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diff --git a/24562-h/24562-h.htm b/24562-h/24562-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..868a6b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/24562-h/24562-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,13886 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir, by Sir James McCrone Douie</title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + div.centered {text-align: center;} /* work around for IE centering with CSS problem part 1 */ + div.centered table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;} /* work around for IE centering with CSS problem part 2 */ + + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .linenum {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */ + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .sidenote {width: 20%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; margin-left: 1em; + float: right; clear: right; margin-top: 1em; + font-size: smaller; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: dashed 1px;} + + .bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} + .bl {border-left: solid 2px;} + .bt {border-top: solid 2px;} + .br {border-right: solid 2px;} + .bbox {border: solid 2px;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center; margin-top: 3em;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + + .author {text-align: right; margin-right: 5%;} + + td {vertical-align: top; padding-right: 0.5em;} + + ul.none {list-style-type: none;} + + img {border:0;} + + hr.full { width: 100%; + margin-top: 3em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + height: 4px; + border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ + border-style: solid; + border-color: #000000; + clear: both; } + pre {font-size: 85%;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province, and +Kashmir, by Sir James McCrone Douie</h1> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir</p> +<p>Author: Sir James McCrone Douie</p> +<p>Release Date: February 10, 2008 [eBook #24562]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PANJAB, NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE, AND KASHMIR***</p> +<p> </p> +<h3>E-text prepared by Suzanne Lybarger, Asad Razzaki,<br /> + and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + + <h1>THE PANJAB, NORTH-WEST<br /> + + FRONTIER PROVINCE<br /> + + AND KASHMIR<br /><br /></h1> + + <h4>BY</h4> + + <h2>SIR JAMES DOUIE, M.A., K.C.S.I.</h2> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + + +<p class="center">SEEMA PUBLICATIONS C-3/19, R. P. Bagh, Delhi-110007.<br /><br /> + +<i>First Indian Edition 1974</i><br /><br /> + +Printed in India at Deluxe Offset Press, Daya Basti, Delhi-110035 and<br /> +Published by Seema Publications, Delhi-110007.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="EDITORS_PREFACE" id="EDITORS_PREFACE"></a>EDITOR'S PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>In his opening chapter Sir James Douie refers to the fact that the area +treated in this volume—just one quarter of a million square miles—is +comparable to that of Austria-Hungary. The comparison might be extended; +for on ethnographical, linguistic and physical grounds, the geographical +unit now treated is just as homogeneous in composition as the Dual +Monarchy. It is only in the political sense and by force of the ruling +classes, temporarily united in one monarch, that the term +<i>Osterreichisch</i> could be used to include the Poles of Galicia, the +Czechs of Bohemia and Moravia, the Szeklers, Saxons and more numerous +Rumanians of Transylvania, the Croats, Slovenes and Italians of +"Illyria," with the Magyars of the Hungarian plain.</p> + +<p>The term <i>Punjábi</i> much more nearly, but still imperfectly, covers the +people of the Panjáb, the North-West Frontier Province, Kashmír and the +associated smaller Native States. The Sikh, Muhammadan and Hindu Jats, +the Kashmírís and the Rájputs all belong to the tall, fair, leptorrhine +Indo-Aryan main stock of the area, merging on the west and south-west +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>into the Biluch and Pathán Turko-Iranian, and fringed in the hill +districts on the north with what have been described as products of the +"contact metamorphism" with the Mongoloid tribes of Central Asia. Thus, +in spite of the inevitable blurring of boundary lines, the political +divisions treated together in this volume, form a fairly clean-cut +geographical unit.</p> + +<p>Sir James Douie, in this work, is obviously living over again the happy +thirty-five years which he devoted to the service of North-West India: +his accounts of the physiography, the flora and fauna, the people and +the administration are essentially the personal recollections of one who +has first studied the details as a District Officer and has afterwards +corrected his perspective, stage by stage, from the successively higher +view-point of a Commissioner, the Chief Secretary, Financial +Commissioner, and finally as Officiating Lieut.-Governor. No one could +more appropriately undertake the task of an accurate and +well-proportioned thumb-nail sketch of North-West India and, what is +equally important to the earnest reader, no author could more obviously +delight in his subject.</p> + +<p class="author"> +T. H. H.</p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Alderley Edge</span>,</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>March 9th, 1916.</i></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="NOTE_BY_AUTHOR" id="NOTE_BY_AUTHOR"></a>NOTE BY AUTHOR</h2> + + +<p>My thanks are due to the Government of India for permission to use +illustrations contained in official publications. Except where otherwise +stated the numerous maps included in the volume are derived from this +source. My obligations to provincial and district gazetteers have been +endless. Sir Thomas Holdich kindly allowed me to reproduce some of the +charts in his excellent book on <i>India</i>. The accuracy of the sections on +geology and coins may be relied on, as they were written by masters of +these subjects, Sir Thomas Holland and Mr R. B. Whitehead, I.C.S. +Chapter XVII could not have been written at all without the help +afforded by Mr Vincent Smith's <i>Early History of India</i>. I have +acknowledged my debts to other friends in the "List of Illustrations."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p> + +<p class="author"> +J. M. D.</p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>8 May 1916.</i></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="3" width="75%" cellspacing="0" summary="CONTENTS"> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'>CHAP.</td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>Areas and Boundaries</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>Mountains, Hills, and Plains</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_8'><b>8</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>Rivers</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_32'><b>32</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>Geology and Mineral Resources</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_50'><b>50</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'>Climate</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VI.</td><td align='left'>Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VII.</td><td align='left'>Forests</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VIII.</td><td align='left'>Beasts, Birds, Fishes, and Insects</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_90'><b>90</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IX.</td><td align='left'>The People: Numbers, Races, and Languages</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_96'><b>96</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>X.</td><td align='left'>The People: Religions</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XI.</td><td align='left'>The People: Education</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_122'><b>122</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XII.</td><td align='left'>Roads and Railways</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_127'><b>127</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIII.</td><td align='left'>Canals</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_132'><b>132</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIV.</td><td align='left'>Agriculture and Crops</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XV.</td><td align='left'>Handicrafts and Manufactures</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVI.</td><td align='left'>Exports and Imports</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVII.</td><td align='left'>History: Pre-Muhammadan Period, 500 B.C.-1000 A.D.</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVIII.</td><td align='left'>History: Muhammadan Period, 1000 A.D.- 1764 A.D.</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIX.</td><td align='left'>History: Sikh Period, 1764 A.D.-1849 A.D.</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_181'><b>181</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XX.</td><td align='left'>History: British Period, 1849 A.D.-1913 A.D.</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXI.</td><td align='left'>Archaeology and Coins</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXII.</td><td align='left'>Administration: General</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXIII.</td><td align='left'>Administration: Local</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_217'><b>217</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXIV.</td><td align='left'>Revenue and Expenditure</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_219'><b>219</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXV.</td><td align='left'>Panjáb Districts and Delhi</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_224'><b>224</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXVI.</td><td align='left'>The Panjáb Native States</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXVII.</td><td align='left'>The North-west Frontier Province</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_291'><b>291</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXVIII.</td><td align='left'>Kashmír and Jammu</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_314'><b>314</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXIX.</td><td align='left'>Cities</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_325'><b>325</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXX.</td><td align='left'>Other Places of Note</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_347'><b>347</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="3">TABLES</th></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>Tribes of Panjáb including Native States and of N.W.F. Province</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_359'><b>359</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>Rainfall, Cultivation, Population, and Land Revenue</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_360'><b>360</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>Agricultural Diagrams</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_362'><b>362</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>Crops</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_364'><b>364</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'>Revenue and Expenditure of Panjáb</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_366'><b>366</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'>Index</td><td align='right'><a href='#INDEX'><b>367</b></a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="75%" cellspacing="0" summary="ILLUSTRATIONS"> +<tr><td align='right'>FIG.</td><td> </td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Arms of Panjáb</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig1'><b>1</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'>Orographical Map (Holdich's <i>India</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig2'><b>9</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>3.</td><td align='left'>Nanga Parvat (Watson's <i>Gazetteer of Hazára</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig3'><b>11</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>4.</td><td align='left'>Burzil Pass (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig4'><b>13</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>5.</td><td align='left'>Rotang Pass (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig5'><b>15</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>6.</td><td align='left'>Mt Haramukh (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig6'><b>16</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>7.</td><td align='left'>R. Jhelam in Kashmír—View towards Mohand Marg (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig7'><b>18</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>8.</td><td align='left'>Near Náran in Kágan Glen, Hazára (Watson's <i>Gazetteer of Hazára</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig8'><b>19</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>9.</td><td align='left'>Muztagh-Karakoram and Himalayan Ranges in Kashmír (Holdich's <i>India</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig9'><b>21</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>10.</td><td align='left'>The Khaibar Road (Holdich's <i>India</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig10'><b>23</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>11.</td><td align='left'>Panjáb Rivers (Holdich's <i>India</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig11'><b>33</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>12.</td><td align='left'>The Indus at Attock (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig12'><b>37</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>13.</td><td align='left'>Indus at Kafirkot, D.I. Khán dt. (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig13'><b>38</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>14.</td><td align='left'>Fording the River at Lahore (E. B. Francis)</td><td align='right'><a href='#img014'><b>42</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>15.</td><td align='left'>Biás at Manálí (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#img015'><b>44</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>16.</td><td align='left'>Rainfall of different Seasons (Blanford)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig16a'><b>62</b></a>, <a href='#fig16b'><b>63</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>17.</td><td align='left'>Average Barometric and Wind Chart for January (Blanford)</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_65'><b>65</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>18.</td><td align='left'>Average Barometric and Wind Chart for July (Blanford)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig018tb'><b>66</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>19.</td><td align='left'>Banian or Bor trees (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig19'><b>75</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>20.</td><td align='left'>Deodárs and Hill Temple (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig20'><b>80</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>21.</td><td align='left'>Firs in Himálaya (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig21'><b>82</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>22.</td><td align='left'>Chinárs (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig22'><b>83</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>23.</td><td align='left'>Rhododendron campanulatum (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig23'><b>84</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>24.</td><td align='left'>Big Game in Ladákh</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig24'><b>92</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>25.</td><td align='left'>Yáks (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig25'><b>93</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>26.</td><td align='left'>Black Buck</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig26'><b>95</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>27.</td><td align='left'>Map showing density of population (<i>Panjáb Census Report</i>, 1911)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig27'><b>97</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>28.</td><td align='left'>Map showing increase and decrease of population (<i>Panjáb Census Report</i>, 1911)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig28'><b>98</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>29.</td><td align='left'>Map showing density of population in N.W.F. Province (<i>N.W. Provinces Census Report</i>, 1911)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig29'><b>99</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>30.</td><td align='left'>Map showing density of population in Kashmír (<i>Kashmír Census Report</i>, 1911)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig30'><b>100</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>31.</td><td align='left'>Jat Sikh Officers (Nand Rám)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig31'><b>103</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>32.</td><td align='left'>Blind Beggar (E. B. Francis)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig32'><b>107</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>33.</td><td align='left'>Dards (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig33'><b>108</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>34.</td><td align='left'>Map showing races (from <i>The People of India</i>, by Sir Herbert Risley. With permission of W. Thacker and Co., London)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig34'><b>109</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>35.</td><td align='left'>Map showing distribution of languages (<i>Panjáb Census Report</i>, 1911)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig35'><b>111</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>36.</td><td align='left'>Map showing distribution of religions (<i>Panjáb Census Report</i>, 1911)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig36'><b>115</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>37.</td><td align='left'>Raghunáth Temple, Jammu</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig37'><b>116</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>38.</td><td align='left'>Golden Temple, Amritsar (Mrs B. Roe)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig38'><b>117</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>39.</td><td align='left'>Mosque in Lahore City (E. B. Francis)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig39'><b>118</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>40.</td><td align='left'>God and Goddess, Chamba (H.H. the Rája of Chamba)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig40'><b>120</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>41.</td><td align='left'>A Kulu godling and his attendants (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig41'><b>121</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>42.</td><td align='left'>A School in the time preceding annexation</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig42'><b>124</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>43.</td><td align='left'>Poplar lined road to Srínagar (Miss M. B. Douie)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig43'><b>128</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>44.</td><td align='left'>Map showing railways</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig44'><b>129</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>45.</td><td align='left'>Map—Older Canals</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig45'><b>134</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>46.</td><td align='left'>Map—Canals</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig46'><b>137</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>47.</td><td align='left'>Map of Canals of Pesháwar district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig47'><b>141</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>48.</td><td align='left'>Persian Wheel Well and Ekka (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig48'><b>143</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>49.</td><td align='left'>A drove of goats—Lahore (E. B. Francis)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig49'><b>144</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>50.</td><td align='left'>A steep bit of hill cultivation, Hazára (Watson's <i>Gazetteer of Hazára</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig50'><b>146</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>51.</td><td align='left'>Preparing rice field in the Hills (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig51'><b>147</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>52.</td><td align='left'>Carved doorway (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig52'><b>151</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>53.</td><td align='left'>Shoemaker's craft (Baden Powell <i>Panjáb Manufactures</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig53'><b>153</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>54.</td><td align='left'>Carved windows (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig54'><b>155</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>55.</td><td align='left'>Papier maché work of Kashmír (Baden Powell <i>Panjáb Manufactures</i>)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig55'><b>156</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>56.</td><td align='left'>The Potter</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig56'><b>157</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>57.</td><td align='left'>Coin—obverse and reverse of Menander</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig57'><b>163</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>58.</td><td align='left'>Mártand Temple (Miss Griffiths)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig58'><b>166</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>59.</td><td align='left'>Bába Nának and the Musician Mardána</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig59'><b>174</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>60.</td><td align='left'>Guru Govind Singh</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig60'><b>176</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>61.</td><td align='left'>Mahárája Ranjít Singh</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig61'><b>182</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>62.</td><td align='left'>Mahárája Kharak Singh</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig62'><b>185</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>63.</td><td align='left'>Nao Nihál Singh</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig63'><b>185</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>64.</td><td align='left'>Mahárája Sher Singh</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig64'><b>185</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>65.</td><td align='left'>Zamzama Gun (E. B. Francis)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig65'><b>187</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>66.</td><td align='left'>Sir John Lawrence (from picture in National Portrait Gallery)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig66'><b>189</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>67.</td><td align='left'>John Nicholson's Monument at Delhi (Lady Douie)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig67'><b>190</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>68.</td><td align='left'>Sir Robert Montgomery</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig68'><b>191</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>69.</td><td align='left'>Panjáb Camels at Lahore (E. B. Francis)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig69'><b>193</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>70.</td><td align='left'>Sir Charles Aitchison (Bourne and Shepherd)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig70'><b>194</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>71.</td><td align='left'>Sir Denzil Ibbetson (Albert Jenkins)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig71'><b>198</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>72.</td><td align='left'>Sir Michael O'Dwyer (R. Rámlál Bhairulál and Son)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig72'><b>199</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>73.</td><td align='left'>Group of Chamba Temples (H.H. the Rája of Chamba)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig73'><b>201</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>74.</td><td align='left'>Payer Temple—Kashmír (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig74'><b>202</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>75.</td><td align='left'>Reliquary (Government of India)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig75'><b>203</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>76.</td><td align='left'>Colonnade in Kuwwat ul Islám Mosque</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig76'><b>204</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>77.</td><td align='left'>Kutb Minár (Miss M. B. Douie)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig77'><b>205</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>78.</td><td align='left'>Tomb of Emperor Tughlak Sháh (Miss M. B. Douie)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig78'><b>206</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>79.</td><td align='left'>Jama Masjid, Delhi</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig79'><b>207</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>80.</td><td align='left'>Tomb of Humáyun (Miss M. B. Douie)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig80'><b>207</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>81.</td><td align='left'>Bádsháhí Mosque, Lahore (E. B. Francis)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig81'><b>208</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>82.</td><td align='left'>Coins</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig82'><b>210</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>83.</td><td align='left'>Skeleton District Map of Panjáb</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig83'><b>223</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>84.</td><td align='left'>Delhi Enclave</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig84'><b>225</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>85.</td><td align='left'>Hissár district with portions of the Phulkian States etc.</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig85'><b>226</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>86.</td><td align='left'>Rohtak district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig86'><b>228</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>87.</td><td align='left'>Gurgáon district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig87'><b>230</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>88.</td><td align='left'>Karnál district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig88'><b>231</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>89.</td><td align='left'>Ambála district with Kalsia</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig89'><b>233</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>90.</td><td align='left'>Kángra district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig90'><b>235</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>91.</td><td align='left'>Biás at Manálí (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig91'><b>237</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>92.</td><td align='left'>Religious Fair in Kulu (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig92'><b>238</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>93.</td><td align='left'>Kulu Women (J. Coldstream)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig93'><b>239</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>94.</td><td align='left'>Hoshyárpur district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig94'><b>240</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>95.</td><td align='left'>Jalandhar district and Kapurthala</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig95'><b>242</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>96.</td><td align='left'>Ludhiána district and adjoining Native States</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig96'><b>243</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>97.</td><td align='left'>Ferozepore district and Farídkot</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig97'><b>244</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>98.</td><td align='left'>Gurdáspur district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig98'><b>246</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>99.</td><td align='left'>Siálkot district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig99'><b>247</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>100.</td><td align='left'>Gujránwála district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig100'><b>248</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>101.</td><td align='left'>Amritsar district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig101'><b>250</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>102.</td><td align='left'>Lahore district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig102'><b>251</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>103.</td><td align='left'>Gujrát district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig103'><b>252</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>104.</td><td align='left'>Jhelam district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig104'><b>254</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>105.</td><td align='left'>Ráwalpindí district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig105'><b>255</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>106.</td><td align='left'>Shop in Murree Bazár (Lady Douie)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig106'><b>256</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>107.</td><td align='left'>Attock district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig107'><b>257</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>108.</td><td align='left'>Mianwálí district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig108'><b>259</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>109.</td><td align='left'>Sháhpur district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig109'><b>261</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>110.</td><td align='left'>Montgomery district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig110'><b>263</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>111.</td><td align='left'>Lyallpur district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig111'><b>264</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>112.</td><td align='left'>Jhang district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig112'><b>265</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>113.</td><td align='left'>Multán district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig113'><b>266</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>114.</td><td align='left'>Muzaffargarh district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig114'><b>268</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>115.</td><td align='left'>Dera Ghází Khán district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig115'><b>269</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>116.</td><td align='left'>Mahárája of Patiála (C. Vandyk)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig116'><b>272</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>117.</td><td align='left'>Mahárája of Jínd</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig117'><b>277</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>118.</td><td align='left'>Mahárája Sir Hira Singh of Nábha (Bourne and Shepherd)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig118'><b>278</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>119.</td><td align='left'>Mahárája of Kapúrthala</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig119'><b>279</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>120.</td><td align='left'>Rája of Farídkot (Julian Rust)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig120'><b>280</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>121.</td><td align='left'>Nawáb of Baháwalpur</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig121'><b>281</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>122.</td><td align='left'>Native States of Chamba, Mandí, Suket, Biláspur</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig122'><b>284</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>123.</td><td align='left'>Rája Surindar Bikram Parkásh of Sirmúr</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig123'><b>285</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>124.</td><td align='left'>Rája of Chamba (F. Bremner)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig124'><b>287</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>125.</td><td align='left'>Bashahr (Sketch Map by H. W. Emerson)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig125'><b>289</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>126.</td><td align='left'>Sir Harold Deane (F. Bremner)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig126'><b>292</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>127.</td><td align='left'>North-west Frontier Province</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig127'><b>293</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>128.</td><td align='left'>Dera Ismail Khán district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig128'><b>294</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>129.</td><td align='left'>Bannu district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig129'><b>295</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>130.</td><td align='left'>Kohát district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig130'><b>297</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>131.</td><td align='left'>Pesháwar district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig131'><b>298</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>132.</td><td align='left'>Hazára district</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig132'><b>300</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>133.</td><td align='left'>Sir George Roos Keppel (Maull and Fox)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig133'><b>303</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>134.</td><td align='left'>Tribal Territory north of Pesháwar</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig134'><b>304</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>135.</td><td align='left'>Tribal Territory to west of N.W.F. Province</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig135'><b>308</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>136.</td><td align='left'>Khaibar Rifles</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig136'><b>310</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>137.</td><td align='left'>North Wazíristán Militia and Border Post</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig137'><b>313</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>138.</td><td align='left'>Mahárája of Kashmír</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig138'><b>315</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>139.</td><td align='left'>Jammu and Kashmír</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig139'><b>316</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>140.</td><td align='left'>Takht i Sulimán in Winter (Sir Aurel Stein)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig140'><b>318</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>141.</td><td align='left'>Ladákh Hills (Mrs Wynyard Brown)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig141'><b>320</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>142.</td><td align='left'>Zojilá Pass (Mrs Wynyard Brown)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig142'><b>322</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>143.</td><td align='left'>Delhi Mutiny Monument</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig143'><b>327</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>144.</td><td align='left'>Kashmír Gate, Delhi</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig144'><b>328</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>145.</td><td align='left'>Map of Delhi City</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig145'><b>329</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>146.</td><td align='left'>Darbár Medal</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig146'><b>334</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>147.</td><td align='left'>Street in Lahore (E. B. Francis)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig147'><b>336</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>148.</td><td align='left'>Sháhdara</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig148'><b>338</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>149.</td><td align='left'>Trans-border traders in Pesháwar</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig149'><b>343</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>150.</td><td align='left'>Mosque of Sháh Hamadán (F. Bremner)</td><td align='right'><a href='#fig150'><b>345</b></a></td></tr> + + +<tr><td align='center' colspan="3">Map of territories of Mahárája of Jammu and Kashmír <a href='#kashmir'><b><i>at end of volume</i></b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan="3">Map of Panjáb <a href='#punjab'><b><i>at end of volume</i></b></a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>AREAS AND BOUNDARIES</h3> + +<p><a name="fig1" id="fig1"></a></p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 268px;"> +<img src="images/img001.jpg" width="268" height="300" alt="Fig. 1. Arms of Panjáb." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 1. Arms of Panjáb.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Introductory.</b>—Of the provinces of India the Panjáb must always have a +peculiar interest for Englishmen. Invasions by land from the west have +perforce been launched across its great plains. The English were the +first invaders who, possessing sea power, were able to outflank the +mountain ranges which guard the north and west of India. Hence the +Panjáb was the last, and not the first, of their Indian conquests, and +the courage and efficiency of the Sikh soldiery, even after the guiding +hand of the old Mahárája Ranjít Singh was withdrawn, made it also one of +the hardest. The success of the early administration of the province, +which a few years after annexation made it possible to use its resources +in fighting men to help in the task of putting down the mutiny, has +always been a matter of just pride, while the less familiar story of the +conquests of peace in the first sixty years of British rule may well +arouse similar feelings.</p> + + + + +<p><b>Scope of work.</b>—A geography of the Panjáb will fitly embrace an account +also of the North-West Frontier<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> Province, which in 1901 was severed +from it and formed into a separate administration, of the small area +recently placed directly under the government of India on the transfer +of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi, and of the native states in +political dependence on the Panjáb Government. It will also be +convenient to include Kashmír and the tribal territory beyond the +frontier of British India which is politically controlled from Pesháwar. +The whole tract covers ten degrees of latitude and eleven of longitude. +The furthest point of the Kashmír frontier is in 37° 2' N., which is +much the same as the latitude of Syracuse. In the south-east the Panjáb +ends at 27° 4' N., corresponding roughly to the position of the +southernmost of the Canary Islands. Lines drawn west from Pesháwar and +Lahore would pass to the north of Beirut and Jerusalem respectively. +Multán and Cairo are in the same latitude, and so are Delhi and +Teneriffe. Kashmír stretches eastwards to longitude 80° 3' and the +westernmost part of Wazíristán is in 69° 2' E.</p> + +<p><b>Distribution of Area.</b>—The area dealt with is roughly 253,000 square +miles. This is but two-thirteenths of the area of the Indian Empire, and +yet it is less by only 10,000 square miles than that of Austria-Hungary +including Bosnia and Herzegovina. The area consists of:</p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="70%" cellspacing="0" summary="The area dealt with is roughly 253,000"> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>sq. miles</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(1)</td><td align='left'>The Panjáb</td><td align='right'>97,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(2)</td><td align='left'>Native States dependent on Panjáb Government</td><td align='right'>36,500</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(3)</td><td align='left'>Kashmír</td><td align='right'>81,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(4)</td><td align='left'>North West Frontier Province</td><td align='right'>13,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(5)</td><td align='left'>Tribal territory under the political control of the Chief Commissioner of North West Frontier Province, roughly</td><td align='right'>25,500</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Approximately 136,000 square miles may be classed as highlands and +117,000 as plains, and these may be distributed as follows over the +above divisions:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="70%" cellspacing="0" summary="136,000 square miles may be classed as highlands"> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'> </td><td align='right'>Highlands sq. miles</td><td align='right'>Plains sq. miles</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(1)</td><td align='left'>Panjáb, British</td><td align='right'>11,000</td><td align='right'>86,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(2)</td><td align='left'>Panjáb, Native States</td><td align='right'>12,000</td><td align='right'>24,500</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(3)</td><td align='left'>Kashmír</td><td align='right'>81,000</td><td align='right'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(4)</td><td align='left'>North West Frontier Province</td><td align='right'>6,500</td><td align='right'>6,500</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(5)</td><td align='left'>Tribal Territory</td><td align='right'>25,500</td><td align='right'>—</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<p>On the north the highlands include the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan +(Siwálik) tracts to the south and east of the Indus, and north of that +river the Muztagh-Karakoram range and the bleak salt plateau beyond that +range reaching almost up to the Kuenlun mountains. To the west of the +Indus they include those spurs of the Hindu Kush which run into Chitrál +and Dir, the Buner and Swát hills, the Safed Koh, the Wazíristán hills, +the Sulimán range, and the low hills in the trans-Indus districts of the +North West Frontier Province.</p> + +<p><b>Boundary with China.</b>—There is a point to the north of Hunza in Kashmír +where three great mountain chains, the Muztagh from the south-east, the +Hindu Kush from the south-west, and the Sarikol (an offshoot of the +Kuenlun) from the north-east, meet. It is also the meeting-place of the +Indian, Chinese, and Russian empires and of Afghánistán. Westwards from +this the boundary of Kashmír and Chinese Turkestán runs for 350 miles +(omitting curves) through a desolate upland lying well to the north of +the Muztagh-Karakoram range. Finally in the north-east corner of Kashmír +the frontier impinges on the great Central Asian axis of the Kuenlun. +From this point it turns southwards and separates Chinese Tibet from the +salt Lingzi Thang plains and the Indus valley in Kashmír, and the +eastern part of the native state of Bashahr, which physically form a +portion of Tibet.</p> + +<p><b>Boundary with United Provinces.</b>—The south-east corner of Bashahr is a +little to the north of the great Kedárnáth peak in the Central Himálaya +and of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> source of the Jamna. Here the frontier strikes to the west +dividing Bashahr from Teri Garhwál, a native state under the control of +the government of the United Provinces. Turning again to the south it +runs to the junction of the Tons and Jamna, separating Teri Garhwál from +Sirmúr and some of the smaller Simla Hill States. Henceforth the Jamna +is with small exceptions the boundary between the Panjáb and the United +Provinces.</p> + +<p><b>Boundary with Afghánistán.</b>—We must now return to our starting-point at +the eastern extremity of the Hindu Kush, and trace the boundary with +Afghánistán. The frontier runs west and south-west along the Hindu Kush +to the Dorah pass dividing Chitrál from the Afghán province of Wakhan, +and streams which drain into the Indus from the head waters of the Oxus. +At the Dorah pass it turns sharply to the south, following a great spur +which parts the valley of the Chitrál river (British) from that of its +Afghán affluent, the Bashgol. Below the junction of the two streams at +Arnawai the Chitrál changes its name and becomes the Kunar. Near this +point the "Durand" line begins. In 1893 an agreement was made between +the Amir Abdurrahman and Sir Mortimer Durand as representative of the +British Government determining the frontier line from Chandak in the +valley of the Kunar, twelve miles north of Asmar, to the Persian border. +Asmar is an Afghán village on the left bank of the Kunar to the south of +Arnawai. In 1894 the line was demarcated along the eastern watershed of +the Kunar valley to Nawakotal on the confines of Bajaur and the country +of the Mohmands.</p> + +<p>Thence the frontier, which has not been demarcated, passes through the +heart of the Mohmand country to the Kábul river and beyond it to our +frontier post in the Khaibar at Landikhána.</p> + +<p>From this point the line, still undemarcated, runs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> on in a +south-westerly direction to the Safed Koh, and then strikes west along +it to the Sikarám mountain near the Paiwar Kotal at the head of the +Kurram valley. From Sikarám the frontier runs south and south-east +crossing the upper waters of the Kurram, and dividing our possessions +from the Afghán province of Khost. This line was demarcated in 1894.</p> + +<p>At the south of the Kurram valley the frontier sweeps round to the west +leaving in the British sphere the valley of the Tochí. Turning again to +the south it crosses the upper waters of the Tochí and passes round the +back of Wazíristán by the Shawal valley and the plains about Wána to +Domandí on the Gomal river, where Afghánistán, Biluchistán, and the +North West Frontier Province meet. The Wazíristán boundary was +demarcated in 1895.</p> + +<p><b>Political and Administrative Boundaries.</b>—The boundary described above +defines spheres of influence, and only in the Kurram valley does it +coincide with that of the districts for whose orderly administration we +hold ourselves responsible. All we ask of Wazírs, Afrídís, or Mohmands +is to leave our people at peace; we have no concern with their quarrels +or blood feuds, so long as they abide in their mountains or only leave +them for the sake of lawful gain. Our administrative boundary, which +speaking broadly we took over from the Sikhs, usually runs at the foot +of the hills. A glance at the map will show that between Pesháwar and +Kohát the territory of the independent tribes comes down almost to the +Indus. At this point the hills occupied by the Jowákí section of the +Afrídí tribe push out a great tongue eastwards. Our military frontier +road runs through these hills, and we actually pay the tribesmen of the +Kohát pass for our right of way. Another tongue of tribal territory +reaches right down to the Indus, and almost severs the Pesháwar and +Hazára districts. Further<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> north the frontier of Hazára lies well to the +east of the Indus.</p> + +<p><b>Frontier with Biluchistán.</b>—At Domandí the frontier turns to the east, +and following the Gomal river to its junction with the Zhob at Kajúrí +Kach forms the boundary of the two British administrations. Henceforth +the general direction of the line is determined by the trend of the +Sulimán range. It runs south to the Vehoa pass, where the country of the +Patháns of the North West Frontier Province ends and that of the Hill +and Plain Biluches subject to the Panjáb Government begins. From the +Vehoa pass to the Kahá torrent the line is drawn so as to leave Biluch +tribes with the Panjáb and Pathán tribes with the Biluchistán Agency. +South of the Kahá the division is between Biluch tribes, the Marrís and +Bugtís to the west being managed from Quetta, and the Gurchánís and +Mazárís, who are largely settled in the plains, being included in Dera +Gházi Khán, the trans-Indus district of the Panjáb. At the south-west +corner of the Dera Ghází Khán district the Panjáb, Sind, and Biluchistán +meet. From this point the short common boundary of the Panjáb and Sind +runs east to the Indus.</p> + +<p><b>The Southern Boundary.</b>—East of the Indus the frontier runs south-east +for about fifty miles parting Sind from the Baháwalpur State, till a +point is reached where Sind, Rájputána, and Baháwalpur join. A little +further to the east is the southern extremity of Baháwalpur at 70° 8' E. +and 27° 5' N. From this point a line drawn due east would at a distance +of 370 miles pass a few miles to the north of the south end of Gurgaon +and a few miles to the south of the border of the Narnaul tract of +Patiála. Between Narnaul and the south-east corner of the Baháwalpur +State the great Rájputána desert, mainly occupied in this quarter by +Bikaner, thrusts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> northwards a huge wedge reaching almost up to the +Sutlej. To the west of the wedge is Baháwalpur and to the east the +British district of Hissár. The apex is less than 100 miles from Lahore, +while a line drawn due south from that city to latitude 27'5° north +would exceed 270 miles in length. The Jaipur State lies to the south and +west of Narnaul, while Gurgaon has across its southern frontiers Alwar +and Bharatpur, and near the Jamna the Muttra district of the United +Provinces.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>MOUNTAINS, HILLS, AND PLAINS</h3> + + +<p><b>The Great Northern Rampart.</b>—The huge mountain rampart which guards the +northern frontier of India thrusts out in the north-west a great bastion +whose outer walls are the Hindu Kush and the Muztagh-Karakoram ranges. +Behind the latter with a general trend from south-east to north-west are +the great valley of the Indus to the point near Gilgit where it turns +sharply to the south, and a succession of mountain chains and glens +making up the Himalayan tract, through which the five rivers of the +Panjáb and the Jamna find their way to the plains. To meet trans-Indus +extensions of the Himálaya the Hindu Kush pushes out from its main axis +great spurs to the south, flanking the valleys which drain into the +Indus either directly or through the Kábul river.</p> + +<p><b>The Himálaya.</b>—Tibet, which from the point of view of physical geography +includes a large and little known area in the Kashmír State to the north +of the Karakoram range, is a lofty, desolate, wind swept plateau with a +mean elevation of about 15,000 feet. In the part of it situated to the +north of the north-west corner of Nipál lies the Manasarowar lake, in +the neighbourhood of which three great Indian rivers, the Tsanpo or +Brahmapútra, the Sutlej, and the Indus, take their rise. The Indus flows +to the north-west for 500 miles and then turns abruptly to the south to +seek its distant home in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> Indian Ocean. The Tsanpo has a still +longer course of 800 miles eastwards before it too bends southwards to +flow through Assam into the Bay of Bengal. Between the points where +these two giant rivers change their direction there extends for a +distance of 1500 miles the vast congeries of mountain ranges known +collectively as the "Himálaya" or "Abode of Snow." As a matter of +convenience the name is sometimes confined to the mountains east of the +Indus, but geologically the hills of Buner and Swát to the north of +Pesháwar probably belong to the same system. In Sanskrit literature the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +Himalaya is also known as "Himavata," whence the classical Emodus.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig2" id="fig2"></a> +<img src="images/fig002tb.jpg" width="500" height="458" alt="Fig. 2. Orographical Map." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 2. Orographical Map.</span><br /><span class="link"><a href="images/fig002.jpg">View larger image</a></span> +</div> + +<p><b>The Kumáon Himálaya.</b>—The Himálaya may be divided longitudinally into +three sections, the eastern or Sikkim, the mid or Kumáon, and the +north-western or Ladákh. With the first we are not concerned. The Kumáon +section lies mainly in the United Provinces, but it includes the sources +of the Jamna, and contains the chain in the Panjáb which is at once the +southern watershed of the Sutlej and the great divide between the two +river systems of Northern India, the Gangetic draining into the Bay of +Bengal, and the Indus carrying the enormous discharge of the north-west +Himálaya, the Muztagh-Karakoram, and the Hindu Kush ranges into the +Indian Ocean. Simla stands on the south-western end of this watershed, +and below it the Himálaya drops rapidly to the Siwálik foot-hills and to +the plains. Jakko, the <i>deodár</i>-clad hill round which so much of the +life of the summer capital of India revolves, attains a height of 8000 +feet. The highest peak within a radius of 25 miles of Simla is the Chor, +which is over 12,000 feet high, and does not lose its snow cap till May. +Hattu, the well-known hill above Narkanda, which is 40 miles from Simla +by road, is 1000 feet lower. But further west in Bashahr the higher +peaks range from 16,000 to 22,000 feet.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<a name="fig3" id="fig3"></a> +<img src="images/img003.jpg" width="650" height="390" alt="Fig. 3. Nanga Parvat." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 3. Nanga Parvat.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>The Inner Himálaya or Zánskar Range.</b>—The division of the Himálaya into +the three sections named above is convenient for descriptive purposes. +But its chief axis runs through all the sections. East of Nipál it +strikes into Tibet not very far from the source of the Tsanpo, is soon +pierced by the gorge of the Sutlej, and beyond it forms the southern +watershed of the huge Indus valley. In the west this great rampart is +known as the Zánskar range. For a short distance it is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> boundary +between the Panjáb and Kashmír, separating two outlying portions of the +Kángra district, Lahul and Spití, from Ladákh. In this section the peaks +are from 19,000 to 21,000 feet high, and the Baralácha pass on the road +from the Kulu valley in Kángra to Leh, the capital of Ladákh, is at an +elevation of about 16,500 feet. In Kashmír the Zánskar or Inner Himálaya +divides the valley of the Indus from those of the Chenáb and Jhelam. It +has no mountain to dispute supremacy with Everest (29,000 feet), or +Kinchinjunga in the Eastern Himálaya, but the inferiority is only +relative. The twin peaks called Nun and Kun to the east of Srínagar +exceed 23,000 feet, and in the extreme north-west the grand mountain +mass of Nanga Parvat towers above the Indus to a height of 26,182 feet. +The lowest point in the chain is the Zojilá (11,300 feet) on the route +from Srínagar, the capital of Kashmír, to Leh on the Indus</p> + +<p>The road from Srínagar to Gilgit passes over the Burzil pass at an +elevation of 13,500 feet.</p> + +<p>The Zojilá is at the top of the beautiful valley of the Sind river, a +tributary of the Jhelam. The lofty Zánskar range blocks the inward flow +of the monsoon, and once the Zojilá is crossed the aspect of the country +entirely changes. The land of forest glades and green pastures is left +behind, and a region of naked and desolate grandeur begins.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The waste of snow ... is the frontier of barren Tibet, where sandy +wastes replace verdant meadows, and where the wild ridges, jutting +up against the sky, are kept bare of vegetation, their strata +crumbling under the destructive action of frost and water, leaving +bare ribs of gaunt and often fantastic outline.... The colouring of +the mountains is remarkable throughout Ladákh and nowhere more so +than near the Fotulá (a pass on the road to Leh to the south of the +Indus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> gorge).... As we ascend the peaks suggest organ pipes, so +vertical are the ridges, so jagged the ascending outlines. And each +pipe is painted a different colour ... pale slate green, purple, +yellow, grey, orange, and chocolate, each colour corresponding with +a layer of the slate, shale, limestone, or trap strata" (Neve's +<i>Picturesque Kashmir</i>, pp. 108 and 117).</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 577px;"> +<a name="fig4" id="fig4"></a> +<img src="images/img004.jpg" width="577" height="600" alt="Fig. 4. Burzil Pass." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 4. Burzil Pass.</span> +</div> + +<p>In all this desolation there are tiny oases where level soil and a +supply of river water permit of cultivation and of some tree growth.</p> + +<p><b>Water divide near Baralácha and Rotang Passes in Kulu.</b>—We have seen +that the Indus and its greatest tributary, the Sutlej, rise beyond the +Himálaya in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> Tibetan plateau. The next great water divide is in the +neighbourhood of the Baralácha pass and the Rotang pass, 30 miles to the +south of it. The route from Simla to Leh runs at a general level of 7000 +to 9000 feet along or near the Sutlej-Jamna watershed to Narkanda (8800 +feet). Here it leaves the Hindustán-Tibet road and drops rapidly into +the Sutlej gorge, where the Lurí bridge is only 2650 feet above sea +level. Rising steeply on the other side the Jalaurí pass on the +watershed between the Sutlej and the Biás is crossed at an elevation of +10,800 feet. A more gradual descent brings the traveller to the Biás at +Lárjí, 3080 feet above sea level. The route then follows the course of +the Biás through the beautiful Kulu valley to the Rotang pass (13,326 +feet), near which the river rises. The upper part of the valley is +flanked on the west by the short, but very lofty Bara Bangáhal range, +dividing Kulu from Kángra and the source of the Biás from that of the +Ráví. Beyond the Rotang is Lahul, which is divided by a watershed from +Spití and the torrents which drain into the Sutlej. On the western side +of this watershed are the sources of the Chandra and Bhága, which unite +to form the river known in the plains as the Chenáb.</p> + +<p><b>Mid Himálaya or Pangí Range.</b>—The Mid Himálayan or Pangí range, striking +west from the Rotang pass and the northern end of the Bara Bangáhal +chain, passes through the heart of Chamba dividing the valley of the +Chenáb (Pangí) from that of the Ráví. After entering Kashmír it crosses +the Chenáb near the Kolahoi cone (17,900 feet) and the head waters of +the Jhelam. Thence it continues west over Haramukh (16,900 feet), which +casts its shadow southwards on the Wular lake, to the valley of the +Kishnganga, and probably across it to the mountains which flank the +magnificent Kágan glen in Hazâra.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig5" id="fig5"></a> +<img src="images/img005.jpg" width="600" height="412" alt="Fig. 5. Rotang Pass." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 5. Rotang Pass.</span> +</div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig6" id="fig6"></a> +<img src="images/img006.jpg" width="600" height="443" alt="Fig. 6. Mt Haramukh." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 6. Mt Haramukh.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Outer Himálaya or Dhauladhár-Pir Panjál Range.</b>—The Outer Himálaya also +starts from a point near the Rotang pass, but some way to the south of +the offset of the Mid Himalayan chain. Its main axis runs parallel to +the latter, and under the name of the Dhauladhár (white ridge) forms the +boundary of the Chamba State and Kángra, behind whose headquarters, at +Dharmsála it stands up like a huge wall. It has a mean elevation of +15,000 feet, but rises as high as 16,000. It passes from Chamba into +Bhadarwáh in Kashmír, and crossing the Chenáb is carried on as the Pír +Panjál range through the south of that State. With an elevation of only +14,000 or 15,000 feet it is a dwarf as compared with the giants of the +Inner Himalayan and Muztagh-Karakoram chains. But it hides them from the +dwellers in the Panjáb, and its snowy crest is a very striking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> picture +as seen in the cold weather from the plains of Ráwalpindí, Jhelam, and +Gujrát. The Outer Himálaya is continued beyond the gorges of the Jhelam +and Kishnganga rivers in Kajnág and the hills of the Hazára district. +Near the eastern extremity of the Dhauladhár section of the Outer +Himálaya it sends out southwards between Kulu and Mandí a lower +offshoot. This is crossed by the Babbu (9480 feet) and Dulchí passes, +connecting Kulu with Kángra through Mandí. Geologically the Kulu-Mandí +range appears to be continued to the east of the Biás and across the +Sutlej over Hattu and the Chor to the hills near Masúrí (Mussoorie), a +well-known hill station in the United Provinces. Another offshoot at the +western end of the Dhauladhár passes through the beautiful hill station +of Dalhousie, and sinks into the low hills to the east of the Ráví, +where it leaves Chamba and enters the British district of Gurdáspur.</p> + +<p><b>River Valleys and Passes in the Himálaya.</b>—While these principal chains +can be traced from south-east to north-west over hundreds of miles it +must be remembered that the Himálaya is a mountain mass from 150 to 200 +miles broad, that the main axes are linked together by subsidiary cross +chains dividing the head waters of great rivers, and flanked by long and +lofty ridges running down at various angles to the gorges of these +streams and their tributaries. The typical Himalayan river runs in a +gorge with mountains dipping down pretty steeply to its sides. The lower +slopes are cultivated, but the land is usually stony and uneven, and as +a whole the crops are not of a high class. The open valleys of the +Jhelam in Kashmír and of the Biás in Kulu are exceptions. Passes in the +Himálaya are not defiles between high cliffs, but cross the crest of a +ridge at a point where the chain is locally depressed, and snow melts +soonest. In the Outer and Mid Himálaya the line<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> of perpetual snow is at +about 16,000 feet, but for six months of the year the snow-line comes +down 5000 feet lower. In the Inner Himálaya and the Muztagh-Karakoram, +to which the monsoon does not penetrate, the air is so dry that less +snow falls and the line is a good deal higher.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig7" id="fig7"></a> +<img src="images/img007.jpg" width="600" height="428" alt="Fig. 7. R. Jhelam in Kashmír—View towards Mohand Marg." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 7. R. Jhelam in Kashmír—View towards Mohand Marg.</span> +</div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span><b>Himalayan Scenery.</b>—Certain things strike any observant traveller in the +Himálaya. One is the comparative absence of running or still water, +except in the height of the rainy season, away from the large rivers. +The slope is so rapid that ordinary falls of rain run off with great +rapidity. The mountain scenery is often magnificent and the forests are +beautiful, but the absence of water robs the landscape of a charm which +would make it really perfect. Where this too is present, as in the +valley of the Biás in Kulu and those of the Jhelam and its tributaries +in Kashmír and Hazára, the eye has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> its full fruition of content. +Another is the silence of the forests. Bird and beast are there, but +they are little in evidence. A third feature which can hardly be missed +is the contrast between the northern and the southern slopes. The former +will often be clothed with forest while the latter is a bare stony slope +covered according to season with brown or green grass interspersed with +bushes of indigo, barberry, or the hog plum (Prinsepia utilis). The +reason is that the northern side enjoys much more shade, snow lies +longer, and the supply of moisture is therefore greater. The grazier for +the same reason is less tempted to fire the hill side in order to +promote the growth of grass, a practice which is fatal to all forest +growth. The rich and varied flora of the Himálaya will be referred to +later.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 436px;"> +<a name="fig8" id="fig8"></a> +<img src="images/img008.jpg" width="436" height="600" alt="Fig. 8. Near Náran in Kágan Glen, Hazára." