparidaceae several Cleomes,
+species of Corchorus (Tiliaceae), under Zygophyllaceae three
+Mediterranean genera, Tribulus, Zygophyllum, and Fagonia, under
+Solanaceae several Solanums and Withanias, and various salsolaceous
+Chenopods known as _lana_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19. Banian or Bor trees.]
+
+In the sandier tracts the _ak_ (Calotropis procera, N.O.
+Asclepiadaceae), the _harmal_ (Peganum harmala, N.O. Rutaceae), and the
+colocynth gourd (Citrullus colocynthis, N.O. Cucurbitaceae), which,
+owing to the size of its roots, manages to flourish in the sands of
+African and Indian deserts, grow abundantly. Common weeds of cultivation
+are Fumaria parviflora, a near relation of the English fumitory, Silene
+conoidea, and two Spergulas (Caryophyllaceae), and Sisymbrium Irio
+(Cruciferae). A curious little Orchid, Zeuxine sulcata, is found growing
+among the grass on canal banks. The American yellow poppy, Argemone
+Mexicana, a noxious weed, has unfortunately established itself widely in
+the Panjab plain. Two trees of the order Leguminosae, the _shisham_ or
+_tali_ (Dalbergia Sissoo) and the _siris_ (Albizzia lebbek), are
+commonly planted on Panjab roads. The true home of the former is in
+river beds in the low hills or in ravines below the hills. But it is a
+favourite tree on roads and near wells throughout the province, and
+deservedly so, for it yields excellent timber. The _siris_ on the other
+hand is an untidy useless tree. The _kikar_ might be planted as a
+roadside tree to a greater extent. Several species of figs, especially
+the _pipal_ (Ficus religiosa) and _bor_ or banian (Ficus Indica) are
+popular trees.
+
+~Salt Range and North-West Plains.~---Our second region may be taken as
+extending from the Pabbi hills on the east of the Jhelam in Gujrat to
+our administrative boundary beyond the Indus, its southern limit being
+the Salt Range. Here the flora is of a distinctly Mediterranean type.
+Poppies are as familiar in Rawalpindi as they are in England or Italy,
+and Hypecoum procumbens, a curious Italian plant of the same order, is
+found in Attock. The abundance of Crucifers is also a Mediterranean
+feature. Eruca sativa, the oil-seed known as _taramira_ or _jamian_,
+which sows itself freely in waste land and may be found growing even on
+railway tracks in the Rawalpindi division, is an Italian and Spanish
+weed. Malcolmia strigosa, which spreads a reddish carpet over the
+ground, and Malcolmia Africana are common Crucifers near Rawalpindi. The
+latter is a Mediterranean species. The Salt Range genera Diplotaxis and
+Moricandia are Italian, and the peculiar Notoceras Canariensis found in
+Attock is also a native of the Canary Islands. Another order,
+Boraginaceae, which is very prominent in the Mediterranean region, is
+also important in the North-West Panjab, though the showier plants of
+the order are wanting. One curious Borage, Arnebia Griffithii, seems to
+be purely Asiatic. It has five brown spots on its petals, which fade and
+disappear in the noonday sunshine. These are supposed to be drops of
+sweat which fell from Muhammad's forehead, hence the plant is called
+_paighambari phul_ or the prophet's flower. Among Composites Calendulas
+and Carthamus oxyacantha or the _pohli_, a near relation of the
+Carthamus which yields the saffron dye, are abundant. Both are common
+Mediterranean genera. Silybum Marianum, a handsome thistle with large
+leaves mottled with white, extends from Britain to Rawalpindi.
+Interesting species are Tulipa stellata and Tulipa chrysantha. The
+latter is a Salt Range plant, as is the crocus-like Merendera Persica,
+and the yellow Iris Aitchisoni. A curious plant found in the same hills
+is the cactus-like Boucerosia (N.O. Asclepiadaceae), recalling to
+botanists the more familiar Stapelias of the same order. Another
+leafless Asclepiad, Periploca aphylla, which extends westwards to Arabia
+and Nubia and southwards to Sindh, is, like Boucerosia, a typical
+xerophyte adapted to a very dry soil and atmosphere. The thorny Acacias,
+A. eburnea and A. modesta (vern. _phulahi_), of the low bare hills of
+the N.W. Panjab are also drought-resisting plants.
+
+~Submontane Region.~--The Submontane region consists of a broad belt below
+the Siwaliks extending from the Jamna nearly to the Jhelam, and may be
+said to include the districts of Ambala, Karnal (part), Hoshyarpur,
+Kangra (part), Hazara (part), Jalandhar, Gurdaspur, Sialkot, Gujrat
+(part). In its flora there is a strong infusion of Indo-Malayan
+elements. An interesting member of it is the Butea frondosa, a small
+tree of the order Leguminosae. It is known by several names, _dhak_,
+_chichra_, _palah_, and _palas_. Putting out its large orange-red
+flowers in April it ushers in the hot weather. It has a wide range from
+Ceylon to Bengal, where it has given its name to the town of Dacca and
+the battlefield of Plassy (Palasi). From Bengal it extends all the way
+to Hazara. There can be no doubt that a large part of the submontane
+region was once _dhak_ forest. Tracts in the north of Karnal--Chachra,
+in Jalandhar--Dardhak, and in Gujrat--Palahi, have taken their names
+from this tree. It coppices very freely, furnishes excellent firewood
+and good timber for the wooden frames on which the masonry cylinders of
+wells are reared, it exudes a valuable gum, its flowers yield a dye, and
+the dry leaves are eaten by buffaloes. A tree commonly planted near
+wells and villages in the submontane tract is the _dhrek_ (Melia
+azedarach, N.O. Meliaceae), which is found as far west as Persia and is
+often called by English people the Persian lilac. The _bahera_
+(Terminalia belerica, N.O. Combretaceae), a much larger tree, is
+Indo-Malayan. Common shrubs are the _marwan_ (Vitex negundo, N.O.
+Verbenaceae), Plumbago Zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae), the _bansa_ or
+_bhekar_ (Adhatoda vasica, N.O. Acanthaceae). The last is Indo-Malayan.
+Among herbs Cassias, which do not occur in Europe, are common. The
+curious cactus-like Euphorbia Royleana grows abundantly and is used for
+making hedges.
+
+~Sub-Himalaya.~--A large part of the Sub-Himalayan region belongs to the
+Siwaliks. The climate is fairly moist and subject to less extremes of
+heat and cold than the regions described above. A strong infusion of
+Indo-Malayan types is found and a noticeable feature is the large number
+of flowering trees and shrubs. Such beautiful flowering trees as the
+_simal_ or silk-cotton tree (Bombax Malabaricum, N.O. Malvaceae), the
+_amaltas_ (Cassia fistula), Albizzia mollis and Albizzia stipulata,
+Erythrina suberosa, Bauhinia purpurea and Bauhinia variegata, all
+belonging to the order Leguminosae, are unknown in Europe, but common in
+the Indo-Malayan region. This is true also of Oroxylum Indicum (N.O.
+Bignoniaceae) with its remarkable long sword-like capsules, and of the
+_kamila_ (Mallotus Philippinensis), which abounds in the low hills, but
+may escape the traveller's notice as its flowers have no charm of form
+or colour. He will in spring hardly fail to observe another Indo-Malayan
+tree, the _dhawi_ (Woodfordia floribunda, N.O. Lythraceae) with its
+bright red flowers. Shrubs with conspicuous flowers are also common,
+among which may be noted species of Clematis, Capparis spinosa, Kydia
+calycina, Mimosa rubicaulis, Hamiltonia suaveolens, Caryopteris
+Wallichiana, and Nerium Oleander. The latter grows freely in sandy
+torrent beds. Rhus cotinus, which reddens the hillsides in May, is a
+native also of Syria, Italy, and Southern France. Other trees to be
+noticed are a wild pear (Pyrus pashia), the olive (Olea cuspidata), the
+_khair_ (Acacia catechu) useful to tanners, the _tun_ (Cedrela toona),
+whose wood is often used for furniture, the _dhaman_ (Grewia
+oppositifolia, N.O. Tiliaceae), and several species of fig. The most
+valuable products however of the forests of the lower hills are the
+_chir_ or _chil_ pine (Pinus longifolia), and a giant grass, the bamboo
+(Dendrocalamus strictus), which attains a height of from 20 to 40 feet.
+Shrubs which grow freely on stony hills are the _sanattha_ or _mendru_
+(Dodonaea viscosa, N.O. Sapindaceae), which is a valuable protection
+against denudation, as goats pass it by, the _garna_, which is a species
+of Carissa, and Plectranthus rugosus. Climbers are common. The great
+Hiptage madablota (N.O. Malpighiaceae), the Bauhinia Vahlii or elephant
+creeper, and some species of the parasitic Loranthus, deserve mention,
+also Acacia caesia, Pueraria tuberosa, Vallaris Heynei, Porana
+paniculata, and several vines, especially Vitis lanata with its large
+rusty leaves. Characteristic herbs are the sweet-scented Viola patrinii,
+the slender milkwort; Polygala Abyssinica, a handsome pea, Vigna
+vexillata, a borage, Trichodesma Indicum, a balsam, Impatiens balsamina,
+familiar in English gardens, the beautiful delicate little blue
+Evolvulus alsinoides, the showy purple convolvulus, Ipomaea hederacea,
+and a curious lily, Gloriosa superba.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20. Deodars and Hill Temple.]
+
+~Temperate Himalaya.~--The richest part of the temperate Himalayan flora
+is probably in the 7500-10,000 zone. Above 10,000 feet sup-alpine
+conditions begin, and at 12,000 feet tree growth becomes very scanty and
+the flora is distinctly alpine. The _chir_ pine so common in
+sub-Himalayan forests extends up to 6500 feet. At this height and 1000
+feet lower the _ban_ oak (Quercus incana), grey on the lower side of the
+leaf, which is so common at Simla, abounds. Where the _chil_ stops, the
+_kail_ or blue pine (Pinus excelsa), after the _deodar_ the most
+valuable product of Himalayan forests, begins. Its zone may be taken as
+from 7000 to 9000 feet. To the same zone belong the _kelu_ or _deodar_
+(Cedrus Libani), the glossy leaved _mohru_ oak (Quercus dilatata),
+whose wood is used for making charcoal, and two small trees of the Heath
+order, Rhododendron arborea and Pieris ovalifolia. The former in April
+and May lightens up with its bright red flowers the sombre Simla
+forests. The _kharshu_ or rusty-leaved oak (Quercus semecarpifolia)
+affects a colder climate than its more beautiful glossy-leaved relation,
+and may almost be considered sub-alpine. It is common on Hattu, and the
+oaks there present a forlorn appearance after rain with funereal mosses
+dripping with moisture hanging from their trunks. The firs, Picea
+morinda, with its grey tassels, and Abies Pindrow with its dark green
+yew-like foliage, succeed the blue pine. Picea may be said to range from
+8000 to 10,000 feet, and the upper limit of Abies is from 1000 to 2000
+feet higher. These splendid trees are unfortunately of small commercial
+value. The yew, Taxus baccata, is found associated with them. Between
+5000 and 8000 feet, besides the oaks and other broad-leaved trees
+already noticed, two relations of the dogwood, Cornus capitata and
+Cornus macrophylla, a large poplar, Populus ciliata, a pear, Pyrus
+lanata, a holly, Ilex dipyrena, an elm and its near relation, Celtis
+australis, and species of Rhus and Euonymus, may be mentioned. Cornus
+capitata is a small tree, but it attracts notice because the heads of
+flowers surrounded by bracts of a pale yellow colour have a curious
+likeness to a rose, and the fruit is in semblance not unlike a
+strawberry. Above 8000 feet several species of maple abound. The
+_chinar_ or Platanus orientalis, found as far west as Sicily, grows to
+splendid proportions by the quiet waterways of the Vale of Kashmir. The
+undergrowth in temperate Himalayan forests consists largely of
+barberries, Desmodiums, Indigoferas, roses, brambles, Spiraeas,
+Viburnums, honeysuckles with their near relation, Leycesteria formosa,
+which has been introduced into English shrubberies. The great vine,
+Vitis Himalayana, whose leaves turn red in autumn, climbs up many of the
+trees. Of the flowers it is impossible to give any adequate account. The
+flora is distinctly Mediterranean in type; the orders in Collett's
+_Flora Simlensis_ which are not represented in the Italian flora contain
+hardly more than 5 per cent. of the total genera. The plants included in
+some of these non-Mediterranean orders are very beautiful, for example,
+the Begonias, the Amphicomes (Bignoniaceae), Chirita bifolia and
+Platystemma violoides (Gesneraceae), and Hedychium (Scitamineae). More
+important members of the flora are species of Clematis, including the
+beautiful white Clematis montana, anemones, larkspurs, columbine,
+monkshoods, St John's worts, geraniums, balsams, species of Astragalus,
+Potentillas, Asters, ragworts, species of Cynoglossum, gentians and
+Swertias, Androsaces and primroses, Wulfenia and louseworts, species of
+Strobilanthes, Salvias and Nepetas, orchids, irises, Ophiopogon, Smilax,
+Alliums, lilies, and Solomon's seal. Snake plants (Arisaema) and their
+relation Sauromatum guttatum of the order Araceae are very common in the
+woods. The striped spathe in some species of Arisaema bears a curious
+resemblance to the head of a cobra uplifted to strike. Orchids decrease
+as one proceeds westwards, but irises are much more common in Kashmir
+than in the Simla hills. The Kashmir fritillaries include the beautiful
+Crown Imperial.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21. Firs in Himalaya.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22. Chinars.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23. Rhododendron campanulatum.]
+
+~Alpine Himalaya.~--In the Alpine Himalaya the scanty tree-growth is
+represented by willows, junipers, and birches. After 12,000 or 12,500
+feet it practically disappears. A dwarf shrub, Juniperus recurva, is
+found clothing hillsides a good way above the two trees of the same
+genus. Other alpine shrubs which may be noticed are two rhododendrons,
+which grow on cliffs at an elevation of 10,000 to 14,000 feet, R.
+campanulatum and R. lepidotum, Gaultheria nummularioides with its
+black-purple berry, and Cassiope fastigiata, all belonging to the order
+Ericaceae. The herbs include beautiful primulas, saxifrages, and
+gentians, and in the bellflower order species of Codonopsis and
+Cyananthus. Among Composites may be mentioned the tansies, Saussureas,
+and the fine Erigeron multiradiatus common in the forest above Narkanda.
+In the bleak uplands beyond the Himalaya tree-growth is very scanty, but
+in favoured localities willows and the pencil cedar, Juniperus
+pseudosabina, are found. The people depend for fuel largely on a hoary
+bush of the Chenopod order, Eurotia ceratoides. In places a profusion of
+the red Tibetan roses, Rosa Webbiana, lightens up the otherwise dreary
+scene.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+FORESTS
+
+
+~Rights of State in Waste.~--Under Indian rule the State claimed full
+power of disposing of the waste, and, even where an exclusive right in
+the soil was not maintained, some valuable trees, e.g. the _deodar_ in
+the Himalaya, were treated as the property of the Raja. Under the tenure
+prevailing in the hills the soil is the Raja's, but the people have a
+permanent tenant right in any land brought under cultivation with his
+permission. In Kulu the British Government asserted its ownership of the
+waste. In the south-western Panjab, where the scattered hamlets had no
+real boundaries, ample waste was allotted to each estate, and the
+remainder was claimed as State property.
+
+~Kinds of Forest.~--The lands in the Panjab over which authority, varying
+through many degrees from full ownership unburdened with rights of user
+down to a power of control exercised in the interests of the surrounding
+village communities, may be roughly divided into
+
+  (_a_) Mountain forests;
+
+  (_b_) Hill forests;
+
+  (_c_) Scrub and grass _Jangal_ in the Plains.
+
+The first are forests of _deodar_, blue pine, fir, and oak in the
+Himalaya above the level of 5000 feet. The hill forests occupy the
+lower spurs, the Siwaliks in Hoshyarpur, etc., and the low dry hills of
+the north-west. A strong growth of _chir_ pine (Pinus longifolia) is
+often found in the Himalaya between 3000 and 5000 feet. Below 3000 feet
+is scrub forest, the only really valuable product being bamboo. The
+hills in the north-western districts of the Panjab and N.W.F. Province,
+when nature is allowed to have its way, are covered with low scrub
+including in some parts a dwarf palm (Nannorhops Ritchieana), useful for
+mat making, and with a taller, but scantier growth of _phulahi_ (Acacia
+modesta) and wild olive. What remains of the scrub and grass _jangal_ of
+the plains is to be found chiefly in the Bar tracts between the Sutlej
+and the Jhelam. Much of it has disappeared, or is about to disappear,
+with the advance of canal irrigation. Dry though the climate is the Bar
+was in good seasons a famous grazing area. The scrub consisted mainly of
+_jand_ (Prosopis spicigera), _jal_ (Salvadora oleoides), the _karil_
+(Capparis aphylla) and the _farash_ (Tamarix articulata).
+
+~Management and Income of Forests.~--The Forest Department of the Panjab
+has existed singe 1864, when the first Conservator was appointed. In
+1911-12 it managed 8359 square miles in the Panjab consisting of:
+
+  Reserved Forests  1844 square miles
+  Protected    "    5203   "     "
+  Unclassed    "    1312   "     "
+
+It was also in charge of 235 square miles of reserved forest in the
+Hazara district of the N.W.F. Province, and of 364 miles of fine
+mountain forest in the native State of Bashahr. In addition a few
+reserved forests have been made over as grazing areas to the Military
+Department, and Deputy Commissioners are in charge of a very large area
+of unclassed forest.
+
+No forest can be declared "reserved" or "protected" unless it is owned
+in whole or in part by the State. It is enough if the trees or some of
+them are the property of the Government. In order to safeguard all
+private rights a special forest settlement must be made before a forest
+can be declared to be "reserved." In the case of a protected forest it
+is enough if Government is satisfied that the rights of the State and of
+private persons have been recorded at a land revenue settlement. After
+deducting income belonging to the year 1909-10 realized in 1910-11, the
+average income of the two years ending 1911-12 was L81,805 (Rs.
+1,227,082) and the average expenditure L50,954 (Rs. 764,309).
+
+~Sources of Income.~--In the mountain forests the chief source of income
+is the _deodar_, which is valuable both for railway sleepers and as
+building timber. The blue pine is also of commercial value. _Deodar_,
+blue pine, and some _chir_ are floated down the rivers to depots in the
+plains. Firwood is inferior to cedar and pine, and the great fir forests
+are too remote for profitable working at present. There are fine
+mountain forests in Chitral, on the Safed Koh, and in Western
+Waziristan, but these have so far not even been fully explored. The
+value of the hill forests may be increased by the success which has
+attended the experimental extraction of turpentine from the resin of the
+_chir_ pine. The bamboo forests of Kangra are profitable. At present an
+attempt is being made to acclimatize several species of Eucalyptus in
+the low hills. The scrub _jangal_ in the plains yields good fuel. As the
+area is constantly shrinking it is fortunate that the railways have
+ceased to depend on this source of supply, coal having to a great extent
+taken the place of wood. To prevent shortage of fuel considerable areas
+in the tracts commanded by the new canals are being reserved for
+irrigated forests. A forest of this class covering an area of 37 square
+miles and irrigated from the Upper Bari Doab Canal has long existed at
+Changa Manga in the Lahore district.
+
+~Forests in Kashmir.~--The extensive and valuable Kashmir forests are
+mountain and hill forests, the former, which cover much the larger area
+yielding, _deodar_, blue pine, and firs, and the latter _chir_ pine. The
+total area exceeds 2600 square miles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+BEASTS, BIRDS, FISHES, AND INSECTS
+
+
+~Fauna.~--With the spread of cultivation and drainage the Panjab plains
+have ceased to be to anything like the old extent the haunt of wild
+beasts and wild fowl. The lion has long been extinct and the tiger has
+practically disappeared. Leopards are to be found in low hills, and
+sometimes stray into the plains. Wolves are seen occasionally, and
+jackals are very common. The black buck (Antilope cerricapra) can still
+be shot in many places. The graceful little _chinkara_ or ravine deer
+(Gazella Bennetti) is found in sandy tracts, and the hogdeer or _parha_
+(Cervus porcinus) near rivers. The _nilgai_ (Boselaphus tragocamelus) is
+less common. Monkeys abound in the hills and in canal-irrigated tracts
+in the Eastern districts, where their sacred character protects them
+from destruction, though they do much damage to crops. Peafowl are to be
+seen in certain tracts, especially in the eastern Panjab. They should
+not be shot where the people are Hindus or anywhere near a Hindu shrine.
+The great and lesser bustards and several kinds of sand grouse are to be
+found in sandy districts. The grey partridge is everywhere, and the
+black can be got near the rivers. The _sisi_ and the _chikor_ are the
+partridges of the hills, which are also the home of fine varieties of
+pheasants including the _monal_. Quail frequent the ripening fields in
+April and late in September. Duck of various kinds abound where there
+are _jhils_, and snipe are to be got in marshy ground. The green
+parrots, crows, and vultures are familiar sights. Both the sharp-nosed
+(Garialis Gangetica, vern. _gharial_) and the blunt-nosed (Crocodilus
+palustris, vern. magar) crocodiles haunt the rivers. The fish are
+tasteless; the _rohu_ and _mahseer_ are the best. Poisonous snakes are
+the _karait_, the _cobra_, and Russell's viper. The first is sometimes
+an intruder into houses. Lizards and mongooses are less unwelcome
+visitors. White ants attack timber and ruin books, and mosquitoes and
+sandflies add to the unpleasant features of the hot weather. The best
+known insect pest is the locust, but visitations on a large scale are
+rare. Of late years much more damage has been done by an insect which
+harbours in the cotton bolls.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24. Big game in Ladakh.
+
+KEY: 1, 3, 7, 9, Chiru or Tibetan Antelope. 2, Argali or Ovis Ammon. 4,
+6, 8, Bharal or Ovis nahura. 5, Yak or Bos grunniens. 10, 11, 12, Urial
+or Ovis Vignei. 13, Bear skin.]
+
+~Game of the Mountains.~--If sport in the plains has ceased to be first
+rate, it is otherwise in the hills. Some areas and the heights at which
+the game is to be found are noted below:
+
+  (_a_) Goats and goat-antelopes:
+
+  1. Ibex (Capra Sibirica) 10,000-14,000 ft.
+  Kashmir, Lahul, Bashahr.
+
+  2. Markhor (Capra Falconeri). Kashmir, Astor,
+  Gilgit, Suliman hills.
+
+  3. Thar (Hemitragus jemlaicus), 9000-14,000
+  ft. Kashmir, Chamba.
+
+  4. Gural (Cemas goral), 3000-8000 ft. Kashmir,
+  Chamba, Simla hills, Bashahr.
+
+  5. Serow (Nemorhaedus bubalinus), 6000-12,000
+  ft. From Kashmir eastwards.
+
+  (_b_) Sheep:
+
+  1. Bharal (Ovis nahura), 10,000-12,000 ft. and
+  over. Ladakh, Bashahr.
+
+  2. Argali (Ovis Ammon). Ladakh.
+
+  3. Urial (Ovis Vignei)  Salt Range, Suliman
+  hills.
+
+  (_c_) Antelopes:
+
+  1. Chiru or Tibetan Antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni).
+  Ladakh.
+
+  (_d_) Oxen--Yak (Bos grunniens). Ladakh.  The
+  domesticated _yak_ is invaluable as a beast of
+  burden in the Trans-Himalayan tract. The
+  royal fly whisk or _chauri_ is made from pure
+  white yak tails.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. Yaks.]
+
+  (_e_) Stag:
+
+  1. Barasingha (Cervus Duvanceli). Foot of
+  Himalaya in Kashmir.
+
+  (_f_) Bears:
+
+  1. Red or Brown (Ursus Arctos), 10,000-13,000
+  ft. Kashmir, Chamba, Bashahr, etc.
+
+  2. Black (Ursus torquatus), 6000-12,000 ft.
+  Same regions, but at lower elevations.
+  The small bear of the southern Suliman
+  hills known as _mam_ is now considered a
+  variety of the black bear.
+
+  (_g_) Leopards:
+
+  1. Snow Leopard (Felis Uncia), 9000-15,000 ft.
+  Kashmir, Chamba, Bashahr.
+
+  2. Ordinary Leopard (Felis Pardus). Lower
+  hills.
+
+
+SHOOTING IN HILLS
+
+~Shooting in Hills.~--The finest shooting in the north-west Himalaya is
+probably to be got in Ladakh and Baltistan, but the trip is somewhat
+expensive and requires more time than may be available. In many areas
+licenses have to be obtained, and the conditions limit the number of
+certain animals, and the size of heads, that may be shot. For example,
+the permit in Chamba may allow the shooting of two red bear and two
+_thar_, and when these have been got the sportsman must turn his
+attention to black bear and _gural_. Any one contemplating a shooting
+expedition in the Himalaya should get from one who has the necessary
+experience very complete instructions as to weapons, tents, clothing,
+stores, etc.
+
+
+SPORT IN THE PLAINS
+
+(_a_) ~Black Buck Shooting.~--To get a good idea of what shooting in the
+plains is like Major Glasford's _Rifle and Romance in the Indian Jungle_
+may be consulted. As regards larger game the favourite sport is black
+buck shooting. A high velocity cordite rifle is dangerous to the country
+people, and some rifle firing black powder should be used. It is well to
+reach the home of the herd soon after sunrise while it is still in the
+open, and not among the crops. There will usually be one old buck in
+each herd. He himself is not watchful, but his does are, and the herd
+gallops off with great leaps at the first scent of danger, the does
+leading and their lord and master bringing up the rear. If by dint of
+careful and patient stalking you get to some point of vantage, say 100
+yards from the big buck, it is worth while to shoot. Even if the bullet
+finds its mark the quarry may gallop 50 yards before it drops. Good
+heads vary from 20" to 24" or even more.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26. Black buck.]
+
+(_b_) ~Small game in Plains.~--The cold weather shooting begins with the
+advent of the quail in the end of September and ends when they reappear
+among the ripening wheat in April. The duck arrive from the Central
+Asian lakes in November and duck and snipe shooting lasts till February
+in districts where there are _jhils_ and swampy land. For a decent shot
+30 couple of snipe is a fair bag. To get duck the _jhil_ should be
+visited at dawn and again in the evening, and it is well to post several
+guns in favourable positions in the probable line of flight. 40 or 50
+birds would be a good morning's bag. In drier tracts the bag will
+consist of partridges and a hare or two, or, if the country is sandy,
+some sand-grouse and perhaps a bustard.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE PEOPLE: NUMBERS, RACES, AND LANGUAGES
+
+
+~Growth of Population.~--It is probable that in the 64 years since
+annexation the population of the Panjab has increased by from 40 to 50
+per cent. The first reliable census was taken in 1881. The figures for
+the four decennial enumerations are:
+
+  |-------------------------------------------------------------|
+  |     |                                  |          |         |
+  |     |              Panjab              |  N.W.F.  | Kashmir |
+  |Year |----------------------------------| Province |         |
+  |     | British   |  Native  |  Total    |          |         |
+  |     |           |  States  |           |          |         |
+  |-------------------------------------------------------------|
+  |1881 |17,274,597 |3,861,683 |21,136,280 |1,543,726 |         |
+  |1891 |19,009,368 |4,263,280 |23,272,648 |1,857,504 |2,543.952|
+  |1901 |20,330,337 |4,424,398 |24,754,735 |2,041,534 |2,905,578|
+  |1911 |19,974,956 |4,212,974 |24,187,730 |2,196,933 |3,158,126|
+  |-------------------------------------------------------------|
+
+~Incidence of Population in Panjab.~--The estimated numbers of independent
+tribes dwelling within the British sphere of influence is 1,600,000. The
+incidence of the population on the total area of the Panjab including
+native States is 177 per square mile, which may be compared with 189 in
+France and 287 in the British Isles. As the map shows, the density is
+reduced by the large area of semi-desert country in the south-west and
+by the mountainous tract in the north-east. The distribution of the
+population is the exact opposite of that which prevails in Great
+Britain. There are only 174 towns as compared with 44,400 villages, and
+nearly nine-tenths of the people are to be found in the latter. Some of
+the so-called towns are extremely small, and the average population per
+town is but 14,800 souls. There are no large towns in the European
+sense. The biggest, Delhi and Lahore, returned respectively 232,837 and
+228,687 persons.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27. Map showing density of population.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28. Map showing increase and decrease of
+population.]
+
+~Growth stopped by Plague.~--The growth of the population between 1881 and
+1891 amounted to 10 p.c. Plague, which has smitten the Panjab more
+severely than any other province, appeared in 1896, and its effect was
+seen in the lower rate of expansion between 1891 and 1901.
+Notwithstanding great extensions of irrigation and cultivation in the
+Rechna Doab the numbers declined by 2 p.c. between 1901 and 1911. In the
+ten years from 1901 to 1910 in the British districts alone over two
+million people died of plague and the death-rate was raised to 12 p.c.
+above the normal. It actually exceeded the birth-rate by 2 p.c. Of the
+total deaths in the decade nearly one in four was due to plague. The
+part which has suffered most is the rich submontane tract east of the
+Chenab, Lahore and Gujranwala, and some of the south-eastern districts.
+A glance at the map will show how large the loss of population has been
+there. It is by no means entirely due to plague. The submontane
+districts were almost over-populated, and many of their people have
+emigrated as colonists, tenants, and labourers to the waste tracts
+brought under cultivation by the excavation of the Lower Chenab and
+Jhelam canals. The districts which have received very marked additions
+of population from this cause are Jhang (21 p.c.), Shahpur (30 p.c.), and
+Lyallpur (45 p.c.). Deaths from plague have greatly increased the
+deficiency of females, which has always been a noteworthy feature. In
+1911 the proportion had very nearly fallen to four females for every
+five males.
+
+~Increase and Incidence in N.W.F. Province.~--The incidence of the
+population in the area covered by the five districts of the N.W.F.
+Province is 164 per square mile. The district figures are given in the
+map in the margin. The increase between 1901 and 1911 in these districts
+was 7-1/2 p.c. There have been no severe outbreaks of plague like those
+which have decimated the population of some of the Panjab districts.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29. Map showing density of population in N.W.F.
+Province.]
+
+General figures for the territory of the Maharaja of Kashmir are
+meaningless. In the huge Indus valley the incidence is only 4 persons
+per sq. mile. In Jammu and Kashmir it is 138. The map taken from the
+Census Report gives the details. The increase in the decade was on
+paper 8-1/2 p.c., distributed between 5-1/4 in Jammu, 12 in Kashmir, and
+14 in the Indus valley. A great part of the increase in the last must be
+put down to better enumeration.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30. Map showing density of population in Kashmir.]
+
+~Health and duration of life.~--The climate of the Panjab plains has
+produced a vigorous, but not a long-lived, race. The mean age of the
+whole population in the British districts is only 25. The normal
+birth-rate of the Panjab is about 41 per 1000, which exceeds the English
+rate in the proportion of 5 to 3. In 1910 the recorded birth-rate in the
+N.W.F. Province was 38 per 1000. Till plague appeared the Panjab
+death-rate averaged 32 or 33 per 1000, or more than double that of
+England. The infantile mortality is enormous, and one out of every four
+or five children fails to survive its first year. The death-rate in the
+N.W.F. Province was 27 per 1000 in 1910. In the ten years ending 1910
+plague pushed up the average death-rate in the Panjab to 43-1/2 per
+1000. Even now malarial fever is a far worse foe than plague. The
+average annual deaths in the ten years ending 1910 were:
+
+  Fevers              450,376
+  Plague              202,522
+  Other diseases      231,473
+                      -------
+  Total               884,371
+                      -------
+
+Fever is very rife in October and November, and these are the most
+unhealthy months in the year, March and April being the best. The
+variations under fevers and plague from year to year are enormous. In
+1907 the latter claimed 608,685 victims, and the provincial death-rate
+reached the appalling figure of 61 per 1000. Next year the plague
+mortality dropped to 30,708, but there were 697,058 deaths from fever.
+There is unfortunately no reason to believe that plague has spent its
+force or that the people as a whole will in the near future generally
+accept the protective measures of inoculation and evacuation.
+Vaccination, the prejudice against which has largely disappeared, has
+robbed the small-pox goddess of many offerings. As a general cause of
+mortality the effect of cholera in the Panjab is now insignificant. But
+it is still to be feared in the Kashmir valley, especially in the
+picturesque but filthy summer capital. Syphilis is very common in the
+hill country in the north-east of the province. Blindness and leprosy
+are both markedly on the decrease. Both infirmities are common in
+Kashmir, especially the former. The rigours of the climate in a large
+part of the State force the people to live day and night for the seven
+winter months almost entirely in dark and smoky huts, and it is small
+wonder that their eyesight is ruined.
+
+~Occupations.~--The Panjab is preeminently an agricultural country, and
+the same is true in an almost greater degree of the N.W.F. Province and
+Kashmir. The typical holding is that of the small landowner tilling from
+3 to 10 acres with his own hands with or without help from village
+menials. The tenant class is increasing, but there are still three
+owners to two tenants. Together they make up 50 p.c. of the population
+of the Panjab, and 5 p.c. is added for farm labourers. Altogether,
+according to the census returns 58 p.c. of the population depends for
+its support on the soil, 20.5 on industries, chiefly the handicrafts of
+the weaver, potter, leather worker, carpenter, and blacksmith, 9.4 on
+trade, 2.5 on professions, and 9.6 on other sources of livelihood.
+
+~Measures taken to protect agriculturists.~--In a country owned so largely
+by small farmers, the first task of the Government must be to secure
+their welfare and contentment. Before plague laid its grasp on the rich
+central districts it was feared that they were becoming congested, and
+the canal colonization schemes referred to in a later chapter were
+largely designed to relieve them. But there is a much subtler foe to
+whose insidious attacks small owners are liable, the temptation to abuse
+their credit till their acres are loaded with mortgages and finally
+lost. So threatening had this economic disease for years appeared that
+at last in 1900 the Panjab Alienation of Land Act was passed, which
+forbade sales by people of agricultural tribes to other classes without
+the sanction of the district officer, and greatly restricted the power
+of mortgaging. The same restrictions are in force in the N.W.F.
+Province. The Act is popular with those for whose benefit it was
+devised, and has effected its object of checking land alienation and
+probably to some extent discouraged extravagance. It has been
+supplemented by a still more valuable measure, the Co-operative Credit
+Societies Act. The growth of these societies in the Panjab has been very
+remarkable, a notable contrast to the very slow advance of the similar
+movement in England. In 1913-14 there were 3261 village banks with
+155,250 members and a working capital of 133-3/4 _lakhs_ or L885,149,
+besides 38 central banks with a capital of 42-3/4 _lakhs_ or about
+L285,000. Village banks held deposits amounting to nearly 37 _lakhs_,
+more than half of which was received from non-members, and lent out
+71-1/2 _lakhs_ in the year to their members.
+
+~Tribal Composition.~--Table I based on the Census returns shows the
+percentages of the total population belonging to the chief tribes. The
+classification into "land-holding, etc." is a rough one.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31. Jat Sikh Officers (father and son).]
+
+~Jats.~--The Panjab is _par excellence_ the home of the Jats. Everywhere
+in the plains, except in the extreme north-west corner of the province,
+they form a large element in the population. In the east they are
+Hindus, in the centre Sikhs and Muhammadans, and in the west
+Muhammadans. The Jat is a typical son of the soil, strong and sturdy,
+hardworking and brave, a fine soldier and an excellent farmer, but
+slow-witted and grasping. The Sikh Jat finds an honourable outlet for
+his overflowing energy in the army and in the service of the Crown
+beyond the bounds of India. When he misses that he sometimes takes to
+dacoity. Unfortunately he is often given to strong drink, and, when his
+passions or his greed are aroused, can be exceedingly brutal. Jat in the
+Western Panjab is applied to a large number of tribes, whose ethnical
+affinities are somewhat dubious.
+
+~Rajputs.~--Rajputs are found in considerable numbers all over the
+province except in a few of the western and south-western districts. As
+farmers they are much hampered by caste rules which forbid the
+employment of their women in the fields, and the prohibition of widow
+remarriage is a severe handicap. They are generally classed as poor
+cultivators, and this is usually, but by no means universally, a true
+description. The Dogra Rajputs of the low hills are good soldiers. They
+are numerous in Kangra and in the Jammu province of Kashmir.
+
+~Brahmans.~--The Brahmans of the eastern plains and north-eastern hills
+are mostly agriculturists, and the Muhial Brahman of the north-western
+districts is a landowner and a soldier. In the hills the Brahman is
+often a shopkeeper. The priestly Brahman is found everywhere, but his
+spiritual authority has always been far less in the Panjab than in most
+parts of India.
+
+~Biluches.~--When the frontier was separated off the Biluch district of
+Dera Ghazi Khan with its strong tribal organization under chiefs or
+_tumandars_ was left in the Panjab. The Biluches are a frank, manly,
+truthful race, free from fanaticism and ready as a rule to follow their
+chiefs. They are fine horsemen. Unfortunately it is difficult to get
+them to enlist.
+
+~Pathans.~--Both politically and numerically the Pathans are the
+predominant tribe in the N.W.F. Province, and are of importance in parts
+of the Panjab districts of Attock and Mianwali. The Pathan is a democrat
+and often a fanatic, more under the influence of _mullahs_ than of the
+_maliks_ or headmen of his tribe. He has not the frank straightforward
+nature of the Biluch, is untiring in pursuit of revenge, and is not free
+from cruelty. But, when he has eaten the _Sarkar's_ salt, he is a very
+brave and dashing soldier, and he is a faithful host to anyone whom he
+has admitted under his roof.
+
+~Awans.~--The home of the Awan in the Panjab is the Salt Range and the
+parts of Attock and Mianwali, lying to the north of it, and this tract
+of country is known as the Awankari. In the N.W.F. Province they are,
+after the Pathans, by far the largest tribe, and are specially numerous
+in Peshawar and Hazara.
+
+~Shekhs.~--Of the Shekhs about half are Kureshis, Sadikis, and Ansaris of
+foreign origin and high social standing. The rest are new converts to
+Islam, often of the sweeper caste originally.
+
+~Saiyyids.~--Saiyyids are unsatisfactory landowners, and are kept going by
+the offerings of their followers. They are mostly Shias. It is not
+necessary to believe that they are all descended from the Prophet's
+son-in-law, Ali. A native proverb with pardonable exaggeration says:
+"The first year I was a weaver (Julaha), the next year a Shekh. This
+year, if prices rise, I shall be a Saiyyid."
+
+~Trading Castes.~--Aroras are the traders of the S.W. Panjab and of the
+N.W.F. Province. They share the Central Panjab with the Khatris, who
+predominate in the north-western districts. The Khatri of the
+Rawalpindi division is often a landowner and a first-class fighting
+man. Some of our strongest Indian civil officials have been Aroras. In
+the Delhi division the place of the Arora and Khatri is taken by the
+Bania, and in Kangra by the Sud or the Brahman. Khojas and Parachas are
+Muhammadan traders.
+
+~Artizans and Menials.~--Among artizans and menials Sunars (goldsmiths),
+Rajes (masons), Lohars (blacksmiths), and Tarkhans (carpenters) take the
+first rank.
+
+~Impure Castes.~--The vast majority of the impure castes, the
+"untouchables" of the Hindu religion, are scavengers and workers in
+leather. The sweeper who embraces Islam becomes a Musalli. The Sikh
+Mazhbis, who are the descendants of sweeper converts, have done
+excellent service in our Pioneer regiments. The Hindu of the Panjab in
+his avoidance of "untouchables" has never gone to the absurd lengths of
+the high caste Madrasi, and the tendency is towards a relaxation of
+existing restrictions.
+
+~Mendicants.~--Men of religion living on charity, wandering _fakirs_, are
+common sights, and beggars are met with in the cities, who sometimes
+exhibit their deformities with unnecessary insistence.
+
+~Kashmiris.~--According to the census return the number of Kashmiri
+Musulmans, who make up 60 p.c. of the inhabitants of the Jhelam valley,
+was 765,442. They are no doubt mostly descendants of various Hindu
+castes, perhaps in the main of Hill Brahmans, but Islam has wiped out
+all tribal distinctions. Sir Walter Lawrence wrote of them: "The
+Kashmiri is unchanged in spite of the splendid Moghal, the brutal
+Afghan, and the bully Sikh. Warriors and statesmen came and went; but
+there was no egress, and no wish ... in normal times to leave their
+homes. The outside world was far, and from all accounts inferior to the
+pleasant valley.... So the Kashmiris lived their self-centred life,
+conceited, clever, and conservative."
+
+The Hindu Kashmiri Pandits numbered 55,276.
+
+~Tribes of Jammu.~--Agricultural Brahmans are numerous in the Jammu
+province. Thakkars and Meghs are important elements of the population of
+the outer hills. The former are no doubt by origin Rajputs, but they
+have cast off many Rajput customs. The Meghs are engaged in weaving and
+agriculture, and are regarded as more or less impure by the higher
+castes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32. Blind Beggar.]
+
+~Gujars.~--Gujars in the Maharaja's territories are almost always
+graziers. In 1911 they numbered 328,003.
+
+~Dard Tribes of Astor and Gilgit.~--The people of Astor and Gilgit are
+Dards speaking Shina and professing Islam. Sir Aurel Stein wrote of
+them: "The Dard race which inhabits the valleys N. of (the Inner
+Himalaya) as far as the Hindu Kush is separated from the Kashmiri
+population by language as well as by physical characteristics.... There
+is little in the Dard to enlist the sympathies of the casual observer.
+He lacks the intelligence, humour, and fine physique of the Kashmiri,
+and, though undoubtedly far braver than the latter, has none of the
+independent spirit and manly bearing which draw us towards the Pathan
+despite all his failings. But I can never see a Dard without thinking of
+the thousands of years of struggle they have carried on with the harsh
+climate and the barren soil of their mountains[3]."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33. Dards.]
+
+~Kanjutis.~--The origin of the Kanjutis of Hunza is uncertain, and so are
+the relationships of their language.
+
+~Mongoloid Population of Ladakh.~--The population of Ladakh and Baltistan
+is Mongoloid, but the Baltis (72,439) have accepted Islam and polygamy,
+while the Ladakhis have adhered to Buddhism and polyandry.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34. Map showing races.]
+
+~Ethnological theories.~--In _The People of India_ the late Sir Herbert
+Risley maintained that the inhabitants of Rajputana, nearly the whole of
+the Panjab, and a large part of Kashmir, whatever their caste or social
+status, belonged with few exceptions to a single racial type, which he
+called Indo-Aryan. The Biluches of Dera Ghazi Khan and the Pathans of
+the N.W.F. Province formed part of another group which he called
+Turko-Iranian. The people of a strip of territory on the west of the
+Jamna he held to be of the same type as the bulk of the inhabitants of
+the United Provinces, and this type he called Aryo-Dravidian. Finally
+the races occupying the hills in the north-east and the adjoining part
+of Kashmir were of Mongol extraction, a fact which no one will dispute.
+Of the Indo-Aryan type Sir Herbert Risley wrote: "The stature is mostly
+tall, complexion fair, eyes dark, hair on face plentiful, head long,
+nose narrow and prominent, but not specially long." He believed that the
+Panjab was occupied by Aryans, who came into the country from the west
+or north-west with their wives and children, and had no need to contract
+marriages with the earlier inhabitants. The Aryo-Dravidians of the
+United Provinces resulted from a second invasion or invasions, in which
+the Aryan warriors came alone and had to intermarry with the daughters
+of the land, belonging to the race which forms the staple of the
+population of Central India and Madras. This theory was based on
+measurements of heads and noses, and it seems probable that deductions
+drawn from these physical characters are of more value than any evidence
+based on the use of a common speech. But it is hard to reconcile the
+theory with the facts of history even in the imperfect shape in which
+they have come down to us, or to believe that Sakas, Yuechi, and White
+Huns (see historical section) have left no traces of their blood in the
+province. If such there are, they may perhaps be found in some of the
+tribes on both sides of the Salt Range, such as Gakkhars, Janjuas, Awans
+Tiwanas, Ghebas, and Johdras, who are fine horsemen and expert
+tent-peggers, not "tall heavy men without any natural aptitude for
+horsemanship," as Sir Herbert Risley described his typical Panjabi (p.
+59 of his book).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35. Map showing distribution of languages.]
+
+~Languages.~--In the area dealt with in this book no less than eleven
+languages are spoken, and the dialects are very numerous. It is only
+possible to tabulate the languages and indicate on the map the
+localities in which they are spoken. For the Panjab the figures of the
+recent census are:
+
+  A 1. Tibeto-Chinese                       41,607
+
+  B. Aryan:
+  (_a_) Iranian:   2. Pashtu                67,174
+                        3. Biluchi          70,675
+                        4. Kohistani            26
+
+  (_b_) Indian:    5. Kashmiri               7,190
+                        6. Pahari          993,363
+                        7. Lahndi        4,253,566
+                        8. Sindhi               24
+                        9. Panjabi      14,111,215
+                       10. Western Hindi 3,826,467
+                       11. Rajasthani      725,850
+
+The eastern part of the Indus valley in Kashmir forming the provinces of
+Ladakh and Baltistan is occupied by a Mongol population speaking
+Tibeto-Chinese dialects. Kashmiri is the language of Kashmir Proper, and
+various dialects of the Shina-Khowar group comprehensively described as
+Kohistani are spoken in Astor, Gilgit, and Chilas, and to the west of
+Kashmir territory in Chitral and the Kohistan or mountainous country at
+the top of the Swat river valley. Though Kashmiri and the Shina-Khowar
+tongues belong to the Aryan group, their basis is supposed to be
+non-Sanskritic, and it is held that there is a strong non-Sanskritic or
+Pisacha element also in Lahndi or western Panjabi, which is also the
+prevailing speech in the Hazara and Dera Ismail Khan districts of the
+N.W.F. Province, and is spoken in part of the Jammu province of Kashmir.
+Pashtu is the common language in Peshawar, Kohat, and Bannu, and is
+spoken on the western frontiers of Hazara and Dera Ismail Khan, and in
+the independent tribal territory in the west between the districts of
+the N.W.F. Province and the Durand Line and immediately adjoining the
+Peshawar district on the north. Rajasthani is a collective name for the
+dialects of Rajputana, which overflow into the Panjab, occupying a
+strip along the southern frontier from Bahawalpur to Gurgaon. The
+infiltration of English words and phrases into the languages of the
+province is a useful process and as inevitable as was the enrichment of
+the old English speech by Norman-French. But for the present the results
+are apt to sound grotesque, when the traveller, who expects a train to
+start at the appointed time, is told: "_tren late hai, lekin singal down
+hogaya_" (the train is late, but the signal has been lowered), or the
+criticism is passed on a popular officer: "_bahut affable hai, lekin
+hand shake nahin karta_" (very affable, but doesn't shake hands).
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 3: _Sand Buried Ruins Of Khotan_, pp. 14-15.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE PEOPLE (_continued_): RELIGIONS
+
+
+~Religions in N.W.F. Province.~--In the N.W.F. Province an overwhelming
+majority of the population professes Islam. In 1911 there were 2,039,994
+Musalmans as compared with 119,942 Hindus, 30,345 Sikhs, and 6585
+Christians.
+
+~Religions in Kashmir.~--In Kashmir the preponderance of Muhammadans is
+not so overwhelming. The figures are:
+
+  Muhammadans     2,398,320
+  Hindus            690,390
+  Buddhists          36,512
+  Sikhs              31,553
+
+The Hindus belong mostly to the Jammu province, where nearly half of the
+population professes that faith. The people of Kashmir, Baltistan, Astor
+and Gilgit, Chilas and Hunza Nagar, are Musalmans. The Ladakhis are
+Buddhists.
+
+~Religions in Panjab.~--The distribution by religions of the population of
+the Panjab and its native States in 1911 was:
+
+  Muhammadans                       12,275,477 or 51 p.c.
+  Hindus                             8,773,621 or 36 p.c.
+  Sikhs                              2,883,729 or 12 p.c.
+  Others, chiefly Christian (199,751)  254,923 or  1 p.c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36. Map showing distribution of religions.]
+
+The strength of the Muhammadans is in the districts west of the Bias and
+the Sutlej below its junction with the Bias. 83 p.c. of the subjects of
+the Nawab of Bahawalpur are also Muhammadans. In all this western region
+there are few Hindus apart from the shopkeepers and traders. On the
+other hand the hill country in the north-east is purely Hindu, except on
+the borders of Tibet, where the scanty population professes Buddhism.
+While Hinduism is the predominant faith in the south-east, quite a
+fourth of the people there are Musalmans. Sikhs nowhere form a majority.
+The districts in the eastern part of the Central Plains where they
+constitute more than one-fifth of the population are indicated in the
+map. In six districts, Lahore, Montgomery, Gujranwala, Lyallpur,
+Hoshyarpur, and Ambala the proportion is between 10 and 20 p.c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37. Raghunath Temple, Jammu.]
+
+~Growth and Decline in numbers.~--There was a slight rise in the number of
+Muhammadans between 1901 and 1911. Their losses in the central
+districts, where the plague scourge has been heaviest, were
+counterbalanced by gains in the western tract, where its effect has been
+slight. On the other hand the decrease under Hindus amounts to nearly
+15 p.c. The birth-rate is lower and the death-rate higher among Hindus
+than among Musalmans, and their losses by plague in the central and some
+of the south-eastern districts have been very heavy. A change of
+sentiment on the part of the Sikh community has led to many persons
+recording themselves as Sikhs who were formerly content to be regarded
+as Hindus. It must be remembered that one out of four of the recorded
+Hindus belongs to impure castes, who even in the Panjab pollute food and
+water by their touch and are excluded from the larger temples. Since
+1901 a considerable number of Chuhras or Sweepers have been converted to
+Islam and Christianity.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38. Golden Temple, Amritsar.]
+
+~Sikhs.~--Notwithstanding heavy losses by plague Sikhs have increased by
+37 p.c. A great access of zeal has led to many more Sikhs becoming
+_Kesdharis_. _Sajhdharis_ or _Munas_, who form over one-fifth of the
+whole Sikh community, were in 1901 classed as Hindus. They are followers
+of Baba Nanak, cut their hair, and often smoke. When a man has taken the
+"_pahul_," which is the sign of his becoming a _Kesdhari_ or follower of
+Guru Govind, he must give up the _hukka_ and leave his hair unshorn. The
+future of Sikhism is with the _Kesdharis_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39. Mosque in Lahore City.]
+
+~Muhammadans.~--In the eastern districts the conversions to Islam were
+political, and Hindu and Muhammadan Rajputs live peaceably together in
+the same village. The Musalmans have their mosque for the worship of
+Allah, but were, and are still, not quite sure that it is prudent wholly
+to neglect the godlings. The conversion of the western Panjab was the
+result largely of missionary effort. _Piri muridi_ is a great
+institution there. Every man should be the "_murid_" or pupil of some
+holy man or _pir_, who combines the functions in the Roman Catholic
+Church of spiritual director in this world and the saint in heaven. The
+_pir_ may be the custodian of some little saint's tomb in a village, or
+of some great shrine like that of Baba Farid at Pakpattan, or Bahawal
+Hakk at Multan, or Taunsa Sharif in Dera Ghazi Khan, or Golra in
+Rawalpindi. His own holiness may be more official than personal. About
+1400 A.D. the Kashmiris were offered by their Sultan Sikandar the choice
+between conversion and exile, and chose the easier alternative. Like the
+western Panjabis they are above all things saint-worshippers. The
+ejaculations used to stimulate effort show this. The embankment builder
+in the south-western Panjab invokes the holy breath of Bahawal Hakk, and
+the Kashmiri boatman's cry "Ya Pir, dast gir," "Oh Saint, lend me a
+hand," is an appeal to their national saint.
+
+~Effect of Education.~--The Musalmans of the western Panjab have a great
+dislike to Sikhs, dating from the period of the political predominance
+of the latter. So far the result of education has been to accentuate
+religious differences and animosities. Both Sikhs and Musalmans are
+gradually dropping ideas and observances retained in their daily life
+after they ceased to call themselves Hindus. On the other hand, within
+the Hindu fold laxity is now the rule rather than the exception, and the
+neglect of the old ritual and restrictions is by no means confined to
+the small but influential reforming minority which calls itself Arya
+Samaj.
+
+~Christians.~--The number of Christians increased threefold between 1901
+and 1911. The Presbyterian missionaries have been especially successful
+in attracting large numbers of outcastes into the Christian Church.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40. God and Goddess, Chamba.]
+
+~Hinduism in the Panjab.~--Hinduism has always been, and to-day is more
+than ever, a very elastic term. The Census Superintendent, himself a
+high caste Hindu, wrote: "The definition which would cover the Hindu of
+the modern times is that he should be born of parents not belonging to
+some recognised religion other than Hinduism, marry within the same
+limits, believe in God, respect the cow, and cremate the dead." There is
+room in its ample folds for the Arya Samajist, who rejects idol worship
+and is divesting himself of caste prejudices and marriage restrictions,
+and the most orthodox Sanatan dharmist, who carries out the whole
+elaborate daily ritual of the Brahmanical religion, and submits to all
+its complicated rules; for the ordinary Hindu trader, who is equally
+orthodox by profession, but whose ordinary religious exercises are
+confined to bathing in the morning; for the villager of the eastern
+districts, who often has the name of Parameshvar or the Supreme Lord on
+his lips, but who really worships the godlings, Guga Pir, Sarwar or
+Sultan Pir, Sitla (the small-pox goddess), and others, whose little
+shrines we see round the village site; and for the childish idolaters of
+Kulu, who carry their local deities about to visit each other at fairs,
+and would see nothing absurd in locking them all up in a dungeon if rain
+held off too long.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41. A Kulu godling and his attendants.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE PEOPLE (_continued_): EDUCATION
+
+
+~Educational progress.~--According to the census returns of 1911 there are
+not four persons per 100 in the province who are "literate" in the sense
+of being able to read and write a letter. The proportion of literacy
+among Hindus and Sikhs is three times as great as among Muhammadans. In
+1911-12 one boy in six of school-going age was at school or college and
+one girl in 37. This may seem a meagre result of sixty years of work,
+for the Government and Christian missionaries, who have had an
+honourable connection with the educational history of the province,
+began their efforts soon after annexation, and a Director of Public
+Instruction was appointed as long ago as 1856. But a country of small
+peasant farmers is not a very hopeful educational field, and the rural
+population was for long indifferent or hostile. If an ex-soldier of the
+_Khalsa_ had expressed his feelings, he would have used words like those
+of the "Old Pindari" in Lyall's poem, while the Muhammadan farmer, had
+he been capable of expressing his hostility, might have argued that the
+teaching his son could get in a village school would help him not at all
+in his daily work. Things are better now. We have improved our scheme of
+teaching, and of late raised the pay of the teachers, which is, however,
+still hardly adequate. Till a better class of teachers can be secured
+for primary schools, the best educational theories will not bear fruit
+in practice. The old indifference is weakening, and the most hopeful
+sign is the increasing interest taken in towns in female education, a
+matter of the first importance for the future of the country.
+
+~Present position.~--The present position is as follows:--The Government
+has made itself directly or indirectly responsible for the education of
+the province. At the headquarters of each district there is a high
+school for boys controlled by the Education Department. In each district
+there are Government middle schools, Anglo-vernacular or Vernacular,
+and primary schools, managed by the Municipal Committees and District
+Boards. Each middle school has a primary, and each high school a primary
+and a middle, department. For the convenience of pupils who cannot
+attend school while living at home hostels are attached to many middle
+and high schools. Fees are very moderate. In middle schools, where the
+income covers 56 p.c. of the expenditure, they range from R. 1 (16
+pence) monthly in the lowest class in which they are levied to Rs. 4 (5
+shillings) in the highest class. In rural primary schools the children
+of agriculturists are exempt because they pay local rate, and others,
+when not exempt on the score of poverty, pay nominal fees. Besides the
+Government schools there are aided schools of the above classes usually
+of a sectarian character, and these, if they satisfy the standards laid
+down, receive grants. There is a decreasing, but still considerable,
+class of private schools, which make no attempt to satisfy the
+conditions attached to these grants. The _mullah_ in the mosque teaches
+children passages of the Kuran by rote, or the shopkeeper's son is
+taught in a Mahajani school native arithmetic and the curious script in
+which accounts are kept. A boys' school of a special kind is the Panjab
+Chiefs' College at Lahore, intended for the sons of princes and men of
+high social position.
+
+~Technical Schools.~--In an agricultural country like the Panjab there is
+not at present any large field for technical schools. The best are the
+Mayo School of Art and the Railway Technical School at Lahore. The
+latter is successful because its pupils can readily find employment in
+the railway workshops. Mr Kipling, the father of the poet, when
+principal of the former, did much for art teaching, and the present
+principal, Bhai Ram Singh, is a true artist. The Government Engineering
+School has recently been remodelled and removed to Rasul, where the
+head-works of the Lower Jhelam canal are situated.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42. A School in the time preceding annexation.
+
+(_From a picture book said to have been prepared for the Maharaja Dalip
+Singh._)]
+
+~Female Education.~--Female education is still a tender plant, but of late
+growth has been vigorous. The Victoria May School in Lahore founded in
+1908 has developed into the Queen Mary College, which provides an
+excellent education for girls of what may be called the upper middle
+class. There is a separate class for married ladies. Hitherto they have
+only been reached by the teaching given in their own homes by missionary
+ladies, whose useful work is now being imitated by the Hindu community
+in Lahore. There is an excellent Hindu Girls' Boarding School in
+Jalandhar. The Sikhs and the body of reformers known as the Dev Samaj
+have good girls' schools at Ferozepore. The best mission schools are the
+Kinnaird High School at Lahore and the Alexandra School at Amritsar. The
+North India School of Medicine for Women at Ludhiana, also a missionary
+institution, does admirable work. In the case of elementary schools the
+difficulty of getting qualified teachers is even greater than as regards
+boys' schools.
+
+~Education of European Children.~--There are special arrangements for the
+education of European and Anglo-Indian children. In this department the
+Roman Catholics have been active and successful. The best schools are
+the Lawrence Asylum at Sanawar, Bishop Cotton's School, Auckland House,
+and St Bede's at Simla, St Denys', the Lawrence Asylum, and the Convent
+School at Murree.
+
+~The Panjab University.~--The Panjab University was constituted in 1882,
+but the Government Arts College and Oriental College, the Medical
+College and the Law School at Lahore, which are affiliated with it, are
+of older date. The University is an examining body like London
+University. Besides the two Arts Colleges under Government management
+mentioned above there are nine private Arts Colleges aided by Government
+grants and affiliated to the University. Four of these are in Lahore,
+two, the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic and the Dial Singh Colleges, are Hindu
+institutions, one, the Islamia College, is Muhammadan, the fourth is the
+popular and efficient Forman Christian College. Four out of five art
+students read in Lahore. Of the Arts colleges outside Lahore the most
+important is the St Stephen's College at Delhi. The Khalsa School and
+College at Amritsar is a Sikh institution. The Veterinary College at
+Lahore is the best of its kind in India, and the Agricultural College at
+Lyallpur is a well-equipped institution, which at present attracts few
+pupils, but may play a very useful role in the future. There is little
+force in the reproach that we built up a super-structure of higher
+education before laying a broad foundation of primary education. There
+is more in the charge that the higher educational food we have offered
+has not been well adapted to the intellectual digestions of the
+recipients.
+
+~Education in N.W.F. Province, Native States, and I Kashmir.~--The Panjab
+Native States and Kashmir are much more backward as regards education
+than the British Province. As is natural in a tract in which the
+population is overwhelmingly Musalman by religion and farming by trade
+the N.W.F. Province lags behind the Panjab. Six colleges in the States
+and the N.W.F. Province are affiliated to the Panjab University.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+ROADS AND RAILWAYS
+
+
+~Roads.~--The alignment of good roads in the plains of the Panjab is easy,
+and the deposits of calcareous nodules or _kankar_ often found near the
+surface furnish good metalling material. In the west the rainfall is so
+scanty and in many parts wheeled traffic so rare that it is often wise
+to leave the roads unmetalled. There are in the Panjab over 2000 miles
+of metalled, and above 20,000 miles of unmetalled roads. The greatest
+highway in the world, the Grand Trunk, which starts from Calcutta and
+ends at Peshawar, passes through the province from Delhi in the
+south-east to Attock in the extreme north-west corner, and there crosses
+the Indus and enters the N.W.F. Province. The greater part of the
+section from Karnal to Lahore had been completed some years before the
+Mutiny, that from Lahore to Peshawar was finished in 1863-64. A great
+loop road connects our arsenal at Ferozepore with the Grand Trunk Road
+at Lahore and Ludhiana. The fine metalled roads from Ambala to Kalka,
+and Kalka to Simla have lost much of their importance since the railway
+was brought to the hill capital. Beyond Simla the Kalka-Simla road is
+carried on for 150 miles to the Shipki Pass on the borders of Tibet,
+being maintained as a very excellent hill road adapted to mule carriage.
+A fine tonga road partly in the plains and partly in the hills joins
+Murree with Rawalpindi. From Murree it drops into the Jhelam valley
+crossing the river and entering Kashmir at Kohala. It is carried up the
+gorge of the Jhelam to Baramula and thence through the Kashmir valley to
+Srinagar. A motor-car can be driven all the way from Rawalpindi to
+Srinagar. In the N.W.F. Province a great metalled road connects
+Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu, and Dera Ismail Khan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43. Poplar lined road to Srinagar.]
+
+~Railways. Main Lines.~--It is just over fifty years since the first
+railway, a short line joining Lahore and Amritsar, was opened in 1862.
+Three years later Lahore was linked up with Multan and the small
+steamers which then plied on the Indus. Amritsar was connected with
+Delhi in 1870, and Lahore with Peshawar in 1883. The line from Peshawar
+to Lahore, and branching thence to Karachi and Delhi may be considered
+the Trunk Line. The railway service has been enormously developed in the
+past thirty years. In 1912 there were over 4000 miles of open lines.
+There are now three routes from Delhi to Lahore:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44. Map showing railways.]
+
+(_a_) The N.W. Railway _via_ Meerut and Saharanpur (on east of Jamna),
+and Ambala, Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Amritsar;
+
+(_b_) The Southern Panjab Railway _via_ Jind, Rohtak, Bhatinda, and
+Ferozepore;
+
+(_c_) The Delhi-Ambala-Kalka branch of the East Indian Rallway from
+Delhi through Karnal to Ambala, and thence by the N.W. Railway. This is
+the shortest route.
+
+The Southern Panjab Railway also connects Delhi with Karachi through its
+junction with the N.W. Railway at Samasata to the south of Bahawalpur.
+Another route is by a line passing through Rewari and the Merta
+junction. Karachi is the natural seaport of the central and western
+Panjab. The S.P. Railway now gives an easy connection with Ferozepore
+and Ludhiana, and the enormous export of wheat, cotton, etc. from the
+new canal colonies is carried by several lines which converge at
+Khanewal, a junction on the main line, a little north of Multan.
+
+~Railways. Minor Lines.~--The Sind Sagar branch starting from Lala Musa
+between Lahore and Amritsar with smaller lines taking off further north
+at Golra and Campbellpur serves the part of the province lying north of
+the Salt Range. These lines converge at Kundian in the Mianwali
+district, and a single line runs thence southwards to points on the
+Indus opposite Dera Ismail Khan and Dera Ghazi Khan, and turning
+eastwards rejoins the trunk line at Sher Shah near Multan. There are a
+number of branch lines in the plains, some owned by native States.
+Strategically a very important one is that which crossing the Indus by
+the Khushalgarh bridge unites Rawalpindi with Kohat. The only hill
+railway is that from Kalka to Simla. A second is now under construction
+which, when completed, will connect Rawalpindi with Srinagar. All these
+lines with the exception of the branch of the E.I. Railway mentioned
+above are worked by the staff of the N. W. State Railway, whose manager
+controls inside and outside the Panjab some 5000 miles of open line. The
+interest earned in 1912 was 4-1/2 p.c., a good return when it is
+considered that the parts of the system to the north of the Salt Range
+and the Sind Sagar railway were built primarily for strategic reasons.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+CANALS
+
+
+~Importance of Canals.~--One need have no hesitation in placing among the
+greatest achievements of British rule in the Panjab the magnificent
+system of irrigation canals which it has given to the province. Its
+great alluvial plain traversed by large rivers drawing an unfailing
+supply of water from the Himalayan snows affords an ideal field for the
+labours of the canal engineer. The vastness of the arid areas which
+without irrigation yield no crops at all or only cheap millets and
+pulses makes his works of inestimable benefit to the people and a source
+of revenue to the State.
+
+~Canals before annexation.~--In the west of the province we found in
+existence small inundation canals dug by the people with some help from
+their rulers. These only ran during the monsoon season, when the rivers
+were swollen. In 1626 Shahjahan's Persian engineer, Ali Mardan Khan,
+brought to Delhi the water of the canal dug by Firoz Shah as a monsoon
+channel and made perennial by Akbar. But during the paralysis of the
+central power in the eighteenth century the channels became silted up.
+The same able engineer dug a canal from the Ravi near Madhopur to water
+the royal gardens at Lahore. What remained of this work at annexation
+was known as the Hasli.
+
+~Extent of Canal Irrigation.~--In 1911-12, when the deficiency of the
+rainfall made the demand for water keen, the canals of the Panjab and
+the N.W.F. Province irrigated 8-1/2 millions of acres. The figures are:
+
+_Panjab_
+
+  A.   Permanent Canals     Acres   Interest earned %
+
+      1. Western Jamna      775,450     7-3/4
+      2. Sirhind          1,609,458     8
+      3. Upper Bari Doab  1,156,808    11-1/2
+      4. Lower Chenab     2,334,090    34
+      5. Lower Jhelam       801,649    10-1/3
+  B.  Monsoon Canals      1,654,437
+                   Total  8,331,892
+
+_N.W. Frontier Province_
+
+                     Acres   Interest earned %
+
+  Lower Swat River   157,650     9-3/4
+  Two minor Canals    67,510
+             Total   225,160
+
+On the Sirhind Canal, on which the demand fluctuates greatly with the
+character of the season, the area was twice the normal. The three canals
+of the Triple Project will, when fully developed, add 1,871,000 acres to
+the irrigated area of the Panjab, and the Upper Swat Canal will increase
+that of the N.W.F. Province by 381,000 acres. The canals will therefore
+in a year of drought be able to water over ten millions of acres without
+taking account of possible extensions if a second canal should be drawn
+from the Sutlej. The money spent from imperial funds on Panjab canals
+has exceeded twelve millions sterling, and no money has ever been better
+spent. In, when the area irrigated was a good deal less than in, the
+value of the crops raised by the use of canal water was estimated at
+about 207 millions of rupees or nearly L14,000,000. It is only possible
+to note very briefly the steps by which this remarkable result has been
+achieved.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45. Map--Older Canals.]
+
+~Western Jamna Canal.~--Soon after the assumption of authority at Delhi in
+1803 the question of the old Canal from the Jamna was taken up. The
+Delhi Branch was reopened in 1819, and the Hansi Branch six years later.
+In the famine year nearly 400,000 acres were irrigated. For more than
+half a century that figure represented the irrigating capacity of the
+canal. The English engineers in the main retained the faulty Moghal
+alignment, and waterlogging of the worst description developed. The
+effect on the health of the people was appalling. After long delay the
+canal was remodelled. The result has been most satisfactory in every
+way. In the last decade of the nineteenth century the Sirsa Branch and
+the Nardak Distributary were added, to carry water to parts of the
+Karnal and Hissar districts where any failure of the monsoon resulted in
+widespread loss of crops. If a scheme to increase the supply can be
+carried out, further extension in tracts now very liable to famine will
+become possible. In the six years ending the interest earned exceeded 8
+p.c.
+
+~Upper Bari Doab Canal.~--The headworks of the Upper Bari Doab Canal are
+above Madhopur near the point where the Ravi leaves the hills. The work
+was started soon after annexation, but only finished in 1859. Irrigation
+has grown from 90,000 acres in to 533,000 in, 861,000 in 1900-1, and
+1,157,000 in. The later history of the canal consists mainly of great
+extensions in the arid Lahore district, and the irrigation there is now
+three-fifths of the whole. In parts of Amritsar, and markedly near the
+city, waterlogging has become a grave evil, but remedial measures have
+now been undertaken. The interest earned on the capital expenditure in
+the six years ending averaged 11-1/2 p.c.
+
+~Sirhind Canal.~--A quarter of a century passed after the Upper Bari Doab
+Canal began working before the water of the Sutlej was used for
+irrigation. The Sirhind Canal weir is at Rupar where the river emerges
+from the Siwaliks. Patiala, Jind, and Nabha contributed to the cost, and
+own three of the five branches. But the two British branches are
+entitled to nearly two-thirds of the water, which is utilized in the
+Ludhiana and Ferozepore districts and in the Faridkot State. The soil of
+the tract commanded is for the most part a light sandy loam, and in
+years of good rainfall it repays dry cultivation. The result is that the
+area watered fluctuates largely. But in the six years ending the
+interest earned averaged 7 p.c., and the power of expansion in a bad
+year is a great boon to the peasantry.
+
+~Canal extensions in Western Panjab.~--In the last quarter of a century
+the chief task of the Canal Department in the Panjab has been the
+extension of irrigation to the Rechna and Jech Doabs and the lower part
+of the Bari Doab. All three contained large areas of waste belonging to
+the State, mostly good soil, but incapable of cultivation owing to the
+scanty rainfall. Colonization has therefore been an important part of
+all the later canal projects. The operations have embraced the
+excavation of five canals.
+
+~Lower Chenab Canal.~--The Lower Chenab Canal is one of the greatest
+irrigation works in the world, the area commanded being 3-1/3 million
+acres, the average discharge four or five times that of the Thames at
+Teddington, and the average irrigated area 2-1/4 million acres. There
+are three main branches, the Rakh, the Jhang, and the Gugera. The supply
+is secured by a great weir built across the Chenab river at Khanki in
+the Gujranwala district, and the irrigation is chiefly in the
+Gujranwala, Lyallpur, and Jhang districts. In the four years ending the
+average interest earned was 28 p.c., and in future the rate should
+rarely fall below 30 p.c. The capital expenditure has been a little over
+L2,000,000. The interest charges were cleared about five years after the
+starting of irrigation, and the capital has already been repaid to the
+State twice over.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46. Map--Canals.]
+
+~Lower Jhelam Canal.~--The Lower Jhelam Canal, which waters the tract
+between the Jhelam and Chenab in the Shahpur and Jhang districts, is a
+smaller and less profitable work. The culturable commanded area is about
+one million acres. The head-works are at Rasul in the Gujrat district.
+Irrigation began in 1901. In the four years ending 1911-12 the average
+area watered was 748,000 acres and the interest earned exceeded 10 p.c.
+
+~Triple Project--Upper Jhelam and Upper Chenab Canals and Lower Bari Doab
+Canal.~--The Lower Chenab Canal takes the whole available supply of the
+Chenab river. But it does not command a large area in the Rechna Doab
+lying in the west of Gujranwala, in which rain cultivation is very risky
+and well cultivation is costly. No help can be got from the Ravi, as the
+Upper Bari Doab Canal exhausts its supply. Desirable as the extension of
+irrigation in the areas mentioned above is, the problem of supplying it
+might well have seemed insuperable. The bold scheme known as the Triple
+Project which embraces the construction of the Upper Jhelam, Upper
+Chenab, and Lower Bari Doab Canals, is based on the belief that the
+Jhelam river has even in the cold weather water to spare after feeding
+the Lower Jhelam Canal. The true _raison d'etre_ of the Upper Jhelam
+Canal, whose head-works are at Mangla in Kashmir a little north of the
+Gujrat district, is to throw a large volume of water into the Chenab at
+Khanki, where the Lower Chenab Canal takes off, and so set free an equal
+supply to be taken out of the Chenab higher up at Merala in Sialkot,
+where are the head-works of the Upper Chenab Canal. But the Upper Jhelam
+Canal will also water annually some 345,000 acres in Gujrat and Shahpur.
+The Upper Chenab Canal will irrigate 648,000 acres mostly in Gujranwala,
+and will be carried across the Ravi by an aqueduct at Balloke in the
+south of Lahore. Henceforth the canal is known as the Lower Bari Doab,
+which will water 882,000 acres, mostly owned by the State, in the
+Montgomery and Multan districts. On the other two canals the area of
+Government land is not large. The Triple Project is approaching
+completion, and irrigation from the Upper Chenab Canal has begun. The
+engineering difficulties have been great, and the forecast does not
+promise such large gains as even the Lower Jhelam Canal. But a return of
+7-1/2 p.c. is expected.
+
+~Monsoon or Inundation Canals.~--The numerous monsoon or inundation
+canals, which take off from the Indus, Jhelam, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej,
+though individually petty works, perform an important office in the
+thirsty south-western districts. By their aid a _kharif_ crop can be
+raised without working the wells in the hot weather, and with luck the
+fallow can be well soaked in autumn, and put under wheat and other
+spring crops. For the maturing of these crops a prudent cultivator
+should not trust to the scanty cold weather rainfall, but should
+irrigate them from a well. The Sidhnai has a weir, but may be included
+in this class, for there is no assured supply at its head in the Ravi in
+the winter. In 1910-11 the inundation canals managed by the State
+watered 1,800,000 acres. There are a number of private canals in
+Ferozepore, Shahpur, and the hill district of Kangra. In Ferozepore the
+district authorities take a share in the management.
+
+~Colonization of Canal Lands.~--The colonization of huge areas of State
+lands has been an important part of new canal schemes in the west of the
+Panjab. When the Lower Chenab Canal was started the population of the
+vast Bar tract which it commands consisted of a few nomad cattle owners
+and cattle thieves. It was a point of honour to combine the two
+professions. Large bodies of colonists were brought from the crowded
+districts of the central Panjab. The allotments to peasants usually
+consisted of 55 acres, a big holding for a man who possibly owned only
+four or five acres in his native district. There were larger allotments
+known as yeoman and capitalist grants, but the peasants are the only
+class who have turned out quite satisfactory farmers. Colonization began
+in 1892 and was practically complete by 1904, when over 1,800,000 acres
+had been allotted. To save the peasants from the evils which an
+unrestricted right of transfer was then bringing on the heads of many
+small farmers in the Panjab it was decided only to give them permanent
+inalienable tenant right. The Panjab Alienation of Land Act, No. XIII of
+1900, has supplied a remedy generally applicable, and the peasant
+grantees are now being allowed to acquire ownership on very easy terms.
+The greater part of the colony is in the new Lyallpur district, which
+had in 1911 a population of 857,511 souls.
+
+On the Lower Jhelam Canal the area of colonized land exceeds 400,000
+acres. A feature of colonization on that canal is that half the area is
+held on condition of keeping up one or more brood mares, the object
+being to secure a good class of remounts. Succession to these grants is
+governed by primogeniture. On the Lower Bari Doab Canal a very large
+area is now being colonized.
+
+~Canals of the N.W.F. Province.~--Hemmed in as the N.W.F. Province is
+between the Indus and the Hills, its canals are insignificant as
+compared with the great irrigation works of the Panjab. The only ones of
+any importance are in the Peshawar Valley. These draw their supplies
+from the Kabul, Bara, and Swat rivers, but the works supplied by the
+first two streams only command small areas. The Lower Swat Canal was
+begun in 1876, but the tribesmen were hostile and the diggers had to
+sleep in fortified enclosures. The work was not opened till 1885. A reef
+in the river has made it possible to dispense with a permanent weir. The
+country is not an ideal one for irrigation, being much cut up by
+ravines. But a large area has been brought under command, and the
+irrigation has more than once exceeded 170,000 acres. In 1911-12 it was
+157,650 acres, and the interest earned was 9-3/4 p.c. The Upper Swat
+Canal, which was opened in April 1914, was a more ambitious project,
+involving the tunnelling at the Malakand of 11,000 feet of solid rock.
+The commanded area is nearly 450,000 acres, including 40,000 beyond our
+administrative frontier. The estimated cost is Rs. 18,240,000 or over
+L1,200,000 and the annual irrigation expected is 381,562 acres.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                    { Kabul River Canal.
+ Areas commanded by { L. Swat Canal.
+                    { U. Swat Canal.
+
+Fig. 47. Map of Canals of Peshawar district.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+AGRICULTURE AND CROPS
+
+
+~Classification by Zones.~--In order to give an intelligible account of
+the huge area embraced by the Panjab, N.W.F. Province, and Kashmir it is
+necessary to make a division of the area into zones. Classification must
+be on very broad lines based on differences of altitude, rainfall, and
+soil, leading to corresponding differences in the cultivation and the
+crops. For statistical purposes districts must be taken as a whole,
+though a more accurate classification would divide some of them between
+two zones.
+
+~Classes of Cultivation.~--The broadest division of cultivation is into
+irrigated and unirrigated, the former including well (_chahi_), canal
+(_nahri_), and _abi_. The last term describes a small amount of land
+watered from tanks or _jhils_ in the plains and a larger area in the
+hills irrigated by _kuhls_ or small artificial channels. "Unirrigated"
+embraces cultivation dependent on rain (_barani_) or on flooding or
+percolation from rivers (_sailab_). (See Table II.)
+
+~Harvests.~--There are two harvests, the autumn or _kharif_, and the
+spring or _rabi_. The autumn crops are mostly sown in June and July and
+reaped from September to December. Cotton is often sown in March. Cane
+planted in March and cut in January and February is counted as a
+_kharif_ crop. The spring crops are sown from the latter part of
+September to the end of December. They are reaped in March and April.
+Roughly in the Panjab three-fifths of the crops belong to the spring
+harvest. In the N.W.F. Province the proportion is somewhat higher. In
+Kashmir the autumn crop is by far the more important.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48. Persian Wheel Well and Ekka.]
+
+~Implements of Husbandry and Wells.~--The implements of husbandry are
+simple but effective in a land where as a rule there is no advantage in
+stirring up the soil very deep. With his primitive plough (_hal_) and a
+wooden clodcrusher (_sohaga_) the peasant can produce a tilth for a crop
+like cane which it would be hard to match in England. There are two
+kinds of wells, the _charsa_ or rope and bucket well and the _harat_ or
+Persian wheel.
+
+~Rotations.~--The commonest rotation in ordinary loam soils is to put in a
+spring and autumn crop in succession and then let the land lie fallow
+for a year. Unless a good deal of manure is available this is the course
+to follow, even in the case of irrigated land. Some poor hard soils are
+only fit for crops of coarse rice sown after the embanked fields have
+been filled in the monsoon by drainage from surrounding waste. Other
+lands are cropped only in the autumn because the winter rainfall is very
+scanty. Flooded lands are often sown only for the spring harvest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49. A drove of goats--Lahore.]
+
+~Cattle, Sheep, and Goats.~--In 1909 there were in the British districts
+of the Panjab 4-1/4 million bullocks and 625,000 male buffaloes
+available to draw 2,169,000 ploughs and 288,000 carts, thresh the corn,
+and work a quarter of a million wells, besides sugar, oil, and flour
+mills. The cattle of the hills, N.W. Panjab, and riverain tracts are
+undersized, but in the uplands of the Central Panjab and S.E. districts
+fine oxen are used. The horned cattle share 18 millions of pasture land,
+much extremely poor, with 4 million sheep and 5-1/2 million goats.
+Hence the enormous area devoted to fodder crops.
+
+~Zones.~--Six zones can be distinguished, but, as no district is wholly
+confined to the mountain zone, it must for statistical purposes be
+united to the submontane zone:
+
+ (_a_) Mountain above 5000 feet    Panjab--Kangra, Simla, Native
+                                            States in Hills, Ambala,
+                                            Hoshyarpur.
+
+ (_b_) Submontane                  N.W.F. Province. Hazara,
+                                        Kashmir--whole
+
+ (_c_) North Central Plain         Panjab--Gujrat, Sialkot, Gurdaspur,
+                                            Amritsar, Jalandhar,
+                                            Ludhiana, Kapurthala,
+                                            Malerkotla, Powadh
+                                            tract in Phulkian States.
+
+ (_d_) North-West Area             Panjab--Rawalpindi, Jhelam,
+                                            Attock, Mianwali.
+                                        N.W.F.P.--Peshawar, Kohat,
+                                            Bannu.
+
+ (_e_) South-Western Plains        Panjab--Gujranwala, Lahore,
+                                            Shahpur, Jhang, Lyallpur,
+                                            Montgomery, Multan,
+                                            Muzaffargarh, Dera Ghazi
+                                            Khan, Bahawalpur.
+                                        N.W.F.P.--Dera Ismail Khan.
+
+ (_f_) South-Eastern Area          Panjab--Karnal, Rohtak, Gurgaon,
+                                            Hissar, Ferozepore,
+                                            Faridkot, Jangal tract in
+                                            Phulkian States, Native
+                                            States territory adjoining
+                                            Gurgaon and Rohtak.
+
+~Mountain and Submontane Zones.~--In the Mountain Zone the fields are
+often very minute, consisting of narrow terraces supported by stone
+revetments built up the slopes of hills. That anyone should be ready to
+spend time and labour on such unpromising material is a sign of pressure
+of population on the soil, which is a marked feature of some hill
+tracts.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50. A steep bit of hill cultivation, Hazara.]
+
+Below 8000 feet the great crop is maize. Potatoes have been introduced
+near our hill stations. The chief pulse of the mountain zone is _kulath_
+(Dolichos biflorus), eaten by the very poor. Wheat ascends to 8000 or
+9000 feet, and at the higher levels is reaped in August. Barley is grown
+at much greater heights. Buckwheat (_ugal_, _trumba_, _drawi_),
+amaranth (_chaulai_, _ganhar_, _sariara_), and a tall chenopod (_bathu_)
+are grown in the mountain zone. Buckwheat is common on poor stony lands.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51. Preparing rice field in the Hills.]
+
+The only comparatively flat land is on the banks above river beds, which
+are devoted to rice cultivation, the water being conducted to the
+embanked fields by an elaborate system of little canals or _kuhls_. This
+is the only irrigation in the mountains, and is much valued. The
+Submontane Zone has a rainfall of from 30 to 40 inches. Well irrigation
+is little used and the dry crops are generally secure. Wheat and maize
+are the great staples, but gram and _chari_, i.e. _jowar_ grown for
+fodder, are also important. Some further information about Kashmir
+agriculture will be found in a later chapter. For full details about
+classes of cultivation and crops in all the zones Tables II, III and IV
+should be consulted.
+
+~North Central Panjab Plain.~--The best soils and the finest tillage are
+to be found in the North Central Zone. Gujrat has been included in it,
+though it has also affinities in the north with the North-West area, and
+in the south with the South-Western plain. The rainfall varies from 25
+to 35 inches. One-third of the cultivated area is protected by wells,
+and the well cultivation is of a very high class in Ludhiana and
+Jalandhar, where heavily manured maize is followed by a fine crop of
+wheat, and cane is commonly grown. In parts of Sialkot and Gujrat the
+well cultivation is of a different type, the area served per well being
+large and the object being to protect a big acreage of wheat in the
+spring harvest. The chief crops in this zone are wheat and _chari_. The
+latter is included under "Other Fodder" in Tables III and IV.
+
+~North-Western Area.~--The plateau north of the Salt Range has a very
+clean light white sandy loam soil requiring little ploughing and no
+weeding. It is often very shallow, and this is one reason for the great
+preference for cold weather crops. _Kharif_ crops are more liable to be
+burned up. Generally speaking the rainfall is from 15 to 25 inches, the
+proportion falling in the winter and spring being larger than elsewhere.
+There is, except in Peshawar and Bannu, where the conditions involve a
+considerable divergence from the type of this zone, practically no canal
+irrigation. The well irrigation is unimportant and in most parts
+consists of a few acres round each well intensively cultivated with
+market-gardening crops. The dry crops are generally very precarious. In
+Mianwali the Indus valley is a fine tract, but the harvests fluctuate
+greatly with the extent of the floods. The Thal in Mianwali to the south
+of the Sind Sagar railway is really a part of the next zone.
+
+~The South-Western Plains.~--This zone contains nine districts. With the
+exception of the three on the north border of the zone they have a
+rainfall of from 5 to 10 inches. Of these six arid districts, only one,
+Montgomery, has any dry cultivation worth mentioning. In the zone as a
+whole three-fourths of the cultivation is protected by canals or wells,
+or by both. In the lowlands near the great rivers cultivation depends on
+the floods brought to the land direct or through small canals which
+carry water to parts which the natural overflow would not reach. In the
+uplands vast areas formerly untouched by the plough have been brought
+under tillage by the help of perennial canals, and the process of
+reclamation is still going on. The Thal is a large sandy desert which
+becomes more and more worthless for cultivation as one proceeds
+southwards. In the north the people have found out of late years that
+this unpromising sand can not only yield poor _kharif_ crops, but is
+worth sowing with gram in the spring harvest. The expense is small, and
+a lucky season means large profits. In Dera Ghazi Khan a large area of
+"_pat_" below the hills is dependent for cultivation on torrents. The
+favourite crop in the embanked fields into which the water is diverted
+is _jowar_.
+
+~The South-Eastern Plains.~--In the south-eastern Panjab except in Hissar
+and the native territory on the border of Rajputana, the rainfall is
+from 20 to 30 inches. In Hissar it amounts to some 15 inches. These are
+averages; the variations in total amount and distribution over the
+months of the year are very great. In good seasons the area under dry
+crops is very large, but the fluctuations in the sown acreage are
+extraordinary, and the matured is often far below the sown area. The
+great crops are gram and mixtures of wheat or barley with gram in the
+spring, and _bajra_ in the autumn, harvest. Well cultivation is not of
+much importance generally, though some of it in the Jamna riverain is
+excellent. The irrigated cultivation depends mainly on the Western Jamna
+and Sirhind canals, and the great canal crops are wheat and cotton. This
+is the zone in which famine conditions are still most to be feared.
+
+In the Panjab as a whole about one-third of the cultivated area is
+yearly put under wheat, which with _bajra_ and maize is the staple food
+of the people. A large surplus of wheat and oil-seeds is available for
+export.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52. Carved doorway.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+HANDICRAFTS AND MANUFACTURES
+
+
+~Handicrafts.~--The chief handicrafts of the province are those of the
+weaver, the shoemaker, the carpenter, the potter, and the worker in
+brass and copper. The figures of the 1911 census for each craft
+including dependents were: weavers 883,000; shoemakers 540,000;
+carpenters 381,000; potters and brickmakers 349,000; metalworkers
+240,000. The figures for weavers include a few working in factories. The
+hand-spun cotton-cloth is a coarse strong fabric known as "_khaddar_"
+with a single warp and weft. "_Khes_" is a better article with a double
+warp and weft. "_Susi_" is a smooth cloth with coloured stripes used for
+women's trousers. A superior kind of checked "_khes_" known as
+"_gabrun_" is made at Ludhiana. The native process of weaving is slow
+and the weavers are very poor. The Salvation Army is trying to introduce
+an improved hand loom. Fine "_lungis_" or turbans of cotton with silk
+borders are made at Ludhiana, Multan, Peshawar, and elsewhere. Effective
+cotton printing is carried on by very primitive methods at Kot Kamalia
+and Lahore. Ludhiana and Lahore turn out cotton _daris_ or rugs. Coarse
+woollen blankets or _lois_ are woven at various places, and coloured
+felts or _namdas_ are made at Ludhiana, Khushab, and Peshawar. Excellent
+imitations of Persian carpets are woven at Amritsar, and the Srinagar
+carpets do credit to the Kashmiris' artistic taste. The best of the
+Amritsar carpets are made of _pashm_, the fine underwool of the Tibetan
+sheep, and _pashmina_ is also used as a material for _choghas_
+(dressing-gowns), etc. Coarse woollen cloth or _pattu_ is woven in the
+Kangra hills for local use. At Multan useful rugs are made whose fabric
+is a mixture of cotton and wool. More artistic are the Biluch rugs made
+by the Biluch women with geometrical patterns. These are excellent in
+colouring. They are rather difficult to procure as they are not made for
+sale. The weaving of China silk is a common industry in Amritsar,
+Bahawalpur, Multan, and other places. The _phulkari_ or silk embroidery
+of the village maidens of Hissar and other districts of the Eastern
+Panjab, and the more elaborate gold and silver wire embroideries of the
+Delhi _bazars_, are excellent. The most artistic product of the plains
+is the ivory carving of Delhi. As a wood-carver the Panjabi is not to be
+compared with the Kashmiri. His work is best fitted for doorways and the
+bow windows or _bokharchas_ commonly seen in the streets of old towns.
+The best carvers are at Bhera, Chiniot, Amritsar, and Batala. The
+European demand has produced at Simla and other places an abundant
+supply of cheap articles of little merit. The inlaid work of Chiniot and
+Hoshyarpur is good, as is the lacquer-work of Pakpattan. The papier
+mache work of Kashmir has much artistic merit (Fig. 55), and some of the
+repousse silver work of Kashmir is excellent.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53. Shoemaker's craft.]
+
+The craft of the _thathera_ or brass worker is naturally most prominent
+in the Eastern Panjab, because Hindus prefer brass vessels for cooking
+purposes. Delhi is the great centre, but the trade is actively carried
+on at other places, and especially at Jagadhri.
+
+Unglazed pottery is made practically in every village. The blue
+enamelled pottery of Multan and the glazed Delhi china ware are
+effective. The manufacture of the latter is on a very petty scale.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54. Carved windows.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55. Papier mache work ~of~ Kashmir.]
+
+~Factories.~--The factory industries of the Panjab are still very small.
+In 1911 there were 268 factories employing 28,184 hands. The typical
+Panjab factory is a little cotton ginning or pressing mill. The grinding
+of flour and husking of rice are sometimes part of the same business.
+The number of these mills rose in the 20 years ending 1911 from 12 to
+202, and there are complaints that there are now too many factories.
+Cotton-spinning has not been very successful and the number of mills in
+1911, eight, was the same as in 1903-4. The weaving is almost entirely
+confined to yarn of low counts. Part is used by the hand-loom weavers
+and part is exported to the United Provinces. Good woollen fabrics are
+turned out at a factory at Dhariwal in the Gurdaspur district. There
+were in 1911 fifteen flour mills, ten ironworks, three breweries, and
+one distillery.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56. The Potter.
+
+(_From a picture book said to have been prepared for Maharaja Dalip
+Singh._)]
+
+~Joint-Stock Companies.~--The Panjab has not reached the stage where the
+joint-stock business successfully takes the place of the family banking
+or factory business. In 1911 there were 194 joint-stock companies. But
+many of these were provident societies, the working of which has been
+attended with such abuses that a special act has been passed for their
+control. A number of banks and insurance companies have also sprung up
+of late years. Of some of these the paid up capital is absurdly small,
+and the recent collapse of the largest and of two smaller native banks
+has drawn attention to the extremely risky nature of the business done.
+Of course European and Hindu family banking businesses of the old type
+stand on quite a different footing. Some of the cotton and other mills
+are joint-stock concerns.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+EXPORTS AND IMPORTS
+
+
+~Trade.~--In 1911-12 the exports from the Panjab, excluding those by land
+to Central Asia, Ladakh, and Afghanistan, were valued at Rs.
+27,63,21,000 (L18,421,000), of which 61 p.c. went to Karachi and about
+10 p.c. to Calcutta and Bombay. Of the total 27 p.c. consisted of wheat,
+nearly the whole of which was dispatched to Karachi. All other grains
+and pulses were about equal in value to the wheat. "Gram and other
+pulses" (18 p.c. of total exports) was the chief item. Raw cotton
+accounts for 15, and oil-seeds for 10 p.c. The imports amounted in value
+to Rs. 30,01,28,000 (L20,008,000), little more than one-third being
+received from Karachi. Cotton piece goods (Foreign 22, Indian 8-1/2
+p.c.) make up one-third of the total. The other important figures are
+sugar 12, and metals 11 p.c. The land trade with Afghanistan, Central
+Asia, and Ladakh is insignificant, but interesting as furnishing an
+example of modes of transport which have endured for many centuries, and
+of the pursuit of gain often under appalling physical difficulties.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+HISTORY--PRE-MUHAMMADAN PERIOD, 500 B.C.--1000 A.D.
+
+
+~In Hindu period relations of Panjab were with western kingdoms.~--The
+large tract included in the British province of the Panjab which lies
+between the Jamna and the Ghagar is, having regard to race, language,
+and past history, a part of Hindustan. Where "Panjab" is used without
+qualification in this section the territories west of the Ghagar and
+south of Kashmir are intended. The true relations of the Panjab and
+Kashmir during the Hindu period were, except for brief intervals, with
+Persia, Afghanistan, and Turkistan rather than with the great kingdoms
+founded in the valley of the Ganges and the Jamna.
+
+~Normal division into petty kingdoms and tribal confederacies.~--The
+normal state of the Panjab in early times was to be divided into a
+number of small kingdoms and tribal republics. Their names and the areas
+which they occupied varied from time to time. Names of kingdoms that
+have been rescued from oblivion are Gandhara, corresponding to Peshawar
+and the valley of the Kabul river, Urasa or Hazara, where the name is
+still preserved in the Orash plain, Taxila, which may have corresponded
+roughly to the present districts of Rawalpindi and Attock with a small
+part of Hazara, Abhisara or the low hills of Jammu, Kashmir, and
+Trigartta, with its capital Jalandhara, which occupied most of the
+Jalandhar division north of the Sutlej and the states of Chamba, Suket,
+and Mandi. The historians of Alexander's campaigns introduce us also to
+the kingdoms of the elder Poros on both banks of the Jhelam, of the
+younger Poros east of the Chenab, and of Sophytes (Saubhuti) in the
+neighbourhood of the Salt Range. We meet also with tribal confederacies,
+such as in Alexander's time those of the Kathaioi on the upper, and of
+the Malloi on the lower, Ravi.
+
+~Invasion by Alexander, 327-325 B.C.~--The great Persian king, Darius, in
+512 B.C. pushed out the boundary of his empire to the Indus, then
+running in a more easternly course than to-day[4]. The army with which
+Xerxes invaded Greece included a contingent of Indian bowmen[5]. When
+Alexander overthrew the Persian Empire and started on the conquest of
+India, the Indus was the boundary of the former. His remarkable campaign
+lasted from April, 327 B.C., when he led an army of 50,000 or 60,000
+Europeans across the Hindu Kush into the Kabul valley, to October, 325,
+when he started from Sindh on his march to Persia through Makran. Having
+cleared his left flank by a campaign in the hills of Buner and Swat, he
+crossed the Indus sixteen miles above Attock near Torbela. The King of
+Taxila, whose capital was near the Margalla pass on the north border of
+the present Rawalpindi district, had prudently submitted as soon as the
+Macedonian army appeared in the Kabul valley. From the Indus Alexander
+marched to Taxila, and thence to the Jhelam (Hydaspes), forming a camp
+near the site now occupied by the town of that name in the country of
+Poros. The great army of the Indian king was drawn up to dispute the
+passage probably not very far from the eastern end of the present
+railway bridge. Favoured by night and a monsoon rain-storm--it was the
+month of July, 326 B.C.--Alexander succeeded in crossing some miles
+higher up into the Karri plain under the low hills of Gujrat. Here,
+somewhere near the line now occupied by the upper Jhelam Canal, the
+Greek soldiers gave the first example of a feat often repeated since,
+the rout of a large and unwieldy Indian army by a small, but mobile and
+well-led, European force. Having defeated Poros, Alexander crossed the
+Chenab (Akesines), stormed Sangala, a fort of the Kathaioi on the upper
+Ravi (Hydraotes) and advanced as far as the Bias (Hyphasis). But the
+weary soldiers insisted that this should be the bourn of their eastward
+march, and, after setting up twelve stone altars on the farther side,
+Alexander in September, 326 B.C., reluctantly turned back. Before he
+left the Panjab he had hard fighting with the Malloi on the lower Ravi,
+and was nearly killed in the storm of one of their forts. Alexander
+intended that his conquests should be permanent, and made careful
+arrangements for their administration. But his death in June, 323 B.C.,
+put an end to Greek rule in India. Chandra Gupta Maurya expelled the
+Macedonian garrisons, and some twenty years later Seleukos Nicator had
+to cede to him Afghanistan.
+
+~Maurya Dominion and Empire of Asoka, 323-231 B.C.~--Chandra Gupta is
+the Sandrakottos, to whose capital at Pataliputra (Patna) Seleukos sent
+Megasthenes in 303 B.C. The Greek ambassador was a diligent and truthful
+observer, and his notes give a picture of a civilized and complex system
+of administration. If Chandra Gupta was the David, his grandson,
+Asoka, was the Solomon of the first Hindu Empire. His long reign,
+lasting from 273 to 231 B.C., was with one exception a period of
+profound peace deliberately maintained by an emperor who, after his
+conversion to the teaching of Gautama Buddha, thought war a sin.
+Asoka strove to lead his people into the right path by means of pithy
+abstracts of the moral law of his master graven on rocks and pillars. It
+is curious to remember that this missionary king was peacefully ruling a
+great empire in India during the twenty-four years of the struggle
+between Rome and Carthage, which we call the first Punic War. Of the
+four Viceroys who governed the outlying provinces of the empire one had
+his headquarters at Taxila. One of the rock edicts is at Mansehra in
+Hazara and another at Shahbazgarhi in Peshawar. From this time and for
+many centuries the dominant religion in the Panjab was Buddhism, but the
+religion of the villages may then have been as remote from the State
+creed as it is to-day from orthodox Brahmanism.
+
+~Graeco-Bactrian and Graeco-Parthian Rule.~--The Panjab slipped from the
+feeble grasp of Asoka's successors, and for four centuries it looked
+not to the Ganges, but to the Kabul and the Oxus rivers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57. Coin--obverse and reverse of Menander.]