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 8. Near Náran in Kágan Glen, Hazára.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Muztagh-Karakoram Ranges.</b>—The Muztagh-Karakoram mountains form the +northern watershed of the Indus. The range consists of more than one +main axis. The name Karakoram is appropriated to the eastern part of the +system which originates at E. longitude 79° near the Pangong lake in the +Tibetan plateau a little beyond the boundary of Kashmír. Beyond the +Karakoram pass (18,550 ft.) is a lofty bleak upland with salt lakes +dotted over its surface. Through this inhospitable region and over the +Karakoram pass and the Sasser-lá (17,500 ft.) the trade route from +Yarkand to Leh runs. The road is only open for three months in the year, +and the dangers and hardships are great. In 1898 Dr Bullock Workman and +his wife marched along it across the Shyok river, up the valley of the +Nubra, and over the Sasser-lá to the Karakoram pass. The scenery is an +exaggeration of that described by Dr Neve as seen on the road from the +Zoji-lá to Leh. There is a powerful picture of its weird repellent +grandeur in the Workmans' book entitled <i>In the Ice World of Himálaya</i> +(pp. 28-29, 30-32). The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> poet who had found ideas for a new Paradiso in +the Vale of Kashmír might here get suggestions for a new Inferno.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig9" id="fig9"></a> +<img src="images/fig009.tb.jpg" width="500" height="485" alt="Fig. 9. Muztagh-Karakoram and Himalayan Ranges in +Kashmír." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/fig009.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 9. Muztagh-Karakoram and Himalayan Ranges in +Kashmír.</span> +</div> + + + +<p>The Karakoram range culminates in the north-west near the Muztagh pass +in a group of majestic peaks including K 2 or Mount Godwin Austen +(28,265 feet), Gasherbrum, and Masherbrum, which tower over and feed the +vast Boltoro glacier. The first of these giants is the second largest +mountain in the world. The Duke of the Abruzzi ascended it to the height +of 24,600 feet, and so established a climbing record. The Muztagh chain +carries on the northern bastion to the valley of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> the Hunza river and +the western extremity of the Hindu Kush. It has several peaks exceeding +25,000 feet. The most famous is Rakiposhi which looks down on Hunza from +a height of 25,550 feet.</p> + +<p><b>The Hindu Kush.</b>—The Muztagh chain from the south-east, the Sarikol from +the north-east, and the Hindu Kush from the south-west, meet at a point +to the north of Hunza. The last runs westward and south-westward for +about 200 miles to the Dorah pass (14,800 feet), separating the valleys +which drain into the Indus from the head waters of the Oxus, and Hunza +and Gilgit in Kashmír and Chitrál in British India from the Afghán +province of Wakhan. The highest point in the main axis, Sad Istragh +(24,171 feet), is in this section. But the finest mountain scenery in +the Hindu Kush is in the great spurs it thrusts out southwards to flank +the glens which feed the Gilgit and Chitrál rivers. Tirach Mír towers +above Chitrál to a height of 25,426 feet. From Tibet to the Dorah pass +the northern frontier of India is impregnable. It is pierced by one or +two difficult trade routes strewn with the bones of pack animals, but no +large army has ever marched across it for the invasion of India. West of +the Dorah pass the general level of the Hindu Kush is a good deal lower +than that of its eastern section. The vital point in the defences of +India in this quarter lies near Charikár to the north of Kábul, where +the chain thins out, and three practicable passes debouch on the valley +of the Kábul river. It is this fact that gives the town of Kábul its +great strategic importance. The highest of the three passes, the Kaoshan +or Hindu Kush (dead Hindu), crosses the chain at an elevation of 14,340 +feet. It took its own name from the fate that befel a Hindu army when +attempting to cross it, and has handed it on to the whole range. It is +the pass which the armies of Alexander<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> and Bábar used. The historical +road for the invasion of India on this side has been by Charikár and the +valley of the Kábul river to its junction with the Kunar below +Jalálábád, thence up the Kunar valley and over one of the practicable +passes which connect its eastern watershed with the Panjkora and Swát +river valleys, whence the descent on Pesháwar is easy. This is the route +by which Alexander led the wing of the Grecian army which he commanded +in person, and the one followed by Bábar in 1518-19. Like Alexander, +Bábar fought his way through Bajaur, and crossed the Indus above Attock.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig10" id="fig10"></a> +<img src="images/fig010.tb.jpg" width="500" height="239" alt="Fig. 10. The Khaibar Road." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/fig010.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 10. The Khaibar Road.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>The Khaibar.</b>—A British force advancing on Kábul from Pesháwar has never +marched by the Kunar and Kábul valley route. It has always taken the +Khaibar road, which only follows the Kabul river for less than one-third +of the 170 miles which separate Pesháwar from the Amir's capital. The +military road from Pesháwar to Landikhána lies far to the south of the +river, from which it is shut off by difficult and rugged country held by +the Mohmands.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Safed Koh.</b>—From Landikhána the political boundary runs south-west to +the Safed Koh (white mountain) and is continued westwards along that +range to the Paiwar Kotal or pass (8450 feet). The Safed Koh forms the +watershed of the Kábul and Kurram rivers. It is a fine pine clad chain +with a general level of 12,000 feet, and its skyline is rarely free from +snow. It culminates in the west near Paiwar Kotal in Sikarám (15,620 +feet). To the west of the Pesháwar and Kohát districts is a tangle of +hills and valleys formed by outlying spurs of the Safed Koh. This +difficult country is in the occupation of Afrídís and Orakzais, who are +under our political control.</p> + +<p><b>The Kurram Valley.</b>—The line of advance into Afghánistán through the +Kurram valley is easy, and Lord Roberts used it when he marched towards +Kábul in 1898. After the war we annexed the valley, leaving however the +head waters of the Kurram in Afghán territory. The road to Kábul leaves +the river far to the south before it crosses our frontier at Paiwar +Kotal.</p> + +<p><b>Wazíristán Hills.</b>—Between the Kurram valley and the Gomal river is a +large block of very rough mountainous country known as Wazíristán from +the turbulent clan which occupies it. In the north it is drained by the +Tochí. Westwards of the Tochí valley the country rises into lofty +mountains. The upper waters of the Tochí and its affluents drain two +fine glens known as Birmal and Shawal to the west of the country of the +Mahsud Wazírs. The Tochí valley is the direct route from India to +Ghazní, and nine centuries ago, when that decayed town was the capital +of a powerful kingdom, it must often have heard the tramp of armed men. +The loftiest peaks in Wazíristán, Shuidár (11,000 feet) and Pírghal +(11,600 feet), overhang Birmal. Further south, Wána, our post in +south-west Wazíristán, overlooks from its plateau the Gomal valley.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>The Gomal Pass as a trade route.</b>—East of Kajúrí Kach the Gomal flows +through tribal territory to the Gomal pass from which it debouches into +the plains of the Dera Ismail Khán district. "The Gomal route is the +oldest of all trade routes. Down it there yearly pours a succession of +<i>káfilas</i> (caravans) led and followed up by thousands of well-armed +Pathán traders, called Powindahs, from the plains of Afghánistán to +India. The Powindahs mostly belong to the Ghilzai tribes, and are not +therefore true Afgháns<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>. Leaving their women and children encamped +within British territory on our border, and their arms in the keeping of +our frontier political officials, the Powindah makes his way southwards +with his camel loads of fruit and silk, bales of camel and goat hair or +sheepskin goods, carpets and other merchandise from Kábul and Bokhára, +and conveys himself through the length and breadth of the Indian +peninsula.... He returns yearly to the cool summits of the Afghán hills +and the open grassy plains, where his countless flocks of sheep and +camels are scattered for the summer grazing" (Holdich's <i>India</i>, pp. +80-81).</p> + +<p><b>Physical features of hilly country between Pesháwar and the Gomal +river.</b>—The physical features of the hill country between Pesháwar and +the Gomal pass may best be described in the words of Sir Thomas Holdich:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Natural landscape beauty, indeed, may here be measured to a +certain extent by altitude. The low ranges of sun-scorched, +blackened ridge and furrow formation which form the approaches to +the higher altitudes of the Afghán upland, and which are almost as +regularly laid out by the hand of nature in some parts of the +frontier as are the parallels ... of the engineer who is besieging +a fortress—these are by no means 'things of beauty,' and it is +this class of formation and this form<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> of barren desolation that is +most familiar to the frontier officer.... Shades of delicate purple +and grey will not make up for the absence of the living green of +vegetation.... But with higher altitudes a cooler climate and +snow-fed soil is found, and as soon as vegetation grasps a +root-hold there is the beginning of fine scenery. The upper +pine-covered slopes of the Safed Koh are as picturesque as those of +the Swiss Alps; they are crowned by peaks whose wonderful altitudes +are frozen beyond the possibility of vegetation, and are usually +covered with snow wherever snow can lie. In Wazíristán, hidden away +in the higher recesses of its great mountains, are many valleys of +great natural beauty, where we find the spreading poplar and the +ilex in all the robust growth of an indigenous flora.... Among the +minor valleys Birmal perhaps takes precedence by right of its +natural beauty. Here are stretches of park-like scenery where +grass-covered slopes are dotted with clumps of <i>deodár</i> and pine +and intersected with rivulets hidden in banks of fern; soft green +glades open out to view from every turn in the folds of the hills, +and above them the silent watch towers of Pírghal and Shuidár ... +look down from their snow-clad heights across the Afghán uplands to +the hills beyond Ghazní." (Holdich's <i>India</i>, pp. 81-82.)</p></div> + +<p><b>The Sulimán Range.</b>—A well-marked mountain chain runs from the Gomal to +the extreme south-west corner of the Dera Ghází Khán district where the +borders of Biluchistán, Sind, and the Panjáb meet. It culminates forty +miles south of the Gomal in the fine Kaisargarh mountain (11,295 feet), +which is a very conspicuous object from the plains of the Deraját. On +the side of Kaisargarh there is a shrine called Takht i Sulimán or +Throne of Solomon, and this is the name by which Englishmen usually know +the mountain, and which has been passed on to the whole range. +Proceeding southwards<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> the general elevation of the chain drops +steadily. But Fort Munro, the hill station of the Dera Ghází Khán +district, 200 miles south of the Takht, still stands 6300 feet above sea +level, and it looks across at the fine peak of Ekbhai, which is more +than 1000 feet higher. In the south of the Dera Ghází Khán district the +general level of the chain is low, arid the Giandári hill, though only +4160 feet above the sea, stands out conspicuously. Finally near where +the three jurisdictions meet the hills melt into the Kachh Gandáva +plain. Sir Thomas Holdich's description of the rugged Pathán hills +applies also to the Sulimán range. Kaisargarh is a fine limestone +mountain crowned by a forest of the edible <i>chilgoza</i> pine. But the +ordinary tree growth, where found at all, is of a much humbler kind, +consisting of gnarled olives and dwarf palms.</p> + +<p><b>Passes and torrents in Sulimán Hills.</b>—The drainage of the western +slopes of the Sulimán range finding no exit on that side has had to wear +out ways for itself towards the plains which lie between the foot of the +hills and the Indus. This is the explanation of the large number of +passes, about one hundred, which lead from the plains into the Sulimán +hills. The chief from north to south are the Vehoa, the Sangarh, the +Khair, the Kahá, the Cháchar, and the Sirí, called from the torrents +which flow through them to the plains. There is an easy route through +the Cháchar to Biluchistán. But unfortunately the water of the torrent +is brackish.</p> + +<p><b>Sub Himálaya or Siwáliks.</b>—In its lowest ridges the Himálaya drops to a +height of about 5000 feet. But the traveller to any of the summer +resorts in the mountains passes through a zone of lower hills +interspersed sometimes with valleys or "duns." These consist of Tertiary +sandstones, clays, and boulder conglomerates, the débris in fact which +the Himálaya has dropped in the course<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> of ages. To this group of hills +and valleys the general name of Siwáliks is given. East of the Jhelam it +includes the Náhan hills to the north of Ambála, the low hills of +Kángra, Hoshyárpur, Gurdáspur, and Jammu, and the Pábbí hills in Gujrát. +But it is to the west of the Jhelam that the system has its greatest +extension. Practically the whole of the soil of the plains of the +Attock, Ráwalpindi, and Jhelam districts consists of disintegrated +Siwálik sandstone, and differs widely in appearance and agricultural +quality from the alluvium of the true Panjáb plains. The low hills of +these districts belong to the same system, but the Salt Range is only in +part Siwálik. Altogether Siwálik deposits in the Panjáb cover an area of +13,000 square miles. Beyond the Indus the hills of the Kohát district +and a part of the Sulimán range are of Tertiary age.</p> + +<p><b>The Great Panjáb Plain.</b>—The passage from the highlands to the plains is +as a rule abrupt, and the contrast between the two is extraordinary. +This is true without qualification of the tract between the Jamna and +the Jhelam. It is equally true of British districts west of the Jhelam +and south of the Salt Range and of lines drawn from Kálabágh on the west +bank of the Indus southwards to Paniála and thence north-west through +the Pezu pass to the Wazíristán hills. In all that vast plain, if we +except the insignificant hills in the extreme south-west of the province +ending to the north in the historic ridge at Delhi, some hillocks of +gneiss near Toshám in Hissár, and the curious little isolated rocks at +Kirána, Chiniot, and Sángla near the Chenáb and Jhelam, the only +eminences are petty ridges of windblown sand and the "<i>thehs</i>" or mounds +which represent the accumulated débris of ancient village sites. At the +end of the Jurassic period and later this great plain was part of a sea +bed. Far removed as the Indian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> ocean now is the height above sea level +of the Panjáb plain east of the Jhelam is nowhere above 1000 feet. Delhi +and Lahore are both just above the 700 feet line. The hills mentioned +above are humble time-worn outliers of the very ancient Aravalli system, +to which the hills of Rájputána belong. Kirána and Sángla were already +of enormous age, when they were islands washed by the waves of the +Tertiary sea. A description of the different parts of the vast Panjáb +plain, its great stretches of firm loam, and its tracts of sand and sand +hills, which the casual observer might regard as pure desert, will be +given in the paragraphs devoted to the different districts.</p> + +<p><b>The Salt Range.</b>—The tract west of the Jhelam, and bounded on the south +by the Salt Range cis-Indus, and trans-Indus by the lines mentioned +above, is of a more varied character. Time worn though the Salt Range +has become by the waste of ages, it still rises at Sakesar, near its +western extremity, to a height of 5000 feet. The eastern part of the +range is mostly in the Jhelam district, and there the highest point is +Chail (3700 feet). The hill of Tilla (3242 feet), which is a marked +feature of the landscape looking westwards from Jhelam cantonment, is on +a spur running north-east from the main chain. The Salt Range is poorly +wooded, the dwarf acacia or <i>phuláhí</i> (Acacia modesta), the olive, and +the <i>sanattha</i> shrub (Dodonea viscosa) are the commonest species. But +these jagged and arid hills include some not infertile valleys, every +inch of which is put under crop by the crowded population. To geologists +the range is of special interest, including as it does at one end of the +scale Cambrian beds of enormous antiquity and at the other rocks of +Tertiary age. Embedded in the Cambrian strata there are great deposits +of rock salt at Kheora, where the Mayo mine is situated.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> At Kálabágh +the Salt Range reappears on the far side of the Indus. Here the salt +comes to the surface, and its jagged pinnacles present a remarkable +appearance.</p> + +<p><b>Country north of the Salt Range.</b>—The country to the north of the Salt +Range included in the districts of Jhelam, Ráwalpindí, and Attock is +often ravine-bitten and seamed with the white sandy beds of torrents. +Generally speaking it is an arid precarious tract, but there are fertile +stretches which will be mentioned in the descriptions of the districts. +The general height of the plains north of the Salt Range is from 1000 +feet to 2000 feet above sea level. The rise between Lahore and +Ráwalpindí is just over a thousand feet. Low hills usually form a +feature of the landscape, pleasing at a distance or when softened by the +evening light, but bare and jagged on a nearer view. The chief hills are +the Márgalla range between Hazára and Ráwalpindí, the Kálachitta and the +Khairimurat hills running east and west through Attock and the very dry +and broken Narrara hills on the right bank of the Indus in the same +district. Between the Márgalla and Kálachitta hills is the Márgalla pass +on the main road from Ráwalpindí to the passage of the Indus at Attock, +and therefore a position of considerable strategical importance. The +Kálachitta (black and white) chain is so called because the north side +is formed of nummulitic limestone and the south mainly of a dark purple +sandstone. The best tree-growth is therefore on the north side.</p> + +<p><b>Pesháwar, Kohát, and Bannu.</b>—Across the Indus the Pesháwar and Bannu +districts are basins ringed with hills and drained respectively by the +Kábul and Kurram rivers with their affluents. Between these two basins +lies the maze of bare broken hills and valleys which make up the Kohát +district. The cantonment of Kohát is 1700 feet above sea level and no +hill in the district<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> reaches 5000 feet. Near the Kohát border in the +south-west of the Pesháwar district are the Khattak hills, the +culmination of which at Ghaibana Sir has a height of 5136 feet, and the +military sanitarium of Cherát in the same chain is 600 feet lower. On +the east the Maidáni hills part Bannu from Isakhel, the trans-Indus +<i>tahsíl</i> of Mianwáli, and on the south the Marwat hills divide it from +Dera Ismail Khán. Both are humble ranges. The highest point in the +Marwat hills is Shekhbudín, a bare and dry limestone rock rising to an +elevation of over 4500 feet.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>RIVERS</h3> + + +<p><b>The Panjáb Rivers.</b>—"Panjáb" is a Persian compound word, meaning "five +waters," and strictly speaking the word denotes the country between the +valley of the Jhelam and that of the Sutlej. The intermediate rivers +from west to east are the Chenáb, the Ráví, and the Biás. Their combined +waters at last flow into the Panjnad or "five rivers" at the south-west +corner of the Multán district, and the volume of water which 44 miles +lower down the Panjnad carries into the Indus is equal to the discharge +of the latter. The first Aryan settlers knew this part of India as the +land of the seven rivers (<i>sapla sindhavas</i>), adding to the five +mentioned above the Indus and the Sarasvatí. The old Vedic name is more +appropriate than Panjáb if we substitute the Jamna for the Sarasvatí or +Sarustí, which is now a petty stream.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig11" id="fig11"></a> +<img src="images/fig011tb.jpg" width="500" height="473" alt="Fig. 11. Panjáb Rivers." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/fig011.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 11. Panjáb Rivers.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>River Valleys.</b>—The cold weather traveller who is carried from Delhi to +Ráwalpindí over the great railway bridges at points chosen because there +the waters of the rivers are confined by nature, or can be confined by +art, within moderate limits, has little idea of what one of these rivers +is like in flood time. He sees that, even at such favoured spots, +between the low banks there is a stretch of sand far exceeding in width +the main channel, where a considerable volume of water is running, and +the minor depressions, in which a sluggish and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> shallow flow may still +be found. If, leaving the railway, he crosses a river by some bridge of +boats or local ferry, he will find still wider expanses of sand +sometimes bare and dry and white, at others moist and dark and covered +with dwarf tamarisk. He may notice that, before he reaches the sand and +the tamarisk scrub, he leaves by a gentle or abrupt descent the dry +uplands, and passes into a lower, greener, and perhaps to his +inexperienced eye more fertile seeming tract. This is the valley, often +miles broad, through which the stream has moved in ever-shifting +channels in the course of centuries. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> finds it hard to realize that, +when the summer heats melt the Himalayan snows, and the monsoon +currents, striking against the northern mountain walls, are precipitated +in torrents of rain, the rush of water to the plains swells the river +20, 30, 40, or even 50 fold. The sandy bed then becomes full from bank +to bank, and the silt laden waters spill over into the cultivated +lowlands beyond. Accustomed to the stable streams of his own land, he +cannot conceive the risks the riverside farmer in the Panjáb runs of +having fruitful fields smothered in a night with barren sand, or lands +and well and house sucked into the river-bed. So great and sudden are +the changes, bad and good, wrought by river action that the loss and +gain have to be measured up year by year for revenue purposes. Nor is +the visitor likely to imagine that the main channel may in a few seasons +become a quite subsidiary or wholly deserted bed. Like all streams, e.g. +the Po, which flow from the mountains into a flat terrain, the Panjáb +rivers are perpetually silting up their beds, and thus, by their own +action, becoming diverted into new channels or into existing minor ones, +which are scoured out afresh. If our traveller, leaving the railway at +Ráwalpindi, proceeds by tonga to the capital of Kashmír, he will find +between Kohála and Báramúla another surprise awaiting him. The noble but +sluggish river of the lowlands, which he crossed at the town of Jhelam, +is here a swift and deep torrent, flowing over a boulder bed, and +swirling round waterworn rocks in a gorge hemmed in by mountains. That +is the typical state of the Himalayan rivers, though the same Jhelam +above Báramúla is an exception, flowing there sluggishly through a very +flat valley into a shallow lake.</p> + +<p><b>The Indus Basin.</b>—The river Sindh (Sanskrit, Sindhu), more familiar to +us under its classical name of the Indus,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> must have filled with +astonishment every invader from the west, and it is not wonderful that +they called after it the country that lay beyond. Its basin covers an +area of 373,000 square miles. Confining attention to Asia these figures, +large though they seem, are far exceeded by those of the Yangtsze-Kiang. +The area of which a description is attempted in this book is, with the +exception of a strip along the Jamna and the part of Kashmír lying +beyond the Muztagh-Karakoram range, all included in the Indus basin. But +it does not embrace the whole of it. Part is in Tibet, part in +Afghánistán and Biluchistán, and part in Sindh, through which province +the Indus flows for 450 miles, or one-quarter of its whole course of +1800 miles. It seems likely that the Jamna valley was not always an +exception, or at least that that river once flowed westwards through +Rájputána to the Indian ocean. The five great rivers of the Panjáb all +drain into the Indus, and the Ghagar with its tributary, the Sarustí, +which now, even when in flood, loses itself in the sands of Bikaner, +probably once flowed down the old Hakra bed in Baháwalpur either into +the Indus or by an independent bed now represented by an old flood +channel of the Indus in Sindh, the Hakro or Nara, which passes through +the Rann of Kachh.</p> + +<p><b>The Indus outside British India.</b>—To the north of the Manasarowar lake +in Tibet is Kailás, the Hindu Olympus. On the side of this mountain the +Indus is said to rise at a height of 17,000 feet. After a course of 200 +miles or more it crosses the south-east boundary of the Kashmír State at +an elevation of 13,800 feet. From the Kashmír frontier to Mt Haramosh +west of Gilgit it flows steadily to the north-west for 350 miles. After +125 miles Leh, the capital of Ladákh, is reached at a height of 10,500 +feet, and here the river is crossed by the trade route to Yarkand. A +little below Leh<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> the Indus receives the Zánskar, which drains the +south-east of Kashmír. After another 150 miles it flows through the +basin, in which Skardo, the principal town in Baltistán, is situated. +Above Skardo a large tributary, the Shyok, flows in from the east at an +elevation of 8000 feet. The Shyok and its affluent, the Nubra, rise in +the giant glaciers to the south-west of the Karakoram pass. After the +Skardo basin is left behind the descent is rapid. The river rushes down +a tremendous gorge, where it appears to break through the western +Himálaya, skirts Haramosh, and at a point twenty-five miles east of +Gilgit bends abruptly to the south. Shortly after it is joined from the +west by the Gilgit river, and here the bed is about 4000 feet above sea +level. Continuing to flow south for another twenty miles it resumes its +westernly course to the north of Nanga Parvat and persists in it for 100 +miles. Our political post of Chilás lies in this section on the south +bank. Fifty or sixty miles west of Chilás the Indus turns finally to the +south. From Jálkot, where the Kashmír frontier is left, to Palosí below +the Mahaban mountain it flows for a hundred miles through territory over +which we only exercise political control. Near Palosí, 812 miles from +the source, the river enters British India. In Kashmír the Indus and the +Shyok in some places flow placidly over alluvial flats, and at others +with a rapid and broken current through narrow gorges. At Skardo their +united stream is said, even in winter, to be 500 feet wide and nine or +ten feet deep. If one of the deep gorges, as sometimes happens, is +choked by a landslip, the flood that follows when the barrier finally +bursts may spread devastation hundreds of miles away. To the north of +the fertile Chach plain in Attock there is a wide stretch of land along +the Indus, which still shows in its stony impoverished soil the effects +of the great flood of 1841.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig12" id="fig12"></a> +<img src="images/img012.jpg" width="600" height="425" alt="Fig. 12. The Indus at Attock." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 12. The Indus at Attock.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig13" id="fig13"></a> +<img src="images/img013.jpg" width="600" height="421" alt="Fig. 13. Indus at Káfirkot, D.I. Khán dt." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 13. Indus at Káfirkot, D.I. Khán dt.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>The Indus in British India.</b>—After reaching British India the Indus soon +becomes the boundary dividing Hazára and Pesháwar, two districts of the +North West Frontier Province. Lower down it parts Pesháwar from the +Panjáb district of Attock. In this section after a time the hills recede +on both sides, and the stream is wide and so shallow that it is fordable +in places in the cold weather. There are islands, ferry boats and rafts +can ply, and the only danger is from sudden freshets. Ohind, where +Alexander crossed, is in this section. A more famous passage is at +Attock just below the junction of the Kábul river. Here the heights +again approach the Indus on either bank. The volume of water is vastly +increased by the union of the Kábul river, which brings down the whole +drainage of the southern face of the Hindu Kush. From the north it +receives near Jalálábád the Kunar river, and near Charsadda in Pesháwar +the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> Swát, which with its affluent the Panjkora drains Dír, Bajaur, and +Swát. In the cold weather looking northwards from the Attock fort one +sees the Kábul or Landai as a blue river quietly mingling with the +Indus, and in the angle between them a stretch of white sand. But during +floods the junction is the scene of a wild turmoil of waters. At Attock +there are a railway bridge, a bridge of boats, and a ferry. The bed of +the stream is 2000 feet over sea level. For ninety miles below Attock +the river is confined between bare and broken hills, till it finally +emerges into the plains from the gorge above Kálabágh, where the Salt +Range impinges on the left bank. Between Attock and Kálabágh the right +bank is occupied by Pesháwar and Kohát and the left by Attock and +Mianwálí. In this section the Indus is joined by the Haro and Soán +torrents, and spanned at Khushálgarh by a railway bridge. This is the +only other masonry<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> bridge crossing it in the Panjáb. Elsewhere the +passage has to be made by ferry boats or by boat bridges, which are +taken down in the rainy season. At Kálabágh the height above sea level +is less than 1000 feet. When it passes the western extremity of the Salt +Range the river spreads out into a wide lake-like expanse of waters. It +has now performed quite half of its long journey. Henceforth it receives +no addition from the east till the Panjnad in the south-west corner of +the Muzaffargarh district brings to it the whole tribute of the five +rivers of the Panjáb. Here, though the Indian ocean is still 500 miles +distant, the channel is less than 300 feet above the sea. From the west +it receives an important tributary in the Kurram, which, with its +affluent the Tochí, rises in Afghánistán. The torrents from the Sulimán +Range are mostly used up for irrigation before they reach the Indus, but +some of them mingle their waters with it in high floods. Below Kálabágh +the Indus is a typical lowland river of great size, with many sandy +islands in the bed and a wide valley subject to its inundations. +Opposite Dera Ismail Khán the valley is seventeen miles across. As a +plains river the Indus runs at first through the Mianwálí district of +the Panjáb, then divides Mianwálí from Dera Ismail Khán, and lastly +parts Muzaffargarh and the Baháwalpur State from the Panjáb frontier +district of Dera Ghází Khán.</p> + +<p><b>The Jhelam.</b>—The Jhelam, the most westernly of the five rivers of the +Panjáb, is called the Veth in Kashmir and locally in the Panjáb plains +the Vehat. These names correspond to the Bihat of the Muhammadan +historians and the Hydaspes of the Greeks, and all go back to the +Sanskrit Vitasta. Issuing from a deep pool at Vernág to the east of +Islámábád in Kashmír it becomes navigable just below that town, and +flows north-west in a lazy stream for 102 miles through Srínagar, the +summer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> capital, into the Wular lake, and beyond it to Báramúla. The +banks are quite low and often cultivated to the river's edge. But across +the flat valley there is on either side a splendid panorama of +mountains. From Báramúla the character of the Jhelam suddenly changes, +and for the next 70 miles to Kohála, where the traveller crosses by a +fine bridge into the Panjáb, it rushes down a deep gorge, whose sides +are formed by the Kajnág mountains on the right, and the Pír Panjál on +the left, bank. Between Báramúla and Kohála there is a drop from 5000 to +2000 feet. At Domel, the stage before Kohála the Jhelam receives from +the north the waters of the Kishnganga, and lower down it is joined by +the Kunhár, which drains the Kágan glen in Hazára. A little above Kohála +it turns sharply to the south, continuing its character as a mountain +stream hemmed in by the hills of Ráwalpindí on the right bank and of the +Púnch State on the left. The hills gradually sink lower and lower, but +on the left side only disappear a little above the cantonment of Jhelam, +where there is a noble railway bridge. From Jhelam onwards the river is +of the usual plains' type. After dividing the districts of Jhelam (right +bank) and Gujrát (left), it flows through the Sháhpur and Jhang +districts, falling finally into the Chenáb at Trimmu, 450 miles from its +source. There is a second railway bridge at Haranpur on the Sind Ságar +line, and a bridge of boats at Khusháb, in the Sháhpur district. The +noblest and most-varied scenery in the north-west Himalaya is in the +catchment area of the Jhelam. The Kashmír valley and the valleys which +drain into the Jhelam from the north, the Liddar, the Loláb, the Sind, +and the Kágan glen, display a wealth of beauty unequalled elsewhere. Nor +does this river wholly lose its association with beauty in the plains. +Its very rich silt gives the lands on its banks the green charm of rich +crops and pleasant trees.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>The Chenáb.</b>—The Chenáb (more properly Chínáb or river of China) is the +Asikní of the Vedas and the Akesines of the Greek historians. It is +formed by the union of the Chandra and Bhága, both of which rise in +Lahul near the Báralácha pass. Having become the Chandrabhága the river +flows through Pángí in Chamba and the south-east of Kashmír. Near +Kishtwár it breaks through the Pír Panjál range, and thenceforwards +receives the drainage of its southern slopes. At Akhnúr it becomes +navigable and soon after it enters the Panjáb district of Siálkot. A +little later it is joined from the west by the Tawí, the stream above +which stands Jammu, the winter capital of Kashmír. The Chenáb parts +Siálkot and Gujránwála on the left bank from Gujrát and Sháhpur on the +right. At Wazírábád, near the point where Siálkot, Gujrát, and +Gujránwála meet, it is crossed by the Alexandra railway bridge. Leaving +Sháhpur and Gujránwála behind, the Chenáb flows through Jhang to its +junction with the Jhelam at Trimmu. In this section there is a second +railway bridge at Chund Bharwána. The united stream runs on under the +name of Chenáb to be joined on the north border of the Multán district +by the Ráví and on its southern border by the Sutlej. Below its junction +with the latter the stream is known as the Panjnad. In the plains the +Chenáb cannot be called an attractive river, and its silt is far +inferior to that of the Jhelam.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="img014" id="img014"></a> +<img src="images/img014.jpg" width="600" height="500" alt="Fig. 14. Fording the River at Lahore." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 14. Fording the River at Lahore.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>The Ráví.</b>—The Ráví was known to the writers of the Vedic hymns as the +Parushní, but is called in classical Sanskrit Irávatí, whence the +Hydraotes of the Greek historians. It rises near the Rotang pass in +Kángra, and flows north-west through the southern part of Chamba. Below +the town of Chamba, it runs as a swift slaty-blue mountain stream, and +here it is spanned by a fine bridge. Passing on to the north of the hill +station of Dalhousie<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> it reaches the Kashmir border, and turning to the +south-west flows along it to Basolí where Kashmír, Chamba, and the +British district of Gurdáspur meet. At this point it is 2000 feet above +the sea level. It now forms the boundary of Kashmír and Gurdáspur, and +finally near Madhopur, where the head-works of the Bárí Doáb canal are +situated, it passes into the Gurdáspur district. Shortly after it is +joined from the north by a large torrent called the Ujh, which rises in +the Jammu hills. After reaching the Siálkot border the Ráví parts that +district first from Gurdáspur and then from Amritsar, and, passing +through the west of Lahore, divides Montgomery and Lyallpur, and flowing +through the north of Multán joins the Chenáb near the Jhang border. In +Multán there is a remarkable straight reach in the channel known as the +Sídhnai, which has been utilized for the site of the head-works of a +small canal. The Degh, a torrent which rises in the Jammu hills and has +a long course<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> through the Siálkot and Gujránwála districts, joins the +Ráví when in flood in the north of the Lyallpur district. But its waters +will now be diverted into the river higher up in order to safeguard the +Upper Chenáb canal. Lahore is on the left bank of the Ráví. It is a mile +from the cold weather channel, but in high floods the waters have often +come almost up to the Fort. At Lahore the North Western Railway and the +Grand Trunk Road are carried over the Ráví by masonry bridges. There is +a second railway bridge over the Sídhnai reach in Multán. Though the +Ráví, like the Jhelam, has a course of 450 miles, it has a far smaller +catchment area, and is really a somewhat insignificant stream. In the +cold weather, the canal takes such a heavy toll from it that below +Mádhopur the supply of water is mainly drawn from the Ujh, and in +Montgomery one may cross the bed dryshod for months together. The valley +of the Ráví is far narrower than those of the rivers described in the +preceding paragraphs, and the floods are most uncertain, but when they +occur are of very great value.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="img015" id="img015"></a> +<img src="images/img015.jpg" width="600" height="441" alt="Fig. 15. Biás at Manálí." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 15. Biás at Manálí.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>The Biás.</b>—The Biás (Sanskrit, Vipasa; Greek, Hyphasis) rises near the +Rotang pass at a height of about 13,000 feet. Its head-waters are +divided from those of the Ráví by the Bara Bangáhal range. It flows for +about sixty miles through the beautiful Kulu valley to Lárjí (3000 +feet). It has at first a rapid course, but before it reaches Sultánpur +(4000 feet), the chief village in Kulu, some thirty miles from the +source, it has become, at least in the cold weather, a comparatively +peaceful stream fringed with alder thickets. Heavy floods, however, +sometimes cover fields and orchards with sand and boulders. There is a +bridge at Manálí (6100 feet), a very lovely spot, another below Nagar, +and a third at Lárjí. Near Lárjí the river turns to the west down a bold +ravine and becomes for a time the boundary between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> Kulu and the Mandí +State. Near the town of Mandí, where it is bridged, it bends again, and +winds in a north-west and westerly direction through low hills in the +south of Kángra till it meets the Siwáliks on the Hoshyárpur border. In +this reach there is a bridge of boats at Dera Gopípur on the main road +from Jalandhar and Hoshyárpur to Dharmsála. Elsewhere in the south of +Kángra the traveller can cross without difficulty on a small bed +supported on inflated skins. Sweeping round the northern end of the +Siwáliks the Biás, having after long parting again approached within +about fifteen miles of the Ráví, turns definitely to the south, forming +henceforth the dividing line between Hoshyárpur and Kapúrthala (left +bank) and Gurdáspur and Amritsar (right). Finally above the Harike ferry +at a point where Lahore, Amritsar, Ferozepur, and Kapúrthala nearly +meet, it falls into the Sutlej. The North Western<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> Railway crosses it by +a bridge near the Biás station and at the same place there is a bridge +of boats for the traffic on the Grand Trunk Road. The chief affluents +are the Chakkí, the torrent which travellers to Dharmsála cross by a +fine bridge twelve miles from the railhead at Pathánkot, and the Black +Bein in Hoshyárpur and Kapúrthala. The latter is a winding drainage +channel, which starts in a swamp in the north of the Hoshyárpur +district. The Biás has a total course of 390 miles. Only for about +eighty miles or so is it a true river of the plains, and its floods do +not spread far.</p> + +<p><b>The Sutlej.</b>—The Sutlej is the Shatadru of Vedic hymns and the Zaradros +of Greek writers. The peasant of the Panjáb plains knows it as the Nílí +or Ghara. After the Indus it is the greatest of Panjáb rivers, and for +its source we have to go back to the Manasarowar lakes in Tibet. From +thence it flows for 200 miles in a north-westerly direction to the +British frontier near Shipkí. A little beyond the Spití river brings it +the drainage of the large tract of that name in Kángra and of part of +Western Tibet. From Shipkí it runs for forty miles in deep gorges +through Kunáwar in the Bashahr State to Chíní, a beautiful spot near the +Wangtu bridge, where the Hindustan-Tibet road crosses to the left bank. +A little below Chíní the Báspa flows in from the southeast. The fall +between the source and Chíní is from 15,000 to 7500 feet. There is +magnificent cliff scenery at Rogí in this reach. Forty miles below Chíní +the capital of Bashahr, Rámpur, on the south bank, is only 3300 feet +above sea level. There is a second bridge at Rámpur, and from about this +point the river becomes the boundary of Bashahr and Kulu, the route to +which from Simla passes over the Lurí bridge (2650 feet) below Nárkanda. +Beyond Lurí the Sutlej runs among low hills through several of the Simla +Hill States. It pierces the Siwáliks<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> at the Hoshyárpur border and then +turns to the south, maintaining that trend till Rúpar and the head-works +of the Sirhind canal are reached. For the next hundred miles to the Biás +junction the general direction is west. Above the Harike ferry the +Sutlej again turns, and flows steadily, though with many windings, to +the south-west till it joins the Chenáb at the south corner of the +Multán district. There are railway bridges at Phillaur, Ferozepur, and +Adamwáhan. In the plains the Sutlej districts are—on the right bank +Hoshyárpur, Jalandhar, Lahore, and Montgomery, and on the left Ambála, +Ludhiána and Ferozepur. Below Ferozepur the river divides Montgomery and +Multán from Baháwalpur (left bank). The Sutle; has a course of 900 +miles, and a large catchment area in the hills. Notwithstanding the +heavy toll taken by the Sirhind canal, its floods spread pretty far in +Jalandhar and Ludhiána and below the Biás junction many monsoon canals +have been dug which inundate a large area in the lowlands of the +districts on either bank and of Baháwalpur. The dry bed of the Hakra, +which can be traced through Baháwalpur, Bikaner, and Sindh, formerly +carried the waters of the Sutlej to the sea.</p> + +<p><b>The Ghagar and the Sarusti.</b>—The Ghagar, once a tributary of the Hakra, +rises within the Sirmúr State in the hills to the east of Kálka. A few +miles south of Kálka it crosses a narrow neck of the Ambála district, +and the bridge on the Ambála-Kalka railway is in this section. The rest +of its course, till it loses itself in the sands of Bikaner, is chiefly +in Patiála and the Karnál and Hissár districts. It is joined by the Umla +torrent in Karnál and lower down the Sarustí unites with it in Patiála +just beyond the Karnál border. It is hard to believe that the Sarustí of +to-day is the famous Sarasvatí of the Vedas, though the little +ditch-like channel that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> bears the name certainly passes beside the +sacred sites of Thanesar and Pehowa. A small sandy torrent bearing the +same name rises in the low hills in the north-east of the Ambála +district, but it is doubtful if its waters, which finally disappear into +the ground, ever reach the Thanesar channel. That seems rather to +originate in the overflow of a rice swamp in the plains, and in the cold +weather the bed is usually dry. In fact, till the Sarustí receives above +Pehowa the floods of the Márkanda torrent, it is a most insignificant +stream. The Márkanda, when in flood, carries a large volume of water, +and below the junction the small channel of the Sarustí cannot carry the +tribute received, which spreads out into a shallow lake called the +Sainsa <i>jhíl</i>. This has been utilized for the supply of the little +Sarustí canal, which is intended to do the work formerly effected in a +rude way by throwing <i>bands</i> or embankments across the bed of the +stream, and forcing the water over the surrounding lands. The same +wasteful form of irrigation was used on a large scale on the Ghagar and +is still practised on its upper reaches. Lower down earthen <i>bands</i> have +been superceded by a masonry weir at Otu in the Hissár district. The +northern and southern Ghagar canals, which irrigate lands in Hissár and +Bikaner, take off from this weir.</p> + +<p><b>Action of Torrents.</b>—The Ghagar is large enough to exhibit all the three +stages which a <i>cho</i> or torrent of intermittent flow passes through. +Such a stream begins in the hills with a well-defined boulder-strewn +bed, which is never dry. Reaching the plains the bed of a cho becomes a +wide expanse of white sand, hardly below the level of the adjoining +country, with a thread of water passing down it in the cold weather. But +from time to time in the rainy season the channel is full from bank to +bank and the waters spill far and wide over the fields. Sudden spates +sometimes sweep away men and cattle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> before they can get across. If, as +in Hoshyárpur, the <i>chos</i> flow into a rich plain from hills composed of +friable sandstone and largely denuded of tree-growth, they are in their +second stage most destructive. After long delay an Act was passed in +1900, which gives the government large powers for the protection of +trees in the Siwáliks and the reclamation of torrent beds in the plains. +The process of recovery cannot be rapid, but a measure of success has +already been attained. It must not be supposed that the action of <i>chos</i> +in this second stage is uniformly bad. Some carry silt as well as sand, +and the very light loam which the great Márkanda <i>cho</i> has spread over +the country on its banks is worth much more to the farmer than the stiff +clay it has overlaid. Many <i>chos</i> do not pass into the third stage, when +all the sand has been dropped, and the bed shrinks into a narrow +ditch-like channel with steep clay banks. The inundations of torrents +like the Degh and the Ghagar after this stage is reached convert the +soil into a stiff impervious clay, where flood-water will lie for weeks +without being absorbed into the soil. In Karnál the wretched and +fever-stricken tract between the Ghagar and the Sarustí known as the +Nailí is of this character.</p> + +<p><b>The Jamna.</b>—The Jamna is the Yamuna of Sanskrit writers. Ptolemy's and +Pliny's versions, Diamouna and Jomanes, do not deviate much from the +original. It rises in the Kumáon Himálaya, and, where it first meets the +frontier of the Simla Hill States, receives from the north a large +tributary called the Tons. Henceforth, speaking broadly, the Jamna is +the boundary of the Panjáb and the United Provinces. On the Panjáb bank +are from north to south the Sirmúr State, Ambála, Karnál, Rohtak, Delhi, +and Gurgáon. The river leaves the Panjáb where Gurgáon and the district +of Mathra, which belongs to the United Provinces, meet, and finally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +falls into the Ganges at Allahábád. North of Mathra Delhi is the only +important town on its banks. The Jamna is crossed by railway bridges +between Delhi and Meerut and between Ambála and Saháranpur.</p> + +<p><b>Changes in Rivers.</b>—Allusion has already been made to the changes which +the courses of Panjáb rivers are subject to in the plains. The Indus +below Kálabágh once ran through the heart of what is now the Thal +desert. We know that in 1245 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> Multán was in the Sind Ságar Doáb +between the Indus and the united streams of the Jhelam, Chenáb, and +Ráví. The Biás had then no connection with the Sutlej, but ran in a bed +of its own easily to be traced to-day in the Montgomery and Multán +districts, and joined the Indus between Multán and Uch. The Sutlej was +still flowing in the Hakra bed. Indeed its junction with the Biás near +Harike, which probably led to a complete change in the course of the +Biás, seems only to have taken place within the last 150 years<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p> + + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES</h3> + + +<p><b>Extent of Geological Record.</b>—Although the main part of the Panjáb plain +is covered by a mantle of comparatively recent alluvium, the provinces +described in this book display a more complete record of Indian +geological history than any other similar area in the country. The +variety is so great that no systematic or sufficient description could +be attempted in a short chapter, and it is not possible, therefore, to +do more in these few pages than give brief sketches of the patches of +unusual interest.</p> + +<p><b>Aravallí System.</b>—In the southern and south-eastern districts of the +Panjáb there are exposures of highly folded and metamorphosed rocks +which belong to the most ancient formations in India. These occupy the +northern end of the Aravallí hills, which form but a relic of what must +have been at one time a great mountain range, stretching roughly +south-south-west through Rájputána into the Bombay Presidency. The +northern ribs of the Aravallí series disappear beneath alluvial cover in +the Delhi district, but the rocks still underlie the plains to the west +and north-west, their presence being revealed by the small promontories +that peep through the alluvium near the Chenáb river, standing up as +small hills near Chiniot in the Sháhpur, Jhang, and Lyallpur districts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p> + +<p>The Salt Range in the Jhelam and Sháhpur districts, with a western +continuation in the Mianwálí district to and beyond the Indus, is the +most interesting part of the Panjáb to the geologist. It contains +notable records of three distinct eras in geological history. In +association with the well-known beds of rock-salt, which are being +extensively mined at Kheora, occur the most ancient fossiliferous +formations known in India, corresponding in age with the middle and +lower part of the Cambrian system of Europe. These very ancient strata +immediately overlie the red marls and associated rock-salt beds, and it +is possible that they have been thrust over bodily to occupy this +position, as we have no parallel elsewhere for the occurrence of great +masses of salt in formation older than the Cambrian.</p> + +<p>The second fragment of geological history preserved in the Salt Range is +very much younger, beginning with rocks which were formed in the later +part of the Carboniferous period. The most remarkable feature in this +fragment is a boulder-bed, resting unconformably on the Cambrian strata +and including boulders of various shapes and sizes, which are often +faceted and striated in a way indicative of glacial action. Several of +the boulders belong to rocks of a peculiar and unmistakable character, +such as are found <i>in situ</i> on the western flanks of the Aravallí Range, +some 750 miles to the south. The glacial conditions which gave rise to +these boulder-beds were presumably contemporaneous with those that +produced the somewhat similar formation lying at the base of the great +coal-bearing system in the Indian peninsula. The glacial boulder-bed +thus offers indirect evidence as to the age of the Indian coal-measures, +for immediately above this bed in the Salt Range there occur sandstones +containing fossils which have affinities with the Upper Carboniferous +formations of Australia,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> and on these sandstones again there lie +alternations of shales and limestones containing an abundance of fossils +that are characteristic of the Permo-Carboniferous rocks of Russia. +These are succeeded by an apparently conformable succession of beds of +still younger age, culminating in a series of shales, sandstones, and +limestones of unmistakably Triassic age.</p> + +<p>There is then an interruption in the record, and the next younger series +preserved occurs in the western part of the Salt Range as well as in the +hills beyond the Indus. This formation is of Upper Jurassic age, +corresponding to the well-known beds of marine origin preserved in +Cutch. Then follows again a gap in the record, and the next most +interesting series of formations found in the Salt Range become of great +importance from the economic as well as from the purely scientific point +of view; these are the formations of Tertiary age.</p> + +<p>The oldest of the Tertiary strata include a prominent limestone +containing Nummulitic fossils, which are characteristic of these Lower +Tertiary beds throughout the world. Here, as in many parts of +North-Western India, the Nummulitic limestones are associated with coal +which has been largely worked. The country between the Salt Range +plateau and the hilly region away to the north is covered by a great +stretch of comparatively young Tertiary formations, which were laid down +in fresh water after the sea had been driven back finally from this +region. The incoming of fresh-water conditions was inaugurated by the +formation of beds which are regarded as equivalent in age to those known +as the Upper Nari in Sind and Eastern Baluchistán, but the still later +deposits, belonging to the well-known Siwálik series, are famous on +account of the great variety and large size of many of the vertebrate +fossil remains which they have yielded. In these beds to the north<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> of +the Salt Range there have been found remains of Dinotherium, forms +related to the ancestors of the giraffe and various other mammals, some +of them, like the Sivatherium, Mastodon, and Stegodon, being animals of +great size. On the northern side of the Salt Range three fairly +well-defined divisions of the Siwálik series have been recognised, each +being conspicuously fossiliferous—a feature that is comparatively rare +in the Siwálik hills further to the south-east, where these rocks were +first studied. The Siwálik series of the Salt Range are thus so well +developed that this area might be conveniently regarded as the type +succession for the purpose of correlating isolated fragmentary +occurrences of the same general series in northern and western India. To +give an idea as to the age of these rocks, it will be sufficient to +mention that the middle division of the series corresponds roughly to +the well-known deposits of Pikermi and Samos.</p> + +<p><b>Kashmir</b> deserves special mention, as it is a veritable paradise for the +geologist. Of the variety of problems that it presents one might mention +the petrological questions connected with the intrusion of the great +masses of granite, and their relation to the slates and associated +metamorphic rocks. Of fossiliferous systems there is a fine display of +material ranging in age from Silurian to Upper Trias, and additional +interest is added by the long-continued volcanic eruptions of the +"Panjál trap." Students of recent phenomena have at their disposal +interesting problems in physiography, including a grand display of +glaciers, and the extensive deposits of so-called <i>karewas</i>, which +appear to have been formed in drowned valleys, where the normal +fluviatile conditions are modified by those characteristic of lakes. The +occurrence of sapphires in Zánskar gives the State also an interest to +the mineralogist and connoisseur of gem-stones.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p> + +<p>Of this kaleidoscopic assemblage of questions the ones of most immediate +interest are connected with the Silurian-Trias succession in the Kashmír +valley, for here we have a connecting-link between the marine formations +of the Salt Range area and those which are preserved in greater +perfection in Spití and other parts of the Tibetan highlands, stretching +away to the south-east at the back of the great range of crystalline +snow-covered peaks.</p> + +<p>In this interesting part of Kashmír the most important feature to Indian +geologists is the occurrence of plant remains belonging to genera +identical with those that occur in the lower part of the great +coal-bearing formation of Peninsular India, known as the Gondwána +system. Until these discoveries were made in Kashmír about ten years ago +the age of the base of the Gondwánas was estimated only on indirect +evidence, partly due to the assumption that glacial conditions in the +Salt Range and those at the base of the Gondwánas were contemporaneous, +and partly due to analogy with the coal measures of Australia and South +Africa. In Kashmír the characteristic plant remains of the Lower +Gondwánas are found associated with marine fossils in great abundance, +and these permit of a correlation of the strata with the upper part of +the Carboniferous system of the European standard stratigraphical scale.</p> + +<p>Kashmír seems to have been near the estuary of one of the great rivers +that formerly flowed over the ancient continent of <i>Gondwánaland</i> (when +India and South Africa formed parts of one continental mass) into the +great Eurasian Ocean known as <i>Tethys</i>. As the deposits formed in this +great ocean give us the principal part of our data for forming a +standard stratigraphical scale, the plants which were carried out to sea +become witnesses of the kind of flora that flourished during the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> main +Indian coal period; they thus enable us with great precision to fix the +position of the fresh-water Gondwánas in comparison with the marine +succession.</p> + +<p><b>Spití.</b>—With á brief reference to one more interesting patch among the +geological records of this remarkable region, space will force us to +pass on to consideration of minerals of economic value. The line of +snow-covered peaks, composed mainly of crystalline rocks and forming a +core to the Himálaya in a way analogous to the granitic core of the +Alps, occupies what was once apparently the northern shore of +Gondwánaland, and to the north of it there stretched the great ocean of +Tethys, covering the central parts of Asia and Europe, one of its +shrunken relics being the present Mediterranean Sea. The bed of this +ocean throughout many geological ages underwent gradual depression and +received the sediments brought down by the rivers from the continent +which stretched away to the south. The sedimentary deposits thus formed +near the shore-line or further out in deep water attained a thickness of +well over 20,000 feet, and have been studied in the <i>tahsíl</i> of Spití, +on the northern border of Kumáon, and again on the eastern Tibetan +plateau to the north of Darjeeling. A reference to the formations +preserved in Spití may be regarded as typical of the geological history +and the conditions under which these formations were produced.</p> + +<p><b>Succession of Fossiliferous Beds.</b>—In age the fossiliferous beds range +from Cambrian right through to the Tertiary epoch; between these +extremes no single period was passed without leaving its records in some +part of the great east-to-west Tibetan basin. At the base of the whole +succession there lies a series of schists which have been largely +metamorphosed, and on these rest the oldest of the fossiliferous series, +which, on account of their occurring in the region of snow, has been +named the <i>Haimanta system</i>. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> upper part of the Haimanta system has +been found to contain the characteristic trilobites of the Cambrian +period of Europe. Over this system lie beds which have yielded in +succession Ordovician and Silurian fossils, forming altogether a compact +division which has been distinguished locally as the <i>Muth system</i>. Then +follows the so-called <i>Kanáwar system</i>, which introduces Devonian +conditions, followed by fossils characteristic of the well-known +mountain limestone of Europe.</p> + +<p>Then occurs a break in the succession which varies in magnitude in +different localities, but appears to correspond to great changes in the +physical geography which widely affect the Indian region. This break +corresponds roughly to the upper part of the Carboniferous system of +Europe, and has been suggested as a datum line for distinguishing in +India an older group of fossiliferous systems below (formed in an area +that has been distinguished by the name <i>Dravidian</i>), from the younger +group above, which has been distinguished by the name <i>Aryan</i>.</p> + +<p>During the periods that followed this interruption the bed of the great +Eurasian Ocean seems to have subsided persistently though +intermittently. As the various sediments accumulated the exact position +of the shore-line must have changed to some extent to give rise to the +conditions favourable for the formation at one time of limestone, at +another of shale and at other times of sandy deposits. The whole column +of beds, however, seems to have gone on accumulating without any folding +movements, and they are consequently now found lying apparently in +perfect conformity stage upon stage, from those that are Permian in age +at the base, right through the Mesozoic group, till the time when +Tertiary conditions were inaugurated and the earth movements began which +ultimately drove back the ocean and raised the bed, with its accumulated +load<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> of sediments, into the great folds that now form the Himálayan +Range. This great mass of Aryan strata includes an enormous number of +fossil remains, giving probably a more complete record of the gradual +changes that came over the marine fauna of Tethys than any other area of +the kind known. One must pass over the great number of interesting +features still left unmentioned, including the grand architecture of the +Sub-Himálaya and the diversity of formations in different parts of the +Frontier Province; for the rest of the available space must be devoted +to a brief reference to the minerals of value.</p> + +<p><b>Rock-salt</b>, which occurs in abundance, is possibly the most important +mineral in this area. The deposits most largely worked are those which +occur in the well-known Salt Range, covering parts of the districts of +Jhelam, Sháhpur, and Mianwálí. Near the village of Kheora the main seam, +which is being worked in the Mayo mines, has an aggregate thickness of +550 feet, of which five seams, with a total thickness of 275 feet, +consist of salt pure enough to be placed on the table with no more +preparation than mere pulverising. The associated beds are impregnated +with earth, and in places there occur thin layers of potash and +magnesian salts. In this area salt quarrying was practised for an +unknown period before the time of Akbar, and was continued in a +primitive fashion until it came under the control of the British +Government with the occupation of the Panjáb in 1849. In 1872 systematic +mining operations were planned, and the general line of work has been +continued ever since, with an annual output of roughly 100,000 tons.</p> + +<p>Open quarries for salt are developed a short distance to the +east-north-east of Kálabágh on the Indus, and similar open work is +practised near Kohát in the North<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> West Frontier Province, where the +quantity of salt may be regarded as practically inexhaustible. At +Bahádur Khel the salt lies at the base of the Tertiary series, and can +be traced for a distance of about eight miles with an exposed thickness +of over 1000 feet, sometimes standing up as hills of solid salt above +the general level of the plains. In this area the production is +naturally limited by want of transport and the small local demand, the +total output from the quarries being about 16,000 tons per annum. A +small quantity of salt (generally about 4000 tons a year), is raised +also from open quarries in the Mandí State, where the rock-salt beds, +distinctly impure and earthy, lie near the junction between Tertiary +formations and the older unfossiliferous groups.</p> + +<p><b>Coal</b> occurs at numerous places in association with the Nummulitic +limestones of Lower Tertiary age, in the Panjáb, in the North West +Frontier Province, and in the Jammu division of Kashmír. The largest +output has been obtained from the Salt Range, where mines have been +opened up on behalf of the North Western Railway. The mines at Dandot in +the Jhelam district have considerable fluctuations in output, which, +however, for many years ranged near 50,000 tons. These mines, having +been worked at a financial loss, were finally abandoned by the Railway +Company in 1911, but a certain amount of work is still being continued +by local contractors. At Bháganwála, 19 miles further east, in the +adjoining district of Sháhpur, coal was also worked for many years for +the North Western State Railway, but the maximum output in any one year +never exceeded 14,000 tons, and in 1900, owing to the poor quality of +material obtained, the collieries were closed down. Recently, small +outcrop workings have been developed in the same formation further west +on the southern scarp of the Salt Range at Tejuwála in the Sháhpur +district.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Gold</b> to a small amount is washed from the gravel of the Indus and some +other rivers by native workers, and large concessions have been granted +for systematic dredging, but these enterprises have not yet reached the +commercially paying stage.</p> + +<p><b>Other Metals.</b>—Prospecting has been carried on at irregular intervals in +Kulu and along the corresponding belt of schistose rocks further west in +Kashmír and Chitrál. The copper ores occur as sulphides along certain +bands in the chloritic and micaceous schists, similar in composition and +probably in age to those worked further east in Kumáon, in Nipál, and in +Sikkim. In Lahul near the Shigrí glacier there is a lode containing +<b>antimony</b> sulphide with ores of <b>zinc</b> and <b>lead</b>, which would almost +certainly be opened up and developed but for the difficulty of access +and cost of transport to the only valuable markets.</p> + +<p><b>Petroleum</b> springs occur among the Tertiary formations of the Panjáb and +Biluchistán, and a few thousand gallons of oil are raised annually. +Prospecting operations have been carried on vigorously during the past +two or three years, but no large supplies have so far been proved. The +principal oil-supplies of Burma and Assam have been obtained from rocks +of Miocene age, like those of Persia and the Caspian region, but the +most promising "shows" in North West India have been in the older +Nummulitic formations, and the oil is thus regarded by some experts as +the residue of the material which has migrated from the Miocene beds +that probably at one time covered the Nummulitic formations, but have +since been removed by the erosive action of the atmosphere.</p> + +<p><b>Alum</b> is manufactured from the pyritous shales of the Mianwálí district, +the annual output being generally about 200 to 300 tons. Similar shales +containing pyrites are known to occur in other parts of this area, and +possibly the industry might be considerably extended, as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> annual +requirements of India, judged by the import returns, exceed ten times +the native production of alum.</p> + +<p><b>Borax</b> is produced in Ladákh and larger quantities are imported across +the frontier from Tibet. In the early summer one frequently meets herds +of sheep being driven southwards across the Himalayan passes, each sheep +carrying a couple of small saddle-bags laden with borax or salt, which +is bartered in the Panjáb bazars for Indian and foreign stores for the +winter requirements of the snow-blocked valleys beyond the frontier.</p> + +<p><b>Sapphires.</b>—The sapphires of Zánskar have been worked at intervals since +the discovery of the deposit in 1881, and some of the finest stones in +the gem market have been obtained from this locality, where work is, +however, difficult on account of the great altitude and the difficulty +of access from the plains.</p> + +<p><b>Limestone.</b>—Large deposits of Nummulitic limestone are found in the +older Tertiary formations of North-West India. It yields a pure lime and +is used in large quantities for building purposes. The constant +association of these limestones with shale beds, and their frequent +association with coal, naturally suggest their employment for the +manufacture of cement; and special concessions have recently been given +by the Panjáb Government with a view of encouraging the development of +the industry. The nodular impure limestone, known generally by the name +of <i>kankar</i>, contains sufficient clay to give it hydraulic characters +when burnt, and much cement is thus manufactured. The varying +composition of <i>kankar</i> naturally results in a product of irregular +character, and consequently cement so made can replace Portland cement +only for certain purposes.</p> + +<p><b>Slate</b> is quarried in various places for purely local use. In the Kángra +valley material of very high quality is obtained and consequently +secures a wide distribution,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> limited, however, by competition with +cheaply made tiles.</p> + +<p><b>Gypsum</b> occurs in large quantities in association with the rock-salt of +the Salt Range, but the local demand is small. There are also beds of +potash and magnesian salts in the same area, but their value and +quantity have not been thoroughly proved.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig16a" id="fig16a"></a> +<img src="images/fig016a1.jpg" width="600" height="496" alt="January to February." title="" /> +<span class="caption">January to February.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/fig016a2.jpg" width="600" height="448" alt="March to May" title="" /> +<span class="caption">March to May</span> +</div> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig16b" id="fig16b"></a> +<img src="images/fig016b1.jpg" width="600" height="448" alt="June to September" title="" /> +<span class="caption">June to September</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/fig016b2.jpg" width="600" height="460" alt="October to December." title="" /> +<span class="caption">October to December.</span> +</div> + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Normal Rainfall."> +<tr><td align='center' colspan="2"><i>Normal Rainfall.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I. N.W.F. Province.</td><td align='left'>II. Kashmir.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>III. Panjáb E. and N.</td><td align='left'>IV. Panjáb S.W.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<h4>Fig. 16. Rainfall of different Seasons.</h4> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p> + + + + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>CLIMATE</h3> + + +<p><b>Types of Climate.</b>—The climate of the Panjáb plains is determined by +their distance from the sea and the existence of formidable mountain +barriers to the north and west. The factor of elevation makes the +climate of the Himalayan tracts very different from that of the plains. +Still more striking is the contrast between the Indian Himalayan climate +and the Central Asian Trans-Himalayan climate of Spití, Lahul, and +Ladákh.</p> + +<p><b>Zones.</b>—A broad division into six zones may be recognised:</p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="A broad division into six zones"> +<tr><td align='right'>A 1. Trans-Himalayan.</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>B 2. Himalayan.</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>C. Plains</td><td align='left'>3. North Western.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>4. Submontane.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>5. Central and South Eastern.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>6. South Western.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><b>Trans-Himalayan Climate.</b>—Spití, Lahul, and Ladákh are outside the +meteorological influences which affect the rest of the Indian Empire. +The lofty ranges of the Himálaya interpose an almost insurmountable +barrier between them and the clouds of the monsoon. The rainfall is +extraordinarily small, and, considering the elevation of the inhabited +parts, 10,000 to 14,000 feet, the snowfall there is not heavy. The air +is intensely dry and clear, and the daily and seasonal range of +temperature is extreme. Leh, the capital of Ladákh (11,500 feet), has an +average<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> rainfall (including snow) of about 3 inches. The mean +temperature is 43° Fahr., varying from 19° in January to 64° in July. +But these figures give no idea of the rigours of the severe but healthy +climate. The daily range is from 25 to 30 degrees, or double what we are +accustomed to in England. Once 17° below zero was recorded. In the rare +dry clear atmosphere the power of the solar rays is extraordinary. +"Rocks exposed to the sun may be too hot to lay the hand upon at the +same time that it is freezing in the shade."</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/fig017tb.jpg" width="500" height="494" alt="Fig. 17. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for January." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/fig017.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 17. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for January.</span> + +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig018tb" id="fig018tb"></a> +<img src="images/fig018tb.jpg" width="500" height="507" alt="Fig. 18. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for July." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/fig018.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 18. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for July.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>The Indian Zones—Meteorological factors.</b>—The distribution of pressure +in India, determined mainly by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> changes of temperature, and itself +determining the direction of the winds and the character of the weather, +is shown graphically in figures 17 and 18. The winter or north-east +monsoon does not penetrate into the Panjáb, where light westernly and +northernly winds prevail during the cold season. What rain is received +is due to land storms originating beyond the western frontier. The +branch of the summer or south-west monsoon which chiefly affects the +Panjáb is that which blows up the Bay of Bengal. The rain-clouds +striking the Eastern Himálaya are deflected to the west and forced up +the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> Gangetic plain by south-westernly winds. The lower ranges of the +Panjáb Himálaya receive in this way very heavy downpours. The rain +extends into the plains, but exhausts itself and dies away pretty +rapidly to the south and west. The Bombay branch of the monsoon mostly +spends itself on the Gháts and in the Deccan. But a part of it +penetrates from time to time to the south-east Panjáb, and, if it is +sucked into the Bay current, the result is widespread rain.</p> + +<p><b>Himalayan Zone.</b>—The impressions which English people get of the climate +of the Himálaya, or in Indian phrase "the Hills," are derived mainly +from stations like Simla and Murree perched at a height of from 6500 to +7500 feet on the outer ranges. The data of meteorologists are mainly +taken from the same localities. Places between 8000 and 10,000 feet in +height and further from the plains enjoy a finer climate, being both +cooler and drier in summer. But they are less accessible, and weakly +persons would find the greater rarity of the air trying.</p> + +<p>In the first fortnight of April the plains become disagreeably warm, and +it is well to take European children to the Hills. The Panjáb Government +moves to Simla in the first fortnight of May. By that time Simla is +pretty warm in the middle of the day, but the nights are pleasant. The +mean temperature of the 24 hours in May and June is 65° or 66°, the mean +maximum and minimum being 78° and 59°. Thunderstorms with or without +hail are not uncommon in April, May, and June. In a normal year the +monsoon clouds drift up in the end of June, and the next three months +are "the Rains." Usually it does not rain either all day or every day; +but sometimes for weeks together Simla is smothered in a blanket of grey +mist. Normally the rain comes in bursts with longer or shorter breaks +between. About<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> the third week of September the rains often cease quite +suddenly, the end being usually proclaimed by a thunderstorm. Next +morning one wakes to a new heaven and a new earth, a perfectly cloudless +sky, and clean, crisp, cool air. This ideal weather lasts for the next +three months. Even in December the days are made pleasant by bright +sunshine, and the range of temperature is much less than in the plains. +In the end of December or beginning of January the night thermometer +often falls lower at Ambála and Ráwalpindí than at Simla and Murree. +After Christmas the weather becomes broken, and in January and February +falls of snow occur. It is a disagreeable time, and English residents +are glad to descend to the plains. In March also the weather is often +unsettled. The really heavy falls of snow occur at levels much higher +than Simla. These remarks apply <i>mutatis mutandis</i> to Dharmsála, +Dalhousie, and Murree. Owing to its position right under a lofty +mountain wall Dharmsála is a far wetter place than Simla. Murree gets +its monsoon later, and the summer rainfall is a good deal lighter. In +winter it has more snow, being nearer the source of origin of the +storms. Himalayan valleys at an elevation of 5000 feet, such as the Vale +of Kashmír, have a pleasant climate. The mean temperature of Srínagar +(5255 feet) varies from 33° in January to 75° in July, when it is +unpleasantly hot, and Europeans often move to Gulmarg. Kashmír has a +heavy snowfall even in the Jhelam valley. Below 4000 feet, especially in +confined river valleys the Himalayan climate is often disagreeably hot +and stuffy.</p> + +<p><b>Climate of the Plains.</b>—The course of the seasons is the same in the +plains. The jaded resident finds relief when the rains cease in the end +of September. The days are still warm, but the skies are clear, the air<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +dry, and the nights cool. November is rainless and in every way a +pleasant month. The clouds begin to gather before Christmas, but rain +often holds off till January. Pleasant though the early months of the +cold weather are, they lay traps for the unwary. In October and November +the daily range of temperature is very large, exceeding 30°, and the +fall at sunset very sudden. Care is needed to avoid a chill and the +fever that follows. Clear and dry though the air is, the blue of the +skies is pale owing to a light dust haze in the upper atmosphere. For +the same reason the Himalayan snows except after rain are veiled from +dwellers in the plains at a distance of 30 miles from the foot-hills. +The air in these months before the winter rains is wonderfully still. In +the three months after Christmas the Panjáb is the pathway of a series +of small storms from the west, preceded by close weather and occurring +usually at intervals of a few weeks. After a day or two of wet weather +the sky clears, and the storm is followed by a great drop in the +temperature. The traveller who shivers after a January rain-storm finds +it hard to believe that the Panjáb plain is a part of the hottest region +of the Old World which stretches from the Sahára to Delhi. If he had to +spend the period from May to July there he would have small doubts on +the subject. The heat begins to be unpleasant in April, when hot +westernly winds prevail. An occasional thunderstorm with hail relieves +the strain for a little. The warmest period of the year is May and June. +But the intense dry heat is healthier and to many less trying than the +mugginess of the rainy season. The dust-storms which used to be common +have become rarer and lighter with the spread of canal irrigation in the +western Panjáb. The rains ought to break at Delhi in the end of June and +at Lahore ten days or a fortnight later. There is often a long break +when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> the climate is particularly trying. The nights are terribly hot. +The outer air is then less stifling than that of the house, and there is +the chance of a little comparative coolness shortly before dawn. Many +therefore prefer to sleep on the roof or in the verandah. September, +when the rains slacken, is a muggy, unpleasant, and unhealthy month. But +in the latter half of it cooler nights give promise of a better time.</p> + +<p><b>Special features of Plain Zones.</b>—The submontane zone has the most +equable and the pleasantest climate in the plains. It has a rainfall of +from 30 to 40 inches, five-sevenths or more of which belongs to the +monsoon period (June-September). The north-western area has a longer and +colder winter and spring. In the end of December and in January the keen +dry cold is distinctly trying. The figures in Statement I, for +Ráwalpindí and Pesháwar, are not very characteristic of the zone as a +whole. The average of the rainfall figures, 13 inches for Pesháwar and +32 for Ráwalpindí, would give a truer result. The monsoon rains come +later and are much less abundant than in the submontane zone. Their +influence is very feeble in the western and south-western part of the +area. On the other hand the winter rains, are heavier than in any other +part of the province. Delhi and Lahore represent the extreme conditions +of the central and south-eastern plains. The latter is really on the +edge of the dry south-western area. The eastern districts of the zone +have a shorter and less severe cold weather than the western, an earlier +and heavier monsoon, but scantier winter rains. The total rainfall +varies from 16 to 30 inches. The south-western zone, with a rainfall of +from 5 to 15 inches, is the driest part of India proper except northern +Sindh and western Rájputána. Neither monsoon current affects it much. At +Multán there are only about fifteen days in the whole year on which any +rain falls.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3>HERBS, SHRUBS, AND TREES</h3> + + +<p><b>Affinities of Panjáb Flora.</b>—It is hopeless to describe except in the +broadest outline the flora of a tract covering an area of 250,000 square +miles and ranging in altitude from a few hundred feet to a height 10,000 +feet above the limit of flowering plants. The nature of the vegetation +of any tract depends on rainfall and temperature, and only secondarily +on soil. A desert is a tract with a dry substratum and dry air, great +heat during some part of the year, and bright sunshine. The soil may be +loam or sand, and as regards vegetation a sandy desert is the worst +owing to the rapid drying up of the subsoil after rain. In the third of +the maps appended to Schimper's <i>Plant Geography</i> by far the greater +part of the area dealt with in this book is shown as part of the vast +desert extending from the Sahára to Manchuria. Seeing that the monsoon +penetrates into the province and that it is traversed by large snow-fed +rivers the Panjáb, except in parts of the extreme western and +south-western districts, is not a desert like the Sahára or Gobí, and +Schimper recognised this by marking most of the area as semi-desert. +Still the flora outside the Hills and the submontane tract is +predominantly of the desert type, being xerophilous or +drought-resisting. The adaptations which enable plants to survive in a +tract deficient in moisture are of various kinds. The roots may be +greatly developed to enable them to tap the subsoil moisture,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> the +leaves may be reduced in size, converted into thorns, or entirely +dispensed with, in order to check rapid evaporation, they may be covered +with silky or felted hairs, a modification which produces the same +result, or their internal tissue may be succulent or mucilaginous. In +the plants of the Panjáb plains there is no difficulty in recognising +these features of a drought-resisting flora. Schimper's map shows in the +north-east of the area a wedge thrust in between the plains' desert and +the dry elevated alpine desert cut off from the influence of the monsoon +by the lofty barrier of the Inner Himálaya. This consists of two parts, +monsoon forest, corresponding roughly with the Himalayan area Cis Ráví +above the 5000 feet contour, and dry woodland of a semi-tropical stamp, +consisting, of the adjoining foot-hills and submontane tract. This wedge +is in fact treated as part of the zone, which in the map (after Drude) +prefixed to Willis' <i>Manual and Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and +Ferns</i>, is called Indo-Malayan, and which embraces the Malayan +Archipelago and part of North Australia, Burma, and practically the +whole of India except the Panjáb, Sindh, and Rájputána. In Drude's map +the three countries last mentioned are included in a large zone called +"the Mediterranean and Orient." This is a very broad classification, and +in tracing the relationships of the Panjáb flora it is better to treat +the desert area of North Africa, which in Tripoli and Egypt extends to +the coast, apart from the Mediterranean zone. It is a familiar fact +that, as we ascend lofty mountains like those of the Himálaya, we pass +through belts or regions of vegetation of different types. The air +steadily becomes rarer and therefore colder, especially at night, and at +the higher levels there is a marked reduction in the rainfall. When the +alpine region, which in the Himálaya may be taken as beginning at 11,000 +feet, is reached,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> the plants have as a rule bigger roots, shorter +stems, smaller leaves, but often larger and more brilliantly coloured +flowers. These are adaptations of a drought-resisting kind.</p> + +<p><b>Regions.</b>—In this sketch it will suffice to divide the tract into six +regions:</p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="65%" summary="Regions."> +<tr><td align='left'>Plains</td><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Panjáb dry plain.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'>Salt Range and North West Plateau, from the frontier to Pabbí Hills.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>3.</td><td align='left'>Submontane Hills on east bank of Jhelam.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hills</td><td align='right'>4.</td><td align='left'>Sub-Himálaya, 2000-5000 feet.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>5.</td><td align='left'>Temperate Himálaya, 5000-11,000 feet.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>6.</td><td align='left'>Alpine Himálaya, 11,000-16,000 feet.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>Of course a flora does not fit itself into compartments, and the changes +of type are gradual.</p> + +<p><b>Panjáb Dry Plain.</b>—The affinities of the flora of the Panjáb plains +south of the Salt Range and the submontane tract are, especially in the +west, with the desert areas of Persia, Arabia, and North Africa, though +the spread of canal irrigation is modifying somewhat the character of +the vegetation. The soil and climate are unsuited to the growth of large +trees, but adapted to scrub jungle of a drought-resisting type, which at +one time covered very large areas from the Jamna to the Jhelam. The soil +on which this sparse scrub grew is a good strong loam, but the rainfall +was too scanty and the water-level too deep to admit of much cultivation +outside the valleys of the rivers till the labours of canal engineers +carried their waters to the uplands. East of the Sutlej the Bikaner +desert thrusts northwards a great wedge of sandy land which occupies a +large area in Baháwalpur, Hissár, Ferozepur, and Patiála. Soil of this +description is free of forest growth, and the monsoon rainfall in this +part of the province is sufficient to encourage an easy, but very +precarious, cultivation of autumn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> millets and pulses. The great Thal +desert to the south of the Salt Range between the valleys of the Jhelam +and the Indus has a similar soil, but the scantiness of the rainfall has +confined cultivation within much narrower limits. Between the Sutlej and +the Jhelam the uplands between the river valleys are known locally as +Bárs. The largest of the truly indigenous trees of the Panjáb plains are +the <i>farásh</i> (Tamarix articulata) and the thorny <i>kíkar</i> (Acacia +Arabica). The latter yields excellent wood for agricultural implements, +and fortunately it grows well in sour soils. Smaller thorny acacias are +the <i>nímbar</i> or <i>raunj</i> (Acacia leucophloea) and the <i>khair</i> (Acacia +Senegal). The dwarf tamarisk, <i>pilchí</i> or <i>jhao</i> (Tamarix dioica), grows +freely in moist sandy soils near rivers. The scrub jungle consists +mostly of <i>jand</i> (Prosopis spicigera), a near relation of the Acacias, +<i>jál</i> or <i>van</i> (Salvadora oleoides), and the coral-flowered <i>karíl</i> or +leafless caper (Capparis aphylla). All these show their desert +affinities, the <i>jand</i> by its long root and its thorns, the <i>jál</i> by its +small leathery leaves, and the <i>karíl</i> by the fact that it has managed +to dispense with leaves altogether. The <i>jand</i> is a useful little tree, +and wherever it grows the natural qualities of the soil are good. The +sweetish fruit of the <i>jál</i>, known as <i>pílu</i>, is liked by the people, +and in famines they will even eat the berries of the leafless caper. +Other characteristic plants of the Panjáb plains are under Leguminosae, +the <i>khip</i> (Crotalaria burhia), two Farsetias (<i>faríd kí búti</i>), and the +<i>jawása</i> or camel thorn (Alhagi camelorum), practically leafless, but +with very long and stout spines; under Capparidaceae several Cleomes, +species of Corchorus (Tiliaceae), under Zygophyllaceae three +Mediterranean genera, Tribulus, Zygophyllum, and Fagonia, under +Solanaceae several Solanums and Withanias, and various salsolaceous +Chenopods known as <i>lána</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig19" id="fig19"></a> +<img src="images/img019.jpg" width="600" height="461" alt="Fig. 19. Banian or Bor trees." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 19. Banian or Bor trees.</span> +</div> + +<p>In the sandier tracts the <i>ak</i> (Calotropis procera, N.O. +Asclepiadaceae), the <i>harmal</i> (Peganum harmala, N.O. Rutaceae), and the +colocynth gourd (Citrullus colocynthis, N.O. Cucurbitaceae), which, +owing to the size of its roots, manages to flourish in the sands of +African and Indian deserts, grow abundantly. Common weeds of cultivation +are Fumaria parviflora, a near relation of the English fumitory, Silene +conoidea, and two Spergulas (Caryophyllaceae), and Sisymbrium Irio +(Cruciferae). A curious little Orchid, Zeuxine sulcata, is found growing +among the grass on canal banks. The American yellow poppy, Argemone +Mexicana, a noxious weed, has unfortunately established itself widely in +the Panjáb plain. Two trees of the order Leguminosae, the <i>shisham</i> or +<i>tálí</i> (Dalbergia Sissoo) and the <i>siris</i> (Albizzia lebbek), are +commonly planted on Panjáb roads. The true home<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> of the former is in +river beds in the low hills or in ravines below the hills. But it is a +favourite tree on roads and near wells throughout the province, and +deservedly so, for it yields excellent timber. The <i>siris</i> on the other +hand is an untidy useless tree. The <i>kíkar</i> might be planted as a +roadside tree to a greater extent. Several species of figs, especially +the <i>pípal</i> (Ficus religiosa) and <i>bor</i> or banian (Ficus Indica) are +popular trees.</p> + +<p><b>Salt Range and North-West Plains.</b>—-Our second region may be taken as +extending from the Pabbí hills on the east of the Jhelam in Gujrát to +our administrative boundary beyond the Indus, its southern limit being +the Salt Range. Here the flora is of a distinctly Mediterranean type. +Poppies are as familiar in Ráwalpindi as they are in England or Italy, +and Hypecoum procumbens, a curious Italian plant of the same order, is +found in Attock. The abundance of Crucifers is also a Mediterranean +feature. Eruca sativa, the oil-seed known as <i>táramíra</i> or <i>jamián</i>, +which sows itself freely in waste land and may be found growing even on +railway tracks in the Ráwalpindí division, is an Italian and Spanish +weed. Malcolmia strigosa, which spreads a reddish carpet over the +ground, and Malcolmia Africana are common Crucifers near Ráwalpindí. The +latter is a Mediterranean species. The Salt Range genera Diplotaxis and +Moricandia are Italian, and the peculiar Notoceras Canariensis found in +Attock is also a native of the Canary Islands. Another order, +Boraginaceae, which is very prominent in the Mediterranean region, is +also important in the North-West Panjáb, though the showier plants of +the order are wanting. One curious Borage, Arnebia Griffithii, seems to +be purely Asiatic. It has five brown spots on its petals, which fade and +disappear in the noonday sunshine. These are supposed to be drops of +sweat which fell from Muhammad's forehead, hence the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> plant is called +<i>paighambarí phúl</i> or the prophet's flower. Among Composites Calendulas +and Carthamus oxyacantha or the <i>pohlí</i>, a near relation of the +Carthamus which yields the saffron dye, are abundant. Both are common +Mediterranean genera. Silybum Marianum, a handsome thistle with large +leaves mottled with white, extends from Britain to Ráwalpindí. +Interesting species are Tulipa stellata and Tulipa chrysantha. The +latter is a Salt Range plant, as is the crocus-like Merendera Persica, +and the yellow Iris Aitchisoni. A curious plant found in the same hills +is the cactus-like Boucerosia (N.O. Asclepiadaceae), recalling to +botanists the more familiar Stapelias of the same order. Another +leafless Asclepiad, Periploca aphylla, which extends westwards to Arabia +and Nubia and southwards to Sindh, is, like Boucerosia, a typical +xerophyte adapted to a very dry soil and atmosphere. The thorny Acacias, +A. eburnea and A. modesta (vern. <i>phuláhí</i>), of the low bare hills of +the N.W. Panjáb are also drought-resisting plants.</p> + +<p><b>Submontane Region.</b>—The Submontane region consists of a broad belt below +the Siwáliks extending from the Jamna nearly to the Jhelam, and may be +said to include the districts of Ambála, Karnál (part), Hoshyárpur, +Kángra (part), Hazára (part), Jalandhar, Gurdáspur, Siálkot, Gujrát +(part). In its flora there is a strong infusion of Indo-Malayan +elements. An interesting member of it is the Butea frondosa, a small +tree of the order Leguminosae. It is known by several names, <i>dhák</i>, +<i>chichra</i>, <i>paláh</i>, and <i>palás</i>. Putting out its large orange-red +flowers in April it ushers in the hot weather. It has a wide range from +Ceylon to Bengal, where it has given its name to the town of Dacca and +the battlefield of Plassy (Palási). From Bengal it extends all the way +to Hazára. There can be no doubt that a large part of the submontane +region was once <i>dhák</i> forest. Tracts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> in the north of Karnál—Chachra, +in Jalandhar—Dardhák, and in Gujrát—Paláhí, have taken their names +from this tree. It coppices very freely, furnishes excellent firewood +and good timber for the wooden frames on which the masonry cylinders of +wells are reared, it exudes a valuable gum, its flowers yield a dye, and +the dry leaves are eaten by buffaloes. A tree commonly planted near +wells and villages in the submontane tract is the <i>dhrek</i> (Melia +azedarach, N.O. Meliaceae), which is found as far west as Persia and is +often called by English people the Persian lilac. The <i>bahera</i> +(Terminalia belerica, N.O. Combretaceae), a much larger tree, is +Indo-Malayan. Common shrubs are the <i>marwan</i> (Vitex negundo, N.O. +Verbenaceae), Plumbago Zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae), the <i>bánsa</i> or +<i>bhekar</i> (Adhatoda vasica, N.O. Acanthaceae). The last is Indo-Malayan. +Among herbs Cassias, which do not occur in Europe, are common. The +curious cactus-like Euphorbia Royleana grows abundantly and is used for +making hedges.</p> + +<p><b>Sub-Himálaya.</b>—A large part of the Sub-Himalayan region belongs to the +Siwáliks. The climate is fairly moist and subject to less extremes of +heat and cold than the regions described above. A strong infusion of +Indo-Malayan types is found and a noticeable feature is the large number +of flowering trees and shrubs. Such beautiful flowering trees as the +<i>simal</i> or silk-cotton tree (Bombax Malabaricum, N.O. Malvaceae), the +<i>amaltás</i> (Cassia fistula), Albizzia mollis and Albizzia stipulata, +Erythrina suberosa, Bauhinia purpurea and Bauhinia variegata, all +belonging to the order Leguminosae, are unknown in Europe, but common in +the Indo-Malayan region. This is true also of Oroxylum Indicum (N.O. +Bignoniaceae) with its remarkable long sword-like capsules, and of the +<i>kamíla</i> (Mallotus Philippinensis), which abounds in the low hills, but +may escape the traveller's notice<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> as its flowers have no charm of form +or colour. He will in spring hardly fail to observe another Indo-Malayan +tree, the <i>dháwí</i> (Woodfordia floribunda, N.O. Lythraceae) with its +bright red flowers. Shrubs with conspicuous flowers are also common, +among which may be noted species of Clematis, Capparis spinosa, Kydia +calycina, Mimosa rubicaulis, Hamiltonia suaveolens, Caryopteris +Wallichiana, and Nerium Oleander. The latter grows freely in sandy +torrent beds. Rhus cotinus, which reddens the hillsides in May, is a +native also of Syria, Italy, and Southern France. Other trees to be +noticed are a wild pear (Pyrus pashia), the olive (Olea cuspidata), the +<i>khair</i> (Acacia catechu) useful to tanners, the <i>tun</i> (Cedrela toona), +whose wood is often used for furniture, the <i>dháman</i> (Grewia +oppositifolia, N.O. Tiliaceae), and several species of fig. The most +valuable products however of the forests of the lower hills are the +<i>chír</i> or <i>chíl</i> pine (Pinus longifolia), and a giant grass, the bamboo +(Dendrocalamus strictus), which attains a height of from 20 to 40 feet. +Shrubs which grow freely on stony hills are the <i>sanattha</i> or <i>mendru</i> +(Dodonaea viscosa, N.O. Sapindaceae), which is a valuable protection +against denudation, as goats pass it by, the <i>garna</i>, which is a species +of Carissa, and Plectranthus rugosus. Climbers are common. The great +Hiptage madablota (N.O. Malpighiaceae), the Bauhinia Vahlii or elephant +creeper, and some species of the parasitic Loranthus, deserve mention, +also Acacia caesia, Pueraria tuberosa, Vallaris Heynei, Porana +paniculata, and several vines, especially Vitis lanata with its large +rusty leaves. Characteristic herbs are the sweet-scented Viola patrinii, +the slender milkwort; Polygala Abyssinica, a handsome pea, Vigna +vexillata, a borage, Trichodesma Indicum, a balsam, Impatiens balsamina, +familiar in English gardens, the beautiful delicate little blue +Evolvulus alsinoides, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> showy purple convolvulus, Ipomaea hederacea, +and a curious lily, Gloriosa superba.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig20" id="fig20"></a> +<img src="images/img020.jpg" width="600" height="479" alt="Fig. 20. Deodárs and Hill Temple." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 20. Deodárs and Hill Temple.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Temperate Himálaya.</b>—The richest part of the temperate Himalayan flora +is probably in the 7500-10,000 zone. Above 10,000 feet sup-alpine +conditions begin, and at 12,000 feet tree growth becomes very scanty and +the flora is distinctly alpine. The <i>chír</i> pine so common in +sub-Himalayan forests extends up to 6500 feet. At this height and 1000 +feet lower the <i>ban</i> oak (Quercus incana), grey on the lower side of the +leaf, which is so common at Simla, abounds. Where the <i>chíl</i> stops, the +<i>kail</i> or blue pine (Pinus excelsa), after the <i>deodár</i> the most +valuable product of Himalayan forests, begins. Its zone may be taken as +from 7000 to 9000 feet. To the same zone belong the <i>kelu</i> or <i>deodár</i> +(Cedrus Libani), the glossy leaved <i>mohru</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> oak (Quercus dilatata), +whose wood is used for making charcoal, and two small trees of the Heath +order, Rhododendron arborea and Pieris ovalifolia. The former in April +and May lightens up with its bright red flowers the sombre Simla +forests. The <i>kharshu</i> or rusty-leaved oak (Quercus semecarpifolia) +affects a colder climate than its more beautiful glossy-leaved relation, +and may almost be considered sub-alpine. It is common on Hattu, and the +oaks there present a forlorn appearance after rain with funereal mosses +dripping with moisture hanging from their trunks. The firs, Picea +morinda, with its grey tassels, and Abies Pindrow with its dark green +yew-like foliage, succeed the blue pine. Picea may be said to range from +8000 to 10,000 feet, and the upper limit of Abies is from 1000 to 2000 +feet higher. These splendid trees are unfortunately of small commercial +value. The yew, Taxus baccata, is found associated with them. Between +5000 and 8000 feet, besides the oaks and other broad-leaved trees +already noticed, two relations of the dogwood, Cornus capitata and +Cornus macrophylla, a large poplar, Populus ciliata, a pear, Pyrus +lanata, a holly, Ilex dipyrena, an elm and its near relation, Celtis +australis, and species of Rhus and Euonymus, may be mentioned. Cornus +capitata is a small tree, but it attracts notice because the heads of +flowers surrounded by bracts of a pale yellow colour have a curious +likeness to a rose, and the fruit is in semblance not unlike a +strawberry. Above 8000 feet several species of maple abound.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +which has been introduced into English shrubberies. The great vine, The +<i>chinár</i> or Platanus orientalis, found as far west as Sicily, grows to +splendid proportions by the quiet waterways of the Vale of Kashmír. The +undergrowth in temperate Himalayan forests consists largely of +barberries, Desmodiums, Indigoferas, roses, brambles, Spiraeas, +Viburnums, honeysuckles with their near relation, Leycesteria formosa,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +Vitis Himalayana, whose leaves turn red in autumn, climbs up many of the +trees. Of the flowers it is impossible to give any adequate account. The +flora is distinctly Mediterranean in type; the orders in Collett's +<i>Flora Simlensis</i> which are not represented in the Italian flora contain +hardly more than 5 per cent. of the total genera. The plants included in +some of these non-Mediterranean orders are very beautiful, for example, +the Begonias, the Amphicomes (Bignoniaceae), Chirita bifolia and +Platystemma violoides (Gesneraceae), and Hedychium (Scitamineae). More +important members of the flora are species of Clematis, including the +beautiful white Clematis montana, anemones, larkspurs, columbine, +monkshoods, St John's worts, geraniums, balsams, species of Astragalus, +Potentillas, Asters, ragworts, species of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> Cynoglossum, gentians and +Swertias, Androsaces and primroses, Wulfenia and louseworts, species of +Strobilanthes, Salvias and Nepetas, orchids, irises, Ophiopogon, Smilax, +Alliums, lilies, and Solomon's seal. Snake plants (Arisaema) and their +relation Sauromatum guttatum of the order Araceae are very common in the +woods. The striped spathe in some species of Arisaema bears a curious +resemblance to the head of a cobra uplifted to strike. Orchids decrease +as one proceeds westwards, but irises are much more common in Kashmír +than in the Simla hills. The Kashmír fritillaries include the beautiful +Crown Imperial.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 454px;"> +<a name="fig21" id="fig21"></a> +<img src="images/img021.jpg" width="454" height="600" alt="Fig. 21. Firs in Himálaya." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 21. Firs in Himálaya.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig22" id="fig22"></a> +<img src="images/img022.jpg" width="600" height="436" alt="Fig. 22. Chinárs." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 22. Chinárs.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig23" id="fig23"></a> +<img src="images/img023.jpg" width="600" height="497" alt="Fig. 23. Rhododendron campanulatum." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 23. Rhododendron campanulatum.</span> +</div> + + + +<p><b>Alpine Himálaya.</b>—In the Alpine Himálaya the scanty tree-growth is +represented by willows, junipers, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> birches. After 12,000 or 12,500 +feet it practically disappears. A dwarf shrub, Juniperus recurva, is +found clothing hillsides a good way above the two trees of the same +genus. Other alpine shrubs which may be noticed are two rhododendrons, +which grow on cliffs at an elevation of 10,000 to 14,000 feet, R. +campanulatum and R. lepidotum, Gaultheria nummularioides with its +black-purple berry, and Cassiope fastigiata, all belonging to the order +Ericaceae. The herbs include beautiful primulas, saxifrages, and +gentians, and in the bellflower order species of Codonopsis and +Cyananthus. Among Composites may be mentioned the tansies, Saussureas, +and the fine Erigeron multiradiatus common in the forest above Narkanda. +In the bleak uplands beyond the Himálaya tree-growth is very scanty, but +in favoured localities willows and the pencil cedar, Juniperus +pseudosabina, are found. The people depend for fuel largely on a hoary +bush of the Chenopod order, Eurotia ceratoides. In places a profusion of +the red Tibetan roses, Rosa Webbiana, lightens up the otherwise dreary +scene.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h3>FORESTS</h3> + + +<p><b>Rights of State in Waste.</b>—Under Indian rule the State claimed full +power of disposing of the waste, and, even where an exclusive right in +the soil was not maintained, some valuable trees, e.g. the <i>deodár</i> in +the Himálaya, were treated as the property of the Rája. Under the tenure +prevailing in the hills the soil is the Rája's, but the people have a +permanent tenant right in any land brought under cultivation with his +permission. In Kulu the British Government asserted its ownership of the +waste. In the south-western Panjáb, where the scattered hamlets had no +real boundaries, ample waste was allotted to each estate, and the +remainder was claimed as State property.</p> + +<p><b>Kinds of Forest.</b>—The lands in the Panjáb over which authority, varying +through many degrees from full ownership unburdened with rights of user +down to a power of control exercised in the interests of the surrounding +village communities, may be roughly divided into</p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Kinds of Forest"> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>)</td><td align='left'>Mountain forests;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>)</td><td align='left'>Hill forests;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>c</i>)</td><td align='left'>Scrub and grass <i>Jangal</i> in the Plains.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>The first are forests of <i>deodár</i>, blue pine, fir, and oak in the +Himálaya above the level of 5000 feet. The hill<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> forests occupy the +lower spurs, the Siwáliks in Hoshyárpur, etc., and the low dry hills of +the north-west. A strong growth of <i>chír</i> pine (Pinus longifolia) is +often found in the Himálaya between 3000 and 5000 feet. Below 3000 feet +is scrub forest, the only really valuable product being bamboo. The +hills in the north-western districts of the Panjáb and N.W.F. Province, +when nature is allowed to have its way, are covered with low scrub +including in some parts a dwarf palm (Nannorhops Ritchieana), useful for +mat making, and with a taller, but scantier growth of <i>phuláhí</i> (Acacia +modesta) and wild olive. What remains of the scrub and grass <i>jangal</i> of +the plains is to be found chiefly in the Bár tracts between the Sutlej +and the Jhelam. Much of it has disappeared, or is about to disappear, +with the advance of canal irrigation. Dry though the climate is the Bár +was in good seasons a famous grazing area. The scrub consisted mainly of +<i>jand</i> (Prosopis spicigera), <i>jál</i> (Salvadora oleoides), the <i>karíl</i> +(Capparis aphylla) and the <i>farásh</i> (Tamarix articulata).</p> + +<p><b>Management and Income of Forests.</b>—The Forest Department of the Panjáb +has existed singe 1864, when the first Conservator was appointed. In +1911-12 it managed 8359 square miles in the Panjáb consisting of:</p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="50%" cellspacing="0" summary="Management and Income of Forests"> +<tr><td align='left'>Reserved Forests</td><td align='left'>1844</td><td align='left'>square miles</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Protected Forests</td><td align='left'>5203</td><td align='left'>square miles</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Unclassed Forests</td><td align='left'>1312</td><td align='left'>square miles</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>It was also in charge of 235 square miles of reserved forest in the +Hazára district of the N.W.F. Province, and of 364 miles of fine +mountain forest in the native State of Bashahr. In addition a few +reserved forests have been made over as grazing areas to the Military +Department, and Deputy Commissioners are in charge of a very large area +of unclassed forest.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p> + +<p>No forest can be declared "reserved" or "protected" unless it is owned +in whole or in part by the State. It is enough if the trees or some of +them are the property of the Government. In order to safeguard all +private rights a special forest settlement must be made before a forest +can be declared to be "reserved." In the case of a protected forest it +is enough if Government is satisfied that the rights of the State and of +private persons have been recorded at a land revenue settlement. After +deducting income belonging to the year 1909-10 realized in 1910-11, the +average income of the two years ending 1911-12 was £81,805 (Rs. +1,227,082) and the average expenditure £50,954 (Rs. 764,309).</p> + +<p><b>Sources of Income.</b>—In the mountain forests the chief source of income +is the <i>deodár</i>, which is valuable both for railway sleepers and as +building timber. The blue pine is also of commercial value. <i>Deodár</i>, +blue pine, and some <i>chír</i> are floated down the rivers to depots in the +plains. Firwood is inferior to cedar and pine, and the great fir forests +are too remote for profitable working at present. There are fine +mountain forests in Chitrál, on the Safed Koh, and in Western +Wazíristán, but these have so far not even been fully explored. The +value of the hill forests may be increased by the success which has +attended the experimental extraction of turpentine from the resin of the +<i>chír</i> pine. The bamboo forests of Kángra are profitable. At present an +attempt is being made to acclimatize several species of Eucalyptus in +the low hills. The scrub <i>jangal</i> in the plains yields good fuel. As the +area is constantly shrinking it is fortunate that the railways have +ceased to depend on this source of supply, coal having to a great extent +taken the place of wood. To prevent shortage of fuel considerable areas +in the tracts commanded by the new canals are being reserved for +irrigated forests. A forest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> of this class covering an area of 37 square +miles and irrigated from the Upper Bárí Doáb Canal has long existed at +Changa Manga in the Lahore district.</p> + +<p><b>Forests in Kashmír.</b>—The extensive and valuable Kashmír forests are +mountain and hill forests, the former, which cover much the larger area +yielding, <i>deodár</i>, blue pine, and firs, and the latter <i>chír</i> pine. The +total area exceeds 2600 square miles.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h3>BEASTS, BIRDS, FISHES, AND INSECTS</h3> + + +<p><b>Fauna.</b>—With the spread of cultivation and drainage the Panjáb plains +have ceased to be to anything like the old extent the haunt of wild +beasts and wild fowl. The lion has long been extinct and the tiger has +practically disappeared. Leopards are to be found in low hills, and +sometimes stray into the plains. Wolves are seen occasionally, and +jackals are very common. The black buck (Antilope cerricapra) can still +be shot in many places. The graceful little <i>chinkára</i> or ravine deer +(Gazella Bennetti) is found in sandy tracts, and the hogdeer or <i>párha</i> +(Cervus porcinus) near rivers. The <i>nílgai</i> (Boselaphus tragocamelus) is +less common. Monkeys abound in the hills and in canal-irrigated tracts +in the Eastern districts, where their sacred character protects them +from destruction, though they do much damage to crops. Peafowl are to be +seen in certain tracts, especially in the eastern Panjáb. They should +not be shot where the people are Hindus or anywhere near a Hindu shrine. +The great and lesser bustards and several kinds of sand grouse are to be +found in sandy districts. The grey partridge is everywhere, and the +black can be got near the rivers. The <i>sísí</i> and the <i>chikor</i> are the +partridges of the hills, which are also the home of fine varieties of +pheasants including the <i>monál</i>. Quail frequent the ripening fields in +April and late in September. Duck of various kinds abound where there +are <i>jhíls</i>, and snipe are to be got in marshy ground. The green<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +parrots, crows, and vultures are familiar sights. Both the sharp-nosed +(Garialis Gangetica, vern. <i>ghariál</i>) and the blunt-nosed (Crocodilus +palustris, vern. magar) crocodiles haunt the rivers. The fish are +tasteless; the <i>rohu</i> and <i>mahseer</i> are the best. Poisonous snakes are +the <i>karait</i>, the <i>cobra</i>, and Russell's viper. The first is sometimes +an intruder into houses. Lizards and mongooses are less unwelcome +visitors. White ants attack timber and ruin books, and mosquitoes and +sandflies add to the unpleasant features of the hot weather. The best +known insect pest is the locust, but visitations on a large scale are +rare. Of late years much more damage has been done by an insect which +harbours in the cotton bolls.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;"> +<a name="fig24" id="fig24"></a> +<img src="images/img024.jpg" width="372" height="600" alt="Fig. 24. Big game in Ladákh." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 24. Big game in Ladákh.</span> +</div> + +<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Key</span>: 1, 3, 7, 9, Chiru or Tibetan Antelope. 2, Argalí or Ovis Ammon. 4, +6, 8, Bharal or Ovis nahura. 5, Yak or Bos grunniens. 10, 11, 12, Uriál +or Ovis Vignei. 13, Bear skin.</p></blockquote> + +<p><b>Game of the Mountains.</b>—If sport in the plains has ceased to be first +rate, it is otherwise in the hills. Some areas and the heights at which +the game is to be found are noted below:</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p> + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="80%" cellspacing="0" summary="Game of the Mountains"> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>)</td><td align='left'>Goats and goat-antelopes:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Ibex (Capra Sibirica) 10,000-14,000 ft. Kashmír, Lahul, Bashahr.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'>Márkhor (Capra Falconeri). Kashmír, Astor, Gilgit, Sulimán hills.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>3.</td><td align='left'>Thár (Hemitragus jemlaicus), 9000-14,000ft. Kashmír, Chamba.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>4.</td><td align='left'>Gural (Cemas goral), 3000-8000 ft. Kashmír, Chamba, Simla hills, Bashahr.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>5.</td><td align='left'>Serow (Nemorhaedus bubalinus), 6000-12,000ft. From Kashmír eastwards.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>)</td><td align='left'>Sheep:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Bharal (Ovis nahura), 10,000-12,000 ft. and over. Ladákh, Bashahr.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'>Argalí (Ovis Ammon). Ladákh.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>3.</td><td align='left'>Uriál (Ovis Vignei) Salt Range, Sulimán hills.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>c</i>)</td><td align='left'>Antelopes:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Chiru or Tibetan Antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni). Ladákh.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>d</i>)</td><td align='left'>Oxen—Yák (Bos grunniens). Ladákh.</td><td align='left'>The domesticated <i>yák</i> is invaluable as a beast of burden in the Trans-Himalayan tract. The royal fly whisk or <i>chaurí</i> is made from pure white yák tails.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>e</i>)</td><td align='left'>Stag:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Bárasingha (Cervus Duvanceli). Foot of Himálaya in Kashmír.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>f</i>)</td><td align='left'>Bears:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Red or Brown (Ursus Arctos), 10,000-13,000ft. Kashmír, Chamba, Bashahr, etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'>Black (Ursus torquatus), 6000-12,000 ft. Same regions, but at lower elevations. The small bear of the southern Sulimán hills known as <i>mam</i> is now considered a variety of the black bear.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>g</i>)</td><td align='left'>Leopards:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Snow Leopard (Felis Uncia), 9000-15,000 ft. Kashmír, Chamba, Bashahr.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'>Ordinary Leopard (Felis Pardus). Lower hills.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig25" id="fig25"></a> +<img src="images/img025.jpg" width="600" height="477" alt="Fig. 25. Yáks." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 25. Yáks.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Shooting in Hills</span></h4> + +<p><b>Shooting in Hills.</b>—The finest shooting in the north-west Himálaya is +probably to be got in Ladákh and Baltistán, but the trip is somewhat +expensive and requires more time than may be available. In many areas +licenses have to be obtained, and the conditions limit the number of +certain animals, and the size of heads, that may be shot. For example, +the permit in Chamba may allow the shooting of two red bear and two +<i>thár</i>, and when these have been got the sportsman must turn his +attention to black bear and <i>gural</i>. Any one contemplating a shooting +expedition in the Himálaya should get from one who has the necessary +experience very complete instructions as to weapons, tents, clothing, +stores, etc.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Sport in the Plains</span></h4> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <b>Black Buck Shooting.</b>—To get a good idea of what shooting in the +plains is like Major Glasford's <i>Rifle and Romance in the Indian Jungle</i> +may be consulted. As regards larger game the favourite sport is black +buck shooting. A high velocity cordite rifle is dangerous to the country +people, and some rifle firing black powder should be used. It is well to +reach the home of the herd<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> soon after sunrise while it is still in the +open, and not among the crops. There will usually be one old buck in +each herd. He himself is not watchful, but his does are, and the herd +gallops off with great leaps at the first scent of danger, the does +leading and their lord and master bringing up the rear. If by dint of +careful and patient stalking you get to some point of vantage, say 100 +yards from the big buck, it is worth while to shoot. Even if the bullet +finds its mark the quarry may gallop 50 yards before it drops. Good +heads vary from 20" to 24" or even more.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 277px;"> +<a name="fig26" id="fig26"></a> +<img src="images/img026.jpg" width="277" height="500" alt="Fig. 26. Black buck." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 26. Black buck.</span> +</div> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <b>Small game in Plains.</b>—The cold weather shooting begins with the +advent of the quail in the end of September and ends when they reappear +among the ripening wheat in April. The duck arrive from the Central +Asian lakes in November and duck and snipe shooting lasts till February +in districts where there are <i>jhíls</i> and swampy land. For a decent shot +30 couple of snipe is a fair bag. To get duck the <i>jhíl</i> should be +visited at dawn and again in the evening, and it is well to post several +guns in favourable positions in the probable line of flight. 40 or 50 +birds would be a good morning's bag. In drier tracts the bag will +consist of partridges and a hare or two, or, if the country is sandy, +some sand-grouse and perhaps a bustard.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h3>THE PEOPLE: NUMBERS, RACES, AND LANGUAGES</h3> + + +<p><b>Growth of Population.</b>—It is probable that in the 64 years since +annexation the population of the Panjáb has increased by from 40 to 50 +per cent. The first reliable census was taken in 1881. The figures for +the four decennial enumerations are:</p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="70%" cellspacing="0" summary="Growth of Population."> + +<tr> +<td align="left" rowspan="2">Year</td> +<td align="center" colspan="3">Panjáb.</td> +<td align="right" rowspan="2">N.W.F. Province</td> +<td align="right" rowspan="2">Kashmír</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="center">British</td> +<td align="center">Native States</td> +<td align="center">Total</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>1881</td> +<td align="right">17,274,597</td> +<td align="right">3,861,683</td> +<td align="right">21,136,280</td> +<td align="right">1,543,726</td> +<td align="right"></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>1891</td> +<td align="right">19,009,368</td> +<td align="right">4,263,280</td> +<td align="right">23,272,648 </td> +<td align="right">1,857,504</td> +<td align="right">2,543.952</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>1901</td> +<td align="right">20,330,337</td> +<td align="right">4,424,398</td> +<td align="right">24,754,735</td> +<td align="right">2,041,534</td> +<td align="right">2,905,578</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>1911</td> +<td align="right">19,974,956</td> +<td align="right">4,212,974</td> +<td align="right">24,187,730</td> +<td align="right">2,196,933</td> +<td align="right">3,158,126</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + + +<p><b>Incidence of Population in Panjáb.</b>—The estimated numbers of independent +tribes dwelling within the British sphere of influence is 1,600,000. The +incidence of the population on the total area of the Panjáb including +native States is 177 per square mile, which may be compared with 189 in +France and 287 in the British Isles. As the map shows, the density is +reduced by the large area of semi-desert country in the south-west and +by the mountainous tract in the north-east. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> distribution of the +population is the exact opposite of that which prevails in Great +Britain. There are only 174 towns as compared with 44,400 villages, and +nearly nine-tenths of the people are to be found in the latter. Some of +the so-called towns are extremely small, and the average population per +town is but 14,800 souls. There are no large towns in the European +sense. The biggest, Delhi and Lahore, returned respectively 232,837 and +228,687 persons.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig27" id="fig27"></a> +<img src="images/fig027tb.jpg" width="500" height="434" alt="Fig. 27. Map showing density of population." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/fig027.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 27. Map showing density of population.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig28" id="fig28"></a> +<img src="images/img028tb.jpg" width="500" height="442" alt="Fig. 28. Map showing increase and decrease of +population." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img028.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 28. Map showing increase and decrease of +population.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Growth stopped by Plague.</b>—The growth of the population between 1881 and +1891 amounted to 10 p.c. Plague,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> which has smitten the Panjáb more +severely than any other province, appeared in 1896, and its effect was +seen in the lower rate of expansion between 1891 and 1901. +Notwithstanding great extensions of irrigation and cultivation in the +Rechna Doáb the numbers declined by 2 p.c. between 1901 and 1911. In the +ten years from 1901 to 1910 in the British districts alone over two +million people died of plague and the death-rate was raised to 12 p.c. +above the normal. It actually exceeded the birth-rate by 2 p.c. Of the +total deaths in the decade nearly one in four was due to plague.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> The +part which has suffered most is the rich submontane tract east of the +Chenáb, Lahore and Gujránwála, and some of the south-eastern districts. +A glance at the map will show how large the loss of population has been +there. It is by no means entirely due to plague. The submontane +districts were almost over-populated, and many of their people have +emigrated as colonists, tenants, and labourers to the waste tracts +brought under cultivation by the excavation of the Lower Chenáb and +Jhelam canals. The districts which have received very marked additions +of population from this cause are Jhang (21 p.c.), Sháhpur (30 p.c.), and +Lyallpur (45 p.c.). Deaths from plague have greatly increased the +deficiency of females, which has always been a noteworthy feature. In +1911 the proportion had very nearly fallen to four females for every +five males.</p> + +<p><b>Increase and Incidence in N.W.F. Province.</b>—The incidence of the +population in the area covered by the five districts of the N.W.F. +Province is 164 per square mile. The district figures are given in the +map in the margin. The increase between 1901 and 1911 in these districts +was 7½ p.c. There have been no severe outbreaks of plague like those +which have decimated the population of some of the Panjáb districts.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 527px;"> +<a name="fig29" id="fig29"></a> +<img src="images/img029.jpg" width="527" height="577" alt="Fig. 29. Map showing density of population in N.W.F. +Province." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 29. Map showing density of population in N.W.F. +Province.</span> +</div> + +<p>General figures for the territory of the Mahárája of Kashmír are +meaningless. In the huge Indus valley the incidence is only 4 persons +per sq. mile. In Jammu and Kashmír it is 138. The map taken from the +Census<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> Report gives the details. The increase in the decade was on +paper 8½ p.c., distributed between 5¼ in Jammu, 12 in Kashmír, and +14 in the Indus valley. A great part of the increase in the last must be +put down to better enumeration.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 581px;"> +<a name="fig30" id="fig30"></a> +<img src="images/img030.jpg" width="581" height="663" alt=" Fig. 30. Map showing density of population in Kashmir." title="" /> +<span class="caption"> Fig. 30. Map showing density of population in Kashmir.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Health and duration of life.</b>—The climate of the Panjáb plains has +produced a vigorous, but not a long-lived, race. The mean age of the +whole population in the British districts is only 25. The normal +birth-rate of the Panjáb is about 41 per 1000, which exceeds the English +rate in the proportion of 5 to 3. In 1910 the recorded birth-rate in the +N.W.F. Province was 38 per 1000. Till plague appeared the Panjáb +death-rate averaged 32 or 33 per 1000, or more than double that of +England. The infantile mortality is enormous, and one out of every four +or five children fails to survive its first year. The death-rate in the +N.W.F. Province was 27 per 1000 in 1910. In the ten years ending 1910 +plague pushed up the average death-rate in the Panjáb to 43½ per +1000. Even now malarial fever is a far worse foe than plague. The +average annual deaths in the ten years ending 1910 were:</p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="35%" cellspacing="0" summary="Health and duration of life."