+
+Up to the middle of the first century of our era it was first under
+Graeco-Bactrian, and later under Graeco-Parthian, rule directly, or
+indirectly through local rulers with Greek names or Saka Satraps. The
+Sakas, one of the central Asian shepherd hordes, were pushed out of
+their pastures on the upper Jaxartes by another horde, the Yuechi.
+Shadowy Hellenist Princes have left ~us~ only their names on coins; one
+Menander, who ruled about 150 B.C., is an exception. He anticipated the
+feats of later rulers of Kabul by a temporary conquest of North-Western
+India, westwards to the Jamna and southwards to the sea.
+
+~The Kushan Dynasty.~--The Yuechi in turn were driven southward to the
+Oxus and the Kabul valley and under the Kushan dynasty established their
+authority in the Panjab about the middle of the first century. The most
+famous name is that of Kanishka, who wrested from China Kashgar,
+Yarkand, and Khotan, and assembled ~a~ notable council of sages of the law
+in Kashmir. His reign may be dated from 120 to 150 A.D. His capital was
+at Purushapura (Peshawar), near which he built the famous relic tower of
+Buddha, 400 feet high. Beside the tower was a large monastery still
+renowned in the ninth and tenth centuries as a home of sacred learning.
+The rule of Kushan kings in the Panjab lasted till the end of the first
+quarter of the third century. To their time belong the Buddhist
+sculptures found in the tracts near their Peshawar capital (see also
+page 204).
+
+~The Gupta Empire.~--Of the century preceding the establishment in 320
+B.C. of the Gupta dynasty at Patna we know nothing. The Panjab probably
+again fell under the sway of petty rajas and tribal confederacies,
+though the Kushan rule was maintained in Peshawar till 465 A.D., when it
+was finally blotted out by the White Huns. These savage invaders soon
+after defeated Skanda Gupta, and from this blow the Gupta Empire never
+recovered. At the height of its power in 400 A.D. under Chandra Gupta
+II, known as Vikramaditya, who is probably the original of the
+Bikramajit of Indian legends, it may have reached as far west as the
+Chenab.
+
+~The White Huns or Ephthalites.~--In the beginning of the sixth century
+the White Hun, Mahirakula, ruled the Panjab from Sakala, the modern
+Sialkot. He was a worshipper of Siva, and a deadly foe of the
+Buddhist cult, and has been described as a monster of cruelty.
+
+The short-lived dominion of the White Huns was destroyed by the Turks
+and Persians about the year 565 A.D.
+
+~Panjab in seventh century A.D.~--From various sources, one of the most
+valuable being the Memoirs of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Hiuen Tsang,
+who travelled in India from 630 to 644 A.D., we know something of
+Northern India in the first half of the seventh century. Hiuen Tsang was
+at Kanauj as a guest of a powerful king named Harsha, whose first
+capital was at Thanesar, and who held a suzerainty over all the rajas
+from the Brahmaputra to the Bias. West of that river the king of Kashmir
+was also overlord of Taxila, Urasa, Parnotsa (Punch), Rajapuri (Rajauri)
+and Sinhapura, which seems to have included the Salt Range. The Peshawar
+valley was probably ruled by the Turki Shahiya kings of Kabul. The rest
+of the Panjab was divided between a kingdom called by Hiuen Tsang
+Tsekhia, whose capital was somewhere near Sialkot, and the important
+kingdom of Sindh, in which the Indus valley as far north as the Salt
+Range was included. Harsha died in 647 A.D. and his empire collapsed.
+
+~Kashmir under Hindu Kings.~--For the next century China was at the height
+of its power. It established a suzerainty over Kashmir, Udyana (Swat),
+Yasin, and Chitral. The first was at this period a powerful Hindu
+kingdom. Its annals, as recorded in Kalhana's Rajatarangini, bear
+henceforward a real relation to history. In 733 A.D. King Muktapida
+Lalitaditya received investiture from the Chinese Emperor. Seven years
+later he defeated the King of Kanauj on the Ganges. A ruler who carried
+his arms so far afield must have been very powerful in the Northern
+Panjab. The remains of the wonderful Martand temple, which he built in
+honour of the Sun God, are a standing memorial of his greatness. The
+history of Kashmir under its Hindu kings for the next 400 years is for
+the most part that of a wretched people ground down by cruel tyrants. A
+notable exception was Avantidharman--855-883 A.D.--whose minister,
+Suyya, carried out very useful drainage and irrigation works.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58. Martand Temple.]
+
+~The Panjab, 650-1000 A.D.~--We know little of Panjab history in the 340
+years which elapsed between the death of Harsha and the beginning of the
+Indian raids of the Sultans of Ghazni in 986-7 A.D. The conquest of the
+kingdom of Sindh by the Arab general, Muhammad Kasim, occurred some
+centuries earlier, in 712 A.D. Multan, the city of the Sun-worshippers,
+was occupied, and part at least of the Indus valley submitted to the
+youthful conqueror. He and his successors in Sindh were tolerant rulers.
+No attempt was made to occupy the Central Panjab, and when the Turkish
+Sultan, Sabaktagin, made his first raid into India in 986-7 A.D., his
+opponent was a powerful raja named Jaipal, who ruled over a wide
+territory extending from the Hakra to the frontier hills on the
+north-west. His capital was at Bhatinda. Just about the time when the
+rulers of Ghazni were laying the train which ended at Delhi and made it
+the seat of a great Muhammadan Empire, that town was being founded in
+993-4 A.D. by the Tunwar Rajputs, who then held sway in that
+neighbourhood.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 4: See Sykes' _History of Persia_, pp. 179-180; also Herodotos
+III. 94 and 98 and IV. 44.]
+
+[Footnote 5: "The Indians clad with garments made of cotton had bows of
+cane and arrows of cane tipped with iron."--Herodotos VII. 65.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+HISTORY (_continued_). THE MUHAMMADAN PERIOD, 1000-1764 A.D.
+
+
+~The Ghaznevide Raids.~--In the tenth century the Turks were the
+janissaries of the Abbaside Caliphs of Baghdad, and ambitious soldiers
+of that race began to carve out kingdoms. One Alptagin set up for
+himself at Ghazni, and was succeeded in 976 A.D. by his slave
+Sabaktagin, who began the long series of Indian raids which stained with
+blood the annals of the next half-century. His son, Mahmud of Ghazni, a
+ruthless zealot and robber abroad, a patron of learning and literature
+at home, added the Panjab to his dominions. In the first 26 years of the
+eleventh century he made seventeen marauding excursions into India. In
+the first his father's opponent, Jaipal, was beaten in a vain effort to
+save Peshawar. Ten years later his successor, Anandpal, at the head of a
+great army, again met the Turks in the Khaibar. The valour of the
+Ghakkars had practically won the day, when Anandpal's elephant took
+fright, and this accident turned victory into rout. In one or other of
+the raids Multan and Lahore were occupied, and the temples of Kangra
+(Nagarkot) and Thanesar plundered. In 1018 the Turkish army marched as
+far east as Kanauj. The one permanent result of all these devastations
+was the occupation of the Panjab. The Turks made Lahore the capital.
+
+~Decline of Buddhism.~--The iconoclastic raids of Mahmud probably gave the
+_coup de grace_ to Buddhism. Its golden age may be put at from 250 B.C.
+to 200 A.D. Brahmanism gradually emerged from retirement and reappeared
+at royal courts. It was quite ready to admit Buddha to its pantheon, and
+by so doing it sapped the doctrine he had taught. The Chinese pilgrim,
+Fahien, in the early part of the fifth century could still describe
+Buddhism in the Panjab as "very flourishing," and he found numerous
+monasteries. The religion seems however to have largely degenerated into
+a childish veneration of relics.
+
+~Conquest of Delhi.~--For a century and a quarter after the death of
+Mahmud in 1030 A.D. his line maintained its sway over a much diminished
+empire. In 1155 the Afghan chief of Ghor, Ala ud din, the "World-burner"
+(Jahan-soz), levelled Ghazni with the ground. For a little longer the
+Ghaznevide Turkish kings maintained themselves in Lahore. Between 1175
+and 1186 Muhammad Ghori, who had set up a new dynasty at Ghazni,
+conquered Multan, Peshawar, Sialkot, and Lahore, and put an end to the
+line of Mahmud. The occupation of Sirhind brought into the field Prithvi
+Raja, the Chauhan Rajput king of Delhi. In 1191 he routed Muhammad Ghori
+at Naraina near Karnal. But next year the Afghan came back with a huge
+host, and this time on the same battlefield fortune favoured him.
+Prithvi Raja was taken and killed, and Muhammad's slave, Kutbuddin
+Aibak, whom he left to represent him in India, soon occupied Delhi. In
+1203 Muhammad Ghori had to flee for his life after a defeat near the
+Oxus. The Ghakkars seized the chance and occupied Lahore. But the old
+lion, though wounded, was still formidable. The Ghakkars were beaten,
+and, it is said, converted. A year or two later they murdered their
+conqueror in his tent near the Indus.
+
+~Turkish and Afghans Sultans of Delhi.~--He had no son, and his strong
+viceroy, Kutbuddin Aibak, became in 1206 the first of the 33 Muhammadan
+kings, who in five successive dynasties ruled from Delhi a kingdom of
+varying dimensions, till the last of them fell at Panipat in 1526, and
+Babar, the first of the Moghals, became master of their red fort palace.
+The blood-stained annals of these 320 years can only be lightly touched
+on. Under vigorous rulers like the Turki Slave kings, Altamsh
+(1210-1236) and Balban (1266-1287), a ferocious and masterful boor like
+Ala ud din Khalji (1296-1316), or a ferocious but able man of culture
+like Muhammad Tughlak (1325-1351), the local governors at Lahore and
+Multan were content to be servants. In the frequent intervals during
+which the royal authority was in the hands of sottish wastrels, the
+chance of independence was no doubt seized.
+
+~Mongol Invasions.~--In 1221 the Mongol cloud rose on the north-west
+horizon. The cruelty of these camel-riding Tatars and the terror they
+inspired may perhaps be measured by the appalling picture given of their
+bestial appearance. In 1221, Chingiz Khan descended on the Indus at the
+heels of the King of Khwarizm (Khiva), and drove him into Sindh. Then
+there was a lull for twenty years, after which the Mongol war hordes
+ruined and ravaged the Panjab for two generations. Two great Panjab
+governors, Sher Khan under Balban and Tughlak under Ala ud din Khalji,
+maintained a gallant struggle against these savages. In 1297 and 1303
+the Mongols came to the gates of Delhi, but the city did not fall, and
+soon after they ceased to harry Northern India. During these years the
+misery of the common people must often have been extreme. When foreign
+raids ceased for a time they were plundered by their own rulers. In the
+Panjab the fate of the peasantry must have depended chiefly on the
+character of the governor for the time being, and of the local
+feudatories or _zamindars_, who were given the right to collect the
+State's share of the produce on condition of keeping up bodies of armed
+men for service when required.
+
+~The Invasion of Timur.~--The long reign of Muhammad Tughlak's successor,
+Firoz Shah (1351-1388), son of a Hindu Rajput princess of Dipalpur,
+brought relief to all classes. Besides adopting a moderate fiscal
+policy, he founded towns like Hissar and Fatehabad, dug canals from the
+Jamna and the Sutlej, and carried out many other useful works. On his
+death the realm fell into confusion. In 1398-99 another appalling
+calamity fell upon it in the invasion of Timurlang (Tamerlane), Khan of
+Samarkand. He entered India at the head of 90,000 horsemen, and marched
+by Multan, Dipalpur, Sirsa, Kaithal, and Panipat to Delhi. What lust of
+blood was to the Mongols, religious hatred was to Timur and his Turks.
+Ten thousand Hindus were put to the sword at Bhatner and 100,000
+prisoners were massacred before the victory at Delhi. For the three
+days' sack of the royal city Timur was not personally responsible. Sated
+with the blood of lakhs of infidels sent "to the fires of Hell" he
+marched back through Kangra and Jammu to the Indus. Six years later the
+House of Tughlak received a deadly wound when the Wazir, Ikbal Khan,
+fell in battle with Khizr Khan, the governor of Multan.
+
+~The later Dynasties.~--The Saiyyids, who were in power from 1414 to 1451,
+only ruled a small territory round Delhi. The local governors and the
+Hindu chiefs made themselves independent. Sikandar Lodi (1488-1518)
+reduced them to some form of submission, but his successor, Ibrahim,
+drove them into opposition by pushing authority further than his power
+justified. An Afghan noble, Daulat Khan, rebelled in the Panjab. There
+is always an ear at Kabul listening to the first sounds of discord and
+weakness between Peshawar and Delhi. Babar, a descendant of Timur, ruled
+a little kingdom there. In 1519 he advanced as far as Bhera. Five years
+later his troops burned the Lahore _bazar_, and sacked Dipalpur. The
+next winter saw Babar back again, and this time Delhi was his goal. On
+the 21st of April, 1526, a great battle at Panipat again decided the
+fate of India, and Babar entered Delhi in triumph.
+
+~Akbar and his successors.~--He soon bequeathed his Indian kingdom to his
+son Humayun, who lost it, but recovered it shortly before his death by
+defeating Sikandar Sur at Sirhind. In 1556 Akbar succeeded at the age of
+13, and in the same year Bahram Khan won for his master a great battle
+at Panipat and seated the Moghals firmly on the throne. For the next
+century and a half, till their power declined after the death of
+Aurangzeb in 1707, Kabul and Delhi were under one rule, and the Panjab
+was held in a strong grasp. When it was disturbed the cause was
+rebellions of undutiful sons of the reigning Emperor, struggles between
+rival heirs on the Emperor's death, or attempts to check the growing
+power of the Sikh Gurus. The empire was divided into _subahs_, and the
+area described in this book embraced _subahs_ Lahore and Multan, and
+parts of _subahs_ Delhi and Kabul. Kashmir and the trans-Indus tract
+were included in the last.
+
+~The Sultans of Kashmir.~--The Hindu rule in Kashmir had broken down by
+the middle of the twelfth century. A long line of Musalman Sultans
+followed. Two notable names emerge in the end of the fourteenth and the
+first half of the fifteenth century, Sikandar, the "Idol-breaker," who
+destroyed most of the Hindu temples and converted his people to Islam,
+and his wise and tolerant successor, Zain-ul-abidin. Akbar conquered
+Kashmir in 1587.
+
+~Moghal Royal Progresses to Kashmir.~--His successors often moved from
+Delhi by Lahore, Bhimbar, and the Pir Panjal route to the Happy Valley
+in order to escape the summer heats. Bernier has given us a graphic
+account of Aurangzeb's move to the hills in 1665. On that occasion his
+total following was estimated to amount to 300,000 or 400,000 persons,
+and the journey from Delhi to Lahore occupied two months. The burden
+royal progresses on this scale must have imposed on the country is
+inconceivable. Jahangir died in his beloved Kashmir. He planted the road
+from Delhi to Lahore with trees, set up as milestones the _kos minars_,
+some of which are still standing, and built fine _sarais_ at various
+places.
+
+~Prosperity of Lahore under Akbar, Jahangir, and Shahjahan.~--The reigns
+of Akbar and of his son and grandson were the heyday of Lahore. It was
+the halfway house between Delhi and Kashmir, and between Agra and Kabul.
+The Moghal Court was often there. Akbar made the city his headquarters
+from 1584 to 1598. Jahangir was buried and Shahjahan was born at Lahore.
+The mausoleum of the former is at Shahdara, a mile or two from the city.
+Shahjahan made the Shalimar garden, and Ali Mardan Khan's Canal, the
+predecessor of our own Upper Bari Doab Canal, was partly designed to
+water it. Lahore retained its importance under Aurangzeb, till he became
+enmeshed in the endless Deccan wars, and his successor, Bahadur Shah,
+died there in 1712.
+
+~Baba Nanak, the first Guru.~--According to Sikh legend Babar in one of
+his invasions had among his prisoners their first Guru, Baba Nanak, and
+tried to make him a Musalman. Nanak was born in 1469 at Talwandi, now
+known as Nankana Sahib, 30 miles to the south-west of Lahore, and died
+twelve years after Babar's victory at Panipat. He journeyed all over
+India, and, if legend speaks true, even visited Mecca. His propaganda
+was a peaceful one. A man of the people himself, he had a message to
+deliver to a peasantry naturally impatient of the shackles of orthodox
+Hinduism. Sikhism is the most important of all the later dissents from
+Brahmanism, which represent revolts against idolatry, priestly
+domination, and the bondage of caste and ritual. These things Nanak
+unhesitatingly condemned, and in the opening lines of his Japji, the
+morning service which every true Sikh must know by heart, he asserted in
+sublime language the unity of God.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59. Baba Nanak and the Musician Mardana.]
+
+~The Gurus between Nanak and Govind.~--The first three successors of Nanak
+led the quiet lives of great eastern saints. They managed to keep on
+good terms with the Emperor and generally also with his local
+representatives. The fifth Guru, Arjan (1581-1606), began the welding of
+the Sikhs into a body fit to play a part in secular politics. He
+compiled their sacred book, known as the _Granth Sahib_, and made
+Amritsar the permanent centre of their faith. The tenets of these early
+Gurus chimed in with the liberal sentiments of Akbar, and he treated
+them kindly. Arjan was accused of helping Khusru, Jahangir's rebellious
+son, and is alleged to have died after suffering cruel tortures.
+
+Hitherto there had been little ill-will between monotheistic Sikhs and
+Muhammadans. Henceforth there was ever-increasing enmity. The peasant
+converts to the new creed had many scores against Turk officials to pay
+off, while the new leader Hargovind (1606-1645), had the motive of
+revenge. He was a Guru of a new type, a lover of horses and hawks, and a
+man of war. He kept up a bodyguard, and, when danger threatened, armed
+followers flocked to his standard. The easy-going Jahangir (1605-1627)
+on the whole treated him well. Shahjahan (1627-1659) was more strict or
+less prudent, and during his reign there were several collisions between
+the imperial troops and the Guru's followers. Hargovind was succeeded
+by his grandson, Har Rai (1645-1661). The new Guru was a man of peace.
+Har Rai died in 1661, having nominated his younger son, Harkrishn, a
+child of six, as his successor. His brother, Ram Rai, disputed his
+claim, but Aurangzeb confirmed Harkrishn's appointment. He died of small
+pox in 1664 and was succeeded by his uncle, Teg Bahadur (1664-1675),
+whose chief titles to fame are his execution in 1675, his prophecy of
+the coming of the English, and the fact that he was the father of the
+great tenth Guru, Govind. It is said that when in prison at Delhi he
+gazed southwards one day in the direction of the Emperor's _zanana_.
+Charged with this impropriety, he replied: "I was looking in the
+direction of the Europeans, who are coming to tear down thy _pardas_ and
+destroy thine empire."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60. Guru Govind Singh.]
+
+~Guru Govind Singh.~--When Govind (1675-1708) succeeded his father,
+Aurangzeb had already started on the course of persecution which fatally
+weakened the pillars of Turkish rule. Govind grew up with a rooted
+hatred of the Turks, and a determination to weld his followers into a
+league of fighting men or _Khalsa_ (Ar. _khalis_ = pure), admission into
+which was by the _pahul_, a form of military baptism. Sikhs were
+henceforth to be _Singhs_ (lions). They were forbidden to smoke, and
+enjoined to wear the five k's, _kes_, _kangha_, _kripan_, _kachh_, and
+_kara_ (uncut hair, comb, sword, short drawers, and steel bracelet). He
+established himself at Anandpur beyond the Hoshyarpur Siwaliks. Much of
+his life was spent in struggles with his neighbours, the Rajput Hill
+Rajas, backed from time to time by detachments of imperial troops from
+Sirhind. In 1705 two of his sons were killed fighting and two young
+grandsons were executed at Sirhind. He himself took refuge to the south
+of the Sutlej, but finally decided to obey a summons from Aurangzeb, and
+was on the way to the Deccan when the old Emperor died. The Guru took
+up his residence on the banks of the Godavari, and died there in 1708.
+
+~Banda.~--Before his death he had converted the Hindu ascetic Banda, and
+sent him forth on a mission of revenge. Banda defeated and slew the
+governor of Sirhind, Wazir Khan, and sacked the town. Doubtless he
+dreamed of making himself Guru. But he was really little more than a
+condottiere, and his orthodoxy was suspect. He was defeated and captured
+in 1715 at Gurdaspur. Many of his followers were executed and he himself
+was tortured to death at Delhi, where the members of an English mission
+saw a ghastly procession of Sikh prisoners with 2000 heads carried on
+poles. The blow was severe, and for a generation little was heard of the
+Sikhs.
+
+~Invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah.~--The central power was weak, and
+a new era of invasions from the west began. Nadir Shah, the Turkman
+shepherd, who had made himself master of Persia, advanced through the
+Panjab. Zakaria Khan, the governor of Lahore, submitted and the town was
+saved from sack. A victory at Karnal left the road to Delhi open, and in
+March, 1738, the Persians occupied the capital. A shot fired at Nadir
+Shah in the Chandni Chauk led to the nine hours' massacre, when the
+Dariba ran with blood, and 100,000 citizens are said to have perished.
+The Persians retired laden with booty, including the peacock throne and
+the Kohinur diamond. The Sikhs harassed detachments of the army on its
+homeward march. Nadir Shah was murdered nine years later, and his power
+passed to the Afghan leader, the Durani Ahmad Shah.
+
+Between 1748 and 1767 this remarkable man, who could conquer but could
+not keep, invaded India eight times. Lahore was occupied in 1748, but at
+Sirhind the skill of Mir Mannu, called Muin ul Mulk, gave the advantage
+to the Moghals. Ahmad Shah retreated, and Muin ul Mulk was rewarded
+with the governorship of the Panjab. He was soon forced to cede to the
+Afghan the revenue of four districts. His failure to fulfil his compact
+led to a third invasion in 1752, and Muin ul Mulk, after a gallant
+defence of Lahore, had to submit. In 1755-56 Ahmad Shah plundered Delhi
+and then retired, leaving his son, Timur, to represent him at Lahore.
+Meanwhile the Sikhs had been gathering strength. Then, as now, they
+formed only a fraction of the population. But they were united by a
+strong hatred of Muhammadan rule, and in the disorganized state of the
+country even the loose organization described below made them
+formidable. Owing to the weakness of the government the Panjab became
+dotted over with forts, built by local chiefs, who undoubtedly lived
+largely by plunder. The spiritual organization under a Guru being gone,
+there gradually grew up a political and military organization into
+twelve _misls_, in which "a number of chiefs agreed, after a somewhat
+democratic and equal fashion, to fight under the general orders of some
+powerful leader" against the hated Muhammadans. The _misls_ often fought
+with one another for a change. In the third quarter of the eighteenth
+century _Sardar_ Jassa Singh of Kapurthala, head of the Ahluwalia
+_misl_, was the leading man among the Sikhs. Timur having defiled the
+tank at Amritsar, Jassa Singh avenged the insult by occupying Lahore in
+1756, and the Afghan prince withdrew across the Indus. Adina Beg, the
+governor of the Jalandhar Doab, called in the Mahrattas, who drove the
+Sikhs out in 1758. Ahmad Shah's fifth invasion in 1761 was rendered
+memorable by his great victory over the Mahratta confederacy at Panipat.
+When he returned to Kabul, the Sikhs besieged his governor, Zin Khan, in
+Sirhind. Next year Ahmad Shah returned, and repaid their audacity by a
+crushing defeat near Barnala.
+
+They soon rallied, and, in 1763, under Jassa Singh Ahluwalia and Raja
+Ala Singh of Patiala razed Sirhind to the ground. After the sack the
+Sikh horsemen rode over the plains between Sirhind and Karnal, each man
+claiming for his own any village into which in passing he had thrown
+some portion of his garments. This was the origin of the numerous petty
+chiefships and confederacies of horsemen, which, along with the Phulkian
+States, the British Government took under its protection in 1808. In
+1764 the chiefs of the Bhangi _misl_ occupied Lahore.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+HISTORY (_continued_). THE SIKH PERIOD, 1764-1849 A.D.
+
+
+~Rise of Ranjit Singh.~--The Bhangis held Lahore with brief intervals for
+25 years. In 1799, Ranjit Singh, basing his claim on a grant from Shah
+Zaman, the grandson of Ahmad Shah, drove them out, and inaugurated the
+remarkable career which ended with his death in 1839. When he took
+Lahore the future Maharaja was only nineteen years of age. He was the
+head of the Sukarchakia _misl_, which had its headquarters at
+Gujranwala. Mean in appearance, his face marked and one eye closed by
+the ravages of smallpox, he was the one man of genius the Jat tribe has
+produced. A splendid horseman, a bold leader, a cool thinker untroubled
+with scruples, an unerring judge of character, he was bound to rise in
+such times. He set himself to put down every Sikh rival and to profit by
+the waning of the Durani power to make himself master of their
+possessions in the Panjab. Pluck, patience, and guile broke down all
+opposition among the Manjha Sikhs. The Sikh chiefs to the south of the
+Sutlej were only saved from the same fate by throwing themselves in 1808
+on the protection of the English, who six years earlier had occupied
+Delhi, and by taking under their protection the blind old Emperor, Shah
+Alam, had virtually proclaimed themselves the paramount power in India.
+For 44 years he had been only a piece in the game played by Mahrattas,
+Rohillas, and the English in alliance with the Nawab Wazir of Oudh.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61. Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
+
+(_From a picture book said to have been prepared for Maharaja Dalip
+Singh._)]
+
+~British supremacy established in India.~--In the first years of the
+nineteenth century the Marquess of Wellesley had made up his mind that
+the time was ripe to grasp supreme power in India. The motive was
+largely self-preservation. India was included in Napoleon's vast plans
+for the overthrow of England, and Sindhia, with his army trained in
+European methods of warfare by French officers, seemed a likely
+confederate. Colonel Arthur Wellesley's hard-won battle at Assaye in
+September, 1803, and Lord Lake's victories on the Hindan and at Laswari
+in the same year, decided the fate of India. Delhi was occupied, and
+Daulat Rao Sindhia ceded to the company territory reaching from Fazilka
+on the Sutlej to Delhi on the Jamna, and extending along that river
+northwards to Karnal and southwards to Mewat. Fazilka and a large part
+of Hissar then formed a wild desert tract called Bhattiana, over which
+no effective control was exercised till 1818. In 1832 "the Delhi
+territory" became part of the North-West Provinces, from which it was
+transferred to the Panjab after the Mutiny.
+
+~Relations of Ranjit Singh with English.~--In December, 1808, Ranjit Singh
+was warned that by the issue of the war with Sindhia the Cis-Sutlej
+chiefs had come under British protection. The Maharaja was within an ace
+of declaring war, or let the world think so, but his statesmanlike
+instincts got the better of mortified ambition, and in April, 1809, he
+signed a treaty pledging himself to make no conquests south and east of
+the Sutlej. The compact so reluctantly made was faithfully observed. In
+1815, as the result of war with the Gurkhas, the Rajput hill states
+lying to the south of the Sutlej came under British protection.
+
+~Extension of Sikh Kingdom in Panjab.~--As early as 1806, when he reduced
+Jhang, Ranjit Singh began his encroachments on the possessions of the
+Duranis in the Panjab. Next year, and again in 1810 and 1816, Multan was
+attacked, but the strong fort was not taken till 1818, when the old
+Nawab, Muzaffar Khan, and five of his sons, fell fighting at the gate.
+Kashmir was first attacked in 1811 and finally annexed in 1819. Called
+in by the great Katoch Raja of Kangra, Sansar Chand, in 1809, to help
+him against the Gurkhas, Ranjit Singh duped both parties, and became
+master of the famous fort. Many years later he annexed the whole of the
+Kangra hill states. By 1820 the Maharaja was supreme from the Sutlej to
+the Indus, though his hold on Hazara was weak. Peshawar became tributary
+in 1823, but it was kept in subjection with much difficulty. Across the
+Indus the position of the Sikhs was always precarious, and revenue was
+only paid when an armed force could be sent to collect it. As late as
+1837 the great Sikh leader, Hari Singh Nalwa, fell fighting with the
+Afghans at Jamrud. The Barakzai, Dost Muhammad, had been the ruler of
+Kabul since 1826. In 1838, when the English launched their ill-starred
+expedition to restore Shah Shuja to his throne, Ranjit Singh did not
+refuse his help in the passage through the Panjab. But he was worn out
+by toils and excesses, and next year the weary lion of the Panjab died.
+He had known how to use men. He employed Jat blades and Brahman and
+Muhammadan brains. Khatris put both at his service. The best of his
+local governors was Diwan Sawan Mal, who ruled the South-West Panjab
+with much profit to himself and to the people. After 1820 the three
+Jammu brothers, Rajas Dhian Singh, Suchet Singh, and Gulab Singh, had
+great power.
+
+~Successors of Ranjit Singh.~--From 1839 till 1846 an orgy of bloodshed
+and intrigue went on in Lahore. Kharak Singh, the Maharaja's son, died
+in 1840, and on the same day occurred the death of his son Nao Nihal
+Singh, compassed probably by the Jammu Rajas. Sher Singh, and then the
+child, Dalip Singh, succeeded. In September, 1843, Maharaja Sher Singh,
+his son Partab Singh, and Raja Dhian Singh were shot by Ajit Singh and
+Lehna Singh of the great Sindhanwalia house. The death of Dhian Singh
+was avenged by his son, Hira Singh, who proclaimed Dalip Singh as
+Maharaja and made himself chief minister. When he in turn was killed
+Rani Jindan, the mother of Dalip Singh, her brother Jowahir Singh, and
+her favourite, Lal Singh, took the reins.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62. Maharaja Kharak Singh.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63. Nao Nihal Singh.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64. Maharaja Sher Singh.
+
+(_From a picture book said to have been prepared for Maharaja Dalip
+Singh._)]
+
+~The First Sikh War and its results.~--In 1845 these intriguers, fearing
+the _Khalsa_ army which they could not control, yielded to its cry to be
+led across the Sutlej in the hope that its strength would be broken in
+its conflict with the Company's forces. The valour displayed by the Sikh
+soldiery on the fields of Mudki, Ferozeshah (Pherushahr), and Sobraon
+was rendered useless by the treachery of its rulers, and Lahore was
+occupied in February, 1846. By the treaty signed on 9th March, 1846, the
+Maharaja ceded the territories in the plains between the Sutlej and
+Bias, and in the hills between the Bias and the Indus. Kashmir and
+Hazara were made over by the Company to Raja Gulab Singh for a payment
+of 75 lakhs, but next year he induced the Lahore Darbar to take over
+Hazara and give him Jammu in exchange. After Raja Lal Singh had been
+banished for instigating Shekh Imam ud din to resist the occupation of
+Kashmir by Gulab Singh, an agreement was executed, in December, 1846,
+between the Government and the chief Sikh _Sardars_ by which a Council
+of Regency was appointed to be controlled by a British Resident at
+Lahore. The office was given to Henry Lawrence.
+
+~The Second Sikh War.~--These arrangements were destined to be
+short-lived. Diwan Sawan Mal's son, Mulraj, mismanaged Multan and was
+ordered to resign. In April, 1848, two English officers sent to instal
+his Sikh successor were murdered. Herbert Edwardes, with the help of
+Muhammadan tribesmen and Bahawalpur troops, shut up Mulraj in Multan,
+but the fort was too strong for the first British regular force, which
+arrived in August, and it did not fall till January, 1849. During that
+winter a formidable Sikh revolt against English domination broke out.
+Its leader was _Sardar_ Chatar Singh, Governor of Hazara. The troops
+sent by the _Darbar_ to Multan under Chatar Singh's son, Sher Singh,
+marched northwards in September to join their co-religionists.
+
+On the 13th of January, 1849, Lord Gough fought a very hardly contested
+battle at Chilianwala. If this was but a doubtful victory, that won six
+weeks later at Gujrat was decisive. On 12th March, 1849, the soldiers of
+the _Khalsa_ in proud dejection laid down their weapons at the feet of
+the victor, and dispersed to their homes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65. Zamzama Gun[6].]
+
+~Annexation.~--The cause they represented was in no sense a national one.
+The Sikhs were a small minority of the population, the bulk of the
+people being Muhammadans, to whom the English came as deliverers. On the
+30th of March, 1849, the proclamation annexing the Panjab was read at
+Lahore.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 6: This gun, known to the readers of _Kim_, stands on the
+Lahore Mall. Whoever possesses it is supposed to be ruler of the
+Panjab.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+HISTORY (_continued_). THE BRITISH PERIOD, 1849-1913
+
+
+~Administrative Arrangements in Panjab.~--Lord Dalhousie put the
+government of the province under a Board of Administration consisting of
+the two Lawrences, Henry and John, and Charles Mansel. The Board was
+abolished in 1853 and its powers vested in a Chief Commissioner. A
+Revenue or Financial Commissioner and a Judicial Commissioner were his
+principal subordinates. John Lawrence, the first and only Chief
+Commissioner of the Panjab, became its first Lieutenant-Governor on the
+1st of January, 1859. The raising of the Panjab to the full rank of an
+Indian province was the fitting reward of the great part which its
+people and its officers, with their cool-headed and determined chief,
+had played in the suppression of the Mutiny. The overthrow of the
+_Khalsa_ left the contending parties with the respect which strong men
+feel for each other; the services of the Sikhs in 1857 healed their
+wounded pride and removed all soreness.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66. Sir John Lawrence.]
+
+~Administration, 1849-1859.~--When John Lawrence laid down his office in
+the end of February, 1859, ten years of work by himself and the able
+officers drafted by Lord Dalhousie into the new province had established
+order on a solid foundation. A strong administration suited to a manly
+and headstrong people had been organised. In the greater part of the
+province rights in land had been determined and recorded. The principle
+of a moderate assessment of the land revenue had been laid down and
+partially carried out in practice. The policy of canal and railway
+development, which was to have so great a future in the Panjab, had been
+definitely started. The province had been divided into nine divisions
+containing 33 districts. The Divisional Commissioners were
+superintendents of revenue and police with power to try the gravest
+criminal offences and to hear appeals in civil cases. The Deputy
+Commissioner of districts had large civil, criminal, and fiscal powers.
+A simple criminal and civil code was enforced. The peace of the frontier
+was secured by a chain of fortified outposts watching the outlets from
+the hills, behind which were the cantonments at the headquarters of the
+districts linked together by a military road. The posts and the
+cantonments except Peshawar were garrisoned by the Frontier Force, a
+splendid body of troops consisting ultimately of seven infantry and
+five cavalry regiments, with some mule batteries. This force was till
+1885 subject to the orders of the Lieutenant Governor. It never wanted
+work, for before the Mutiny troops had to be employed seventeen times
+against the independent tribesmen. East of the Indus order was secured
+by the disarmament of the people, the maintenance, in addition to civil
+police, of a strong body of military police, and the construction of
+good roads. Just before Lawrence left the construction of the
+Amritsar-Multan railway was begun, and a few weeks after his departure
+the Upper Bari Doab Canal was opened.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67. John Nicolson's Monument at Delhi.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68. Sir Robert Montgomery.]
+
+~Administration, 1859-1870.~--The next eleven years occupied by the
+administrations of Sir Robert Montgomery and Sir Donald Macleod were a
+quiet time in which results already achieved were consolidated. The
+Penal Code was extended to the Panjab in 1862, and a Chief Court with a
+modest establishment of two judges in 1865 took the place of the
+Judicial Commissioner. In the same year a Settlement Commissioner was
+appointed to help the Financial Commissioner in the control of land
+revenue settlements. Two severe famines marked the beginning and the
+close of this period. Omitting the usual little frontier excitements, it
+is necessary to mention the troublesome Ambela campaign in 1863 in the
+country north of Peshawar, which had for its object the breaking up of
+the power of a nest of Hindustani fanatics, and the Black Mountain
+expedition, in 1868, on the Hazara border, in which no fewer than 15,000
+men were employed. Sir Henry Durand, who succeeded Sir Donald Macleod,
+after seven months of office lost his life by an accident in the
+beginning of 1871.
+
+~Administration, 1871-1882.~--The next eleven years divided between the
+administrations of Sir Henry Davies (1871-1877) and Sir Robert Egerton
+(1877-1882) produced more striking events. In 1872 a small body of
+fanatics belonging to a Sikh sect known as Kukas or Shouters marched
+from the Ludhiana district and attacked the headquarters of the little
+Muhammadan State of Malerkotla. They were repulsed and 68 men
+surrendered to the Patiala authorities. The Deputy Commissioner of
+Ludhiana blew 49 of them from the guns, and the rest were executed after
+summary trial by the Commissioner. Such strong measures were not
+approved by the Government, but it must be remembered that these madmen
+had killed ten and wounded seventeen men, and that their lives were
+justly forfeit. On the 1st of January, 1877, Queen Victoria's
+assumption of the title of Empress of India (_Kaisar-i-Hind_) was
+announced at a great _Darbar_ at Delhi. In 1877 Kashmir, hitherto
+controlled by the Lieutenant-Governor, was put directly under the
+Government of India. The same year and the next the province was tried
+by famine, and in 1878-80 it was the base from which our armies marched
+on Kabul and Kandahar, while its resources in camels were strained to
+supply transport. Apart from this its interest in the war was very great
+because it is the chief recruiting ground of the Indian army and its
+chiefs sent contingents to help their suzerain. The first stage of the
+war was closed by the treaty of Gandamak in May, 1879, by which Yakub
+Khan surrendered any rights he possessed over Khaibar and the Kurram as
+far as Shutargardan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69. Panjab Camels--Lahore.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70. Sir Charles Aitchison.]
+
+~Administration, 1882-1892.~--During the Lieutenant-Governorships of Sir
+Charles Aitchison (1882-1887) and Sir James Lyall (1887-1892) there was
+little trouble on the western frontier. In 1891 the need had arisen of
+making our power felt up to the Pamirs. The setting up of a British
+agency at Gilgit was opposed in 1891 by the fighting men of Hunza and
+Nagar. Colonel Durand advanced rapidly with a small force and when a
+determined assault reduced the strong fort of Nilt, trouble was at an
+end once and for all. Within the Panjab the period was one of quiet
+development. The Sirhind Canal was opened in 1882, and the weir at
+Khanki for the supply of the Lower Chenab Canal was finished in 1892.
+New railways were constructed. Lord Ripon's policy of Local
+Self-government found a strong supporter in Sir Charles Aitchison, and
+Acts were passed dealing with the constitution and powers of municipal
+committees and district boards. In 1884 and 1885 a large measure of
+reorganization was carried out. A separate staff of divisional,
+district, and subordinate civil judges was appointed. The divisional
+judges were also sessions judges. The ten commissioners were reduced to
+six, and five of them were relieved of all criminal work by the sessions
+judges. The Deputy Commissioner henceforth was a Revenue Collector and
+District Magistrate with large powers in criminal cases. The revenue
+administration was at the same time being improved by the reforms
+embodied in the Panjab Land Revenue and Tenancy Acts passed at the
+beginning of Sir James Lyall's administration.
+
+~Administration, 1892-1902.~--The next two administrations, those of Sir
+Dennis Fitzpatrick (1892-97) and Sir Mackworth Young (1897-1902) were
+crowded with important events. Throughout the period the colonization of
+the vast area of waste commanded by the Lower Chenab Canal was carried
+out, and the Lower Jhelam Canal was formally opened six months before
+Sir Mackworth Young left. The province suffered from famine in 1896-97
+and again in 1899-1900. In October, 1897, a worse enemy appeared in the
+shape of plague, but its ravages were not very formidable till the end
+of the period. The Panjab was given a small nominated Legislative
+Council in 1897, which speedily proved itself a valuable instrument for
+dealing with much-needed provincial legislation. But the most important
+Panjab Act of the period, XIII of 1900, dealing with Land Alienation was
+passed by the Viceroy's Legislative Council. In 1901 a Political Agent
+was appointed as the intermediary between the Panjab Government and the
+Phulkian States. On the frontier the conclusion of the Durand Agreement
+in 1893 might well have raised hopes of quiet times. But the reality was
+otherwise. The establishment of a British officer at Wana to exercise
+control over Southern Waziristan in 1894 was forcibly resisted by the
+Mahsud Wazirs, and an expedition had to be sent into their country. The
+Mehtar or Chief of Chitral, who was in receipt of a subsidy from the
+British Government, died in 1892. A period of great confusion followed
+fomented by the ambitions of Umra Khan of Jandol. Finally we recognised
+as Mehtar the eldest son, who had come uppermost in the struggle, and
+sent an English officer as British Agent to Chitral. Umra Khan got our
+protege murdered, and besieged the Agent in the Chitral fort. He
+withdrew however on the approach of a small force from Gilgit.
+Shuja-ul-Mulk was recognised as Mehtar. This little trouble occurred in
+1895. Two years later a storm-cloud suddenly burst over the frontier,
+such as we had never before experienced. It spread rapidly from the
+Tochi to Swat, tribe after tribe rising and attacking our posts. It is
+impossible to tell here the story of the military measures taken against
+the different offending tribes. The most important was the campaign in
+Tirah against the Orakzais and Afridis, in which 30,000 men were engaged
+for six months. In 1900 attacks on the peace of the border by the Mahsud
+Wazirs had to be punished by a blockade, and in the cold weather of
+1901-2 small columns harried the hill country to enforce their
+submission. By this time the connection of the Panjab Government with
+frontier affairs, which had gradually come to involve responsibility
+with little real power, had ceased. On the 25th of October, 1901, the
+North-West Frontier Province was constituted and Colonel (afterwards Sir
+Harold) Deane became its first Chief Commissioner, an office which he
+held till 1908, when he was succeeded by Major (now Sir George) Roos
+Keppel.
+
+~Administration, 1902-1913.~--The last eleven years have embraced the
+Lieutenant Governorship of Sir Charles Rivaz (1902-1907), the too brief
+administration of Sir Denzil Ibbetson (1907-1908), and that of Sir Louis
+Dane (1908-1913). Throughout the period plague has been a disturbing
+factor, preventing entirely the growth of population which the rapid
+development of the agricultural resources of the province would
+otherwise have secured. It was among the causes stimulating the unrest
+which came to a head in 1907. A terrible earthquake occurred in 1905.
+Its centre was in Kangra, where 20,000 persons perished under the ruins
+of their houses. The colonization of the Crown waste on the Lower Jhelam
+Canal was nearly finished during Sir Charles Rivaz's administration.
+Before he left the Triple Canal Project, now approaching completion, had
+been undertaken. Other measures of importance to the rural population
+were the passing of the Co-operative Credit Societies' Act in 1903, and
+the organization in 1905 of a provincial Agricultural Department. The
+seditious movement which troubled Bengal had its echo in some parts of
+the Panjab in the end of 1906 and the spring of 1907. A bill dealing
+with the rights and obligations of the Crown tenants in the new Canal
+Colonies was at the time before the Local Legislature. Excitement
+fomented from outside spread among the prosperous colonists on the Lower
+Chenab Canal. There was a disturbance in Lahore in connection with the
+trial of a newspaper editor, the ringleaders being students. When Sir
+Denzil Ibbetson took the reins into his strong hands in March, 1907, the
+position was somewhat critical. The disturbance at Lahore was followed
+by a riot at Rawalpindi. The two leading agitators were deported, a
+measure which was amply justified by their reckless actions and which
+had an immediate effect. Lord Minto decided to withhold his assent from
+the Colony Bill, and it has recently been replaced by a measure which
+has met with general acceptance. When Sir Denzil Ibbetson took office he
+was already suffering from a mortal disease. In the following January he
+gave up the unequal struggle, and shortly afterwards died. Sir Louis
+Dane became Lieutenant Governor in May, 1908. A striking feature of his
+administration was the growth of co-operative credit societies or
+village banks. At the Coronation _Darbar_ on 12th December, 1911, the
+King-Emperor announced the transfer of the capital of India to Delhi. As
+a necessary consequence the city and its suburbs were severed from the
+province, with which they had been connected for 55 years. In 1913 Sir
+Louis Dane was succeeded by Sir Michael O'Dwyer.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71. Sir Denzil Ibbetson.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72. Sir Michael O'Dwyer.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+ARCHAEOLOGY AND COINS
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73. Group of Chamba Temples.]
+
+~Hindu and Buddhist Remains.~--The scholar who ended his study of Indian
+history with the close of the first millennium of the Christian era
+would expect to find a fruitful field for the study of ancient monuments
+of the Hindu faith in the plains of the Panjab. He would look for a
+great temple of the Sun God at Multan, and at places like Lahore and
+Kangra, Thanesar and Pihowa, for shrines rich with graven work outside
+and with treasures of gold and precious stones within. But he would look
+in vain. The Muhammadan invaders of the five centuries which elapsed
+between Mahmud of Ghazni and the Moghal Babar were above all things
+idol-breakers, and their path was marked by the destruction and
+spoliation of temples. Even those invaders who remained as conquerors
+deemed it a pious work to build their mosques with the stones of ruined
+fanes. The transformation, as in the case of the great Kuwwat ul Islam
+mosque beside the Kutb Minar, did not always involve the complete
+obliteration of idolatrous emblems. Kangra was not too remote to be
+reached by invading armies, and the visitor to Nurpur on the road from
+Pathankot to Dharmsala can realize how magnificent some of the old Hindu
+buildings were, and how utterly they were destroyed. The smaller
+buildings to be found in the remoter parts of the hills escaped, and
+there are characteristic groups of stone temples at Chamba and still
+older shrines dating from the eighth century at Barmaur and Chitradi in
+the same state. The ruins of the great temple of the Sun, built by
+Lalitaditya in the same period, at Martand[7] near Islamabad in the
+Kashmir State are very striking. The smaller, but far better preserved,
+temple at Payer is probably of much later date. Round the pool of Katas,
+one of Siva's eyes, a great place of Hindu pilgrimage in the Salt
+Range, there is little or nothing of antiquarian value, but there are
+interesting remains at Malot in the same neighbourhood. It is possible
+that when the mounds that mark the sites of ancient villages come to be
+excavated valuable relics of the Hindu period will be brought to light.
+The forces of nature or the violence of man have wiped out all traces of
+the numerous Buddhist monasteries which the Chinese pilgrims found in
+the Panjab. Inscriptions of Asoka? graven on rocks survive at
+Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra in the North-West Frontier Province. Two
+pillars with inscriptions of the Missionary Emperor stand at Delhi. They
+were brought from Topra near the Jamna in Ambala and from Meerut by
+Firoz Shah. The traveller by train from Jhelam to Rawalpindi can see to
+the west of the line at Mankiala a great _stupa_ raised to celebrate the
+self-sacrifice of the Bodhisattva who gave his life to feed a starving
+tigress. There is a ruined _stupa_ at Sui Vihar in the Bahawalpur State.
+The Chinese pilgrims described the largest of Indian _stupas_ built by
+Kanishka near Peshawar to enshrine precious relics of Gautama Buddha and
+a great monastery beside it. Recent excavations have proved the truth
+of the conjecture that the two mounds at Shahji ki dheri covered the
+remains of these buildings, and the six-sided crystal reliquary
+containing three small fragments of bone has after long centuries been
+disinterred and is now in the great pagoda at Rangoon. In the Lahore
+museum there is a rich collection of the sculptures recovered from the
+Peshawar Valley, the ancient Gandhara. They exhibit strong traces of
+Greek influence. The best age of Gandhara sculpture was probably over
+before the reign of Kanishka. The site of the famous town of Taxila is
+now a protected area, and excavation there may yield a rich reward.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74. Payer Temple.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75. Reliquary.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76. Colonnade in Kuwwat ul Islam Mosque.]
+
+~Muhammadan Architecture.~--The Muhammadan architecture of North-Western
+India may be divided into three periods:
+
+  (_a_)  The Pathan     1191-1320
+  (_b_)  The Tughlak    1320-1556
+  (_c_)  The Moghal     1556-1753
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77. Kutb Minar.]
+
+In the Pathan period the royal builders drew their inspiration from
+Ghazni, but their work was also much affected by Hindu influences for
+two reasons. They used the materials of Hindu temples in constructing
+their mosques and they employed masons imbued with the traditions of
+Hindu art. The best specimens of this period are to be found in the
+group of buildings in Old Delhi or _Kila' Rai Pithora_, close to
+Mahrauli and eleven miles to the south of the present city. These
+buildings are the magnificent _Kuwwat ul Islam_ (Might of Islam) Mosque
+(1191-1225), with its splendid tower, the _Kutb Minar_ (1200-1220), from
+which the _mu'azzin_ called the faithful to prayer, the tomb of the
+Emperor Altamsh (1238), and the great gateway built in 1310 by Ala ud
+din Khalji. In the second period, named after the house that occupied
+the imperial throne when it began, all traces of Hindu influence have
+vanished, and the buildings display the austere and massive grandeur
+suited to the faith of the desert prophet unalloyed by foreign elements.