> +<tr><td align='left'>Fevers</td><td align='right'>450,376</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Plague</td><td align='right'>202,522</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Other diseases</td><td align='right'>231,473</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>———</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Total</td><td align='right'>884,371</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>———</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p> + +<p>Fever is very rife in October and November, and these are the most +unhealthy months in the year, March and April being the best. The +variations under fevers and plague from year to year are enormous. In +1907 the latter claimed 608,685 victims, and the provincial death-rate +reached the appalling figure of 61 per 1000. Next year the plague +mortality dropped to 30,708, but there were 697,058 deaths from fever. +There is unfortunately no reason to believe that plague has spent its +force or that the people as a whole will in the near future generally +accept the protective measures of inoculation and evacuation. +Vaccination, the prejudice against which has largely disappeared, has +robbed the small-pox goddess of many offerings. As a general cause of +mortality the effect of cholera in the Panjáb is now insignificant. But +it is still to be feared in the Kashmír valley, especially in the +picturesque but filthy summer capital. Syphilis is very common in the +hill country in the north-east of the province. Blindness and leprosy +are both markedly on the decrease. Both infirmities are common in +Kashmír, especially the former. The rigours of the climate in a large +part of the State force the people to live day and night for the seven +winter months almost entirely in dark and smoky huts, and it is small +wonder that their eyesight is ruined.</p> + +<p><b>Occupations.</b>—The Panjáb is preeminently an agricultural country, and +the same is true in an almost greater degree of the N.W.F. Province and +Kashmír. The typical holding is that of the small landowner tilling from +3 to 10 acres with his own hands with or without help from village +menials. The tenant class is increasing, but there are still three +owners to two tenants. Together they make up 50 p.c. of the population +of the Panjáb, and 5 p.c. is added for farm labourers. Altogether, +according to the census returns 58 p.c. of the population<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> depends for +its support on the soil, 20.5 on industries, chiefly the handicrafts of +the weaver, potter, leather worker, carpenter, and blacksmith, 9.4 on +trade, 2.5 on professions, and 9.6 on other sources of livelihood.</p> + +<p><b>Measures taken to protect agriculturists.</b>—In a country owned so largely +by small farmers, the first task of the Government must be to secure +their welfare and contentment. Before plague laid its grasp on the rich +central districts it was feared that they were becoming congested, and +the canal colonization schemes referred to in a later chapter were +largely designed to relieve them. But there is a much subtler foe to +whose insidious attacks small owners are liable, the temptation to abuse +their credit till their acres are loaded with mortgages and finally +lost. So threatening had this economic disease for years appeared that +at last in 1900 the Panjáb Alienation of Land Act was passed, which +forbade sales by people of agricultural tribes to other classes without +the sanction of the district officer, and greatly restricted the power +of mortgaging. The same restrictions are in force in the N.W.F. +Province. The Act is popular with those for whose benefit it was +devised, and has effected its object of checking land alienation and +probably to some extent discouraged extravagance. It has been +supplemented by a still more valuable measure, the Co-operative Credit +Societies Act. The growth of these societies in the Panjáb has been very +remarkable, a notable contrast to the very slow advance of the similar +movement in England. In 1913-14 there were 3261 village banks with +155,250 members and a working capital of 133¾ <i>lakhs</i> or £885,149, +besides 38 central banks with a capital of 42¾ <i>lakhs</i> or about +£285,000. Village banks held deposits amounting to nearly 37 <i>lakhs</i>, +more than half of which was received from non-members, and lent out +71½ <i>lakhs</i> in the year to their members.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Tribal Composition.</b>—Table I based on the Census returns shows the +percentages of the total population belonging to the chief tribes. The +classification into "land-holding, etc." is a rough one.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"> +<a name="fig31" id="fig31"></a> +<img src="images/img031.jpg" width="425" height="600" alt="Fig. 31. Jat Sikh Officers (father and son)." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 31. Jat Sikh Officers (father and son).</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Jats.</b>—The Panjáb is <i>par excellence</i> the home of the Jats. Everywhere +in the plains, except in the extreme north-west corner of the province, +they form<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> a large element in the population. In the east they are +Hindus, in the centre Sikhs and Muhammadans, and in the west +Muhammadans. The Jat is a typical son of the soil, strong and sturdy, +hardworking and brave, a fine soldier and an excellent farmer, but +slow-witted and grasping. The Sikh Jat finds an honourable outlet for +his overflowing energy in the army and in the service of the Crown +beyond the bounds of India. When he misses that he sometimes takes to +dacoity. Unfortunately he is often given to strong drink, and, when his +passions or his greed are aroused, can be exceedingly brutal. Jat in the +Western Panjáb is applied to a large number of tribes, whose ethnical +affinities are somewhat dubious.</p> + +<p><b>Rájputs.</b>—Rájputs are found in considerable numbers all over the +province except in a few of the western and south-western districts. As +farmers they are much hampered by caste rules which forbid the +employment of their women in the fields, and the prohibition of widow +remarriage is a severe handicap. They are generally classed as poor +cultivators, and this is usually, but by no means universally, a true +description. The Dogra Rájputs of the low hills are good soldiers. They +are numerous in Kángra and in the Jammu province of Kashmír.</p> + +<p><b>Brahmans.</b>—The Brahmans of the eastern plains and north-eastern hills +are mostly agriculturists, and the Muhiál Brahman of the north-western +districts is a landowner and a soldier. In the hills the Brahman is +often a shopkeeper. The priestly Brahman is found everywhere, but his +spiritual authority has always been far less in the Panjáb than in most +parts of India.</p> + +<p><b>Biluches.</b>—When the frontier was separated off the Biluch district of +Dera Ghází Khán with its strong tribal organization under chiefs or +<i>tumandárs</i> was left in the Panjáb. The Biluches are a frank, manly, +truthful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> race, free from fanaticism and ready as a rule to follow their +chiefs. They are fine horsemen. Unfortunately it is difficult to get +them to enlist.</p> + +<p><b>Patháns.</b>—Both politically and numerically the Patháns are the +predominant tribe in the N.W.F. Province, and are of importance in parts +of the Panjáb districts of Attock and Mianwálí. The Pathán is a democrat +and often a fanatic, more under the influence of <i>mullahs</i> than of the +<i>maliks</i> or headmen of his tribe. He has not the frank straightforward +nature of the Biluch, is untiring in pursuit of revenge, and is not free +from cruelty. But, when he has eaten the <i>Sarkár's</i> salt, he is a very +brave and dashing soldier, and he is a faithful host to anyone whom he +has admitted under his roof.</p> + +<p><b>Awáns.</b>—The home of the Awán in the Panjáb is the Salt Range and the +parts of Attock and Mianwálí, lying to the north of it, and this tract +of country is known as the Awánkárí. In the N.W.F. Province they are, +after the Patháns, by far the largest tribe, and are specially numerous +in Pesháwar and Hazára.</p> + +<p><b>Shekhs.</b>—Of the Shekhs about half are Kureshís, Sadíkís, and Ansárís of +foreign origin and high social standing. The rest are new converts to +Islám, often of the sweeper caste originally.</p> + +<p><b>Saiyyids.</b>—Saiyyids are unsatisfactory landowners, and are kept going by +the offerings of their followers. They are mostly Shias. It is not +necessary to believe that they are all descended from the Prophet's +son-in-law, Ali. A native proverb with pardonable exaggeration says: +"The first year I was a weaver (Juláha), the next year a Shekh. This +year, if prices rise, I shall be a Saiyyid."</p> + +<p><b>Trading Castes.</b>—Aroras are the traders of the S.W. Panjáb and of the +N.W.F. Province. They share the Central Panjáb with the Khatrís, who +predominate in the north-western districts. The Khatrí of the +Ráwalpindí<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> division is often a landowner and a first-class fighting +man. Some of our strongest Indian civil officials have been Aroras. In +the Delhi division the place of the Arora and Khatrí is taken by the +Bania, and in Kángra by the Súd or the Brahman. Khojas and Paráchas are +Muhammadan traders.</p> + +<p><b>Artizans and Menials.</b>—Among artizans and menials Sunárs (goldsmiths), +Rájes (masons), Lohárs (blacksmiths), and Tarkháns (carpenters) take the +first rank.</p> + +<p><b>Impure Castes.</b>—The vast majority of the impure castes, the +"untouchables" of the Hindu religion, are scavengers and workers in +leather. The sweeper who embraces Islám becomes a Musallí. The Sikh +Mazhbís, who are the descendants of sweeper converts, have done +excellent service in our Pioneer regiments. The Hindu of the Panjáb in +his avoidance of "untouchables" has never gone to the absurd lengths of +the high caste Madrásí, and the tendency is towards a relaxation of +existing restrictions.</p> + +<p><b>Mendicants.</b>—Men of religion living on charity, wandering <i>fakírs</i>, are +common sights, and beggars are met with in the cities, who sometimes +exhibit their deformities with unnecessary insistence.</p> + +<p><b>Kashmírís.</b>—According to the census return the number of Kashmírí +Musulmáns, who make up 60 p.c. of the inhabitants of the Jhelam valley, +was 765,442. They are no doubt mostly descendants of various Hindu +castes, perhaps in the main of Hill Brahmans, but Islám has wiped out +all tribal distinctions. Sir Walter Lawrence wrote of them: "The +Kashmírí is unchanged in spite of the splendid Moghal, the brutal +Afghán, and the bully Sikh. Warriors and statesmen came and went; but +there was no egress, and no wish ... in normal times to leave their +homes. The outside world was far, and from all accounts inferior to the +pleasant valley.... So<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> the Kashmírís lived their self-centred life, +conceited, clever, and conservative."</p> + +<p>The Hindu Kashmírí Pandits numbered 55,276.</p> + +<p><b>Tribes of Jammu.</b>—Agricultural Brahmans are numerous in the Jammu +province. Thakkars and Meghs are important elements of the population of +the outer hills. The former are no doubt by origin Rájputs, but they +have cast off many Rájput customs. The Meghs are engaged in weaving and +agriculture, and are regarded as more or less impure by the higher +castes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 614px;"> +<a name="fig32" id="fig32"></a> +<img src="images/img032.jpg" width="614" height="600" alt="Fig. 32. Blind Beggar." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 32. Blind Beggar.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Gújars.</b>—Gújars in the Mahárája's territories are almost always +graziers. In 1911 they numbered 328,003.</p> + +<p><b>Dard Tribes of Astor and Gilgit.</b>—The people of Astor and Gilgit are +Dards speaking Shina and professing Islám. Sir Aurel Stein wrote of +them: "The Dard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> race which inhabits the valleys N. of (the Inner +Himálaya) as far as the Hindu Kush is separated from the Kashmírí +population by language as well as by physical characteristics.... There +is little in the Dard to enlist the sympathies of the casual observer. +He lacks the intelligence, humour, and fine physique of the Kashmírí, +and, though undoubtedly far braver than the latter, has none of the +independent spirit and manly bearing which draw us towards the Pathán +despite all his failings. But I can never see a Dard without thinking of +the thousands of years of struggle they have carried on with the harsh +climate and the barren soil of their mountains<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig33" id="fig33"></a> +<img src="images/img033.jpg" width="600" height="462" alt="Fig. 33. Dards." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 33. Dards.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Kanjútís.</b>—The origin of the Kanjútís of Hunza is uncertain, and so are +the relationships of their language.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Mongoloid Population of Ladákh.</b>—The population of Ladákh and Báltistán +is Mongoloid, but the Báltís (72,439) have accepted Islám and polygamy, +while the Ladákhís have adhered to Buddhism and polyandry.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<a name="fig34" id="fig34"></a> +<img src="images/img034.jpg" width="650" height="600" alt="Fig. 34. Map showing races." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img034large.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 34. Map showing races.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Ethnological theories.</b>—In <i>The People of India</i> the late Sir Herbert +Risley maintained that the inhabitants of Rájputána, nearly the whole of +the Panjáb, and a large part of Kashmír, whatever their caste or social +status, belonged with few exceptions to a single racial type, which he +called Indo-Aryan. The Biluches of Dera Ghází Khán and the Patháns of +the N.W.F. Province formed part of another group which he called +Turko-Iranian. The people of a strip of territory on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> the west of the +Jamna he held to be of the same type as the bulk of the inhabitants of +the United Provinces, and this type he called Aryo-Dravidian. Finally +the races occupying the hills in the north-east and the adjoining part +of Kashmír were of Mongol extraction, a fact which no one will dispute. +Of the Indo-Aryan type Sir Herbert Risley wrote: "The stature is mostly +tall, complexion fair, eyes dark, hair on face plentiful, head long, +nose narrow and prominent, but not specially long." He believed that the +Panjáb was occupied by Aryans, who came into the country from the west +or north-west with their wives and children, and had no need to contract +marriages with the earlier inhabitants. The Aryo-Dravidians of the +United Provinces resulted from a second invasion or invasions, in which +the Aryan warriors came alone and had to intermarry with the daughters +of the land, belonging to the race which forms the staple of the +population of Central India and Madras. This theory was based on +measurements of heads and noses, and it seems probable that deductions +drawn from these physical characters are of more value than any evidence +based on the use of a common speech. But it is hard to reconcile the +theory with the facts of history even in the imperfect shape in which +they have come down to us, or to believe that Sakas, Yuechí, and White +Huns (see historical section) have left no traces of their blood in the +province. If such there are, they may perhaps be found in some of the +tribes on both sides of the Salt Range, such as Gakkhars, Janjúas, Awáns +Tiwánas, Ghebas, and Johdras, who are fine horsemen and expert +tent-peggers, not "tall heavy men without any natural aptitude for +horsemanship," as Sir Herbert Risley described his typical Panjábí (p. +59 of his book).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 571px;"> +<a name="fig35" id="fig35"></a> +<img src="images/img035tb.jpg" width="571" height="600" alt="Fig. 35. Map showing distribution of languages." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img035.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 35. Map showing distribution of languages.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Languages.</b>—In the area dealt with in this book no less than eleven +languages are spoken, and the dialects<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> are very numerous. It is only +possible to tabulate the languages and indicate on the map the +localities in which they are spoken. For the Panjáb the figures of the +recent census are:</p> + +<p> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p> + + + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="The People"> +<tr><td align='left'>A.</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>1.</td><td align='left'>Tibeto-Chinese</td><td align='right'>41,607</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>B.</td><td align='left'>Aryan:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>)</td><td align='left'>Iranian:</td><td align='right'>2.</td><td align='left'>Pashtu</td><td align='right'>67,174</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>3.</td><td align='left'>Biluchí</td><td align='right'>70,675</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>4.</td><td align='left'>Kohistání</td><td align='right'>26</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>)</td><td align='left'>Indian:</td><td align='right'>5.</td><td align='left'>Kashmírí</td><td align='right'>7,190</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>6.</td><td align='left'>Pahárí</td><td align='right'>993,363</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>7.</td><td align='left'>Lahndí</td><td align='right'>4,253,566</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>8.</td><td align='left'>Sindhí</td><td align='right'>24</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>9.</td><td align='left'>Panjábí</td><td align='right'>14,111,215</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>10.</td><td align='left'>Western Hindi</td><td align='right'>3,826,467</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>11.</td><td align='left'>Rájasthání</td><td align='right'>725,850</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>The eastern part of the Indus valley in Kashmír forming the provinces of +Ladákh and Báltistán is occupied by a Mongol population speaking +Tibeto-Chinese dialects. Kashmírí is the language of Kashmír Proper, and +various dialects of the Shina-Khowár group comprehensively described as +Kohistání are spoken in Astor, Gilgit, and Chilás, and to the west of +Kashmír territory in Chitrál and the Kohistán or mountainous country at +the top of the Swát river valley. Though Kashmírí and the Shina-Khowár +tongues belong to the Aryan group, their basis is supposed to be +non-Sanskritic, and it is held that there is a strong non-Sanskritic or +Pisácha element also in Lahndí or western Panjábí, which is also the +prevailing speech in the Hazára and Dera Ismail Khán districts of the +N.W.F. Province, and is spoken in part of the Jammu province of Kashmír. +Pashtu is the common language in Pesháwar, Kohát, and Bannu, and is +spoken on the western frontiers of Hazára and Dera Ismail Khán, and in +the independent tribal territory in the west between the districts of +the N.W.F. Province and the Durand Line and immediately adjoining the +Pesháwar district on the north. Rájasthání is a collective name for the +dialects of Rájputána, which overflow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> into the Panjáb, occupying a +strip along the southern frontier from Baháwalpur to Gurgáon. The +infiltration of English words and phrases into the languages of the +province is a useful process and as inevitable as was the enrichment of +the old English speech by Norman-French. But for the present the results +are apt to sound grotesque, when the traveller, who expects a train to +start at the appointed time, is told: "<i>tren late hai, lekin singal down +hogaya</i>" (the train is late, but the signal has been lowered), or the +criticism is passed on a popular officer: "<i>bahut affable hai, lekin +hand shake nahín kartá</i>" (very affable, but doesn't shake hands).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<h3>THE PEOPLE (<i>continued</i>): RELIGIONS</h3> + + +<p><b>Religions in N.W.F. Province.</b>—In the N.W.F. Province an overwhelming +majority of the population professes Islám. In 1911 there were 2,039,994 +Musalmáns as compared with 119,942 Hindus, 30,345 Sikhs, and 6585 +Christians.</p> + +<p><b>Religions in Kashmír.</b>—In Kashmír the preponderance of Muhammadans is +not so overwhelming. The figures are:</p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="40%" cellspacing="0" summary="Religions in Kashmír."> +<tr><td align='left'>Muhammadans</td><td align='right'>2,398,320</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hindus</td><td align='right'>690,390</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Buddhists</td><td align='right'>36,512</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sikhs</td><td align='right'>31,553</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>The Hindus belong mostly to the Jammu province, where nearly half of the +population professes that faith. The people of Kashmír, Báltistán, Astor +and Gilgit, Chilás and Hunza Nagár, are Musalmáns. The Ladákhís are +Buddhists.</p> + +<p><b>Religions in Panjáb.</b>—The distribution by religions of the population of +the Panjáb and its native States in 1911 was:</p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="55%" cellspacing="0" summary="Religions in Panjáb."> +<tr><td align='left'>Muhammadans</td><td align='right'>12,275,477 or 51 p.c.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hindus</td><td align='right'>8,773,621 or 36 p.c.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sikhs</td><td align='right'>2,883,729 or 12 p.c.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Others, chiefly Christian (199,751)</td><td align='right'>254,923 or 1 p.c.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig36" id="fig36"></a> +<img src="images/img036tb.jpg" width="600" height="537" alt="Fig. 36. Map showing distribution of religions." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img036.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 36. Map showing distribution of religions.</span> +</div> + +<p>The strength of the Muhammadans is in the districts west of the Biás and +the Sutlej below its junction with the Biás. 83 p.c. of the subjects of +the Nawáb of Baháwalpur are also Muhammadans. In all this western region +there are few Hindus apart from the shopkeepers and traders. On the +other hand the hill country in the north-east is purely Hindu, except on +the borders of Tibet, where the scanty population professes Buddhism. +While Hinduism is the predominant faith in the south-east, quite a +fourth of the people there are Musalmáns. Sikhs nowhere form a majority. +The districts in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> eastern part of the Central Plains where they +constitute more than one-fifth of the population are indicated in the +map. In six districts, Lahore, Montgomery, Gujránwála, Lyallpur, +Hoshyárpur, and Ambála the proportion is between 10 and 20 p.c.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 482px;"> +<a name="fig37" id="fig37"></a> +<img src="images/img037.jpg" width="482" height="600" alt="Fig. 37. Raghunáth Temple, Jammu." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 37. Raghunáth Temple, Jammu.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Growth and Decline in numbers.</b>—There was a slight rise in the number of +Muhammadans between 1901 and 1911. Their losses in the central +districts, where the plague scourge has been heaviest, were +counterbalanced by gains in the western tract, where its effect has been +slight. On the other hand the decrease under Hindus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> amounts to nearly +15 p.c. The birth-rate is lower and the death-rate higher among Hindus +than among Musalmáns, and their losses by plague in the central and some +of the south-eastern districts have been very heavy. A change of +sentiment on the part of the Sikh community has led to many persons +recording themselves as Sikhs who were formerly content to be regarded +as Hindus. It must be remembered that one out of four of the recorded +Hindus belongs to impure castes, who even in the Panjáb pollute food and +water by their touch and are excluded from the larger temples. Since +1901 a considerable number of Chúhras or Sweepers have been converted to +Islám and Christianity.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig38" id="fig38"></a> +<img src="images/img038.jpg" width="600" height="456" alt="Fig. 38. Golden Temple, Amritsar." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 38. Golden Temple, Amritsar.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Sikhs.</b>—Notwithstanding heavy losses by plague Sikhs have increased by +37 p.c. A great access of zeal has led to many more Sikhs becoming +<i>Kesdhárís</i>. <i>Sajhdhárís</i> or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> <i>Múnas</i>, who form over one-fifth of the +whole Sikh community, were in 1901 classed as Hindus. They are followers +of Bába Nának, cut their hair, and often smoke. When a man has taken the +"<i>pahul</i>," which is the sign of his becoming a <i>Kesdhárí</i> or follower of +Guru Govind, he must give up the <i>hukka</i> and leave his hair unshorn. The +future of Sikhism is with the <i>Kesdhárís</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig39" id="fig39"></a> +<img src="images/img039.jpg" width="600" height="546" alt="Fig. 39. Mosque in Lahore City." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 39. Mosque in Lahore City.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Muhammadans.</b>—In the eastern districts the conversions to Islám were +political, and Hindu and Muhammadan Rájputs live peaceably together in +the same village. The Musalmáns have their mosque for the worship of +Allah, but were, and are still, not quite sure that it is prudent wholly +to neglect the godlings. The conversion of the western Panjáb was the +result largely of missionary effort. <i>Pírí murídí</i> is a great +institution there. Every man should be the "<i>muríd</i>" or pupil of some +holy man<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> or <i>pír</i>, who combines the functions in the Roman Catholic +Church of spiritual director in this world and the saint in heaven. The +<i>pír</i> may be the custodian of some little saint's tomb in a village, or +of some great shrine like that of Baba Faríd at Pákpattan, or Baháwal +Hakk at Multán, or Taunsa Sharif in Dera Ghází Khán, or Golra in +Ráwalpindí. His own holiness may be more official than personal. About +1400 A.D. the Kashmírís were offered by their Sultán Sikandar the choice +between conversion and exile, and chose the easier alternative. Like the +western Panjábís they are above all things saint-worshippers. The +ejaculations used to stimulate effort show this. The embankment builder +in the south-western Panjáb invokes the holy breath of Baháwal Hakk, and +the Kashmírí boatman's cry "Yá Pír, dast gír," "Oh Saint, lend me a +hand," is an appeal to their national saint.</p> + +<p><b>Effect of Education.</b>—The Musalmáns of the western Panjáb have a great +dislike to Sikhs, dating from the period of the political predominance +of the latter. So far the result of education has been to accentuate +religious differences and animosities. Both Sikhs and Musalmáns are +gradually dropping ideas and observances retained in their daily life +after they ceased to call themselves Hindus. On the other hand, within +the Hindu fold laxity is now the rule rather than the exception, and the +neglect of the old ritual and restrictions is by no means confined to +the small but influential reforming minority which calls itself Árya +Samáj.</p> + +<p><b>Christians.</b>—The number of Christians increased threefold between 1901 +and 1911. The Presbyterian missionaries have been especially successful +in attracting large numbers of outcastes into the Christian Church.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 413px;"> +<a name="fig40" id="fig40"></a> +<img src="images/img040.jpg" width="413" height="600" alt="Fig. 40. God and Goddess, Chamba." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 40. God and Goddess, Chamba.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Hinduism in the Panjáb.</b>—Hinduism has always been, and to-day is more +than ever, a very elastic term. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> Census Superintendent, himself a +high caste Hindu, wrote: "The definition which would cover the Hindu of +the modern times is that he should be born of parents not belonging to +some recognised religion other than Hinduism, marry within the same +limits, believe in God, respect the cow, and cremate the dead." There is +room in its ample folds for the Árya Samájist, who rejects idol worship +and is divesting himself of caste prejudices and marriage restrictions, +and the most orthodox Sanátan dharmist, who carries out the whole +elaborate daily ritual of the Brahmanical religion, and submits to all +its complicated rules; for the ordinary Hindu trader, who is equally +orthodox by profession, but whose ordinary religious exercises are +confined to bathing in the morning; for the villager of the eastern +districts, who often has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> the name of Parameshvar or the Supreme Lord on +his lips, but who really worships the godlings, Gúgá Pír, Sarwar or +Sultán Pír, Sítla (the small-pox goddess), and others, whose little +shrines we see round the village site; and for the childish idolaters of +Kulu, who carry their local deities about to visit each other at fairs, +and would see nothing absurd in locking them all up in a dungeon if rain +held off too long.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig41" id="fig41"></a> +<img src="images/img041.jpg" width="600" height="462" alt="Fig. 41. A Kulu godling and his attendants." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 41. A Kulu godling and his attendants.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<h3>THE PEOPLE (<i>continued</i>): EDUCATION</h3> + + +<p><b>Educational progress.</b>—According to the census returns of 1911 there are +not four persons per 100 in the province who are "literate" in the sense +of being able to read and write a letter. The proportion of literacy +among Hindus and Sikhs is three times as great as among Muhammadans. In +1911-12 one boy in six of school-going age was at school or college and +one girl in 37. This may seem a meagre result of sixty years of work, +for the Government and Christian missionaries, who have had an +honourable connection with the educational history of the province, +began their efforts soon after annexation, and a Director of Public +Instruction was appointed as long ago as 1856. But a country of small +peasant farmers is not a very hopeful educational field, and the rural +population was for long indifferent or hostile. If an ex-soldier of the +<i>Khálsa</i> had expressed his feelings, he would have used words like those +of the "Old Pindárí" in Lyall's poem, while the Muhammadan farmer, had +he been capable of expressing his hostility, might have argued that the +teaching his son could get in a village school would help him not at all +in his daily work. Things are better now. We have improved our scheme of +teaching, and of late raised the pay of the teachers, which is, however, +still hardly adequate. Till a better class of teachers can be secured +for primary schools, the best<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> educational theories will not bear fruit +in practice. The old indifference is weakening, and the most hopeful +sign is the increasing interest taken in towns in female education, a +matter of the first importance for the future of the country.</p> + +<p><b>Present position.</b>—The present position is as follows:—The Government +has made itself directly or indirectly responsible for the education of +the province. At the headquarters of each district there is a high +school for boys controlled by the Education Department. In each district +there are Government middle schools, Anglo-vernacular or Vernacular, +and primary schools, managed by the Municipal Committees and District +Boards. Each middle school has a primary, and each high school a primary +and a middle, department. For the convenience of pupils who cannot +attend school while living at home hostels are attached to many middle +and high schools. Fees are very moderate. In middle schools, where the +income covers 56 p.c. of the expenditure, they range from R. 1 (16 +pence) monthly in the lowest class in which they are levied to Rs. 4 (5 +shillings) in the highest class. In rural primary schools the children +of agriculturists are exempt because they pay local rate, and others, +when not exempt on the score of poverty, pay nominal fees. Besides the +Government schools there are aided schools of the above classes usually +of a sectarian character, and these, if they satisfy the standards laid +down, receive grants. There is a decreasing, but still considerable, +class of private schools, which make no attempt to satisfy the +conditions attached to these grants. The <i>mullah</i> in the mosque teaches +children passages of the Kurán by rote, or the shopkeeper's son is +taught in a Mahájaní school native arithmetic and the curious script in +which accounts are kept. A boys' school of a special kind is the Panjáb +Chiefs' College at Lahore,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> intended for the sons of princes and men of +high social position.</p> + +<p><b>Technical Schools.</b>—In an agricultural country like the Panjáb there is +not at present any large field for technical schools. The best are the +Mayo School of Art and the Railway Technical School at Lahore. The +latter is successful because its pupils can readily find employment in +the railway workshops. Mr Kipling, the father of the poet, when +principal of the former, did much for art teaching, and the present +principal, Bhai Rám Singh, is a true artist. The Government Engineering +School has recently been remodelled and removed to Rasúl, where the +head-works of the Lower Jhelam canal are situated.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig42" id="fig42"></a> +<img src="images/img042.jpg" width="600" height="409" alt="Fig. 42. A School in the time preceding annexation." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 42. A School in the time preceding annexation.<br />(<i>From a picture book said to have been prepared for the Mahárája Dalíp +Singh.</i>)</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Female Education.</b>—Female education is still a tender plant, but of late +growth has been vigorous. The Victoria<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> May School in Lahore founded in +1908 has developed into the Queen Mary College, which provides an +excellent education for girls of what may be called the upper middle +class. There is a separate class for married ladies. Hitherto they have +only been reached by the teaching given in their own homes by missionary +ladies, whose useful work is now being imitated by the Hindu community +in Lahore. There is an excellent Hindu Girls' Boarding School in +Jalandhar. The Sikhs and the body of reformers known as the Dev Samáj +have good girls' schools at Ferozepore. The best mission schools are the +Kinnaird High School at Lahore and the Alexandra School at Amritsar. The +North India School of Medicine for Women at Ludhiána, also a missionary +institution, does admirable work. In the case of elementary schools the +difficulty of getting qualified teachers is even greater than as regards +boys' schools.</p> + +<p><b>Education of European Children.</b>—There are special arrangements for the +education of European and Anglo-Indian children. In this department the +Roman Catholics have been active and successful. The best schools are +the Lawrence Asylum at Sanáwar, Bishop Cotton's School, Auckland House, +and St Bede's at Simla, St Denys', the Lawrence Asylum, and the Convent +School at Murree.</p> + +<p><b>The Panjáb University.</b>—The Panjáb University was constituted in 1882, +but the Government Arts College and Oriental College, the Medical +College and the Law School at Lahore, which are affiliated with it, are +of older date. The University is an examining body like London +University. Besides the two Arts Colleges under Government management +mentioned above there are nine private Arts Colleges aided by Government +grants and affiliated to the University. Four of these are in Lahore, +two, the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> the Diál Singh Colleges, are Hindu +institutions, one, the Islámia College, is Muhammadan, the fourth is the +popular and efficient Forman Christian College. Four out of five art +students read in Lahore. Of the Arts colleges outside Lahore the most +important is the St Stephen's College at Delhi. The Khálsa School and +College at Amritsar is a Sikh institution. The Veterinary College at +Lahore is the best of its kind in India, and the Agricultural College at +Lyallpur is a well-equipped institution, which at present attracts few +pupils, but may play a very useful rôle in the future. There is little +force in the reproach that we built up a super-structure of higher +education before laying a broad foundation of primary education. There +is more in the charge that the higher educational food we have offered +has not been well adapted to the intellectual digestions of the +recipients.</p> + +<p><b>Education in N.W.F. Province, Native States, and I Kashmír.</b>—The Panjáb +Native States and Kashmír are much more backward as regards education +than the British Province. As is natural in a tract in which the +population is overwhelmingly Musalmán by religion and farming by trade +the N.W.F. Province lags behind the Panjáb. Six colleges in the States +and the N.W.F. Province are affiliated to the Panjáb University.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<h3>ROADS AND RAILWAYS</h3> + + +<p><b>Roads.</b>—The alignment of good roads in the plains of the Panjáb is easy, +and the deposits of calcareous nodules or <i>kankar</i> often found near the +surface furnish good metalling material. In the west the rainfall is so +scanty and in many parts wheeled traffic so rare that it is often wise +to leave the roads unmetalled. There are in the Panjáb over 2000 miles +of metalled, and above 20,000 miles of unmetalled roads. The greatest +highway in the world, the Grand Trunk, which starts from Calcutta and +ends at Pesháwar, passes through the province from Delhi in the +south-east to Attock in the extreme north-west corner, and there crosses +the Indus and enters the N.W.F. Province. The greater part of the +section from Karnál to Lahore had been completed some years before the +Mutiny, that from Lahore to Pesháwar was finished in 1863-64. A great +loop road connects our arsenal at Ferozepore with the Grand Trunk Road +at Lahore and Ludhiána. The fine metalled roads from Ambála to Kálka, +and Kálka to Simla have lost much of their importance since the railway +was brought to the hill capital. Beyond Simla the Kálka-Simla road is +carried on for 150 miles to the Shipkí Pass on the borders of Tibet, +being maintained as a very excellent hill road adapted to mule carriage. +A fine tonga road partly in the plains and partly in the hills joins +Murree with Ráwalpindí.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> From Murree it drops into the Jhelam valley +crossing the river and entering Kashmír at Kohála. It is carried up the +gorge of the Jhelam to Báramúla and thence through the Kashmír valley to +Srínagar. A motor-car can be driven all the way from Ráwalpindí to +Srínagar. In the N.W.F. Province a great metalled road connects +Pesháwar, Kohát, Bannu, and Dera Ismail Khán.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 562px;"> +<a name="fig43" id="fig43"></a> +<img src="images/img043.jpg" width="562" height="600" alt="Fig. 43. Poplar lined road to Srínagar." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 43. Poplar lined road to Srínagar.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Railways. Main Lines.</b>—It is just over fifty years since the first +railway, a short line joining Lahore and Amritsar, was opened in 1862. +Three years later Lahore was linked up with Multán and the small +steamers which then plied on the Indus. Amritsar was connected with +Delhi in 1870, and Lahore with Pesháwar in 1883. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> line from Pesháwar +to Lahore, and branching thence to Karáchí and Delhi may be considered +the Trunk Line. The railway service has been enormously developed in the +past thirty years. In 1912 there were over 4000 miles of open lines. +There are now three routes from Delhi to Lahore:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig44" id="fig44"></a> +<img src="images/img044tb.jpg" width="500" height="446" alt="Fig. 44. Map showing railways." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img044.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 44. Map showing railways.</span> +</div> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The N.W. Railway <i>via</i> Meerut and Saháranpur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> (on east of Jamna), +and Ambála, Ludhiána, Jalandhar, Amritsar;</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) The Southern Panjáb Railway <i>via</i> Jind, Rohtak, Bhatinda, and +Ferozepore;</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) The Delhi-Ambála-Kálka branch of the East Indian Rallway from +Delhi through Karnál to Ambála, and thence by the N.W. Railway. This is +the shortest route.</p> + +<p>The Southern Panjáb Railway also connects Delhi with Karáchí through its +junction with the N.W. Railway at Samasata to the south of Baháwalpur. +Another route is by a line passing through Rewárí and the Merta +junction. Karáchí is the natural seaport of the central and western +Panjáb. The S.P. Railway now gives an easy connection with Ferozepore +and Ludhiána, and the enormous export of wheat, cotton, etc. from the +new canal colonies is carried by several lines which converge at +Khanewál, a junction on the main line, a little north of Multán.</p> + +<p><b>Railways. Minor Lines.</b>—The Sind Ságar branch starting from Lála Musa +between Lahore and Amritsar with smaller lines taking off further north +at Golra and Campbellpur serves the part of the province lying north of +the Salt Range. These lines converge at Kundian in the Mianwálí +district, and a single line runs thence southwards to points on the +Indus opposite Dera Ismail Khán and Dera Ghází Khán, and turning +eastwards rejoins the trunk line at Sher Sháh near Multán. There are a +number of branch lines in the plains, some owned by native States. +Strategically a very important one is that which crossing the Indus by +the Khushálgarh bridge unites Ráwalpindí with Kohát. The only hill +railway is that from Kálka to Simla. A second is now under construction +which, when completed, will connect Ráwalpindí with Srínagar. All these +lines with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> exception of the branch of the E.I. Railway mentioned +above are worked by the staff of the N. W. State Railway, whose manager +controls inside and outside the Panjáb some 5000 miles of open line. The +interest earned in 1912 was 4½ p.c., a good return when it is +considered that the parts of the system to the north of the Salt Range +and the Sind Ságar railway were built primarily for strategic reasons.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<h3>CANALS</h3> + + +<p><b>Importance of Canals.</b>—One need have no hesitation in placing among the +greatest achievements of British rule in the Panjáb the magnificent +system of irrigation canals which it has given to the province. Its +great alluvial plain traversed by large rivers drawing an unfailing +supply of water from the Himalayan snows affords an ideal field for the +labours of the canal engineer. The vastness of the arid areas which +without irrigation yield no crops at all or only cheap millets and +pulses makes his works of inestimable benefit to the people and a source +of revenue to the State.</p> + +<p><b>Canals before annexation.</b>—In the west of the province we found in +existence small inundation canals dug by the people with some help from +their rulers. These only ran during the monsoon season, when the rivers +were swollen. In 1626 Sháhjahán's Persian engineer, Ali Mardán Khán, +brought to Delhi the water of the canal dug by Firoz Sháh as a monsoon +channel and made perennial by Akbar. But during the paralysis of the +central power in the eighteenth century the channels became silted up. +The same able engineer dug a canal from the Ráví near Mádhopur to water +the royal gardens at Lahore. What remained of this work at annexation +was known as the Haslí.</p> + +<p><b>Extent of Canal Irrigation.</b>—In 1911-12, when the deficiency of the +rainfall made the demand for water<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> keen, the canals of the Panjáb and +the N.W.F. Province irrigated 8½ millions of acres. The figures are:</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Panjáb</i></p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="Panjáb"> +<tr><th align='left'>A.</th><th align='left'>Permanent Canals</th><th align='right'>Acres</th><th align='right'>Interest<br />earned %</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>1. Western Jamna</td><td align='right'>775,450</td><td align='right'>7¾</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>2. Sirhind</td><td align='right'>1,609,458</td><td align='right'>8</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>3. Upper Bárí Doáb</td><td align='right'>1,156,808</td><td align='right'>11½</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>4. Lower Chenáb</td><td align='right'>2,334,090</td><td align='right'>34</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>5. Lower Jhelam</td><td align='right'>801,649</td><td align='right'>10⅓</td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'>B.</th><td align='left'>Monsoon Canals</td><td align='right'>1,654,437</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Total</span></td><td align='right'>8,331,892</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p class="center"><i>N.W. Frontier Province</i></p> + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="N.W. Frontier Province"> +<tr><th align='left'> </th><th align='right'>Acres</th><th align='right'>Interest<br />earned %</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> Lower Swát River</td><td align='right'>157,650</td><td align='right'>9¾</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Two minor Canals</td><td align='right'>67,510</td><td align='right'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Total</span></td><td align='right'>225,160</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<p>On the Sirhind Canal, on which the demand fluctuates greatly with the +character of the season, the area was twice the normal. The three canals +of the Triple Project will, when fully developed, add 1,871,000 acres to +the irrigated area of the Panjáb, and the Upper Swát Canal will increase +that of the N.W.F. Province by 381,000 acres. The canals will therefore +in a year of drought be able to water over ten millions of acres without +taking account of possible extensions if a second canal should be drawn +from the Sutlej. The money spent from imperial funds on Panjáb canals +has exceeded twelve millions sterling, and no money has ever been better +spent. In, when the area irrigated was a good deal less than in, the +value of the crops raised by the use of canal water was estimated at +about 207 millions of rupees or nearly £14,000,000. It is only possible +to note very briefly the steps by which this remarkable result has been +achieved.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 391px;"> +<a name="fig45" id="fig45"></a> +<img src="images/img045tb.jpg" width="391" height="500" alt="Fig. 45. Map—Older Canals." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img045.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 45. Map—Older Canals.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Western Jamna Canal.</b>—Soon after the assumption of authority at Delhi in +1803 the question of the old Canal from the Jamna was taken up. The +Delhi Branch was reopened in 1819, and the Hánsí Branch six years later. +In the famine year nearly 400,000 acres were irrigated. For more than +half a century that figure represented the irrigating capacity of the +canal. The English engineers in the main retained the faulty Moghal +alignment, and waterlogging of the worst description developed. The +effect on the health of the people was appalling. After long delay the +canal was remodelled. The result has been most satisfactory in every +way. In the last decade of the nineteenth century the Sirsa Branch and +the Nardak Distributary were added, to carry water to parts of the +Karnál and Hissár districts where any failure of the monsoon resulted in +widespread loss of crops. If a scheme to increase the supply can be +carried out, further extension in tracts now very liable to famine will +become possible. In the six years ending the interest earned exceeded 8 +p.c.</p> + +<p><b>Upper Bárí Doáb Canal.</b>—The headworks of the Upper Bárí Doáb Canal are +above Mádhopur near the point where the Ráví leaves the hills. The work +was started soon after annexation, but only finished in 1859. Irrigation +has grown from 90,000 acres in to 533,000 in, 861,000 in 1900-1, and +1,157,000 in. The later history of the canal consists mainly of great +extensions in the arid Lahore district, and the irrigation there is now +three-fifths of the whole. In parts of Amritsar, and markedly near the +city, waterlogging has become a grave evil, but remedial measures have +now been undertaken. The interest earned on the capital expenditure in +the six years ending averaged 11½ p.c.</p> + +<p><b>Sirhind Canal.</b>—A quarter of a century passed after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> the Upper Bárí Doáb +Canal began working before the water of the Sutlej was used for +irrigation. The Sirhind Canal weir is at Rupar where the river emerges +from the Siwáliks. Patiála, Jínd, and Nábha contributed to the cost, and +own three of the five branches. But the two British branches are +entitled to nearly two-thirds of the water, which is utilized in the +Ludhiána and Ferozepore districts and in the Farídkot State. The soil of +the tract commanded is for the most part a light sandy loam, and in +years of good rainfall it repays dry cultivation. The result is that the +area watered fluctuates largely. But in the six years ending the +interest earned averaged 7 p.c., and the power of expansion in a bad +year is a great boon to the peasantry.</p> + +<p><b>Canal extensions in Western Panjáb.</b>—In the last quarter of a century +the chief task of the Canal Department in the Panjáb has been the +extension of irrigation to the Rechna and Jech Doábs and the lower part +of the Bárí Doáb. All three contained large areas of waste belonging to +the State, mostly good soil, but incapable of cultivation owing to the +scanty rainfall. Colonization has therefore been an important part of +all the later canal projects. The operations have embraced the +excavation of five canals.</p> + +<p><b>Lower Chenáb Canal.</b>—The Lower Chenáb Canal is one of the greatest +irrigation works in the world, the area commanded being 3-1/3 million +acres, the average discharge four or five times that of the Thames at +Teddington, and the average irrigated area 2¼ million acres. There +are three main branches, the Rakh, the Jhang, and the Gugera. The supply +is secured by a great weir built across the Chenáb river at Khánkí in +the Gujránwála district, and the irrigation is chiefly in the +Gujránwála, Lyallpur, and Jhang districts. In the four years ending the +average interest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> earned was 28 p.c., and in future the rate should +rarely fall below 30 p.c. The capital expenditure has been a little over +£2,000,000. The interest charges were cleared about five years after the +starting of irrigation, and the capital has already been repaid to the +State twice over.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;"> +<a name="fig46" id="fig46"></a> +<img src="images/img046tb.jpg" width="385" height="500" alt="Fig. 46. Map—Canals." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img046.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 46. Map—Canals.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Lower Jhelam Canal.</b>—The Lower Jhelam Canal, which waters the tract +between the Jhelam and Chenáb in the Sháhpur and Jhang districts, is a +smaller and less profitable work. The culturable commanded area is about +one million acres. The head-works are at Rasúl in the Gujrát district. +Irrigation began in 1901. In the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> four years ending 1911-12 the average +area watered was 748,000 acres and the interest earned exceeded 10 p.c.</p> + +<p><b>Triple Project—Upper Jhelam and Upper Chenáb Canals and Lower Bárí Doáb +Canal.</b>—The Lower Chenáb Canal takes the whole available supply of the +Chenáb river. But it does not command a large area in the Rechna Doáb +lying in the west of Gujránwála, in which rain cultivation is very risky +and well cultivation is costly. No help can be got from the Ráví, as the +Upper Bárí Doáb Canal exhausts its supply. Desirable as the extension of +irrigation in the areas mentioned above is, the problem of supplying it +might well have seemed insuperable. The bold scheme known as the Triple +Project which embraces the construction of the Upper Jhelam, Upper +Chenáb, and Lower Bárí Doáb Canals, is based on the belief that the +Jhelam river has even in the cold weather water to spare after feeding +the Lower Jhelam Canal. The true <i>raison d'être</i> of the Upper Jhelam +Canal, whose head-works are at Mangla in Kashmír a little north of the +Gujrát district, is to throw a large volume of water into the Chenáb at +Khánkí, where the Lower Chenáb Canal takes off, and so set free an equal +supply to be taken out of the Chenáb higher up at Merála in Siálkot, +where are the head-works of the Upper Chenáb Canal. But the Upper Jhelam +Canal will also water annually some 345,000 acres in Gujrát and Sháhpur. +The Upper Chenáb Canal will irrigate 648,000 acres mostly in Gujránwála, +and will be carried across the Ráví by an aqueduct at Balloke in the +south of Lahore. Henceforth the canal is known as the Lower Bárí Doáb, +which will water 882,000 acres, mostly owned by the State, in the +Montgomery and Multán districts. On the other two canals the area of +Government land is not large. The Triple Project is approaching +completion, and irrigation from the Upper Chenáb<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> Canal has begun. The +engineering difficulties have been great, and the forecast does not +promise such large gains as even the Lower Jhelam Canal. But a return of +7½ p.c. is expected.</p> + +<p><b>Monsoon or Inundation Canals.</b>—The numerous monsoon or inundation +canals, which take off from the Indus, Jhelam, Chenáb, Ráví, and Sutlej, +though individually petty works, perform an important office in the +thirsty south-western districts. By their aid a <i>kharíf</i> crop can be +raised without working the wells in the hot weather, and with luck the +fallow can be well soaked in autumn, and put under wheat and other +spring crops. For the maturing of these crops a prudent cultivator +should not trust to the scanty cold weather rainfall, but should +irrigate them from a well. The Sidhnai has a weir, but may be included +in this class, for there is no assured supply at its head in the Ráví in +the winter. In 1910-11 the inundation canals managed by the State +watered 1,800,000 acres. There are a number of private canals in +Ferozepore, Sháhpur, and the hill district of Kángra. In Ferozepore the +district authorities take a share in the management.</p> + +<p><b>Colonization of Canal Lands.</b>—The colonization of huge areas of State +lands has been an important part of new canal schemes in the west of the +Panjáb. When the Lower Chenáb Canal was started the population of the +vast Bár tract which it commands consisted of a few nomad cattle owners +and cattle thieves. It was a point of honour to combine the two +professions. Large bodies of colonists were brought from the crowded +districts of the central Panjáb. The allotments to peasants usually +consisted of 55 acres, a big holding for a man who possibly owned only +four or five acres in his native district. There were larger allotments +known as yeoman and capitalist grants, but the peasants are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> the only +class who have turned out quite satisfactory farmers. Colonization began +in 1892 and was practically complete by 1904, when over 1,800,000 acres +had been allotted. To save the peasants from the evils which an +unrestricted right of transfer was then bringing on the heads of many +small farmers in the Panjáb it was decided only to give them permanent +inalienable tenant right. The Panjáb Alienation of Land Act, No. XIII of +1900, has supplied a remedy generally applicable, and the peasant +grantees are now being allowed to acquire ownership on very easy terms. +The greater part of the colony is in the new Lyallpur district, which +had in 1911 a population of 857,511 souls.</p> + +<p>On the Lower Jhelam Canal the area of colonized land exceeds 400,000 +acres. A feature of colonization on that canal is that half the area is +held on condition of keeping up one or more brood mares, the object +being to secure a good class of remounts. Succession to these grants is +governed by primogeniture. On the Lower Bárí Doáb Canal a very large +area is now being colonized.</p> + +<p><b>Canals of the N.W.F. Province.</b>—Hemmed in as the N.W.F. Province is +between the Indus and the Hills, its canals are insignificant as +compared with the great irrigation works of the Panjáb. The only ones of +any importance are in the Pesháwar Valley. These draw their supplies +from the Kábul, Bára, and Swát rivers, but the works supplied by the +first two streams only command small areas. The Lower Swát Canal was +begun in 1876, but the tribesmen were hostile and the diggers had to +sleep in fortified enclosures. The work was not opened till 1885. A reef +in the river has made it possible to dispense with a permanent weir. The +country is not an ideal one for irrigation, being much cut up by +ravines. But a large area has been brought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> under command, and the +irrigation has more than once exceeded 170,000 acres. In 1911-12 it was +157,650 acres, and the interest earned was 9¾ p.c. The Upper Swát +Canal, which was opened in April 1914, was a more ambitious project, +involving the tunnelling at the Málakand of 11,000 feet of solid rock. +The commanded area is nearly 450,000 acres, including 40,000 beyond our +administrative frontier. The estimated cost is Rs. 18,240,000 or over +£1,200,000 and the annual irrigation expected is 381,562 acres.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 442px;"> +<a name="fig47" id="fig47"></a> +<img src="images/img047tb.jpg" width="442" height="500" alt="Fig. 47. Map of Canals of Pesháwar district." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img047.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 47. Map of Canals of Pesháwar district.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2> + +<h3>AGRICULTURE AND CROPS</h3> + + +<p><b>Classification by Zones.</b>—In order to give an intelligible account of +the huge area embraced by the Panjáb, N.W.F. Province, and Kashmír it is +necessary to make a division of the area into zones. Classification must +be on very broad lines based on differences of altitude, rainfall, and +soil, leading to corresponding differences in the cultivation and the +crops. For statistical purposes districts must be taken as a whole, +though a more accurate classification would divide some of them between +two zones.</p> + +<p><b>Classes of Cultivation.</b>—The broadest division of cultivation is into +irrigated and unirrigated, the former including well (<i>cháhí</i>), canal +(<i>nahrí</i>), and <i>ábí</i>. The last term describes a small amount of land +watered from tanks or <i>jhíls</i> in the plains and a larger area in the +hills irrigated by <i>kuhls</i> or small artificial channels. "Unirrigated" +embraces cultivation dependent on rain (<i>bárání</i>) or on flooding or +percolation from rivers (<i>sailáb</i>). (See Table II.)</p> + +<p><b>Harvests.</b>—There are two harvests, the autumn or <i>kharíf</i>, and the +spring or <i>rabí</i>. The autumn crops are mostly sown in June and July and +reaped from September to December. Cotton is often sown in March. Cane +planted in March and cut in January and February is counted as a +<i>kharíf</i> crop. The spring crops are sown from the latter part of +September to the end of December.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> They are reaped in March and April. +Roughly in the Panjáb three-fifths of the crops belong to the spring +harvest. In the N.W.F. Province the proportion is somewhat higher. In +Kashmír the autumn crop is by far the more important.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig48" id="fig48"></a> +<img src="images/img048.jpg" width="600" height="471" alt="Fig. 48. Persian Wheel Well and Ekka." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 48. Persian Wheel Well and Ekka.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Implements of Husbandry and Wells.</b>—The implements of husbandry are +simple but effective in a land where as a rule there is no advantage in +stirring up the soil very deep. With his primitive plough (<i>hal</i>) and a +wooden clodcrusher (<i>sohága</i>) the peasant can produce a tilth for a crop +like cane which it would be hard to match in England. There are two +kinds of wells, the <i>charsa</i> or rope and bucket well and the <i>harat</i> or +Persian wheel.</p> + +<p><b>Rotations.</b>—The commonest rotation in ordinary loam soils is to put in a +spring and autumn crop in succession<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> and then let the land lie fallow +for a year. Unless a good deal of manure is available this is the course +to follow, even in the case of irrigated land. Some poor hard soils are +only fit for crops of coarse rice sown after the embanked fields have +been filled in the monsoon by drainage from surrounding waste. Other +lands are cropped only in the autumn because the winter rainfall is very +scanty. Flooded lands are often sown only for the spring harvest.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig49" id="fig49"></a> +<img src="images/img049.jpg" width="600" height="493" alt="Fig. 49. A drove of goats—Lahore." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 49. A drove of goats—Lahore.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Cattle, Sheep, and Goats.</b>—In 1909 there were in the British districts +of the Panjáb 4¼ million bullocks and 625,000 male buffaloes +available to draw 2,169,000 ploughs and 288,000 carts, thresh the corn, +and work a quarter of a million wells, besides sugar, oil, and flour +mills. The cattle of the hills, N.W. Panjáb, and riverain tracts are +undersized, but in the uplands of the Central Panjáb and S.E. districts +fine oxen are used. The horned cattle share 18 millions of pasture land, +much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> extremely poor, with 4 million sheep and 5½ million goats. +Hence the enormous area devoted to fodder crops.</p> + +<p><b>Zones.</b>—Six zones can be distinguished, but, as no district is wholly +confined to the mountain zone, it must for statistical purposes be +united to the submontane zone:</p> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="90%" cellspacing="0" summary="Zones"> + +<tr> +<td style="width: 10%;">(<i>a</i>)<br /><br />(<i>b</i>)</td> +<td style="width: 25%;">Mountain above 5000 feet<br /><br />Submontane</td> +<td style="width: 65%;"><big>{</big>Panjáb—Kángra, Simla, Native States in Hills, Ambála, Hoshyárpur.<br /><big>{</big><br /> +<big>{</big>N.W.F. Province. Hazára, Kashmír—whole</td> + +</tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td>(<i>c</i>)</td> +<td>North Central Plain</td> +<td>Panjáb—Gujrát, Siálkot, Gurdáspur, +Amritsar, Jalandhar, Ludhiána, Kapúrthala, Malerkotla, Powádh tract in Phulkian States.</td> + +</tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td>(<i>d</i>)</td> +<td>North-West Area</td> +<td>Panjáb—Ráwalpindí, Jhelam, +Attock, Mianwálí. N.W.F.P.—Pesháwar, Kohát, Bannu.</td> + +</tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td>(<i>e</i>)</td> +<td>South-Western Plains</td> +<td>Panjáb—Gujránwála, Lahore, +Sháhpur, Jhang, Lyallpur, Montgomery, Multán, Muzaffargarh, Dera Ghází +Khán, Baháwalpur. N.W.F.P.—Dera Ismail Khán. +</td> + +</tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td>(<i>f</i>)</td> +<td>South-Eastern Area</td> +<td>Panjáb—Karnál, Rohtak, Gurgáon, +Hissár, Ferozepore, Farídkot, Jangal tract in +Phulkian States, Native States territory adjoining Gurgáon and Rohtak. +</td> + +</tr> + + +</table></div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Mountain and Submontane Zones.</b>—In the Mountain Zone the fields are +often very minute, consisting of narrow terraces supported by stone +revetments built up the slopes of hills. That anyone should be ready to +spend time and labour on such unpromising material is a sign of pressure +of population on the soil, which is a marked feature of some hill +tracts.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig50" id="fig50"></a> +<img src="images/img050.jpg" width="600" height="481" alt="Fig. 50. A steep bit of hill cultivation, Hazára." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 50. A steep bit of hill cultivation, Hazára.</span> +</div> + +<p>Below 8000 feet the great crop is maize. Potatoes have been introduced +near our hill stations. The chief pulse of the mountain zone is <i>kulath</i> +(Dolichos biflorus), eaten by the very poor. Wheat ascends to 8000 or +9000 feet, and at the higher levels is reaped in August. Barley is grown +at much greater heights. Buckwheat (<i>úgal</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> <i>trúmba</i>, <i>dráwí</i>), +amaranth (<i>chauláí</i>, <i>ganhár</i>, <i>sariára</i>), and a tall chenopod (<i>bathu</i>) +are grown in the mountain zone. Buckwheat is common on poor stony lands.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig51" id="fig51"></a> +<img src="images/img051.jpg" width="600" height="473" alt="Fig. 51. Preparing rice field in the Hills." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 51. Preparing rice field in the Hills.</span> +</div> + +<p>The only comparatively flat land is on the banks above river beds, which +are devoted to rice cultivation, the water being conducted to the +embanked fields by an elaborate system of little canals or <i>kuhls</i>. This +is the only irrigation in the mountains, and is much valued. The +Submontane Zone has a rainfall of from 30 to 40 inches. Well irrigation +is little used and the dry crops are generally secure. Wheat and maize +are the great staples, but gram and <i>charí</i>, i.e. <i>jowár</i> grown for +fodder, are also important. Some further information about Kashmír +agriculture will be found in a later chapter. For<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> full details about +classes of cultivation and crops in all the zones Tables II, III and IV +should be consulted.</p> + +<p><b>North Central Panjáb Plain.</b>—The best soils and the finest tillage are +to be found in the North Central Zone. Gujrát has been included in it, +though it has also affinities in the north with the North-West area, and +in the south with the South-Western plain. The rainfall varies from 25 +to 35 inches. One-third of the cultivated area is protected by wells, +and the well cultivation is of a very high class in Ludhiána and +Jalandhar, where heavily manured maize is followed by a fine crop of +wheat, and cane is commonly grown. In parts of Siálkot and Gujrát the +well cultivation is of a different type, the area served per well being +large and the object being to protect a big acreage of wheat in the +spring harvest. The chief crops in this zone are wheat and <i>charí</i>. The +latter is included under "Other Fodder" in Tables III and IV.</p> + +<p><b>North-Western Area.</b>—The plateau north of the Salt Range has a very +clean light white sandy loam soil requiring little ploughing and no +weeding. It is often very shallow, and this is one reason for the great +preference for cold weather crops. <i>Kharíf</i> crops are more liable to be +burned up. Generally speaking the rainfall is from 15 to 25 inches, the +proportion falling in the winter and spring being larger than elsewhere. +There is, except in Pesháwar and Bannu, where the conditions involve a +considerable divergence from the type of this zone, practically no canal +irrigation. The well irrigation is unimportant and in most parts +consists of a few acres round each well intensively cultivated with +market-gardening crops. The dry crops are generally very precarious. In +Mianwálí the Indus valley is a fine tract, but the harvests fluctuate +greatly with the extent of the floods. The Thal in Mianwálí to the south +of the Sind Ságar railway is really a part of the next zone.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>The South-Western Plains.</b>—This zone contains nine districts. With the +exception of the three on the north border of the zone they have a +rainfall of from 5 to 10 inches. Of these six arid districts, only one, +Montgomery, has any dry cultivation worth mentioning. In the zone as a +whole three-fourths of the cultivation is protected by canals or wells, +or by both. In the lowlands near the great rivers cultivation depends on +the floods brought to the land direct or through small canals which +carry water to parts which the natural overflow would not reach. In the +uplands vast areas formerly untouched by the plough have been brought +under tillage by the help of perennial canals, and the process of +reclamation is still going on. The Thal is a large sandy desert which +becomes more and more worthless for cultivation as one proceeds +southwards. In the north the people have found out of late years that +this unpromising sand can not only yield poor <i>kharíf</i> crops, but is +worth sowing with gram in the spring harvest. The expense is small, and +a lucky season means large profits. In Dera Ghází Khán a large area of +"<i>pat</i>" below the hills is dependent for cultivation on torrents. The +favourite crop in the embanked fields into which the water is diverted +is <i>jowár</i>.</p> + +<p><b>The South-Eastern Plains.</b>—In the south-eastern Panjáb except in Hissár +and the native territory on the border of Rájputána, the rainfall is +from 20 to 30 inches. In Hissár it amounts to some 15 inches. These are +averages; the variations in total amount and distribution over the +months of the year are very great. In good seasons the area under dry +crops is very large, but the fluctuations in the sown acreage are +extraordinary, and the matured is often far below the sown area. The +great crops are gram and mixtures of wheat or barley with gram in the +spring, and <i>bájra</i> in the autumn, harvest. Well cultivation is not of +much importance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> generally, though some of it in the Jamna riverain is +excellent. The irrigated cultivation depends mainly on the Western Jamna +and Sirhind canals, and the great canal crops are wheat and cotton. This +is the zone in which famine conditions are still most to be feared.</p> + +<p>In the Panjáb as a whole about one-third of the cultivated area is +yearly put under wheat, which with <i>bájra</i> and maize is the staple food +of the people. A large surplus of wheat and oil-seeds is available for +export.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;"> +<a name="fig52" id="fig52"></a> +<img src="images/img052.jpg" width="420" height="600" alt="Fig. 52. Carved doorway." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 52. Carved doorway.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2> + +<h3>HANDICRAFTS AND MANUFACTURES</h3> + + +<p><b>Handicrafts.</b>—The chief handicrafts of the province are those of the +weaver, the shoemaker, the carpenter, the potter, and the worker in +brass and copper. The figures of the 1911 census for each craft +including dependents were: weavers 883,000; shoemakers 540,000; +carpenters 381,000; potters and brickmakers 349,000; metalworkers +240,000. The figures for weavers include a few working in factories. The +hand-spun cotton-cloth is a coarse strong fabric known as "<i>khaddar</i>" +with a single warp and weft. "<i>Khes</i>" is a better article with a double +warp and weft. "<i>Súsí</i>" is a smooth cloth with coloured stripes used for +women's trousers. A superior kind of checked "<i>khes</i>" known as +"<i>gabrún</i>" is made at Ludhiána. The native process of weaving is slow +and the weavers are very poor. The Salvation Army is trying to introduce +an improved hand loom. Fine "<i>lungís</i>" or turbans of cotton with silk +borders are made at Ludhiána, Multán, Pesháwar, and elsewhere. Effective +cotton printing is carried on by very primitive methods at Kot Kamália +and Lahore. Ludhiána and Lahore turn out cotton <i>darís</i> or rugs. Coarse +woollen blankets or <i>loís</i> are woven at various places, and coloured<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +felts or <i>namdas</i> are made at Ludhiána, Khusháb, and Pesháwar. Excellent +imitations of Persian carpets are woven at Amritsar, and the Srínagar +carpets do credit to the Kashmírís' artistic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> taste. The best of the +Amritsar carpets are made of <i>pashm</i>, the fine underwool of the Tibetan +sheep, and <i>pashmína</i> is also used as a material for <i>choghas</i> +(dressing-gowns), etc. Coarse woollen cloth or <i>pattu</i> is woven in the +Kángra hills for local use. At Multán useful rugs are made whose fabric +is a mixture of cotton and wool. More artistic are the Biluch rugs made +by the Biluch women with geometrical patterns. These are excellent in +colouring. They are rather difficult to procure as they are not made for +sale. The weaving of China silk is a common industry in Amritsar, +Baháwalpur, Multán, and other places. The <i>phulkárí</i> or silk embroidery +of the village maidens of Hissár and other districts of the Eastern +Panjáb, and the more elaborate gold and silver wire embroideries of the +Delhi <i>bazárs</i>, are excellent. The most artistic product of the plains +is the ivory carving of Delhi. As a wood-carver the Panjábí is not to be +compared with the Kashmírí. His work is best fitted for doorways and the +bow windows or <i>bokhárchas</i> commonly seen in the streets of old towns. +The best carvers are at Bhera, Chiniot, Amritsar, and Batála. The +European demand has produced at Simla and other places an abundant +supply of cheap articles of little merit. The inlaid work of Chiniot and +Hoshyárpur is good, as is the lacquer-work of Pákpattan. The papier +maché work of Kashmír has much artistic merit (Fig. 55), and some of the +repoussé silver work of Kashmír is excellent.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;"> +<a name="fig53" id="fig53"></a> +<img src="images/img053.jpg" width="370" height="600" alt="Fig. 53. Shoemaker's craft." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 53. Shoemaker's craft.</span> +</div> + +<p>The craft of the <i>thathera</i> or brass worker is naturally most prominent +in the Eastern Panjáb, because Hindus prefer brass vessels for cooking +purposes. Delhi is the great centre, but the trade is actively carried +on at other places, and especially at Jagádhrí.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 432px;"> +<a name="fig54" id="fig54"></a> +<img src="images/img054.jpg" width="432" height="600" alt="Fig. 54. Carved windows." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 54. Carved windows.</span> +</div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p> +<p>Unglazed pottery is made practically in every village. The blue +enamelled pottery of Multán and the glazed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> Delhi china ware are +effective. The manufacture of the latter is on a very petty scale.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig55" id="fig55"></a> +<img src="images/img055.jpg" width="600" height="463" alt="Fig. 55. Papier maché work of Kashmír." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 55. Papier maché work <b>of</b> Kashmír.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Factories.</b>—The factory industries of the Panjáb are still very small. +In 1911 there were 268 factories employing 28,184 hands. The typical +Panjáb factory is a little cotton ginning or pressing mill. The grinding +of flour and husking of rice are sometimes part of the same business. +The number of these mills rose in the 20 years ending 1911 from 12 to +202, and there are complaints that there are now too many factories. +Cotton-spinning has not been very successful and the number of mills in +1911, eight, was the same as in 1903-4. The weaving is almost entirely +confined to yarn of low counts. Part is used by the hand-loom weavers +and part is exported to the United Provinces. Good woollen fabrics are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +turned out at a factory at Dháriwál in the Gurdáspur district. There +were in 1911 fifteen flour mills, ten ironworks, three breweries, and +one distillery.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig56" id="fig56"></a> +<img src="images/img056.jpg" width="600" height="421" alt="Fig. 56. The Potter." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 56. The Potter.<br />(<i>From a picture book said to have been prepared for Mahárája Dalíp +Singh.</i>)</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Joint-Stock Companies.</b>—The Panjáb has not reached the stage where the +joint-stock business successfully takes the place of the family banking +or factory business. In 1911 there were 194 joint-stock companies. But +many of these were provident societies, the working of which has been +attended with such abuses that a special act has been passed for their +control. A number of banks and insurance companies have also sprung up +of late years. Of some of these the paid up capital is absurdly small, +and the recent collapse of the largest and of two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> smaller native banks +has drawn attention to the extremely risky nature of the business done. +Of course European and Hindu family banking businesses of the old type +stand on quite a different footing. Some of the cotton and other mills +are joint-stock concerns.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2> + +<h3>EXPORTS AND IMPORTS</h3> + + +<p><b>Trade.</b>—In 1911-12 the exports from the Panjáb, excluding those by land +to Central Asia, Ladákh, and Afghánistán, were valued at Rs. +27,63,21,000 (£18,421,000), of which 61 p.c. went to Karáchí and about +10 p.c. to Calcutta and Bombay. Of the total 27 p.c. consisted of wheat, +nearly the whole of which was dispatched to Karáchí. All other grains +and pulses were about equal in value to the wheat. "Gram and other +pulses" (18 p.c. of total exports) was the chief item. Raw cotton +accounts for 15, and oil-seeds for 10 p.c. The imports amounted in value +to Rs. 30,01,28,000 (£20,008,000), little more than one-third being +received from Karáchí. Cotton piece goods (Foreign 22, Indian 8½ +p.c.) make up one-third of the total. The other important figures are +sugar 12, and metals 11 p.c. The land trade with Afghánistán, Central +Asia, and Ladákh is insignificant, but interesting as furnishing an +example of modes of transport which have endured for many centuries, and +of the pursuit of gain often under appalling physical difficulties.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2> + +<h3>HISTORY—PRE-MUHAMMADAN PERIOD, 500 B.C.—1000 A.D.</h3> + + +<p><b>In Hindu period relations of Panjáb were with western kingdoms.</b>—The +large tract included in the British province of the Panjáb which lies +between the Jamna and the Ghagar is, having regard to race, language, +and past history, a part of Hindustán. Where "Panjáb" is used without +qualification in this section the territories west of the Ghagar and +south of Kashmír are intended. The true relations of the Panjáb and +Kashmír during the Hindu period were, except for brief intervals, with +Persia, Afghánistán, and Turkistán rather than with the great kingdoms +founded in the valley of the Ganges and the Jamna.</p> + +<p><b>Normal division into petty kingdoms and tribal confederacies.</b>—The +normal state of the Panjáb in early times was to be divided into a +number of small kingdoms and tribal republics. Their names and the areas +which they occupied varied from time to time. Names of kingdoms that +have been rescued from oblivion are Gandhára, corresponding to Pesháwar +and the valley of the Kábul river, Urasa or Hazára, where the name is +still preserved in the Orash plain, Táxila, which may have corresponded +roughly to the present districts of Ráwalpindí and Attock with a small +part of Hazára, Abhisara or the low hills of Jammu, Kashmír, and +Trigartta, with its capital Jalandhara, which occupied most of the +Jalandhar division<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> north of the Sutlej and the states of Chamba, Suket, +and Mandí. The historians of Alexander's campaigns introduce us also to +the kingdoms of the elder Poros on both banks of the Jhelam, of the +younger Poros east of the Chenáb, and of Sophytés (Saubhutí) in the +neighbourhood of the Salt Range. We meet also with tribal confederacies, +such as in Alexander's time those of the Kathaioi on the upper, and of +the Malloi on the lower, Ráví.</p> + +<p><b>Invasion by Alexander, 327-325 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span></b>—The great Persian king, Darius, in +512 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> pushed out the boundary of his empire to the Indus, then +running in a more easternly course than to-day<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>. The army with which +Xerxes invaded Greece included a contingent of Indian bowmen<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>. When +Alexander overthrew the Persian Empire and started on the conquest of +India, the Indus was the boundary of the former. His remarkable campaign +lasted from April, 327 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, when he led an army of 50,000 or 60,000 +Europeans across the Hindu Kush into the Kábul valley, to October, 325, +when he started from Sindh on his march to Persia through Makrán. Having +cleared his left flank by a campaign in the hills of Buner and Swát, he +crossed the Indus sixteen miles above Attock near Torbela. The King of +Táxila, whose capital was near the Margalla pass on the north border of +the present Ráwalpindí district, had prudently submitted as soon as the +Macedonian army appeared in the Kábul valley. From the Indus Alexander +marched to Táxila, and thence to the Jhelam (Hydaspes), forming a camp +near the site now occupied by the town of that name in the country of +Poros. The great army of the Indian king was drawn up to dispute the +passage probably not very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> far from the eastern end of the present +railway bridge. Favoured by night and a monsoon rain-storm—it was the +month of July, 326 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>—Alexander succeeded in crossing some miles +higher up into the Karrí plain under the low hills of Gujrát. Here, +somewhere near the line now occupied by the upper Jhelam Canal, the +Greek soldiers gave the first example of a feat often repeated since, +the rout of a large and unwieldy Indian army by a small, but mobile and +well-led, European force. Having defeated Poros, Alexander crossed the +Chenáb (Akesines), stormed Sángala, a fort of the Kathaioi on the upper +Ráví (Hydraotes) and advanced as far as the Biás (Hyphasis). But the +weary soldiers insisted that this should be the bourn of their eastward +march, and, after setting up twelve stone altars on the farther side, +Alexander in September, 326 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, reluctantly turned back. Before he +left the Panjáb he had hard fighting with the Malloi on the lower Ráví, +and was nearly killed in the storm of one of their forts. Alexander +intended that his conquests should be permanent, and made careful +arrangements for their administration. But his death in June, 323 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, +put an end to Greek rule in India. Chandra Gupta Maurya expelled the +Macedonian garrisons, and some twenty years later Seleukos Nicator had +to cede to him Afghánistán.</p> + +<p><b>Maurya Dominion and Empire of Aşoka, 323-231 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span></b>—Chandra Gupta is +the Sandrakottos, to whose capital at Pataliputra (Patna) Seleukos sent +Megasthenes in 303 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> The Greek ambassador was a diligent and truthful +observer, and his notes give a picture of a civilized and complex system +of administration. If Chandra Gupta was the David, his grandson, +Aşoka, was the Solomon of the first Hindu Empire. His long reign, +lasting from 273 to 231 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, was with one exception a period of +profound peace deliberately maintained by an emperor who, after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> his +conversion to the teaching of Gautama Buddha, thought war a sin. +Aşoka strove to lead his people into the right path by means of pithy +abstracts of the moral law of his master graven on rocks and pillars. It +is curious to remember that this missionary king was peacefully ruling a +great empire in India during the twenty-four years of the struggle +between Rome and Carthage, which we call the first Punic War. Of the +four Viceroys who governed the outlying provinces of the empire one had +his headquarters at Táxila. One of the rock edicts is at Mansehra in +Hazára and another at Sháhbázgarhí in Pesháwar. From this time and for +many centuries the dominant religion in the Panjáb was Buddhism, but the +religion of the villages may then have been as remote from the State +creed as it is to-day from orthodox Brahmanism.</p> + +<p><b>Graeco-Bactrian and Graeco-Parthian Rule.</b>—The Panjáb slipped from the +feeble grasp of Aşoka's successors, and for four centuries it looked +not to the Ganges, but to the Kábul and the Oxus rivers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig57" id="fig57"></a> +<img src="images/img057.jpg" width="600" height="245" alt="Fig. 57. Coin—obverse and reverse of Menander." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 57. Coin—obverse and reverse of Menander.</span> +</div> + +<p>Up to the middle of the first century of our era it was first under +Graeco-Bactrian, and later under Graeco-Parthian, rule directly, or +indirectly through local rulers with Greek names or Sáka Satraps. The +Sákas, one of the central Asian shepherd hordes, were pushed out of +their pastures on the upper Jaxartes by another horde,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> the Yuechí. +Shadowy Hellenist Princes have left <b>us</b> only their names on coins; one +Menander, who ruled about 150 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, is an exception. He anticipated the +feats of later rulers of Kábul by a temporary conquest of North-Western +India, westwards to the Jamna and southwards to the sea.</p> + +<p><b>The Kushán Dynasty.</b>—The Yuechí in turn were driven southward to the +Oxus and the Kábul valley and under the Kushán dynasty established their +authority in the Panjáb about the middle of the first century. The most +famous name is that of Kanishka, who wrested from China Kashgár, +Yarkand, and Khotan, and assembled <b>a</b> notable council of sages of the law +in Kashmír. His reign may be dated from 120 to 150 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> His capital was +at Purushapura (Pesháwar), near which he built the famous relic tower of +Buddha, 400 feet high. Beside the tower was a large monastery still +renowned in the ninth and tenth centuries as a home of sacred learning. +The rule of Kushán kings in the Panjáb lasted till the end of the first +quarter of the third century. To their time belong the Buddhist +sculptures found in the tracts near their Pesháwar capital (see also +page <a href='#Page_204'><b>204</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>The Gupta Empire.</b>—Of the century preceding the establishment in 320 +B.C. of the Gupta dynasty at Patna we know nothing. The Panjáb probably +again fell under the sway of petty rájas and tribal confederacies, +though the Kushán rule was maintained in Pesháwar till 465 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, when it +was finally blotted out by the White Huns. These savage invaders soon +after defeated Skanda Gupta, and from this blow the Gupta Empire never +recovered. At the height of its power in 400 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> under Chandra Gupta +II, known as Vikramaditya, who is probably the original of the +Bikramajít of Indian legends, it may have reached as far west as the +Chenáb.</p> + +<p><b>The White Huns or Ephthalites.</b>—In the beginning of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> the sixth century +the White Hun, Mahirakula, ruled the Panjáb from Sakala, the modern +Siálkot. He was a worshipper of Şiva, and a deadly foe of the +Buddhist cult, and has been described as a monster of cruelty.</p> + +<p>The short-lived dominion of the White Huns was destroyed by the Turks +and Persians about the year 565 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span></p> + +<p><b>Panjáb in seventh century <span class="smcap">A.D.</span></b>—From various sources, one of the most +valuable being the Memoirs of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Hiuen Tsang, +who travelled in India from 630 to 644 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, we know something of +Northern India in the first half of the seventh century. Hiuen Tsang was +at Kanauj as a guest of a powerful king named Harsha, whose first +capital was at Thanesar, and who held a suzerainty over all the rájas +from the Brahmaputra to the Biás. West of that river the king of Kashmír +was also overlord of Táxila, Urasa, Parnotsa (Punch), Rájapurí (Rajaurí) +and Sinhapura, which seems to have included the Salt Range. The Pesháwar +valley was probably ruled by the Turkí Shahiya kings of Kábul. The rest +of the Panjáb was divided between a kingdom called by Hiuen Tsang +Tsekhia, whose capital was somewhere near Siálkot, and the important +kingdom of Sindh, in which the Indus valley as far north as the Salt +Range was included. Harsha died in 647 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> and his empire collapsed.</p> + +<p><b>Kashmír under Hindu Kings.</b>—For the next century China was at the height +of its power. It established a suzerainty over Kashmír, Udyána (Swát), +Yasín, and Chitrál. The first was at this period a powerful Hindu +kingdom. Its annals, as recorded in Kalhana's Rájataranginí, bear +henceforward a real relation to history. In 733 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> King Muktapida +Lálitáditya received investiture from the Chinese Emperor. Seven years +later he defeated the King of Kanauj on the Ganges. A ruler who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> carried +his arms so far afield must have been very powerful in the Northern +Panjáb. The remains of the wonderful Mártand temple, which he built in +honour of the Sun God, are a standing memorial of his greatness. The +history of Kashmír under its Hindu kings for the next 400 years is for +the most part that of a wretched people ground down by cruel tyrants. A +notable exception was Avantidharman—855-883 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>—whose minister, +Suyya, carried out very useful drainage and irrigation works.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig58" id="fig58"></a> +<img src="images/img058.jpg" width="600" height="418" alt="Fig. 58. Mártand Temple." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 58. Mártand Temple.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>The Panjáb, 650-1000 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span></b>—We know little of Panjáb history in the 340 +years which elapsed between the death of Harsha and the beginning of the +Indian raids of the Sultans of Ghazní in 986-7 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> The conquest of the +kingdom of Sindh by the Arab general, Muhammad Kásim, occurred some +centuries earlier, in 712 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> Multán, the city of the Sun-worshippers, +was occupied, and part<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> at least of the Indus valley submitted to the +youthful conqueror. He and his successors in Sindh were tolerant rulers. +No attempt was made to occupy the Central Panjáb, and when the Turkish +Sultán, Sabaktagin, made his first raid into India in 986-7 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, his +opponent was a powerful rája named Jaipál, who ruled over a wide +territory extending from the Hakra to the frontier hills on the +north-west. His capital was at Bhatinda. Just about the time when the +rulers of Ghazní were laying the train which ended at Delhi and made it +the seat of a great Muhammadan Empire, that town was being founded in +993-4 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> by the Tunwar Rájputs, who then held sway in that +neighbourhood.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></p> + + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2> + +<h3>HISTORY (<i>continued</i>). THE MUHAMMADAN PERIOD, 1000-1764 A.D.</h3> + + +<p><b>The Ghaznevide Raids.</b>—In the tenth century the Turks were the +janissaries of the Abbaside Caliphs of Baghdád, and ambitious soldiers +of that race began to carve out kingdoms. One Alptagin set up for +himself at Ghazní, and was succeeded in 976 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> by his slave +Sabaktagin, who began the long series of Indian raids which stained with +blood the annals of the next half-century. His son, Mahmúd of Ghazní, a +ruthless zealot and robber abroad, a patron of learning and literature +at home, added the Panjáb to his dominions. In the first 26 years of the +eleventh century he made seventeen marauding excursions into India. In +the first his father's opponent, Jaipál, was beaten in a vain effort to +save Pesháwar. Ten years later his successor, Anandpál, at the head of a +great army, again met the Turks in the Khaibar. The valour of the +Ghakkars had practically won the day, when Anandpál's elephant took +fright, and this accident turned victory into rout. In one or other of +the raids Multán and Lahore were occupied, and the temples of Kángra +(Nagarkot) and Thanesar plundered. In 1018 the Turkish army marched as +far east as Kanauj. The one permanent result of all these devastations +was the occupation of the Panjáb. The Turks made Lahore the capital.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Decline of Buddhism.</b>—The iconoclastic raids of Mahmúd probably gave the +<i>coup de grâce</i> to Buddhism. Its golden age may be put at from 250 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> +to 200 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> Brahmanism gradually emerged from retirement and reappeared +at royal courts. It was quite ready to admit Buddha to its pantheon, and +by so doing it sapped the doctrine he had taught. The Chinese pilgrim, +Fahien, in the early part of the fifth century could still describe +Buddhism in the Panjáb as "very flourishing," and he found numerous +monasteries. The religion seems however to have largely degenerated into +a childish veneration of relics.</p> + +<p><b>Conquest of Delhi.</b>—For a century and a quarter after the death of +Mahmúd in 1030 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> his line maintained its sway over a much diminished +empire. In 1155 the Afghán chief of Ghor, Alá ud dín, the "World-burner" +(Jahán-soz), levelled Ghazní with the ground. For a little longer the +Ghaznevide Turkish kings maintained themselves in Lahore. Between 1175 +and 1186 Muhammad Ghorí, who had set up a new dynasty at Ghazní, +conquered Multán, Peshawar, Siálkot, and Lahore, and put an end to the +line of Mahmúd. The occupation of Sirhind brought into the field Prithví +Rája, the Chauhán Rájput king of Delhi. In 1191 he routed Muhammad Ghorí +at Naráina near Karnál. But next year the Afghán came back with a huge +host, and this time on the same battlefield fortune favoured him. +Prithví Rája was taken and killed, and Muhammad's slave, Kutbuddín +Aibak, whom he left to represent him in India, soon occupied Delhi. In +1203 Muhammad Ghorí had to flee for his life after a defeat near the +Oxus. The Ghakkars seized the chance and occupied Lahore. But the old +lion, though wounded, was still formidable. The Ghakkars were beaten, +and, it is said, converted. A year or two later they murdered their +conqueror in his tent near the Indus.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Turkish and Afgháns Sultáns of Delhi.</b>—He had no son, and his strong +viceroy, Kutbuddín Aibak, became in 1206 the first of the 33 Muhammadan +kings, who in five successive dynasties ruled from Delhi a kingdom of +varying dimensions, till the last of them fell at Pánipat in 1526, and +Bábar, the first of the Moghals, became master of their red fort palace. +The blood-stained annals of these 320 years can only be lightly touched +on. Under vigorous rulers like the Turkí Slave kings, Altamsh +(1210-1236) and Balban (1266-1287), a ferocious and masterful boor like +Alá ud dín Khaljí (1296-1316), or a ferocious but able man of culture +like Muhammad Tughlak (1325-1351), the local governors at Lahore and +Multán were content to be servants. In the frequent intervals during +which the royal authority was in the hands of sottish wastrels, the +chance of independence was no doubt seized.</p> + +<p><b>Mongol Invasions.</b>—In 1221 the Mongol cloud rose on the north-west +horizon. The cruelty of these camel-riding Tatars and the terror they +inspired may perhaps be measured by the appalling picture given of their +bestial appearance. In 1221, Chingiz Khán descended on the Indus at the +heels of the King of Khwarizm (Khiva), and drove him into Sindh. Then +there was a lull for twenty years, after which the Mongol war hordes +ruined and ravaged the Panjáb for two generations. Two great Panjáb +governors, Sher Khán under Balban and Tughlak under Alá ud dín Khaljí, +maintained a gallant struggle against these savages. In 1297 and 1303 +the Mongols came to the gates of Delhi, but the city did not fall, and +soon after they ceased to harry Northern India. During these years the +misery of the common people must often have been extreme. When foreign +raids ceased for a time they were plundered by their own rulers. In the +Panjáb the fate of the peasantry must have depended chiefly on the +character<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> of the governor for the time being, and of the local +feudatories or <i>zamíndárs</i>, who were given the right to collect the +State's share of the produce on condition of keeping up bodies of armed +men for service when required.</p> + +<p><b>The Invasion of Timúr.</b>—The long reign of Muhammad Tughlak's successor, +Firoz Sháh (1351-1388), son of a Hindu Rájput princess of Dipálpur, +brought relief to all classes. Besides adopting a moderate fiscal +policy, he founded towns like Hissár and Fatehábád, dug canals from the +Jamna and the Sutlej, and carried out many other useful works. On his +death the realm fell into confusion. In 1398-99 another appalling +calamity fell upon it in the invasion of Timúrlang (Tamerlane), Khán of +Samarkand. He entered India at the head of 90,000 horsemen, and marched +by Multán, Dipálpur, Sirsa, Kaithal, and Pánipat to Delhi. What lust of +blood was to the Mongols, religious hatred was to Timúr and his Turks. +Ten thousand Hindus were put to the sword at Bhatner and 100,000 +prisoners were massacred before the victory at Delhi. For the three +days' sack of the royal city Timúr was not personally responsible. Sated +with the blood of lakhs of infidels sent "to the fires of Hell" he +marched back through Kángra and Jammu to the Indus. Six years later the +House of Tughlak received a deadly wound when the Wazír, Ikbál Khan, +fell in battle with Khizr Khán, the governor of Multán.</p> + +<p><b>The later Dynasties.</b>—The Saiyyids, who were in power from 1414 to 1451, +only ruled a small territory round Delhi. The local governors and the +Hindu chiefs made themselves independent. Sikandar Lodí (1488-1518) +reduced them to some form of submission, but his successor, Ibrahím, +drove them into opposition by pushing authority further than his power +justified. An Afghán noble, Daulat Khán, rebelled in the Panjáb. There +is always an ear at Kábul listening to the first sounds of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> discord and +weakness between Pesháwar and Delhi. Bábar, a descendant of Timúr, ruled +a little kingdom there. In 1519 he advanced as far as Bhera. Five years +later his troops burned the Lahore <i>bazár</i>, and sacked Dipálpur. The +next winter saw Bábar back again, and this time Delhi was his goal. On +the 21st of April, 1526, a great battle at Pánipat again decided the +fate of India, and Bábar entered Delhi in triumph.</p> + +<p><b>Akbar and his successors.</b>—He soon bequeathed his Indian kingdom to his +son Humáyun, who lost it, but recovered it shortly before his death by +defeating Sikandar Sur at Sirhind. In 1556 Akbar succeeded at the age of +13, and in the same year Bahram Khán won for his master a great battle +at Pánipat and seated the Moghals firmly on the throne. For the next +century and a half, till their power declined after the death of +Aurangzeb in 1707, Kábul and Delhi were under one rule, and the Panjáb +was held in a strong grasp. When it was disturbed the cause was +rebellions of undutiful sons of the reigning Emperor, struggles between +rival heirs on the Emperor's death, or attempts to check the growing +power of the Sikh Gurus. The empire was divided into <i>súbahs</i>, and the +area described in this book embraced <i>súbahs</i> Lahore and Multán, and +parts of <i>súbahs</i> Delhi and Kábul. Kashmír and the trans-Indus tract +were included in the last.</p> + +<p><b>The Sultáns of Kashmír.</b>—The Hindu rule in Kashmír had broken down by +the middle of the twelfth century. A long line of Musalmán Sultáns +followed. Two notable names emerge in the end of the fourteenth and the +first half of the fifteenth century, Sikandar, the "Idol-breaker," who +destroyed most of the Hindu temples and converted his people to Islám, +and his wise and tolerant successor, Zain-ul-ábidín. Akbar conquered +Kashmír in 1587.</p> + +<p><b>Moghal Royal Progresses to Kashmír.</b>—His successors often moved from +Delhi by Lahore, Bhimbar, and the Pír<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> Panjál route to the Happy Valley +in order to escape the summer heats. Bernier has given us a graphic +account of Aurangzeb's move to the hills in 1665. On that occasion his +total following was estimated to amount to 300,000 or 400,000 persons, +and the journey from Delhi to Lahore occupied two months. The burden +royal progresses on this scale must have imposed on the country is +inconceivable. Jahángír died in his beloved Kashmír. He planted the road +from Delhi to Lahore with trees, set up as milestones the <i>kos minárs</i>, +some of which are still standing, and built fine <i>sarais</i> at various +places.</p> + +<p><b>Prosperity of Lahore under Akbar, Jahángír, and Sháhjahán.</b>—The reigns +of Akbar and of his son and grandson were the heyday of Lahore. It was +the halfway house between Delhi and Kashmír, and between Agra and Kábul. +The Moghal Court was often there. Akbar made the city his headquarters +from 1584 to 1598. Jahángír was buried and Sháhjahán was born at Lahore. +The mausoleum of the former is at Sháhdara, a mile or two from the city. +Sháhjahán made the Shálimár garden, and Ali Mardán Khán's Canal, the +predecessor of our own Upper Bárí Doáb Canal, was partly designed to +water it. Lahore retained its importance under Aurangzeb, till he became +enmeshed in the endless Deccan wars, and his successor, Bahádur Shah, +died there in 1712.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Bába Nának, the first Guru.</b>—According to Sikh legend Bábar in one of +his invasions had among his prisoners their first Guru, Bába Nának, and +tried to make him a Musalmán. Nának was born in 1469 at Talwandí, now +known as Nankána Sáhib, 30 miles to the south-west of Lahore, and died +twelve years after Bábar's victory at Pánipat. He journeyed all over +India, and, if legend speaks true, even visited Mecca. His propaganda +was a peaceful one. A man of the people himself, he had a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> message to +deliver to a peasantry naturally impatient of the shackles of orthodox +Hinduism. Sikhism is the most important of all the later dissents from +Brahmanism, which represent revolts against idolatry, priestly +domination, and the bondage of caste and ritual. These things Nának +unhesitatingly condemned, and in the opening lines of his Japjí, the +morning service which every true Sikh must know by heart, he asserted in +sublime language the unity of God.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 428px;"> +<a name="fig59" id="fig59"></a> +<img src="images/img059.jpg" width="428" height="600" alt="Fig. 59. Bába Nának and the Musician Mardána." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 59. Bába Nának and the Musician Mardána.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>The Gurus between Nának and Govind.</b>—The first three successors of Nának +led the quiet lives of great eastern saints. They managed to keep on +good terms with the Emperor and generally also with his local +representatives. The fifth Guru, Arjan (1581-1606), began the welding of +the Sikhs into a body fit to play a part in secular politics. He +compiled their sacred book, known as the <i>Granth Sáhib</i>, and made +Amritsar the permanent centre of their faith. The tenets of these early +Gurus chimed in with the liberal sentiments of Akbar, and he treated +them kindly. Arjan was accused of helping Khusru, Jahángír's rebellious +son, and is alleged to have died after suffering cruel tortures.</p> + +<p>Hitherto there had been little ill-will between monotheistic Sikhs and +Muhammadans. Henceforth there was ever-increasing enmity. The peasant +converts to the new creed had many scores against Turk officials to pay +off, while the new leader Hargovind (1606-1645), had the motive of +revenge. He was a Guru of a new type, a lover of horses and hawks, and a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +man of war. He kept up a bodyguard, and, when danger threatened, armed +followers flocked to his standard. The easy-going Jahángír (1605-1627) +on the whole treated him well. Sháhjahán (1627-1659) was more strict or +less prudent, and during his reign there were several collisions between +the imperial troops and the Guru's followers. Hargovind<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> was succeeded +by his grandson, Har Rai (1645-1661). The new Guru was a man of peace. +Har Rai died in 1661, having nominated his younger son, Harkrishn, a +child of six, as his successor. His brother, Rám Rai, disputed his +claim, but Aurangzeb confirmed Harkrishn's appointment. He died of small +pox in 1664 and was succeeded by his uncle, Teg Bahádur (1664-1675), +whose chief titles to fame are his execution in 1675, his prophecy of +the coming of the English, and the fact that he was the father of the +great tenth Guru, Govind. It is said that when in prison at Delhi he +gazed southwards one day in the direction of the Emperor's <i>zanána</i>. +Charged with this impropriety, he replied: "I was looking in the +direction of the Europeans, who are coming to tear down thy <i>pardas</i> and +destroy thine empire."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 429px;"> +<a name="fig60" id="fig60"></a> +<img src="images/img060.jpg" width="429" height="600" alt="Fig. 60. Guru Govind Singh." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 60. Guru Govind Singh.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Guru Govind Singh.</b>—When Govind (1675-1708) succeeded his father, +Aurangzeb had already started on the course of persecution which fatally +weakened the pillars of Turkish rule. Govind grew up with a rooted +hatred of the Turks, and a determination to weld his followers into a +league of fighting men or <i>Khálsa</i> (Ar. <i>khális</i> = pure), admission into +which was by the <i>pahul</i>, a form of military baptism. Sikhs were +henceforth to be <i>Singhs</i> (lions). They were forbidden to smoke, and +enjoined to wear the five k's, <i>kes</i>, <i>kangha</i>, <i>kripan</i>, <i>kachh</i>, and +<i>kara</i> (uncut hair, comb, sword, short drawers, and steel bracelet). He +established himself at Anandpur beyond the Hoshyárpur Siwáliks. Much of +his life was spent in struggles with his neighbours, the Rájput Hill +Rájas, backed from time to time by detachments of imperial troops from +Sirhind. In 1705 two of his sons were killed fighting and two young +grandsons were executed at Sirhind. He himself took refuge to the south +of the Sutlej, but finally decided to obey a summons from Aurangzeb, and +was on the way to the Deccan when the old Emperor died. The Guru<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> took +up his residence on the banks of the Godávarí, and died there in 1708.</p> + +<p><b>Bánda.</b>—Before his death he had converted the Hindu ascetic Bánda, and +sent him forth on a mission of revenge. Bánda defeated and slew the +governor of Sirhind, Wazír Khán, and sacked the town. Doubtless he +dreamed of making himself Guru. But he was really little more than a +condottiere, and his orthodoxy was suspect. He was defeated and captured +in 1715 at Gurdáspur. Many of his followers were executed and he himself +was tortured to death at Delhi, where the members of an English mission +saw a ghastly procession of Sikh prisoners with 2000 heads carried on +poles. The blow was severe, and for a generation little was heard of the +Sikhs.</p> + +<p><b>Invasions of Nádir Sháh and Ahmad Sháh.</b>—The central power was weak, and +a new era of invasions from the west began. Nádir Sháh, the Turkman +shepherd, who had made himself master of Persia, advanced through the +Panjáb. Zakaria Khán, the governor of Lahore, submitted and the town was +saved from sack. A victory at Karnál left the road to Delhi open, and in +March, 1738, the Persians occupied the capital. A shot fired at Nádir +Sháh in the Chándní Chauk led to the nine hours' massacre, when the +Daríba ran with blood, and 100,000 citizens are said to have perished. +The Persians retired laden with booty, including the peacock throne and +the Kohinur diamond. The Sikhs harassed detachments of the army on its +homeward march. Nádir Sháh was murdered nine years later, and his power +passed to the Afghán leader, the Durání Ahmad Sháh.</p> + +<p>Between 1748 and 1767 this remarkable man, who could conquer but could +not keep, invaded India eight times. Lahore was occupied in 1748, but at +Sirhind the skill of Mír Mannu, called Muín ul Mulk, gave the advantage +to the Moghals. Ahmad Sháh retreated, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> Muín ul Mulk was rewarded +with the governorship of the Panjáb. He was soon forced to cede to the +Afghán the revenue of four districts. His failure to fulfil his compact +led to a third invasion in 1752, and Muín ul Mulk, after a gallant +defence of Lahore, had to submit. In 1755-56 Ahmad Sháh plundered Delhi +and then retired, leaving his son, Timúr, to represent him at Lahore. +Meanwhile the Sikhs had been gathering strength. Then, as now, they +formed only a fraction of the population. But they were united by a +strong hatred of Muhammadan rule, and in the disorganized state of the +country even the loose organization described below made them +formidable. Owing to the weakness of the government the Panjáb became +dotted over with forts, built by local chiefs, who undoubtedly lived +largely by plunder. The spiritual organization under a Guru being gone, +there gradually grew up a political and military organization into +twelve <i>misls</i>, in which "a number of chiefs agreed, after a somewhat +democratic and equal fashion, to fight under the general orders of some +powerful leader" against the hated Muhammadans. The <i>misls</i> often fought +with one another for a change. In the third quarter of the eighteenth +century <i>Sardár</i> Jassa Singh of Kapúrthala, head of the Ahluwália +<i>misl</i>, was the leading man among the Sikhs. Timúr having defiled the +tank at Amritsar, Jassa Singh avenged the insult by occupying Lahore in +1756, and the Afghán prince withdrew across the Indus. Adína Beg, the +governor of the Jalandhar Doáb, called in the Mahrattas, who drove the +Sikhs out in 1758. Ahmad Sháh's fifth invasion in 1761 was rendered +memorable by his great victory over the Mahratta confederacy at Pánipat. +When he returned to Kábul, the Sikhs besieged his governor, Zín Khán, in +Sirhind. Next year Ahmad Sháh returned, and repaid their audacity by a +crushing defeat near Barnála.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span></p> + +<p>They soon rallied, and, in 1763, under Jassa Singh Ahluwália and Rája +Ala Singh of Patiála razed Sirhind to the ground. After the sack the +Sikh horsemen rode over the plains between Sirhind and Karnál, each man +claiming for his own any village into which in passing he had thrown +some portion of his garments. This was the origin of the numerous petty +chiefships and confederacies of horsemen, which, along with the Phulkian +States, the British Government took under its protection in 1808. In +1764 the chiefs of the Bhangí <i>misl</i> occupied Lahore.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX</h2> + +<h3>HISTORY (<i>continued</i>). THE SIKH PERIOD, 1764-1849 A.D.</h3> + + +<p><b>Rise of Ranjít Singh.</b>—The Bhangís held Lahore with brief intervals for +25 years. In 1799, Ranjít Singh, basing his claim on a grant from Sháh +Zamán, the grandson of Ahmad Sháh, drove them out, and inaugurated the +remarkable career which ended with his death in 1839. When he took +Lahore the future Mahárája was only nineteen years of age. He was the +head of the Sukarchakia <i>misl</i>, which had its headquarters at +Gujránwála. Mean in appearance, his face marked and one eye closed by +the ravages of smallpox, he was the one man of genius the Jat tribe has +produced. A splendid horseman, a bold leader, a cool thinker untroubled +with scruples, an unerring judge of character, he was bound to rise in +such times. He set himself to put down every Sikh rival and to profit by +the waning of the Durání power to make himself master of their +possessions in the Panjáb. Pluck, patience, and guile broke down all +opposition among the Mánjha Sikhs. The Sikh chiefs to the south of the +Sutlej were only saved from the same fate by throwing themselves in 1808 +on the protection of the English, who six years earlier had occupied +Delhi, and by taking under their protection the blind old Emperor, Sháh +Álam, had virtually proclaimed themselves the paramount power in India. +For 44 years he had been only a piece in the game played by Mahrattas,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> +Rohillas, and the English in alliance with the Nawáb Wazír of Oudh.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;"> +<a name="fig61" id="fig61"></a> +<img src="images/fig061.jpg" width="401" height="600" alt="Fig. 61. Mahárája Ranjít Singh." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 61. Mahárája Ranjít Singh.<br />(<i>From a picture book said to have been prepared for Mahárája Dalíp +Singh.</i>)</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>British supremacy established in India.</b>—In the first years of the +nineteenth century the Marquess of Wellesley had made up his mind that +the time was ripe to grasp supreme power in India. The motive was +largely self-preservation. India was included in Napoleon's vast plans +for the overthrow of England, and Sindhia, with his army trained in +European methods of warfare by French officers, seemed a likely +confederate. Colonel Arthur Wellesley's hard-won battle at Assaye in +September, 1803, and Lord Lake's victories on the Hindan and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> at Laswárí +in the same year, decided the fate of India. Delhi was occupied, and +Daulat Rao Sindhia ceded to the company territory reaching from Fázilka +on the Sutlej to Delhi on the Jamna, and extending along that river +northwards to Karnál and southwards to Mewát. Fázilka and a large part +of Hissár then formed a wild desert tract called Bhattiána, over which +no effective control was exercised till 1818. In 1832 "the Delhi +territory" became part of the North-West Provinces, from which it was +transferred to the Panjáb after the Mutiny.</p> + +<p><b>Relations of Ranjít Singh with English.</b>—In December, 1808, Ranjít Singh +was warned that by the issue of the war with Sindhia the Cis-Sutlej +chiefs had come under British protection. The Mahárája was within an ace +of declaring war, or let the world think so, but his statesmanlike +instincts got the better of mortified ambition, and in April, 1809, he +signed a treaty pledging himself to make no conquests south and east of +the Sutlej. The compact so reluctantly made was faithfully observed. In +1815, as the result of war with the Gurkhas, the Rájput hill states +lying to the south of the Sutlej came under British protection.</p> + +<p><b>Extension of Sikh Kingdom in Panjáb.</b>—As early as 1806, when he reduced +Jhang, Ranjít Singh began his encroachments on the possessions of the +Duránís in the Panjáb. Next year, and again in 1810 and 1816, Multán was +attacked, but the strong fort was not taken till 1818, when the old +Nawáb, Muzaffar Khán, and five of his sons, fell fighting at the gate. +Kashmír was first attacked in 1811 and finally annexed in 1819. Called +in by the great Katoch Rája of Kángra, Sansár Chand, in 1809, to help +him against the Gurkhas, Ranjít Singh duped both parties, and became +master of the famous fort. Many years later he annexed the whole of the +Kángra hill states. By 1820 the Mahárája was supreme from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> Sutlej to +the Indus, though his hold on Hazára was weak. Pesháwar became tributary +in 1823, but it was kept in subjection with much difficulty. Across the +Indus the position of the Sikhs was always precarious, and revenue was +only paid when an armed force could be sent to collect it. As late as +1837 the great Sikh leader, Harí Singh Nalwa, fell fighting with the +Afgháns at Jamrúd. The Barakzai, Dost Muhammad, had been the ruler of +Kábul since 1826. In 1838, when the English launched their ill-starred +expedition to restore Sháh Shuja to his throne, Ranjít Singh did not +refuse his help in the passage through the Panjáb. But he was worn out +by toils and excesses, and next year the weary lion of the Panjáb died. +He had known how to use men. He employed Jat blades and Brahman and +Muhammadan brains. Khatrís put both at his service. The best of his +local governors was Diwán Sáwan Mal, who ruled the South-West Panjáb +with much profit to himself and to the people. After 1820 the three +Jammu brothers, Rájas Dhián Singh, Suchet Singh, and Guláb Singh, had +great power.</p> + +<p><b>Successors of Ranjít Singh.</b>—From 1839 till 1846 an orgy of bloodshed +and intrigue went on in Lahore. Kharak Singh, the Mahárája's son, died +in 1840, and on the same day occurred the death of his son Nao Nihál +Singh, compassed probably by the Jammu Rájas. Sher Singh, and then the +child, Dalíp Singh, succeeded. In September, 1843, Mahárája Sher Singh, +his son Partáb Singh, and Rája Dhián Singh were shot by Ajít Singh and +Lehna Singh of the great Sindhanwália house. The death of Dhián Singh +was avenged by his son, Híra Singh, who proclaimed Dalíp Singh as +Mahárája and made himself chief minister. When he in turn was killed +Rání Jindan, the mother of Dalíp Singh, her brother Jowáhir Singh, and +her favourite, Lál Singh, took the reins.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="fig62" id="fig62"></a> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 271px;"> +<img src="images/img062.jpg" width="271" height="400" alt="Fig. 62. Mahárája Kharak Singh." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 62. Mahárája Kharak Singh.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="fig63" id="fig63"></a> +<img src="images/img063.jpg" width="300" height="400" alt="Fig. 63. Nao Nihál Singh." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 63. Nao Nihál Singh.</span> +</div></div> + +<p style="clear: both;"> </p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 261px;"> +<a name="fig64" id="fig64"></a> +<img src="images/img064.jpg" width="261" height="400" alt="Fig. 64. Mahárája Sher Singh." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 64. Mahárája Sher Singh.<br />(<i>From a picture book said to have been prepared for Mahárája Dalíp +Singh.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>The First Sikh War and its results.</b>—In 1845 these intriguers, fearing +the <i>Khálsa</i> army which they could not control, yielded to its cry to be +led across the Sutlej in the hope that its strength would be broken in +its conflict with the Company's forces. The valour displayed by the Sikh +soldiery on the fields of Mudkí, Ferozesháh (Pherushahr), and Sobráon +was rendered useless by the treachery of its rulers, and Lahore was +occupied in February, 1846. By the treaty signed on 9th March, 1846, the +Mahárája ceded the territories in the plains between the Sutlej and +Biás, and in the hills between the Biás and the Indus. Kashmír and +Hazára were made over by the Company to Rája Guláb Singh for a payment +of 75 lakhs, but next year he induced the Lahore Darbár to take over +Hazára and give him Jammu in exchange. After Rája Lál Singh had been +banished for instigating Shekh Imám ud din to resist the occupation of +Kashmír by Guláb Singh, an agreement was executed, in December, 1846, +between the Government and the chief Sikh <i>Sardárs</i> by which a Council +of Regency was appointed to be controlled by a British Resident at +Lahore. The office was given to Henry Lawrence.</p> + +<p><b>The Second Sikh War.</b>—These arrangements were destined to be +short-lived. Diwán Sáwan Mal's son, Mulráj, mismanaged Multán and was +ordered to resign. In April, 1848, two English officers sent to instal +his Sikh successor were murdered. Herbert Edwardes, with the help of +Muhammadan tribesmen and Baháwalpur troops, shut up Mulráj in Multán, +but the fort was too strong for the first British regular force, which +arrived in August, and it did not fall till January, 1849. During that +winter a formidable Sikh revolt against English domination broke out. +Its leader was <i>Sardár</i> Chatar Singh, Governor of Hazára. The troops +sent by the <i>Darbár</i> to Multán under Chatar Singh's son, Sher Singh,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +marched northwards in September to join their co-religionists.</p> + +<p>On the 13th of January, 1849, Lord Gough fought a very hardly contested +battle at Chilianwála. If this was but a doubtful victory, that won six +weeks later at Gujrát was decisive. On 12th March, 1849, the soldiers of +the <i>Khálsa</i> in proud dejection laid down their weapons at the feet of +the victor, and dispersed to their homes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig65" id="fig65"></a> +<img src="images/img065.jpg" width="600" height="564" alt="" title="" /> + +<span class="caption">Fig. 65. Zamzama Gun<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Annexation.</b>—The cause they represented was in no sense a national one. +The Sikhs were a small minority of the population, the bulk of the +people being Muhammadans, to whom the English came as deliverers. On the +30th of March, 1849, the proclamation annexing the Panjáb was read at +Lahore.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX</h2> + +<h3>HISTORY (<i>continued</i>). THE BRITISH PERIOD, 1849-1913</h3> + + +<p><b>Administrative Arrangements in Panjáb.</b>—Lord Dalhousie put the +government of the province under a Board of Administration consisting of +the two Lawrences, Henry and John, and Charles Mansel. The Board was +abolished in 1853 and its powers vested in a Chief Commissioner. A +Revenue or Financial Commissioner and a Judicial Commissioner were his +principal subordinates. John Lawrence, the first and only Chief +Commissioner of the Panjáb, became its first Lieutenant-Governor on the +1st of January, 1859. The raising of the Panjáb to the full rank of an +Indian province was the fitting reward of the great part which its +people and its officers, with their cool-headed and determined chief, +had played in the suppression of the Mutiny. The overthrow of the +<i>Khálsa</i> left the contending parties with the respect which strong men +feel for each other; the services of the Sikhs in 1857 healed their +wounded pride and removed all soreness.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 480px;"> +<a name="fig66" id="fig66"></a> +<img src="images/img066.jpg" width="480" height="600" alt="Fig. 66. Sir John Lawrence." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 66. Sir John Lawrence.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Administration, 1849-1859.</b>—When John Lawrence laid down his office in +the end of February, 1859, ten years of work by himself and the able +officers drafted by Lord Dalhousie into the new province had established +order on a solid foundation. A strong administration suited to a manly +and headstrong people had been organised. In the greater part of the +province rights in land had been determined and recorded. The principle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> +of a moderate assessment of the land revenue had been laid down and +partially carried out in practice. The policy of canal and railway +development, which was to have so great a future in the Panjáb, had been +definitely started. The province had been divided into nine divisions +containing 33 districts. The Divisional Commissioners were +superintendents of revenue and police<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> with power to try the gravest +criminal offences and to hear appeals in civil cases. The Deputy +Commissioner of districts had large civil, criminal, and fiscal powers. +A simple criminal and civil code was enforced. The peace of the frontier +was secured by a chain of fortified outposts watching the outlets from +the hills, behind which were the cantonments at the headquarters of the +districts linked together by a military road. The posts and the +cantonments except Pesháwar were garrisoned by the Frontier Force, a +splendid body of troops consisting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> ultimately of seven infantry and +five cavalry regiments, with some mule batteries. This force was till +1885 subject to the orders of the Lieutenant Governor. It never wanted +work, for before the Mutiny troops had to be employed seventeen times +against the independent tribesmen. East of the Indus order was secured +by the disarmament of the people, the maintenance, in addition to civil +police, of a strong body of military police, and the construction of +good roads. Just before Lawrence left the construction of the +Amritsar-Multán railway was begun, and a few weeks after his departure +the Upper Bárí Doáb Canal was opened.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 435px;"> +<a name="fig67" id="fig67"></a> +<img src="images/img067.jpg" width="435" height="600" alt="Fig. 67. John Nicolson's Monument at Delhi." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 67. John Nicolson's Monument at Delhi.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Administration, 1859-1870.</b>—The next eleven years occupied by the +administrations of Sir Robert Montgomery and Sir Donald Macleod were a +quiet time in which results already achieved were consolidated. The +Penal Code was extended to the Panjáb in 1862, and a Chief Court with a +modest establishment of two judges in 1865 took the place of the +Judicial Commissioner. In the same year a Settlement Commissioner was +appointed to help the Financial Commissioner in the control of land +revenue settlements. Two severe famines marked the beginning and the +close of this period. Omitting the usual little frontier excitements, it +is necessary to mention the troublesome Ambela campaign in 1863 in the +country north of Pesháwar, which had for its object the breaking up of +the power of a nest of Hindustání fanatics, and the Black Mountain +expedition, in 1868, on the Hazára border, in which no fewer than 15,000 +men were employed. Sir Henry Durand, who succeeded Sir Donald Macleod, +after seven months of office lost his life by an accident in the +beginning of 1871.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 498px;"> +<a name="fig68" id="fig68"></a> +<img src="images/img068.jpg" width="498" height="600" alt="Fig. 68. Sir Robert Montgomery." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 68. Sir Robert Montgomery.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Administration, 1871-1882.</b>—The next eleven years divided between the +administrations of Sir Henry Davies (1871-1877) and Sir Robert Egerton +(1877-1882) produced more striking events. In 1872 a small body of +fanatics belonging to a Sikh sect known as Kúkas or Shouters marched +from the Ludhiána district and attacked the headquarters of the little +Muhammadan State of Malerkotla. They were repulsed and 68 men +surrendered to the Patiála authorities. The Deputy Commissioner of +Ludhiána blew 49 of them from the guns, and the rest were executed after +summary trial by the Commissioner. Such strong measures were not +approved by the Government, but it must be remembered that these madmen +had killed ten and wounded seventeen men, and that their lives were +justly forfeit. On the 1st of January,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> 1877, Queen Victoria's +assumption of the title of Empress of India (<i>Kaisar-i-Hind</i>) was +announced at a great <i>Darbár</i> at Delhi. In 1877 Kashmír, hitherto +controlled by the Lieutenant-Governor, was put directly under the +Government of India. The same year and the next the province was tried +by famine, and in 1878-80 it was the base from which our armies marched +on Kábul and Kandahár, while its resources in camels were strained to +supply transport. Apart from this its interest in the war was very great +because it is the chief recruiting ground of the Indian army and its +chiefs sent contingents to help their suzerain. The first stage of the +war was closed by the treaty of Gandamak in May, 1879, by which Yakúb<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> +Khán surrendered any rights he possessed over Khaibar and the Kurram as +far as Shutargardan.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig69" id="fig69"></a> +<img src="images/img069.jpg" width="600" height="588" alt="Fig. 69. Panjáb Camels—Lahore." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 69. Panjáb Camels—Lahore.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Administration, 1882-1892.