+This style in its beginning is best seen in the cyclopean ruins of
+Tughlakabad and the tomb of the Emperor Tughlak Shah, and in some
+mosques in and near Delhi. Its latest phase is represented by Sher
+Shah's mosque in the Old Fort or _Purana Kila'_. To some the simple
+grandeur of this style will appeal more strongly than the splendid, but
+at times almost effeminate, beauty of the third period. Noted examples
+of Moghal architecture in the Panjab are to be found in Shahjahari's red
+fort palace and _Jama' Masjid_ at New Delhi or Shahjahanabad,
+Humayun's tomb on the road from Delhi to Mahrauli, the fort palace, the
+Badshahi and Wazir Khan's mosques, at Lahore, and Jahangir's mausoleum
+at Shahdara. A very late building in this style is the tomb of Nawab
+Safdar Jang (1753) near Delhi. A further account of some of the most
+famous Muhammadan buildings will be found in the paragraphs devoted to
+the chief cities of the province. The architecture of the British period
+scarcely deserves notice.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78. Tomb of Emperor Tughlak Shah.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79. Jama Masjid, Delhi.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80. Tomb of Emperor Humayun.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81. Badshahi Mosque, Lahore.]
+
+~Coins.~--Among the most interesting of the archaeological remains are the
+coins which are found in great abundance on the frontier and all over
+the Panjab. These take us back through the centuries to times before
+the invasion of India by Alexander, and for the obscure period
+intervening between the Greek occupation of the Frontier and the
+Muhammadan conquest, they are our main source of history. The most
+ancient of the Indian monetary issues are the so-called punch-marked
+coins, some of which were undoubtedly in existence before the Greek
+invasion. Alexander himself left no permanent traces of his progress
+through the Panjab and Sindh, but about the year 200 B.C., Greeks from
+Bactria, an outlying province of the Seleukidan Empire, once more
+appeared on the Indian Frontier, which they effectively occupied for
+more than a century. They struck the well-known Graeco-Bactrian coins;
+the most famous of the Indo-Greek princes were Apollodotos and Menander.
+Towards the close of this dynasty, parts of Sindh and Afghanistan were
+conquered by Saka Scythians from Central Asia. They struck what are
+termed the Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins bearing names in
+legible Greek legends--Manes, Azes, Azilises, Gondophares, Abdagases.
+Both Greeks and Sakas were overthrown by the Kushans. The extensive gold
+and copper Kushan currency, with inscriptions in the Greek script,
+contains the names of Kadphises, Kanishka, Huvishka, and others. In
+addition to the coins of these foreign dynasties, there are the purely
+Indian currencies, e.g. the coins of Taxila, and those bearing the names
+of such tribes as the Odumbaras, Kunindas, and Yaudheyas. The White Huns
+overthrew the Kushan Empire in the fifth century. After their own fall
+in the sixth century, there are more and more debased types of coinage
+such as the ubiquitous _Gadhiya paisa_, a degraded Sassanian type. In
+the ninth century we again meet with coins bearing distinct names, the
+"bull and horseman" currency of the Hindu kings of Kabul. We have now
+reached the beginning of the Muhammadan rule in India. Muhammad bin
+Sam was the founder of the first Pathan dynasty of Delhi, and was
+succeeded by a long line of Sultans. The Pathan and Moghal coins bear
+Arabic and Persian legends. There were mints at Lahore, Multan,
+Hafizabad, Kalanaur, Derajat, Peshawar, Srinagar and Jammu. An issue of
+coins peculiar to the Panjab is that of the Sikhs. Their coin legends,
+partly Persian, partly Panjabi, are written in the Persian and Gurmukhi
+scripts. Amongst Sikh mints were Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Dera,
+Anandgarh, Jhang, and Kashmir.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82. Coins.
+
+1. Silver punch-marked coin. 2. Drachma of Sophytes (Panjab Satrap about
+time of Alexander). 3. Hemidrachma of Azes. 4. Copper coin of Taxila. 5.
+Silver Kuninda coin. 6. Stater of Wema Kadphises. 7. Stater of Kanishka.
+8. Later Kushan stater. 9. White Hun silver piece. 10. Gadhiya _paisa_.
+11. Silver coin of Spalapati Deva, Hindu King of Kabul.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 7: See page 166.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+ADMINISTRATION--GENERAL
+
+
+~Panjab Districts.~--The administrative unit in the Panjab is the district
+in charge of a Deputy Commissioner. The districts are divided into
+_tahsils_, each on the average containing four, and are grouped together
+in divisions managed by Commissioners. There are 28 districts and five
+divisions. An ordinary Panjab district has an area of 2000 to 3000
+square miles and contains from 1000 to 2000 village estates. Devon, the
+third in size of the English counties, is about equal to an average
+Panjab district.
+
+~Branches of Administration.~--The provincial governments of India are
+organized in three branches, Executive, Judicial, and Revenue, and a
+number of special departments, such as Forests and Irrigation. Under
+"Judicial" there are two subdivisions, civil and criminal. The tendency
+at first is for powers in all three branches to be concentrated in the
+hands of single individuals, development tends to specialization, but it
+is a matter of controversy how far the separation of executive and
+magisterial functions can be carried without jeopardy to the common
+weal.
+
+~The Lieutenant Governor.~--At the head of the whole administration is the
+Lieutenant Governor, who holds office for five years. He has a strong
+Secretariat to help in the dispatch of business. The experiment of
+governing the Panjab by a Board was speedily given up, and for sixty
+years it has enjoyed the advantage of one man government, the Lieutenant
+Governor controlling all subordinate authorities and being himself only
+controlled by the Governor General in Council. The independence of the
+Courts in the exercise of judicial functions is of course safeguarded.
+
+~Official hierarchy.~--The following is a list of the official hierarchy
+in the different branches of the administration:
+
+ _A._  Lieutenant Governor.
+ _B._  Five Judges of Chief Court (_j_).
+ _C._  Two Financial Commissioners (_r_).
+ _D._  Five Commissioners, (_e_) and (_r_).
+ _E._  Sixteen Divisional and Sessions Judges (_j_).
+ _F._  Deputy Commissioners, (_e_), (_r_) and (_crim_).
+ _G._  District Judges (_civ_).
+ _H._  Subordinate Judges (_civ_).
+ _J._  Assistant and Extra Assistant Commissioners, (_e_), (_j_) and (_r_).
+ _K._  Tahsildars (_e_), (_r_) and (_crim_).
+ _L._  _Munsifs_ (_civ_).
+ _M._  _Naib-Tahsildars_, (_e_) (_r_) and (_j_).
+
+The letters in brackets indicate the classes of functions which the
+official concerned usually exercises. Translated into a diagram we have
+the following:
+
+                        Lieutenant Governor
+
+              Judicial        Executive   Revenue
+
+            Chief Court                 Financial
+                                      Commissioners
+
+  Divisional and Sessions Judges      Commissioners
+
+    Civil                 Criminal
+
+  District Judges                  Deputy Commissioners
+
+                                   Asst. and Extra Asst.
+                                      Commissioners
+  Subordinate
+    Judges
+                                        _Tahsildars_
+  _Munsifs_
+                                      _Naib-Tahsildars_
+
+~Tahsildars and Assistant and Extra Assistant Commissioners.~--Thus the
+chain of executive authority runs down to the _tahsildar's_ assistant or
+_naib_ through the Commissioner and the Deputy Commissioner, the
+_tahsildar_ being directly responsible to the latter. The Assistant and
+Extra Assistant Commissioners are the Deputy Commissioner's Assistants
+at headquarters, and as such are invested with powers in all branches.
+The _tahsildar_, a very important functionary, is in charge of a
+_tahsil_. He is linked on to the village estates by a double chain, one
+official consisting of the _kanungos_ and the _patwaris_ or village
+accountants whom they supervise, the other non-official consisting of
+the village headmen and the _zaildars_, each of whom is the intermediary
+between the revenue and police staffs and the villages.
+
+~Subdivisional Officers.~--In some heavy districts one or more _tahsils_
+are formed into a subdivision and put in charge of a resident Assistant
+or Extra Assistant Commissioner, exercising such independent authority
+as the Deputy Commissioner thinks fit to entrust to him.
+
+~The Deputy Commissioner and his Assistants.~--As the officer responsible
+for the maintenance of order the Deputy Commissioner is District
+Magistrate and has large powers both for the prevention and punishment
+of crime. The District Superintendent is his Assistant in police
+matters. The Civil Surgeon is also under his control, and he has an
+Indian District Inspector of Schools to assist him in educational
+business. The Deputy Commissioner is subject to the control of the
+Divisional Commissioner.
+
+~Financial Commissioners.~--In all matters connected with land, excise,
+and income tax administration the Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner
+are subject to the control of the Financial Commissioners, who are also
+the final appellate authority in revenue cases. As chief district
+revenue officer the Deputy Commissioner's proper title is "Collector," a
+term which indicates his responsibility for the realization of all
+Government revenues. In districts which are canal irrigated the amount
+is in some cases very large.
+
+~Settlement Officers, etc.~--With the periodical revisions of the land
+revenue assessment the Deputy Commissioner has no direct concern. That
+very responsible duty is done by a special staff of Settlement Officers,
+selected chiefly from among the Assistant Commissioners and working
+under the Commissioners and Financial Commissioners. The Director of
+Land Records, the Registrar of Co-operative Credit Societies, and in
+some branches of his work the Director of Agriculture and Industries,
+are controlled by the Financial Commissioners.
+
+~The Chief Court.~--It must be admitted that Panjabis are very litigious
+and that in some tracts they are extremely vindictive and reckless of
+human life. The volume of litigation is swollen by the fact that the
+country is one of small-holders subject as regards inheritance and other
+matters to an uncodified customary law, which may vary from tribe to
+tribe and tract to tract. A suit is to the Panjabi a rubber, the last
+game of which he will play in Lahore, if the law permits. It is not
+therefore extraordinary that the Chief Court constituted in 1865 with
+two judges has now five, and that even this number has in the past
+proved insufficient. In the same way the cadre of divisional and
+sessions judges had in 1909 to be raised from 12 to 16.
+
+~Administration of N. W. F. Province.~--In the N. W. F. Province no
+Commissioner is interposed between the district officers and the Chief
+Commissioner, under whom the Revenue Commissioner and the Judicial
+Commissioner occupy pretty much the position of the Financial
+Commissioners and the Chief Court in the Panjab.
+
+~Departments.~--The principal departments are the Railway, Post Office,
+Telegraphs, and Accounts, under the Government of India, and Irrigation,
+Roads and Buildings, Forests, Police, Medical, and Education, under the
+Lieutenant Governor. In matters affecting the rural population, as a
+great part of the business of the Forest Department must do, the
+Conservator of Forests is subject to the control of the Financial
+Commissioners, whose relations with the Irrigation Department are also
+very intimate.
+
+~Legislative Council.~--From 1897 to 1909 the Panjab had a local
+Legislative Council of nine nominated members, which passed a number of
+useful Acts. Under 9 Edward VII, cap. 4, an enlarged council with
+increased powers has been constituted. It consists of 24 members of whom
+eight are elected, one by the University, one by the Chamber of
+Commerce, three by groups of Municipal and cantonment committees, and
+three by groups of district boards. The other sixteen members are
+nominated by the Lieutenant Governor, and at least six of them must be
+persons not in Government service. The right of interpellation has been
+given, and also some share in shaping the financial arrangements
+embodied in the annual budget.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+ADMINISTRATION--LOCAL
+
+
+~Municipalities.~--It is matter for reflection that, while the effect of
+British administration has been to weaken self-government in villages,
+half a century of effort has failed to make it a living thing in towns
+and districts. The machinery exists, but outside a few towns the result
+is poor. The attempt was made on too large a scale, municipal
+institutions being bestowed on places which were no more than villages
+with a _bazar_. This has been partially corrected of late years. A new
+official entity, the "notified area," has been invented to suit the
+requirements of such places. While there were in 1904 139 municipalities
+and 48 notified areas, in 1911-12 the figures were 107 and 104
+respectively. Even in the latter year 32 of the municipalities had
+incomes not exceeding L1000 (Rs. 15,000). The total income of the 104
+towns was Rs. 71,41,000 (L476,000), of which Rs. 44,90,000 (L300,000)
+were derived from taxation. Nearly 90 p.c. of the taxation was drawn
+from octroi, a hardy plant which has survived much economic criticism.
+The expenditure was Rs. 69,09,000 (L461,000), of which Rs. 40,32,000
+(L269,000) fall under the head of "Public Health and Convenience." The
+incidence of taxation was Rs. 2.6 or a little over three shillings a
+head.
+
+~District Boards.~--The district boards can at present in practice only be
+treated as consultative bodies, and well handled can in that capacity
+play a useful role. Their income is mainly derived from the local rate,
+a surcharge of one-twelfth on the land revenue. In 1911-12 the income
+was Rs. 53,74,000 (L358,000) and the expenditure Rs. 54,44,500
+(L363,000). The local rate contributed 51 p.c. and contributions from
+Government 23 p.c. of the former figure. Public works took up 41 and
+Education about 20 p.c. of the expenditure.
+
+~Elections.~--Some of the seats in most of the municipalities and boards
+are filled by election when any one can be induced to vote. Public
+spirit is lacking and, as a rule, except when party or sectarian spirit
+is rampant, the franchise is regarded with indifference.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE
+
+
+~Financial Relations with Government of India.~--Local governments
+exercise their financial powers in strict subordination to the
+Government of India, which alone can borrow, and which requires the
+submission for its sanction of the annual provincial budgets. To ensure
+a reasonable amount of decentralization the Supreme Government has made
+financial contracts with the provinces under which they receive definite
+shares of the receipts, and are responsible for definite shares of the
+expenditure, under particular heads. The existing contract dates only
+from 1911-12 (see Table V).
+
+~Income and Expenditure.~--Excluding income from railways, post offices,
+telegraphs, salt, and sales of excise opium, which are wholly imperial,
+the revenue of the Panjab in 1911-12 was L5,057,000 (Rs. 758,56,000), of
+which the provincial share was L2,662,200 (Rs. 399,33,000), to which
+have to be added L251,800 (Rs. 37,77,000) on account of assignments made
+by the Government of India to the province. This brought up the total to
+L2,914,000 (Rs. 437,10,000). The expenditure was L2,691,933 (Rs.
+403,79,000). This does not include L983,000 spent from loan funds on
+irrigation works, chiefly the great Triple Project. The large
+expenditure on railways is imperial. Of the gross income more than
+three-fourths is derived from the land (Land Revenue, 46 p.c.,
+Irrigation, chiefly canal water rates, 29 p.c., and Forests, 1-3/4
+p.c.). The balance consists of Excise 8-1/2 p.c., Stamps, 7 p.c., Income
+Tax over 2 p.c., and other heads 5-3/4 p.c.
+
+~Land Revenue.~--Certain items are included under the Land Revenue head
+which are no part of the assessment of the land. The real land revenue
+of the Panjab is about L2,000,000 and falls roughly at the rate of
+eighteen pence per cultivated acre (Table II). It is not a land tax, but
+an extremely moderate quit rent. In India the ruler has always taken a
+share of the produce of the land from the persons in whom he recognised
+a permanent right to occupy it or arrange for its tillage. The title of
+the Raja to his share and the right of the occupier to hold the land he
+tilled and pass it on to his children both formed part of the customary
+law of the country. Under Indian rule the Raja's share was often
+collected in kind, and the proportion of the crop taken left the tiller
+of the soil little or nothing beyond what was needed for the bare
+support of himself and his family. What the British Government did was
+to commute the share in kind into a cash demand and gradually to limit
+its amount to a reasonable figure. The need of moderation was not
+learned without painful experience, but the Panjab was fortunate in this
+that, except as regards the Delhi territory, the lesson had been learned
+and a reasonable system evolved in the United Provinces before the
+officers it sent to the Panjab began the regular assessments of the
+districts of the new province. A land revenue settlement is usually made
+for a term of 20 or 30 years. Since 1860 the limit of the government
+demand has been fixed at one-half of the rental, but this figure is very
+rarely approached in practice. Between a quarter and a third would be
+nearer the mark. A large part of the land is tilled by the owners, and
+the rent of the whole has to be calculated from the data for the part,
+often not more than a third or two-fifths of the whole, cultivated by
+tenants at will. The calculation is complicated by the fact that kind
+rents consisting of a share of the crop are in most places commoner than
+cash rents and are increasing in favour. The determination of the cash
+value of the rent where the crop is shared is a very difficult task.
+There is a large margin for error, but there can be no doubt that the
+net result has almost always been undervaluation. It is probable that
+the share of the produce of the fields which the land revenue absorbs
+rarely exceeds one-seventh and is more often one-tenth or less. A clear
+proof of the general moderation of Panjab assessments is furnished by
+the fact that in the three years ending 1910-11 the recorded prices in
+sales amounted to more than Rs. 125 per rupee of land revenue of the
+land sold, which may be taken as implying a belief on the part of
+purchasers that the landlord's rent is not double, but five or six times
+the land revenue assessment, for a man would hardly pay Rs. 125 unless
+he expected to get at least six or seven rupees annual profit.
+
+~Fluctuating Assessments.~--The old native plan of taking a share of the
+crop, though it offered great opportunity for dishonesty on both sides,
+had at least the merit of roughly adjusting the demand to the character
+of the seasons. It was slowly realized that there were parts of the
+province where the harvests were so precarious that even a very moderate
+fixed cash assessment was unsuitable. Various systems of fluctuating
+cash assessment have therefore been introduced, and one-fourth of the
+total demand is now of this character, the proportion having been
+greatly increased by the adoption of the fluctuating principle in the
+new canal colonies.
+
+~Suspensions and Remissions.~--Where fixity is retained the strain in bad
+seasons is lessened by a free use of suspensions, and, if the amounts of
+which the collection has been deferred accumulate owing to a succession
+of bad seasons, resort is had to remission.
+
+~Irrigation Income and Expenditure.~--In a normal year in the Panjab over
+one-fourth of the total crops is matured by the help of Government
+Canals, and this proportion will soon be largely increased. In 1911-12
+the income from canals amounted to L1,474,000, and the working expenses
+to L984,000, leaving a surplus of L490,000. Nearly the whole of the
+income is derived from water rates, which represent the price paid by
+the cultivator for irrigation provided by State expenditure. The rates
+vary for different crops and on different canals. The average incidence
+may be roughly put at Rs. 4 or a little over five shillings per acre. In
+calculating the profit on canals allowance is made for land revenue
+dependent on irrigation, amounting to nearly L400,000.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83. Skeleton District Map of Panjab.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+PANJAB DISTRICTS AND DELHI
+
+
+~Districts and Divisions.~--The Panjab now consists of 28 districts
+grouped in five divisions. In descriptions of districts and states
+boundaries, railways, and roads, which appear on the face of the inset
+maps, are omitted. Details regarding cultivation and crops will be found
+in Tables II, III and IV, and information as to places of note in
+Chapter XXX. The revenue figures of Panjab districts in this chapter
+relate to the year 1911-12.
+
+~Delhi Enclave.~--On the transfer of the capital of India to Delhi part of
+the area of the old district of that name comprising 337 estates was
+removed from the jurisdiction of the Panjab Government and brought under
+the immediate authority of the Government of India (Act No. XIII of
+1912). The remainder of the district was divided between Rohtak and
+Gurgaon, and the headquarters of the Delhi division were transferred to
+Ambala.
+
+The area of the new province is only 528 square miles, and the
+population including that of the City is estimated at 396,997. The
+cultivated area is 340 square miles, more than half of which is
+cultivated by the owners themselves. The principal agricultural tribe is
+the Hindu Jats, who are hard-working and thrifty peasant farmers. The
+land revenue is Rs. 4,00,203 (L26,680). The above figures only relate to
+the part of the enclave formerly included in the Panjab[8]. The head of
+the administration has the title of Chief Commissioner.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84. Delhi Enclave.]
+
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+14,832 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+10,650 sq. m.
+Pop. 3,704,608;
+68 p.c. H.[9]
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 66,99,136
+= L446,609.]
+
+~The Ambala division~--includes four of the five districts of the
+South-Eastern Plains, the submontane district of Ambala, and the hill
+district of Simla. It is with the exception of Lahore the smallest
+division, but it ranks first in cultivated area and third in population.
+It is twice the size of Wales and has twice its population. The
+Commissioner is in political charge of the hill state of Sirmur and of
+five petty states in the plains.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85. Hissar with portions of Phulkian States etc.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 5213 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+4201 sq.m.
+Pop. 804,809;
+67 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 9,76,749
+= L67,117.]
+
+~Hissar District.~--Hissar is the south-western district of the division
+and has a long common boundary with Bikaner. It is divided into five
+_tahsils_, Hissar, Hansi, Bhiwani, Fatehabad, and Sirsa. There are four
+natural divisions, Nali, Bagar, Rohi, and Hariana. The overflow of the
+Ghagar, which runs through the north of the district, has transformed
+the lands on either bank into hard intractable clay, which yields
+nothing to the husbandman without copious floods. This is the Nali. The
+Bagar is a region of rolling sand stretching along the Bikaner border
+from Sirsa to Bhiwani. In Sirsa to the east of the Bagar is a plain of
+very light reddish loam known as the Rohi, partly watered by the Sirhind
+Canal. South of the Ghagar the loam in the east of the district is
+firmer, and well adapted to irrigation, which much of it obtains from
+branches of the Western Jamna Canal. This tract is known as Hariana, and
+has given its name to a famous breed of cattle. The Government cattle
+farm at Hissar covers an area of 65 square miles. North of the Fatehabad
+_tahsil_ and surrounded by villages belonging to the Phulkian States is
+an island of British territory called Budhlada. It belongs to the Jangal
+Des, and has the characteristic drought-resisting sandy loam and sand of
+that tract. Much of Budhlada is watered by the Sirhind Canal. Of the
+total area of the district only about 9 p.c. is irrigated. The water
+level is so far from the surface that well irrigation is usually
+impossible, and the source of irrigation is canals.
+
+Hissar suffered severely from the disorders which followed on the
+collapse of the Moghal Empire and its ruin was consummated by the
+terrible famine of 1783. The starving people died or fled and for years
+the country lay desolate. It passed into the hands of the British 20
+years later, but for another 20 years our hold on this outlying
+territory was loose and ineffective. In 1857 the troops at Hansi,
+Hissar, and Sirsa rose and killed all the Europeans who fell into their
+hands. The Muhammadan tribes followed their example, and for a time
+British authority ceased to exist. The district was part of the Delhi
+territory transferred to the Panjab in 1858.
+
+The rainfall is scanty, averaging 15 inches, and extremely capricious.
+No other district suffers so much from famine as Hissar. The crops are
+extraordinarily insecure, with a large surplus in a good season and
+practically nothing when the rains fail badly. They consist mainly of
+the cheap pulses and millets. With such fluctuating harvests it is
+impossible to collect the revenues with any regularity, and large sums
+have to be suspended in bad seasons.
+
+Such industries as exist are mostly in Hansi and Bhiwani, where there
+are mills for ginning and pressing cotton. Cotton cloths tastefully
+embroidered with silk, known as _phulkaris_, are a well-known local
+product.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2248 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1815 sq. m.
+Pop. 714,834.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 16,66,364
+= L111,091.]
+
+~Rohtak~--became a British possession in 1803, but it was not till after
+the Mutiny that it was brought wholly under direct British
+administration. The old district consisted of the three _tahsils_ of
+Rohtak, Gohana, and Jhajar, but on the breaking up of the Delhi district
+the Sonepat _tahsil_ was added.
+
+Rohtak is practically a purely agricultural tract with large villages,
+but no towns of any importance. By far the most important agricultural
+tribe is the Hindu Jats. They are strong-bodied sturdy farmers, who keep
+fine oxen and splendid buffaloes, and live in large and well organized
+village communities. 37 p.c. of the cultivation is protected by canal
+and well irrigation, the former being by far the more important. The
+district consists mainly of a plain of good loam soil. There have been
+great canal extensions in this plain, which under irrigation is very
+fertile, yielding excellent wheat, cotton, and cane. There is a rich
+belt of well irrigation in the Jamna valley, and in the south of the
+district there are parts where wells can be profitably worked. Belts of
+uneven sandy land are found especially in the west and south. The dry
+cultivation is most precarious, for the rainfall is extremely variable.
+In the old district it averages 20 inches. But averages in a tract like
+Rohtak mean very little. The chief crops are the two millets and gram.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2264 sq.m.
+Cultd Area,
+1701 sq. m.
+Pop. 729,167.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 15,98,333
+= L106,556.]
+
+~Gurgaon~ contains six _tahsils_, Rewari, Gurgaon, Nuh, Firozpur,
+Palwal, and Ballabgarh. The southern part of the district projects into
+Rajputana, and in its physical and racial characteristics really belongs
+to that region.
+
+Rewari is the only town of any importance. It has a large trade with
+Rajputana. Apart from this the interests of the district are
+agricultural. In Gurgaon the Jamna valley is for the most part narrow
+and very poor. The plain above it in the Palwal _tahsil_ has a fertile
+loam soil and is irrigated by the Agra Canal. The Hindu Jats of this
+part of the district are good cultivators. The rest of Gurgaon consists
+mostly of sand and sandy loam and low bare hills. In Rewari the skill
+and industry of the Hindu Ahirs have produced wonderful results
+considering that many of the wells are salt and much of the land very
+sandy. The lazy and thriftless Meos of the southern part of the district
+are a great contrast to the Ahirs. They are Muhammadans.
+
+About a quarter of the area is protected by irrigation from wells, the
+Agra Canal, and embankments or "_bands_," which catch and hold up the
+hill drainages. Owing to the depth and saltness of many of the wells the
+cultivation dependent on them is far from secure, and the "_band_"
+irrigation is most precarious. The large dry area is subject to
+extensive and complete crop failures. The average rainfall over a series
+of years is 24 inches, but its irregularities from year to year are
+extreme. The district is a poor one, and for its resources bears the
+heaviest assessment in the Panjab. It requires the most careful revenue
+management. There are brine wells at Sultanpur, but the demand for the
+salt extracted is now very small.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3153 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1744 sq. m.
+Pop. 799,787;
+70 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 12,92,620
+=L86,175.]
+
+~Karnal~ is midway in size between Rohtak and Hissar. One-third of the
+cultivation is now protected by irrigation, two-fifths of the irrigation
+being from wells and three-fifths from the Western Jamna Canal. There
+are four _tahsils_, Thanesar, Karnal, Kaithal, and Panipat. The
+peasantry consists mostly of hardworking Hindu Jats, but there are also
+many Hindu and Muhammadan Rajput villages. The chief towns are Panipat,
+Karnal, and Kaithal.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 88._]
+
+The district falls broadly into two divisions, the boundary between them
+being the southern limit of the floods of the Sarusti in years of heavy
+rainfall. The marked features of the northern division is the effect
+which the floods of torrents of intermittent flow, the Sarusti,
+Markanda, Umla, and Ghagar have on agriculture. Some tracts are included
+like the Andarwar and the outlying villages of the Powadh[10] in Kaithal
+which are fortunately unaffected by inundation, and have good well
+irrigation. The country between the Umla and Markanda in Thanesar gets
+rich silt deposits and is generally fertile. The Kaithal Naili is the
+tract affected by the overflow of the Sarusti, Umla, and Ghagar. It is a
+wretched fever-stricken region where a short lived race of weakly people
+reap precarious harvests. The southern division is on the whole a much
+better country. It includes the whole of Karnal and Panipat, the south
+of Kaithal, and a small tract in the extreme east of the Thanesar
+_tahsil_. North of Karnal the Jamna valley or Khadir is unhealthy and
+has in many parts a poor soil. South of Karnal it is much better in
+every respect. Above the Khadir is the Bangar, a plain of good loam.
+North of Karnal its cultivation is protected by wells and the people are
+in fair circumstances. South of that town it is watered by the Western
+Jamna Canal. Another slight rise brings one to the Nardak of the Karnal
+and Kaithal _tahsils_. Till the excavation of the Sirsa branch of the
+Western Jamna Canal and of the Nardak Distributary much of the Nardak
+was covered with _dhak_ jangal, and the cultivation was of the most
+precarious nature, for in this part of the district the rainfall is both
+scanty and capricious, and well cultivation is only possible in the
+north. The introduction of canal irrigation has effected an enormous
+change. Wheat and gram are the great crops.
+
+Historically Karnal is one of the most interesting districts. The Nardak
+is the scene of the great struggle celebrated in the Mahabharata. The
+district contains the holy city of Thanesar, once the capital of a great
+Hindu kingdom. It has found climate a more potent instrument of ruin
+than the sword of Mahmud of Ghazni, who sacked it in 1014. It still on
+the occasion of Eclipse fairs attracts enormous crowds of pilgrims.
+Pihowa is another very sacred place. Naraina, a few miles to the
+north-west of Karnal, was the scene of two famous fights[11], and three
+times, in 1526, 1556, and 1761, the fate of India was decided at
+Panipat.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1851 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1174 sq. m.
+Pop. 689,970.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 11,47,688
+= L76,513]
+
+~Ambala~ is a submontane district of very irregular
+shape. It includes two small hill tracts,
+Morni and Kasauli. There is little irrigation,
+for in most parts the rainfall is ample.
+Wheat is the chief crop. The population
+has been declining in the past 20 years.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 89.]
+
+The only town of importance is Ambala. Jagadhri is a busy little place
+now connected through private enterprise by a light railway with the N.
+W. Railway. The district consists of two parts almost severed from one
+another physically and wholly different as regards people, language, and
+agricultural prosperity. The Rupar subdivision in the north-west beyond
+the Ghagar has a fertile soil, and, except in the Nali, as the tract
+flooded by the Ghagar is called, a vigorous Jat peasantry, whose native
+tongue is Panjabi. The three south-eastern _tahsils_, Ambala,
+Naraingarh, and Jagadhri, are weaker in every respect. The loam is often
+quite good, but interspersed with it are tracts of stubborn clay largely
+put under precarious rice crops. The Jats are not nearly so good as
+those of Rupar, and Rajputs, who are mostly Musulmans, own a large
+number of estates.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 101 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+15 sq. m.
+Pop. in Feb.
+1911, 39,320.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 17,484
+= L1166.]
+
+Simla consists of three little tracts in the hills known as Bharauli,
+Kotkhai, and Kotgarh, and of patches of territory forming the
+cantonments of Dagshai, Subathu, Solon, and Jutogh, the site of the
+Lawrence Military School at Sanawar, and the great hill station of
+Simla. Bharauli lies south-west of Simla in the direction of Kasauli.
+Kotkhai is in the valley of the Giri, a tributary of the Jamna. Kotgarh
+is on the Sutlej and borders on the Bashahr State. The Deputy
+Commissioner of Simla is also Superintendent or Political Officer of 28
+hill states.
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+19,934 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+7762 sq. m.
+Pop. 3,967,724.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 61,64,172
+= L410,945.]
+
+~Jalandhar Division.~--More than half the area of the Jalandhar division
+is contributed by the huge district of Kangra, which stretches from the
+Plains to the lofty snowy ranges on the borders of Tibet. The other
+districts are Hoshyarpur in the submontane zone, Jalandhar and Ludhiana,
+which belong to the Central Plains, and Ferozepore, which is part of the
+South-Eastern Panjab. Sikhs are more numerous than in any other
+division, but are outnumbered by both Hindus and Muhammadans. The
+Commissioner has political charge of the hill states of Mandi and Suket
+and of Kapurthala in the Plains.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 9878 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+918 sq. m.
+Pop. 770,386;
+94 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 9,26,661
+= L61,777.]
+
+~Kangra~ is the largest district in the Panjab. It includes three tracts
+of very different character:
+
+(_a_) Spiti and Lahul, area exceeding 4400 square miles, forming part of
+Tibet;
+
+(_b_) Kulu and Saraj;
+
+(_c_) Kangra proper, area 2939 square miles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90.]
+
+Lahul, Spiti, Kulu, and Saraj form a subdivision in charge of an
+Assistant Commissioner. The people of Kangra are Hindus. Islam never
+penetrated into these hills as a religion, though the Rajput Rajas of
+Kangra became loyal subjects of the Moghal Emperors. In its last days
+Ranjit Singh called in as an ally against the Gurkhas remained as a
+hated ruler. The country was ceded to the British Government in 1846.
+The Rajas were chagrined that we did not restore to them their royal
+authority, but only awarded them the status of _jagirdars_. An outbreak,
+which was easily suppressed, occurred in 1848. Since then Kangra has
+enjoyed 65 years of peace. A Gurkha regiment is stationed at the
+district headquarters at Dharmsala. The cultivation ranges from the rich
+maize and rice fields of Kulu and Kangra to the poor buckwheat and
+_kulath_ on mountain slopes. Rice is irrigated by means of _kuhls_,
+ingeniously constructed channels to lead the water of the torrents on to
+the fields.
+
+~Spiti and Lahul.~--Spiti, or rather Piti, is a country of great rugged
+mountains, whose bare red and yellow rocks rise into crests of
+everlasting snow showing clear under a cloudless blue sky. There is no
+rain, but in winter the snowfall is heavy. The highest of the mountains
+exceeds 23,000 feet. Piti is drained by the river of the same name,
+which after passing through Bashahr falls I into the Sutlej at an
+elevation of 11,000 feet. Of the few villages several stand at a height
+of from 13,000 to 14,000 feet. The route to Piti from Kulu passes over
+the Hamtu Pass (14,200 feet) and the great Shigri glacier. The people
+are Buddhists. They are governed by their hereditary ruler or Nono
+assisted by five elders, the Assistant Commissioner exercising a general
+supervision. Indian laws do not apply to the sparse population of this
+remote canton, which has a special regulation of its own. Lahul lies to
+the west of Piti, from which it is separated by a lofty range. It is
+entered from Kulu by the Rotang Pass (13,000 feet) and the road from it
+to Ladakh passes over the Baralacha (16,350 feet). The whole country is
+under snow from December to April, but there is very little rain. The
+two streams, the Chandra and Bhaga, which unite to form the Chenab, flow
+through Lahul and the few villages are situated at a height of 10,000
+feet in their elevated valleys. The people are Buddhists. In summer the
+population is increased by "Gaddi" shepherds from Kangra, who drive lean
+flocks in the beginning of June over the Rotang and take them back from
+the Alpine pastures in the middle of September fat and well liking.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91. Bias at Manali.]
+
+~Kulu and Saraj.~--The Kulu Valley, set in a mountain frame and with the
+Bias, here a highland stream, running through the heart of it, is one of
+the fairest parts of the Panjab Himalaya. Manali, at the top of the
+Valley on the road to the Rotang, is a very beautiful spot. Kulu is
+connected with Kangra through Mandi by the Babbu and Dulchi passes. The
+latter is generally open the whole year round. The headquarters are at
+Sultanpur, but the Assistant Commissioner lives at Nagar. In Kulu the
+cultivation is often valuable and the people are well off. The climate
+is good and excellent apples and pears are grown by European settlers.
+Inner and outer Saraj are connected by the Jalaori Pass on the watershed
+of the Sutlej and Bias. Saraj is a much rougher and poorer country than
+Kulu. There are good _deodar_ forests in the Kulu subdivision. In 1911
+the population of Kulu, Saraj, Lahul, and Piti, numbered 124,803. The
+Kulu people are a simple folk in whose primitive religion local godlings
+of brass each with his little strip of territory take the place of the
+Brahmanic gods. It is a quaint sight to see their ministers carrying
+them on litters to the fair at Sultanpur, where they all pay their
+respects to a little silver god known as Raghunathji, who is in a way
+their suzerain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92. Religious Fair in Kulu.]
+
+Kangra proper is bounded on the north by the lofty wall of the Dhaula
+Dhar and separated from Kulu by the mountains of Bara Bangahal. It
+consists of the five _tahsils_ of Kangra, Palampur, Nurpur, Dera, and
+Hamirpur. The first two occupy the rich and beautiful Kangra Valley.
+They are separated from the other three _tahsils_ by a medley of low
+hills with a general trend from N.W. to S.E. They are drained by the
+Bias, and are much more broken and poorer than the Kangra Valley. The
+tea industry, once important, is now dead so far as carried on by
+English planters. The low hills have extensive _chir_ pine forests. They
+have to be managed mainly in the interests of the local population, and
+are so burdened with rights that conservation is a very difficult
+problem. In 1911 the population of the five _tahsils_ amounted to
+645,583. The most important tribes are Brahmans, Rajputs, and
+hardworking Girths. The hill Brahman is usually a farmer pure and
+simple.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93. Kulu Women.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2247 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1128 sq. m.
+Pop. 918,569;
+54 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 14,22,527
+= L494,835.]
+
+~Hoshyarpur~ became a British possession in 1846 after the first Sikh
+War. It is a typically submontane district. A line of low bare hills
+known as the Solasinghi Range divides it from Kangra. Further west the
+Katar dhar, a part of the Siwaliks, runs through the heart of the
+district. Between these two ranges lies the fertile Jaswan Dun
+corresponding to the Una _tahsil_. The other three _tahsils_,
+Garhshankar, Hoshyarpur, and Dasuya, are to the west of the Katar dhar.
+Una is drained by the Soan, a tributary of the Sutlej. The western
+_tahsils_ have a light loam soil of great fertility, except where it has
+been overlaid by sand from the numerous _chos_ or torrents which issue
+from the Siwaliks. The denudation of that range was allowed to go on for
+an inordinate time with disastrous results to the plains below. At last
+the Panjab Land Preservation (_Chos_) Act II of 1890 gave the Government
+power to deal with the evil, but it will take many years to remedy the
+mischief wrought by past inaction. The rainfall averages about 32 inches
+and the crops are secure. The population has fallen off by 93,000 in 20
+years, a striking instance of the ravages of plague. The chief tribes
+are Jats, Rajputs, and Gujars.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1431 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1069 sq. m.
+Pop. 801,920;
+45 p.c. M.
+33 p.c. H.
+22 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 14,77,661
+= L98,511.]
+
+~Jalandhar District.~--Modern though the town of Jalandhar looks it was
+the capital of a large Hindu kingdom, which included also Hoshyarpur,
+Mandi, Suket, and Chamba, and in the ninth century was a rival of
+Kashmir (page 160). The present district is with the exception of Simla
+the smallest, and for its size the richest, in the province. It contains
+four _tahsils_, Nawashahr, Phillaur, Jalandhar, and Nakodar. About 45
+p.c. of the cultivation is protected by 28,000 wells. Behind the long
+river frontage on the Sutlej is the Bet, divided by a high bank from the
+more fertile uplands. The soil of the latter is generally an excellent
+loam, but there is a good deal of sand in the west of the district. The
+rainfall averages about 26 inches and the climate is healthy. The well
+cultivation is the best in the Panjab. Between 1901 and 1911 the
+population declined by 13 p.c. Jats and Arains, both excellent
+cultivators, are the predominant tribes. British rule dates from 1846.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1452 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1143 sq. m.
+Pop. 517,192;
+40 p.c. S.
+35 p.c. M
+25 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 11,57,399
+= L77,160.]
+
+~Ludhiana~ on the opposite bank of the Sutlej is also a very small
+district. It consists of a river Bet and Uplands with generally speaking
+a good loam soil. But there are very sandy outlying estates in the
+Jangal Des surrounded by Patiala and Jind villages. There are three
+_tahsils_, Samrala, Ludhiana, and Jagraon. Of the cultivated area 26
+p.c. is irrigated, from wells (19) and from the Sirhind Canal (7). Wheat
+and gram are the principal crops. Between 1901 and 1911 the population
+fell from 673,097 to 517,192, the chief cause of decline being plague.
+
+Sturdy hard-working Jats are the backbone of the peasantry. They furnish
+many recruits to the Army. Ludhiana is a thriving town and an important
+station on the N.W. Railway. Our connection with Ludhiana began in 1809,
+and the district assumed practically its present shape in 1846 after the
+first Sikh War.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 4286 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+3504 sq. m.
+Pop. 959,657;
+44 p.c. M.
+29 p.c. H.
+27 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 11,79,924
+= L78,661.]
+
+~Ferozepore~ is a very large district. The Faridkot State nearly cuts it
+in two. The northern division includes the _tahsils_ of Ferozepore,
+Zira, and Moga, the last with an outlying tract known as Mahraj, which
+forms an island surrounded by the territory of several native states.
+The southern division contains the _tahsils_ of Muktsar and Fazilka. Our
+connection with Ferozepore began in 1809, and, when the widow of the
+last Sikh chief of Ferozepore died in 1835, we assumed direct
+responsibility for the administration of a considerable part of the
+district. Two of the great battles of the first Sikh War, Mudki and
+Ferozeshah or more properly Pherushahr, were fought within its borders.
+Mamdot with an area of about 400 square miles ceased to be independent
+in 1855, but the descendant of the last ruler still holds it in _jagir_.
+Fazilka was added in 1864 when the Sirsa district was broken up. Of the
+cultivated area 47-1/2 p.c. is irrigated by the Sirhind Canal, the Grey
+Inundation Canals, and wells. For the most part the district is divided
+into three tracts, the riverain, Hithar or Bet, with a poor clay soil
+and a weak population, the Utar, representing river deposits of an older
+date when the Sutlej ran far west of its present bed, and the Rohi, an
+upland plain of good sandy loam, now largely irrigated by the Sirhind
+Canal. The Grey Canals furnish a far less satisfactory source of
+irrigation to villages in the Bet and Utar. In different parts of this
+huge district the rainfall varies from 10 to 22 inches. The chief crops
+are gram and wheat. The Jats are the chief tribe. In the Uplands they
+are a fine sturdy race, but unfortunately they are addicted to strong
+drink, and violent crime is rife. Ferozepore has a large cantonment and
+arsenal and a big trade in grain. It is an important railway junction.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+12,387 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+7924 sq. m.
+Pop 4,656,629;
+57 p.c. M.
+24 p.c. H.
+16 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 70,53,856
+= L470,257.]
+
+~Lahore Division.~--Lahore is the smallest division, but the first in
+population. Its political importance is great as the home of the Sikhs
+of the Manjha, and because the capital of the province and the sacred
+city of the _Khalsa_ are both within its limits. It contains the five
+districts of Gurdaspur, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Lahore, and Amritsar. The
+Commissioner is in political charge of the Chamba State.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1809 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1281 sq. m.
+Pop. 836,771;
+49 p.c. M.
+34 p.c. H.
+14-1/2 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 17,68,412
+= L117,894.]
+
+~Gurdaspur~ is a submontane district with a good rainfall and a large
+amount of irrigation. The crops are secure except in part of the
+Shakargarh _tahsil_. 27 p.c. of the cultivated area is irrigated, 16 by
+wells and 11 by the Upper Bari Doab Canal. Irrigation is only allowed
+from the Canal for the Autumn harvest. The chief crop is wheat and the
+area under cane is unusually large. Of late years plague has been very
+fatal and the population fell from 940,334 in 1901 to 836,771 in 1911.
+Jats, Rajputs, Arains, Gujars, and Brahmans, are the chief agricultural
+tribes, the first being by far the most important element. There are
+four _tahsils_, Batala, Gurdaspur, and Pathankot in the Bari Doab, and
+Shakargarh to the west of the Ravi. Batala is one of the most fertile
+and prosperous tracts in the Panjab and Gurdaspur is also thriving.
+Pathankot is damp, fever stricken, and unprosperous. It lies mostly in
+the plains but contains a considerable area in the low hills and higher
+up two enclaves, Bakloh and Dalhousie, surrounded by Chamba villages.
+Shakargarh is much more healthy, and is better off than Pathankot. There
+is good duck and snipe shooting to be got in some parts of the district,
+as the drainage from the hills collects in swamps and _jhils_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99.]
+
+Area, 1991 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1427 sq. m.
+Pop. 979,553;
+62 p.c. M.
+25 p.c. H.
+ 8 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 14,79,390
+= L98,626.
+
+~Sialkot~ is another secure and fully cultivated submontane district. It
+lies wholly in the Rechna Doab and includes a small well-watered hilly
+tract, Bajwat, on the borders of Jammu. The Ravi divides Sialkot from
+Amritsar an the Chenab separates it from Gujrat. The Degh and some
+smaller torrents run through the district. In the south there is much
+hard sour clay, part hitherto unculturable. But irrigation from the
+Upper Chenab Canal will give a new value to it. There are five
+_tahsils_, Zafarwal, Sialkot, Daska, Pasrur, and Raya. The chief crop is
+wheat which is largely grown on the wells, numbering 22,000. The
+pressure of the population on the soil was considerable, but since 1891
+the total has fallen from 1,119,847 to 979,553 as the result of plague
+and emigration to the new canal colonies. Christianity has obtained a
+considerable number of converts in Sialkot. The Jats form the backbone
+of the peasantry. Rajputs and Arains are also important tribes, but
+together they are not half as numerous as the Jats.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 4802 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+2166 sq. m.
+Pop. 923,419.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 15,43,440
+= L102,896.]
+
+~Gujranwala~ is a very large district in the Rechna Doab, with five
+_tahsils_, Wazirabad, Gujranwala, Sharakpur, Hafizabad, and Khangah
+Dogran. The rainfall varies from 20 inches on the Sialkot border to ten
+or eleven in the extreme south-west corner of the district. Gujranwala
+is naturally divided into three tracts: the Riverain of the Ravi and
+Chenab, the Bangar or well tract, and the Bar once very partially
+cultivated, but now commanded by the Lower and Upper Chenab Canals.
+Enormous development has taken place in the Hafizabad and Khangah Dogran
+_tahsils_ in the 20 years since the Lower Chenab Canal was opened. Of
+late years the rest of the district has suffered from plague and
+emigration, and has not prospered. But a great change will be effected
+by irrigation from the Upper Chenab Canal, which is just beginning. In
+the east of the district much sour clay will become culturable land, and
+the Bar will be transformed as in the two _tahsils_ watered by the older
+canal. Of the cultivated area 73-1/2 p.c. is irrigated, 36-1/2 from
+wells and 37 from canals. The chief crops are wheat and gram. There is,
+as is usual in the Western Panjab, a great preponderance of Spring
+crops. The Jats are far and away the strongest element in the
+population.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1601 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1184 sq. m.
+Pop. 880,728;
+46 p.c. M.
+29 p.c. S.
+24 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 12,70,799
+= L84,720.]
+
+~Amritsar~ is a small district lying in the Bari Doab between Gurdaspur
+and Lahore. 62 p.c. of the cultivated area is irrigated, half from
+12,000 wells and half from the Upper Bari Doab Canal. Unfortunately much
+waterlogging exists, due to excessive use of canal water and defective
+drainage. Measures are now being taken to deal with this great evil,
+which has made the town of Amritsar and other parts of the district
+liable to serious outbreaks of fever. There are two small riverain
+tracts on the Bias and Ravi and a poor piece of country in Ajnala
+flooded by the Sakki. The main part of the district is a monotonous
+plain of fertile loam. The two western _tahsils_, Amritsar and Tarn
+Taran, are prosperous, Ajnala is depressed. The rainfall is moderate
+averaging 21 or 22 inches, and the large amount of irrigation makes the
+harvests secure. The chief crops are wheat and gram.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101.]
+
+The Sikh Jats of the Manjha to the south of the Grand Trunk Road form by
+far the most important element in the population. Between 1901 and 1911
+there was a falling off from 1,023,828 to 880,728. Besides its religious
+importance the town of Amritsar is a great trade centre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2824 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1866 sq. m.
+Pop. 1,036,158.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 991,815
+= L66,121.]
+
+~Lahore~ lies in the Bari Doab to the south-west of Amritsar. It is a
+much larger district, though, like Amritsar, it has only three
+_tahsils_, Lahore, Kasur, and Chunian. 76 p.c. of the cultivated area is
+irrigated, 23 from wells and 53 from canals. There has been an enormous
+extension of irrigation from the Upper Bari Doab Canal in the past 30
+years. Accordingly, though the rainfall is somewhat scanty, the crops
+are generally secure. The principal are wheat and gram. The district
+consists of the Riverain on the Bias and Ravi, the latter extending to
+both sides of the river, and the plain of the Manjha, largely held by
+strong and energetic Sikh Jats. In the Ravi valley industrious Arains
+predominate. Railway communications are excellent. Trade activity is not
+confined to the city of Lahore. Kasur, Chunian, and Raiwind are
+important local centres.
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+21,361 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+8099 sq.m.
+Pop. 3,353,052;
+87 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 50,43,587
+= L336,239.]
+
+The ~Rawalpindi Division~ occupies the N.W. of the Panjab. It is in area
+the second largest division, but in population the smallest. Five-sixths
+of the people profess the faith of Islam. It includes six districts,
+Gujrat, Jhelam, Rawalpindi, Attock, Mianwali, and Shahpur. This is the
+division from which the Panjab Musalmans, who form so valuable an
+element in our army, are drawn.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2357 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1369 sq. m.
+Pop. 784,011.
+Land Rev.
+Ra. 887,220
+= L59,148.]