</b>—During the Lieutenant-Governorships of Sir +Charles Aitchison (1882-1887) and Sir James Lyall (1887-1892) there was +little trouble on the western frontier. In 1891 the need had arisen of +making our power felt up to the Pamírs. The setting up of a British +agency at Gilgit was opposed in 1891 by the fighting men of Hunza and +Nagar. Colonel Durand advanced rapidly with a small force and when a +determined assault reduced the strong fort of Nilt,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> trouble was at an +end once and for all. Within the Panjáb the period was one of quiet +development. The Sirhind Canal was opened in 1882, and the weir at +Khánkí for the supply of the Lower Chenáb Canal was finished in 1892. +New railways were constructed. Lord Ripon's policy of Local +Self-government found a strong supporter in Sir Charles Aitchison, and +Acts were passed dealing with the constitution and powers of municipal +committees and district boards. In 1884 and 1885 a large measure of +reorganization was carried out. A separate staff of divisional, +district, and subordinate civil judges was appointed. The divisional +judges were also sessions judges. The ten commissioners were reduced to +six, and five of them were relieved of all criminal work by the sessions +judges. The Deputy Commissioner henceforth was a Revenue Collector and +District Magistrate with large powers in criminal cases. The revenue +administration was at the same time being improved by the reforms +embodied in the Panjáb Land Revenue and Tenancy Acts passed at the +beginning of Sir James Lyall's administration.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 448px;"> +<a name="fig70" id="fig70"></a> +<img src="images/img070.jpg" width="448" height="600" alt="Fig. 70. Sir Charles Aitchison." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 70. Sir Charles Aitchison.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Administration, 1892-1902.</b>—The next two administrations, those of Sir +Dennis Fitzpatrick (1892-97) and Sir Mackworth Young (1897-1902) were +crowded with important events. Throughout the period the colonization of +the vast area of waste commanded by the Lower Chenáb Canal was carried +out, and the Lower Jhelam Canal was formally opened six months before +Sir Mackworth Young left. The province suffered from famine in 1896-97 +and again in 1899-1900. In October, 1897, a worse enemy appeared in the +shape of plague, but its ravages were not very formidable till the end +of the period. The Panjáb was given a small nominated Legislative +Council in 1897, which speedily proved itself a valuable instrument for +dealing with much-needed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> provincial legislation. But the most important +Panjáb Act of the period, XIII of 1900, dealing with Land Alienation was +passed by the Viceroy's Legislative Council. In 1901 a Political Agent +was appointed as the intermediary between the Panjáb Government and the +Phulkian States. On the frontier the conclusion of the Durand Agreement +in 1893 might well have raised hopes of quiet times. But the reality was +otherwise. The establishment of a British officer at Wána to exercise +control over Southern Wazíristán in 1894 was forcibly resisted by the +Mahsúd Wazírs, and an expedition had to be sent into their country. The +Mehtar or Chief of Chitrál, who was in receipt of a subsidy from the +British Government, died in 1892. A period of great confusion followed +fomented by the ambitions of Umra Khán of Jandol. Finally we recognised +as Mehtar the eldest son, who had come uppermost in the struggle, and +sent an English officer as British Agent to Chitrál. Umra Khán got our +protégé murdered, and besieged the Agent in the Chitrál fort. He +withdrew however on the approach of a small force from Gilgit. +Shuja-ul-Mulk was recognised as Mehtar. This little trouble occurred in +1895. Two years later a storm-cloud suddenly burst over the frontier, +such as we had never before experienced. It spread rapidly from the +Tochí to Swát, tribe after tribe rising and attacking our posts. It is +impossible to tell here the story of the military measures taken against +the different offending tribes. The most important was the campaign in +Tirah against the Orakzais and Afrídís, in which 30,000 men were engaged +for six months. In 1900 attacks on the peace of the border by the Mahsúd +Wazírs had to be punished by a blockade, and in the cold weather of +1901-2 small columns harried the hill country to enforce their +submission. By this time the connection of the Panjáb Government with +frontier affairs, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> had gradually come to involve responsibility +with little real power, had ceased. On the 25th of October, 1901, the +North-West Frontier Province was constituted and Colonel (afterwards Sir +Harold) Deane became its first Chief Commissioner, an office which he +held till 1908, when he was succeeded by Major (now Sir George) Roos +Keppel.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 458px;"> +<a name="fig71" id="fig71"></a> +<img src="images/img071.jpg" width="458" height="600" alt="Fig. 71. Sir Denzil Ibbetson." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 71. Sir Denzil Ibbetson.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig72" id="fig72"></a></p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 325px;"> +<img src="images/img072.jpg" width="325" height="350" alt="Fig. 72. Sir Michael O'Dwyer." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 72. Sir Michael O'Dwyer.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Administration, 1902-1913.</b>—The last eleven years have embraced the +Lieutenant Governorship of Sir Charles Rivaz (1902-1907), the too brief +administration of Sir Denzil Ibbetson (1907-1908), and that of Sir Louis +Dane (1908-1913). Throughout the period plague has been a disturbing +factor, preventing entirely the growth of population which the rapid +development of the agricultural resources of the province would +otherwise have secured. It was among the causes stimulating the unrest +which came to a head in 1907. A terrible earthquake occurred in 1905. +Its centre was in Kángra, where 20,000 persons perished under the ruins +of their houses. The colonization of the Crown waste on the Lower Jhelam +Canal was nearly finished during Sir Charles Rivaz's administration. +Before he left the Triple Canal Project, now approaching completion, had +been undertaken. Other measures of importance to the rural population +were the passing of the Co-operative Credit Societies' Act in 1903, and +the organization in 1905 of a provincial Agricultural Department. The +seditious movement which troubled Bengal had its echo in some parts of +the Panjáb in the end of 1906 and the spring of 1907. A bill dealing +with the rights and obligations of the Crown tenants in the new Canal +Colonies was at the time before the Local Legislature. Excitement +fomented from outside spread among the prosperous colonists on the Lower +Chenáb Canal. There was a disturbance in Lahore in connection with the +trial of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> newspaper editor, the ringleaders being students. When Sir +Denzil Ibbetson took the reins into his strong hands in March, 1907, the +position was somewhat critical. The disturbance at Lahore was followed +by a riot at Ráwalpindí. The two leading agitators were deported, a +measure which was amply justified by their reckless actions and which +had an immediate effect. Lord Minto decided to withhold his assent from +the Colony Bill, and it has recently been replaced by a measure which +has met with general acceptance. When Sir Denzil Ibbetson took office he +was already suffering from a mortal disease. In the following January he +gave up the unequal struggle,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> and shortly afterwards died. Sir Louis +Dane became Lieutenant Governor in May, 1908. A striking feature of his +administration was the growth of co-operative credit societies or +village banks. At the Coronation <i>Darbár</i> on 12th December, 1911, the +King-Emperor announced the transfer of the capital of India to Delhi. As +a necessary consequence the city and its suburbs were severed from the +province, with which they had been connected for 55 years. In 1913 Sir +Louis Dane was succeeded by Sir Michael O'Dwyer.</p> + + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI</h2> + +<h3>ARCHAEOLOGY AND COINS</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig73" id="fig73"></a> +<img src="images/img073.jpg" width="600" height="416" alt="Fig. 73. Group of Chamba Temples." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 73. Group of Chamba Temples.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Hindu and Buddhist Remains.</b>—The scholar who ended his study of Indian +history with the close of the first millennium of the Christian era +would expect to find a fruitful field for the study of ancient monuments +of the Hindu faith in the plains of the Panjáb. He would look for a +great temple of the Sun God at Multán, and at places like Lahore and +Kángra, Thanesar and Pihowa, for shrines rich with graven work outside +and with treasures of gold and precious stones within. But he would look +in vain. The Muhammadan invaders of the five centuries which elapsed +between Mahmúd of Ghazní and the Moghal Bábar were above all things +idol-breakers, and their path was marked by the destruction and +spoliation of temples. Even those invaders who remained as conquerors +deemed it a pious work to build their mosques with the stones of ruined +fanes. The transformation, as in the case of the great Kuwwat ul Islám +mosque beside the Kutb Minár, did not always involve the complete +obliteration of idolatrous emblems. Kángra was not too remote to be +reached by invading armies, and the visitor to Nurpur on the road from +Pathánkot to Dharmsála can realize how magnificent some of the old Hindu +buildings were, and how utterly they were destroyed. The smaller +buildings to be found in the remoter parts of the hills escaped, and +there are characteristic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> groups of stone temples at Chamba and still +older shrines dating from the eighth century at Barmaur and Chitrádí in +the same state. The ruins of the great temple of the Sun, built by +Lálitáditya in the same period, at Mártand<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> near Islámábád in the +Kashmír State are very striking. The smaller, but far better preserved, +temple at Payer is probably of much later date. Round the pool of Katás, +one of Şiva's eyes, a great place of Hindu pilgrimage in the Salt +Range, there is little or nothing of antiquarian value, but there are +interesting remains at Malot in the same neighbourhood. It is possible +that when the mounds that mark the sites of ancient villages come to be +excavated valuable relics of the Hindu period will be brought to light. +The forces of nature or the violence of man have wiped out all traces of +the numerous Buddhist monasteries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> which the Chinese pilgrims found in +the Panjáb. Inscriptions of Aşoka? graven on rocks survive at +Sháhbázgarhí and Mansehra in the North-West Frontier Province. Two +pillars with inscriptions of the Missionary Emperor stand at Delhi. They +were brought from Topra near the Jamna in Ambála and from Meerut by +Firoz Sháh. The traveller by train from Jhelam to Ráwalpindí can see to +the west of the line at Mankiála a great <i>stúpa</i> raised to celebrate the +self-sacrifice of the Bodhisattva who gave his life to feed a starving +tigress. There is a ruined <i>stúpa</i> at Suí Vihár in the Baháwalpur State. +The Chinese pilgrims described the largest of Indian <i>stúpas</i> built by +Kanishka near Pesháwar to enshrine precious relics of Gautama Buddha and +a great monastery<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> beside it. Recent excavations have proved the truth +of the conjecture that the two mounds at Sháhjí kí dherí covered the +remains of these buildings, and the six-sided crystal reliquary +containing three small fragments of bone has after long centuries been +disinterred and is now in the great pagoda at Rangoon. In the Lahore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +museum there is a rich collection of the sculptures recovered from the +Pesháwar Valley, the ancient Gandhára. They exhibit strong traces of +Greek influence. The best age of Gandhára sculpture was probably over +before the reign of Kanishka. The site of the famous town of Táxila is +now a protected area, and excavation there may yield a rich reward.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 432px;"> +<a name="fig74" id="fig74"></a> +<img src="images/img074.jpg" width="432" height="600" alt="Fig. 74. Payer Temple." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 74. Payer Temple.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 391px;"> +<a name="fig75" id="fig75"></a> +<img src="images/img075.jpg" width="391" height="600" alt="Fig. 75. Reliquary." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 75. Reliquary.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig76" id="fig76"></a> +<img src="images/img076.jpg" width="600" height="561" alt="Fig. 76. Colonnade in Kuwwat ul Islám Mosque." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 76. Colonnade in Kuwwat ul Islám Mosque.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Muhammadan Architecture.</b>—The Muhammadan architecture of North-Western +India may be divided into three periods:</p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="50%" cellspacing="0" summary="Muhammadan Architecture."> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>)</td><td align='left'>The Pathán</td><td align='left'>1191-1320</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>)</td><td align='left'>The Tughlak</td><td align='left'>1320-1556</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>c</i>)</td><td align='left'>The Moghal</td><td align='left'>1556-1753</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 436px;"> +<a name="fig77" id="fig77"></a> +<img src="images/img077.jpg" width="436" height="600" alt="Fig. 77. Kutb Minár." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 77. Kutb Minár.</span> +</div> + + +<p>In the Pathán period the royal builders drew their inspiration from +Ghazní, but their work was also much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> affected by Hindu influences for +two reasons. They used the materials of Hindu temples in constructing +their mosques and they employed masons imbued with the traditions of +Hindu art. The best specimens of this period are to be found in the +group of buildings in Old Delhi or <i>Kila' Rai Pithora</i>, close to +Mahraulí and eleven miles to the south of the present city. These +buildings are the magnificent <i>Kuwwat ul Islám</i> (Might of Islam) Mosque +(1191-1225), with its splendid tower, the <i>Kutb Minár</i> (1200-1220), from +which the <i>mu'azzin</i> called the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> faithful to prayer, the tomb of the +Emperor Altamsh (1238), and the great gateway built in 1310 by Alá ud +dín Khaljí. In the second period, named after the house that occupied +the imperial throne when it began, all traces of Hindu influence have +vanished, and the buildings display the austere and massive grandeur +suited to the faith of the desert prophet unalloyed by foreign elements. +This style in its beginning is best seen in the cyclopean ruins of +Tughlakábád and the tomb of the Emperor Tughlak Sháh, and in some +mosques in and near Delhi. Its latest phase is represented by Sher +Sháh's mosque in the Old Fort or <i>Purána Kila'</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> To some the simple +grandeur of this style will appeal more strongly than the splendid, but +at times almost effeminate, beauty of the third period. Noted examples +of Moghal architecture in the Panjáb are to be found in Sháhjahári's red +fort<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> palace and <i>Jama' Masjid</i> at New Delhi or Sháhjahánábád, +Humáyun's tomb on the road from Delhi to Mahraulí, the fort palace, the +Bádsháhí and Wazír Khán's mosques, at Lahore, and Jahángír's mausoleum +at Sháhdara. A very late building in this style is the tomb of Nawáb +Safdar Jang (1753) near Delhi. A further account of some of the most +famous Muhammadan buildings will be found in the paragraphs devoted to +the chief cities of the province. The architecture of the British period +scarcely deserves notice.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig78" id="fig78"></a> +<img src="images/img078.jpg" width="600" height="445" alt="Fig. 78. Tomb of Emperor Tughlak Sháh." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 78. Tomb of Emperor Tughlak Sháh.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig79" id="fig79"></a> +<img src="images/img079.jpg" width="600" height="380" alt="Fig. 79. Jama Masjid, Delhi." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 79. Jama Masjid, Delhi.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig80" id="fig80"></a> +<img src="images/img080.jpg" width="600" height="449" alt="Fig. 80. Tomb of Emperor Humáyun." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 80. Tomb of Emperor Humáyun.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig81" id="fig81"></a> +<img src="images/img081.jpg" width="600" height="496" alt="Fig. 81. Bádsháhí Mosque, Lahore." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 81. Bádsháhí Mosque, Lahore.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Coins.</b>—Among the most interesting of the archaeological remains are the +coins which are found in great abundance on the frontier and all over +the Panjáb. These take us back through the centuries to times before<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> +the invasion of India by Alexander, and for the obscure period +intervening between the Greek occupation of the Frontier and the +Muhammadan conquest, they are our main source of history. The most +ancient of the Indian monetary issues are the so-called punch-marked +coins, some of which were undoubtedly in existence before the Greek +invasion. Alexander himself left no permanent traces of his progress +through the Panjáb and Sindh, but about the year 200 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, Greeks from +Bactria, an outlying province of the Seleukidan Empire, once more +appeared on the Indian Frontier, which they effectively occupied for +more than a century. They struck the well-known Graeco-Bactrian coins; +the most famous of the Indo-Greek princes were Apollodotos and Menander. +Towards the close of this dynasty, parts of Sindh and Afghánistán were +conquered by Sáka Scythians from Central Asia. They struck what are +termed the Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins bearing names in +legible Greek legends—Manes, Azes, Azilises, Gondophares, Abdagases. +Both Greeks and Sákas were overthrown by the Kusháns. The extensive gold +and copper Kushán currency, with inscriptions in the Greek script, +contains the names of Kadphises, Kanishka, Huvishka, and others. In +addition to the coins of these foreign dynasties, there are the purely +Indian currencies, e.g. the coins of Táxila, and those bearing the names +of such tribes as the Odumbaras, Kunindas, and Yaudheyas. The White Huns +overthrew the Kushán Empire in the fifth century. After their own fall<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> +in the sixth century, there are more and more debased types of coinage +such as the ubiquitous <i>Gadhiya paisa</i>, a degraded Sassanian type. In +the ninth century we again meet with coins bearing distinct names, the +"bull and horseman" currency of the Hindu kings of Kábul. We have now +reached the beginning of the Muhammadan rule in India. Muhammad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> bin +Sám was the founder of the first Pathán dynasty of Delhi, and was +succeeded by a long line of Sultáns. The Pathán and Moghal coins bear +Arabic and Persian legends. There were mints at Lahore, Multán, +Háfizábád, Kalanaur, Deraját, Pesháwar, Srínagar and Jammu. An issue of +coins peculiar to the Panjáb is that of the Sikhs. Their coin legends, +partly Persian, partly Panjábí, are written in the Persian and Gurmúkhí +scripts. Amongst Sikh mints were Amritsar, Lahore, Multán, Dera, +Anandgarh, Jhang, and Kashmír.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 570px;"> +<a name="fig82" id="fig82"></a> +<img src="images/img082.jpg" width="570" height="800" alt=" Fig. 82. Coins." title="" /> +<span class="caption"> Fig. 82. Coins.</span> +<h4>1. Silver punch-marked coin. 2. Drachma of Sophytes (Panjáb Satrap about +time of Alexander). 3. Hemidrachma of Azes. 4. Copper coin of Táxila. 5. +Silver Kuninda coin. 6. Stater of Wema Kadphises. 7. Stater of Kanishka. +8. Later Kushán stater. 9. White Hun silver piece. 10. Gadhiya <i>paisa</i>. +11. Silver coin of Spalapatí Deva, Hindu King of Kábul.</h4> +</div> + + + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span></p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a>CHAPTER XXII</h2> + +<h3>ADMINISTRATION—GENERAL</h3> + + +<p><b>Panjáb Districts.</b>—The administrative unit in the Panjáb is the district +in charge of a Deputy Commissioner. The districts are divided into +<i>tahsíls</i>, each on the average containing four, and are grouped together +in divisions managed by Commissioners. There are 28 districts and five +divisions. An ordinary Panjáb district has an area of 2000 to 3000 +square miles and contains from 1000 to 2000 village estates. Devon, the +third in size of the English counties, is about equal to an average +Panjáb district.</p> + +<p><b>Branches of Administration.</b>—The provincial governments of India are +organized in three branches, Executive, Judicial, and Revenue, and a +number of special departments, such as Forests and Irrigation. Under +"Judicial" there are two subdivisions, civil and criminal. The tendency +at first is for powers in all three branches to be concentrated in the +hands of single individuals, development tends to specialization, but it +is a matter of controversy how far the separation of executive and +magisterial functions can be carried without jeopardy to the common +weal.</p> + +<p><b>The Lieutenant Governor.</b>—At the head of the whole administration is the +Lieutenant Governor, who holds office for five years. He has a strong +Secretariat to help in the dispatch of business. The experiment of +governing the Panjáb by a Board was speedily given up, and for sixty +years it has enjoyed the advantage of one man government, the Lieutenant +Governor controlling all subordinate authorities and being himself only +controlled<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> by the Governor General in Council. The independence of the +Courts in the exercise of judicial functions is of course safeguarded.</p> + +<p><b>Official hierarchy.</b>—The following is a list of the official hierarchy +in the different branches of the administration:</p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="50%" cellspacing="0" summary="Official hierarchy."> +<tr><td align='left'><i>A.</i></td><td align='left'>Lieutenant Governor.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>B.</i></td><td align='left'>Five Judges of Chief Court (<i>j</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>C.</i></td><td align='left'>Two Financial Commissioners (<i>r</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>D.</i></td><td align='left'>Five Commissioners, (<i>e</i>) and (<i>r</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>E.</i></td><td align='left'>Sixteen Divisional and Sessions Judges (<i>j</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>F.</i></td><td align='left'>Deputy Commissioners, (<i>e</i>), (<i>r</i>) and (<i>crim</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>G.</i></td><td align='left'>District Judges (<i>civ</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>H.</i></td><td align='left'>Subordinate Judges (<i>civ</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>J.</i></td><td align='left'>Assistant and Extra Assistant Commissioners, (<i>e</i>), (<i>j</i>) and (<i>r</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>K.</i></td><td align='left'>Tahsíldárs (<i>e</i>), (<i>r</i>) and (<i>crim</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>L.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Munsifs</i> (<i>civ</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>M.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Náib-Tahsíldárs</i>, (<i>e</i>) (<i>r</i>) and (<i>j</i>).</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The letters in brackets indicate the classes of functions which the +official concerned usually exercises. Translated into a diagram we have +the following:</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/225.jpg" width="800" height="484" alt="" title="Translated into a diagram we have +the following" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Tahsíldárs and Assistant and Extra Assistant Commissioners.</b>—Thus the +chain of executive authority runs down to the <i>tahsíldár's</i> assistant or +<i>náib</i> through the Commissioner and the Deputy Commissioner, the +<i>tahsíldár</i> being directly responsible to the latter. The Assistant and +Extra Assistant Commissioners are the Deputy Commissioner's Assistants +at headquarters, and as such are invested with powers in all branches. +The <i>tahsíldár</i>, a very important functionary, is in charge of a +<i>tahsíl</i>. He is linked on to the village estates by a double chain, one +official consisting of the <i>kanungos</i> and the <i>patwáris</i> or village +accountants whom they supervise, the other non-official consisting of +the village headmen and the <i>zaildárs</i>, each of whom is the intermediary +between the revenue and police staffs and the villages.</p> + +<p><b>Subdivisional Officers.</b>—In some heavy districts one or more <i>tahsíls</i> +are formed into a subdivision and put in charge of a resident Assistant +or Extra Assistant Commissioner, exercising such independent authority +as the Deputy Commissioner thinks fit to entrust to him.</p> + +<p><b>The Deputy Commissioner and his Assistants.</b>—As the officer responsible +for the maintenance of order the Deputy Commissioner is District +Magistrate and has large powers both for the prevention and punishment +of crime. The District Superintendent is his Assistant in police +matters. The Civil Surgeon is also under his control, and he has an +Indian District Inspector of Schools to assist him in educational +business. The Deputy Commissioner is subject to the control of the +Divisional Commissioner.</p> + +<p><b>Financial Commissioners.</b>—In all matters connected with land, excise, +and income tax administration the Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner +are subject to the control of the Financial Commissioners, who are also +the final appellate authority in revenue cases. As<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> chief district +revenue officer the Deputy Commissioner's proper title is "Collector," a +term which indicates his responsibility for the realization of all +Government revenues. In districts which are canal irrigated the amount +is in some cases very large.</p> + +<p><b>Settlement Officers, etc.</b>—With the periodical revisions of the land +revenue assessment the Deputy Commissioner has no direct concern. That +very responsible duty is done by a special staff of Settlement Officers, +selected chiefly from among the Assistant Commissioners and working +under the Commissioners and Financial Commissioners. The Director of +Land Records, the Registrar of Co-operative Credit Societies, and in +some branches of his work the Director of Agriculture and Industries, +are controlled by the Financial Commissioners.</p> + +<p><b>The Chief Court.</b>—It must be admitted that Panjábís are very litigious +and that in some tracts they are extremely vindictive and reckless of +human life. The volume of litigation is swollen by the fact that the +country is one of small-holders subject as regards inheritance and other +matters to an uncodified customary law, which may vary from tribe to +tribe and tract to tract. A suit is to the Panjábí a rubber, the last +game of which he will play in Lahore, if the law permits. It is not +therefore extraordinary that the Chief Court constituted in 1865 with +two judges has now five, and that even this number has in the past +proved insufficient. In the same way the cadre of divisional and +sessions judges had in 1909 to be raised from 12 to 16.</p> + +<p><b>Administration of N. W. F. Province.</b>—In the N. W. F. Province no +Commissioner is interposed between the district officers and the Chief +Commissioner, under whom the Revenue Commissioner and the Judicial +Commissioner occupy pretty much the position of the Financial +Commissioners and the Chief Court in the Panjáb.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Departments.</b>—The principal departments are the Railway, Post Office, +Telegraphs, and Accounts, under the Government of India, and Irrigation, +Roads and Buildings, Forests, Police, Medical, and Education, under the +Lieutenant Governor. In matters affecting the rural population, as a +great part of the business of the Forest Department must do, the +Conservator of Forests is subject to the control of the Financial +Commissioners, whose relations with the Irrigation Department are also +very intimate.</p> + +<p><b>Legislative Council.</b>—From 1897 to 1909 the Panjáb had a local +Legislative Council of nine nominated members, which passed a number of +useful Acts. Under 9 Edward VII, cap. 4, an enlarged council with +increased powers has been constituted. It consists of 24 members of whom +eight are elected, one by the University, one by the Chamber of +Commerce, three by groups of Municipal and cantonment committees, and +three by groups of district boards. The other sixteen members are +nominated by the Lieutenant Governor, and at least six of them must be +persons not in Government service. The right of interpellation has been +given, and also some share in shaping the financial arrangements +embodied in the annual budget.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII"></a>CHAPTER XXIII</h2> + +<h3>ADMINISTRATION—LOCAL</h3> + + +<p><b>Municipalities.</b>—It is matter for reflection that, while the effect of +British administration has been to weaken self-government in villages, +half a century of effort has failed to make it a living thing in towns +and districts. The machinery exists, but outside a few towns the result +is poor. The attempt was made on too large a scale, municipal +institutions being bestowed on places which were no more than villages +with a <i>bazár</i>. This has been partially corrected of late years. A new +official entity, the "notified area," has been invented to suit the +requirements of such places. While there were in 1904 139 municipalities +and 48 notified areas, in 1911-12 the figures were 107 and 104 +respectively. Even in the latter year 32 of the municipalities had +incomes not exceeding £1000 (Rs. 15,000). The total income of the 104 +towns was Rs. 71,41,000 (£476,000), of which Rs. 44,90,000 (£300,000) +were derived from taxation. Nearly 90 p.c. of the taxation was drawn +from octroi, a hardy plant which has survived much economic criticism. +The expenditure was Rs. 69,09,000 (£461,000), of which Rs. 40,32,000 +(£269,000) fall under the head of "Public Health and Convenience." The +incidence of taxation was Rs. 2.6 or a little over three shillings a +head<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>.</p> + +<p><b>District Boards.</b>—The district boards can at present in practice only be +treated as consultative bodies, and well handled can in that capacity +play a useful rôle. Their income is mainly derived from the local rate, +a surcharge of one-twelfth on the land revenue. In 1911-12 the income +was Rs. 53,74,000 (£358,000) and the expenditure Rs. 54,44,500 +(£363,000). The local rate contributed 51 p.c. and contributions from +Government 23 p.c. of the former figure. Public works took up 41 and +Education about 20 p.c. of the expenditure.</p> + +<p><b>Elections.</b>—Some of the seats in most of the municipalities and boards +are filled by election when any one can be induced to vote. Public +spirit is lacking and, as a rule, except when party or sectarian spirit +is rampant, the franchise is regarded with indifference.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"></a>CHAPTER XXIV</h2> + +<h3>REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE</h3> + + +<p><b>Financial Relations with Government of India.</b>—Local governments +exercise their financial powers in strict subordination to the +Government of India, which alone can borrow, and which requires the +submission for its sanction of the annual provincial budgets. To ensure +a reasonable amount of decentralization the Supreme Government has made +financial contracts with the provinces under which they receive definite +shares of the receipts, and are responsible for definite shares of the +expenditure, under particular heads. The existing contract dates only +from 1911-12 (see Table V).</p> + +<p><b>Income and Expenditure.</b>—Excluding income from railways, post offices, +telegraphs, salt, and sales of excise opium, which are wholly imperial, +the revenue of the Panjáb in 1911-12 was £5,057,000 (Rs. 758,56,000), of +which the provincial share was £2,662,200 (Rs. 399,33,000), to which +have to be added £251,800 (Rs. 37,77,000) on account of assignments made +by the Government of India to the province. This brought up the total to +£2,914,000 (Rs. 437,10,000). The expenditure was £2,691,933 (Rs. +403,79,000). This does not include £983,000 spent from loan funds on +irrigation works, chiefly the great Triple Project. The large +expenditure on railways is imperial. Of the gross income more than +three-fourths is derived from the land (Land Revenue, 46 p.c., +Irrigation, chiefly canal water rates, 29 p.c., and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> Forests, 1¾ +p.c.). The balance consists of Excise 8½ p.c., Stamps, 7 p.c., Income +Tax over 2 p.c., and other heads 5¾ p.c.</p> + +<p><b>Land Revenue.</b>—Certain items are included under the Land Revenue head +which are no part of the assessment of the land. The real land revenue +of the Panjáb is about £2,000,000 and falls roughly at the rate of +eighteen pence per cultivated acre (Table II). It is not a land tax, but +an extremely moderate quit rent. In India the ruler has always taken a +share of the produce of the land from the persons in whom he recognised +a permanent right to occupy it or arrange for its tillage. The title of +the Rája to his share and the right of the occupier to hold the land he +tilled and pass it on to his children both formed part of the customary +law of the country. Under Indian rule the Rája's share was often +collected in kind, and the proportion of the crop taken left the tiller +of the soil little or nothing beyond what was needed for the bare +support of himself and his family. What the British Government did was +to commute the share in kind into a cash demand and gradually to limit +its amount to a reasonable figure. The need of moderation was not +learned without painful experience, but the Panjáb was fortunate in this +that, except as regards the Delhi territory, the lesson had been learned +and a reasonable system evolved in the United Provinces before the +officers it sent to the Panjáb began the regular assessments of the +districts of the new province. A land revenue settlement is usually made +for a term of 20 or 30 years. Since 1860 the limit of the government +demand has been fixed at one-half of the rental, but this figure is very +rarely approached in practice. Between a quarter and a third would be +nearer the mark. A large part of the land is tilled by the owners, and +the rent of the whole has to be calculated from the data for the part, +often not more than a third<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> or two-fifths of the whole, cultivated by +tenants at will. The calculation is complicated by the fact that kind +rents consisting of a share of the crop are in most places commoner than +cash rents and are increasing in favour. The determination of the cash +value of the rent where the crop is shared is a very difficult task. +There is a large margin for error, but there can be no doubt that the +net result has almost always been undervaluation. It is probable that +the share of the produce of the fields which the land revenue absorbs +rarely exceeds one-seventh and is more often one-tenth or less. A clear +proof of the general moderation of Panjáb assessments is furnished by +the fact that in the three years ending 1910-11 the recorded prices in +sales amounted to more than Rs. 125 per rupee of land revenue of the +land sold, which may be taken as implying a belief on the part of +purchasers that the landlord's rent is not double, but five or six times +the land revenue assessment, for a man would hardly pay Rs. 125 unless +he expected to get at least six or seven rupees annual profit.</p> + +<p><b>Fluctuating Assessments.</b>—The old native plan of taking a share of the +crop, though it offered great opportunity for dishonesty on both sides, +had at least the merit of roughly adjusting the demand to the character +of the seasons. It was slowly realized that there were parts of the +province where the harvests were so precarious that even a very moderate +fixed cash assessment was unsuitable. Various systems of fluctuating +cash assessment have therefore been introduced, and one-fourth of the +total demand is now of this character, the proportion having been +greatly increased by the adoption of the fluctuating principle in the +new canal colonies.</p> + +<p><b>Suspensions and Remissions.</b>—Where fixity is retained the strain in bad +seasons is lessened by a free use of suspensions, and, if the amounts of +which the collection<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> has been deferred accumulate owing to a succession +of bad seasons, resort is had to remission.</p> + +<p><b>Irrigation Income and Expenditure.</b>—In a normal year in the Panjáb over +one-fourth of the total crops is matured by the help of Government +Canals, and this proportion will soon be largely increased. In 1911-12 +the income from canals amounted to £1,474,000, and the working expenses +to £984,000, leaving a surplus of £490,000. Nearly the whole of the +income is derived from water rates, which represent the price paid by +the cultivator for irrigation provided by State expenditure. The rates +vary for different crops and on different canals. The average incidence +may be roughly put at Rs. 4 or a little over five shillings per acre. In +calculating the profit on canals allowance is made for land revenue +dependent on irrigation, amounting to nearly £400,000.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span></p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXV" id="CHAPTER_XXV"></a>CHAPTER XXV</h2> + +<h3>PANJÁB DISTRICTS AND DELHI</h3> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig83" id="fig83"></a> +<img src="images/img083tb.jpg" width="500" height="396" alt=" Fig. 83. Skeleton District Map of Panjáb." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img083.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption"> Fig. 83. Skeleton District Map of Panjáb.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Districts and Divisions.</b>—The Panjáb now consists of 28 districts +grouped in five divisions. In descriptions of districts and states +boundaries, railways, and roads, which appear on the face of the inset +maps, are omitted. Details regarding cultivation and crops will be found +in Tables II, III and IV, and information as to places of note in +Chapter <span class="smcap">XXX</span>. The revenue figures of Panjáb districts in this chapter +relate to the year 1911-12.</p> + +<p><b>Delhi Enclave.</b>—On the transfer of the capital of India to Delhi part of +the area of the old district of that name comprising 337 estates was +removed from the jurisdiction of the Panjáb Government and brought under +the immediate authority of the Government of India (Act No. XIII of +1912). The remainder of the district was divided between Rohtak and +Gurgáon, and the headquarters of the Delhi division were transferred to +Ambála.</p> + +<p>The area of the new province is only 528 square miles, and the +population including that of the City is estimated at 396,997. The +cultivated area is 340 square miles, more than half of which is +cultivated by the owners themselves. The principal agricultural tribe is +the Hindu Játs, who are hard-working and thrifty peasant farmers. The +land revenue is Rs. 4,00,203 (£26,680). The above figures only relate to +the part of the enclave formerly included in the Panjáb<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>. The head of +the administration has the title of Chief Commissioner.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 464px;"> +<a name="fig84" id="fig84"></a> +<img src="images/img084tb.jpg" width="464" height="500" alt="Fig. 84. Delhi Enclave." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img084.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 84. Delhi Enclave.</span> +</div> + + + + +<div class="sidenote">Area, +14,832 sq. m. +Cultd area, +10,650 sq. m. +Pop. 3,704,608; +68 p.c. H.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> +Land Rev. +Rs. 66,99,136 += £446,609.</div> + +<p><b>The Ambála division</b>—includes four of the five districts +of the South-Eastern Plains, the submontane +district of Ambála, and the hill district of +Simla. It is with the exception of Lahore +the smallest division, but it ranks first in +cultivated area and third in population. It +is twice the size of Wales<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> and has twice its population. +The Commissioner is in political charge of the hill state +of Sirmúr and of five petty states in the plains.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 464px;"> +<a name="fig85" id="fig85"></a> +<img src="images/img085tb.jpg" width="464" height="500" alt="Fig. 85. Hissár with portions of Phulkian States etc." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 85. Hissár with portions of Phulkian States etc.</span> +</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 5213 sq. m. +Cultd area, +4201 sq.m. +Pop. 804,809; +67 p.c. H. +Land Rev. +Rs. 9,76,749 += £67,117.</div> + +<p><b>Hissár District.</b>—Hissár is the south-western district +of the division and has a long common +boundary with Bikaner. It is divided into +five <i>tahsíls</i>, Hissár, Hánsi, Bhiwání, Fatehábád, +and Sirsa. There are four natural +divisions, Nálí, Bágar, Rohí, and Hariána. +The overflow of the Ghagar, which runs through the +north of the district, has transformed the lands on either +bank into hard intractable clay, which yields nothing to +the husbandman without copious floods. This is the Nálí. +The Bágar is a region of rolling sand stretching along the +Bikaner border from Sirsa to Bhiwání. In Sirsa to the east<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> +of the Bágar is a plain of very light reddish loam known as +the Rohí, partly watered by the Sirhind Canal. South of +the Ghagar the loam in the east of the district is firmer, +and well adapted to irrigation, which much of it obtains +from branches of the Western Jamna Canal. This tract +is known as Hariána, and has given its name to a famous +breed of cattle. The Government cattle farm at Hissár +covers an area of 65 square miles. North of the Fatehábád +<i>tahsíl</i> and surrounded by villages belonging to the +Phulkian States is an island of British territory called +Budhláda. It belongs to the Jangal Des, and has the +characteristic drought-resisting sandy loam and sand of +that tract. Much of Budhláda is watered by the Sirhind +Canal. Of the total area of the district only about +9 p.c. is irrigated. The water level is so far from the +surface that well irrigation is usually impossible, and +the source of irrigation is canals.</p> + +<p>Hissár suffered severely from the disorders which +followed on the collapse of the Moghal Empire and its +ruin was consummated by the terrible famine of 1783. +The starving people died or fled and for years the country +lay desolate. It passed into the hands of the British 20 +years later, but for another 20 years our hold on this +outlying territory was loose and ineffective. In 1857 +the troops at Hánsi, Hissár, and Sirsa rose and killed all +the Europeans who fell into their hands. The Muhammadan +tribes followed their example, and for a time +British authority ceased to exist. The district was +part of the Delhi territory transferred to the Panjáb in +1858.</p> + +<p>The rainfall is scanty, averaging 15 inches, and extremely +capricious. No other district suffers so much from +famine as Hissár. The crops are extraordinarily insecure, +with a large surplus in a good season and practically +nothing when the rains fail badly. They consist mainly +of the cheap pulses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> and millets. With such fluctuating +harvests it is impossible to collect the revenues with any +regularity, and large sums have to be suspended in bad +seasons.</p> + +<p>Such industries as exist are mostly in Hánsi and +Bhiwání, where there are mills for ginning and pressing +cotton. Cotton cloths tastefully embroidered with silk, +known as <i>phulkárís</i>, are a well-known local product.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 459px;"> +<a name="fig86" id="fig86"></a> +<img src="images/img086tb.jpg" width="459" height="500" alt="Fig. 86. Delhi Enclave." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img086.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 86. Delhi Enclave.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 2248 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1815 sq. m. +Pop. 714,834. +Land Rev. +Rs. 16,66,364 += £111,091.</div> + +<p><b>Rohtak</b>—became a British possession in 1803, but it +was not till after the Mutiny that it was +brought wholly under direct British administration. +The old district consisted of the +three <i>tahsíls</i> of Rohtak, Gohána, and Jhajar, +but on the breaking up of the Delhi district the Sonepat +<i>tahsíl</i> was added.</p> + +<p>Rohtak is practically a purely agricultural tract with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> +large villages, but no towns of any importance. By far +the most important agricultural tribe is the Hindu Játs. +They are strong-bodied sturdy farmers, who keep fine oxen +and splendid buffaloes, and live in large and well organized +village communities. 37 p.c. of the cultivation is protected +by canal and well irrigation, the former being by +far the more important. The district consists mainly of +a plain of good loam soil. There have been great canal +extensions in this plain, which under irrigation is very +fertile, yielding excellent wheat, cotton, and cane. +There is a rich belt of well irrigation in the Jamna valley, +and in the south of the district there are parts where +wells can be profitably worked. Belts of uneven sandy +land are found especially in the west and south. The +dry cultivation is most precarious, for the rainfall is +extremely variable. In the old district it averages 20 +inches. But averages in a tract like Rohtak mean very +little. The chief crops are the two millets and gram.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 2264 sq.m. +Cultd Area, +1701 sq. m. +Pop. 729,167. +Land Rev. +Rs. 15,98,333 += £106,556.</div> + +<p><b>Gurgáon</b> contains six <i>tahsíls</i>, Rewárí, Gurgáon, Nuh, +Firozpur, Palwal, and Ballabgarh. The +southern part of the district projects into +Rájputána, and in its physical and racial +characteristics really belongs to that region.</p> + +<p>Rewárí is the only town of any importance. It has +a large trade with Rájputána. Apart from this the +interests of the district are agricultural. In Gurgáon +the Jamna valley is for the most part narrow and very +poor. The plain above it in the Palwal <i>tahsíl</i> has a fertile +loam soil and is irrigated by the Agra Canal. The Hindu +Játs of this part of the district are good cultivators. +The rest of Gurgáon consists mostly of sand and sandy +loam and low bare hills. In Rewárí the skill and industry +of the Hindu Ahírs have produced wonderful results +considering that many of the wells are salt and much of +the land very sandy. The lazy and thriftless Meos of +the southern part<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> of the district are a great contrast to +the Ahírs. They are Muhammadans.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig87" id="fig87"></a> +<img src="images/img087tb.jpg" width="500" height="372" alt="Fig. 87." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img087.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 87.</span> +</div> + +<p>About a quarter of the area is protected by irrigation +from wells, the Agra Canal, and embankments or "<i>bands</i>," +which catch and hold up the hill drainages. Owing to +the depth and saltness of many of the wells the cultivation +dependent on them is far from secure, and the "<i>band</i>" +irrigation is most precarious. The large dry area is +subject to extensive and complete crop failures. The +average rainfall over a series of years is 24 inches, but its +irregularities from year to year are extreme. The district +is a poor one, and for its resources bears the heaviest +assessment in the Panjáb. It requires the most careful +revenue management. There are brine wells at Sultánpur, +but the demand for the salt extracted is now very small.</p> + + + + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 3153 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1744 sq. m. +Pop. 799,787; +70 p.c. H. +Land Rev. +Rs. 12,92,620 +=£86,175.</div> + +<p><b>Karnál</b> is midway in size between Rohtak and Hissár. +One-third of the cultivation is now protected +by irrigation, two-fifths of the irrigation +being from wells and three-fifths from the +Western Jamna Canal. There are four <i>tahsíls</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> +Thanesar, Karnál, Kaithal, and Pánipat. The peasantry +consists mostly of hardworking Hindu Játs, but there +are also many Hindu and Muhammadan Rájput villages. +The chief towns are Pánipat, Karnál, and Kaithal.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 467px;"> +<a name="fig88" id="fig88"></a> +<img src="images/img088tb.jpg" width="467" height="500" alt="Fig. 88." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img088.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 88.</span> +</div> + + +<p>The district falls broadly into two divisions, the +boundary between them being the southern limit of the +floods of the Sarustí in years of heavy rainfall. The +marked features of the northern division is the effect which +the floods of torrents of intermittent flow, the Sarustí,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> +Márkanda, Umla, and Ghagar have on agriculture. Some +tracts are included like the Andarwár and the outlying +villages of the Powádh<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> in Kaithal which are fortunately +unaffected by inundation, and have good well irrigation. +The country between the Umla and Márkanda in Thanesar +gets rich silt deposits and is generally fertile. The +Kaithal Nailí is the tract affected by the overflow of the +Sarustí, Umla, and Ghagar. It is a wretched fever-stricken +region where a short lived race of weakly people +reap precarious harvests. The southern division is on +the whole a much better country. It includes the whole +of Karnál and Pánipat, the south of Kaithal, and a +small tract in the extreme east of the Thanesar <i>tahsíl</i>. +North of Karnál the Jamna valley or Khádir is unhealthy +and has in many parts a poor soil. South of Karnál it +is much better in every respect. Above the Khádir is +the Bángar, a plain of good loam. North of Karnál +its cultivation is protected by wells and the people are +in fair circumstances. South of that town it is watered +by the Western Jamna Canal. Another slight rise brings +one to the Nardak of the Karnál and Kaithal <i>tahsíls</i>. +Till the excavation of the Sirsa branch of the Western +Jamna Canal and of the Nardak Distributary much of +the Nardak was covered with <i>dhák</i> jangal, and the +cultivation was of the most precarious nature, for in this +part of the district the rainfall is both scanty and +capricious, and well cultivation is only possible in the +north. The introduction of canal irrigation has effected an +enormous change. Wheat and gram are the great crops.</p> + +<p>Historically Karnál is one of the most interesting +districts. The Nardak is the scene of the great struggle +celebrated in the Mahábhárata. The district contains +the holy city of Thanesar, once the capital of a great +Hindu kingdom. It has found climate a more potent +instrument of ruin than the sword of Mahmúd of Ghazní, +who sacked it in 1014. It still on the occasion of Eclipse +fairs attracts enormous crowds of pilgrims. Pihowa is +another very sacred place. Naráina, a few miles to the +north-west of Karnál, was the scene of two famous +fights<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>, and three times, in 1526, 1556, and 1761, the +fate of India was decided at Pánipat.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 1851 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1174 sq. m. +Pop. 689,970. +Land Rev. +Rs. 11,47,688 += £76,513</div> + +<p><b>Ambála</b> is a submontane district of very irregular<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> +shape. It includes two small hill tracts, +Morní and Kasaulí. There is little irrigation, +for in most parts the rainfall is ample. +Wheat is the chief crop. The population +has been declining in the past 20 years.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 489px;"> +<a name="fig89" id="fig89"></a> +<img src="images/img089tb.jpg" width="489" height="500" alt="Fig. 89." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img089.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 89.</span> +</div> + + +<p>The only town of importance is Ambála. Jagádhrí +is a busy little place now connected through private +enterprise by a light railway with the N. W. Railway. +The district consists of two parts almost severed from one +another physically and wholly different as regards people, +language, and agricultural prosperity. The Rúpar subdivision +in the north-west beyond the Ghagar has a fertile +soil, and, except in the Nálí, as the tract flooded by the +Ghagar is called, a vigorous Ját peasantry, whose native +tongue is Panjábí. The three south-eastern <i>tahsíls</i>, +Ambála,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> Naráingarh, and Jagádhrí, are weaker in every +respect. The loam is often quite good, but interspersed +with it are tracts of stubborn clay largely put under +precarious rice crops. The Játs are not nearly so good +as those of Rúpar, and Rájputs, who are mostly Musulmáns, +own a large number of estates.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 101 sq. m. +Cultd area, +15 sq. m. +Pop. in Feb. +1911, 39,320. +Land Rev. +Rs. 17,484 += £1166.</div> + +<p>Simla consists of three little tracts in the hills known +as Bharaulí, Kotkhai, and Kotgarh, and of +patches of territory forming the cantonments +of Dagshai, Subáthu, Solon, and Jutogh, the +site of the Lawrence Military School at +Sanáwar, and the great hill station of Simla. +Bharaulí lies south-west of Simla in the direction of +Kasaulí. Kotkhai is in the valley of the Girí, a tributary +of the Jamna. Kotgarh is on the Sutlej and borders on +the Bashahr State. The Deputy Commissioner of Simla +is also Superintendent or Political Officer of 28 hill states.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, +19,934 sq. m. +Cultd area, +7762 sq. m. +Pop. 3,967,724. +Land Rev. +Rs. 61,64,172 += £410,945.</div> + +<p><b>Jalandhar Division.</b>—More than half the area of the +Jalandhar division is contributed by the huge +district of Kángra, which stretches from the +Plains to the lofty snowy ranges on the borders +of Tibet. The other districts are Hoshyárpur +in the submontane zone, Jalandhar and Ludhiána, +which belong to the Central Plains, and Ferozepore, +which is part of the South-Eastern Panjáb. Sikhs are +more numerous than in any other division, but are outnumbered +by both Hindus and Muhammadans. The +Commissioner has political charge of the hill states of +Mandí and Suket and of Kapúrthala in the Plains.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 9878 sq. m. +Cultd area, +918 sq. m. +Pop. 770,386; +94 p.c. H. +Land Rev. +Rs. 9,26,661 += £61,777.</div> + +<p><b>Kángra</b> is the largest district in the Panjáb. It +includes three tracts of very different character:</p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Kángra"> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>)</td><td align='left'>Spití and Lahul, area exceeding 4400 square miles, forming part of Tibet;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>)</td><td align='left'>Kulu and Saráj;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>c</i>)</td><td align='left'>Kángra proper, area 2939 square miles.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig90" id="fig90"></a> +<img src="images/img090tb.jpg" width="500" height="453" alt="Fig. 90." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img090.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 90.</span> +</div> + + +<p>Lahul,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> Spití, Kulu, and Saráj form a subdivision in +charge of an Assistant Commissioner. The people of +Kángra are Hindus. Islám never penetrated into these +hills as a religion, though the Rájput Rájas of Kángra +became loyal subjects of the Moghal Emperors. In its +last days Ranjít Singh called in as an ally against the +Gurkhas remained as a hated ruler. The country was +ceded to the British Government in 1846. The Rájas +were chagrined that we did not restore to them their +royal authority, but only awarded them the status of +<i>jagírdárs</i>. An outbreak, which was easily suppressed, +occurred in 1848. Since then Kángra has enjoyed 65 +years of peace.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> A Gurkha regiment is stationed at the +district headquarters at Dharmsála. The cultivation +ranges from the rich maize and rice fields of Kulu and +Kángra to the poor buckwheat and <i>kulath</i> on mountain +slopes. Rice is irrigated by means of <i>kuhls</i>, ingeniously +constructed channels to lead the water of the torrents on +to the fields.</p> + +<p><b>Spití and Lahul.</b>—Spití, or rather Pití, is a country of +great rugged mountains, whose bare red and yellow +rocks rise into crests of everlasting snow showing clear +under a cloudless blue sky. There is no rain, but in winter +the snowfall is heavy. The highest of the mountains +exceeds 23,000 feet. Pití is drained by the river of the +same name, which after passing through Bashahr falls I +into the Sutlej at an elevation of 11,000 feet. Of the few +villages several stand at a height of from 13,000 to 14,000 +feet. The route to Pití from Kulu passes over the Hamtu +Pass (14,200 feet) and the great Shigrí glacier. The people +are Buddhists. They are governed by their hereditary +ruler or Nono assisted by five elders, the Assistant +Commissioner exercising a general supervision. Indian +laws do not apply to the sparse population of this remote +canton, which has a special regulation of its own. Lahul +lies to the west of Pití, from which it is separated by a +lofty range. It is entered from Kulu by the Rotang +Pass (13,000 feet) and the road from it to Ladákh passes +over the Baralácha (16,350 feet). The whole country is +under snow from December to April, but there is very +little rain. The two streams, the Chandra and Bhága, +which unite to form the Chenáb, flow through Lahul and +the few villages are situated at a height of 10,000 feet in +their elevated valleys. The people are Buddhists. In +summer the population is increased by "Gaddí" shepherds +from Kángra, who drive lean flocks in the beginning of +June over the Rotang and take them back from the +Alpine pastures<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> in the middle of September fat and well +liking.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig91" id="fig91"></a> +<img src="images/img091.jpg" width="600" height="424" alt="Fig. 91. Biás at Manálí." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 91. Biás at Manálí.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Kulu and Saráj.</b>—The Kulu Valley, set in a mountain +frame and with the Biás, here a highland stream, running +through the heart of it, is one of the fairest parts of the +Panjáb Himálaya. Manálí, at the top of the Valley on +the road to the Rotang, is a very beautiful spot. Kulu +is connected with Kángra through Mandí by the Babbu +and Dulchí passes. The latter is generally open the whole +year round. The headquarters are at Sultánpur, but +the Assistant Commissioner lives at Nagar. In Kulu +the cultivation is often valuable and the people are well +off. The climate is good and excellent apples and pears +are grown by European settlers. Inner and outer Saráj +are connected by the Jalaori Pass on the watershed of the +Sutlej and Biás. Saráj is a much rougher and poorer +country than Kulu. There are good <i>deodár</i> forests in +the Kulu subdivision.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> In 1911 the population of Kulu, +Saráj, Lahul, and Pití, numbered 124,803. The Kulu +people are a simple folk in whose primitive religion local +godlings of brass each with his little strip of territory take +the place of the Brahmanic gods. It is a quaint sight to +see their ministers carrying them on litters to the fair at +Sultánpur, where they all pay their respects to a little +silver god known as Raghunáthjí, who is in a way their +suzerain.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig92" id="fig92"></a> +<img src="images/img092.jpg" width="600" height="450" alt="Fig. 92. Religious Fair in Kulu." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 92. Religious Fair in Kulu.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span></p> + +<p>Kángra proper is bounded on the north by the lofty +wall of the Dhaula Dhár and separated from Kulu by +the mountains of Bara Bangáhal. It consists of the +five <i>tahsíls</i> of Kángra, Palampur, Nurpur, Dera, and +Hamírpur. The first two occupy the rich and beautiful +Kángra Valley. They are separated from the other three +<i>tahsíls</i> by a medley of low hills with a general trend from +N.W. to S.E.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> They are drained by the Biás, and are +much more broken and poorer than the Kángra Valley. +The tea industry, once important, is now dead so far +as carried on by English planters. The low hills have +extensive <i>chír</i> pine forests. They have to be managed +mainly in the interests of the local population, and are +so burdened with rights that conservation is a very +difficult problem. In 1911 the population of the five +<i>tahsíls</i> amounted to 645,583. The most important tribes +are Brahmans, Rájputs, and hardworking Gírths. The +hill Brahman is usually a farmer pure and simple.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 444px;"> +<a name="fig93" id="fig93"></a> +<img src="images/img093.jpg" width="444" height="600" alt="93. Kulu Women." title="" /> +<span class="caption">93. Kulu Women.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 448px;"> +<a name="fig94" id="fig94"></a> +<img src="images/img094tb.jpg" width="448" height="500" alt="Fig. 94." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img094.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 94.</span> +</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 2247 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1128 sq. m. +Pop. 918,569; +54 p.c. H. +Land Rev. +Rs. 14,22,527 += £494,835.</div> + +<p><b>Hoshyárpur</b> became a British possession in 1846 after +the first Sikh War. It is a typically submontane +district. A line of low bare hills +known as the Solasinghí Range divides it +from Kángra. Further west the Katár dhár, +a part of the Siwáliks, runs through the heart +of the district.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> Between these two ranges lies the fertile +Jaswan Dun corresponding to the Una <i>tahsíl</i>. The other +three <i>tahsíls</i>, Garhshankar, Hoshyárpur, and Dasúya, +are to the west of the Katár dhár. Una is drained +by the Soan, a tributary of the Sutlej. The western +<i>tahsíls</i> have a light loam soil of great fertility, except +where it has been overlaid by sand from the numerous +<i>chos</i> or torrents which issue from the Siwáliks. The +denudation of that range was allowed to go on for an +inordinate time with disastrous results to the plains +below. At last the Panjáb Land Preservation (<i>Chos</i>) +Act II of 1890 gave the Government power to deal with +the evil, but it will take many years to remedy the +mischief wrought by past inaction. The rainfall averages +about 32 inches and the crops are secure. The population +has fallen off by 93,000 in 20 years, a striking instance of +the ravages of plague. The chief tribes are Játs, Rájputs, +and Gújars.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 1431 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1069 sq. m. +Pop. 801,920; +45 p.c. M. +33 p.c. H. +22 p.c. S. +Land Rev. +Rs. 14,77,661 += £98,511.</div> + +<p><b>Jalandhar District.</b>—Modern though the town of +Jalandhar looks it was the capital of a +large Hindu kingdom, which included also +Hoshyárpur, Mandí, Suket, and Chamba, and +in the ninth century was a rival of Kashmír +(page <a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a>). The present district is with the +exception of Simla the smallest, and for its +size the richest, in the province. It contains four <i>tahsíls</i>, +Nawashahr, Phillaur, Jalandhar, and Nakodar. About +45 p.c. of the cultivation is protected by 28,000 wells. +Behind the long river frontage on the Sutlej is the Bet, +divided by a high bank from the more fertile uplands. +The soil of the latter is generally an excellent loam, but +there is a good deal of sand in the west of the district. +The rainfall averages about 26 inches and the climate is +healthy. The well cultivation is the best in the Panjáb. +Between 1901 and 1911 the population declined by 13 p.c. +Játs and Arains,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> both excellent cultivators, are the predominant +tribes. British rule dates from 1846.