+
+~Gujrat~ lies in the Jech Doab. The two northern _tahsils_, Gujrat and
+Kharian, have many of the features of a submontane tract. In the former
+the Pabbi, a small range of low bare hills, runs parallel to the Jhelam,
+and the outliers of the Himalaya in Kashmir are not far from the
+northern border of the district. The uplands of these two _tahsils_
+slope pretty rapidly from N.E. to S.W., and contain much light soil.
+They are traversed by sandy torrents, dry in winter, but sometimes very
+destructive in the rains. Phalia on the other hand is a typical plain's
+_tahsil_. It has on the Chenab a wide riverain, which also separates the
+uplands of the Gujrat _tahsil_ from that river. The Jhelam valley is
+much narrower. Above the present Chenab alluvial tract there is in
+Phalia a well tract known as the Hithar whose soil consists of older
+river deposits, and at a higher level a Bar, which will now receive
+irrigation from the Upper Jhelam Canal and become a rich agricultural
+tract. 26 p.c. of the cultivated area is irrigated from wells. Jats and
+Gujars are the great agricultural tribes, the former predominating. The
+climate is mild and the rainfall sufficient. The chief crops are wheat
+and _bajra_.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2813 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1162 sq. m.
+Pop. 511,575;
+88 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Ra. 752,758
+= L50,183.]
+
+The ~Jhelam district~ lies to the north of the river of the same name.
+The district is divided into three _tahsils_, Jhelam, Chakwal, Pind
+Dadan Khan. The river frontage is long, extending for about 80 miles,
+and the river valley is about eight miles wide. The district contains
+part of the Salt Range, from the eastern end of which the Nili and Tilla
+spurs strike northwards, enclosing very broken ravine country called the
+Khuddar. The Pabbi tract, embracing the Chakwal _tahsil_ and the north
+of the Jhelam _tahsil_, is much less broken, though it too is scored by
+deep ravines and traversed by torrents, mostly flowing north-west into
+the Sohan river. Two large torrents, the Kaha and the Bunhar, drain into
+the Jhelam. There are some fertile valleys enclosed in the bare hills of
+the Salt Range. The average rainfall is about 20 inches and the climate
+is good. It is hot in summer, but the cold weather is long, and
+sometimes for short periods severe. There is little irrigation and the
+harvests are by no means secure. The chief crops are wheat and _bajra_.
+The country breeds fine horses, fine cattle, and fine men. Numerically
+Jats, Rajputs, and Awans are the principal tribes, but the Janjuas and
+Gakkhars, though fewer in number, are an interesting element in the
+population, having great traditions behind them. Awans, Janjuas, and
+Gakkhars supply valuable recruits to the army. Most of the villages are
+far from any railway.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2010 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+937 sq. m.
+Pop. 547,827;
+83 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 674,650
+= L44,977.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105.]
+
+~Rawalpindi~ is the smallest district in the division. Along the whole
+eastern border the Jhelam, which runs in a deep gorge, divides it from
+Kashmir. There are four _tahsils_, Murree, Kahuta, Rawalpindi, and Gujar
+Khan. The first is a small wedge of mountainous country between Kashmir
+and Hazara. The hills are continued southwards at a lower level in the
+Kahuta _tahsil_ parallel with the Jhelam. The greater part of the
+district consists of a high plateau of good light loam, in parts much
+eaten into by ravines. Where, as often happens, it is not flat the
+fields have to be carefully banked up. The plateau is drained by the
+Sohan and the Kanshi. The latter starting in the south of Kahuta runs
+through the south-east of the Gujar Khan _tahsil_, and for some miles
+forms the boundary of the Rawalpindi and Jhelam districts. The district
+is very fully cultivated except in the hills. In the plains the rainfall
+is sufficient and the soil very cool and clean, except in the extreme
+west, where it is sometimes gritty, and, while requiring more, gets
+less, rain. The chief crops are wheat, the _Kharif_ pulses and _bajra_.
+The climate is good. The cold weather is long, and, except in January
+and February, when the winds from the snows are very trying, it is
+pleasant. In the plains the chief tribes are Rajputs and Awans. Gakkhars
+are of some importance in Kahuta. In the Murree the leading tribes are
+the Dhunds and the Sattis, the latter a fine race, keen on military
+service.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106. Shop in Murree Bazar.]
+
+~Rawalpindi~ is the largest cantonment in Northern India. From it the
+favourite hill station of Murree is easily reached, and soon after
+leaving Murree the traveller crosses the Jhelam by the Kohala bridge and
+enters the territory of the Maharaja of Kashmir.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 4025 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1678 sq. m.
+Pop. 519,273;
+91 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 672,851
+=L44,857.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107.]
+
+~Attock district.~--Though Attock is twice the size of Rawalpindi it has
+a smaller population. Nature has decreed that it should be sparsely
+peopled. The district stretches from the Salt Range on the south to the
+Hazara border on the north. It contains itself the fine Kalachitta range
+in the north, the small and barren Khairi Murat range in the centre, and
+a line of bare hills running parallel with the Indus in the west. That
+river forms the western boundary for 120 miles, dividing Attock from
+Peshawar and Kohat. It receives in the Attock district two tributaries,
+the Haro and the Soan. There are four _tahsils_, Attock, Fatehjang,
+Pindigheb, and Talagang. The northern _tahsil_ of Attock is most
+favoured by nature. It contains the Chach plain, part of which has a
+rich soil and valuable well irrigation, also on the Hazara border a
+small group of estates watered by cuts from the Haro. The south of the
+_tahsil_ is partly sandy and partly has a dry gritty or stony soil. Here
+the crops are very insecure. The rest of the district is a plateau. The
+northern part consists of the _tahsils_ of Fatehjang and Pindigheb
+drained by the Soan and its tributary the Sil. The southern is occupied
+by _tahsil_ Talagang, a rough plateau with deep ravines and torrents
+draining northwards into the Soan. In the valleys of the Sil and Soan
+some good crops are raised. The soil of the plateau is very shallow, and
+the rainfall being scanty the harvest is often dried up. The chief crops
+are wheat and _bajra_. Awans form the bulk of the agricultural
+population.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 5395 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1020 sq. m.
+Pop. 341,377;
+88 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 359,836
+= L23,989.]
+
+~Mianwali~ is one of the largest districts, but has the smallest
+population of any except Simla. The Indus has a course of about 180
+miles in Mianwali. In the north it forms the boundary between the
+Mianwali _tahsil_ and the small Isakhel _tahsil_ on the right bank. In
+the south it divides the huge Bhakkar _tahsil_, which is bigger than an
+average district, from the Dera Ismail Khan district of the N.W.F.
+Province. It is joined from the west by the Kurram, which has a short
+course in the south of the Isakhel _tahsil_. The Salt Range extends into
+the district, throwing off from its western extremity a spur which runs
+north to the Indus opposite Kalabagh. Four tracts may be distinguished,
+two large and two small. North and east of the Salt Range is the Khuddar
+or ravine country, a little bit of the Awankari or Awan's land, which
+occupies a large space in Attock. West of the Indus in the north the
+wild and desolate Bhangi-Khel glen with its very scanty and scattered
+cultivation runs north to the Kohat Hills. The rest of the district
+consists of the wide and flat valley of the Indus and the Thal or
+Uplands. In the north the latter includes an area of strong thirsty
+loam, but south of the railway it is a huge expanse of sand rising
+frequently into hillocks and ridges with some fertile bottoms of better
+soil. Except in the north the Thal people used to make their living
+almost entirely as shepherds and camel owners. There were scattered
+little plots of better soil where wells were sunk, and the laborious and
+careful cultivation was and is Dutch in its neatness. Some millets were
+grown in the autumn and the sandhills yielded melons. The people have
+now learned that it is worth while to gamble with a spring crop of gram,
+and this has led to an enormous extension of the cultivated area. But
+even now in Mianwali this is a comparatively small fraction of the total
+area. There is a small amount of irrigation from wells and in the
+neighbourhood of Isakhel from canal cuts from the Kurram. Owing to the
+extreme scantiness of the rainfall the riverain depends almost entirely
+on the Indus floods, to assist the spread of which a number of
+embankments are maintained. Everywhere in Mianwali the areas both of
+crops sown and of crops that ripen fluctuate enormously, and much of the
+revenue has accordingly been put on a fluctuating basis. The chief crops
+are wheat, _bajra_, and gram. Jats[12] are in a great majority
+Cis-Indus, but Pathans are important in Isakhel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 4791 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1933 sq. m.
+Pop. 648,989.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 16,96,272
+= L113,085.]
+
+~Shahpur~ is also a very large district with the three _tahsils_ of
+Bhera, Shahpur, and Sargodha in the Jech Doab, and on the west of the
+Jhelam the huge Khushab _tahsil_, which in size exceeds the other three
+put together. The principal tribes are Jats Cis-Jhelam, Awans in the
+Salt Range, and Jats and Tiwanas in Khushab. The Tiwana Maliks have
+large estates on both sides of the river and much local influence. East
+of the Jhelam the colonization of the Bar after the opening of the Lower
+Jhelam Canal has led to a great increase of population and a vast
+extension of the cultivated area, 71 p.c. of which is irrigated. The
+part of the district in the Jech Doab consists of the river valleys of
+the Chenab and Jhelam, the Utar, and the Bar. The Chenab riverain is
+poor, the Jhelam very fertile with good well irrigation. In the north of
+the district the Utar, a tract of older alluvium, lies between the
+present valley of the Jhelam and the Bar. It has hitherto been largely
+irrigated by public and private inundation canals, but this form of
+irrigation may be superseded by the excavation of a new distributary
+from the Lower Jhelam Canal. Till the opening of that canal the Bar was
+a vast grazing area with a little cultivation on scattered wells and in
+natural hollows. North of the Kirana Hill the soil is excellent and the
+country is now a sheet of cultivation. In the south of the Bar much of
+the land is too poor to be worth tillage. The Khushab _tahsil_ consists
+of the Jhelam riverain, the Salt Range with some fertile valleys hidden
+amid barren hills, the Mohar below the hills with a thirsty soil
+dependent on extremely precarious torrent floods, and the Thal, similar
+to that described on page 260. The rainfall of the district is scanty
+averaging eleven or twelve inches. The chief crops are wheat, _bajra_
+and _jowar_, _chari_ and cotton.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+28,652 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+9160 sq. m.
+Pop. 3,772,728;
+78 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 81,48,103
+= L542,872.]
+
+The ~Multan~ division consists of the six districts of the S.W. Panjab,
+Montgomery, Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargarh, and Dera Ghazi Khan.
+Muhammadans are in an overwhelming majority. Wheat and cotton are the
+chief crops.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 4649 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1080 sq. m.
+Pop. 535,299;
+75 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 434,563
+= L28,971.]
+
+The ~Montgomery~ district takes its name from Sir Robert Montgomery
+(page 192). It lies in the Bari Doab between the Sutlej and the Ravi. It
+consists of the two Ravi _tahsils_ of Gugera and Montgomery, and the two
+Sutlej _tahsils_ of Dipalpur and Pakpattan. The trans-Ravi area of the
+Montgomery district was transferred to Lyallpur in April, 1913. It is
+included in the figures for area and population given in the margin.
+
+The backbone of the district is a high and dry tract known as the Ganji
+or Bald Bar. The advent of the Lower Bari Doab Canal will entirely
+change the character of this desert. Its south-eastern boundary is a
+high bank marking the course of the old bed of the Bias. Below this is
+the wide Sutlej valley. The part beyond the influence of river floods
+depends largely on the Khanwah and Sohag Para inundation Canals. The
+Ravi valley to the north-west of the Bar is naturally fertile and has
+good well irrigation. But it has suffered much by the failure of the
+Ravi floods.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110.]
+
+
+The peasantry belongs largely to various tribes described vaguely as
+Jats. The most important are Kathias, Wattus, and Kharrals. The last
+gave trouble in 1857 and were severely punished. The Dipalpur Kambohs
+are much more hard-working than these semi-pastoral Jats. There is
+already a small canal colony on the Sohag Para Canals and arrangements
+for the colonization of the Ganji Bar are now in progress.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3156 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+2224 sq. m.
+Pop. 857,711;
+61 p.c. M.
+18 p.c. H.
+17 p.c. S.
+ 4 p.c. Ch.[13]
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 37,55,139
+= L237,009.]
+
+The ~Lyallpur district~ occupies most of the Sandal Bar, which a quarter
+of a century ago was a desert producing scrub jungle and, if rains were
+favourable, excellent grass. It was the home of a few nomad graziers.
+The area of the district, which was formed in 1904 and added to from
+time to time, has been taken out of the Crown Waste of the Jhang and
+Montgomery districts on its colonization after the opening of the Lower
+Chenab Canal. Some old villages near the present borders of these two
+districts have been included. The colonization of the Sandal Bar has
+been noticed on pages 139-140. The figures for area and population given
+in the margin are for the district as it was before the addition of the
+trans-Ravi area of Montgomery.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111.]
+
+Lyallpur is divided into the four _tahsils_ of Lyallpur, Jaranwala,
+Samundri, and Toba Tek Singh. It consists almost entirely of a flat
+plain of fertile loam with fringes of poor land on the eastern, western,
+and southern edges. The cultivated area is practically all canal
+irrigated. The rainfall of 10 inches does not encourage dry cultivation.
+The chief crops are wheat, the oil seed called _toria_, cotton, and
+gram. The area of the first much exceeds that of the other three put
+together. There is an enormous export of wheat and oil seeds to Karachi.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3363 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1214 sq. m.
+Pop. 515,526;
+82 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 11,67,965
+= L77,864.]
+
+~Jhang~ now consists of a wedge of country lying between Lyallpur on the
+east and Shahpur, Mianwali, and Muzaffargarh on the west. It contains
+the valleys of the Chenab and Jhelam rivers, which unite to the
+south-west of the district headquarters and flow as a single stream to
+the southern boundary. The valley of the Jhelam is pretty and fertile,
+that of the Chenab exactly the reverse. In the west of the district part
+of the Thal is included in the boundary. The high land between the river
+valleys is much of it poor. Irrigation from the Lower Jhelam Canal is
+now available. There is a fringe of high land on the east of the Chenab
+valley, partly commanded by the Lower Chenab Canal. Jhang is divided
+into the three large _tahsils_ of Jhang, Chiniot, and Shorkot. The
+rainfall is about ten inches and the summer long and very hot. The chief
+crops are wheat, _jowar_, and _chari_. The Sials are few in number, but
+are the tribe that stands highest in rank as representing the former
+rulers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 6107 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1756 sq. m.
+Pop. 814,871;
+82 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 13,74,472
+= L91,631.]
+
+~Multan~ occupies the south of the Bari Doab. The Ravi flows from east
+to west across the north of the district and falls into the Chenab
+within its boundary. The Sutlej meets the combined stream of the Jhelam,
+Chenab, and Ravi at the south-west corner of the district.
+
+A part of the Kabirwala _tahsil_ lies beyond the Ravi. The other four
+_tahsils_ are Multan, Shujabad, Lodhran, and Mailsi. In a very hot
+district with an average rainfall of six inches cultivation must depend
+on irrigation or river floods. The present sources of irrigation are
+inundation canals from the Chenab and Sutlej supplemented by well
+irrigation, and the Sidhnai Canal from the Ravi. The district consists
+of the river valleys, older alluvial tracts slightly higher than these
+valleys, but which can be reached by inundation canals[14], and the high
+central Bar, which is a continuation of the Ganji Bar in Montgomery.
+Part of this will be served by the new Lower Bari Doab Canal. The
+population consists mainly of miscellaneous tribes grouped together
+under the name of Jats, the ethnological significance of which in the
+Western Panjab is very slight. They are Muhammadans. The district is
+well served by railways.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 6052 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1163 sq. m.
+Pop. 569,461;
+87 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 873,491
+= L58,233.]
+
+~Muzaffargarh~ is with the exception of Kangra the biggest Panjab
+district. It forms a large triangle with its apex in the south at the
+junction of the Indus and Panjnad. On the west the Indus forms the
+boundary for 180 miles. On the east Muzaffargarh has a river boundary
+with Bahawalpur and Multan, but, where it marches with Jhang, is
+separated from it by the area which that district possesses in the Sind
+Sagar Doab. There are four _tahsils_, Leia, Sinanwan, Muzaffargarh, and
+Alipur, the first being equal in area to a moderately sized district.
+The greater part of Leia and Sinanwan is occupied by the Thal. The
+southern tongue of the Thal extends into the Muzaffargarh _tahsil_. The
+rest of that district is a heavily inundated or irrigated tract, the
+part above flood level being easily reached by inundation canals. Dry
+cultivation is impossible with a yearly rainfall of about six inches.
+The chief crop is wheat. In the south of the district the people live in
+frail grass huts, and when the floods are out transfer themselves and
+their scanty belongings to wooden platforms.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 5325 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1723 sq. m.
+Pop. 499,860;
+88 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 542,473
+= L36,165.]
+
+~Dera Ghazi Khan district.~--When the N. W. Frontier Province was
+separated from the Panjab, the older province retained all the
+trans-Indus country in which Biluches were the predominant tribe. The
+Panjab therefore kept Dera Ghazi Khan. It has a river frontage on the
+Indus about 230 miles in length and on the west is bounded by the
+Suliman Range, part of which is included within the district. The Deputy
+Commissioner of Dera Ghazi Khan and the Commissioner of Multan spend
+part of the hot weather at Fort Munro. The wide Indus valley is known as
+the Sindh. The tract between it and the Hills is the Pachadh. It is
+seamed by hill torrents, three of which, the Vehoa, the Sangarh, and the
+Kaha, have a thread of water even in the cold season. The heat in summer
+is extreme, and the _luh_, a moving current of hot air, claims its human
+victims from time to time. The cultivation in the Sindh depends on the
+river floods and inundation canals, helped by wells. In the Pachadh dams
+are built to divert the water of the torrents into embanked fields. The
+cultivated area is recorded as 1723 square miles, but this is enormously
+in excess of the cropped areas, for a very large part of the embanked
+area is often unsown. The encroachments of the Indus have enforced the
+transfer of the district headquarters from Dera Ghazi Khan to a new town
+at Choratta. Biluches are the dominant tribe both in numbers and
+political importance. They with few exceptions belong to one or other of
+the eight organized clans or tumans, Kasranis, Sori Lunds, Khosas,
+Lagharis, Tibbi Lunds, Gurchanis, Drishaks, and Mazaris. The most
+important clans are Mazaris, Lagharis, and Gurchanis. Care has been
+taken to uphold the authority of the chiefs. The Deputy Commissioner is
+political officer for such of the independent Biluch tribes across the
+administrative frontier as are not included in the Biluchistan Agency.
+Regular troops have all been removed from the district. The peace of the
+borderland is maintained by a tribal militia under the command of a
+British officer.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 8: Some estates lying to the east of the Jamna and belonging
+to the United Provinces have recently been added to the enclave.]
+
+[Footnote 9: H. = Hindu, M. = Muhammadan, S. = Sikh.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Not shown in map.]
+
+[Footnote 11: See page 169.]
+
+[Footnote 12: This leading tribe in the Panjab is known as Jat in the
+Hindi-speaking Eastern districts and as Jat elsewhere.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Ch.=Christian.]
+
+[Footnote 14: There is a project for improving the water-supply of
+inundation canals in the west of the district by building a weir across
+the Chenab below its junction with the Jhelam.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+THE PANJAB NATIVE STATES
+
+
+1. _The Phulkian States_
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 7599 sq. m.
+Pop. 1,928,724.
+Rev.
+Rs. 118,00,000
+= L786,666.]
+
+~Phulkian States.~--The three Phulkian States of Patiala, Jind, and
+Nabha form a political agency under the Panjab Government. They occupy,
+with Bahawalpur and Hissar, the bulk of that great wedge of light loam
+and sand which Rajputana, physically considered, pushes northwards
+almost to the Sutlej. In the Phulkian States this consists of two
+tracts, the Powadh and the Jangal Des. The former, which occupies the
+north and north-east of their territory, possesses a light fertile loam
+soil and a very moderate natural water level, so that well irrigation is
+easy. The Jangal Des is a great tract of sandy loam and sand in the
+south-west. Water lies too deep for the profitable working of wells, but
+the harvests are far less insecure than one would suppose looking to the
+scantiness of the rainfall. The soil is wonderfully cool and
+drought-resisting. The dry cultivation consists of millets in the
+Autumn, and of gram and mixed crops of wheat or barley and gram in the
+Spring, harvest. The three states have rather more than a one-third
+share in the Sirhind Canal, their shares _inter se_ being Patiala 83.6,
+Nabha 8.8, and Jind 7.6. Portions of the Powadh and Jangal Des are
+irrigated. In the case of the Powadh there has been in some places over
+irrigation considering how near the surface the water table is. The
+Nirwana _tahsil_ in Patiala and the part of Jind which lies between
+Karnal and Rohtak is a bit of the Bangar tract of the south-eastern
+Panjab, with a strong loam soil and a naturally deep water level. The
+former receives irrigation from the Sirsa, and the latter from the
+Hansi, branch of the Western Jamna Canal. The outlying tracts to the
+south of Rohtak and Gurgaon, acquired after the Mutiny, are part of the
+dry sandy Rajputana desert, in which the _Kharif_ is the chief harvest,
+and the millets and gram the principal crops. In addition Patiala has an
+area of 294 square miles of territory immediately below and in the Simla
+Hills. The territory of the Phulkian States is scattered and intermixed,
+and they have islands in British districts and _vice versa_, a natural
+result of their historic origin and development.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116. Maharaja of Patiala.]
+
+Phul was the sixth in descent from Baryam, a Sidhu Jat, to whom Babar
+gave the _Chaudhrayat_ of the wild territory to the south-west of Delhi,
+making him in effect a Lord of the Marches.
+
+_Tree showing relationship of the three Houses_.
+
+                 Phul
+                   |
+           +-------+-------------+
+        Tiloka                 Rama
+    +------+------+              |
+Gurditta      Sukhchen     Raja Ala Singh
+    |             |          of Patiala
+    |             |
+Suratya    Raja Gajpat Singh
+    |          of Jind
+    |
+Raja Hamir Singh
+of Nabha
+
+The century and more which elapsed between the grant and Phul's death in
+1652 were filled with continual fighting with the Bhattis. Phul's second
+son Rama obtained from the Governor of Sirhind the _Chaudhrayat_ of the
+Jangal Des. When Ahmad Shah defeated the Sikhs near Barnala in 1762,
+Rama's son, Ala Singh, was one of his prisoners. He was a chief of such
+importance that his conqueror gave him the title of Raja and the right
+to coin money. But Ala Singh found it prudent to join next year in the
+capture of Sirhind. From the division of territory which followed the
+separate existence of the Phulkian States begins. The manner in which
+they came in 1809 under British protection has already been related. The
+Raja of Patiala was our ally in the Gurkha War in 1814, and received the
+Pinjaur _tahsil_. The active loyalty displayed in 1857 was suitably
+rewarded by accessions of territory. The right of adoption was
+conferred, and special arrangements made to prevent lapse, if
+nevertheless the line in any state failed.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 5412 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+4515 sq. m.
+Pop. 1,407,659;
+40 p.c. H.
+38 p.c. S.
+22 p.c. M.
+Rev.
+Rs. 82,00,000
+=L546,666.]
+
+~Patiala~ occupies five-sevenths of the Phulkian inheritance The
+predominant agricultural tribe is the Jats, over three-fourths of whom
+are Sikhs. The cultivated area is four-fifths of the total area. Over
+one-fourth of the former is irrigated, 27 p.c. from wells, and the rest
+from the two canals. In an area extending with breaks from Simla to the
+Rajputana desert the variations of agriculture are of course extreme.
+The state is excellently served by railways.
+
+~Nizamats.~--There are five _nizamats_ or districts, Pinjaur, Amargarh,
+Karmgarh, Anahadgarh, and Mohindargarh. Their united area is equivalent
+to that of two ordinary British districts. The Pinjaur _nizamat_ with
+headquarters at Rajpura covers only 825 square miles. Of its four
+_tahsils_ Pinjaur contains the submontane and hill tract, part of the
+latter being quite close to Simla. The other three _tahsils_ Rajpura,
+Bannur, and Ghanaur are in the Powadh. The Amargarh _nizamat_ with an
+area of 855 square miles comprises the three _tahsils_ of Fatehgarh,
+Sahibgarh, and Amargarh. The first two are rich and fertile well tracts.
+Amargarh is in the Jangal Des to the south-west of Sahibgarh. It
+receives irrigation from the Kotla branch of the Sirhind Canal. The
+Karmgarh _nizamat_ with an area of 1835 square miles contains the four
+_tahsils_ of Patiala, Bhawanigarh, Sunam, and Nirwana. The headquarters
+are at Bhawanigarh. The first three are partly in the Powadh, and partly
+in the Jangal Des. Nirwana is in the Bangar. There is much irrigation
+from the Sirhind and Western Jamna Canals. The Anahadgarh _nizamat_ lies
+wholly in the Jangal Des. It has an area of 1836 square miles, and is
+divided into three _tahsils_, Anahadgarh, Bhikhi, and Govindgarh. The
+headquarters are at Barnala or Anahadgarh. The Mohindarpur _nizamat_
+lies far away to the south on the borders of Jaipur and Alwar (see map
+on page 226). Its area is only 576 miles and it has two _tahsils_,
+Mohindargarh or Kanaud and Narnaul. Kanaud is the headquarters.
+
+The history down to 1763 has already been related. Raja Ala Singh died
+in 1765 and was succeeded by his grandson Amar Singh (1765-1781), who
+was occupied in continual warfare with his brother and his neighbours,
+as became a Sikh chieftain of those days. His son, Sahib Singh
+(1781-1813), came under British protection in 1809. Karm Singh
+(1813-1845), his successor, was our ally in the Gurkha War. Maharaja
+Narindar Singh, K.C.S.I. (1845-1862), was a wise and brave man, who gave
+manful and most important help in 1857. His son, Maharaja Mohindar Singh
+(1862-1876), succeeded at the age of ten and died 14 years later. His
+eldest son, Maharaja Rajindar Singh (1876-1900), was only four when he
+succeeded and died at the age of 28. Another long minority, that of the
+present Maharaja Bhupindar Singh, only came to an end a few years ago.
+In the last fifty years Patiala has in consequence of three minorities
+been governed, and as a rule successfully governed, for long periods by
+Councils of Regency. The State in 1879 sent a contingent of 1100 men to
+the Afghan War. It maintains an Imperial Service Force consisting of two
+fine regiments of infantry and one of cavalry. Maharaja Rajindar Singh
+went with one of these regiments to the Tirah Expedition.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1259 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1172 sq. m.
+Pop. 248,887;
+78 p.c. H. and J.[15]
+14 p.c. M.
+ 8 p.c. S.
+Rev.
+Rs. 19,00,000
+= L126,666.]
+
+~Jind.~--A third of the population of Jind consists of Hindu and Sikh
+Jats. There are two _nizamats_, Sangrur and Jind, the latter divided
+into the _tahsils_ of Jind and Dadri (map on page 226). The Sangrur
+villages are interspersed among those of the other Phulkian States, and
+form a part of the Jangal Des. Jind is in the Bangar, and Dadri,
+separated from Jind by the Rohtak district, is partly in Hariana and
+partly in the sandy Rajputana desert. The rainfall varies from 17 inches
+at Sangrur to ten inches at Dadri. Sangrur is irrigated by the Sirhind,
+and Jind by the Western Jamna, Canal. Dadri is a dry sandy tract, in
+which the Autumn millets are the chief crop. The revenue in 1911-12 was
+19 _lakhs_ (L126,700). For imperial service Jind keeps up a fine
+battalion of infantry 600 strong. The real founder of the state was
+Gajpat Singh, who was a chief of great vigour. He conquered Jind and in
+1774 deprived his relative, the chief of Nabha, of Sangrur. He died in
+1789. His successor, Raja Bhag Singh, was a good ally of the British
+Government. He died after a long and successful career in 1819. His son,
+Fateh Singh, only survived him by three years. Sangat Singh succeeded to
+troublous times and died childless in 1834. His second cousin, Raja
+Sarup Singh, was only allowed to inherit the territory acquired by
+Gajpat Singh, from whom he derived his claim. But the gallant and
+valuable services rendered by Raja Sarup Singh in 1857 enabled him to
+enlarge his State by the grant of the Dadri territory and of thirteen
+villages near Sangrur. He died in 1864. His son Raghubir Singh
+(1864-1887) was a vigorous and successful ruler. He gave loyal help in
+the Kuka outbreak and in the Second Afghan War. His grandson, the
+present Maharaja Ranbir Singh, K.C.S.I., was only eight when he
+succeeded, and Jind was managed by a Council of Regency for a number of
+years. Full powers were given to the chief in 1899.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117. Maharaja of Jind.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 928 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+806 sq. m.
+Pop. 248,887;
+51 p.c. H. and J.
+31 p.c. S.
+18 p.c. M.
+Rev.
+Rs. 17,00,000
+= L113,300.]
+
+~Nabha~ consists of twelve patches of territory in the north scattered
+among the possessions of Patiala, Jind, and Faridkot, and two other
+patches in the extreme south on the border of Gurgaon. The northern
+section of the state is divided into the eastern _nizamat_ of Amloh in
+the Powadh and the western _nizamat_ of Phul in the Jangal Des. Both now
+receive irrigation from the Sirhind Canal. The Bawal _nizamat_ is part
+of the arid Rajputana desert. Jats, who are mostly Sikhs, constitute 30
+p.c. of the population.
+
+The State is well served by railways, Nabha itself being on the
+Rajpura-Bhatinda line. The Maharaja maintains a battalion of infantry
+for imperial service. Hamir Singh, one of the chiefs who joined in the
+capture of Sirhind, may be considered the first Raja. He died in 1783
+and was succeeded by his young son, Jaswant Singh. When he grew to
+manhood Jaswant Singh proved a very capable chief and succeeded in
+aggrandising his State, which he ruled for 57 years. His son, Deoindar
+Singh (1840--47), was deposed, as he was considered to have failed to
+support the British Government when the Khalsa army crossed the Sutlej
+in 1845. A fourth of the Nabha territory was confiscated. Bharpur Singh,
+who became chief in 1857, did excellent service at that critical time,
+and the Bawal _nizamat_ was his reward. He was succeeded by his brother,
+Bhagwan Singh, in 1863. With Bhagwan Singh the line died out in 1871,
+but under the provisions of the _sanad_ granted after the Mutiny a
+successor was selected from among the Badrukhan chiefs in the person of
+the late Maharaja Sir Hira Singh. No choice could have been more happy.
+Hira Singh for 40 years ruled his State on old fashioned lines with much
+success. Those who had the privilege of his friendship will not soon
+forget the alert figure wasted latterly by disease, the gallant bearing,
+or the obstinate will of a Sikh chieftain of a type now departed. His
+son, Maharaja Ripudaman Singh, succeeded in 1911.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118. Maharaja Sir
+Hira Singh.]
+
+
+2. _Other Sikh States_
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 630 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+424 sq. m.
+Pop. 268,163.
+Rev.
+Rs. 14,00,000
+= L93,333,
+exclusive of
+Rs. 13,00,000
+= L86,666
+derived from the
+Oudh estates.]
+
+~Kapurthala.~--The main part consists of a strip of territory mostly in
+the valley of the Bias, and interposed between that river and Jalandhar.
+This is divided into the four _tahsils_ of Bholath, Dhilwan, Kapurthala,
+and Sultanpur. There is a small island of territory in Hoshyarpur, and a
+much larger one, the Phagwara _tahsil_, projecting southwards from the
+border of that district into Jalandhar. Two-thirds of the area is
+cultivated and the proportion of high-class crops is large. The chief
+agricultural tribes are the Muhammadan Arains and the Jats, most of whom
+are Sikhs.
+
+The real founder of the Kapurthala house was Sardar Jassa Singh
+Ahluwalia, who in 1763, when Sirhind fell, was the leading Sikh chief in
+the Panjab. He captured Kapurthala in 1771 and made it his headquarters,
+and died in 1783. A distant relative, Bagh Singh, succeeded. His
+successor, Fateh Singh, was a sworn brother of Ranjit Singh, with whom
+he exchanged turbans. But an alliance between the weak and the strong is
+not free from fears, and in 1826 Fateh Singh, who had large possessions
+south of the Sutlej, fled thither and asked the protection of the
+British Government. He returned however to Kapurthala in 1827, and the
+Maharaja never pushed matters with Fateh Singh to extremities. The
+latter died in 1836. His successor, Nihal Singh, was a timid man, and
+his failure to support the British in 1845 led to the loss of his
+Cis-Sutlej estates. In 1849 he took the English side and was given the
+title of Raja. Randhir Singh succeeded in 1852. His conspicuous services
+in the Mutiny were rewarded with the grant of estates in Oudh. The
+present Maharaja, Sir Jagatjit Singh Bahadur, G.C.S.I., is a grandson of
+Randhir Singh. He was a young child when he succeeded in 1877. The State
+maintains a battalion of infantry for imperial service.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119. Maharaja Sir Jagatjit Singh Bahadur, G.C.S.I.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 642 sq. m.
+Pop. 130,925.
+Rev.
+Rs. 11,50,000
+= L76,666.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120. Raja Brijindar Singh.]
+
+~Faridkot~ is a small wedge of territory which almost
+divides the Ferozepore district in two. The
+population is composed of Sikhs 42-1/2, Hindus
+and Jains 29, and Musalmans 28-1/2 p.c. Sikh
+Jats are the strongest tribe. The country
+is flat. In the west it is very sandy, but in the east
+the soil is firmer and is
+irrigated in part by the Sirhind
+Canal. The Chief, like
+the Phulkians, is a Sidhu
+Barar Jat, and, though not
+a descendant of Phul, unites
+his line with the Phulkians
+further back.  The present
+Raja, Brijindar Singh, is 17
+years of age, and the State
+is managed by a Council of
+Regency.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 168 sq.m.
+Pop. 55,915.
+Rev.
+Rs. 221,000
+= L14,733.]
+
+~Kalsia~ consists of a number of patches of territory in Ambala and an
+enclave in Ferozepore known as Chirak. The founder of the State was one
+of the Jats from the Panjab, who swept over Ambala after the capture of
+Sirhind in 1763, and carved out petty principalities, of which Kalsia is
+the only survivor (page 180). The capital is Chachrauli, eight or nine
+miles north-west of Jagadhri. The present Chief, Sardar Ravi Sher Singh,
+is a minor.
+
+
+3. _The Muhammadan States_
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+15,917 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1853 sq. m.
+Pop. 780,641;
+84 p.c. M.
+Rev.
+Rs. 35,00,000
+= L233,333.]
+
+~Bahawalpur~ is by far the largest of the Panjab States. But the greater
+part of it is at present desert, and the population, except in the river
+tract, is very sparse. Bahawalpur stretches from Ferozepore on the north
+to the Sindh border. It has a river frontage exceeding 300 miles on the
+Sutlej, Panjnad, and Indus. The cultivated area in 1903-4 was 1451
+square miles, and of this 83 p.c. was irrigated and 10 p.c. flooded. The
+rainfall is only five inches and the climate is very hot. South and east
+of the rivers is a tract of low land known as the "Sindh," which widens
+out to the south. It is partly flooded and partly irrigated by
+inundation canals with the help of wells. Palm groves are a conspicuous
+feature in the Sindh. Behind it is a great stretch of strong loam or
+"_pat_," narrow in the south, but widening out in the north. It is
+bounded on the south-east by a wide depression known as the Hakra,
+probably at one time the bed of the Sutlej. At present little
+cultivation is possible in the _pat_, but there is some hope that a
+canal taking out on the right bank of the Sutlej in Ferozepore may bring
+the water of that river back to it. South of the Hakra is a huge tract
+of sand and sand dunes, known as the Rohi or Cholistan, which is part of
+the Rajputana desert. There are three _nizamats_, Minchinabad in the
+north, Bahawalpur in the middle, and Khanpur in the south. The capital,
+Bahawalpur, is close to the bridge at Adamwahan by which the N.W.
+Railway crosses the Sutlej. The ruling family belongs to the Abbasi
+Daudpotra clan, and came originally from Sindh. Sadik Muhammad Khan, who
+received the title of Nawab from Nadir Shah, when he invaded the Derajat
+in 1739, may be considered the real founder of the State. The Nawab
+Muhummad Bahawal Khan III, threatened with invasion by Maharaja Ranjit
+Singh, made a treaty with the British Government in 1833. He was our
+faithful ally in the first Afghan War, and gave valuable help against
+Diwan Mulraj in 1848. The next three reigns extending from 1852 to 1866
+were brief and troubled. Nawab Sadik Muhummad Khan IV, who succeeded in
+1866, was a young child, and for the next thirteen years the State was
+managed by Captain Minchin and Captain L. H. Grey as Superintendents.
+The young Nawab was installed in 1879, and henceforth ruled with the
+help of a Council. In the Afghan War of 1879-1880 Bahawalpur did very
+useful service. The Nawab died in 1899. A short minority followed during
+which Colonel L. H. Grey again became Superintendent. The young Nawab,
+Muhammad Bahawal Khan V, had but a brief reign. He was succeeded by the
+present Chief, Nawab Sadik Muhummad Khan V, a child of eight or nine
+years. The State is managed by a Council aided by the advice of the
+political Agent. From 1903 to 1913, the Agent for the Phulkian States
+was in charge, but a separate Agent has recently been appointed for
+Bahawalpur and Faridkot. An efficient camel corps is maintained for
+imperial service.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121. Nawab Sadik Muhammad Khan.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 167 sq. m.
+Pop. 71,144.
+Rev.
+Rs. 900,000
+= L60,000.]
+
+~Malerkotla~ consists of a strip of territory to the south of the
+Ludhiana district. The capital is connected with Ludhiana by railway.
+The Nawab keeps up a company of Sappers and Miners for imperial service.
+He is an Afghan, and his ancestor held a position of trust under the
+Moghal Empire, and became independent on its decline. The independence
+of his successor was menaced by Maharaja Ranjit Singh when Malerkotla
+came under British protection in 1809.
+
+~Pataudi, Dujana, and Loharu.~--The three little Muhammadan States of
+Loharu, Dujana, and Pataudi are relics of the policy which in the
+opening years of the nineteenth century sought rigorously to limit our
+responsibilities to the west of the Jamna. Together they have an area of
+275 square miles, a population of 59,987 persons, and a revenue of Rs.
+269,500 (L18,000). The Chief of Loharu, Nawab Amir ud din Ahmad Khan,
+K.C.I.E., is a man of distinction.
+
+
+4. _Hindu Hill States_
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1200 sq. m.
+pop. 181,110.
+Rev.
+Rs. 500,000
+= L33,333.]
+
+~Mandi~ is a tract of mountains and valleys drained by the Bias. With
+Suket, with which for many generations it formed one kingdom, it is a
+wedge thrust up from the Sutlej between Kangra and Kulu. Three-fifths of
+the area is made up of forests and grazing lands. The _deodar_ and blue
+pine forests on the Kulu border are valuable. At Guma and Drang an
+impure salt, fit for cattle, is extracted from shallow cuttings. A
+considerable part of the revenue is derived from the price and duty. The
+chiefs are Chandarbansi Rajputs. The direct line came to an end in 1912
+with the death of Bhawani Sen, but to prevent lapse the British
+Government has chosen as successor a distant relative, Jogindar Singh,
+who is still a child.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 420 sq. m.
+Pop. 54,928.
+Rev.
+Rs. 200,000
+= L13,333.]
+
+~Suket~ lies between Mandi and the Sutlej. Its Raja, Ugar Sen, like his
+distant relative, the Raja of Mandi, came under British protection in
+1846. His great-grandson, Raja Bhim Sen, is the present chief.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1198 sq. m.
+Pop. 138,520.
+Rev.
+Rs. 600,000
+= L40,000.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123. The late Raja Surindar Bikram Parkash, K.C.S.I.,
+of Sirmur.]
+
+~Sirmur~ (~Nahan~) lies to the north of the Ambala district, and
+occupies the greater part of the catchment area of the Giri, a tributary
+of the Jamna. It is for the most part a mountain tract, the Chor to the
+north of the Giri rising to a height of 11,982 feet. The capital, Nahan
+(3207 feet), near the southern border is in the Siwalik range. In the
+south-east of the State is the rich valley known as the Kiarda Dun,
+reclaimed and colonized by Raja Shamsher Parkash. There are valuable
+_deodar_ and _sal_ forests. A good road connects Nahan with Barara on
+the N.W. Railway. In 1815 the British Government having driven out the
+Gurkhas put Fateh Parkash on the throne of his ancestors. His troops
+fought on the English side in the first Sikh War. His successors, Raja
+Sir Shamsher Parkash, G.C.S.I. (1856-98), and Raja Sir Surindar Bikram
+Parkash, K.C.S.I. (1898-1911), managed their State with conspicuous
+success. The present Raja, Amar Parkash, is 25 years of age. In the
+second Afghan War in 1880, Sirmur sent a contingent to the frontier, and
+the Sappers and Miners, which it keeps up for imperial service,
+accompanied the Tirah Expedition of 1897.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3216 sq. m.
+Pop. 135,989.
+Rev. 4 _lakhs_
+= L26,700.]
+
+~Chamba~ lies to the N. of Kangra from which it is divided by the
+Dhauladhar (map, p. 284). The southern and northern parts of the State
+are occupied respectively by the basins of the Ravi and the Chandrabhaga
+or Chenab. Chamba is a region of lofty mountains with some fertile
+valleys in the south and west. Only about one-nineteenth of the area is
+cultivated. The snowy range of the Mid-Himalaya separates the Ravi
+valley from that of the Chandrabhaga, and the great Zanskar chain with
+its outliers occupies the territory beyond the Chenab, where the
+rainfall is extremely small and Tibetan conditions prevail. The State
+contains fine forests and excellent sport is to be got in its mountains.
+There are five _wazarats_ or districts, Brahmaur or Barmaur, Chamba,
+Bhattoyat, Chaura, and Pangi.
+
+The authentic history of this Surajbansi Rajput principality goes back
+to the seventh century. It came into the British sphere in 1846. During
+part of the reign of Raja Sham Singh (1873-1904), the present Raja, Sir
+Bhure Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., administered the State as Wazir, filling
+a difficult position with loyalty and honour. He is a Rajput gentleman
+of the best type. The Raja owns the land of the State, but the people
+have a permanent tenant right in cultivated land.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124. Raja Sir Bhure Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E.]
+
+~Simla Hill States.~--The Deputy Commissioner of Simla is political
+officer with the title of Superintendent of nineteen, or, including the
+tributaries of Bashahr, Keonthal, and Jubbal, of 28 states with a total
+area of 6355 square miles, a population of 410,453, and revenues
+amounting to a little over ten _lakhs_ (L66,000). The States vary in
+size from the patch of four square miles ruled by the Thakur of Bija to
+the 388r square miles included in Bashahr. Only four other States have
+areas exceeding 125 square miles, namely, Bilaspur (448), Keonthal
+(359), Jubbal (320), and Hindur or Nalagarh (256). Excluding feudatories
+the revenues vary from Rs. 900 (or a little over L1 a week) in Mangal to
+Rs. 190,000 (L12,666) in Bilaspur. The chiefs are all Rajputs, who came
+under our protection at the close of the Gurkha War.
+
+The watershed of the Sutlej and Jamna runs through the tract. The range
+which forms the watershed of the Sutlej and the Jamna starts from the
+Shinka Pass on the south border of Bashahr and passes over Hattu and
+Simla. In Bashahr it divides the catchment areas of the Rupin and Pabar
+rivers, tributaries of the Tons and therefore of the Jamna, from those
+of the Baspa and the Nogli, which are affluents of the Sutlej. West of
+Bashahr the chief tributary of the Jamna is the Giri and of the Sutlej
+the Gambhar, which rises near Kasauli. In the east Bashahr has a large
+area north of the Sutlej drained by its tributary the Spiti and smaller
+streams. In the centre the Sutlej is the northern boundary of the Simla
+Hill States. In the west Bilaspur extends across that river. The east of
+Bashahr is entirely in the Sutlej basin.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 448 sq. m.
+Pop. 93,107.
+Rev. Rs. 190,000
+= L12,666.]
+
+~Bilaspur.~--This is true also of Bilaspur or Kahlur (map, p. 284),
+which has territory on both banks of the river. The capital, Bilaspur,
+is on the left bank only 1455 feet above sea level. The present Raja
+Bije Chand, C.S.I., succeeded in 1889.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3881 sq. m.
+Pop. 93,203.
+Rev. Rs. 95,000
+= L6233.]
+
+~Bashahr.~--The chain which forms the watershed of the Sutlej and Jamna
+rises from about 12,000 feet at Hattu in the west to nearly 20,000 feet
+on the Tibet border. Two peaks in the chain exceed 20,000 feet. Further
+north Raldang to the east of Chini is 21,250 feet high, and in the
+north-east on the Tibet border there are two giants about 1000 feet
+higher. Generally speaking the Sutlej runs in a deep gorge but at Chini
+and Sarahan the valley widens out. The main valley of the Pabar is not
+so narrow as that of the Sutlej, while the side valleys descend in easy
+slopes to the river beds. The Baspa has a course of 35 miles. In the
+last ten miles it falls 2000 feet and is hemmed in by steep mountains.
+Above this gorge the Baspa valley is four or five miles wide and
+consists of a succession of plateaux rising one above the other from the
+river's banks. Bashahr is divided into two parts, Bashahr proper and
+Kunawar. The latter occupies the Sutlej valley in the north-east of the
+State. It covers an area of about 1730 square miles and is very sparsely
+peopled. In the north of Kunawar the predominant racial type is
+Mongoloid and the religion is Buddhism. The capital of Bashahr, Rampur,
+on the left bank of the Sutlej is at an elevation of 3300 feet. The
+Gurkhas never succeeded in conquering Kunawar. They occupied Bashahr,
+but in 1815 the British Government restored the authority of the Raja.
+The present chief, Shamsher Singh, is an old man, who succeeded as long
+ago as 1850. He is incapable of managing the State and an English
+officer is at present in charge.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125. Bashahr.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 15: J.=Jain.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+THE NORTH WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE
+
+
+1. _Districts_
+
+~The Province.~--The N. W. F. Province consists of five British
+districts, Dera Ismail Khan, Bannu, Kohat, Peshawar, and Hazara with a
+total area of 13,193 square miles, of which rather less than one-third
+is cultivated. Of the cultivated area 70 p.c. depends solely on the
+rainfall. In addition the Chief Commissioner as Agent to the Governor
+General controls beyond the administrative boundary territory occupied
+by independent tribes, which covers approximately an area of 25,500
+square miles. In 1911 the population of British districts was 2,196,933
+and that of tribal territory is estimated to exceed 1,600,000. In the
+districts 93 persons in every hundred profess the creed of Islam and
+over 38 p.c. are Pathans.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3780 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+851 sq. m.
+Pop. 256,120.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 306,240
+= L20,416.]
+
+~Dera Ismail Khan~ lies to the north of Dera Ghazi Khan and is very
+similar to it in its physical features. It is divided into the three
+_tahsils_ of Tank, Dera Ismail Khan, and Kulachi. It has a long river
+frontage on the west, and is bounded on the east by the Suliman Range.
+The Kachchhi of Dera Ismail Khan corresponds to the Sindh of Dera Ghazi
+Khan, but is much narrower and is not served by inundation canals,
+except in the extreme north, where the Paharpur Canal has recently been
+dug. It depends on floods and wells. The Daman or "Skirt" of the hills
+is like the Pachadh of Dera Ghazi Khan a broad expanse of strong clayey
+loam or _pat_ seamed by torrents and cultivated by means of dams and
+embanked fields. The climate is intensely hot in summer, and the average
+rainfall only amounts to ten inches. Between one-fourth and one-fifth of
+the area is cultivated. The Pachadh is a camel-breeding tract.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126. Sir Harold Deane.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127. NORTH-WEST FRONTIER-PROVINCE]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128. Map of Dera Ismail Khan with trans-border
+territory of Largha Sheranis and Ustaranas.]
+
+Pathans predominate in the Daman and Jats in the Kachchhi. The
+Bhittannis in the north of the district are an interesting little tribe.
+The hill section lies outside our administrative border, but like the
+Largha Sheranis in the south are under the political control of the
+Deputy Commissioner. A good metalled road, on which there is a _tonga_
+service, runs northwards from Dera Ismail Khan to Bannu.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1641 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+818 sq. m.
+Pop. 250,086.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 304,004
+= L20,267.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129.]
+
+~Bannu.~--The small Bannu district occupies a basin surrounded by hills
+and drained by the Kurram and its affluent, the Tochi. It is cut off
+from the Indus by the Isakhel _tahsil_ of Mianwali and by a horn of the
+Dera Ismail Khan district. Bannu is now connected with Kalabagh in
+Mianwali by a narrow gauge railway. An extension of this line from Laki
+to Tank in the Dera Ismail Khan district has been sanctioned. There are
+two _tahsils_, Bannu and Marwat. The cultivated area is about one-half
+of the total area. About 30 p.c. of the cultivation is protected by
+irrigation from small canals taking out of the streams. Most of the
+irrigation is in the Bannu _tahsil_. The greater part of Marwat is a dry
+sandy tract yielding in favourable seasons large crops of gram. But the
+harvests on unirrigated land are precarious, for the annual rainfall is
+only about 12 inches. The irrigated land in Bannu is heavily manured and
+is often double-cropped. Wheat accounts for nearly half of the whole
+crops of the district. The Marwats are a frank manly race of good
+physique. The Bannuchis are hard-working, but centuries of plodding toil
+on a wet soil has spoiled their bodily development, and had its share in
+imparting to their character qualities the reverse of admirable. The
+Deputy Commissioner has also political charge of some 17,884 tribesmen
+living across the border. There are good metalled roads to Dera Ismail
+Khan and Kohat, and also one on the Tochi route.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2973 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+512 sq. m.
+Pop. 222,690.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 275,462
+= L18,364.]
+
+~Kohat~ is a large district, but most of it is unfit for tillage and
+only one-sixth is actually cultivated. The chief crops are wheat, 44,
+and _bajra_, 26 p.c. The district stretches east and west for 100 miles
+from Khushalgarh on the Indus to Thal at the mouth of the Kurram valley.
+The two places are now connected by a railway which passes through the
+district headquarters at Kohat close to the northern border. There are
+three _tahsils_, Kohat, Hangu, and Teri, the last a wild tract of bare
+hills and ravines occupying the south of the district and covering more
+than half its area. Two small streams, the Kohat Toi and the Teri Toi,
+drain into the Indus. The rainfall is fair, but very capricious. The
+cold weather lasts long and the chill winds that blow during part of it
+are very trying. The chief tribes are the Bangash Pathans of Hangu and
+the Khattak Pathans of Teri. The Khan of Teri is head of the Khattaks, a
+manly race which sends many soldiers to our army. He enjoys the revenue
+of the _tahsil_ subject to a quit rent of Rs. 20,000.
+
+~Hangu~ contains in Upper and Lower Miranzai the most fertile land in
+the district, but the culturable area of the _tahsil_ is small and only
+one-tenth of it is under the plough. Perennial streams run through the
+Miranzai valleys, and the neighbouring hills support large flocks of
+sheep and goats. Kohat contains a number of salt quarries, the most
+important being at Bahadur Khel near the Bannu border. The Thal
+subdivision consisting of the Hangu _tahsil_ is in charge of an
+Assistant Commissioner who manages our political relations with
+transfrontier tribes living west of Fort Lockhart on the Samana Range.
+The Deputy Commissioner is in direct charge of the Pass Afridis and the
+Jowakis and Orakzais in the neighbourhood of Kohat. He and his Assistant
+between them look after our relations with 144,000 trans-border Pathans.
+The Samana Rifles, one of the useful irregular corps which keep the
+peace of the Borderland, have their headquarters at Hangu.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2611 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1398 sq. m.
+Pop. 865,000
+Land Rev
+Rs. 11,37,504
+= L75,834.]
+
+~Peshawar~ is a large basin encircled by hills. The gorge of the Indus
+separates it from Attock and Hazara. The basin is drained by the Kabul
+river, whose chief affluents in Peshawar are the Swat and the Bara. The
+district is divided into the five _tahsils_ of Peshawar, Charsadda,
+Naushahra, Mardan, and Swabi. The last two form the Mardan subdivision.
+Nearly 40 p.c. of the cultivation is protected by irrigation mainly from
+canals large and small. The most important are the Lower Swat, the Kabul
+River, and the Bara River, Canals. The irrigated area will soon be much
+increased by the opening of the Upper Swat Canal. The cold weather
+climate is on the whole pleasant, though too severe in December and
+January. The three months from August to October are a very unhealthy
+time. The soil except in the stony lands near the hills is a fertile
+loam. The cold weather rainfall is good, and the Spring harvest is by
+far the more important of the two. Wheat is the chief crop. Half of the
+people are Pathans, the rest are known generically as Hindkis. The
+principal Hindki tribe is that of the Awans. Besides managing his own
+people the Deputy Commissioner has to supervise our relations with
+240,000 independent tribesmen across the border. The Assistant
+Commissioner at Mardan, where the Corps of Guides is stationed, is in
+charge of our dealings with the men of Buner and the Yusafzai border.
+The N.W. Railway runs past the city of Peshawar to Jamrud, and there is
+a branch line from Naushahra to Dargai at the foot of the Malakand Pass.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2858 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+673 sq. m.
+Pop. 603,028.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 512,897
+= L34,193.]
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132.]
+
+~Hazara~ is a typical montane and submontane district with a copious
+rainfall and a good climate. It has every kind of cultivation from
+narrow terraced _kalsi_ fields built laboriously up steep mountain
+slopes to very rich lands watered by canal cuts from the Dor or Haro.
+Hazara is divided into three _tahsils_, Haripur, Abbottabad, and
+Mansehra. Between a fourth and a fifth of this area is culturable and
+cultivated. In this crowded district the words are synonymous. The above
+figure does not include the 204 square miles of Feudal Tanawal. The
+rainfall is copious and the crops generally speaking secure. The
+principal are maize 42 and wheat 25 p.c. Hazara was part of the
+territory made over to Raja Gulab Singh in 1846, but he handed it back
+in exchange for some districts near Jammu. The maintenance of British
+authority in Hazara in face of great odds by the Deputy Commissioner,
+Captain James Abbott, during the Second Sikh War is a bright page in
+Panjab history, honourable alike to himself and his faithful local
+allies. The population is as mixed as the soils. Pathans are numerous,
+but they are split up into small tribes. The Swatis of Mansehra are the
+most important section. After Pathans Gujars and Awans are the chief
+tribes. The Gakkhars, though few in number, hold much land and a
+dominant position in the Khanpur tract on the Rawalpindi border. The
+Deputy Commissioner is also responsible for our relations with 98,000
+trans-border tribesmen. The district is a wedge interposed between
+Kashmir on the east and Peshawar and the tribal territory north of
+Peshawar on the west. The Indus becomes the border about eight miles to
+the north of Amb, and the district consists mainly of the areas drained
+by its tributaries the Unhar, Siran, Dor, and Haro. On the eastern side
+the Jhelam is the boundary with Kashmir from Kohala to a point below
+Domel, where the Kunhar meets it. Thence the Kunhar is the boundary to
+near Garhi Habibullah. To the south of Garhi the watershed of the Kunhar
+and Jhelam is close to these rivers and the country is very rough and
+poor. West of Garhi it is represented by the chain which separates the
+Kunhar and Siran Valleys and ends on the frontier at Musa ka Musalla
+(13,378 feet). This chain includes one peak over 17,000 feet, Mali ka
+Parvat, which is the highest in the district. The Kunhar rises at the
+top of the Kagan Glen, where it has a course of about 100 miles to
+Balakot. Here the glen ends, for the fall between Balakot and Garhi
+Habibullah is comparatively small. There is a good mule road from Garhi
+Habibullah to the Babusar Pass at the top of the Kagan Glen, and beyond
+it to Chilas. There are rest-houses, some very small, at each stage from
+Balakot to Chilas. The Kagan is a beautiful mountain glen. At places the
+narrow road looks sheer down on the river hundreds of feet below,
+rushing through a narrow gorge with the logs from the _deodar_ forests
+tossing on the surface, and the sensation, it must be confessed, is not
+wholly pleasant. But again it passes close to some quiet pretty stretch
+of this same Kunhar. There are side glens, one of which opposite Naran
+contains the beautiful Safarmulk Lake. Near the top of the main glen the
+Lulusar Lake at a height of 11,167 feet and with an average depth of 150
+feet is passed on the left. In the lower part of the glen much maize is
+grown. As one ascends almost the last crop to be seen is a coarse barley
+sown in June and reaped in August. Where the trees and the crops end the
+rich grass pastures begin. Kagan covers between one-third and
+one-fourth of the whole district. The Siran flows through the beautiful
+Bhogarmang Glen, at the foot of which it receives from the west the
+drainage of the Konsh Glen. Forcing its way through the rough Tanawal
+hills, it leaves Feudal Tanawal and Badhnak on its right, and finally
+after its junction with the Dor flows round the north of the Gandgarh
+Range and joins the Indus below Torbela. The bare Gandgarh Hills run
+south from Torbela parallel with the Indus. The Dor rises in the hills
+to the south of Abbottabad and drains the Haripur plain. A range of
+rough hills divides the Dor valley from that of the Haro, which again is
+separated from Rawalpindi by the Khanpur Range. To the west of the Siran
+the Unhar flows through Agror and Feudal Tanawal, and joins the Indus a
+little above Amb. Irrigation cuts are taken from all these streams, and
+the irrigated cultivation is often of a very high character. The best
+cultivation of the district is in the Haripur plain and the much smaller
+Orash and Pakhli plains and in the Haro valley. There is much
+unirrigated cultivation in the first, and it is generally secure except
+in the dry tract in the south-west traversed by the new railway from
+Sarai Kala. The little Orash plain below Abbottabad is famous for its
+maize and the Pakhli plain for its rice.
+
+Feudal Tanawal is a very rough hilly country between the Siran on the
+east and the Black Mountain and the river Indus on the west. It is the
+appanage of the Khans of Amb and Phulra.
+
+North of Feudal Tanawal is Agror. In 1891 the rights of the last Khan
+were declared forfeit for abetment of raids by trans-bordermen.
+
+There are fine forests in Hazara, but unfortunately the _deodar_ is
+confined to the Kagan Glen and the Upper Siran. Nathiagali, the summer
+headquarters of the Chief Commissioner, is in the Dungagali Range. The
+Serai Kala-Srinagar railway will run through Hazara. There is a good
+mule road from Murree to Abbottabad through the Galis.
+
+
+2. _Tribal Territory_
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133. Sir George Roos Keppel.]
+
+Feudal Tanawal mentioned above occupies the southern corner of the tract
+of independent tribal territory lying between the Hazara border and the
+Indus. North of Tanawal on the left bank of the river a long narrow
+chain known as the Black Mountain rises in its highest peaks to a height
+of nearly 10,000 feet. The western slopes are occupied by Hasanzais,
+Akazais, and Chagarzais, who are Pathans belonging to the great
+Yusafzai clan, and these three sections also own lands on the right bank
+of the Indus. They have been very troublesome neighbours to the British
+Government. The eastern slopes of the Black Mountain are occupied by
+Saiyyids and Swatis, and the latter also hold the glens lying further
+north, the chief of which is Allai.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134.]
+
+The mountainous tract on the Peshawar border lying to the west of
+Tanawal and the territory of the Black Mountain tribes formed part of
+the ancient Udyana, and its archaeological remains are of much interest.
+It is drained by the Barandu, a tributary of the Indus. Its people are
+mainly Yusafzai Pathans, the principal section being the Bunerwals.
+These last bear a good character for honesty and courage, but are slaves
+to the teachings of their _mullas_. The Yusafzais have been bad
+neighbours. The origin of the trouble is of old standing, dating back to
+the welcome given by the tribesmen in 1824 to a band of Hindustani
+fanatics, whose leader was Saiyyid Ahmad Shah of Bareilly. Their
+headquarters, first at Sitana and afterwards at Malka, became Caves of
+Adullam for political refugees and escaped criminals, and their
+favourite pastime was the kidnapping of Hindu shopkeepers. In 1863 a
+strong punitive expedition under Sir Neville Chamberlain suffered heavy
+losses before it succeeded in occupying the Ambela Pass. The door being
+forced the Yusafzais themselves destroyed Malka as a pledge of their
+submission. Our political relations with the Yusafzais are managed by
+the Assistant Commissioner at Mardan.
+
+The rest of the tribal territory between the Peshawar district and the
+Hindu Kush is included in the Dir, Swat, and Chitral political agency.
+It is a region of mountains and valleys drained by the Swat, Panjkora,
+and Chitral or Yarkhun rivers, all three affluents of the Kabul river.
+Six tracts are included in the Agency.
+
+(_a_) ~Swat.~--A railway now runs from Naushahra in the Peshawar district
+to Dargai, which lies at the foot of the Malakand, a little beyond our
+administrative boundary. An old Buddhist road crosses the pass and
+descends on the far side into Swat. We have a military post at Chakdarra
+on the Swat river, and a military road passing through Dir connects
+Chakdarra with Kila Drosh in Chitral. Most of the Swatis, who are
+Yusafzais of the Akozai section, occupy a rich valley above 70 miles in
+length watered by the Swat river above its junction with the Panjkora.
+Rice is extensively grown, and a malarious environment has affected the
+physique and the character of the people. The Swati is priest-ridden and
+treacherous. Even his courage has been denied, probably unjustly. Swati
+fanaticism has been a source of much trouble on the Peshawar border. The
+last serious outbreak was in 1897, when a determined, but unsuccessful,
+attack was made on our posts at Chakdarra and the Malakand Pass. The
+Swatis are Yusafzai Pathans of the Akozai clan, and are divided into
+five sections, one of which is known as Ranizai.
+
+(_b_) ~Sam Ranizai.~--A small tract between the Peshawar border and the
+hills is occupied by the Sam Ranizais, who were formerly servants and
+tenants of the Ranizais, but are now independent.
+
+(_c_) ~Utman Khel.~--The country of the Utman Khels begins where the
+Peshawar boundary turns to the south. This tribe occupies the tract on
+both sides of the Swat river to the west of Swat and Sam Ranizai. On the
+south-west the Swat river divides the Utman Khels from the Mohmands.
+Their country is very barren, but a good many of them cultivate land in
+the Peshawar district. The Utman Khels are quite independent of the
+surrounding tribes and have been troublesome neighbours to ourselves.
+
+(_d_) ~Bajaur.~--Bajaur is a very mountainous tract lying to the
+north-west of the Utman Khel country and between it and the Durand line.
+It includes four valleys, through which flow the Rud river and its
+affluents with the exception of that known as Jandol. The valley of the
+last is now included in Dir. The Rud, also known as the Bajaur, is a
+tributary of the Panjkora. The people consist mainly of Mamunds and
+other sections of the Tarkanri clan, which is related to the Yusafzais.
+They own a very nominal allegiance to the Khan of Nawagai, who is
+recognised as the hereditary head of the Tarkanris. They manage their
+affairs in quasi-republican fashion through a council consisting of the
+particular party which for the time being has got the upper hand.
+
+(_e_) ~Dir.~--Dir is the mountainous country drained by the Panjkora and
+its tributaries, to the north of its junction with the Rud river in
+Bajaur. It is separated from Chitral by the Uchiri Range, which forms
+the watershed of the Panjkora and Kunar rivers. The military road to
+Kila Drosh crosses this chain by the Lowari Pass at a height of 10,200
+feet. The people of Dir are mostly Yusafzais, relations of the Swatis,
+whom they much resemble in character. They pay one-tenth of their
+produce to their overlord, the Khan of Dir, when he is strong enough to
+take it. The higher parts of the country have a good climate and contain
+fine _deodar_ forests. The Khan derives much of his income from the
+export of timber, which is floated down the Panjkora and Swat rivers.
+
+(_f_) ~Chitral.~--The Pathan country ends at the Lowari Pass. Beyond,
+right up to the main axis of the Hindu Kush, is Chitral. It comprises
+the basin of the Yarkhun or Chitral river from its distant source in the
+Shawar Shur glacier to Arnawai, where it receives from the west the
+waters of the Bashgul, and is thenceforth known as the Kunar. Its
+western boundary is the Durand line, which follows a lofty chain
+sometimes called the Kafiristan range. Another great spur of the Hindu
+Kush known as the Shandur range divides Chitral on the east from the
+basin of the Yasin river and the territories included in the Gilgit
+Agency (see Chapter XXVIII). Chitral is a fine country with a few
+fertile valleys, good forests below 11,000 feet, and splendid, if
+desolate, mountains in the higher ranges. The Chitralis are a quiet
+pleasure-loving people, fond of children and of dancing, hawking, and
+polo. They are no cowards and no fanatics, but have little regard for
+truth or good faith. The common language is Khowar (see page 112). The
+chief, known as the Mehtar, has his headquarters at Chitral, a large
+village on the river of the same name. It is dominated at a distance by
+the great snow peak of Tirach Mir (see page 22). The British garrison is
+stationed at Kila Drosh on the river bank about halfway between Chitral
+and the Lowari Pass[16].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135.]
+
+~Mohmands and Mallagoris.~--South of the Utman Khel country and north of
+the Khaibar are the rugged and barren hills held by that part of the
+Mohmand tribe which lives inside the Durand line. The clan can muster
+about 20,000 fighting men and is as convenient a neighbour as a nest of
+hornets. The southern edge of the tract, where it abuts on the Khaibar,
+is held by the little Mallagori tribe, which is independent of the
+Mohmands. Their country is important strategically because a route
+passes through it by which the Khaibar can be outflanked. It is included
+in the charge of the Political Agent for the Khaibar.
+
+~Afridis.~--The pass and the tract lying to the south of it including the
+Bazar valley and part of Tirah are the home of the six sections of the
+Pass Afridis, the most important being the Zakha Khel, whose winter home
+is in the Khaibar and the Bazar valley, a barren glen hemmed in by
+barren hills, the entrance to which is not far from Ali Masjid. Its
+elevation is 3000 to 4000 feet. The valleys in Tirah proper, where the
+Pass Afridis for the most part spend the summer, are two or three
+thousand feet higher. When the snow melts there is excellent pasturage.
+The climate is pleasant in summer, but bitterly cold in winter. The Bara
+river with its affluents drains the glens of Tirah. The Aka Khel
+Afridis, who have no share in the Pass allowances, own a good dear of
+land in the lower Bara valley and winter in the adjoining hills. The
+fighting strength of the above seven sections may be put at 21,000. When
+they have been able to unite they have shown themselves formidable
+enemies, for they are a strong and manly race, and they inhabit a very
+difficult country[17]. But the Afridi clan is torn by dissensions. Blood
+feuds divide house from house, and the sections are constantly at feud
+one with another. Apart from other causes of quarrel there is the
+standing division into two great factions, Gar and Samil, which prevails
+among Afridis and Orakzais. Afridis enlist freely in our regiments and
+in the Khaibar Rifles, and have proved themselves excellent soldiers.
+The eighth section of the Afridis, the Adam Khel, who hold the Kohat
+Pass and the adjoining hills, have very little connection with the rest
+of the clan. The Jowakis, against whom an expedition had to be sent in
+the cold weather of 1877-78, are a sub-section of the Adam Khel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136. Khaibar Rifles.]
+
+~Orakzais, Chamkannis, and Zaimukhts.~--The Orakzais, who in numbers are
+even stronger than the Pass and Aka Khel Afridis, occupy the south of
+Tirah, the Samana Range on the border of Kohat, and the valley of the
+Khanki river. The tribal territory extends westwards as far as the
+Khurmana, a tributary of the Kurram. The Orakzais do some trade and Sikh
+_banias_ and artizans are to be found in some of their villages. The
+clan is honey-combed with feuds. North-west of the Orakzais beyond the
+Khurmana are the Chamkannis, and on the south is a small tribe of
+vigorous mountaineers called Zaimukhts. One of these Zaimukhts, Sarwar
+Khan, nicknamed Chikai, was a notorious frontier robber, and a person of
+considerable importance on the border till his death in 1903.
+
+~The Kurram Valley.~--The Kurram Valley, which is drained by the Kurram
+river and its affluents, lies to the south of the lofty Safed Koh range,
+and reaches from Thal in Kohat to the Peiwar Kotal on the borders of
+Afghan Khost. It has an area of nearly 1300 square miles and in 1911 the
+population was estimated at 60,941 souls. Though under British
+administration, it does not form a part of any British district. The
+people are Pathans of various clans, the predominant element being the
+Turis, who are Shias by religion and probably of Turkish origin. It was
+at their request that the valley was annexed in 1892. The political
+agent has his headquarters at Parachinar in Upper Kurram, which is
+divided from Lower Kurram by a spur of the Khost hills, through which
+the river has cut a passage. Such part of the Indian penal law as is
+suitable has been introduced, and civil rights are governed by the
+customary law of the Turis. A complete record of rights in land and
+water has been framed, and the land revenue demand is 88,000 rupees
+(L5889). Upper Kurram is a wide and fertile valley set in a frame of
+pine-clad hills. It is not fully cultivated, but has great
+possibilities, especially in the matter of fruit growing. The snowfall
+is heavy in winter, but the summer climate is excellent. Lower Kurram is
+a poor and narrow glen unpleasantly hot and cold according to the season
+of the year. Parachinar is connected with the railhead at Thal by a
+good _tonga_ road.
+
+~Waziristan.~--The country of the Darwesh Khel and Mahsud Wazirs extends
+from the Kurram valley to the Gomal river. It is divided into the North
+Waziristan (2300 square miles) and the South Waziristan (2700 square
+miles) Agencies. North Waziristan consists of four valleys and some
+barren plateaux. The principal valley is that of Daur (700 square miles)
+drained by the Tochi. In 1894 the Dauris sought refuge from Darwesh Khel
+inroads by asking for British administration. In the eyes of the Darwesh
+Khel they are a race of clodhoppers. Their sole virtue consists in
+patient spade industry in the stiff rich soil of their valley, their
+vices are gross, and their fanaticism is extreme. The political agent's
+headquarters are at Miram Shah. South Waziristan is the home of the
+troublesome Mahsuds, who can muster 11,000 fighting men. But parts of
+the country, e.g. the Wana plain, are held by the Darwesh Khel. Much of
+South Waziristan consists of bare hills and valleys and stony plains
+scored with torrents, which are dry most of the year. The streams are
+salt. Part of the hinterland is however a more inviting tract with
+grassy uplands and hills clad with oak, pine, and _deodar_. Wana, where
+the political agent has his headquarters, was occupied on the invitation
+of the Darwesh Khel in 1894.
+
+~Sheranis.~--The Sherani country stretches along the Dera Ismail Khan
+border from the Gomal to the Vihoa torrent. The Largha or lower part has
+been under direct administration since 1899, the Upper part belongs to
+the Biluchistan Agency.
+
+~Tribal Militias.~--In the greater part of India beyond the border there
+is no British administration. Respect for our authority and the peace of
+the roads are upheld, and raiding on British territory is restrained,
+by irregular forces raised from among the tribesmen. There are Hunza and
+Nagar levies, Chitral and Dir levies, Khaibar Rifles, Samana Rifles, and
+Kurram, North Waziristan, and South Waziristan militias.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137. North Waziristan Militia and Border Post.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 16: For recent history see page 196.]
+
+[Footnote 17: See page 196.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+KASHMIR AND JAMMU
+
+
+~Kashmir.~--Some account has already been given of the topography and
+scenery of the wide territory, covering an area about equal to that of
+the Panjab less the Ambala division, ruled by the Maharaja of Kashmir
+and Jammu. The population, races, languages, and religions have been
+referred to in Chapters IX and X.
+
+~Modern history.~--Some mention has been made of the early history of
+Kashmir (pages 165, 166, 172, 173). Even the hard Sikh rule was a relief
+to a country which had felt the tyranny of the Durani governors who
+succeeded the Moghals. Under the latter small kingships had survived in
+the Jammu hills, but the Jammuwal Rajas met at Ranjit Singh's hands the
+same fate as the Kangra Rajas. Three cadets of the Jammu royal house,
+the brothers Dhian Singh, Suchet Singh, and Gulab Singh, were great men
+at his court. In 1820 he made the last Raja of Jammu. Gulab Singh was a
+man fit for large designs. In 20 years he had made himself master of
+Bhadrawah, Kishtwar, Ladakh, and Baltistan, and held the casket which
+enclosed the jewel of Kashmir. He acquired the jewel itself for 75 lakhs
+by treaty with the British at the close of the first Sikh war.
+
+Excluding a large but little-known and almost uninhabited tract beyond
+the Muztagh and Karakoram mountains, the drainage of which is northwards
+into Central Asia, the country consists of the valleys of the Chenab,
+Jhelam, and Indus, that of the last amounting to three-fourths of the
+whole. There is a trifling area to the west of Jammu, which contains the
+head-waters of small streams which find their way into the Ravi.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138. Maharaja of Kashmir.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139. Sketch Map of Chenab and Jhelam Valleys (Jammu
+and Kashmir).]
+
+~Divisions.~--The following broad divisions may be recognised:
+
+  1. Chenab Valley  (_a_) Plain and Kandi or Low Hills.
+                    (_b_) Uplands of Kishtwar and Bhadrawah.
+
+  2. Jhelam Valley  (_a_) Vale of Kashmir with adjoining glens and hills.
+                    (_b_) Gorge below Baramula and Kishnganga Valley.
+
+  3. Indus Valley  (_a_) Ladakh including Zanskar and Rupshu.
+                   (_b_) Baltistan.
+                   (_c_) Astor and Gilgit.
+
+~Chenab Valley.~--(_a_) _Plain and Kandi._ This tract extends from Mirpur
+on the Jhelam to Kathua near the Ravi and close to the head-works of the
+Upper Bari Doab Canal at Madhopur. It is coterminous with the Panjab
+districts of Jhelam, Gujrat, Sialkot, and Gurdaspur, and comprises four
+of the five districts of the Jammu Province, Mirpur, Riasi, Jammu, and
+Jasrota, and a part of the fifth, Udhampur. The plain is moist and
+unhealthy. The rough country behind with a stony and thirsty red soil
+covered in its natural state with _garna_ (Carissa spinarum), _sanatan_
+(Dodonaea viscosa), and _bhekar_ (Adhatoda vasica) does not suffer in
+this respect. The chief crops of the Kandi are wheat, barley, and rape
+in the spring, and maize and _bajra_ in the autumn, harvest. Behind the
+Kandi is a higher and better tract, including Naoshera, with wide
+valleys, in which maize replaces _bajra_.
+
+(_b_) _Uplands._ The greater part of the Upper Chenab Valley is occupied
+by Kishtwar and _Jagir_ Bhadrawah. The rainfall is heavy and there is
+copious irrigation from _kuhls_ (page 142), but elevation and rapid
+drainage make the climate healthy. In the upper parts snow and cold
+winds sometimes prevent the ripening of the crops. The poppy is grown in
+Kishtwar and Bhadrawah. Kishtwar is a part of the Udhampur district.
+
+~Jhelam Valley.~--(_a_) _Vale of Kashmir with adjoining glens and
+mountains._ This first division of the Jhelam Valley extends from the
+source above Vernag to Baramula, and embraces not only the Vale of
+Kashmir, over 80 miles long and from 20 to 25 miles in breadth, but the
+glens which drain into it and the mountains that surround it. It
+therefore includes cultivation of all sorts from rich irrigated rice
+fields to narrow plots terraced up mountain slopes on which buckwheat
+and the beardless Tibetan barley are grown. The administrative divisions
+are the _wazarat_ or district of South Kashmir and the southern part of
+North Kashmir. The central valley has an elevation of 6000 feet. It was
+undoubtedly once a lake bed. Shelving fan-shaped "_karewas_" spread out
+into it from the bases of the hills. The object of the Kashmiri is to
+raise as much rice as he possibly can on the alluvium of his valley and
+on the rich soil deposited on the banks of mountain streams. Manure and
+facilities for irrigation exist in abundance, and full use is made of
+them in the cultivation of the favourite crop. _Kangni_ takes the place
+of rice in many fields if there is any deficiency of water. On reclaimed
+swamps near the Jhelam heavy crops of maize are raised. The tillage for
+wheat and barley is as careless as that for rice is careful. The
+cultivation of saffron (Crocus sativus) on _karewas_ is famous, but the
+area is now limited, as the starving people ate up the bulbs in the
+great famine of 1877 and recovery is slow. Saffron is used as a pigment
+for the sectarian marks on the forehead of the orthodox Hindu and also
+as a condiment. The little floating vegetable gardens on the Dal lake
+are a very curious feature. The "_demb_" lands on the borders of the
+same lake are a rich field for the market gardener's art. He fences a
+bit of land with willows, and deposits on it weeds and mud from the lake
+bed. He is of the boatman or Hanz caste, whose reputation is by no means
+high, and can himself convey by water his vegetables and fruits to the
+Srinagar market. The production of fruit in Kashmir is very large, and
+the extension of the railway to Srinagar should lead to much improvement
+in the quality and in the extent of the trade. It may also improve the
+prospects of sericulture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140. Takht i Suliman in Winter.]
+
+(_b_) _Jhelam Gorge and Valley of Kishnganga._ The Jhelam gorge below
+Baramula is narrow and the cultivation is usually terraced. The
+Kishnganga joins the Jhelam near Muzaffarabad. The Muzaffarabad district
+includes the Jhelam gorge and the lower part of the valley of the
+Kishnganga. The upper part is in the Uttarmachhipura _tahsil_ of the
+district of North Kashmir.
+
+~Indus Valley.~--(_a_) _Ladakh including Zanskar and Rupshu._ Some
+description of Ladakh and its scenery has already been given in Chapter
+II. It may be divided into Rupshu, Zanskar, and Ladakh proper with Leh
+as its centre. Rupshu in the south-east is a country of great brackish
+lakes in no part less than 13,500 feet above sea level. At such a height
+cultivation must be very difficult, but a little beardless Tibetan
+barley is raised. The scanty population consists mainly of nomad
+shepherds. In Ladakh the people are divided into shepherds or
+_champas_, who roam over the Alpine pastures, and Ladakhis, who till
+laboriously every available patch of culturable land in the river
+valleys. Though both are Buddhists they rarely intermarry. Zanskar to
+the N.W. of Rupshu is drained by the river of the same name, which flows
+northwards to join the Indus below Leh. It forms part of the Kargil
+_tahsil_. Zanskar is a bleak inaccessible region where the people and
+cattle remain indoors for six months of the year. Its breed of ponies is
+famous. In Ladakh proper cultivation ranges from 9000 to 15,000 feet.
+The sandy soil must be manured and irrigated, and is often refreshed by
+top-dressings of fresh earth from the hill sides. The crops are wheat
+and barley, rape, lucerne, peas and beans, in spring, and buckwheat,
+millets, and turnips, in autumn. There is a great lack of wood for
+building and for fuel, and the deficiency in the latter case has to be
+supplied by cow-dung cakes. Notwithstanding their hard life the people
+are cheerful and fairly well off, for polyandry has prevented
+overcrowding.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141. Ladakh Hills.]
+
+(_b_) _Baltistan._ In Baltistan, which lies to the N.W. of Ladakh, they
+are Muhammadans and there is much more pressure on the soil. They are a
+cheery race and very fond of polo. To support their families the men
+have to work as carriers on the roads to Leh and Gilgit. They tend the
+cattle in the pastures, keep the irrigation channels and the walls of
+the terraced fields in repair, and do the ploughing. The rest of the
+work of cultivation is left to the women. The climate is very severe and
+most of the rivers are frozen in winter. On the other hand near the
+Indus on the Skardo plain (7250 feet) and in the Rondu gorge further
+west, the heat is intense in July and August. The dreary treeless stony
+Deosai Plains on the road to Kashmir have an elevation of 13,000 feet.
+The cultivation and crops are much the same as in Ladakh. Excellent
+fruit is grown, and there is a considerable export of apricots. Gold
+washing is carried on with profit.
+
+Ladakh and Baltistan together form the Ladakh _wazarat_, divided into
+the three _tahsils_ of Ladakh, Kargil, and Skardo.
+
+(_c_) _Astor and Gilgit._--Where the Gilgit road from Kashmir descends
+from the Burzil pass (13,500 feet) the country of Astor is reached. It
+is drained by the Astor river, which joins the Indus to the south of
+Bunji. The bridge which crosses it at Ramghat is only 3800 feet above
+sea level. The village of Astor itself is at a height of 7853 feet. The
+cultivation is of the same description as that in Baltistan. The aspect
+of the country is bleak till the Indus is crossed, and Gilgit (4890
+feet) is reached. Here there is a fertile well-watered oasis from which
+on every side great mountain peaks are visible. The lands are heavily
+manured. Rice, maize, millet, buckwheat, cotton, wheat, barley, rape,
+and lucerne are grown. There is a second and easier road to Gilgit
+from India over the Babusar pass at the top of the Kagan Glen in Hazara.
+But the posts are sent by the Kashmir road. The Astoris and Gilgitis are
+a simple easy-going folk, and, like the Baltis, very fond of polo. A
+British Political Agent is stationed at Gilgit. He is responsible to the
+Government of India for the administration of Hunza, Nagar, and Yasin,
+and of the little republics in the neighbourhood of Chilas. Hunza and
+Nagar lie to the north of Gilgit near the junction of the Muztagh and
+Hindu Kush ranges, and Yasin far to the west about the upper waters of
+the Gilgit river.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142. Zojila Pass (page 12).]
+
+In Astor and Gilgit also Gulab Singh's Dogras replaced the Sikh troops.
+But across the Indus Gulab Singh was never strong, and after 1852 that
+river was his boundary. He died in 1857, having proved himself a hard
+and unscrupulous, but a capable and successful ruler. His son, Randhir
+Singh, was a better man, but a worse king. A good Hindu, tolerant, and a
+friend of learning, he had not the force of character to control the
+corrupt official class, and the people suffered much in consequence. He
+was a loyal ally in the Mutiny. In 1860 his forces recovered Gilgit, a
+conquest which for years after was a fruitful source of suffering to his
+Cis-Indus subjects. The present Maharaja, Sir Pratap Singh, G.C.S.I.,
+succeeded in 1885. While he lived his brother, Raja Amar Singh, played a
+very important part in Kashmir affairs. From 1887 to 1905 the
+administration was managed by a small council, of which after 1891 the
+Maharaja was President and Raja Amar Singh Vice-President. It was
+abolished in 1905. There are now under the Maharaja a chief minister and
+ministers in charge of the home and revenue departments. Judicial
+business is controlled by the Judge of the High Court. Death sentences
+must be confirmed by the Maharaja. The highest executive officers are
+the governors of Jammu and Kashmir, and the _Wazirs Wazarat_ of Ladakh
+and Gilgit. In Jammu and Kashmir each of the eight districts is in
+charge of a _Wazir Wazarat_. In connection with the land revenue
+settlement, forests, etc., the services of British officers have been
+lent to the State. The Government of India is represented at Srinagar by
+a Resident, and a political agent at Gilgit exercises a general
+supervision over the _Wazir Wazarat_.
+
+During the reign of the present Maharaja great reforms have been
+effected. The construction of the Gilgit road has done away with the
+blood tax, which the conveyance of supplies to that remote post formerly
+involved. The land revenue settlement has largely substituted cash for
+kind payments and done away with many abuses. Official corruption and
+oppression have been scotched, but would speedily revive if vigilance
+were relaxed. The different peoples ruled by the Maharaja are easily
+governed if properly treated, and violent crime is rare.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Note._ In the map appended to Dr Arthur Neve's _Thirty Years in
+Kashmir_ the heights of Gasherbrum and Masherbrum (see page 21) are
+given respectively as 26,360 and 25,560 feet, and that of Hidden Peak,
+S.E. of Gasherbrum, as 26,470 feet. These with _K2_ are the highest
+mountains round the Baltoro Glacier. Further east is the Siachen, "the
+greatest glacier in Asia," which feeds the Nubra river (page 36). N.E.
+of the Siachen is the Teram Kangri mountain, the height of which does
+not probably exceed 25,000 feet. The actual height of the Nun Kun (page
+12) is 23,447 feet. Dr Neve gives that of the Karakoram Pass as 18,110
+feet, not 18,550 as stated on page 20.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+CITIES
+
+
+~Delhi~ (28.38 N., 77.13 E.).--Of imperial cities the most interesting are
+those which have felt the tragedies as well as enjoyed the glories of
+Empire. From this point of view Delhi, notwithstanding its small extent
+and modern foundation, may be grouped with Rome, Constantinople, and
+Paris. In the matter of size it is in the same class as Edinburgh. The
+present Delhi or Shahjahanabad is a creation of the middle of the
+seventeenth century, and the oldest of the Delhis in the neighbourhood
+goes back only to the fourth century of our era. The latter endured for
+six or seven centuries. It was the capital of the Tunwar and Chauhan
+Rajas, and takes its second name of Rai Pithora's Kila' or Fort from the
+last Hindu King of Delhi, the famous Prithvi Raja. The early Muhammadan
+kings occupied it and adorned it with splendid buildings. Firoz Shah
+Tughlak's city of Firozabad occupied part of the present Delhi and the
+country lying immediately to the south of it. The other so-called towns
+Siri, Tughlakabad, and Indarpat or Purana Kila' (Old Fort) were
+fortified royal residences round which other dwelling-houses and shops
+sprang up.
+
+The visitor to Delhi will be repaid if he can devote a week to the City
+and the neighbourhood. It is impossible here to give any adequate
+account of the objects of historic and architectural interest. No
+visitor should be without Mr H. C. Fanshawe's _Delhi Past and Present_,
+a work of great interest. The value of the text is enhanced by good maps
+and excellent illustrations. In the Civil Station, which lies to the
+north of the City and east of the Ridge, is Ludlow Castle, from the roof
+of which General Wilson and his Staff watched the assault on 14th
+September, 1857, when Delhi was retaken. Ludlow Castle is now the Delhi
+Club. Between it and the northern rampart of the City, a defence against
+the Mahrattas built by British officers fifty years earlier, grim
+fighting took place on that historic day when the little British and
+Indian force, till then rather besieged than besiegers, was at last
+strong enough to attack. Here are the sites of the four batteries which
+breached that rampart, and here is the grave of John Nicholson and the
+statue recently erected in his honour (page 190). The Ridge to which the
+little army had clung obstinately from May to September in scorching
+heat and drenching rain, undismayed by repeated assaults and the ravages
+of cholera, starts about half-a-mile to the west of the Mori bastion, at
+the north-west corner of the city wall, and runs north by east to
+Wazirabad on an old bed of the Jamna. Ascending to the Flagstaff Tower
+one looks down to-day on the Circuit House and the site of the principal
+camps at the great _darbar_ of 1911. Here was the old Cantonment and its
+parade ground, on which the main encampment of the British force stood
+in 1857. The position was strong, being defended by the ridge on the
+east and the Najafgarh Canal on the west. It is open to the south, where
+are the Savzi Mandi (Vegetable Market), now the site of factories, and
+the Roshanara Gardens. It was on this side that the mutineers made their
+most dangerous attacks. The road along the Ridge from the Flagstaff
+Tower passes the Chauburji Mosque and Hindu Rao's house, which was the
+principal target of the City batteries and was gallantly held by Major
+Reid with his Sirmur Gurkhas, the Guides, and the 60th Rifles. Beyond
+Hindu Rao's house is one of the stone pillars of Asoka, which Firoz
+Shah Tughlak transported to Delhi. Still further south is the Mutiny
+Memorial. As one reads the tale of the losses of the different regiments
+one realizes in some measure the horrors and the heroism of which the
+Ridge was witness.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143. Delhi Mutiny Monument.
+
+'In memory of the officers and soldiers, British and native, of the
+Delhi Field Force who were killed in action or died of wounds or disease
+between the 30th May and 20th September 1857.'
+
+'This monument has been erected by the comrades who lament their loss
+and by the Govmt: they served so well.']
+
+~The City.~--When visiting the City from the Civil Lines it is well to
+follow the road, which passing the Kudsia Gardens leads straight to the
+Kashmir Gate, one of two places in India (the Lucknow Residency is the
+other) which must stir with grateful pride the heart of the most
+phlegmatic of Englishmen. The road from the Gate to the Fort and the
+Jama Masjid is rich in memories of the Mutiny. It has on its left S.
+James' Church, with memorial tablets within and outside the shot-riddled
+globe which once surmounted its dome. Further on are the obelisk to the
+telegraph officers who stuck to their posts on the fatal 11th of May,
+and on a gateway of the Old Magazine a record of the heroism of the nine
+devoted men, who blew it up, losing five of their number in the
+explosion. Passing under the railway bridge one comes out on the open
+space in front of Shahjahan's palace fort, which was finished about 1648
+A.D. To the beautiful buildings erected by his father Aurangzeb added
+the little Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque. But he never lived at Delhi
+after 1682. The palace is therefore associated with the tragedies and
+squalor of the decline and fall of the Moghal Empire rather than with
+its glories. In 1739 it was robbed of the Kohinur and the Peacock throne
+by Nadir Shah, in 1788 it saw the descendants of Akbar tortured and the
+aged Emperor blinded by the hateful Ghulam Kadir, and on 16th May, 1857
+the mutineers massacred fifty Christians captive within its walls. When
+viewing the public and private halls of audience, known as the Diwan i
+'Am and the Diwan i Khass, it is however natural to think rather of
+scenes of splendour such as Bernier described when Aurangzeb sat in
+royal apparel on the Peacock throne with a king's ransom in the aigrette
+of his turban and the rope of pearls which hung from his neck. On such
+an occasion, the pillars of the Diwan i 'Am were hung with gold brocades
+and the floors covered with rich silken carpets. Half the court outside
+was occupied by a magnificent tent and the arcade galleries surrounding
+it were decked with brocades and covered with costly carpets. The marble
+Diwan i Khass with its lovely pillars decorated with gold and precious
+stones is surely the most splendid withdrawing room that a monarch ever
+possessed. There is nothing in the Moorish palace at Granada which can
+for a moment be compared with these two halls. For a description of them
+and of the other buildings in the Fort the reader must refer to Mr
+Fanshawe's book. In the Viceroyalty of Lord Curzon and since much has
+been done to restore their surroundings to some semblance of their
+former state. But the heavy British barracks occupied by the little
+garrison are very incongruous with the remains of Moghal grandeur.
+Leaving the Fort by the Southern or Delhi Gate and turning to the right
+one is faced by the Jama Masjid, another monument of the taste of
+Shahjahan. The gateway and the lofty ascent into this House of God are
+very fine. The mosque in the regular beauty and grandeur of its lines,
+appealing to the sublimity rather than to the mystery of religion, is a
+fitting symbol of the faith for whose service it was raised. South of
+the Jama Masjid in a part of the city once included in Firozabad stands
+the Kalan or Kala Masjid with low cupolas and heavy square black
+pillars, a striking example of the sombre architecture of the Tughlak
+period. A narrow street called the Dariba leads from the Jama Masjid to
+the wide Chandni (Silver) Chauk. The Dariba was formerly closed by the
+Khuni Darwaza or Gate of Blood, so called because here occurred that
+terrible massacre of the citizens of Delhi which Nadir Shah witnessed
+from the neighbouring Golden Mosque. Besides its width there is nothing
+remarkable about the Chandni Chauk. But the visitor in quest of silver
+work, jewellery, or embroidery will find there many shopkeepers ready to
+cater for his wants. It was while passing down the Chandni Chauk in an
+elephant procession on 23rd December, 1912, that Lord Hardinge was
+wounded by a bomb thrown from one of the houses. From the Chauk one may
+pass through the Queen's Gardens and Road to the opening in the wall
+where the Kabul Gate once stood and so leave the City. A tablet in the
+vicinity marks the spot where John Nicholson fell.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144. Kashmir Gate.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145. Map of Delhi City.]
+
+When visiting the old Delhis it is a good plan to drive again through
+the City and to leave it by the Delhi Gate. Humayun's tomb, an early and
+simple, but striking, specimen of Moghal architecture, is reached at a
+distance of four miles along the Mathra road. Outside the City the road
+first leaves on the left side the ruined citadel of Firoz Shah
+containing the second Asoka pillar. North and south of this citadel
+the town of Firozabad once lay. It ended where the Purana Kila' or Old
+Fort, the work of Sher Shah and Humayun, now stands, a conspicuous
+object from the road about three miles from Delhi. The red sandstone
+gateway very narrow in proportion to its height is a noble structure,
+and within the walls is Sher Shah's mosque. The fort and mosque are the
+last important works of the second or Tughlak period. Hindus call the
+site of the Old Fort, Indarpat. If any part of Delhi has a claim to
+antiquity it is this, for it is alleged to be one of the five "pats" or
+towns over which the war celebrated in the Mahabharata was waged. A
+recent cleaning of part of the interior of the fort brought to light
+bricks belonging to the Gupta period. From Humayun's tomb a cross road
+leads to the Gurgaon road and the Kutb. But the visitor who has seen
+enough of buildings for the day may proceed further down the Mathra road
+and reach the headworks of the Agra Canal at Okhla by a side road. The
+view looking back to Delhi up the Jamna is fine.
+
+~The Kutb Minar.~--Starting for the Kutb from Humayun's tomb (page 207)
+the Dargah of the great Chisti saint and political intriguer, Nizam ud
+din Aulia, is passed on the left. He died in 1324 A.D. Just at the point
+where the cross road meets the Gurgaon road is the tomb of Safdar Jang,
+the second of the Nawab Wazirs of Oudh. He died after the middle of the
+eighteenth century, and the building is wonderfully good considering
+that it is one of the latest important monuments of the Moghal period.
+Six miles to the south of Safdar Jang's tomb the entrance to the Kutb
+Minar enclosure is reached. The great Kuwwat ul Islam mosque of
+Kutbuddin Aibak (page 204) was constructed out of the materials of a
+Jain temple which stood on the site. Evidence of this is to be found in
+the imperfectly defaced sculptures on the pillars. An iron pillar nearly
+24 feet in height dating back probably to the sixth century stands in
+the court. The splendid column known as the Kutb Minar (page 205), begun
+by Kutbuddin and completed by his successor Shams ud din Altamsh, was
+the minaret of the mosque from which the _mu'azzin_ called the faithful
+to prayer. The disappointment that may be felt when it is seen from a
+distance is impossible on a nearer view. Its height is now 238 feet, but
+it was formerly surmounted "by a majestic cupola of red granite." Close
+by is the Alai Darwaza, a magnificent gateway built by Ala ud din
+Tughlak in 1310, about 90 years after the Minar was finished. Five miles
+east of the Kutb are the cyclopean ruins of Tughlakabad (page 206).
+
+~Delhi past and present.~--The Delhi of Aurangzeb was as much a camp as a
+city. When the Emperor moved to Agra or Kashmir the town was emptied of
+a large part of its inhabitants. It contained one or two fine _bazars_,
+and nobles and rich merchants and shopkeepers had good houses, set
+sometimes in pleasant gardens. But the crowds of servants and followers
+occupied mud huts, whose thatched roofs led to frequent and widespread
+fires. In that insanitary age these may have been blessings in disguise.
+"In Delhi," wrote Bernier, "there is no middle state. A man must either
+be of the highest rank or live miserably.... For two or three who wear
+decent apparel there may always be reckoned seven or eight poor, ragged,
+and miserable beings." The ordinary street architecture of modern Delhi
+is mean enough, and posterity will not open an eyelid to look at the
+public buildings which its present rulers have erected in the city. But
+at least the common folk of Delhi are better housed, fed, and clad than
+ever before. It is now a clean well-managed town with a good water
+supply, and it has become an important railway centre and a thriving
+place of trade. Since 1881 the population has steadily increased from
+173,393 to 232,837 in 1911. In 1911-12 the imports into Delhi City from
+places outside the Panjab amounted to 9,172,302 maunds. There are some
+fifteen cotton ginning, spinning, and weaving mills, besides flour
+mills, iron foundries, two biscuit manufactories, and a brewery. The
+city is well supplied with hospitals including two for women only.
+Higher education has been fostered by S. Stephen's College in charge of
+the Cambridge Missionary brotherhood. The Hindu college has not been
+very successful. Delhi has had famous "hakims," practising the Yunani or
+Arabic system of medicine, which is taught in a flourishing school known
+as the Madrasa i Tibbiya.
+
+~Imperial Darbars.~--In this generation the plain to the north of the
+Ridge has been the scene of three splendid _darbars_. When on 1st
+January, 1877, Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India
+(_Kaisar i Hind_) it seemed fitting that the proclamation of the fact to
+the princes and peoples of India should be made by Lord Lytton at the
+old seat of imperial power. On 1st January, 1903, Lord Curzon held a
+_darbar_ on the same spot to proclaim the coronation of King Edward the
+VIIth. Both these splendid ceremonies were surpassed by the _darbar_ of
+12th December, 1911, when King George and Queen Mary were present in
+person, and the Emperor received the homage of the ruling chiefs, the
+great officials, and the leading men of the different provinces. The
+King and Queen entered Delhi on 7th December, and in the week that
+followed the craving of the Indian peoples for "_darshan_" or a sight
+of their sovereign was abundantly gratified. None who saw the spectacles
+of that historic week will ever forget them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146. Darbar Medal.]
+
+New Imperial Capital.--The turn of Fortune's Wheel has again made Delhi
+an imperial city. The transfer of the seat of government from Calcutta
+announced by the King Emperor at the _darbar_, is now being carried out.
+The site will probably extend from Safdar Jang's tomb to a point lying
+to the west of Firoz Shah's citadel.
+
+~Lahore~ (31.34 N., 74.21 E.). The capital of the Panjab lies on the east
+bank of the Ravi, which once flowed close to the Fort, but has moved a
+mile or two to the west. In high floods the waters still spread over the
+lowlands between the Ravi and the Fort. Lahore lies nearly halfway
+between Delhi and Peshawar, being nearer to the latter than to the
+former.