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig95" id="fig95"></a> +<img src="images/img095tb.jpg" width="500" height="432" alt="Fig. 95." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img095.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 95.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 1452 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1143 sq. m. +Pop. 517,192; +40 p.c. S. +35 p.c. M +25 p.c. H. +Land Rev. +Rs. 11,57,399 += £77,160.</div> + +<p><b>Ludhiána</b> on the opposite bank of the Sutlej is also a +very small district. It consists of a river +Bet and Uplands with generally speaking a +good loam soil. But there are very sandy +outlying estates in the Jangal Des surrounded +by Patiála and Jínd villages. There are +three <i>tahsíls</i>, Samrála, Ludhiána, and Jagráon. +Of the cultivated area 26 p.c. is irrigated, from +wells (19) and from the Sirhind Canal (7). Wheat and +gram are the principal crops. Between 1901 and 1911 +the population fell from 673,097 to 517,192, the chief +cause of decline being plague.</p> + +<p>Sturdy hard-working Játs are the backbone of the +peasantry. They furnish many recruits to the Army. +Ludhiána<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> is a thriving town and an important station +on the N.W. Railway. Our connection with Ludhiána +began in 1809, and the district assumed practically its +present shape in 1846 after the first Sikh War.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig96" id="fig96"></a> +<img src="images/img096tb.jpg" width="500" height="479" alt="Fig. 96." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img096.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 96.</span> +</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 4286 sq. m. +Cultd area, +3504 sq. m. +Pop. 959,657; +44 p.c. M. +29 p.c. H. +27 p.c. S. +Land Rev. +Rs. 11,79,924 += £78,661.</div> + +<p><b>Ferozepore</b> is a very large district. The Farídkot +State nearly cuts it in two. The northern +division includes the <i>tahsíls</i> of Ferozepore, +Zíra, and Moga, the last with an outlying +tract known as Mahráj, which forms an +island surrounded by the territory of several +native states. The southern division contains +the <i>tahsíls</i> of Muktsar and Fázilka. Our connection with +Ferozepore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> began in 1809, and, when the widow of the +last Sikh chief of Ferozepore died in 1835, we assumed +direct responsibility for the administration of a considerable +part of the district. Two of the great battles of the +first Sikh War, Mudkí and Ferozesháh or more properly +Pherushahr, were fought within its borders. Mamdot with +an area of about 400 square miles ceased to be independent +in 1855, but the descendant of the last ruler still holds +it in <i>jagír</i>. Fázilka was added in 1864 when the Sirsa +district was broken up. Of the cultivated area 47½ p.c. +is irrigated by the Sirhind Canal, the Grey Inundation +Canals, and wells. For the most part the district is +divided into three tracts, the riverain, Hithár or Bet, +with a poor clay soil<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> and a weak population, the Utár, +representing river deposits of an older date when the +Sutlej ran far west of its present bed, and the Rohí, an +upland plain of good sandy loam, now largely irrigated +by the Sirhind Canal. The Grey Canals furnish a far +less satisfactory source of irrigation to villages in the +Bet and Utár. In different parts of this huge district the +rainfall varies from 10 to 22 inches. The chief crops +are gram and wheat. The Játs are the chief tribe. In +the Uplands they are a fine sturdy race, but unfortunately +they are addicted to strong drink, and violent crime is +rife. Ferozepore has a large cantonment and arsenal +and a big trade in grain. It is an important railway +junction.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 499px;"> +<a name="fig97" id="fig97"></a> +<img src="images/img097tb.jpg" width="499" height="500" alt="Fig. 97." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img097.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 97.</span> +</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, +12,387 sq. m. +Cultd area, +7924 sq. m. +Pop 4,656,629; +57 p.c. M. +24 p.c. H. +16 p.c. S. +Land Rev. +Rs. 70,53,856 += £470,257.</div> + +<p><b>Lahore Division.</b>—Lahore is the smallest division, but +the first in population. Its political importance +is great as the home of the Sikhs +of the Mánjha, and because the capital of +the province and the sacred city of the +<i>Khálsa</i> are both within its limits. It contains +the five districts of Gurdáspur, Siálkot, +Gujránwála, Lahore, and Amritsar. The Commissioner +is in political charge of the Chamba State.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig98" id="fig98"></a> +<img src="images/img098tb.jpg" width="500" height="469" alt="Fig. 98." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img098.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 98.</span> +</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 1809 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1281 sq. m. +Pop. 836,771; +49 p.c. M. +34 p.c. H. +14½ p.c. S. +Land Rev. +Rs. 17,68,412 += £117,894.</div> + +<p><b>Gurdáspur</b> is a submontane district with a good +rainfall and a large amount of irrigation. +The crops are secure except in part of the +Shakargarh <i>tahsíl</i>. 27 p.c. of the cultivated +area is irrigated, 16 by wells and 11 by the +Upper Bárí Doáb Canal. Irrigation is only +allowed from the Canal for the Autumn +harvest. The chief crop is wheat and the area under +cane is unusually large. Of late years plague has been +very fatal and the population fell from 940,334 in 1901 +to 836,771 in 1911. Játs, Rájputs, Arains, Gújars, and +Brahmans, are the chief agricultural tribes, the first being +by far the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> important element. There are four +<i>tahsíls</i>, Batála, Gurdáspur, and Pathánkot in the Bárí +Doáb, and Shakargarh to the west of the Ráví. Batála +is one of the most fertile and prosperous tracts in the +Panjáb and Gurdáspur is also thriving. Pathánkot is +damp, fever stricken, and unprosperous. It lies mostly +in the plains but contains a considerable area in the low +hills and higher up two enclaves, Bakloh and Dalhousie, +surrounded by Chamba villages. Shakargarh is much +more healthy, and is better off than Pathánkot. There is +good duck and snipe shooting to be got in some parts of +the district, as the drainage from the hills collects in +swamps and <i>jhíls</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;"> +<a name="fig99" id="fig99"></a> +<img src="images/img099tb.jpg" width="401" height="500" alt="Fig. 99." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img099.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 99.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 1991 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1427 sq. m. +Pop. 979,553; +62 p.c. M. +25 p.c. H. +8 p.c. S. +Land Rev. +Rs. 14,79,390 += £98,626.</div> + +<p><b>Siálkot</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> is another secure and fully cultivated submontane +district. It lies wholly in the Rechna +Doáb and includes a small well-watered hilly +tract, Bajwát, on the borders of Jammu. +The Ráví divides Siálkot from Amritsar +an the Chenáb separates it from Gujrát. +The Degh and some smaller torrents run +through the district. In the south there is much hard +sour clay, part hitherto unculturable. But irrigation +from the Upper Chenáb Canal will give a new value to it. +There are five <i>tahsíls</i>, Zafarwál, Siálkot, Daska, Pasrúr, +and Raya.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> The chief crop is wheat which is largely +grown on the wells, numbering 22,000. The pressure of +the population on the soil was considerable, but since +1891 the total has fallen from 1,119,847 to 979,553 as the +result of plague and emigration to the new canal colonies. +Christianity has obtained a considerable number of converts +in Siálkot. The Játs form the backbone of the +peasantry. Rájputs and Arains are also important tribes, +but together they are not half as numerous as the Játs.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;"> +<a name="fig100" id="fig100"></a> +<img src="images/img100tb.jpg" width="440" height="500" alt=" Fig. 100." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img100.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 100.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 4802 sq. m. +Cultd area, +2166 sq. m. +Pop. 923,419. +Land Rev. +Rs. 15,43,440 += £102,896.</div> + +<p><b>Gujránwála</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> is a very large district in the Rechna +Doáb, with five <i>tahsíls</i>, Wazírábád, Gujránwála, +Sharakpur, Háfizábád, and Khángáh +Dográn. The rainfall varies from 20 inches +on the Siálkot border to ten or eleven in the +extreme south-west corner of the district. Gujránwála +is naturally divided into three tracts: the Riverain of the +Ráví and Chenáb, the Bángar or well tract, and the Bár +once very partially cultivated, but now commanded by +the Lower and Upper Chenáb Canals. Enormous development +has taken place in the Háfizábád and Khángáh +Dográn <i>tahsíls</i> in the 20 years since the Lower Chenáb +Canal was opened. Of late years the rest of the district +has suffered from plague and emigration, and has not +prospered. But a great change will be effected by +irrigation from the Upper Chenáb Canal, which is just +beginning. In the east of the district much sour clay +will become culturable land, and the Bár will be transformed +as in the two <i>tahsíls</i> watered by the older canal. +Of the cultivated area 73½ p.c. is irrigated, 36½ from +wells and 37 from canals. The chief crops are wheat +and gram. There is, as is usual in the Western Panjáb, +a great preponderance of Spring crops. The Játs are far +and away the strongest element in the population.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 1601 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1184 sq. m. +Pop. 880,728; +46 p.c. M. +29 p.c. S. +24 p.c. H. +Land Rev. +Rs. 12,70,799 += £84,720.</div> + +<p><b>Amritsar</b> is a small district lying in the Bárí Doáb +between Gurdáspur and Lahore. 62 p.c. of +the cultivated area is irrigated, half from +12,000 wells and half from the Upper Bárí +Doáb Canal. Unfortunately much waterlogging +exists, due to excessive use of canal +water and defective drainage. Measures are +now being taken to deal with this great evil, which has +made the town of Amritsar and other parts of the district +liable to serious outbreaks of fever. There are two small +riverain tracts on the Biás and Ráví and a poor piece of +country in Ajnála<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> flooded by the Sakkí. The main part of +the district is a monotonous plain of fertile loam. The two +western <i>tahsíls</i>, Amritsar and Tarn Táran, are prosperous, +Ajnála is depressed. The rainfall is moderate averaging +21 or 22 inches, and the large amount of irrigation makes +the harvests secure. The chief crops are wheat and gram.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 433px;"> +<a name="fig101" id="fig101"></a> +<img src="images/img101tb.jpg" width="433" height="500" alt="Fig. 101." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img101.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 101.</span> +</div> + +<p>The Sikh Játs of the Mánjha to the south of the Grand +Trunk Road form by far the most important element in +the population. Between 1901 and 1911 there was a +falling off from 1,023,828 to 880,728. Besides its religious +importance the town of Amritsar is a great +trade centre.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig102" id="fig102"></a> +<img src="images/img102tb.jpg" width="500" height="462" alt="Fig. 102." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img102.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 102.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 2824 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1866 sq. m. +Pop. 1,036,158. +Land Rev. +Rs. 991,815 += £66,121.</div> + +<p><b>Lahore</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> lies in the Bárí Doáb to the south-west of +Amritsar. It is a much larger district, +though, like Amritsar, it has only three +<i>tahsíls</i>, Lahore, Kasúr, and Chúnian. 76 p.c. +of the cultivated area is irrigated, 23 from +wells and 53 from canals. There has been an enormous +extension of irrigation from the Upper Bárí Doáb Canal +in the past 30 years. Accordingly, though the rainfall +is somewhat scanty, the crops are generally secure. +The principal are wheat and gram. The district consists +of the Riverain on the Biás and Ráví, the latter extending +to both sides<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> of the river, and the plain of the Mánjha, +largely held by strong and energetic Sikh Játs. In the +Ráví valley industrious Arains predominate. Railway +communications are excellent. Trade activity is not +confined to the city of Lahore. Kasúr, Chúnian, and +Raiwind are important local centres.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, +21,361 sq. m. +Cultd area, +8099 sq.m. +Pop. 3,353,052; +87 p.c. M. +Land Rev. +Rs. 50,43,587 += £336,239.</div> + +<p>The <b>Ráwalpindí Division</b> occupies the N.W. of the +Panjáb. It is in area the second largest +division, but in population the smallest. +Five-sixths of the people profess the faith +of Islam. It includes six districts, Gujrát, +Jhelam, Ráwalpindi, Attock, Mianwálí, and +Sháhpur. This is the division from which the Panjáb +Musalmáns, who form so valuable an element in our +army, are drawn.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig103" id="fig103"></a> +<img src="images/img103tb.jpg" width="500" height="374" alt="Fig. 103." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img103.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 103.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 2357 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1369 sq. m. +Pop. 784,011. +Land Rev. +Ra. 887,220 += £59,148.</div> + +<p><b>Gujrát</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> lies in the Jech Doáb. The two northern +<i>tahsíls</i>, Gujrát and Kharián, have many of +the features of a submontane tract. In the +former the Pabbí, a small range of low bare +hills, runs parallel to the Jhelam, and the +outliers of the Himálaya in Kashmír are not far from +the northern border of the district. The uplands of +these two <i>tahsíls</i> slope pretty rapidly from N.E. to S.W., +and contain much light soil. They are traversed by sandy +torrents, dry in winter, but sometimes very destructive +in the rains. Phália on the other hand is a typical plain's +<i>tahsíl</i>. It has on the Chenáb a wide riverain, which also +separates the uplands of the Gujrát <i>tahsíl</i> from that river. +The Jhelam valley is much narrower. Above the present +Chenáb alluvial tract there is in Phália a well tract known +as the Hithár whose soil consists of older river deposits, +and at a higher level a Bár, which will now receive +irrigation from the Upper Jhelam Canal and become a +rich agricultural tract. 26 p.c. of the cultivated area is +irrigated from wells. Játs and Gújars are the great agricultural +tribes, the former predominating. The climate +is mild and the rainfall sufficient. The chief crops are +wheat and <i>bájra</i>.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 2813 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1162 sq. m. +Pop. 511,575; +88 p.c. M. +Land Rev. +Ra. 752,758 += £50,183.</div> + +<p>The <b>Jhelam district</b> lies to the north of the river of +the same name. The district is divided into +three <i>tahsíls</i>, Jhelam, Chakwál, Pind Dádan +Khán. The river frontage is long, extending +for about 80 miles, and the river valley +is about eight miles wide. The district +contains part of the Salt Range, from the eastern end of +which the Nílí and Tilla spurs strike northwards, enclosing +very broken ravine country called the Khuddar. The Pabbí +tract, embracing the Chakwál <i>tahsíl</i> and the north of the +Jhelam <i>tahsíl</i>, is much less broken, though it too is scored +by deep ravines and traversed by torrents, mostly flowing +north-west into the Sohán river.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> Two large torrents, the +Kahá and the Bunhár, drain into the Jhelam. There are +some fertile valleys enclosed in the bare hills of the Salt +Range. The average rainfall is about 20 inches and the +climate is good. It is hot in summer, but the cold weather +is long, and sometimes for short periods severe. There +is little irrigation and the harvests are by no means +secure. The chief crops are wheat and <i>bájra</i>. The country +breeds fine horses, fine cattle, and fine men. Numerically +Játs, Rájputs, and Awáns are the principal tribes, but +the Janjuas and Gakkhars, though fewer in number, are +an interesting element in the population, having great +traditions behind them. Awáns, Janjuas, and Gakkhars +supply valuable recruits to the army. Most of the villages +are far from any railway.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig104" id="fig104"></a> +<img src="images/img104tb.jpg" width="500" height="385" alt="Fig. 104." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img104.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 104.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 2010 sq. m. +Cultd area, +937 sq. m. +Pop. 547,827; +83 p.c. M. +Land Rev. +Rs. 674,650 += £44,977.</div> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 422px;"> +<a name="fig105" id="fig105"></a> +<img src="images/img105tb.jpg" width="422" height="500" alt="Fig. 105." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img105.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 105.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Ráwalpindí</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> is the smallest district in the division. +Along the whole eastern border the Jhelam, +which runs in a deep gorge, divides it from +Kashmír. There are four <i>tahsíls</i>, Murree, +Kahúta, Ráwalpindí, and Gújar Khán. The +first is a small wedge of mountainous +country between Kashmír and Hazára. The hills are +continued southwards at a lower level in the Kahúta +<i>tahsíl</i> parallel with the Jhelam. The greater part of the +district consists of a high plateau of good light loam, in +parts much eaten into by ravines. Where, as often +happens, it is not flat the fields have to be carefully +banked up. The plateau is drained by the Sohán +and the Kánshí.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> The latter starting in the south +of Kahúta runs through the south-east of the Gújar +Khán <i>tahsíl</i>, and for some miles forms the boundary of +the Ráwalpindí and Jhelam districts. The district is +very fully cultivated except in the hills. In the plains +the rainfall is sufficient and the soil very cool and clean, +except in the extreme west, where it is sometimes gritty, +and, while requiring more, gets less, rain. The chief +crops are wheat, the <i>Kharíf</i> pulses and <i>bájra</i>. The +climate is good. The cold weather is long, and, except +in January and February, when the winds from the +snows are very trying, it is pleasant. In the plains the +chief tribes are Rájputs and Awáns. Gakkhars are of +some importance in Kahúta. In the Murree the leading +tribes are the Dhúnds and the Sattís, the latter a fine +race, keen on military service.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig106" id="fig106"></a> +<img src="images/img106.jpg" width="600" height="404" alt="Fig. 106. Shop in Murree Bazár." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 106. Shop in Murree Bazár.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Ráwalpindí</b> is the largest cantonment in Northern +India. From it the favourite hill station of Murree is +easily reached, and soon after leaving Murree the traveller +crosses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> the Jhelam by the Kohála bridge and enters the +territory of the Mahárája of Kashmír.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 4025 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1678 sq. m. +Pop. 519,273; +91 p.c. M. +Land Rev. +Rs. 672,851 +=£44,857.</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 432px;"> +<a name="fig107" id="fig107"></a> +<img src="images/img107tb.jpg" width="432" height="500" alt="Fig. 107." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img107.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 107.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Attock district.</b>—Though Attock is twice the size of +Ráwalpindí it has a smaller population. +Nature has decreed that it should be sparsely +peopled. The district stretches from the Salt +Range on the south to the Hazára border +on the north. It contains itself the fine +Kálachitta<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> range in the north, the small and barren Khairí +Múrat range in the centre, and a line of bare hills running +parallel with the Indus in the west. That river forms +the western boundary for 120 miles, dividing Attock +from Pesháwar and Kohát. It receives in the Attock +district two tributaries, the Haro and the Soán. There +are four <i>tahsíls</i>, Attock, Fatehjang, Pindigheb, and +Talagang. The northern <i>tahsíl</i> of Attock is most favoured +by nature. It contains the Chach plain, part of which +has a rich soil and valuable well irrigation, also on the +Hazára border a small group of estates watered by cuts +from the Haro. The south of the <i>tahsíl</i> is partly sandy +and partly has a dry gritty or stony soil. Here the +crops are very insecure. The rest of the district is a +plateau. The northern part consists of the <i>tahsíls</i> of +Fatehjang and Pindigheb drained by the Soán and its +tributary the Sil. The southern is occupied by <i>tahsíl</i> +Talagang, a rough plateau with deep ravines and torrents +draining northwards into the Soán. In the valleys of +the Sil and Soán some good crops are raised. The soil +of the plateau is very shallow, and the rainfall being +scanty the harvest is often dried up. The chief crops +are wheat and <i>bájra</i>. Awáns form the bulk of the +agricultural population.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 5395 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1020 sq. m. +Pop. 341,377; +88 p.c. M. +Land Rev. +Rs. 359,836 += £23,989.</div> + +<p><b>Mianwálí</b> is one of the largest districts, but has the +smallest population of any except Simla. +The Indus has a course of about 180 miles +in Mianwálí. In the north it forms the +boundary between the Mianwálí <i>tahsíl</i> and +the small Isakhel <i>tahsíl</i> on the right bank. In +the south it divides the huge Bhakkar <i>tahsíl</i>, which is bigger +than an average district, from the Dera Ismail Khán +district of the N.W.F. Province. It is joined from the +west by the Kurram, which has a short course in the south +of the Isakhel <i>tahsíl</i>. The Salt Range extends into the +district, throwing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> off from its western extremity a spur +which runs north to the Indus opposite Kálabágh. Four +tracts may be distinguished, two large and two small. +North and east of the Salt Range is the Khuddar or +ravine country, a little bit of the Awánkárí or Awán's +land, which occupies a large space in Attock. West of +the Indus in the north the wild and desolate Bhangí-Khel +glen with its very scanty and scattered cultivation runs +north to the Kohát Hills. The rest of the district consists +of the wide and flat valley of the Indus and the Thal or +Uplands. In the north the latter includes an area of +strong thirsty loam, but south of the railway it is a huge +expanse of sand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> rising frequently into hillocks and ridges +with some fertile bottoms of better soil. Except in the +north the Thal people used to make their living almost +entirely as shepherds and camel owners. There were +scattered little plots of better soil where wells were sunk, +and the laborious and careful cultivation was and is +Dutch in its neatness. Some millets were grown in the +autumn and the sandhills yielded melons. The people +have now learned that it is worth while to gamble with +a spring crop of gram, and this has led to an enormous +extension of the cultivated area. But even now in Mianwálí +this is a comparatively small fraction of the total +area. There is a small amount of irrigation from wells +and in the neighbourhood of Isakhel from canal cuts +from the Kurram. Owing to the extreme scantiness of +the rainfall the riverain depends almost entirely on +the Indus floods, to assist the spread of which a number +of embankments are maintained. Everywhere in Mianwálí +the areas both of crops sown and of crops that ripen +fluctuate enormously, and much of the revenue has +accordingly been put on a fluctuating basis. The chief +crops are wheat, <i>bájra</i>, and gram. Jats<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> are in a great +majority Cis-Indus, but Patháns are important in Isakhel.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 274px;"> +<a name="fig108" id="fig108"></a> +<img src="images/img108tb.jpg" width="274" height="500" alt="Fig. 108." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img108.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 108.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 4791 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1933 sq. m. +Pop. 648,989. +Land Rev. +Rs. 16,96,272 += £113,085.</div> + +<p><b>Sháhpur</b> is also a very large district with the three +<i>tahsíls</i> of Bhera, Sháhpur, and Sargodha in +the Jech Doáb, and on the west of the +Jhelam the huge Khusháb <i>tahsíl</i>, which in +size exceeds the other three put together. +The principal tribes are Jats Cis-Jhelam, Awáns in +the Salt Range, and Jats and Tiwánas in Khusháb. The +Tiwána Maliks have large estates on both sides of the +river and much local influence. East of the Jhelam the +colonization of the Bár after the opening of the Lower +Jhelam Canal has led to a great increase of population +and a vast extension<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> of the cultivated area, 71 p.c. +of which is irrigated. The part of the district in the +Jech Doáb consists of the river valleys of the Chenáb +and Jhelam, the Utár, and the Bár. The Chenáb +riverain is poor, the Jhelam very fertile with good well +irrigation. In the north of the district the Utár, a tract +of older alluvium, lies between the present valley of the +Jhelam and the Bár. It has hitherto been largely +irrigated by public and private inundation canals, but +this form of irrigation may be superseded by the excavation +of a new distributary from the Lower Jhelam Canal. +Till the opening of that canal the Bár was a vast +grazing area with a little cultivation on scattered wells +and in natural hollows. North of the Kirána Hill +the soil is excellent and the country is now a sheet of +cultivation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> In the south of the Bár much of the land +is too poor to be worth tillage. The Khusháb <i>tahsíl</i> +consists of the Jhelam riverain, the Salt Range with +some fertile valleys hidden amid barren hills, the Mohár +below the hills with a thirsty soil dependent on extremely +precarious torrent floods, and the Thal, similar to that +described on page <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a>. The rainfall of the district is +scanty averaging eleven or twelve inches. The chief +crops are wheat, <i>bájra</i> and <i>jowár</i>, <i>charí</i> and cotton.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig109" id="fig109"></a> +<img src="images/img109tb.jpg" width="500" height="416" alt="Fig. 109." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img109.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 109.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Area, +28,652 sq. m. +Cultd area, +9160 sq. m. +Pop. 3,772,728; +78 p.c. M. +Land Rev. +Rs. 81,48,103 += £542,872.</div> + +<p>The <b>Multán</b> division consists of the six districts of +the S.W. Panjáb, Montgomery, Lyallpur, +Jhang, Multán, Muzaffargarh, and Dera +Ghází Khán. Muhammadans are in an +overwhelming majority. Wheat and cotton +are the chief crops.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 4649 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1080 sq. m. +Pop. 535,299; +75 p.c. M. +Land Rev. +Rs. 434,563 += £28,971.</div> + +<p>The <b>Montgomery</b> district takes its name from Sir Robert +Montgomery (page <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a>). It lies in the Bárí +Doáb between the Sutlej and the Ráví. It +consists of the two Ráví <i>tahsíls</i> of Gugera +and Montgomery, and the two Sutlej <i>tahsíls</i> +of Dipálpur and Pákpattan. The trans-Ráví +area of the Montgomery district was transferred to +Lyallpur in April, 1913. It is included in the figures for +area and population given in the margin.</p> + +<p>The backbone of the district is a high and dry tract +known as the Ganjí or Bald Bár. The advent of the +Lower Bárí Doáb Canal will entirely change the character +of this desert. Its south-eastern boundary is a high +bank marking the course of the old bed of the Biás. +Below this is the wide Sutlej valley. The part beyond +the influence of river floods depends largely on +the Khánwáh and Sohág Pára inundation Canals. The +Ráví valley to the north-west of the Bár is naturally +fertile and has good well irrigation. But it has suffered +much by the failure of the Ráví floods.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig110" id="fig110"></a> +<img src="images/img110tb.jpg" width="500" height="357" alt="Fig. 110." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img110.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 110.</span> +</div> + + + +<p>The peasantry<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> belongs largely to various tribes described +vaguely as Játs. The most important are Káthias, +Wattús, and Kharrals. The last gave trouble in 1857 +and were severely punished. The Dipálpur Kambohs are +much more hard-working than these semi-pastoral Játs. +There is already a small canal colony on the Sohág Pára +Canals and arrangements for the colonization of the +Ganjí Bár are now in progress.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 3156 sq. m. +Cultd area, +2224 sq. m. +Pop. 857,711; +61 p.c. M. +18 p.c. H. +17 p.c. S. +4 p.c. Ch.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> +Land Rev. +Rs. 37,55,139 += £237,009.</div> + +<p>The <b>Lyallpur district</b> occupies most of the Sándal Bár, +which a quarter of a century ago was a +desert producing scrub jungle and, if rains +were favourable, excellent grass. It was the +home of a few nomad graziers. The area of +the district, which was formed in 1904 and +added to from time to time, has been taken +out of the Crown Waste of the Jhang and Montgomery +districts on its colonization after the opening of the Lower +Chenáb Canal.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> Some old villages near the present borders +of these two districts have been included. The colonization +of the Sándal Bár has been noticed on pages 139-140. +The figures for area and population given in the margin +are for the district as it was before the addition of the +trans-Ráví area of Montgomery.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig111" id="fig111"></a> +<img src="images/img111tb.jpg" width="500" height="411" alt="Fig. 111." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img111.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 111.</span> +</div> + + +<p>Lyallpur is divided into the four <i>tahsíls</i> of Lyallpur, +Járanwala, Samundrí, and Toba Tek Singh. It consists +almost entirely of a flat plain of fertile loam with fringes +of poor land on the eastern, western, and southern edges. +The cultivated area is practically all canal irrigated. The +rainfall of 10 inches does not encourage dry cultivation. +The chief crops are wheat, the oil seed called <i>toria</i>, +cotton, and gram. The area of the first much exceeds +that of the other three put together. There is an +enormous export of wheat and oil seeds to Karáchí.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig112" id="fig112"></a> +<img src="images/img112tb.jpg" width="500" height="443" alt="Fig. 112." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img112.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 112.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 3363 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1214 sq. m. +Pop. 515,526; +82 p.c. M. +Land Rev. +Rs. 11,67,965 += £77,864.</div> + +<p><b>Jhang</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> now consists of a wedge of country lying between +Lyallpur on the east and Sháhpur, Mianwálí, +and Muzaffargarh on the west. It contains +the valleys of the Chenáb and Jhelam rivers, +which unite to the south-west of the district +headquarters and flow as a single stream +to the southern boundary. The valley of the Jhelam +is pretty and fertile, that of the Chenáb exactly the +reverse. In the west of the district part of the Thal is +included in the boundary. The high land between the +river valleys is much of it poor. Irrigation from the +Lower Jhelam Canal is now available. There is a fringe +of high land on the east of the Chenáb valley, partly +commanded by the Lower Chenáb Canal. Jhang is divided +into the three large <i>tahsíls</i> of Jhang, Chiniot, and Shorkot.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> +The rainfall is about ten inches and the summer long and +very hot. The chief crops are wheat, <i>jowár</i>, and <i>charí</i>. +The Siáls are few in number, but are the tribe that stands +highest in rank as representing the former rulers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig113" id="fig113"></a> +<img src="images/img113tb.jpg" width="500" height="475" alt="Fig. 113." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img113.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 113.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 6107 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1756 sq. m. +Pop. 814,871; +82 p.c. M. +Land Rev. +Rs. 13,74,472 += £91,631.</div> + +<p><b>Multán</b> occupies the south of the Bárí Doáb. The +Ráví flows from east to west across the north +of the district and falls into the Chenáb +within its boundary. The Sutlej meets the +combined stream of the Jhelam, Chenáb, and +Ráví at the south-west corner of the district.</p> + +<p>A part of the Kabírwála <i>tahsíl</i> lies beyond the Ráví. +The other four <i>tahsíls</i> are Multán, Shujábád, Lodhran, +and Mailsí. In a very hot district with an average rainfall +of six inches cultivation must depend on irrigation +or river floods.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> The present sources of irrigation are +inundation canals from the Chenáb and Sutlej supplemented +by well irrigation, and the Sidhnai Canal from +the Ráví. The district consists of the river valleys, +older alluvial tracts slightly higher than these valleys, +but which can be reached by inundation canals<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>, and the +high central Bár, which is a continuation of the Ganjí +Bár in Montgomery. Part of this will be served by the +new Lower Bárí Doáb Canal. The population consists +mainly of miscellaneous tribes grouped together under +the name of Jats, the ethnological significance of which +in the Western Panjáb is very slight. They are Muhammadans. +The district is well served by railways.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 6052 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1163 sq. m. +Pop. 569,461; +87 p.c. M. +Land Rev. +Rs. 873,491 += £58,233.</div> + +<p><b>Muzaffargarh</b> is with the exception of Kángra the +biggest Panjáb district. It forms a large +triangle with its apex in the south at the +junction of the Indus and Panjnad. On +the west the Indus forms the boundary +for 180 miles. On the east Muzaffargarh has +a river boundary with Baháwalpur and Multán, but, +where it marches with Jhang, is separated from it by the +area which that district possesses in the Sind Ságar Doáb. +There are four <i>tahsíls</i>, Leia, Sinánwan, Muzaffargarh, and +Alipur, the first being equal in area to a moderately sized +district. The greater part of Leia and Sinánwan is +occupied by the Thal. The southern tongue of the +Thal extends into the Muzaffargarh <i>tahsíl</i>. The rest +of that district is a heavily inundated or irrigated tract, +the part above flood level being easily reached by inundation +canals. Dry cultivation is impossible with a yearly +rainfall of about six inches. The chief crop is wheat. In +the south of the district the people live in frail grass huts, +and when the floods<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> are out transfer themselves and +their scanty belongings to wooden platforms.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;"> +<a name="fig114" id="fig114"></a> +<img src="images/img114tb.jpg" width="283" height="500" alt="Fig. 114." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img114.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 114.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 5325 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1723 sq. m. +Pop. 499,860; +88 p.c. M. +Land Rev. +Rs. 542,473 += £36,165.</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Dera Ghází Khán district.</b>—When the N. W. Frontier +Province was separated from the Panjáb, the +older province retained all the trans-Indus +country in which Biluches were the predominant +tribe. The Panjáb therefore kept +Dera Ghází Khán. It has a river frontage +on the Indus about 230 miles in length and on the +west is bounded by the Sulimán Range, part of which +is included within the district. The Deputy Commissioner +of Dera Ghází Khán and the Commissioner of +Multán spend part of the hot weather at Fort Munro. +The wide Indus valley is known as the Sindh. The +tract between it and the Hills is the Pachádh. It is +seamed by hill torrents, three of which, the Vehoa, the +Sangarh, and the Kahá, have a thread of water even in +the cold season. The heat in summer is extreme, and +the <i>luh</i>, a moving current of hot air, claims its human +victims from time to time. The cultivation in the Sindh +depends on the river floods and inundation canals, helped +by wells. In the Pachádh dams are built to divert the +water of the torrents into embanked fields. The cultivated +area is recorded as 1723 square miles, but this is enormously +in excess of the cropped areas, for a very large part of +the embanked area is often unsown. The encroachments +of the Indus have enforced the transfer of the district +headquarters from Dera Ghází Khán to a new town at +Choratta. Biluches are the dominant tribe both in +numbers and political importance. They with few exceptions +belong to one or other of the eight organized clans +or tumans, Kasránis, Sorí Lunds, Khosas, Laghárís, Tibbí +Lunds, Gurchánís, Drishaks, and Mazárís. The most +important clans are Mazárís, Laghárís, and Gurchánís. +Care has been taken to uphold the authority of the +chiefs. The Deputy Commissioner is political officer for +such of the independent Biluch tribes across the administrative +frontier as are not included in the Biluchistán +Agency. Regular troops have all been removed from the +district. The peace of the borderland is maintained by +a tribal militia under the command of a British officer.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 270px;"> +<a name="fig115" id="fig115"></a> +<img src="images/img115tb.jpg" width="270" height="500" alt="Fig. 115." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img115.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 115.</span> +</div> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXVI"></a>CHAPTER XXVI</h2> + +<h3>THE PANJÁB NATIVE STATES</h3> + + +<h3>1. <i>The Phulkian States</i></h3> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 7599 sq. m. +Pop. 1,928,724. +Rev. +Rs. 118,00,000 += £786,666.</div> + +<p><b>Phulkian States.</b>—The three Phulkian States of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> +Patiála, Jínd, and Nábha form a political +agency under the Panjáb Government. They +occupy, with Baháwalpur and Hissár, the +bulk of that great wedge of light loam and +sand which Rájputána, physically considered, pushes +northwards almost to the Sutlej. In the Phulkian States +this consists of two tracts, the Powádh and the Jangal +Des. The former, which occupies the north and north-east +of their territory, possesses a light fertile loam soil +and a very moderate natural water level, so that well +irrigation is easy. The Jangal Des is a great tract of +sandy loam and sand in the south-west. Water lies too +deep for the profitable working of wells, but the harvests +are far less insecure than one would suppose looking to +the scantiness of the rainfall. The soil is wonderfully cool +and drought-resisting. The dry cultivation consists of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> +millets in the Autumn, and of gram and mixed crops +of wheat or barley and gram in the Spring, harvest. +The three states have rather more than a one-third +share in the Sirhind Canal, their shares <i>inter se</i> being +Patiála 83·6, Nábha 8·8, and Jínd 7·6. Portions of the +Powádh and Jangal Des are irrigated. In the case of +the Powádh there has been in some places over irrigation +considering how near the surface the water table is. +The Nirwána<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> <i>tahsíl</i> in Patiála and the part of Jínd +which lies between Karnál and Rohtak is a bit of the +Bángar tract of the south-eastern Panjáb, with a strong +loam soil and a naturally deep water level. The former +receives irrigation from the Sirsa, and the latter from the +Hánsi, branch of the Western Jamna Canal. The outlying +tracts to the south of Rohtak and Gurgáon, acquired +after the Mutiny, are part of the dry sandy Rájputána +desert, in which the <i>Kharíf</i> is the chief harvest, and the +millets and gram the principal crops. In addition +Patiála has an area of 294 square miles of territory +immediately below and in the Simla Hills. The territory +of the Phulkian States is scattered and intermixed, and +they have islands in British districts and <i>vice versa</i>, a +natural result of their historic origin and development.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"> +<a name="fig116" id="fig116"></a> +<img src="images/img116.jpg" width="390" height="600" alt="Fig. 116. Mahárája of Patiála." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 116. Mahárája of Patiála.</span> +</div> + +<p>Phul was the sixth in descent from Baryám, a Sidhu +Ját, to whom Bábar gave the <i>Chaudhráyat</i> of the wild +territory to the south-west of Delhi, making him in +effect a Lord of the Marches.</p> + +<h4> +<i>Tree showing relationship of the three Houses</i>.</h4> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/285.jpg" width="550" height="168" alt="" title="Tree showing relationship of the three Houses" /> +</div> + + +<p>The century and more which elapsed between the +grant and Phul's death in 1652 were filled with continual +fighting with the Bhattís. Phul's second son Ráma +obtained from the Governor of Sírhind the <i>Chaudhráyat</i> +of the Jangal Des. When Ahmad Sháh defeated the +Sikhs near Barnála in 1762, Ráma's son, Ála Singh, was +one of his prisoners.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> He was a chief of such importance +that his conqueror gave him the title of Rája and the +right to coin money. But Ála Singh found it prudent +to join next year in the capture of Sirhind. From +the division of territory which followed the separate +existence of the Phulkian States begins. The manner in +which they came in 1809 under British protection has +already been related. The Rája of Patiála was our +ally in the Gurkha War in 1814, and received the +Pinjaur <i>tahsíl</i>. The active loyalty displayed in 1857 was +suitably rewarded by accessions of territory. The right +of adoption was conferred, and special arrangements +made to prevent lapse, if nevertheless the line in any +state failed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 5412 sq. m. +Cultd area, +4515 sq. m. +Pop. 1,407,659; +40 p.c. H. +38 p.c. S. +22 p.c. M. +Rev. +Rs. 82,00,000 +=£546,666.</div> + +<p><b>Patiála</b> occupies five-sevenths of the Phulkian inheritance +The predominant agricultural tribe is +the Játs, over three-fourths of whom are +Sikhs. The cultivated area is four-fifths of +the total area. Over one-fourth of the former +is irrigated, 27 p.c. from wells, and the rest +from the two canals. In an area extending +with breaks from Simla to the Rájputána desert the +variations of agriculture are of course extreme. The +state is excellently served by railways.</p> + +<p><b>Nizámats.</b>—There are five <i>nizámats</i> or districts, +Pinjaur, Amargarh, Karmgarh, Anáhadgarh, and Mohindargarh. +Their united area is equivalent to that of two +ordinary British districts. The Pinjaur <i>nizámat</i> with +headquarters at Rájpura covers only 825 square miles. +Of its four <i>tahsíls</i> Pinjaur contains the submontane and +hill tract, part of the latter being quite close to Simla. +The other three <i>tahsíls</i> Rájpura, Bannur, and Ghanaur +are in the Powádh. The Amargarh <i>nizámat</i> with an +area of 855 square miles comprises the three <i>tahsíls</i> of +Fatehgarh, Sáhibgarh, and Amargarh. The first two +are rich and fertile<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> well tracts. Amargarh is in the Jangal +Des to the south-west of Sáhibgarh. It receives irrigation +from the Kotla branch of the Sirhind Canal. The Karmgarh +<i>nizámat</i> with an area of 1835 square miles contains +the four <i>tahsíls</i> of Patiála, Bhawánigarh, Sunám, and +Nirwána. The headquarters are at Bhawánigarh. The +first three are partly in the Powádh, and partly in the +Jangal Des. Nirwána is in the Bángar. There is much +irrigation from the Sirhind and Western Jamna Canals. +The Anáhadgarh <i>nizámat</i> lies wholly in the Jangal Des. +It has an area of 1836 square miles, and is divided into +three <i>tahsíls</i>, Anáhadgarh, Bhikhi, and Govindgarh. The +headquarters are at Barnála or Anáhadgarh. The Mohindarpur +<i>nizámat</i> lies far away to the south on the borders +of Jaipur and Alwar (see map on page <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a>). Its area is +only 576 miles and it has two <i>tahsíls</i>, Mohindargarh or +Kánaud and Narnaul. Kánaud is the headquarters.</p> + +<p>The history down to 1763 has already been related. +Rája Ála Singh died in 1765 and was succeeded by his +grandson Amar Singh (1765-1781), who was occupied in +continual warfare with his brother and his neighbours, as +became a Sikh chieftain of those days. His son, Sáhib +Singh (1781-1813), came under British protection in +1809. Karm Singh (1813-1845), his successor, was our +ally in the Gurkha War. Mahárája Narindar Singh, +K.C.S.I. (1845-1862), was a wise and brave man, who +gave manful and most important help in 1857. His +son, Mahárája Mohindar Singh (1862-1876), succeeded at +the age of ten and died 14 years later. His eldest son, +Mahárája Rajindar Singh (1876-1900), was only four +when he succeeded and died at the age of 28. Another +long minority, that of the present Mahárája Bhupindar +Singh, only came to an end a few years ago. In the last +fifty years Patiála has in consequence of three minorities +been governed, and as a rule successfully governed, for +long periods<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> by Councils of Regency. The State in 1879 +sent a contingent of 1100 men to the Afghán War. It +maintains an Imperial Service Force consisting of two +fine regiments of infantry and one of cavalry. Mahárája +Rajindar Singh went with one of these regiments to the +Tirah Expedition.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 1259 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1172 sq. m. +Pop. 248,887; +78 p.c. H. and J.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> +14 p.c. M.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8 " S.</span><br /> +Rev. +Rs. 19,00,000 += £126,666.</div> + +<p><b>Jínd.</b>—A third of the population of Jínd consists +of Hindu and Sikh Játs. There are two +<i>nizámats</i>, Sangrúr and Jínd, the latter divided +into the <i>tahsíls</i> of Jínd and Dádrí (map on +page <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a>). The Sangrúr villages are interspersed +among those of the other Phulkian +States, and form a part of the Jangal Des. +Jínd is in the Bángar, and Dádrí, separated from +Jínd by the Rohtak district, is partly in Hariána and +partly in the sandy Rájputána desert. The rainfall +varies from 17 inches at Sangrúr to ten inches at Dádrí. +Sangrúr is irrigated by the Sirhind, and Jínd by the +Western Jamna, Canal. Dádrí is a dry sandy tract, +in which the Autumn millets are the chief crop. The +revenue in 1911-12 was 19 <i>lákhs</i> (£126,700). For +imperial service Jínd keeps up a fine battalion of +infantry 600 strong. The real founder of the state was +Gajpat Singh, who was a chief of great vigour. He +conquered Jínd and in 1774 deprived his relative, the chief +of Nábha, of Sangrúr. He died in 1789. His successor, +Rája Bhág Singh, was a good ally of the British Government. +He died after a long and successful career in +1819. His son, Fateh Singh, only survived him by three +years. Sangat Singh succeeded to troublous times and +died childless in 1834. His second cousin, Rája Sarúp +Singh, was only allowed to inherit the territory acquired +by Gajpat Singh, from whom he derived his claim. But +the gallant and valuable services rendered by Rája Sarúp +Singh in 1857<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> enabled him to enlarge his State by the grant +of the Dádrí territory and of +thirteen villages near Sangrúr. +He died in 1864. His son +Raghubír Singh (1864-1887) +was a vigorous and successful +ruler. He gave loyal help in +the Kúka outbreak and in the +Second Afghán War. His grandson, +the present Mahárája Ranbir +Singh, K.C.S.I., was only eight +when he succeeded, and Jínd +was managed by a Council of +Regency for a number of years. Full powers were given +to the chief in 1899.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 312px;"> +<a name="fig117" id="fig117"></a> +<img src="images/img117.jpg" width="312" height="400" alt="Fig. 117. Mahárája of Jínd." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 117. Mahárája of Jínd.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 928 sq. m. +Cultd area, +806 sq. m. +Pop. 248,887; +51 p.c. H. and J. +31 p.c. S. +18 p.c. M. +Rev. +Rs. 17,00,000 += £113,300.</div> + +<p><b>Nábha</b> consists of twelve patches of territory in the +north scattered among the possessions of +Patiála, Jínd, and Farídkot, and two other +patches in the extreme south on the border +of Gurgáon. The northern section of the +state is divided into the eastern <i>nizámat</i> of +Amloh in the Powádh and the western +<i>nizámat</i> of Phul in the Jangal Des. Both now receive +irrigation from the Sirhind Canal. The Báwal <i>nizámat</i> is +part of the arid Rájputána desert. Játs, who are mostly +Sikhs, constitute 30 p.c. of the population.</p> + +<p>The State is well served by railways, Nábha itself +being on the Rájpura-Bhatinda line. The Mahárája +maintains a battalion of infantry for imperial service. +Hamír Singh, one of the chiefs who joined in the capture +of Sirhind, may be considered the first Rája. He died in +1783 and was succeeded by his young son, Jaswant +Singh. When he grew to manhood Jaswant Singh +proved a very capable chief and succeeded in aggrandising +his State, which he ruled for 57 years. His son, Deoindar +Singh (1840—47),<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> was deposed, as he was considered to have +failed to support the British Government when the Khalsa +army crossed the Sutlej in 1845. A fourth of the Nábha +territory was confiscated. Bharpur Singh, who became +chief in 1857, did excellent service at that critical time, and +the Báwal <i>nizámat</i> was his reward. He was succeeded by +his brother, Bhagwán Singh, in 1863. With Bhagwán +Singh the line died out in 1871, +but under the provisions of the +<i>sanad</i> granted after the Mutiny +a successor was selected from +among the Badrúkhan chiefs in +the person of the late Mahárája +Sir Hira Singh. No choice could +have been more happy. Hira +Singh for 40 years ruled his +State on old fashioned lines +with much success. Those who +had the privilege of his friendship +will not soon forget the +alert figure wasted latterly by disease, the gallant bearing, +or the obstinate will of a Sikh chieftain of a type now +departed. His son, Mahárája Ripudaman Singh, succeeded +in 1911.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;"> +<a name="fig118" id="fig118"></a> +<img src="images/img118.jpg" width="316" height="400" alt="Fig. 118. Mahárája Sir +Hira Singh." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 118. Mahárája Sir +Hira Singh.</span> +</div> + + +<h4>2. <i>Other Sikh States</i></h4> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 630 sq. m. +Cultd area, +424 sq. m. +Pop. 268,163. +Rev. +Rs. 14,00,000 += £93,333, +exclusive of +Rs. 13,00,000 += £86,666 +derived from the +Oudh estates.</div> + +<p><b>Kapúrthala.</b>—The main part consists of a strip of +territory mostly in the valley of the Biás, +and interposed between that river and Jalandhar. +This is divided into the four <i>tahsíls</i> +of Bholath, Dhilwan, Kapúrthala, and Sultánpur. +There is a small island of territory +in Hoshyárpur, and a much larger one, the +Phagwára <i>tahsíl</i>, projecting southwards from +the border<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> of that district into Jalandhar. Two-thirds of +the area is cultivated and the proportion of high-class +crops is large. The chief agricultural tribes are the +Muhammadan Arains and the Játs, most of whom are +Sikhs.</p> + +<p>The real founder of the Kapúrthala house was Sardár +Jassa Singh Ahluwália, who in 1763, when Sirhind fell, +was the leading Sikh chief in the Panjáb. He captured +Kapúrthala in 1771 and made it his headquarters, and +died in 1783. A distant relative, Bágh Singh, succeeded. +His successor, Fateh Singh, was a sworn brother of Ranjít +Singh, with whom he exchanged turbans. But an alliance +between the weak and the strong is not free from fears, +and in 1826 Fateh Singh, who had large possessions south +of the Sutlej, fled thither and asked the protection of the +British Government. He returned however to Kapúrthala +in 1827, and the Mahárája never pushed matters +with Fateh Singh to extremities. The latter died in +1836. His successor, Nihál Singh, was a timid man, +and his failure to support the British in 1845 led to the +loss of his Cis-Sutlej estates. +In 1849 he took the English +side and was given the title +of Rája. Randhír Singh +succeeded in 1852. His +conspicuous services in the +Mutiny were rewarded with +the grant of estates in Oudh. +The present Mahárája, Sir +Jagatjít Singh Bahádur, +G.C.S.I., is a grandson of +Randhír Singh. He was a +young child when he succeeded +in 1877. The State maintains a battalion of +infantry for imperial service.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;"> +<a name="fig119" id="fig119"></a> +<img src="images/img119.jpg" width="321" height="400" alt="Fig. 119. Mahárája Sir Jagatjít +Singh Bahádur, G.C.S.I." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 119. Mahárája Sir Jagatjít +Singh Bahádur, G.C.S.I.</span> +</div> + + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 329px;"> +<a name="fig120" id="fig120"></a> +<img src="images/img120.jpg" width="329" height="400" alt="Fig. 120. Rája Brijindar Singh." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 120. Rája Brijindar Singh.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 642 sq. m. +Pop. 130,925. +Rev. +Rs. 11,50,000 += £76,666.</div> + +<p><b>Farídkot</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> is a small wedge of territory which almost +divides the Ferozepore district in two. The +population is composed of Sikhs 42½, Hindus +and Jains 29, and Musalmans 28½ p.c. Sikh +Játs are the strongest tribe. The country +is flat. In the west it is very sandy, but in the east +the soil is firmer and is +irrigated in part by the Sirhind +Canal. The Chief, like +the Phulkians, is a Sidhu +Barár Ját, and, though not +a descendant of Phul, unites +his line with the Phulkians +further back. The present +Rája, Brijindar Singh, is 17 +years of age, and the State +is managed by a Council of +Regency.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 168 sq.m. +Pop. 55,915. +Rev. +Rs. 221,000 += £14,733.</div> + +<p><b>Kalsia</b> consists of a number of patches of territory in +Ambála and an enclave in Ferozepore known +as Chirak. The founder of the State was +one of the Játs from the Panjáb, who swept +over Ambála after the capture of Sirhind +in 1763, and carved out petty principalities, of which +Kalsia is the only survivor (page <a href='#Page_180'><b>180</b></a>). The capital is +Chachraulí, eight or nine miles north-west of Jagádhrí. +The present Chief, Sardár Ráví Sher Singh, is a minor.</p> + + +<h4>3. <i>The Muhammadan States</i></h4> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, +15,917 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1853 sq. m. +Pop. 780,641; +84 p.c. M. +Rev. +Rs. 35,00,000 += £233,333.</div> + +<p><b>Baháwalpur</b> is by far the largest of the Panjáb States. +But the greater part of it is at present +desert, and the population, except in the +river tract, is very sparse. Baháwalpur +stretches from Ferozepore on the north to +the Sindh border. It has a river frontage +exceeding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> 300 miles on the Sutlej, Panjnad, and +Indus. The cultivated area in 1903-4 was 1451 +square miles, and of this 83 p.c. was irrigated and +10 p.c. flooded. The rainfall is only five inches and +the climate is very hot. South and east of the rivers +is a tract of low land known as the "Sindh," which +widens out to the south. It is partly flooded and +partly irrigated by inundation canals with the help of +wells. Palm groves are a conspicuous feature in the +Sindh. Behind it is a great stretch of strong loam or +"<i>pat</i>," narrow in the south, but widening out in the north. +It is bounded on the south-east by a wide depression +known as the Hakra,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> probably at one time the bed +of the Sutlej. At present little cultivation is possible +in the <i>pat</i>, but there is some hope that a canal taking out +on the right bank of the Sutlej in Ferozepore may bring +the water of that river back to it. South of the Hakra +is a huge tract of sand and sand dunes, known as the +Rohí or Cholistán, which is part of the Rájputána desert. +There are three <i>nizámats</i>, Minchinábád in the north, +Baháwalpur in the middle, and Khánpur in the south. +The capital, Baháwalpur, is close to the bridge at Adamwáhan +by which the N.W. Railway crosses the Sutlej. +The ruling family belongs to the Abbásí Dáudpotra clan, +and came originally from Sindh. Sadik Muhammad +Khán, who received the title of Nawáb from Nádir +Sháh, when he invaded the Deraját in 1739, may be +considered the real founder of the State. The Nawáb +Muhummad Baháwal Khan III, threatened with invasion +by Mahárája Ranjít Singh, made a treaty with the +British Government in 1833. He was our faithful ally +in the first Afghán War, and gave valuable help against +Diwán Mulráj in 1848. The next three reigns extending +from 1852 to 1866 were brief and troubled. Nawáb +Sadik Muhummad Khán IV, who succeeded in 1866, +was a young child, and for the next thirteen years the +State was managed by Captain Minchin and Captain +L. H. Grey as Superintendents. The young Nawáb was +installed in 1879, and henceforth ruled with the help +of a Council. In the Afghán War of 1879-1880 Baháwalpur +did very useful service. The Nawáb died in 1899. +A short minority followed during which Colonel L. H. Grey +again became Superintendent. The young Nawáb, Muhammad +Baháwal Khán V, had but a brief reign. He +was succeeded by the present Chief, Nawáb Sadik +Muhummad Khán V, a child of eight or nine years. The +State is managed by a Council aided by the advice of the +political Agent.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> From 1903 to 1913, the Agent for the +Phulkian States was in charge, but a separate Agent has +recently been appointed for Baháwalpur and Farídkot. +An efficient camel corps is maintained for imperial service.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 481px;"> +<a name="fig121" id="fig121"></a> +<img src="images/img121.jpg" width="481" height="500" alt="Nawáb Sadik Muhammad Khán." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Nawáb Sadik Muhammad Khán.</span> +</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 167 sq. m. +Pop. 71,144. +Rev. +Rs. 900,000 += £60,000.</div> + +<p><b>Malerkotla</b> consists of a strip of territory to the south +of the Ludhiána district. The capital is +connected with Ludhiána by railway. The +Nawáb keeps up a company of Sappers and +Miners for imperial service. He is an +Afghán, and his ancestor held a position of trust under +the Moghal Empire, and became independent on its +decline. The independence of his successor was menaced +by Mahárája Ranjít Singh when Malerkotla came under +British protection in 1809.</p> + +<p><b>Pataudí, Dujána, and Loháru.</b>—The three little Muhammadan +States of Loháru, Dujána, and Pataudí are relics +of the policy which in the opening years of the nineteenth +century sought rigorously to limit our responsibilities to +the west of the Jamna. Together they have an area of +275 square miles, a population of 59,987 persons, and a +revenue of Rs. 269,500 (£18,000). The Chief of Loháru, +Nawáb Amír ud dín Ahmad Khán, K.C.I.E., is a man of +distinction.</p> + + +<h4>4. <i>Hindu Hill States</i></h4> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 1200 sq. m. +pop. 181,110. +Rev. +Rs. 500,000 += £33,333.</div> + +<p><b>Mandí</b> is a tract of mountains and valleys drained by +the Biás. With Suket, with which for many +generations it formed one kingdom, it is a +wedge thrust up from the Sutlej between +Kángra and Kulu. Three-fifths of the area +is made up of forests and grazing lands. The <i>deodár</i> +and blue pine forests on the Kulu border are valuable. +At Guma and Drang an impure salt, fit for cattle, is +extracted from shallow cuttings. A considerable part of +the revenue is derived from the price and duty. The +chiefs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> are Chandarbánsí Rájputs. The direct line came +to an end in 1912 with the death of Bhawání Sen, but to +prevent lapse the British Government has chosen as +successor a distant relative, Jogindar Singh, who is still a +child.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 448px;"> +<a name="fig122" id="fig122"></a> +<img src="images/img122tb.jpg" width="448" height="500" alt="Fig. 122." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img122.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 122.</span> +</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 420 sq. m. +Pop. 54,928. +Rev. +Rs. 200,000 += £13,333.</div> + +<p><b>Suket</b> lies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> between Mandí and the Sutlej. Its Rája, +Ugar Sen, like his distant relative, the Rája +of Mandí, came under British protection in +1846. His great-grandson, Rája Bhim Sen, +is the present chief.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 1198 sq. m. +Pop. 138,520. +Rev. +Rs. 600,000 += £40,000.</div> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;"> +<a name="fig123" id="fig123"></a> +<img src="images/img123.jpg" width="362" height="400" alt="Fig. 123. The late Rája Surindar Bikram Parkásh, K.C.S.I., +of Sirmúr." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 123. The late Rája Surindar Bikram Parkásh, K.C.S.I., +of Sirmúr.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Sirmúr</b> (<b>Náhan</b>) lies to the north of the Ambála +district, and occupies the greater part of the +catchment area of the Girí, a tributary of +the Jamna. It is for the most part a +mountain tract, the Chor to the north of the +Girí rising to a height of 11,982 feet. The capital, Náhan +(3207 feet), near the southern border is in the Siwálik +range. In the south-east of the State is the rich valley +known as the Kiárda Dún, reclaimed and colonized by +Rája Shamshér Parkásh. There are valuable <i>deodár</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> and +<i>sál</i> forests. A good road connects Náhan with Barára +on the N.W. Railway. In 1815 the British Government +having driven out the Gurkhas put Fateh Parkásh on +the throne of his ancestors. His troops fought on the +English side in the first Sikh War. His successors, Rája +Sir Shamsher Parkásh, G.C.S.I. (1856-98), and Rája +Sir Surindar Bikram Parkásh, K.C.S.I. (1898-1911), +managed their State with conspicuous success. The +present Rája, Amar Parkásh, is 25 years of age. In the +second Afghán War in 1880, Sirmúr sent a contingent +to the frontier, and the Sappers and Miners, which it +keeps up for imperial service, accompanied the Tirah +Expedition of 1897.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 3216 sq. m. +Pop. 135,989. +Rev. 4 <i>lákhs</i> += £26,700.