+
+~Early History.~--Practically we know nothing of its history till Mahmud
+conquered the Panjab and put a garrison in a fort at Lahore. Henceforth
+its history was intimately connected with Muhammadan rule in India.
+Whether north-western India was ruled from Ghazni or from Delhi, the
+chief provincial governor had his headquarters at Lahore. In the best
+days of Moghal rule Agra and Lahore were the two capitals of the
+Empire. Lahore lay on the route to Kabul and Kashmir, and it was
+essential both to the power and to the pleasures of the Emperors that it
+should be strongly held and united to Delhi and Agra by a Royal or
+_Badshahi_ Road. The City and the Suburbs in the reign of Shahjahan
+probably covered three or four times the area occupied by the town in
+the days of Sikh rule. All round the city are evidences of its former
+greatness in ruined walls and domes.
+
+~The Civil Station.~--The Anarkali gardens and the buildings near them
+mark the site of the first Civil Station. John Lawrence's house, now
+owned by the Raja of Punch, is beyond the Chauburji on the Multan Road.
+The Civil Lines have stretched far to the south-east in the direction of
+the Cantonment, which till lately took its name from the tomb of Mian
+Mir, Jahangir's spiritual master. The soil is poor and arid. Formerly
+the roads were lined with dusty tamarisks. But of late better trees have
+been planted, and the Mall is now quite a fine thoroughfare. The
+Lawrence Hall Gardens and the grounds of Government House show what can
+be done to produce beauty out of a bad soil when there is no lack of
+water. There is little to praise in the architecture or statuary of
+modern Lahore. The marble canopy over Queen Victoria's statue is however
+a good piece of work. Of the two cathedrals the Roman Catholic is the
+better building. The Montgomery Hall with the smaller Lawrence Hall
+attached, a fine structure in a good position in the public gardens, is
+the centre of European social life in Lahore. Government House is close
+by, on the opposite side of the Mall. Its core, now a unique and
+beautiful dining-room with domed roof and modern oriental decoration, is
+the tomb of Muhammad Kasim Khan, a cousin of Akbar. Jamadar Khushal
+Singh, a well-known man in Ranjit Singh's reign, built a house round the
+tomb. After annexation, Henry Lawrence occupied it for a time, and Sir
+Robert Montgomery adopted it as Government House. It is now much
+transformed. Beyond Government House on the road to the Cantonment are
+the Club and the Panjab Chiefs' College, the only successful attempt in
+Lahore to adapt oriental design to modern conditions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 147. Street in Lahore.]
+
+~The Indian City.~--In its streets and _bazars_ Lahore is a truly eastern
+city, and far more interesting than Delhi, so far as private buildings
+are concerned. In public edifices it possesses some fine examples of
+Moghal architecture. Every visitor should drive through the town to the
+Fort past Wazir Khan's mosque. Under British rule the height of the city
+wall has been reduced by one-half and the moat filled in and converted
+into a garden. Wazir Khan's mosque founded in 1634 by a Panjabi
+minister of Shahjahan, is a noble building profusely adorned with glazed
+tiles and painted panels. The Golden Mosque was constructed 120 years
+later about the same time as Safdar Jang's tomb at Delhi. The palace
+fort, built originally by Akbar, contains also the work of his three
+successors. The Shish Mahal or Hall of Mirrors, which witnessed the
+cession of the Panjab to the Queen of England, was begun by Shahjahan
+and finished by Aurangzeb. The armoury contains a curious collection of
+weapons. The Badshahi Mosque opposite with its beautiful marble domes
+and four lofty minarets of red sandstone was founded in 1673 in the
+reign of Aurangzeb. The cupolas were so shaken by an earthquake in 1840
+that they had to be removed. Maharaja Ranjit Singh used the mosque as a
+magazine. In the space between it and the Fort he laid out the pretty
+orange garden known as the Huzuri Bagh and set in it the marble
+_baradari_ which still adorns it. Close by are his own tomb and that of
+Arjan Das, the fifth Guru.
+
+~Buildings outside Lahore.~--The best example of Moghal architecture is
+not at Lahore itself, but at Shahdara across the Ravi. Here in a fine
+garden is the Mausoleum of Jahangir with its noble front and four
+splendid towers. It enshrines an exquisite sarcophagus, which was
+probably once in accordance with the Emperor's wish open to the sunlight
+and the showers. Near by are the remains of the tombs of his beautiful
+and imperious consort, Nur Jahan, and of her brother Asaf Khan, father
+of the lady of the Taj. Another building associated with Jahangir is
+Anarkali's tomb beside the Civil Secretariat. The white marble
+sarcophagus is a beautiful piece of work placed now in most
+inappropriate surroundings. The tomb was reared by the Emperor to
+commemorate the unhappy object of his youthful love. Half-a-mile off on
+the Multan road is the Chauburji, once the gateway of the Garden of
+Zebunnissa a learned daughter of Aurangzeb. The garden has disappeared,
+but the gateway, decorated with blue and green tiles, though partially
+ruined, is still a beautiful object. On the other side of Lahore on the
+road to Amritsar are the Shalimar Gardens laid out by Shahjahan for the
+ladies of his court. When the paved channels are full and the fountains
+are playing, and the lights of earthen lamps are reflected in the water,
+Shalimar is still a pleasant resort.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148. Shahdara.]
+
+The Museum in Anarkali contains much of interest to Indians and
+Europeans. The "house of wonders" is very popular with the former. It
+includes a very valuable collection of Buddhist sculptures. Opposite the
+museum is the famous Zamzama gun (page 187).
+
+~Growth of Lahore.~ As the headquarters of an important Government and of
+a great railway system Lahore has prospered. Owing to the influx of
+workers the population has risen rapidly from 157,287 in 1881 to 228,687
+in 1911. The railway alone affords support to 30,000 people, of whom
+8000 are employed in the workshops.
+
+~Amritsar~ (31.38 N., 74.53 E.) is a modern town founded in the last
+quarter of the sixteenth century by the fourth Guru, Ram Das, on a site
+granted to him by Akbar. Here he dug the Amrita Saras or Pool of
+Immortality, leaving a small platform in the middle as the site of that
+Har Mandar, which rebuilt is to-day, under the name of the Darbar Sahib,
+the centre of Sikh devotion. The fifth Guru, Arjan Das, completed the
+Har Mandar. Early in the eighteenth century Amritsar became without any
+rival the Mecca of the Sikhs, who had now assumed an attitude of warlike
+resistance to their Muhammadan rulers. Once and again they were driven
+out, but after the victory at Sirhind in 1763 they established
+themselves securely in Amritsar, and rebuilt the temple which Ahmad Shah
+had burned. Ranjit Singh covered the Darbar Sahib with a copper gilt
+roof, whence Englishmen commonly call it the Golden Temple. He laid out
+the Ram Bagh, still a beautiful garden, and constructed the strong fort
+of Govindgarh outside the walls.
+
+~Trade and Manufactures.~--Amritsar lies in a hollow close to a branch of
+the Upper Bari Doab Canal. Waterlogging is a great evil and accounts for
+the terrible epidemics of fever, which have occurred from time to time.
+The population has fluctuated violently, and at the last census was
+152,756, or little larger than in 1881. Long before annexation the shawl
+industry was famous. The caprice of fashion a good many years ago
+decreed its ruin, but carpet weaving, for which Amritsar is still
+famous, fortunately did something to fill the gap. Amritsar has also
+been an entrepot of trade with other Asiatic countries. It has imported
+raw silk from Bokhara, and later from China, and woven it into cloth. It
+has dealt in China tea, but that is a decreasing trade, in opium from
+Afghanistan, and in _charas_ from Central Asia. There is a considerable
+export of foreign piece goods to Kashmir and the N. W. F. Province.
+
+~Multan~ (30.1 N., 71.3 E.), though now the smallest of the four great
+towns of the Panjab, is probably the most ancient. It is very doubtful
+whether it is the fortress of the Malloi, in storming which Alexander
+was wounded. But when Hiuen Tsang visited it in 741 A.D. it was a
+well-known place with a famous temple of the Sun God. Muhammad Kasim
+conquered it in 712 A.D. (page 166). It was not till the savage
+Karmatian heretics seized Multan towards the end of the tenth century
+that the temple, which stood in the fort, was destroyed. It was
+afterwards rebuilt, but was finally demolished by order of Aurangzeb,
+who set up in its place a mosque. Under the Moghals Multan was an
+important town, through which the trade with Persia passed. Its later
+history has already been noticed (pages 183 and 186).
+
+~The Fort~ contains the celebrated Prahladpuri temple, much damaged during
+the siege in 1848, but since rebuilt. Its proximity to the tomb of
+Bahawal Hakk, a very holy place in the eyes of the Muhammadans of the
+S.W. Panjab and Sindh, has at times been a cause of anxiety to the
+authorities. Bahawal Hakk and Baba Farid, the two great saints of the
+S.W. Panjab, were contemporaries and friends. They flourished in the
+thirteenth century, and it probably would be true to ascribe largely to
+their influence the conversion of the south-west Panjab to Islam, which
+was so complete and of which we know so little. The tomb of Bahawal Hakk
+was much injured during the siege, but afterwards repaired. Outside is a
+small monument marking the resting place of the brave old Nawab
+Muzaffar Khan. Another conspicuous object is the tomb of Rukn ud din
+'Alam, grandson of Bahawal Hakk. An obelisk in the fort commemorates the
+deaths of the two British officers who were murdered on the outbreak of
+the revolt. A simpler epitaph would have befitted men who died in the
+execution of their duty.
+
+~Trade and Manufactures.~--Though heat and dust make the climate of Multan
+trying, it is a very healthy place. The population rose steadily from
+68,674 in 1881 to 99,243 in 1911. The chief local industries are silk
+and cotton weaving and the making of shoes. Multan has also some
+reputation for carpets, glazed pottery and enamel, and of late for tin
+boxes. A special feature of its commerce is the exchange of piece goods,
+shoes, and sugar for the raw silk, fruits, spices, and drugs brought in
+by Afghan traders. The Civil Lines lie to the south of the city and
+connect it with the Cantonment, which is an important military station.
+
+~Peshawar~ (34.1 N., 71.35 E.) is 276 miles from Lahore and 190 from
+Kabul. There is little doubt that the old name was Purushapura, the town
+of Purusha, though Abu Rihan (Albiruni), a famous Arab geographer, who
+lived in the early part of the eleventh century, calls it Parshawar,
+which Akbar corrupted into Peshawar, or the frontier fort. As the
+capital of King Kanishka it was in the second century of the Christian
+era a great centre of Buddhism (page 164). Its possession of Buddha's
+alms bowl and of yet more precious relics of the Master deposited by
+Kanishka in a great _stupa_ (page 203) made it the first place to be
+visited by the Chinese pilgrims who came to India between 400 and 630
+A.D. Hiuen Tsang tells us the town covered 40 li or 6-3/4 miles. Its
+position on the road to Kabul made it a place of importance under the
+Moghal Empire. On its decline Peshawar became part of the dominions of
+the Durani rulers of Kabul, and finally fell into the hands of Ranjit
+Singh. His Italian general Avitabile ruled it with an iron rod. In 1901
+it became the capital of the new N. W. F. Province.
+
+~The Town~ lies near the Bara stream in a canal-irrigated tract. On the
+north-west it is commanded by the Bala Hissar, a fort outside the walls.
+The suburbs with famous fruit gardens are on the south side, and the
+military and civil stations to the west. The people to be seen in the
+_bazars_ of Peshawar are more interesting than any of its buildings. The
+Gor Khatri, part of which is now the _tahsil_, from which a bird's-eye
+view of the town can be obtained, was successively the site of a
+Buddhist monastery, a Hindu temple, a rest-house built by Jahangir's
+Queen, Nur Jahan, and the residence of Avitabile. The most noteworthy
+Muhammadan building is Muhabbat Khan's mosque. Avitabile used to hang
+people from its minarets. The Hindu merchants live in the quarter known
+as Andar Shahr, the scene of destructive fires in 1898 and 1913.
+Peshawar is now a well-drained town with a good water supply. It is an
+entrepot of trade with Kabul and Bokhara. From the former come raw silk
+and fruit, and from the latter gold and silver thread and lace _en
+route_ to Kashmir. The Kabuli and Bokharan traders carry back silk
+cloth, cotton piece goods, sugar, tea, salt, and Kashmir shawls.
+
+~Simla~ (31.6 N., 77.1 E.) lies on a spur of the Central Himalaya at a
+mean height exceeding 7000 feet. A fine hill, Jakko, rising 1000 feet
+higher, and clothed with _deodar_, oak, and rhododendron, occupies the
+east of the station and many of the houses are on its slopes. The other
+heights are Prospect Hill and Observatory Hill in the western part of
+the ridge. Viceregal Lodge is a conspicuous object on the latter, and
+below, between it and the Annandale race-course, is a fine glen, where
+the visitor in April from the dry and dusty plains can gather yellow
+primroses (Primula floribunda) from the dripping rocks. The beautiful
+Elysium Hill is on a small spur running northwards from the main ridge.
+Simla is 58 miles by cart road from Kalka, at the foot of the hills, and
+somewhat further by the narrow gauge railway.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149. Trans-border traders in Peshawar.]
+
+~History.~--Part of the site was retained at the close of the Gurkha war
+in 1816, and the first English house, a wooden cottage with a thatched
+roof, was built three years later. The first Governor General to spend
+the summer in Simla was Lord Amherst in 1827. After the annexation of
+the Panjab in 1849 Lord Dalhousie went there every year, and from 1864
+Simla may be said to have become the summer capital of India. It became
+the summer headquarters of the Panjab Government twelve years later. The
+thirty houses of 1830 have now increased to about 2000. Six miles
+distant on the beautiful Mahasu Ridge the Viceroy has a "Retreat," and
+on the same ridge and below it at Mashobra there are a number of
+European houses. There are excellent hotels in Simla, and the cold
+weather tourist can pay it a very pleasant visit, provided he avoids the
+months of January and February.
+
+~Srinagar~ (34.5 N., 74.5 E.), the summer capital of the Maharaja of
+Kashmir, is beautifully situated on both banks of the river Jhelam at a
+level of 5250 feet above the sea. To the north are the Hariparvat or
+Hill of Vishnu with a rampart built by Akbar and the beautiful Dal lake.
+Every visitor must be rowed up its still waters to the Nasim Bagh, a
+grove of plane (_chenar_) trees, laid out originally in the reign of the
+same Emperor. Between the lake and the town is the Munshi Bagh, in and
+near which are the houses of Europeans including the Residency. The
+splendid plane trees beside the river bank, to which house boats are
+moored, and the beautiful gardens attached to some of the houses, make
+this a very charming quarter. The Takht i Suliman to the west of
+Srinagar is crowned by a little temple, whose lower walls are of great
+age. The town itself is intersected by evil-smelling canals and consists
+in the main of a jumble of wooden houses with thatched roofs. Sanitary
+abominations have been cleansed from time to time by great fires and
+punished by severe outbreaks of cholera. The larger part of the
+existing city is on the left side. The visitor may be content to view
+the parts of the town to be seen as he is rowed down the broad waterway
+from the Munshi Bagh passing under picturesque wooden bridges, and
+beside temples with shining metal roofs and the beautiful mosque of Shah
+Hamadan. On the left bank below the first bridge is the Shergarhi with
+the Maharaja's houses and the Government Offices. Opposite is a fine
+_ghat_ or bathing place with stone steps. Between the third and fourth
+bridges on the right bank is Shah Hamadan's mosque, a carved cedar house
+with Buddhist features, totally unlike the ordinary Indian mosque. The
+stone mosque close by on the opposite side, built by Mir Jahan, was
+seemingly rejected by Muhammadans as founded by a woman, and is now a
+State granary. The Jama Masjid is on the north side, but not on the
+river bank. The tomb of the great king, Zain ul Abidin, is below the
+fourth bridge, which bears his name. In the same quarter are the
+storehouses of the dealers in carpets and art wares and the Mission
+School. The last should be visited by anyone who wishes to see what a
+manly education can make of material in some respects unpromising.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 150 Mosque of the Shah Hamadan.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+OTHER PLACES OF NOTE
+
+
+I. PANJAB.
+
+(_a_) _Ambala Division._
+
+~Ambala~, 30.2 N.--76.4 E. Population 80,131, of which 54,223 in
+Cantonments. A creation of British rule. It became the headquarters of
+the Political Agent for the Cis-Sutlej States in 1823, and the
+Cantonment was established in 1843. The Native City and the Civil Lines
+lie some miles to the N.W. of the Cantonment. Headquarters of district
+and division.
+
+~Bhiwani~ (~Hissar~), 28.5 N.--76.8 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_ in Hissar.
+Population 31,100. On Rewari--Ferozepore branch of Rajputana--Malwa
+Railway. Has a brisk trade with Rajputana.
+
+~Hansi~ (~Hissar~), 29.7 N.--75.6 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_. Population
+14,576. A very ancient town. In centre of canal tract of Hissar, and a
+local centre of the cotton trade.
+
+~Hissar~, 29.1 N.--75.4 E. Headquarters of district. Population 17,162.
+Founded by the Emperor Firoz Shah Tughlak, who supplied it with water by
+a canal taken from the Jamna. This was the origin of the present Western
+Jamna Canal. Is now a place of small importance.
+
+~Jagadhri~ (~Ambala~), 30.1 N.--77.2 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
+Population 12,045. Connected with the N.W. Railway by a light railway.
+The iron and brass ware of Jagadhri are well known.
+
+~Kaithal~ (~Karnal~), 29.5 N.--76.2 E. Headquarters of subdivision and
+_tahsil_. Population 12,912. A town of great antiquity. Kaithal is a
+corruption of Kapisthala--the monkey town, a name still appropriate.
+Timur halted here on his march to Delhi. Was the headquarters of the
+Bhais of Kaithal, who held high rank among the Cis-Sutlej Sikh chiefs.
+Kaithal lapsed in 1843.
+
+~Karnal~, 29.4 N.--76.6 E. Headquarters of district. Population 21,961. On
+Delhi--Kalka Railway. Till the Western Jamna Canal was realigned it was
+most unhealthy, and the Cantonment was given up in 1841 on this account.
+The health of the town is still unsatisfactory. Trade unimportant.
+
+~Kasauli~ (~Ambala~), 30.5 N.--76.6 E. Small hill station overlooking
+Kalka. Height 6000 feet. The Pasteur Institute for the treatment of
+rabies is at Kasauli, and the Lawrence Military School at Sanawar, three
+miles off.
+
+~Panipat~ (~Karnal~), 29.2 N.--76.6 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
+Population 26,342. On Delhi--Kalka Railway. An important place in Hindu
+and Muhammadan times (pages 172 and 179). Local manufactures, brass
+vessels, cutlery, and glass.
+
+~Pihowa~ (~Karnal~), 29.6 N.--76.3 E. A very sacred place on the holy
+stream Sarusti.
+
+~Rewari~ (~Gurgaon~), 28.1 N.--76.4 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
+Population 24,780. Junction of main line and Rewari--Bhatinda branch of
+Rajputana--Malwa Railway. Trade in grain and sugar with Rajputana.
+
+~Rupar~ (~Ambala~), 30.6 N.--76.3 E. Headquarters of subdivision and
+_tahsil_. Population 6935. Exchange market for products of Hills and
+Plains. Headworks of Sirhind Canal are at Rupar.
+
+~Sirsa~ (~Hissar~), 29.3 N.--75.2 E. Headquarters of subdivision and
+_tahsil_. Population 14,629. Sirsa or Sarsuti was an important place in
+Muhammadan times. Deserted in the great famine of 1783 it was refounded
+in 1838. On the Rewari--Bhatinda Branch of the Rajputana--Malwa Railway.
+Has a brisk trade with Rajputana.
+
+~Thanesar~ (~Karnal~), 29.6 N.--76.5 E. See pages 165 and 168. Noted
+place of pilgrimage. Headquarters of a _tahsil_. Population 4719. The
+old Hindu temples were utterly destroyed apparently when Thanesar was
+sacked by Mahmud in 1014. There is a fine tomb of a Muhammadan Saint,
+Shekh Chilli.
+
+
+(_b_) _Jalandhar Division._
+
+~Aliwal~, 30.6 N.--75.4 E. Scene of Sir Harry Smith's victory over the
+Sikhs on 28th January, 1846.
+
+~Dharmsala~ (~Kangra~), 32.1 N.--76.1 E. Headquarters of district. On a
+spur of the Dhauladhar Range. A Gurkha regiment is stationed here. The
+highest part of Dharmsala is over 7000 feet, and the scenery is very
+fine, but the place is spoiled as a hill station by the excessive
+rainfall, which averages over 120 inches. In the earthquake of 1905,
+1625 persons, including 25 Europeans, perished.
+
+~Fazilka~ (~Ferozepore~), 30.3 N.--74.3 E. Headquarters of sub-division
+and _tahsil_. Population 10,985. Terminus of Fazilka extension of
+Rajputana--Malwa Railway, and connected with Ludhiana by a line which
+joins the Southern Panjab Railway at Macleodganj. A grain mart.
+
+~Ferozepore~, 30.6 N.--74.4 E. Headquarters of district. Population
+50,836 including 26,158 in Cantonment. (See page 245.)
+
+~Ferozeshah~ (~Ferozepore~), 30.5 N.--74.5 E. The real name is
+Pherushahr. Sir Hugh Gough defeated the Sikhs here after two days' hard
+fighting on Dec. 21-22, 1845.
+
+~Jalandhar~, 31.2 N.--75.3 E. Headquarters of district. Population
+69,318, including 13,964 in Cantonment. The Cantonment lies four miles
+to the S.E. of the native town and three miles from the Civil Lines.
+(See page 241.)
+
+~Jawala Mukhi~ (~Kangra~), 31.5 N.--76.2 E. Celebrated place of Hindu
+pilgrimage with a famous temple of the goddess Jawalamukhi, built over
+some jets of combustible gas.
+
+~Kangra~, 30.5 N.--76.2 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_. Ancient name
+Nagarkot. The celebrated temple and the fort of the Katoch kings of
+Kangra were destroyed in the earthquake of 1905. (See pages 168, 171,
+183.)
+
+~Ludhiana~, 30.6 N.--75.5 E. Headquarters of district. Population
+44,170. The manufacture of _pashmina_ shawls was introduced in 1833 by
+Kashmiris. Ludhiana is well known for its cotton fabrics and turbans (p.
+152).
+
+~Mudki~ (~Ferozepore~), 30.5 N.--74.5 E. The opening battle of the 1st
+Sikh War was fought here on 18th December, 1845.
+
+
+(_c_) _Lahore Division._
+
+~Batala~ (~Gurdaspur~), 30.5 N.--75.1 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
+Population 26,430. Chief town in Gurdaspur district on the
+Amritsar--Pathankot Railway. Cotton, silk, leathern goods, and soap are
+manufactured, and there is a large trade in grain and sugar. The Baring
+Anglo-Vernacular High School for Christian boys is a well-known
+institution.
+
+~Dalhousie~ (~Gurdaspur~), 33.3 N.--75.6 E. A well-known hill station at
+height of 7687 feet, 51 miles N.W. of Pathankot, from which it is
+reached by tonga. The Commissioner of Lahore and the Deputy Commissioner
+of Gurdaspur spend part of the hot weather at Dalhousie. It is a very
+pretty and healthy place, with the fine Kalatop Forest in Chamba close
+by, and is deservedly popular as a summer resort.
+
+~Gujranwala~, 32.9 N.--74.1 E. Headquarters of district. Population
+29,472. An active trade centre. Ranjit Singh was born, and the tomb of
+his father, Mahan Singh is, at Gujranwala.
+
+~Kasur~ (~Lahore~), 31.8 N--74.3 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_ in Lahore.
+Population 24,783. Between Raiwind and Ferozepore on N.W. Railway, and
+has direct railway communication with Amritsar. A very ancient place and
+now an active local trade centre.
+
+~Nankana-Sahib~ (~Gujranwala~), 31.6 N.--73.8 E. In south of Gujranwala
+district on Chichoki--Shorkot Railway. Venerated by Sikhs as the early
+home of Baba Nanak.
+
+~Sialkot~, 32.3 N.--74.3 E. Headquarters of district. Population 64,869,
+of which 16,274 in Cantonment. A very old place connected with the
+legendary history of Raja Salivahan and his two sons Puran and Raja
+Rasalu. (See also page 165.) The Cantonment is about a mile and a half
+from the town. Sialkot is an active trade centre. Its hand-made paper
+was once well known, but the demand has declined. Tents, tin boxes,
+cricket and tennis bats, and hockey sticks, are manufactured.
+
+~Tarn Taran~ (~Amritsar~), 31.3 N.--74.6 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
+Population 4260. On Amritsar--Kasur Railway. The tank is said to have
+been dug by Guru Arjan and it and the temple beside it are held in great
+reverence by the Sikhs. The water is supposed to cure leprosy. The leper
+asylum at Tarn Taran in charge of the Rev. E. Guilford of the Church
+Missionary Society is an admirable institution. Clay figures of this
+popular missionary can be bought in the _bazar_.
+
+
+(_d_) _Rawalpindi Division._
+
+~Attock~ (~Atak~), 32.5 N.--72.1 E. The fort was built by Akbar to
+protect the passage of the Indus. In the river gorge below is a
+whirlpool between two jutting slate rocks, called Kamalia and Jamalia
+after two heretics who were flung into the river in Akbar's reign. The
+bridge which carries the railway across the Indus still makes Attock a
+position of military importance. Population 630.
+
+~Bhera~ (~Shahpur~), 32.3 N.--72.6 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
+Population 15,202. A very ancient town which was sacked by Mahmud and
+two centuries later by Chingiz Khan. Has an active trade. The
+wood-carvers of Bhera are skilful workmen. Woollen felts are
+manufactured.
+
+~Chilianwala~ (~Chelianwala~) (~Gujrat~), 32.7 N.--73.6 E. Famous
+battlefield (page 187).
+
+~Gujrat~, 32.3 N.--74.5 E. Headquarters of district. Population 19,090.
+An old place, famous in recent history for the great battle on 22
+February, 1849 (page 187). Has a brisk local trade.
+
+~Hasn Abdal~ (~Attock~) 33.5 N.--72.4 E. On N.W. Railway. Shrine of Baba
+Wali Kandahari on hill above village. Below is the Sikh shrine of the
+Panja Sahib, the rock in which bears the imprint of Baba Nanak's five
+fingers (_panja_).
+
+~Jhelam~, 32.6 N.--73.5 E. Headquarters of district and an important
+cantonment. Population 19,678, of which 7380 in cantonment. Has only
+become a place of any importance under British rule. Is an important
+depot for Kashmir timber trade.
+
+~Kalabagh~ (~Mianwali~), 32.6 N.--71.3 E. Population 6654. Picturesquely
+situated below hills which are remarkable for the fantastic shapes
+assumed by salt exposed on the surface. The Kalabagh salt is in favour
+from its great purity. The Malik of Kalabagh is the leading man in the
+Awan tribe.
+
+~Katas~ (~Jhelam~), 32.4 N.--72.6 E. A sacred pool in the Salt Range and
+a place of Hindu pilgrimage. The tears of Siva weeping for the loss of
+his wife Sati formed the Kataksha pool in the Salt Range and Pushkar at
+Ajmer.
+
+~Khewra~ (~Jhelam~), 32.4 N.--73.3 E. In Salt Range five and a half
+miles N.E. of Pinddadankhan. The famous Mayo Salt Mine is here.
+
+~Malot~ (~Jhelam~), 32.4 N.--72.5 E. Nine miles W. of Katas (see above).
+Fort and temple on a spur of the Salt Range. Temple in early Kashmir
+style (_Archaeological Survey Reports_, Vol. v. pp. 85-90).
+
+~Mankiala~ (~Manikyala~) (~Rawalpindi~), 33.3 N.--74.2 E. A little
+village close to which are the remains of a great Buddhist _stupa_ and
+of a number of monasteries (page 202).
+
+~Murree~ (~Marri~) (~Rawalpindi~), 33.5 N.--73.2 E. Hill Station near
+Kashmir road on a spur of the Himalaya--height 7517 feet--39 miles from
+Rawalpindi, from which visitors are conveyed by tonga. The views from
+Murree are magnificent and the neighbourhood of the Hazara Galis is an
+attraction. But the climate is not really bracing. The summer
+headquarters of the Northern Army are at Murree, and before 1876 the
+Panjab Government spent the hot weather there. The Commissioner and
+Deputy Commissioner of Rawalpindi take their work there for several
+months.
+
+~Murti~ (~Jhelam~), 32.4 N.--72.6 E. In Gandhala valley on bank of Katas
+stream. Remains of a Buddhist _stupa_ and of a Jain temple.
+(_Archaeological Survey Reports_, Vol. II. pp. 88 and 90.)
+
+~Rawalpindi~, 33.4 N.--73.7 E. Headquarters of district and division,
+and the most important cantonment in Northern India. Population 86,483,
+of which 39,841 in Cantonment. It owes its importance entirely to
+British rule. Large carrying trade with Kashmir. Contains the N.W.
+Railway Locomotive and Carriage works and several private factories,
+also a branch of the Murree brewery. There is an important arsenal. The
+Park, left fortunately mainly in its natural state, is an attractive
+feature of the cantonment.
+
+~Rohtas~ (~Jhelam~), 32.6 N.--73.5 E. Ten miles N.W. of Jhelam on the
+far side of the gorge where the Kaha torrent breaks through a spur of
+the Tilla Range. Fine remains of a very large fort built by the Emperor
+Sher Shah Suri.
+
+~Sakesar~ (~Shahpur~), 31.3 N.--71.6 E. Highest point of Salt Range,
+5010 feet above sea level. The Deputy Commissioners of Shahpur,
+Mianwali, and Attock spend part of the hot weather at Sakesar.
+
+~Shahdheri~ (~Rawalpindi~), 33.2 N.--72.5 E. On the Hazara border and
+near the Margalla Pass. Site of the famous city of Taxila (Takshasila).
+See pages 161, 165, and 204. Excavation is now being carried out with
+interesting results.
+
+~Taxila~. See Shahdheri.
+
+
+(_e_) _Multan Division._
+
+~Chiniot~ (~Jhang~), 31.4 N.--73.0 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_. Population
+14,085. A very old town near the left bank of the Chenab. Famous for
+brasswork and wood-carving. The Muhammadan Khoja traders have large
+business connections with Calcutta, Bombay, and Karachi. Fine mosque of
+the time of Shahjahan.
+
+~Kamalia~ (~Lyallpur~), 30.4 N.--72.4 E. Population 8237. An old town.
+Cotton printing with hand blocks is a local industry. The town should
+now prosper as it is a station on the Chichoki--Shorkot Road Railway and
+irrigation from the Lower Chenab Canal has reached its neighbourhood.
+
+~Lyallpur~, 31.3 N.--73.9 E. Fine new Colony town. Headquarters of
+district. Population 19,578. Large wheat trade with Karachi, and has a
+number of cotton ginning and pressing factories.
+
+~Montgomery~, 30.4 N.--73.8 E. Headquarters of district. Population 8129.
+May become a place of some importance with the opening of the Lower Bari
+Doab Canal. Hitherto one of the hottest and dreariest stations in the
+Panjab, but healthy.
+
+~Pakpattan~, 30.2 N.--73.2 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_. Population 7912.
+On Sutlej Valley Railway. Anciently known as Ajodhan and was a place of
+importance. Contains shrine of the great Saint Farid ul Hakk wa ud Din
+Shakarganj (1173-1265). Visited by Timur in 1398. There is a great
+annual festival attracting crowds of pilgrims, who come even from
+Afghanistan. There is great competition to win eternal bliss by getting
+first through the gate at the entrance to the shrine.
+
+
+II. PANJAB NATIVE STATES.
+
+~Bahawalpur~, 29.2 N.--71.5 E. Capital of State on N.W. Railway 65 miles
+south of Multan. Population 18,414. There is a large palace built by
+Nawab Muhammad Sadik Muhammad Khan IV in 1882.
+
+~Barnala~ (~Patiala~), 32.2 N.--75.4 E. Headquarters of Anahadgarh Nizamat
+on Rajpura-Bhatinda branch of N.W. Railway. Population 5341. For the
+famous battle see page 179.
+
+~Bhatinda~ (~Patiala~), 30.1 N.--75.0 E. Also called Govindgarh. Old names
+are Vikramagarh and Bhatrinda. Historically a place of great interest
+(page 167). Fell into decay in later Muhammadan times. Is now a great
+railway junction and a nourishing grain mart. The large fort is a
+conspicuous object for many miles round. Population 15,037.
+
+~Brahmaur~, 32.3 N.--76.4 E. The old capital of Chamba, now a small
+village. Has three old temples. One of Lakshana Devi has an inscription
+of Meru Varma, who ruled Chamba in the seventh century.
+
+~Chamba~, 32.3 N.--76.1 E. Capital of State picturesquely situated on a
+plateau above right bank of Ravi. Population 5523. The white palace is a
+conspicuous object. There is an excellent hospital and an interesting
+museum. The group of temples near the palace is noteworthy (page 201).
+That of Lakshmi Narayan perhaps dates from the tenth century. The Ravi
+is spanned at Chamba by a fine bridge.
+
+~Chini~ (~Bashahr~), 31.3 N.--78.2 E. Headquarters of Kanawar near the
+right bank of Sutlej. Elevation 9085 feet. Was a favourite residence of
+Lord Dalhousie. There is a Moravian Mission Station at Chini.
+
+~Kapurthala~, 31.2 N.--75.2 E. Capital of State. Contains Maharaja's
+palace. Population 16,367.
+
+~Malerkotla~, 30.3 N.--75.6 E. Capital of State. Population 23,880.
+
+~Mandi~, 31.4 N.--76.6 E. Capital of State. Population 7896. On the
+Bias, 131 miles from Pathankot, with which it is connected by the
+Pathankot--Palampur--Baijnath road. There is a fine iron bridge spanning
+the Bias. It is a mart for trade with Ladakh and Yarkand.
+
+~Nabha~, 30.2 N.--76.1 E. Capital of State. Population 13,620, as
+compared with 18,468 in 1901. Founded in 1755 by Hamir Singh (page 277).
+Since irrigation from the Sirhind Canal has been introduced the environs
+have become waterlogged and the town is therefore unhealthy.
+
+~Nahan~, 30.3 N.--77.2 E. Capital of Sirmur State. Elevation 3207 feet.
+Population 6341. There is a good iron foundry at Nahan.
+
+~Patiala~, 30.2 N.--76.3 E. Capital of State. Population 46,974. On
+Rajpura-Bhatinda Branch of N.W. Railway. Contains fine gardens and
+modern buildings. The old palace is in the centre of the town. Patiala
+is a busy mart for local trade.
+
+~Pattan Munara~ (~Bahawalpur~), 28.1 N.--70.2 E. There are the ruins
+here of a large city and of a Buddhist monastery. They are situated in
+the south of the State five miles east of Rahim Yar Khan Station.
+
+~Sangrur~ (~Jind~), 30.1 N.--75.6 E. Became the capital of Jind State in
+1827. Population 9041. On Ludhiana--Dhuri--Jakhal Railway.
+
+~Sirhind~ (~Patiala~), 30.4 N.--76.3 E. Properly Sahrind. On N.W.
+Railway. Population 3843. The idea that the name is Sir-Hind = head of
+India is a mistake. An old town of great importance in Muhammadan period
+(pages 177 and 180). The ruins extend for several miles. There are two
+fine tombs known as those of the Master and his Disciple dating probably
+from the fourteenth century.
+
+~Sui Vehar~ (~Bahawalpur~), 29.2 N.--71.3 E. Six miles from Samasata.
+Site of a ruined Buddhist _stupa_. An inscription found at Sui Vehar
+belongs to the reign of Kanishka (page 164).
+
+~Uch~ (~Bahawalpur~), 29.1 N.--71.4 E. On the Sutlej near the point
+where it joins the Chenab. Consists now of three villages. But it was in
+early Muhammadan times a place of great importance, and a centre of
+learning. It is still very sacred in the eyes of Musalmans.
+
+
+III. NORTH WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE.
+
+(_a_) _Districts._
+
+~Abbottabad~, 34.9 N.--73.1 E. Headquarters of district and a cantonment
+with four battalions of Gurkhas. Population 11,506. At south end of
+Orash Plain 4120 feet above sea level. Appropriately named after Captain
+James Abbott (page 299).
+
+~Bannu.~ See Edwardesabad.
+
+~Cherat~ (~Peshawar~), 33.5 N.--71.5 E. Small hill sanitarium in Peshawar
+near Kohat border, 4500 feet above sea level.
+
+~Dera Ismail Khan~, 31.5 N.--70.6 E. Headquarters of district and a
+cantonment. Population 35,131, including 5730 in cantonment. The Powinda
+caravans pass through Dera Ismail Khan on their march to and from India.
+
+~Dungagali~ (~Hazara~), 34.6 N.--73.2 E. Small sanitarium, elevation 7800
+feet, in Hazara Galis, two miles from Nathiagali. Moshpuri rises above
+it to a height of 9232 feet.
+
+~Edwardesabad~ (~Bannu~), 33.0 N.--70.4 E. Headquarters of Bannu district
+and a cantonment. Founded by Lieutenant (afterwards Sir Herbert)
+Edwardes in 1848. Population 16,865. It is unhealthy owing to the heavy
+irrigation in the neighbourhood.
+
+~Fort Lockhart~ (~Kohat~), 33.3 N.--70.6 E. Important military outpost on
+Samana Range, elevation 6743 feet. Saragarhi, heroically defended by
+twenty-one Sikhs in 1897 against several thousand Orakzais, is in the
+neighbourhood.
+
+~Kohat~, 33.3 N.--71.3 E. Headquarters of district and a cantonment.
+Population 22,654, including 5957 in Cantonment. On Khushalgarh--Thal
+Branch of N.W. Railway.
+
+~Mansehra~ (~Hazara~), 34.2 N.--73.1 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_. The two
+rock edicts of Asoka are in the neighbourhood (pages 163 and 202).
+
+~Nathiagali~ (~Hazara~), 34.5 N.--73.6 E. Summer headquarters of Chief
+Commissioner of N.W.F. Province in Hazara Galis. Elevation 8200 feet. It
+is a beautiful little hill station. Miran Jani (9793 feet) is close by,
+and on a clear day Nanga Parvat can be seen in the far distance.
+
+~Naushahra~ (~Peshawar~), 34 N.--72 E. Population 25,498, including 14,543
+in cantonment. On railway 27 miles east of Peshawar. Risalpura, a new
+cavalry cantonment, is in the neighbourhood.
+
+~Shekhbudin~, 32.2 N.--70.5 E. Small hill station on Nila Koh on border
+of Dera Ismail Khan and Bannu districts. Elevation 4516 feet. It is on a
+bare limestone rock with very scanty vegetation and is hot in summer in
+the daytime. Water is scarce. The Deputy Commissioners of Bannu and Dera
+Ismail Khan spend part of the hot weather at Shekhbudin.
+
+~Thal~ (~Kohat~), 33.2 N.--70.3 E. Important military outpost at
+entrance of Kurram Valley. Terminus of Khushalgarh--Thal branch of N.W.
+Railway.
+
+~Thandiani~ (~Hazara~), 34.1 N.--73.2 E. Small hill station in Galis
+sixteen miles N.E. of Abbottabad. Elevation about 8800 feet. A
+beautifully situated place chiefly resorted to by residents of
+Abbottabad and Missionaries.
+
+
+(_b_) _Agencies and Independent Territory._
+
+~Ali Masjid~ (~Khaibar~), 34.2 N.--71.5 E. Village and fort in Khaibar,
+10-1/4 miles from Jamrud. Elevation 2433 feet.
+
+~Ambela~ (~Indep. Territory~), 34.2 N.--72.4 E. Pass in Buner, which
+gave its name to the Ambela campaign of 1863 (page 191).
+
+~Chakdarra~ (~Dir~, ~Swat~, and ~Chitral~), 34.4 N.--72.8 E. Military
+post to N.E. of Malakand Pass on south bank of Swat River.
+
+~Chitral~, 35.5 N.--71.5 E. A group of villages forming capital of
+Chitral State. There is a small _bazar_.
+
+~Jamrud~ (~Khaibar~), 34 N.--71.2 E. Just beyond Peshawar boundary at
+mouth of Khaibar. Terminus of railway. 10-1/2 miles west of Peshawar.
+There is a fort and a large _sarai_. Elevation 1670 feet.
+
+~Landi Kotal~ (~Khaibar~), 34.6 N.--71.8 E. 20 miles from Jamrud. Fort
+garrisoned by Khaibar Rifles at highest point of Khaibar route.
+Elevation 3373 feet. Afghan frontier 6 miles beyond.
+
+~Malakand~ (~Dir~, ~Swat~, and ~Chitral~), 34.3 N.--71.6 E. Pass leading
+into Swat Valley from Peshawar district.
+
+~Miram Shah~ (~N. Waziristan~), 33.6 N.--70.7 E. Headquarters of North
+Waziristan Agency in Tochi Valley 3050 feet above the sea.
+
+~Parachinar~ (~Kurram~), 33.5 N.--70.4 E. Headquarters of Kurram Agency
+and of Kurram Militia. Climate temperate. Population 2364.
+
+~Wana~ (~S. Waziristan~), 37.2 N.--69.4 E. Headquarters of South
+Waziristan Agency. In a wide valley watered by Wana Toi. There is much
+irrigation and the place is unhealthy, though the elevation of the
+Valley is from 4300 to 5800 feet.
+
+
+IV. KASHMIR AND JAMMU.
+
+~Baramula~, 34.1 N.--74.2 E. Situated at the point where the Jhelam gorge
+ends and the Vale of Kashmir begins. Travellers who intend to go to
+Srinagar by water board their house boats here. There is an excellent
+poplar-lined road from Baramula to Srinagar and a bad road to Gulmarg.
+
+~Chilas~, 35.4 N.--74.2 E. See page 323.
+
+~Gulmarg~, 34.1 N.--74.4 E. S.W. of Srinagar. It is a favourite hot
+weather resort of Europeans. The Maharaja has a house here. The forest
+scenery is beautiful, especially on the way to the limit of trees at
+Khilanmarg. Good golf links on beautiful turf.
+
+~Gurais~, 34.7 N.--74.8 E. A beautiful valley drained by the head waters
+of the Kishnganga. It lies between Bandipura and the Burzil Pass on the
+road to Gilgit.
+
+~Hunza~, 36.4 N.--74.7 E. (See page 323.) Hunza is a group of villages.
+The Raja's (or Tham's) fort, Baltit castle, at an elevation of 7000 feet
+is splendidly situated in full view of Rakaposhi, distant 20 miles. It
+is overhung by the enormous mass of snow peaks said to be called in the
+language of the country Boiohaghurduanasur (the peak of the galloping
+horse).
+
+~Islamabad~, 33.4 N.--75.1 E. About 40 miles by river from Srinagar, near
+the point where the Jhelam ceases to be navigable. Achabal and Martand
+are easily visited from Islamabad, and it is the starting point for the
+Liddar Valley and Pahlgam. It is a dirty insanitary place.
+
+~Jammu~, 32.4 N.--74.5 E. Capital of the Jammu province and winter
+residence of the Maharaja. Connected with Sialkot by rail. Situated
+above the ravine in which the Tawi flows. At a distance the white-washed
+temples with gilded pinnacles look striking. The town was once much more
+prosperous than it is to-day.
+
+~Leh~, 34.2 N.--77.5 E. Capital of Ladakh. On the Indus 11,500 feet above
+sea-level. The meeting place of caravans from India and Yarkand. The
+Central Asian caravans arrive in Autumn, when the _bazar_, in a wide
+street lined with poplars, becomes busy. The Wazir Wazarat has his
+headquarters here, and there is a small garrison in the mud fort. The
+old palace of the Gyalpo (King) is a large pile on a ridge overhanging
+the town. There are Moravian and Roman Catholic missions at Leh.
+
+~Martand~, 33.4 N.--75.1 E. Remains of a remarkable temple of the Sun god
+three miles east of Islamabad (pages 166 and 201).
+
+~Payer~ (erroneously ~Payech~). Nineteen miles from Srinagar containing a
+beautiful and well-preserved temple of the Sun god, dated variously from
+the fifth to the thirteenth century (page 202).
+
+~Punch~, 33.4 N.--74.9 E. Capital of the _jagir_ of the Raja of Punch, a
+feudatory of the Kashmir State. 3300 feet above sea level. There is a
+brisk trade in grain and _ghi_. Decent roads connect Punch with
+Rawalpindi and Uri on the Jhelam. Cart Road into Kashmir. Kashmiris call
+the place Prunts and its old name was Parnotsa.
+
+~Skardo~, 35.3 N.--75.6 E. Old capital of Baltistan. 7250 feet above
+sea-level. In a sandy basin lying on both sides of the Indus, and about
+five miles in width. A _tahsildar_ is stationed at Skardo.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE I. _Tribes of Panjab (including Native States) and N.W.F.
+Province[1]._
+
+  ------------------------------+------------------------+---------------------------+-------------------------
+         Landholding etc.       |        Traders         |     Artizans and menials  |  Impure Castes
+  --------------+------+--------+--------+------+--------+-----------+------+--------+---------+------+--------
+       Tribe    |Panjab|N.W.F.P.| Tribe  |Panjab|N.W.F.P.|    Tribe  |Panjab|N.W.F.P.|  Tribe  |Panjab|N.W.F.P.
+                | p.c. | p.c.   |        | p.c. | p.c.   |           | p.c. |  p.c.  |         | p.c. | p.c.
+  --------------+------+--------+--------+------+--------+-----------+------+--------+---------+------+--------
+  Jats          | 20.5 |   3.9  | Aroras |  2.8 |    3.1 |Lohars and |      |        |Chuhra[8]|  5.1 |
+  Rajputs       |  6.8 |    .7  | Khatris|  1.8 |    1.2 |Tarkhans[2]|  4.0 |  3.3   |Chamar[9]|  4.7 |
+  Arains and    |      |        | Banias |  1.7 |     -- |Julahas[3] |  2.6 |  1.7   |         |      |
+  Kambohs       |  4.8 |    --  |        |      |        |Jhinwar and|      |        |         |      |
+  Brahmans      |  4.2 |    .6  |        |      |        | Machhi[4] |  2.6 |  ---   |         |      |
+  Gujars        |  2.5 |   5.2  |        |      |        |Kumhar[5]  |  2.3 |  1.0   |         |      |
+  Biloch        |  2.2 |   1.2  |        |      |        |Nai[6]     |  1.4 |  1.1   |         |      |
+  Awan          |  1.8 |  12.6  |        |      |        |Teli[7]    |  1.2 |   .3   |         |      |
+  Shekhs inc.   |      |        |        |      |        |           |      |        |         |      |
+    Kureshi     |  1.7 |        |        |      |        |           |      |        |         |      |
+  Kanet         |  1.7 |    --  |        |      |        |           |      |        |         |      |
+  Sainis, Malis,|      |        |        |      |        |           |      |        |         |      |
+   and Malliars |  1.3 |   1.8  |        |      |        |           |      |        |         |      |
+  Pathans       |  1.2 |  38.3  |        |      |        |           |      |        |         |      |
+  Saiyyids      |  1.0 |   4.4  |        |      |        |           |      |        |         |      |
+  --------------+------+--------+--------+------+--------+-----------+------+--------+---------+------+--------
+
+  [1] Only tribes amounting in number to 1 p.c. of total population shown.
+
+  [2] Blacksmiths and Carpenters.
+
+  [3] Weavers.
+
+  [4] Water carriers.
+
+  [5] Potter.
+
+  [6] Barber.
+
+  [7] Oilman.
+
+  [8] Scavenger.
+
+  [9] Leather-worker.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE II. _Rainfall, Cultivation, Population, and Land Revenue._
+
+  ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+-------------------------------------------------+----------+-----------
+            |             |        |       |          |         Classes of Cultivation, p.c.            |Population| Land
+  Zone      | District    |Rainfall|No. of |Cultivated+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+   1911   |Revenue
+            |             |   in   |Masonry|  Area    |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          |in 1911-12
+            |             |inches  |Wells  |  Acres   | Well | Canal| Abi  |Total |Moist | Dry  |Total  |          |in hundreds
+            |             |        |       | 1911-12  |      |      |      |Irrd. |      |      |Unirrd.|          |of rupees
+  ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+            |Kanga        | 125    |     5 |  587,826 | --   | --   |20    |20    | --   |80    | 80    |   770,386|  9,267
+            |Simla        |  68    |  --   |    9,984 | --   | --   | 7    | 7    | --   |93    | 93    |    39,320|    175
+            |Ambala       |  35    | 2,154 |  750,515 | 4    | --   | 2    | 6    | 4    |90    | 94    |   689,970| 11,477
+            |Hoshyarpur   |  36    | 6,841 |  722,122 | 5    | 2    | 1    | 8    | --   |92    | 92    |   918,569| 14,225
+            |             |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          |
+            |Total British|  --    | 9,000 |2,070,447 | 3    | 1    | 6-1/2|10-1/2| 1-1/2|88    | 89-1/2| 2,418,245| 35,144
+  Mountain  |dts. Panjab  |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          |(1.10.0[1])
+    and     +-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+  Submontane| Hazara      |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          |
+            | (N.W.F.P.)  |  46    |   353 |  430,872 | --   | --   |10    |10    |  --  |90    | 90    |   603,028|  5,129
+            |             |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          |  (1.3.1)
+            +-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+            |Kashmir and  |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          |
+            |  Jammu      |  35[3] |    -- |1,750,056 | --   | --   | --   |32    |  --  | --   | 68    | 2,893,066|    --
+            |Indus        |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          |
+            | Valley[2]   |   5[4] |    -- |  121,952 | --   | --   | --   | --   |  --  | --   |100    |   210,315|    --
+            |             |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          |
+            |Total Kashmir|  --    |    -- |1,872,008 | --   | --   | --   |30    |  --  | --   | 70    | 3,103,381|    --
+  ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+            | Gujrat      |  28    |10,221 |  845,023 |26    | --   | --   |26    | 6    |68    | 74    |   784,011|  8,445
+  North     | Sialkot     |  35    |23,010 |  941,558 |54    | 1    | 3    |58    | 9    |33    | 42    |   979,553| 14,847
+  Central   | Gurdaspur   |  35    | 6,439 |  844,403 |16    |11    | --   |27    |14    |59    | 73    |   836,771| 15,410
+  Panjab    | Amritsar    |  24    |12,386 |  787,229 |31    |31    | --   |62    | 4    |34    | 38    |   880,728| 12,746
+  Plain     | Jalandhar   |  28    |28,289 |  695,571 |44    | --   | --   |44    | 5    |51    | 56    |   801,920| 14,871
+  (British  | Ludhiana    |  28    | 9,991 |  754,373 |19    | 7    | --   |26    | 4    |70    | 74    |   517,192| 11,103
+  Districts)|             |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          |
+            | Total       |        |90,336 |4,868,157 |32    | 8    | 1    |41    | 7    |52    | 59    | 4,800,175| 77,422
+            |             |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          | (1.9.5)
+  ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+
+  ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+            |Rawalpindi   |  33    |   947 |  598,371 |   1/2| --   |   1/2| 1    | --   |99    | 99    |   547,827|  6,754
+            |Jhelam       |  26    | 4,103 |  754,585 | 4    | --   | --   | 4    | 4    |92    | 96    |   511,175|  7,576
+            |Attock       |  19    | 6,850 |1,031,962 | 2-1/2| --   | 1    | 3-1/2| 1    |96    | 97    |   519,273|  6,741
+            |Mianwali     |  12    | 7,128 |  748,255 |17    | 2    |  --  |19    |38-1/2|42-1/2| 81    |   341,377|  4,866
+            |             |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          |
+    North-  |Total Panjab |  --    |19,028 |3,133,173 | 6    |   1/2|   1/2| 7    |10    |83    | 93    | 1,919,652| 25,937
+     West   |             |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          | (0.13.3)
+     Area   +-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+            |Peshawar     |  13    | 6,597 |  894,803 | 5    |33    |   1/2|38-1/2| 2    |59-1/2| 61-1/2|   865,009| 11,375
+            |Kohat        |  18    |   467 |  327,949 |   1/2| --   |12    |12-1/2|   1/2|87    | 87-1/2|   222,690|  2,755
+            |Bannu        |  13    |    11 |  523,688 | --   |24    | --   |24    | --   |76    | 76    |   256,086|  3,040
+            |             |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          |
+            |Total        |  --    | 7,075 |1,746,440 | 3    |24-1/2| 2-1/2|30    | 1    |69    | 70    | 1,343,785| 17,170
+            | N.W.F.P.    |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          | (0.15.8)
+  ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+            |Gujranwala   |  24    |10,926 |1,179,348 |37    |40    | --   |77    | 4    |19    | 23    |   923,419| 10,497
+            |Lahore       |  21    |13,828 |1,462,108 |31    |43-1/2| 1    |75-1/2| 5    |19-1/2| 24-1/2| 1,036,158| 11,301
+            |Shahpur      |  14    | 6,403 |1,267,566 |14    |55    | --   |69    | 6    |25    | 31    |   648,989|  8,701
+            |Jhang        |  10    |11,588 |  723,733 |36    |46    | --   |82    |16    | 2    | 18    |   515,526|  6,429
+            |Lyallpur     |   9    |   121 |1,373,892 | --   |99    | --   |99    | 1    | --   |  1    |   857,711| 12,736
+   South-   |Montgomery   |  10    |10,472 |  815,355 |27    |28    | 1    |56    |25    |19    | 44    |   555,219|  6,225
+   Western  |Multan       |   7    |20,132 |1,081,030 |58-1/2|26    | 1    |85-1/2|13-1/2| 1    | 14-1/2|   814,871| 15,865
+   Plains   |Muzaffargarh |   6    |14,053 |  553,643 |36    |33    | 4    |73    |27    | --   | 27    |   569,461|  7,316
+            |Dera Ghazi   |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          |
+            | Khan        |   6    | 9,564 |1,035,011 |25-1/2|16    | 2-1/2|42    |53-1/2| 2-1/2| 56    |   499,860|  5,752
+            |             |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          |
+            |Total Panjab |  --    |97,087 |9,491,686 |28    |46    | 1    |75    |14-1/2|10-1/2| 25    | 6,420,814| 84,822
+            | districts   |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          | (0.14.4)
+            +-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+            |D.I.  Khan   |   8    |   795 |  544,746 | 1    |17    | 8    |26    |11    |63    | 74    |   256,120|  3,062
+            | N.W.F.P.    |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          | (0.9.0)
+  ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+            |Karnal       |  30    | 7,827 |1,148,876 |13    |21    | --   |34    |10    |56    | 66    |   799,787| 10,833
+            |Delhi[6]     |  --    | 7,133 |  555,057 |19    |18    | --   |37    | 6    |57    | 63    |   657,604|  8,563
+    South-  |Gurgaon      |  26    | 6,594 |  988,613 |13    |10    | 1    |24    | 3-1/2|72-1/2| 76    |   643,177| 12,182
+   Eastern  |Rohtak       |  21    | 2,450 |  974,200 | 4-1/2|30    | --   |34-1/2| --   |65-1/2| 65-1/2|   541,489|  9,660
+    Plains  |Hissar       |  16    |   720 |2,691,478 | --   |11-1/4| --   |11-1/4| 2-1/4|86-1/2| 88-3/4|   804,809|  8,582
+  (British  |Ferozepore   |  21    | 7,940 |2,248,322 | 7    |40-1/2| --   |47-1/2| 2    |50-1/2| 52-1/2|   959,657| 12,066
+  Districts)|             |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          |
+            |Total Panjab |  --    |32,664 |8,606,546 | 7    |22-1/2| --   |29-1/2| 3-1/2|67    | 70-1/2| 4,306,523| 61,886
+            | districts   |        |       |          |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |          | (0.11.6)
+  ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+
+  [1] Rate per cultivated acre in rupees (Rupee 1 = 16 pence).
+
+  [2] = Ladakh, Baltistan, Astor, and Gilgit.
+
+  [3] At Jammu.
+
+  [4] At Gilgit. Leh 3, Skardo 5.
+
+  [5] Including Frontier _Ilaka_ 264,750.
+
+  [6] The Delhi district has been broken
+  up, and, with the exception of the area now administered by the Government of India, has been divided between
+  Rohtak and Gurgaon.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  TABLE III. _Diagrams relating to Cultivation._
+
+  PANJAB
+
+  [Illustration: (_a_) Harvests and Irrigation
+
+  Rabi  59 p.c.
+  Irrigated Rabi  25/59
+
+  Kharif  41 p.c.
+  Irrigated Kharif  13/41]
+
+  [Illustration: (_b_) Classes of Land
+
+  Abi 1 p.c.
+  Canal 24 p.c.
+  Dry 49 p.c.
+  Moist 8 p.c.
+  Well 18 p.c.]
+
+  N.W.F. PROVINCE
+
+  (_a_) Harvests
+
+  Rabi  64 p.c.
+  Kharif  36 p.c.
+
+  [Illustration: (B) Classes of Land
+
+  Abi 6 p.c.
+  Well 2 p.c.
+  Canal 19 p.c.
+  Dry 70 p.c.
+  Moist 3 p.c.]
+
+
+  PANJAB
+
+  [Illustration: (_c_) Crops
+
+  Wheat 31 p.c.
+  Other Crops 15-1/2 p.c.
+  Cotton 4-1/2 p.c.
+  Other Pulses 6-1/2 p.c.
+  Fodder 8-1/2 p.c.
+  Maize 4 p.c.
+  Millets (grain) 14 p.c.
+  Gram 16 p.c.]
+
+  N.W.F. PROVINCE
+
+  [Illustration: (_c_) Crops
+
+  Wheat 36 p.c.
+  Other Crops 19-1/2 p.c.
+  Other Pulses 3-1/2 p.c.
+  Fodder 3-1/2 p.c.
+  Maize 16-1/2 p.c.
+  Millets 12 p.c.
+  Cotton 2 p.c.
+  Gram 7 p.c.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Only tribes amounting in number to 1 p.c. of total population shown.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE IV. _Percentages of Principal Crops_[1].
+
+  KEY:
+  ** = (both harvests)
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+            |                  |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |                  |      |      | Rape  |   Pulses    |      |      |
+            |                  |      |      |_Toria_|------+------|      |      |
+    Zone    |  Districts       |Wheat |Barley| and   |      |Other |Fodder|Maize |
+            |                  |      |      |_Tara_ | Gram |Pulses|  **  |      |
+            |                  |      |      |_mira_ |      |  **  |      |      |
+  ----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |Kangra            |32    | 7    |  1    | 4    | 4    | --   |21    |
+            |Simla             |31    |15    |  --   | --   | 3    | --   |13    |
+            |Ambala            |26    | 2    |  1    |17    | 9    |11    |10-1/2|
+            |Hoshyarpur        |33    | 1-1/2|  1    |17    | 5    | 7    |17-1/2|
+  Mountain  |                  |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |Total Panjab      |30    | 3    |  1    |13    | 6    | 6    |16    |
+  and       |  districts       |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+  Submontane|                  |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |Hazara N.W.F.P.   |26    |10    |  1    |--    |10    | 1-1/2|43    |
+  Zone      |------------------+------+------+-------+-------- ----+------+------+
+            |                  |      |      |       | \_________/ |      |      |
+            |Kashmir and Jammu |21    | 4    |  --   |      7      | --   |38    |
+            |Indus Valley      |29    | 4    |  --   |     12      | --   | 7    |
+            |------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |Total Kashmir     |23    | 4    |  --   | 8    | --   |35-1/2| --   |
+  ----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |Gujrat            |42    | 4    |  1    | 8    | 7    | 8    | 2-1/2|
+  North     |Sialkot           |43    | 6    |  1    | 3    | 5    |15    | 8    |
+  Central   |Gurdaspur         |36    | 4    |  1    | 7    |13    |11    | 8    |
+  Panjab    |Amritsar          |36    | 2    |  3    |16    | 3    |20    | 5    |
+  Plain     |Jalandhar         |33    | 1    |  --   |15    | 7    |23    |10    |
+  (British  |Ludhiana          |28    | 2    |  2    | 3    | 8    |11    | 7    |
+  districts)|                  |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |Total             |37    | 3    |  1    |11    | 8    |14    | 7    |
+  ----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |Rawalpindi        |41    | 2    |  1    | 1    |19    | 2-1/2| 8    |
+            |Jhelam            |47    | 2    |  2    | 3    |10    | 5    | 1    |
+            |Attock            |50    | 2    |  2    | 9    | 7-1/2| 2-1/2| 2-1/2|
+  North-    |Mianwali          |34    | 4    |  3    |19    |10    | 2    | --   |
+            |                  |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+    West    |Total Panjab      |43    | 2    |  2    | 7    |11    | 3-1/2| 3    |
+            |  districts       |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+    Area    |------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |Peshawar          |36-1/2|16    |  1    | 1    | 3    | 7    |18-1/2|
+            |Kohat             |43    | 2-1/2|  1    | 5    | 4    | 2    | 8    |
+            |Bannu             |49    | 4    |  --   |24    |   1/2| 4    | 8    |
+            |                  |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |Total N.W.F.P.    |41    |10    |  1    | 8-1/2| 2-1/2| 5    |13-1/2|
+  ----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |Gujranwala        |40    | 3    |  4    |15-1/2| 3    |12    | 2-1/2|
+            |Lahore            |37    | 1    |  6    |16    | 1    |15    | 4-1/2|
+            |Shahpur           |44    | 1    |  7    | 7    | 3    |10    | 2    |
+            |Jhang             |47    | 1    |  2    | 4-1/2| 4    |10    | 2    |
+  South-    |Lyallpur          |42-1/2|   1/2| 13    | 8    | 2-1/2| 5    | 4-1/2|
+            |Montgomery        |41    | 1-1/2|  2    |13    | 4-1/2|17    | 3    |
+    Western |Multan            |41    | 1    |  2    | 4    | 6    |13    |   1/2|
+            |Muzaffargarh      |44-1/2| 3    |  2    | 8    |10    | 7    | --   |
+    Plains  |Dera Ghazi Khan   |27    | 1    | 10    | 3-1/2| 5-1/2| 5    | --   |
+            |                  |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |Total Panjab d    |40-1/2| 1-1/2|  6    | 9    | 4    |10    | 2    |
+            |  districts       |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |D.I. Khan N.W.F.P.|31    | 2    | 13    | 8    | 3    |   1/2| --   |
+  ----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |Karnal            |21    | 2    |  5    |26-1/2| 4-1/2| 6-1/2| 5-1/2|
+            |Rohtak            | 8    | 2-1/2|  1    |34-1/2| 7    | 2    | --   |
+            |Gurgaon           | 8    |13    |  1-1/2|20    |12    | 4    | --   |
+  South-    |Hissar            | 4    | 7    |  4    |28    | 8    | 4    | --   |
+    Eastern |Ferozepore        |28    | 7    |  4    |31-1/2| 4    | 8    | 2-1/2|
+    Plains  |                  |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+  (British  |Total Panjab      |14    | 6    |  3    |28-1/2| 7    | 5    | 1-1/2|
+  Districts)|  districts       |      |      |       |      |      |      |      |
+            |------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+            |Grand total Panjab|31    | 3-1/2|  4    |16    | 6-1/2| 8-1/2| 4    |
+            |     "    N.W.F.P.|36    | 8-1/2|  3    | 7    | 3-1/2| 3-1/2|16-1/2|
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+  -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |
+  |   Millets     |      |      |     |      |                  |
+  |-------+-------|      |      |     |Other |                  |
+  |       |       | Rice |Cotton|Cane |Crops |  Districts       | Zone
+  |_Bajra_|_Jowar_|      |      |     |  **  |                  |
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |
+  + ------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
+  |  --   |  --   |15    |   1/2|1    |14-1/2|Kangra            |
+  |  --   |  --   | 6    | --   |--   |32    |Simla             |
+  |  1-1/2|  1    | 7    | 6    |2    | 6    |Ambala            |
+  |    1/2|  1    | 4    | 2    |3    | 7-1/2|Hoshyarpur        |
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |Mountain
+  |    1/2|    1/2| 8    | 3    |2    |11    |Total Panjab      |
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |  districts       |and
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |Submontane
+  |  1-1/2|  1    | 3    | 1    |--   | 2    |Hazara N.W.F.P.   |
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|Zone
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |
+  |  --   |  --   | 9    | --   |--   |21    |Kashmir and Jammu |
+  |  --   |  --   | 1    | --   |--   |47    |Indus Valley      |
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|
+  |  --   |  8    | --   | --   |     |21-1/2|Total Kashmir     |
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
+  | 15    |  6    | 1    | 1-1/2|1    | 1    |Gujrat            |
+  |  1-1/2|  1-1/2| 6-1/2| 2    |4    | 3-1/2|Sialkot           |North
+  |    1/2|    1/2| 6-1/2| 1    |7    | 4-1/2|Gurdaspur         |Central
+  |  --   |  --   | 4-1/2| 4    |3    | 3-1/2|Amritsar          |Panjab
+  |  --   |  --   | --   | 3-1/2|3-1/2| 4    |Jalandhar         |Plain
+  |    1/2|  3    | --   | 2    |2    |12    |Ludhiana          |(British
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |districts)
+  |   3   |  2    | 3    | 2-1/2|3-1/2| 4-1/2|Total             |
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
+  |  17   |  4    | --   | 1    |--   | 3-1/2|Rawalpindi        |
+  |  21   |  2    | --   | 2    |--   | 5    |Jhelam            |
+  |  19   |  2-1/2| --   | 2    |--   | 1    |Attock            |
+  |  19   |  4    | --   |   1/2|--   | 4-1/2|Mianwali          |North-
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |
+  |  19   |  3    | --   | 1-1/2|--   | 5    |Total Panjab      |  West
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |  districts       |
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------|  Area
+  |  1    |  4-1/2| 1-1/2| 4    |3    | 3    |Peshawar          |
+  | 27-1/2|  2    | 1    | 1    | --  | 3    |Kohat             |
+  |  3    |  1-1/4|   1/2|   1/2|1-1/4| 4    |Bannu             |
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |
+  |  6    |  3    | 1    | 2-1/2|2    | 4    |Total N.W.F.P.    |
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
+  |  2-1/2|  3    | 5    | 5    |2-1/2| 2    |Gujranwala        |
+  |  1    |  1    | 2-1/2| 9    |1    | 5    |Lahore            |
+  | 10    |  3-1/2| 1    | 8    |  1/2| 3    |Shahpur           |
+  |  2    |  8    |   1/2| 5-1/2|--   |13-1/2|Jhang             |
+  |    1/2|  1    | --   | 9    |2-1/2|11    |Lyallpur          |South-
+  |  1    |  2    | 3    | 5    |--   | 7    |Montgomery        |
+  |  4    |  8    | 3    | 9    |--   | 8-1/2|Multan            |  Western
+  |  3    |  2    | 7    | 6    |1    | 6-1/2|Muzaffargarh      |
+  |  9    | 23    | 8    | 6    |--   | 2    |Dera Ghazi Khan   |  Plains
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |
+  |  3-1/2|  4    | 3    | 7    |1    | 8-1/2|Total Panjab      |
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |  districts       |
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|
+  | 22    |  9    | --   | 2    | --  | 9-1/2|D.I. Khan N.W.F.P.|
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
+  |  5    | 11-1/2| 4    | 6    |2    |   1/2|Karnal            |
+  | 21    | 14    | --   | 6-1/2|2    | 1-1/2|Rohtak            |
+  | 25    |  5    | --   | 8    |  1/2| 3    |Gurgaon           |
+  | 26    |  6-1/2| --   | 3    |--   | 9-1/2|Hissar            |South-
+  |  3    |  6    | --   | --   |--   | 6    |Ferozepore        |  Eastern
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |                  |  Plains
+  | 15    |  8    |   1/2| 3-1/2|  1/2| 7-1/2|Total Panjab      |(British
+  |       |       |      |      |     |      |  districts       |Districts)
+  +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|
+  |  9    |  5    | 2-1/2| 4-1/2|1-1/2| 4    |Grand total Panjab|
+  |  8    |  4    | 1    | 2    |1    | 6    |     "    N.W.F.P.|
+  -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+[1] In case of Panjab districts figures relate to _Kharif_ 1910 and
+_Rabi_ 1911.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE V _Revenue and Expenditure_, 1911-12.
+
+  +-------------------+-------------------------+--------------------------+
+  |                   |         Income          |       Expenditure        |
+  |                   +---------+---------------+--------+-----------------|
+  |    Heads          |         |  Provincial   |        |    Provincial   |
+  |                   |         +---------------+--------+--------+--------|
+  |                   |Total in |               |Total in|        |        |
+  |                   |Rs. 000  |Share  |Amount |Rs. 000 | Share  |Amount  |
+  |                   |         |       |in     |        |        |in      |
+  |                   |         |       |Rs. 000|        |        |Rs. 000 |
+  |-------------------+---------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------|
+  |Land Revenue       |3,47,92  | Half  |1,73,96|   47,76| Whole  |47,76   |
+  |Salt               |  38,16  | Nil   |  --   |    4,82|  Nil   |  --    |
+  |Stamps             |  52,57  | Half  |  26,29|    1,77|  Half  |  89    |
+  |Excise             |  64,00  | Half  |  32,00|    1,71|  Half  |  86    |
+  |Income-tax         |  16,22  | Half  |   8,11|   11   |  Half  |   5    |
+  |Forests            |  13,10  | Whole |  13,10|    7,64| Whole  | 7,65   |
+  |Registration       |   3,16  | Whole |   3,16|    1,20| Whole  | 1,20   |
+  |General            |         |       |       |        |        |        |
+  |Administration     |   --    |  --   |   --  |   18,33|Various |13,65   |
+  |Law and Justice    |         |       |       |        |        |        |
+  |  --Courts         |  4,35   | Whole |   4,35|   42,18| Whole  |42,18   |
+  |Law and Justice    |         |       |       |        |        |        |
+  |  --Jails          |  3,41   | Whole |   3,41|   12,24| Whole  |12,24   |
+  |Police             |  1,80   | Whole |   1,80|   58,57| Whole  |58,57   |
+  |Education          |  3,64   | Whole |   3,64|   23,27| Whole  |23,27   |
+  |Irrigation--       |         |       |       |        |        |        |
+  | Major Works       | 2,13,08 | Half  |1,06,54| 1,36,42| Half   |68,21   |
+  |Irrigation--       |         |       |       |        |        |        |
+  | Minor Works       | 7,99    |Various|   56  |   11,17|Various |1,07    |
+  |Civil Works        | 6,93    |Various|   6,20|   67,90|Various |62,70   |
+  |Medical            |  --     |   --  |  --   |   21,20| Whole  |21,20   |
+  |All other heads[1] |  27,60  |Nil and|  16,21|   56,96| Whole, |41,29   |
+                      |         |various|       |        |various,|        |
+                      |         |       |       |        |  and   |        |
+                      |         |       |       |        |  nil   |        |
+  --------------------+---------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------|
+  Total               |8,03,93  |  --   |3,99,33|5,13,25 |   --   |4,02,79 |
+  --------------------+---------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+
+
+[1] Under Income "Salt," "Tribute," "Interest," "Miscellaneous," and
+"All other heads." Under Expenditure "Political," "Scientific,"
+"Pensions," "Stationery," "All other items."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Abbott, Captain J.; 299, 300
+
+  Abbottabad; 302, 303, 355
+
+  Adamwahan railway bridge; 46, 283
+
+  Adina Beg; 179
+
+  Administration, British 1849-1913; 188-195
+    General; 212-221
+    Local; 222
+
+  Afghan War; 1878-1880 193
+
+  Afridis; 196, 297, 309
+
+  Agriculture; 101, 102, 143, Tables II, III, IV
+
+  Agriculturists, Legislation to protect; 102
+
+  Agror; 303
+
+  Ahirs; 230, 231
+
+  Ahmad Shah; 178, 179
+
+  Aitchison, Sir Charles; 194
+
+  Akazais; 303
+
+  Akbar; 172
+
+  Ala Singh, Raja; 273, 274
+
+  Ala ud din; 169
+
+  Alexander the Great; 161-162
+
+  Alexandra railway bridge; 41
+
+  Ali Masjid; 356
+
+  Alptagin; 168
+
+  Altamsh; 170
+
+  Alum; 59
+
+  Amb; 303
+
+  Ambala division; 225-235
+    district; 233-235
+    town and cantonment; 347
+
+  Ambela; 192, 305, 356
+
+  Amritsar district; 249
+    town; 175, 339, 340
+
+  Anandpal Raja; 168
+
+  Arains; 242, 245, 248, 252, 279
+
+  Aravallis; 50
+
+  Archaeology; 200-208
+
+  Areas; 2-3
+
+  Arjan Guru; 175
+
+  Aroras; 105, 106
+
+  Asoka; 162, 163
+
+  Attock, Fort; 37, 38, 350
+
+  Attock district; 257, 258
+
+  Aurangzeb; 172, 177
+
+  Awans; 105, 254, 258-260, 299-300
+
+
+  Babar; 172, 273
+
+  Babusar pass; 301
+
+  Bahawalpur State; 280-283
+    town; 353
+
+  Bajaur; 306
+
+  Balban; 170
+
+  Banda; 178
+
+  Banias; 106
+
+  Bannu district; 295, 296
+    town; 355
+
+  Bar; 261, 262, 267
+
+  Bara river; 298, 309
+
+  Baralacha pass; 12, 236
+
+  Baramula; 40, 357
+
+  Bari Doab Canal, Upper; 135, 249, 251
+    Lower; 138, 262
+
+  Barnala; 179, 353
+
+  Bashahr State; 287-290
+
+  Baspa river; 288, 289
+
+  Bazar valley; 309
+
+  Bein torrent; 45
+
+  Bhakkar; 258
+
+  Bhittannis; 294
+
+  Bhupindar Singh, Maharaja of Patiala; 275
+
+  Bhure Singh, Raja of Chamba; 286
+
+  Bias river; 43-45, 162, 237, 249, 251
+    railway bridge; 45
+
+  Bilaspur State; 288
+
+  Biloches; 104, 105, 268, 269
+
+  Birmal; 24
+
+  Black buck; 94, 95
+
+  Black Mountain Expedition; 191
+
+  Boltoro glacier; 21
+
+  Borax; 60
+
+  Boundaries; 3-6
+
+  Brahmans; 104, 106, 240
+
+  Brijindar Singh, Raja of Faridkot; 280
+
+  Buddhism; 114, 115, 169, 236, 289
+
+  Bunhar torrent; 254
+
+  Burzil pass; 12
+
+
+  Canals; 132-141, 197
+
+  Carving in wood and ivory; 154
+
+  Castes; 105, 106
+
+  Chagarzais; 302
+
+  Chail; 29
+
+  Chakdarra; 305, 306, 356
+
+  Chakki torrent; 45
+
+  Chamba State; 245, 246
+    town; 201, 354
+
+  Chamberlain, Sir Neville; 305
+
+  Chamkannis; 310, 311
+
+  Chandrabhaga river; 2, 41, 286
+    (see also Chenab)
+
+  Chandra Gupta; 162
+
+  Chatar Singh, Sardar; 186-187
+
+  Chenab river; 41, 247, 249, 252, 261, 266, 267
+
+  Cherat; 31, 355
+
+  Chilas; 36, 301, 357
+
+  Chilianwala; 187, 351
+
+  Chingiz Khan; 170
+
+  Chini; 44, 288, 354
+
+  Chitral; 196, 305, 307, 308, 356
+
+  Chitral and Dir levies; 313
+
+  Cholera; 101
+
+  Chor mountain; 285
+
+  Chos; 241
+
+  Christians; 119
+
+  Chund Bharwana railway bridge; 41
+
+  Climate; 64-70
+
+  Coal; 58
+
+  Coins 208-211
+
+  Colleges; 125, 126
+
+  Colonization of Canal lands; 136, 139, 140, 263
+
+  Co-operative Credit Societies; 197, 199
+
+  Crops; 146-150, Tables III-IV
+
+  Cultivation; 142-150, Tables II-III
+
+
+  Dalhousie, Lord; 188
+
+  Dalhousie hill station; 68, 246, 350
+
+  Dalip Singh, Maharaja; 184
+
+  Dandot; 58
+
+  Dane, Sir Louis; 199
+
+  Darbar 1877; 193-333
+    1903; 333
+    Coronation 1911; 199, 333, 334
+
+  Dards; 107, 108
+
+  Darius; 161
+
+  Darwesh Khel; 312
+
+  Daulat Rao Sindhia; 183
+
+  Daur valley; 312
+
+  Davies, Sir Henry; 191
+
+  Deane, Sir Harold; 197
+
+  Degh torrent; 42, 247
+
+  Delhi; 169, 199, 205-208, 224, 225, 325-334
+
+  Delhi-Ambala-Kalka Railway; 130
+
+  Deodar; 80, 86, 302, 307
+
+  Dera Gopipur; 44
+
+  Dera Ghazi Khan district; 268-270
+
+  Dera Ismail Khan district; 294, 295
+    town and cantonment; 355
+
+  Dharmsala; 68, 238, 348
+
+  Dhauladhar; 16
+
+  Dhunds; 256
+
+  Dir; 305-307
+
+  Domel; 40
+
+  Dorah pass; 22
+
+  Dor river; 299, 301
+
+  Dost Muhammad, Amir; 184
+
+  Drishaks; 270
+
+  Dujana State; 283
+
+  Dungagali; 355
+
+  Durand, Colonel; 194
+
+  Durand, Sir Henry; 191
+
+  Durand Line; 4, 196, 306, 307, 308
+
+
+  Earthquake of; 1905 197
+
+  Education; 119, 121-126
+
+  Edwardes, Sir Herbert; 186
+
+  Edwardesabad; 355
+
+  Egerton, Sir Robert; 191
+
+  Ekbhai mountain; 27
+
+  Ethnology; 109, 110
+
+  Expenditure, Provincial; 219-220, Table V
+
+  Exports and Imports; 159
+
+
+  Factories; 156, 157
+
+  Famines; 195, 227
+
+  Faridkot State; 244, 280
+
+  Fateh Singh, Sardar of Kapurthala; 279
+
+  Fauna; 90-95
+
+  Ferozepore district; 243-245
+    railway bridge; 46
+    town and cantonment; 349
+
+  Ferozeshah, battle of; 186, 244, 349
+
+  Fever, mortality from; 100, 101
+
+  Finance; 219-222
+
+  Fitzpatrick, Sir Dennis; 195
+
+  Flora; 71-85
+
+  Fluctuating assessments; 221
+
+  Forests; 86-89
+
+  Fort Lockhart; 355
+
+  Fort Munro; 27, 270
+
+  Fossils; 53, 55-57
+
+  Fotula; 12
+
+
+  Gaddis; 236
+
+  Gajpat Singh, Sardar of Jind; 276
+
+  Game; 91-95
+
+  Gandamak, treaty of; 193
+
+  Gandgarh hills; 302
+
+  Ghagar torrent; 46, 47, 227, 231, 233
+
+  Ghaibana Sir; 31
+
+  Ghakkhars; 168, 169, 254, 256, 300
+
+  Ghaznevide raids; 168
+
+  Giandari hill; 27
+
+  Gilgit; 194, 321, 323
+
+  Giri river; 235, 285, 288
+
+  Girths; 240
+
+  Godwin Austen Mt; 21
+
+  Gold; 59, 322
+
+  Gomal pass; 25, 312
+
+  Gough, Lord; 187
+
+  Govind Singh, Guru; 177, 178
+
+  Granth Sahib; 175
+
+  Grey Inundation Canals; 244
+
+  Gujars; 107, 241, 245, 252, 300
+
+  Gujranwala district; 249
+    town; 350
+
+  Gujrat battle; 187
+    district; 252
+    town; 351
+
+  Gulab Singh, Raja; 184, 186, 219, 314, 323
+
+  Gulmarg; 357
+
+  Gupta Empire; 164
+
+  Gurais; 357
+
+  Gurchanis; 270
+
+  Gurdaspur district; 245, 246
+
+  Gurgaon district; 229, 230
+
+  Gurkhas; 235, 274, 289
+
+  Gurus, Sikh; 173-178
+
+
+  Hakra river; 40
+
+  Handicrafts; 152-156
+
+  Hangu; 297
+
+  Haramukh mountain; 14
+
+  Harike ferry; 44
+
+  Hari Singh Nalwa, Sardar; 184
+
+  Haro river; 38, 258, 299, 301, 302
+
+  Harvests; 142
+
+  Hasanzais; 303
+
+  Hattu mountains; 288
+
+  Hazara district; 186, 298-303
+
+  Himalaya; 8-20, 67, 68
+
+  Hindkis; 299
+
+  Hindu Kush; 22, 23, 305, 307
+
+  Hindur; 287
+
+  Hindus and Hinduism; 114-118, 119, 120
+
+  Hira Singh Sir, Raja of Nadha; 278
+
+  Hissar district; 226-228
+    town; 347
+
+  History; 160-199
+
+  Hiuen Tsang; 165
+
+  Hoshyarpur district; 240, 241, 278
+
+  Humayun; 172
+
+  Hunza town; 357
+
+  Hunza and Nagar; 323
+
+  Hunza-Nagar levies; 313
+    war; 194, 195
+
+
+  Ibbetson, Sir Denzil; 197, 198
+
+  Imperial Service troops; 276, 277, 279, 283
+
+  Income and Expenditure; 219, 286, Table V
+
+  Indus river; 34-39, 260, 270, 281, 296, 300, 302
+
+  Inundation Canals; 139, 262, 267
+
+  Islamabad; 358
+
+
+  Jagatjit Singh, Maharaja of Kapurthala; 279
+
+  Jahangir; 173, 175, 208
+
+  Jains; 280
+
+  Jalandhar district; 241, 242
+    town and cantonment; 349
+
+  Jalandhara kingdom; 241
+
+  Jalkot; 36
+
+  Jammu State; 107, 314-317
+    town; 358
+
+  Jamna river; 48, 49
+
+  Jamna Western Canal; 133, 135
+
+  Jamrud; 356
+
+  Janjuas; 254
+
+  Jassa Singh, Ahluwaha Sardar; 279
+
+  Jats; 103, 104, 234, 240, 242, 245, 248, 249, 252, 254
+
+  Jhang district; 265, 266
+
+  Jhelam Canal, Lower; 133, 137, 138, 261, 265
+    Upper; 138, 252
+
+  Jhelam district; 253, 254
+    river; 39, 40, 253, 254, 261, 265, 301
+    town and cantonment; 351
+
+  Jind; 271, 276, 277
+
+  Joint Stock Companies; 157, 158
+
+  Jowakis; 297, 310
+
+  Jubbal State; 287
+
+
+  Kabul; 22, 165
+    river; 23, 37, 298
+    canal; 140, 298
+
+  Kafiristan range; 307
+
+  Kagan; 40, 301
+
+  Kaha torrent; 270
+
+  Kaisargarh mountain; 26
+
+  Kalabagh; 38, 39, 295
+
+  Kalachitta range; 30, 258
+
+  Kalsia State; 280
+
+  Kamalia; 353
+
+  Kambohs; 263
+
+  Kangra district; 235-240
+    town and fort; 168, 171, 183, 349
+
+  Kanjutis; 108
+
+  Kankar; 60, 127
+
+  Kaoshan pass; 22
+
+  Kapurthala State; 278, 279
+    town; 356
+
+  Karakoram; 20, 324
+
+  Karnal district; 230-232
+    town; 348
+
+  Kashmir, Early History; 165, 166, 172
+    Forests; 89
+    Population; 99, 100, 106, 107
+    Territories; 2, 12, 14, 16, 20, 21, 193, 314, 324
+
+  Kashmiri Pandits; 107
+
+  Kasranis; 270
+
+  Katas; 201
+
+  Kathias; 263
+
+  Keonthal State; 287
+
+  Keppel, Sir George Roos; 197
+
+  Khaibar; 23, 309
+    Rifles; 308, 309, 313
+
+  Khairimurat hills; 30, 258
+
+  Khanki weir; 195, 310
+
+  Khanwah Canal; 263
+
+  Kharrals; 263
+
+  Khatris; 105, 106
+
+  Khattaks; 297, 298
+
+  Kheora Salt Mine; 51, 351
+
+  Khojas; 104
+
+  Khosas; 170
+
+  Khost; 311
+
+  Khowar; 308
+
+  Khurmana river; 311
+
+  Khushalgarh railway bridge; 130
+
+  Kila Drosh; 307, 308
+
+  Kirana hill; 261
+
+  Kishnganga river; 40, 261, 319
+
+  Kohala; 40, 257
+
+  Kohat district; 296-298
+    salt; 57, 58, 296
+    town and cantonment; 356
+
+  Kolahoi mountain; 14
+
+  Kuka rising; 192, 193
+
+  Kulu; 17, 235, 237, 238
+
+  Kunar river; 23, 37, 307
+
+  Kunawar; 289
+
+  Kunhar 40, 301
+
+  Kurram militia; 313
+    river; 39, 260, 295, 311
+    valley; 24, 296
+
+
+  Ladakh; 64, 65, 109, 112, 319-321
+
+  Lagharis; 270
+
+  Lahore city; 169, 173, 334-339
+    district; 251, 252
+    division; 245
+    railway bridge; 43
+
+  Lahul; 64, 236
+
+  Lake, Lord; 183
+
+  Land Alienation Act, XIII of 1900; 196
+
+  Land Revenue; 220, 221
+
+  Landai river; 38
+
+  Landi Kotal; 357
+
+  Languages; 110-113
+
+  Larji; 43
+
+  Lawrence Memorial School; 234
+
+  Lawrence, Sir Henry; 186, 188
+    Sir John; 188-191
+
+  Legislative Council; 195, 216
+
+  Leh; 35, 64, 65, 358
+
+  Leprosy; 101
+
+  Liddar valley; 40
+
+  Lieutenant Governors; 188-199
+
+  Local Self Government; 195, 217, 218
+
+  Lohars; 106, 152
+
+  Loharu State; 283
+
+  Lolab valley; 40
+
+  Lowari pass; 307, 308
+
+  Lower Bari Doab Canal; 138, 262, 267
+    Chenab Canal; 136, 137, 195, 263, 265
+    Jhelam Canal; 137, 138, 197, 260
+    Swat Canal; 140, 141, 298
+
+  Ludhiana district; 242, 243
+    town; 153, 349
+
+  Lulusar lake; 301
+
+  Lunds; 270
+
+  Luri bridge; 45
+
+  Lyall, Sir James; 194
+
+  Lyallpur district; 263, 264
+    town; 353
+
+
+  Macleod, Sir Donald; 191
+
+  Mahaban mountain; 36
+
+  Mahirakula; 164
+
+  Mahmud of Ghazni; 168
+
+  Mahsud Wazirs; 196, 312
+
+  Malakand pass; 299, 305, 306, 357
+
+  Malerkotla State; 283
+    town; 354
+
+  Mali ka parvat; 301
+
+  Malka; 305
+
+  Mallagoris; 308, 309
+
+  Mamdot; 244
+
+  Mamunds; 306
+
+  Manali; 43, 237
+
+  Mandi State; 283, 284
+    town; 354
+
+  Mangal; 287
+
+  Mansehra; 356
+
+  Mardan; 298, 299
+
+  Markanda torrent; 47
+
+  Martand temple; 166, 358
+
+  Marwats; 296
+
+  Mazaris; 270
+
+  Mazhbis; 106
+
+  Meghs; 107
+
+  Menander; 163, 164
+
+  Mendicants; 106
+
+  Meos; 229
+
+  Metals; 59
+
+  Mianwali district; 258-260
+
+  Miram Shah; 357
+
+  Miranzai; 297
+
+  Moghal Empire; 171-180
+
+  Mohmands; 308, 309
+
+  Mongol invasions; 170
+
+  Montgomery, Sir Robert; 191
+
+  Montgomery district; 261, 262
+    town; 353
+
+  Mudki battle field; 186, 282
+
+  Muhammad Ghori; 169
+
+  Muhammad Tughlak; 170, 171
+
+  Muhammadan Architecture; 204-208
+
+  Muhammadan States; 280-283
+
+  Muhammadans; 118, 119, 252, 262, 291
+
+  Muin ul Mulk; 179
+
+  Mulraj, Diwan; 186-282
+
+  Multan district; 266, 267
+    division; 262
+
+  Multan city; 154, 166, 183, 186, 340, 341
+    district; 266-267
+    division; 262
+
+  Municipalities; 217
+
+  Murree; 68, 256, 303, 351, 352
+
+  Musa ka Musalla mountain; 301
+
+  Musallis; 106
+
+  Mutiny of 1857; 227
+
+  Muzaffargarh district; 267, 268
+
+
+  Nabha State; 271, 277, 278
+    town; 354
+
+  Nadir Shah; 178
+
+  Nahan State; 285
+    town; 354
+
+  Nalagarh State; 207
+
+  Nanga parvat (mountain); 12
+
+  Naraina, battlefield of; 232
+
+  Nardak; 232
+
+  Nathiagali; 356
+
+  Naushahra; 298, 356
+
+  North West Frontier Province; 197, 291-313
+
+  North Western Railway; 120-131
+
+  Nun and Kun peaks; 12, 324
+
+
+  Occupations; 101, 102, 105, 106, 152-156
+
+  O'Dwyer, Sir Michael; 199
+
+  Ohind; 37
+
+  Orakzais; 196, 297, 309-311
+
+  Otu weir; 47
+
+
+  Pabar river; 288
+
+  Pabbi hills; 252
+
+  Paharpur canal; 292
+
+  Paiwar Kotal; 24
+
+  Pakhli plain; 302
+
+  Pakpattan; 353
+
+  Palosi; 36
+
+  Pangi; 14, 286
+
+  Panipat; 172, 179, 232, 348
+
+  Panjkora river; 38, 306, 307
+
+  Panjnad river; 41, 382
+
+  Parachas; 106
+
+  Parachinar; 311, 357
+
+  Pataudi State; 283
+
+  Pathans; 105, 260, 294, 299, 300, 304, 311
+
+  Patiala State; 180, 271-274
+    town; 354
+
+  Pattan Munara; 354
+
+  Payech, see Payer
+
+  Payer; 201, 358
+
+  Peshawar city; 160, 164, 169, 184, 341, 342
+    district; 298, 299
+
+  Petroleum; 59
+
+  Phillaur; 46, 243
+
+  Phulkian States; 196, 271-278
+
+  Pihowa; 232, 348
+
+  Pirghal mountain; 24
+
+  Piti, _See_ Spiti
+
+  Plague; 97-99, 100, 195, 245
+
+  Population; 96-113
+
+  Pottery; 152, 156
+
+  Powindahs; 25
+
+  Pressure, barometric; 65-67
+
+  Punch; 358
+
+
+  Railways; 128-131
+
+  Rajput Hill Chiefs (Simla); 288
+
+  Rajputs; 104, 240, 241, 245, 248, 254, 288
+
+  Raldang mountain; 288
+
+  Rampur ;45, 289
+
+  Ranbir Singh, Maharaja of Jind; 277
+
+  Ranjit Singh, Maharaja; 181-184
+
+  Ravi river; 41-43, 247, 251, 262, 266, 267, 286
+
+  Rawalpindi cantonment and town; 256, 352
+    district; 255-257
+    division; 252
+
+  Religions, Kashmir; 114
+    N. W. F. Province; 114
+    Panjab; 114-117
+
+  Ripon, Lord; 195
+
+  Ripudaman Singh, Maharaja of Nabha; 270
+
+  Rivaz, Sir Charles 197
+
+  Rivers; 32-49
+
+  Road, Grand Trunk; 127
+
+  Roads; 127, 128
+
+  Rogi cliffs; 45
+
+  Rohtak district; 228, 229
+
+  Roos-Keppel, Sir George; 197
+
+  Rotang pass; 14, 236
+
+  Rupar; 46, 348
+
+
+  Sabaktagin; 167, 168
+
+  Sadik Muhammad Khan, Nawab of Bahawalpur; 281, 282
+
+  Sad Istragh mountains; 22
+
+  Safarmulk lake; 301
+
+  Safed Koh range; 24, 311
+
+  Saiyyids; 105, 304
+
+  Sakesar; 29, 352
+
+  Sakki stream; 250
+
+  Salt; 57, 58
+
+  Salt Range ;29, 30, 253, 254, 257, 258, 262
+    Geology of; 51-53
+    Flora of; 76, 77
+
+  Samana range; 297
+    Rifles; 297, 298
+
+  Sam Ranizai; 306
+
+  Sangrur; 276, 354
+
+  Sansar Chand, Raja; 183
+
+  Sapphires; 60
+
+  Saraj; 235, 237
+
+  Sarusti torrent; 46, 47, 231, 232
+    canal; 47
+
+  Sasserla; 20
+
+  Sattis; 256
+
+  Shah Alam, Emperor; 181
+
+  Shahjahan; 173
+
+  Shah Shuja; 184
+
+  Shahpur district; 260-262
+
+  Shawal; 24
+
+  Shekhbudin; 31, 356
+
+  Shekhs; 105
+
+  Sher Khan; 170
+
+  Sher Singh Maharaja; 184
+
+  Shigri glacier; 236
+
+  Shipki pass; 45
+
+  Shooting; 94, 95
+
+  Shuidar mountain; 24
+
+  Shyok river; 36
+
+  Sialkot district; 247
+    town and cantonment; 164, 350
+
+  Sials; 266
+
+  Sidhnai canal; 139, 267
+
+  Sikandar Lodi; 171
+
+  Sikaram mountain; 24
+
+  Sikh Jats; 104, 250, 252, 276, 280
+    wars; 186, 187
+    religion; 117, 118
+
+  Sil torrent; 258
+
+  Simla district; 254
+    hill station; 67, 68, 342-344
+    Hill States; 287-290
+
+  Sind valley; 40
+
+  Sirhind canal; 135, 136, 195, 227, 245, 271, 275, 276, 280
+
+  Sirhind, town; 177, 180, 354, 355
+
+  Sirmur State; 285
+
+  Siwaliks; 27, 52, 53
+
+  Skardo; 36, 321
+
+  Smallpox; 101
+
+  Soan torrent (Hoshyarpur); 241
+    (Rawalpindi), _see_ Sohan
+
+  Sobraon, battle of; 186
+
+  Sohag Para Canals; 262
+
+  Sohan torrent; 38, 253, 256
+
+  Southern Panjab Railway; 130
+
+  Spiti; 55, 235, 236
+    river; 45, 288
+
+  Stupas; 202
+
+  Suds; 106
+
+  Suliman range; 26, 27, 270, 290
+
+  Sultanpur (Kulu); 238
+
+  Sultanpur (Kapurthala); 278
+
+  Sunars; 106
+
+  Surindar Bikram Parkash, late Raja of Sirmur; 285, 286
+
+  Sutlej inundation canals; 267
+    river; 45, 46, 245, 262, 266, 281, 288
+
+
+  Takht i Suliman mountain; 26
+    hill (Kashmir); 318
+
+  Tamerlane. _See_ Timur
+
+  Tanawal; 302, 303
+
+  Tanawal hills; 302
+
+  Tarkanris; 307
+
+  Tarkhans (carpenters); 106, 152
+
+  Teri; 296
+
+  Thakkars; 107
+
+  Thal desert; 149, 259-261, 262, 265, 267
+
+  Thal (Kohat); 297, 311, 356
+
+  Thandiani; 356
+
+  Thanesar; 165, 168, 232, 348
+
+  Tilla hill; 29
+
+  Timur (Tamerlane); 171
+
+  Tirach Mir mountain; 22, 308
+
+  Tirah Campaign; 176
+
+  Tiwanas; 260
+
+  Tochi valley; 24, 296
+
+  Tons, river; 48
+
+  Torrents, action of; 47, 48
+
+  Trade; 159
+
+  Traders; 105, 106
+
+  Tribal militias; 312
+
+  Triple Canal Project; 138, 197
+
+  Tumans Biloch; 270
+
+  Turis; 311
+
+
+  Uch; 355
+
+  Uchiri range; 307
+
+  Udyana; 304
+
+  Ujh torrent; 42
+
+  Umra Khan; 196
+
+  Unhar river; 302
+
+  University, Panjab; 125, 126
+
+  Upper Bari Doab Canal; 135, 191, 247, 249, 251
+    Chenab Canal; 138, 139, 249
+    Jhelam Canal; 138, 139, 252
+    Swat Canal; 141, 298
+
+  Utman Khel; 306
+
+
+  Vaccination; 101
+
+
+  Wana; 24, 196, 312, 357
+
+  Wattus; 263
+
+  Waziristan; 312
+    hills; 24
+    militias; 313
+
+  Wazirs Darwesh Khel; 312
+    Madsud; 312
+
+  Weavers; 102, 152, 154
+
+  Wellesley, Marquis of; 182
+    Arthur; 183
+
+  Wells; 143, 144
+
+  Western Jamna Canal; 135, 227, 232, 273, 276
+
+  Wular lake; 40
+
+
+  Yakub Khan, Amir; 194
+
+  Yarkhun river; 305, 307
+
+  Yasin river; 307
+
+  Young, Sir Mackworth; 195
+
+  Yusafzais; 299, 304, 305, 306
+
+
+  Zaimukhts; 310
+
+  Zakaria Khan; 178
+
+  Zakha Khel; 309
+
+  Zamzama gun; 187
+
+  Zanskar; 320
+    Himalaya; 10, 286
+    river; 36
+
+  Zojila; 12
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PANJAB, NORTH-WEST FRONTIER
+PROVINCE, AND KASHMIR***
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