</div> + +<p><b>Chamba</b> lies to the N. of Kángra from which it is +divided by the Dhauladhár (map, p. 284). +The southern and northern parts of the State +are occupied respectively by the basins of +the Ráví and the Chandrabhágá or Chenáb. Chamba is +a region of lofty mountains with some fertile valleys +in the south and west. Only about one-nineteenth +of the area is cultivated. The snowy range of the Mid-Himálaya +separates the Ráví valley from that of the +Chandrabhágá, and the great Zánskár chain with its +outliers occupies the territory beyond the Chenáb, where +the rainfall is extremely small and Tibetan conditions +prevail. The State contains fine forests and excellent +sport is to be got in its mountains. There are five +<i>wazárats</i> or districts, Brahmaur or Barmaur, Chamba, +Bhattoyat, Chaura, and Pángí.</p> + +<p>The authentic history of this Súrajbansí Rajput +principality goes back to the seventh century. It came +into the British sphere in 1846. During part of the reign +of Rája Shám Singh (1873-1904), the present Rája, Sir +Bhure Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., administered the State as +Wazír,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> filling a difficult position with loyalty and honour. +He is a Rájput gentleman of the best type. The Rája +owns the land of the State, but the people have a permanent +tenant right in cultivated land.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="fig124" id="fig124"></a> +<img src="images/img124.jpg" width="275" height="400" alt="Fig. 124. Rája Sir Bhure Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 124. Rája Sir Bhure Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Simla Hill States.</b>—The Deputy Commissioner of +Simla is political officer with the title of Superintendent +of nineteen, or, including the tributaries of Bashahr, +Keonthal, and Jubbal, of 28 states with a total area of +6355 square miles, a population of 410,453, and revenues +amounting to a little over ten <i>lákhs</i> (£66,000). The +States vary in size from the patch of four square miles +ruled by the Thákur of Bija to the 388r square miles +included in Bashahr. Only four other States have areas +exceeding 125 square miles, namely, Biláspur (448), +Keonthal (359), Jubbal (320), and Hindúr or Nalagarh +(256). Excluding feudatories the revenues vary from +Rs. 900 (or a little over £1 a week) in Mangal to Rs. 190,000 +(£12,666)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> in Biláspur. The chiefs are all Rájputs, who +came under our protection at the close of the Gurkha +War.</p> + +<p>The watershed of the Sutlej and Jamna runs through +the tract. The range which forms the watershed of the +Sutlej and the Jamna starts from the Shinka Pass on the +south border of Bashahr and passes over Hattu and +Simla. In Bashahr it divides the catchment areas of +the Rupín and Pábar rivers, tributaries of the Tons and +therefore of the Jamna, from those of the Báspa and the +Noglí, which are affluents of the Sutlej. West of Bashahr +the chief tributary of the Jamna is the Girí and of the +Sutlej the Gámbhar, which rises near Kasaulí. In the +east Bashahr has a large area north of the Sutlej drained +by its tributary the Spití and smaller streams. In the +centre the Sutlej is the northern boundary of the Simla +Hill States. In the west Biláspur extends across that +river. The east of Bashahr is entirely in the Sutlej +basin.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 448 sq. m. +Pop. 93,107. +Rev. Rs. 190,000 += £12,666.</div> + +<p><b>Biláspur.</b>—This is true also of Biláspur or Kahlúr (map, +p. 284), which has territory on both banks of +the river. The capital, Biláspur, is on the left +bank only 1455 feet above sea level. The +present Rája Bije Chand, C.S.I., succeeded in 1889.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 3881 sq. m. +Pop. 93,203. +Rev. Rs. 95,000 += £6233.</div> + +<p><b>Bashahr.</b>—The chain which forms the watershed of +the Sutlej and Jamna rises from about +12,000 feet at Hattu in the west to nearly +20,000 feet on the Tibet border. Two +peaks in the chain exceed 20,000 feet. Further north +Raldang to the east of Chíní is 21,250 feet high, and +in the north-east on the Tibet border there are two +giants about 1000 feet higher. Generally speaking the +Sutlej runs in a deep gorge but at Chíní and Saráhan +the valley widens out. The main valley of the Pábar is +not so narrow as that of the Sutlej, while the side valleys +descend in easy slopes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> to the river beds. The Báspa has +a course of 35 miles. In the last ten miles it falls 2000 +feet and is hemmed in by steep mountains. Above this +gorge the Báspa valley is four or five miles wide and +consists of a succession of plateaux rising one above the +other from the river's banks. Bashahr is divided into +two parts, Bashahr proper and Kunáwar. The latter +occupies the Sutlej valley in the north-east of the State. +It covers an area of about 1730 square miles and is very +sparsely peopled. In the north of Kunáwar the predominant +racial type is Mongoloid and the religion is +Buddhism. The capital of Bashahr, Rámpur, on the +left bank of the Sutlej is at an elevation of 3300 feet. +The Gurkhas never succeeded in conquering Kunáwar.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> +They occupied Bashahr, but in 1815 the British Government +restored the authority of the Rája. The present +chief, Shamsher Singh, is an old man, who succeeded as +long ago as 1850. He is incapable of managing the State +and an English officer is at present in charge.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig125" id="fig125"></a> +<img src="images/img125tb.jpg" width="500" height="405" alt="Fig. 125. Bashahr." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img125.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 125. Bashahr.</span> +</div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVII" id="CHAPTER_XXVII"></a>CHAPTER XXVII</h2> + +<h3>THE NORTH WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE</h3> + + +<h4>1. <i>Districts</i></h4> + +<p><b>The Province.</b>—The N. W. F. Province consists of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> +five British districts, Dera Ismail Khán, Bannu, Kohát, +Pesháwar, and Hazára with a total area of 13,193 square +miles, of which rather less than one-third is cultivated. +Of the cultivated area 70 p.c. depends solely on the +rainfall. In addition the Chief Commissioner as Agent +to the Governor General controls beyond the administrative +boundary territory occupied by independent tribes, +which covers approximately an area of 25,500 square +miles. In 1911 the population of British districts was +2,196,933 and that of tribal territory is estimated to +exceed 1,600,000. In the districts 93 persons in every +hundred profess the creed of Islam and over 38 p.c. are +Patháns.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 3780 sq. m. +Cultd area, +851 sq. m. +Pop. 256,120. +Land Rev. +Rs. 306,240 += £20,416.</div> + +<p><b>Dera Ismail Khán</b> lies to the north of Dera Gházi +Khán and is very similar to it in its +physical features. It is divided into the +three <i>tahsíls</i> of Tánk, Dera Ismail Khán, +and Kuláchi. It has a long river frontage +on the west, and is bounded on the east by +the Sulimán Range. The Kachchhí of Dera Ismail +Khán corresponds to the Sindh of Dera Gházi Khán, +but is much narrower and is not served by inundation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> +canals, except in the extreme north, where the Pahárpur +Canal has recently been dug. It depends on floods and +wells. The Dáman or "Skirt" of the hills is like the +Pachádh of Dera Ghází Khán a broad expanse of strong +clayey loam or <i>pat</i> seamed by torrents and cultivated by +means of dams and embanked fields. The climate is +intensely hot in summer, and the average rainfall only +amounts to ten inches. Between one-fourth and one-fifth +of the area is cultivated. The Pachádh is a camel-breeding +tract.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 404px;"> +<a name="fig126" id="fig126"></a> +<img src="images/img126.jpg" width="404" height="600" alt="Fig. 126. Sir Harold Deane." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 126. Sir Harold Deane.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;"> +<a name="fig127" id="fig127"></a> +<img src="images/img127tb.jpg" width="330" height="500" alt="Fig. 127. NORTH-WEST FRONTIER-PROVINCE" title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img127.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 127. North-West Frontier-Province.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig128" id="fig128"></a> +<img src="images/img128tb.jpg" width="500" height="498" alt="128. Map of Dera Ismail Khán" title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img127.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">128. Map of Dera Ismail Khán<br />with trans-border territory +of Largha Sheránis and Ustaránas.</span> +</div> + + +<p>Patháns predominate in the Dáman and Jats in the +Kachchhí. The Bhittannís in the north of the district<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> +are an interesting little tribe. The hill section lies outside +our administrative border, but like the Lárgha Sheránís +in the south are under the political control of the Deputy +Commissioner. A good metalled road, on which there is +a <i>tonga</i> service, runs northwards from Dera Ismail Khán +to Bannu.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 1641 sq. m. +Cultd area, +818 sq. m. +Pop. 250,086. +Land Rev. +Rs. 304,004 += £20,267.</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig129" id="fig129"></a> +<img src="images/img129tb.jpg" width="500" height="481" alt="Fig. 129." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img129.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 129.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Bannu.</b>—The small Bannu district occupies a basin +surrounded by hills and drained by the +Kurram and its affluent, the Tochí. It is +cut off from the Indus by the Isakhel <i>tahsíl</i> +of Mianwálí and by a horn of the Dera +Ismail Khán district. Bannu is now connected with +Kálabágh in Mianwálí by a narrow gauge railway. An +extension of this line from Laki to Tánk in the Dera +Ismail Khán district has been sanctioned. There are two +<i>tahsíls</i>, Bannu and Marwat. The cultivated area is about +one-half of the total area. About 30 p.c. of the cultivation +is protected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> by irrigation from small canals taking out of +the streams. Most of the irrigation is in the Bannu <i>tahsíl</i>. +The greater part of Marwat is a dry sandy tract yielding in +favourable seasons large crops of gram. But the harvests +on unirrigated land are precarious, for the annual rainfall +is only about 12 inches. The irrigated land in Bannu is +heavily manured and is often double-cropped. Wheat +accounts for nearly half of the whole crops of the district. +The Marwats are a frank manly race of good physique. +The Bannúchís are hard-working, but centuries of plodding +toil on a wet soil has spoiled their bodily development, +and had its share in imparting to their character qualities +the reverse of admirable. The Deputy Commissioner +has also political charge of some 17,884 tribesmen living +across the border. There are good metalled roads to +Dera Ismail Khán and Kohát, and also one on the Tochí +route.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 2973 sq. m. +Cultd area, +512 sq. m. +Pop. 222,690. +Land Rev. +Rs. 275,462 += £18,364.</div> + +<p><b>Kohát</b> is a large district, but most of it is unfit for +tillage and only one-sixth is actually cultivated. +The chief crops are wheat, 44, and +<i>bájra</i>, 26 p.c. The district stretches east +and west for 100 miles from Khushálgarh +on the Indus to Thal at the mouth of the Kurram valley. +The two places are now connected by a railway which +passes through the district headquarters at Kohát +close to the northern border. There are three <i>tahsíls</i>, +Kohát, Hangu, and Terí, the last a wild tract of bare +hills and ravines occupying the south of the district and +covering more than half its area. Two small streams, +the Kohát Toi and the Terí Toi, drain into the Indus. +The rainfall is fair, but very capricious. The cold weather +lasts long and the chill winds that blow during part of +it are very trying. The chief tribes are the Bangash +Patháns of Hangu and the Khattak Patháns of Terí. +The Khán of Terí is head of the Khattaks, a manly race<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> +which sends many soldiers to our army. He enjoys the +revenue of the <i>tahsíl</i> subject to a quit rent of Rs. 20,000.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig130" id="fig130"></a> +<img src="images/img130tb.jpg" width="500" height="345" alt="Fig. 130." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img130.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 130.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Hangu</b> contains in Upper and Lower Miranzai the most +fertile land in the district, but the culturable area of +the <i>tahsíl</i> is small and only one-tenth of it is under the +plough. Perennial streams run through the Miranzai +valleys, and the neighbouring hills support large flocks +of sheep and goats. Kohát contains a number of salt +quarries, the most important being at Bahádur Khel +near the Bannu border. The Thal subdivision consisting +of the Hangu <i>tahsíl</i> is in charge of an Assistant Commissioner +who manages our political relations with transfrontier +tribes living west of Fort Lockhart on the Samána +Range. The Deputy Commissioner is in direct charge of +the Pass Afrídís and the Jowákís and Orakzais in the +neighbourhood of Kohát. He and his Assistant between +them look after our relations with 144,000 trans-border +Patháns. The Samána Rifles, one of the useful irregular +corps which keep the peace of the Borderland, have their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> +headquarters at Hangu.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig131" id="fig131"></a> +<img src="images/img131tb.jpg" width="500" height="450" alt="Fig. 131." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img131.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 131.</span> +</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 2611 sq. m. +Cultd area, +1398 sq. m. +Pop. 865,000 +Land Rev +Rs. 11,37,504 += £75,834.</div> + +<p><b>Pesháwar</b> is a large basin encircled by hills. The +gorge of the Indus separates it from Attock +and Hazára. The basin is drained by the +Kábul river, whose chief affluents in Pesháwar +are the Swát and the Bára. The +district is divided into the five <i>tahsíls</i> of Pesháwar, +Charsadda, Naushahra, Mardán, and Swábí. The last +two form the Mardán subdivision. Nearly 40 p.c. of +the cultivation is protected by irrigation mainly from +canals large and small. The most important are the +Lower Swát, the Kábul River, and the Bára River, +Canals. The irrigated area will soon be much increased +by the opening of the Upper Swát Canal. The cold +weather climate is on the whole pleasant, though too +severe in December and January. The three months +from August to October are a very unhealthy time. The +soil except in the stony lands near the hills is a fertile +loam. The cold weather<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> rainfall is good, and the Spring +harvest is by far the more important of the two. Wheat +is the chief crop. Half of the people are Patháns, the +rest are known generically as Hindkís. The principal +Hindkí tribe is that of the Awáns. Besides managing his +own people the Deputy Commissioner has to supervise +our relations with 240,000 independent tribesmen across +the border. The Assistant Commissioner at Mardán, +where the Corps of Guides is stationed, is in charge of our +dealings with the men of Buner and the Yúsafzai border. +The N.W. Railway runs past the city of Pesháwar to +Jamrúd, and there is a branch line from Naushahra to +Dargai at the foot of the Malakand Pass.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig132" id="fig132"></a> +<img src="images/img132tb.jpg" width="500" height="477" alt="Fig. 132." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img132.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 132.</span> +</div> + +<div class="sidenote">Area, 2858 sq. m. +Cultd area, +673 sq. m. +Pop. 603,028. +Land Rev. +Rs. 512,897 += £34,193.</div> + +<p><b>Hazára</b> is a typical montane and submontane district with a copious +rainfall and a good climate. It has every kind of cultivation from +narrow terraced <i>kalsí</i> fields built laboriously up steep mountain +slopes to very rich lands watered by canal cuts from the Dor or Haro. +Hazára is divided into three <i>tahsíls</i>, Haripur, Abbottábád, and +Mansehra. Between a fourth and a fifth of this area is culturable and +cultivated. In this crowded district the words are synonymous. The above +figure does not include the 204 square miles of Feudal Tanáwal. The +rainfall is copious and the crops generally speaking secure. The +principal are maize 42 and wheat 25 p.c. Hazára was part of the +territory made over to Rája Guláb Singh in 1846, but he handed it back +in exchange for some districts near Jammu. The maintenance of British +authority in Hazára in face of great odds by the Deputy Commissioner, +Captain James Abbott,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> during the Second Sikh War is a bright page in +Panjáb history, honourable alike to himself and his faithful local +allies. The population is as mixed as the soils. Patháns are numerous, +but they are split up into small tribes. The Swátís of Mansehra are the +most important section. After Patháns Gújars and Awáns are the chief +tribes. The Gakkhars, though few in number, hold much land and a +dominant position in the Khánpur tract on the Ráwalpindí border. The +Deputy Commissioner is also responsible for our relations with 98,000 +trans-border tribesmen. The district is a wedge interposed between +Kashmír on the east and Pesháwar and the tribal territory north of +Pesháwar on the west. The Indus becomes the border<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> about eight miles to +the north of Amb, and the district consists mainly of the areas drained +by its tributaries the Unhár, Siran, Dor, and Haro. On the eastern side +the Jhelam is the boundary with Kashmir from Kohála to a point below +Domel, where the Kunhár meets it. Thence the Kunhár is the boundary to +near Garhí Habíbullah. To the south of Garhí the watershed of the Kunhár +and Jhelam is close to these rivers and the country is very rough and +poor. West of Garhí it is represented by the chain which separates the +Kunhár and Siran Valleys and ends on the frontier at Musa ká Musalla +(13,378 feet). This chain includes one peak over 17,000 feet, Málí ká +Parvat, which is the highest in the district. The Kunhár rises at the +top of the Kágan Glen, where it has a course of about 100 miles to +Bálakot. Here the glen ends, for the fall between Bálakot and Garhí +Habíbullah is comparatively small. There is a good mule road from Garhí +Habíbullah to the Bábusar Pass at the top of the Kágan Glen, and beyond +it to Chilás. There are rest-houses, some very small, at each stage from +Bálakot to Chilás. The Kágan is a beautiful mountain glen. At places the +narrow road looks sheer down on the river hundreds of feet below, +rushing through a narrow gorge with the logs from the <i>deodár</i> forests +tossing on the surface, and the sensation, it must be confessed, is not +wholly pleasant. But again it passes close to some quiet pretty stretch +of this same Kunhár. There are side glens, one of which opposite Naran +contains the beautiful Safarmulk Lake. Near the top of the main glen the +Lulusar Lake at a height of 11,167 feet and with an average depth of 150 +feet is passed on the left. In the lower part of the glen much maize is +grown. As one ascends almost the last crop to be seen is a coarse barley +sown in June and reaped in August. Where the trees and the crops end the +rich grass pastures begin. Kágan covers between one-third<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> and +one-fourth of the whole district. The Siran flows through the beautiful +Bhogarmang Glen, at the foot of which it receives from the west the +drainage of the Konsh Glen. Forcing its way through the rough Tanáwal +hills, it leaves Feudal Tanáwal and Badhnak on its right, and finally +after its junction with the Dor flows round the north of the Gandgarh +Range and joins the Indus below Torbela. The bare Gandgarh Hills run +south from Torbela parallel with the Indus. The Dor rises in the hills +to the south of Abbottábád and drains the Haripur plain. A range of +rough hills divides the Dor valley from that of the Haro, which again is +separated from Ráwalpindí by the Khánpur Range. To the west of the Siran +the Unhár flows through Agror and Feudal Tanáwal, and joins the Indus a +little above Amb. Irrigation cuts are taken from all these streams, and +the irrigated cultivation is often of a very high character. The best +cultivation of the district is in the Haripur plain and the much smaller +Orash and Pakhlí plains and in the Haro valley. There is much +unirrigated cultivation in the first, and it is generally secure except +in the dry tract in the south-west traversed by the new railway from +Sarai Kála. The little Orash plain below Abbottábád is famous for its +maize and the Pakhlí plain for its rice.</p> + +<p>Feudal Tanáwal is a very rough hilly country between the Siran on the +east and the Black Mountain and the river Indus on the west. It is the +appanage of the Kháns of Amb and Phulra.</p> + +<p>North of Feudal Tanáwal is Agror. In 1891 the rights of the last Khán +were declared forfeit for abetment of raids by trans-bordermen.</p> + +<p>There are fine forests in Hazára, but unfortunately the <i>deodár</i> is +confined to the Kágan Glen and the Upper Siran. Nathiagalí, the summer +headquarters of the Chief Commissioner, is in the Dungagalí Range. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> +Serai Kála-Srínagar railway will run through Hazára. There is a good +mule road from Murree to Abbottábád through the Galís.</p> + + +<h4>2. <i>Tribal Territory</i></h4> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;"> +<a name="fig133" id="fig133"></a> +<img src="images/img133.jpg" width="281" height="400" alt="Fig. 133. Sir George Roos Keppel." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 133. Sir George Roos Keppel.</span> +</div> + + +<p>Feudal Tanáwal mentioned above occupies the southern corner of the tract +of independent tribal territory lying between the Hazára border and the +Indus. North of Tanáwal on the left bank of the river a long narrow +chain known as the Black Mountain rises in its highest peaks to a height +of nearly 10,000 feet. The western slopes are occupied by Hasanzais, +Akazais, and Chagarzais,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> who are Patháns belonging to the great +Yúsafzai clan, and these three sections also own lands on the right bank +of the Indus. They have been very troublesome neighbours to the British +Government. The eastern slopes of the Black Mountain are occupied by +Saiyyids and Swátís, and the latter also hold the glens lying further +north, the chief of which is Allai.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;"> +<a name="fig134" id="fig134"></a> +<img src="images/img134tb.jpg" width="377" height="500" alt="Fig. 134." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img134.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 134.</span> +</div> + +<p>The mountainous tract on the Pesháwar border lying to the west of +Tanáwal and the territory of the Black Mountain tribes formed part of +the ancient Udyána, and its archaeological remains are of much interest. +It is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> drained by the Barandu, a tributary of the Indus. Its people are +mainly Yúsafzai Patháns, the principal section being the Bunerwáls. +These last bear a good character for honesty and courage, but are slaves +to the teachings of their <i>mullas</i>. The Yúsafzais have been bad +neighbours. The origin of the trouble is of old standing, dating back to +the welcome given by the tribesmen in 1824 to a band of Hindústání +fanatics, whose leader was Saiyyid Ahmad Sháh of Bareilly. Their +headquarters, first at Sitána and afterwards at Malka, became Caves of +Adullam for political refugees and escaped criminals, and their +favourite pastime was the kidnapping of Hindu shopkeepers. In 1863 a +strong punitive expedition under Sir Neville Chamberlain suffered heavy +losses before it succeeded in occupying the Ambela Pass. The door being +forced the Yúsafzais themselves destroyed Malka as a pledge of their +submission. Our political relations with the Yúsafzais are managed by +the Assistant Commissioner at Mardán.</p> + +<p>The rest of the tribal territory between the Pesháwar district and the +Hindu Kush is included in the Dír, Swát, and Chitrál political agency. +It is a region of mountains and valleys drained by the Swát, Panjkora, +and Chitrál or Yárkhun rivers, all three affluents of the Kábul river. +Six tracts are included in the Agency.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <b>Swát.</b>—A railway now runs from Naushahra in the Pesháwar district +to Dargai, which lies at the foot of the Malakand, a little beyond our +administrative boundary. An old Buddhist road crosses the pass and +descends on the far side into Swát. We have a military post at Chakdarra +on the Swát river, and a military road passing through Dír connects +Chakdarra with Kila Drosh in Chitrál. Most of the Swátís, who are +Yúsafzais of the Akozai section, occupy a rich valley above 70 miles in +length watered by the Swát river above its junction with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> the Panjkora. +Rice is extensively grown, and a malarious environment has affected the +physique and the character of the people. The Swátí is priest-ridden and +treacherous. Even his courage has been denied, probably unjustly. Swátí +fanaticism has been a source of much trouble on the Pesháwar border. The +last serious outbreak was in 1897, when a determined, but unsuccessful, +attack was made on our posts at Chakdarra and the Malakand Pass. The +Swátís are Yúsafzai Patháns of the Akozai clan, and are divided into +five sections, one of which is known as Ránízai.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <b>Sam Ránízai.</b>—A small tract between the Pesháwar border and the +hills is occupied by the Sam Ránízais, who were formerly servants and +tenants of the Ránízais, but are now independent.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) <b>Utmán Khel.</b>—The country of the Utmán Khels begins where the +Pesháwar boundary turns to the south. This tribe occupies the tract on +both sides of the Swát river to the west of Swát and Sam Ránízai. On the +south-west the Swát river divides the Utmán Khels from the Mohmands. +Their country is very barren, but a good many of them cultivate land in +the Pesháwar district. The Utmán Khels are quite independent of the +surrounding tribes and have been troublesome neighbours to ourselves.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) <b>Bajaur.</b>—Bajaur is a very mountainous tract lying to the +north-west of the Utmán Khel country and between it and the Durand line. +It includes four valleys, through which flow the Rud river and its +affluents with the exception of that known as Jandol. The valley of the +last is now included in Dír. The Rud, also known as the Bajaur, is a +tributary of the Panjkora. The people consist mainly of Mamunds and +other sections of the Tarkanrí clan, which is related to the Yúsafzais. +They own a very nominal allegiance to the Khán of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> Nawagai, who is +recognised as the hereditary head of the Tarkanrís. They manage their +affairs in quasi-republican fashion through a council consisting of the +particular party which for the time being has got the upper hand.</p> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) <b>Dír.</b>—Dír is the mountainous country drained by the Panjkora and +its tributaries, to the north of its junction with the Rud river in +Bajaur. It is separated from Chitrál by the Uchiri Range, which forms +the watershed of the Panjkora and Kunar rivers. The military road to +Kila Drosh crosses this chain by the Lowari Pass at a height of 10,200 +feet. The people of Dír are mostly Yúsafzais, relations of the Swátís, +whom they much resemble in character. They pay one-tenth of their +produce to their overlord, the Khán of Dír, when he is strong enough to +take it. The higher parts of the country have a good climate and contain +fine <i>deodár</i> forests. The Khán derives much of his income from the +export of timber, which is floated down the Panjkora and Swát rivers.</p> + +<p>(<i>f</i>) <b>Chitrál.</b>—The Pathán country ends at the Lowari Pass. Beyond, +right up to the main axis of the Hindu Kush, is Chitrál. It comprises +the basin of the Yárkhun or Chitrál river from its distant source in the +Shawar Shur glacier to Arnawai, where it receives from the west the +waters of the Bashgul, and is thenceforth known as the Kunar. Its +western boundary is the Durand line, which follows a lofty chain +sometimes called the Káfiristán range. Another great spur of the Hindu +Kush known as the Shandur range divides Chitrál on the east from the +basin of the Yasín river and the territories included in the Gilgit +Agency (see Chapter <span class="smcap">XXVIII</span>). Chitrál is a fine country with a few +fertile valleys, good forests below 11,000 feet, and splendid, if +desolate, mountains in the higher ranges. The Chitrálís are a quiet +pleasure-loving people, fond of children and of dancing, hawking, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> +polo. They are no cowards and no fanatics, but have little regard for +truth or good faith. The common language is Khowár (see page <a href='#Page_112'><b>112</b></a>). The +chief, known as the Mehtar, has his headquarters at Chitrál, a large +village on the river of the same name. It is dominated at a distance by +the great snow peak of Tirach Mír (see page <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a>). The British garrison is +stationed at Kila Drosh on the river bank about halfway between Chitrál +and the Lowari Pass<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 461px;"> +<a name="fig135" id="fig135"></a> +<img src="images/img135tb.jpg" width="461" height="500" alt="Fig. 135." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img135.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 135.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Mohmands and Mallagorís.</b>—South of the Utmán Khel country and north of +the Khaibar are the rugged and barren hills held by that part of the +Mohmand tribe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> which lives inside the Durand line. The clan can muster +about 20,000 fighting men and is as convenient a neighbour as a nest of +hornets. The southern edge of the tract, where it abuts on the Khaibar, +is held by the little Mallagorí tribe, which is independent of the +Mohmands. Their country is important strategically because a route +passes through it by which the Khaibar can be outflanked. It is included +in the charge of the Political Agent for the Khaibar.</p> + +<p><b>Afrídís.</b>—The pass and the tract lying to the south of it including the +Bazár valley and part of Tirah are the home of the six sections of the +Pass Afrídís, the most important being the Zakha Khel, whose winter home +is in the Khaibar and the Bazár valley, a barren glen hemmed in by +barren hills, the entrance to which is not far from Ali Masjid. Its +elevation is 3000 to 4000 feet. The valleys in Tirah proper, where the +Pass Afrídís for the most part spend the summer, are two or three +thousand feet higher. When the snow melts there is excellent pasturage. +The climate is pleasant in summer, but bitterly cold in winter. The Bára +river with its affluents drains the glens of Tirah. The Aka Khel +Afrídís, who have no share in the Pass allowances, own a good dear of +land in the lower Bára valley and winter in the adjoining hills. The +fighting strength of the above seven sections may be put at 21,000. When +they have been able to unite they have shown themselves formidable +enemies, for they are a strong and manly race, and they inhabit a very +difficult country<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>. But the Afrídí clan is torn by dissensions. Blood +feuds divide house from house, and the sections are constantly at feud +one with another. Apart from other causes of quarrel there is the +standing division into two great factions, Gar and Samil, which prevails +among Afrídís and Orakzais. Afrídís enlist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> freely in our regiments and +in the Khaibar Rifles, and have proved themselves excellent soldiers. +The eighth section of the Afrídís, the Adam Khel, who hold the Kohát +Pass and the adjoining hills, have very little connection with the rest +of the clan. The Jowákís, against whom an expedition had to be sent in +the cold weather of 1877-78, are a sub-section of the Adam Khel.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 408px;"> +<a name="fig136" id="fig136"></a> +<img src="images/img136.jpg" width="408" height="600" alt="Fig. 136. Khaibar Rifles." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 136. Khaibar Rifles.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Orakzais, Chamkannís, and Zaimukhts.</b>—The Orakzais, who in numbers are +even stronger than the Pass and Aka Khel Afrídís, occupy the south of +Tirah, the Samáná Range on the border of Kohát, and the valley of the +Khánkí river. The tribal territory extends westwards as far as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> the +Khurmana, a tributary of the Kurram. The Orakzais do some trade and Sikh +<i>banias</i> and artizans are to be found in some of their villages. The +clan is honey-combed with feuds. North-west of the Orakzais beyond the +Khurmana are the Chamkannís, and on the south is a small tribe of +vigorous mountaineers called Zaimukhts. One of these Zaimukhts, Sarwar +Khán, nicknamed Chikai, was a notorious frontier robber, and a person of +considerable importance on the border till his death in 1903.</p> + +<p><b>The Kurram Valley.</b>—The Kurram Valley, which is drained by the Kurram +river and its affluents, lies to the south of the lofty Safed Koh range, +and reaches from Thal in Kohát to the Peiwar Kotal on the borders of +Afghán Khost. It has an area of nearly 1300 square miles and in 1911 the +population was estimated at 60,941 souls. Though under British +administration, it does not form a part of any British district. The +people are Patháns of various clans, the predominant element being the +Turís, who are Shias by religion and probably of Turkish origin. It was +at their request that the valley was annexed in 1892. The political +agent has his headquarters at Parachinár in Upper Kurram, which is +divided from Lower Kurram by a spur of the Khost hills, through which +the river has cut a passage. Such part of the Indian penal law as is +suitable has been introduced, and civil rights are governed by the +customary law of the Turís. A complete record of rights in land and +water has been framed, and the land revenue demand is 88,000 rupees +(£5889). Upper Kurram is a wide and fertile valley set in a frame of +pine-clad hills. It is not fully cultivated, but has great +possibilities, especially in the matter of fruit growing. The snowfall +is heavy in winter, but the summer climate is excellent. Lower Kurram is +a poor and narrow glen unpleasantly hot and cold according to the season +of the year.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> Parachinár is connected with the railhead at Thal by a +good <i>tonga</i> road.</p> + +<p><b>Wazíristán.</b>—The country of the Darwesh Khel and Mahsud Wazírs extends +from the Kurram valley to the Gomal river. It is divided into the North +Wazíristán (2300 square miles) and the South Wazíristán (2700 square +miles) Agencies. North Wazíristán consists of four valleys and some +barren plateaux. The principal valley is that of Daur (700 square miles) +drained by the Tochí. In 1894 the Dauris sought refuge from Darwesh Khel +inroads by asking for British administration. In the eyes of the Darwesh +Khel they are a race of clodhoppers. Their sole virtue consists in +patient spade industry in the stiff rich soil of their valley, their +vices are gross, and their fanaticism is extreme. The political agent's +headquarters are at Miram Shah. South Wazíristán is the home of the +troublesome Mahsuds, who can muster 11,000 fighting men. But parts of +the country, e.g. the Wána plain, are held by the Darwesh Khel. Much of +South Wazíristán consists of bare hills and valleys and stony plains +scored with torrents, which are dry most of the year. The streams are +salt. Part of the hinterland is however a more inviting tract with +grassy uplands and hills clad with oak, pine, and <i>deodár</i>. Wána, where +the political agent has his headquarters, was occupied on the invitation +of the Darwesh Khel in 1894.</p> + +<p><b>Sheránís.</b>—The Sherání country stretches along the Dera Ismail Khán +border from the Gomal to the Vihoa torrent. The Lárgha or lower part has +been under direct administration since 1899, the Upper part belongs to +the Biluchistán Agency.</p> + +<p><b>Tribal Militias.</b>—In the greater part of India beyond the border there +is no British administration. Respect for our authority and the peace of +the roads are upheld,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> and raiding on British territory is restrained, +by irregular forces raised from among the tribesmen. There are Hunza and +Nagar levies, Chitrál and Dír levies, Khaibar Rifles, Samána Rifles, and +Kurram, North Wazíristán, and South Wazíristán militias.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig137" id="fig137"></a> +<img src="images/img137.jpg" width="600" height="462" alt="Fig. 137. North Wazíristán Militia and Border Post." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 137. North Wazíristán Militia and Border Post.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVIII" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII"></a>CHAPTER XXVIII</h2> + +<h3>KASHMÍR AND JAMMU</h3> + + +<p><b>Kashmír.</b>—Some account has already been given of the topography and +scenery of the wide territory, covering an area about equal to that of +the Panjáb less the Ambála division, ruled by the Mahárája of Kashmír +and Jammu. The population, races, languages, and religions have been +referred to in Chapters <span class="smcap">IX</span> and <span class="smcap">X</span>.</p> + +<p><b>Modern history.</b>—Some mention has been made of the early history of +Kashmír (pages 165, 166, 172, 173). Even the hard Sikh rule was a relief +to a country which had felt the tyranny of the Durání governors who +succeeded the Moghals. Under the latter small kingships had survived in +the Jammu hills, but the Jammuwál Rajas met at Ranjít Singh's hands the +same fate as the Kángra Rájas. Three cadets of the Jammu royal house, +the brothers Dhián Singh, Suchet Singh, and Guláb Singh, were great men +at his court. In 1820 he made the last Rája of Jammu. Guláb Singh was a +man fit for large designs. In 20 years he had made himself master of +Bhadráwah, Kishtwár, Ladákh, and Báltistán, and held the casket which +enclosed the jewel of Kashmír. He acquired the jewel itself for 75 lakhs +by treaty with the British at the close of the first Sikh war.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span></p> + +<p>Excluding a large but little-known and almost uninhabited tract beyond +the Muztagh and Karakoram mountains, the drainage of which is northwards +into Central Asia, the country consists of the valleys of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> Chenáb, +Jhelam, and Indus, that of the last amounting to three-fourths of the +whole. There is a trifling area to the west of Jammu, which contains the +head-waters of small streams which find their way into the Ráví.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 423px;"> +<a name="fig138" id="fig138"></a> +<img src="images/img138.jpg" width="423" height="600" alt="Fig. 138. Mahárája of Kashmír." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 138. Mahárája of Kashmír.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig139" id="fig139"></a> +<img src="images/img139tb.jpg" width="500" height="476" alt="Fig. 139. Sketch Map of Chenáb and Jhelam Valleys (Jammu +and Kashmír)." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img139.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 139. Sketch Map of Chenáb and Jhelam Valleys (Jammu +and Kashmír).</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>Divisions.</b>—The following broad divisions may be recognised:</p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="70%" cellspacing="0" summary="Divisions."> +<tr><td align='left'>1. Chenáb Valley</td><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>) Plain and Kandí or Low Hills.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>) Uplands of Kishtwár and Bhadráwah.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Jhelam Valley</td><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>) Vale of Kashmír with adjoining glens and hills.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>) Gorge below Báramúla and Kishnganga Valley.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. Indus Valley</td><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>) Ladákh including Zánskar and Rupshu.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>) Báltistán.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>(<i>c</i>) Astor and Gilgit.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Chenáb Valley.</b>—(<i>a</i>) <i>Plain and Kandí.</i> This tract extends from Mírpur +on the Jhelam to Kathua near the Ráví and close to the head-works of the +Upper Bárí Doáb Canal at Mádhopur. It is coterminous with the Panjáb +districts of Jhelam, Gujrát, Siálkot, and Gurdáspur, and comprises four +of the five districts of the Jammu Province, Mírpur, Riásí, Jammu, and +Jasrota, and a part of the fifth, Udhampur. The plain is moist and +unhealthy. The rough country behind with a stony and thirsty red soil +covered in its natural state with <i>garna</i> (Carissa spinarum), <i>sanatan</i> +(Dodonaea viscosa), and <i>bhekar</i> (Adhatoda vasica) does not suffer in +this respect. The chief crops of the Kandí are wheat, barley, and rape +in the spring, and maize and <i>bájra</i> in the autumn, harvest. Behind the +Kandí is a higher and better tract, including Naoshera, with wide +valleys, in which maize replaces <i>bájra</i>.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Uplands.</i> The greater part of the Upper Chenáb Valley is occupied +by Kishtwár and <i>Jagír</i> Bhadráwah. The rainfall is heavy and there is +copious irrigation from <i>kuhls</i> (page <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a>), but elevation and rapid +drainage make the climate healthy. In the upper parts snow and cold +winds sometimes prevent the ripening of the crops. The poppy is grown in +Kishtwár and Bhadráwah. Kishtwár is a part of the Udhampur district.</p> + +<p><b>Jhelam Valley.</b>—(<i>a</i>) <i>Vale of Kashmír with adjoining glens and +mountains.</i> This first division of the Jhelam Valley extends from the +source above Vernág to Báramúla, and embraces not only the Vale of +Kashmír, over 80 miles long and from 20 to 25 miles in breadth, but the +glens which drain into it and the mountains that surround<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> it. It +therefore includes cultivation of all sorts from rich irrigated rice +fields to narrow plots terraced up mountain slopes on which buckwheat +and the beardless Tibetan barley are grown. The administrative divisions +are the <i>wazárat</i> or district of South Kashmir and the southern part of +North Kashmír. The central valley has an elevation of 6000 feet. It was +undoubtedly once a lake bed. Shelving fan-shaped "<i>karewas</i>" spread out +into it from the bases of the hills. The object of the Kashmírí is to +raise as much rice as he possibly can on the alluvium of his valley and +on the rich soil deposited on the banks of mountain streams. Manure and +facilities for irrigation exist in abundance, and full use is made of +them in the cultivation of the favourite crop. <i>Kangní</i> takes the place +of rice in many fields if there is any deficiency of water. On reclaimed +swamps near the Jhelam heavy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> crops of maize are raised. The tillage for +wheat and barley is as careless as that for rice is careful. The +cultivation of saffron (Crocus sativus) on <i>karewas</i> is famous, but the +area is now limited, as the starving people ate up the bulbs in the +great famine of 1877 and recovery is slow. Saffron is used as a pigment +for the sectarian marks on the forehead of the orthodox Hindu and also +as a condiment. The little floating vegetable gardens on the Dal lake +are a very curious feature. The "<i>demb</i>" lands on the borders of the +same lake are a rich field for the market gardener's art. He fences a +bit of land with willows, and deposits on it weeds and mud from the lake +bed. He is of the boatman or Hanz caste, whose reputation is by no means +high, and can himself convey by water his vegetables and fruits to the +Srínagar market. The production of fruit in Kashmír is very large, and +the extension of the railway to Srínagar should lead to much improvement +in the quality and in the extent of the trade. It may also improve the +prospects of sericulture.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig140" id="fig140"></a> +<img src="images/img140.jpg" width="600" height="418" alt="Fig. 140. Takht i Sulimán in Winter." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 140. Takht i Sulimán in Winter.</span> +</div> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Jhelam Gorge and Valley of Kishnganga.</i> The Jhelam gorge below +Báramúla is narrow and the cultivation is usually terraced. The +Kishnganga joins the Jhelam near Muzaffarábád. The Muzaffarábád district +includes the Jhelam gorge and the lower part of the valley of the +Kishnganga. The upper part is in the Uttarmachhipura <i>tahsíl</i> of the +district of North Kashmír.</p> + +<p><b>Indus Valley.</b>—(<i>a</i>) <i>Ladákh including Zánskar and Rupshu.</i> Some +description of Ladákh and its scenery has already been given in Chapter +II. It may be divided into Rupshu, Zánskar, and Ladákh proper with Leh +as its centre. Rupshu in the south-east is a country of great brackish +lakes in no part less than 13,500 feet above sea level. At such a height +cultivation must be very difficult, but a little beardless Tibetan +barley is raised. The scanty population consists mainly of nomad +shepherds. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> Ladákh the people are divided into shepherds or +<i>champas</i>, who roam over the Alpine pastures, and Ladákhís, who till +laboriously every available patch of culturable land in the river +valleys. Though both are Buddhists they rarely intermarry. Zánskar to +the N.W. of Rupshu is drained by the river of the same name, which flows +northwards to join the Indus below Leh. It forms part of the Kargil +<i>tahsíl</i>. Zánskar is a bleak inaccessible region where the people and +cattle remain indoors for six months of the year. Its breed of ponies is +famous. In Ladákh proper cultivation ranges from 9000 to 15,000 feet. +The sandy soil must be manured and irrigated, and is often refreshed by +top-dressings of fresh earth from the hill sides. The crops are wheat +and barley, rape, lucerne, peas and beans, in spring, and buckwheat, +millets, and turnips, in autumn. There is a great lack of wood for +building and for fuel, and the deficiency in the latter case has to be +supplied by cow-dung cakes. Notwithstanding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> their hard life the people +are cheerful and fairly well off, for polyandry has prevented +overcrowding.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig141" id="fig141"></a> +<img src="images/img141.jpg" width="600" height="349" alt="Fig. 141. Ladákh Hills." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 141. Ladákh Hills.</span> +</div> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Báltistán.</i> In Báltistán, which lies to the N.W. of Ladákh, they +are Muhammadans and there is much more pressure on the soil. They are a +cheery race and very fond of polo. To support their families the men +have to work as carriers on the roads to Leh and Gilgit. They tend the +cattle in the pastures, keep the irrigation channels and the walls of +the terraced fields in repair, and do the ploughing. The rest of the +work of cultivation is left to the women. The climate is very severe and +most of the rivers are frozen in winter. On the other hand near the +Indus on the Skardo plain (7250 feet) and in the Rondu gorge further +west, the heat is intense in July and August. The dreary treeless stony +Deosai Plains on the road to Kashmír have an elevation of 13,000 feet. +The cultivation and crops are much the same as in Ladákh. Excellent +fruit is grown, and there is a considerable export of apricots. Gold +washing is carried on with profit.</p> + +<p>Ladákh and Báltistán together form the Ladákh <i>wazárat</i>, divided into +the three <i>tahsíls</i> of Ladákh, Kargil, and Skardo.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Astor and Gilgit.</i>—Where the Gilgit road from Kashmír descends +from the Burzil pass (13,500 feet) the country of Astor is reached. It +is drained by the Astor river, which joins the Indus to the south of +Bunjí. The bridge which crosses it at Ramghát is only 3800 feet above +sea level. The village of Astor itself is at a height of 7853 feet. The +cultivation is of the same description as that in Báltistán.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> The aspect +of the country is bleak till the Indus is crossed, and Gilgit (4890 +feet) is reached. Here there is a fertile well-watered oasis from which +on every side great mountain peaks are visible. The lands are heavily +manured. Rice, maize, millet, buckwheat, cotton, wheat, barley, rape, +and lucerne are grown. There<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> is a second and easier road to Gilgit +from India over the Bábusar pass at the top of the Kágan Glen in Hazára. +But the posts are sent by the Kashmír road. The Astorís and Gilgitís are +a simple easy-going folk, and, like the Báltís, very fond of polo. A +British Political Agent is stationed at Gilgit. He is responsible to the +Government of India for the administration of Hunza, Nagar, and Yasín, +and of the little republics in the neighbourhood of Chilás. Hunza and +Nagar lie to the north of Gilgit near the junction of the Muztagh and +Hindu Kush ranges, and Yasín far to the west about the upper waters of +the Gilgit river.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 349px;"> +<a name="fig142" id="fig142"></a> +<img src="images/img142.jpg" width="349" height="600" alt="" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 142. Zojilá Pass (page <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>).</span> +</div> + +<p>In Astor and Gilgit also Guláb Singh's Dogras replaced the Sikh troops. +But across the Indus Guláb Singh was never strong, and after 1852 that +river was his boundary. He died in 1857, having proved himself a hard +and unscrupulous, but a capable and successful ruler. His son, Randhír +Singh, was a better man, but a worse king. A good Hindu, tolerant, and a +friend of learning, he had not the force of character to control the +corrupt official class, and the people suffered much in consequence. He +was a loyal ally in the Mutiny. In 1860 his forces recovered Gilgit, a +conquest which for years after was a fruitful source of suffering to his +Cis-Indus subjects. The present Mahárája, Sir Pratáp Singh, G.C.S.I., +succeeded in 1885. While he lived his brother, Rája Amar Singh, played a +very important part in Kashmír affairs. From 1887 to 1905 the +administration was managed by a small council, of which after 1891 the +Mahárája was President and Rája Amar Singh Vice-President. It was +abolished in 1905. There are now under the Mahárája a chief minister and +ministers in charge of the home and revenue departments. Judicial +business is controlled by the Judge of the High Court. Death sentences +must be confirmed by the Mahárája. The highest executive officers are +the governors<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> of Jammu and Kashmír, and the <i>Wazírs Wazárat</i> of Ladákh +and Gilgit. In Jammu and Kashmír each of the eight districts is in +charge of a <i>Wazír Wazárat</i>. In connection with the land revenue +settlement, forests, etc., the services of British officers have been +lent to the State. The Government of India is represented at Srínagar by +a Resident, and a political agent at Gilgit exercises a general +supervision over the <i>Wazír Wazárat</i>.</p> + +<p>During the reign of the present Mahárája great reforms have been +effected. The construction of the Gilgit road has done away with the +blood tax, which the conveyance of supplies to that remote post formerly +involved. The land revenue settlement has largely substituted cash for +kind payments and done away with many abuses. Official corruption and +oppression have been scotched, but would speedily revive if vigilance +were relaxed. The different peoples ruled by the Mahárája are easily +governed if properly treated, and violent crime is rare.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p><i>Note.</i> In the map appended to Dr Arthur Neve's <i>Thirty Years in +Kashmír</i> the heights of Gasherbrum and Masherbrum (see page <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a>) are +given respectively as 26,360 and 25,560 feet, and that of Hidden Peak, +S.E. of Gasherbrum, as 26,470 feet. These with <i>K</i><sup>2</sup> are the highest +mountains round the Baltoro Glacier. Further east is the Siachen, "the +greatest glacier in Asia," which feeds the Nubra river (page <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a>). N.E. +of the Siachen is the Teram Kangrí mountain, the height of which does +not probably exceed 25,000 feet. The actual height of the Nun Kun (page +<a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>) is 23,447 feet. Dr Neve gives that of the Karakoram Pass as 18,110 +feet, not 18,550 as stated on page <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIX" id="CHAPTER_XXIX"></a>CHAPTER XXIX</h2> + +<h3>CITIES</h3> + + +<p><b>Delhi</b> (28.38 N., 77.13 E.).—Of imperial cities the most interesting are +those which have felt the tragedies as well as enjoyed the glories of +Empire. From this point of view Delhi, notwithstanding its small extent +and modern foundation, may be grouped with Rome, Constantinople, and +Paris. In the matter of size it is in the same class as Edinburgh. The +present Delhi or Sháhjahánábád is a creation of the middle of the +seventeenth century, and the oldest of the Delhis in the neighbourhood +goes back only to the fourth century of our era. The latter endured for +six or seven centuries. It was the capital of the Tunwar and Chauhán +Rájas, and takes its second name of Rai Pithora's Kila' or Fort from the +last Hindu King of Delhi, the famous Prithví Rája. The early Muhammadan +kings occupied it and adorned it with splendid buildings. Firoz Sháh +Tughlak's city of Firozábád occupied part of the present Delhi and the +country lying immediately to the south of it. The other so-called towns +Sirí, Tughlakábád, and Indarpat or Puráná Kila' (Old Fort) were +fortified royal residences round which other dwelling-houses and shops +sprang up.</p> + +<p>The visitor to Delhi will be repaid if he can devote a week to the City +and the neighbourhood. It is impossible here to give any adequate +account of the objects of historic and architectural interest. No +visitor should be without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> Mr H. C. Fanshawe's <i>Delhi Past and Present</i>, +a work of great interest. The value of the text is enhanced by good maps +and excellent illustrations. In the Civil Station, which lies to the +north of the City and east of the Ridge, is Ludlow Castle, from the roof +of which General Wilson and his Staff watched the assault on 14th +September, 1857, when Delhi was retaken. Ludlow Castle is now the Delhi +Club. Between it and the northern rampart of the City, a defence against +the Mahrattas built by British officers fifty years earlier, grim +fighting took place on that historic day when the little British and +Indian force, till then rather besieged than besiegers, was at last +strong enough to attack. Here are the sites of the four batteries which +breached that rampart, and here is the grave of John Nicholson and the +statue recently erected in his honour (page <a href='#Page_190'><b>190</b></a>). The Ridge to which the +little army had clung obstinately from May to September in scorching +heat and drenching rain, undismayed by repeated assaults and the ravages +of cholera, starts about half-a-mile to the west of the Morí bastion, at +the north-west corner of the city wall, and runs north by east to +Wazírábád on an old bed of the Jamna. Ascending to the Flagstaff Tower +one looks down to-day on the Circuit House and the site of the principal +camps at the great <i>darbár</i> of 1911. Here was the old Cantonment and its +parade ground, on which the main encampment of the British force stood +in 1857. The position was strong, being defended by the ridge on the +east and the Najafgarh Canal on the west. It is open to the south, where +are the Savzí Mandí (Vegetable Market), now the site of factories, and +the Roshanára Gardens. It was on this side that the mutineers made their +most dangerous attacks. The road along the Ridge from the Flagstaff +Tower passes the Chauburjí Mosque and Hindu Rao's house, which was the +principal target of the City batteries and was gallantly held by Major +Reid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> with his Sirmur Gurkhas, the Guides, and the 60th Rifles. Beyond +Hindu Rao's house is one of the stone pillars of Aşoka, which Firoz +Sháh Tughlak transported to Delhi. Still further south is the Mutiny +Memorial. As one reads the tale of the losses of the different regiments +one realizes in some measure the horrors and the heroism of which the +Ridge was witness.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 314px;"> +<a name="fig143" id="fig143"></a> +<img src="images/img143.jpg" width="314" height="400" alt="Fig. 143. Delhi Mutiny Monument." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 143. Delhi Mutiny Monument.</span> + +<p>'In memory of the officers and soldiers, British and native, of the +Delhi Field Force who were killed in action or died of wounds or disease +between the 30th May and 20th September 1857.'</p> + +<p>'This monument has been erected by the comrades who lament their loss +and by the Govmt: they served so well.'</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="fig144" id="fig144"></a></p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 310px;"> +<img src="images/img144.jpg" width="310" height="400" alt="Fig. 144. Kashmír Gate." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 144. Kashmír Gate.</span> +</div> +<p><b>The City.</b>—When visiting the City from the Civil Lines it is well to +follow the road, which passing the Kudsia Gardens leads straight to the +Kashmír Gate, one of two places in India (the Lucknow Residency is the +other) which must stir with grateful pride the heart of the most +phlegmatic of Englishmen. The road from the Gate to the Fort and the +Jama Masjid is rich in memories of the Mutiny. It has on its left S. +James' Church, with memorial tablets within and outside the shot-riddled +globe which once surmounted its dome. Further on are the obelisk to the +telegraph officers who stuck to their posts on the fatal 11th of May, +and on a gateway of the Old Magazine a record of the heroism of the nine +devoted men, who blew it up, losing five of their number in the +explosion. Passing under the railway bridge one comes out on the open +space in front of Sháhjahán's palace fort, which was finished about 1648 +<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> To the beautiful buildings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> erected by his father Aurangzeb added +the little Motí Masjid or Pearl Mosque. But he never lived at Delhi +after 1682. The palace is therefore associated with the tragedies and +squalor of the decline and fall of the Moghal Empire rather than with +its glories. In 1739 it was robbed of the Kohinur and the Peacock throne +by Nádir Shah, in 1788 it saw the descendants of Akbar tortured and the +aged Emperor blinded by the hateful Ghulám Kádir, and on 16th May, 1857 +the mutineers massacred fifty Christians captive within its walls. When +viewing the public and private halls of audience, known as the Diwán i +'Ám and the Diwán i Kháss, it is however natural to think rather of +scenes of splendour such as Bernier described when Aurangzeb sat in +royal apparel on the Peacock throne with a king's ransom in the aigrette +of his turban and the rope of pearls which hung from his neck. On such +an occasion, the pillars of the Diwán i 'Ám were hung with gold brocades +and the floors covered with rich silken carpets. Half the court outside +was occupied by a magnificent tent and the arcade galleries surrounding +it were decked with brocades and covered with costly carpets.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> The marble +Diwán i Kháss with its lovely pillars decorated with gold and precious +stones is surely the most splendid withdrawing room that a monarch ever +possessed. There is nothing in the Moorish palace at Granada which can +for a moment be compared with these two halls. For a description of them +and of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> other buildings in the Fort the reader must refer to Mr +Fanshawe's book. In the Viceroyalty of Lord Curzon and since much has +been done to restore their surroundings to some semblance of their +former state. But the heavy British barracks occupied by the little +garrison are very incongruous with the remains of Moghal grandeur. +Leaving the Fort by the Southern or Delhi Gate and turning to the right +one is faced by the Jama Masjid, another monument of the taste of +Sháhjahán. The gateway and the lofty ascent into this House of God are +very fine. The mosque in the regular beauty and grandeur of its lines, +appealing to the sublimity rather than to the mystery of religion, is a +fitting symbol of the faith for whose service it was raised. South of +the Jama Masjid in a part of the city once included in Firozábád stands +the Kalán or Kála Masjid with low cupolas and heavy square black +pillars, a striking example of the sombre architecture of the Tughlak +period. A narrow street called the Daríba leads from the Jama Masjid to +the wide Chándní (Silver) Chauk. The Daríba was formerly closed by the +Khúní Darwáza or Gate of Blood, so called because here occurred that +terrible massacre of the citizens of Delhi which Nádir Shah witnessed +from the neighbouring Golden Mosque. Besides its width there is nothing +remarkable about the Chándní Chauk. But the visitor in quest of silver +work, jewellery, or embroidery will find there many shopkeepers ready to +cater for his wants. It was while passing down the Chándní Chauk in an +elephant procession on 23rd December, 1912, that Lord Hardinge was +wounded by a bomb thrown from one of the houses. From the Chauk one may +pass through the Queen's Gardens and Road to the opening in the wall +where the Kábul Gate once stood and so leave the City. A tablet in the +vicinity marks the spot where John Nicholson fell.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 456px;"> +<a name="fig145" id="fig145"></a> +<img src="images/img145tb.jpg" width="456" height="600" alt="Fig. 145. Map of Delhi City." title="" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/img145.jpg">View larger image</a></span><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 145. Map of Delhi City.</span> +</div> + +<p>When visiting the old Delhis it is a good plan to drive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> again through +the City and to leave it by the Delhi Gate. Humáyun's tomb, an early and +simple, but striking, specimen of Moghal architecture, is reached at a +distance of four miles along the Mathra road. Outside the City the road +first leaves on the left side the ruined citadel of Firoz Sháh +containing the second Aşoka pillar. North and south of this citadel +the town of Firozábád once lay. It ended where the Puráná Kila' or Old +Fort, the work of Sher Sháh and Humáyun, now stands, a conspicuous +object from the road about three miles from Delhi. The red sandstone +gateway very narrow in proportion to its height is a noble structure, +and within the walls is Sher Sháh's mosque. The fort and mosque are the +last important works of the second or Tughlak period. Hindus call the +site of the Old Fort, Indarpat. If any part of Delhi has a claim to +antiquity it is this, for it is alleged to be one of the five "pats" or +towns over which the war celebrated in the Mahábhárata was waged. A +recent cleaning of part of the interior of the fort brought to light +bricks belonging to the Gupta period. From Humáyun's tomb a cross road +leads to the Gurgáon road and the Kutb. But the visitor who has seen +enough of buildings for the day may proceed further down the Mathra road +and reach the headworks of the Agra Canal at Okhla by a side road. The +view looking back to Delhi up the Jamna is fine.</p> + +<p><b>The Kutb Minár.</b>—Starting for the Kutb from Humáyun's tomb (page <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>) +the Dargáh of the great Chistí saint and political intriguer, Nizám ud +dín Aulia, is passed on the left. He died in 1324 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> Just at the point +where the cross road meets the Gurgáon road is the tomb of Safdar Jang, +the second of the Nawáb Wazírs of Oudh. He died after the middle of the +eighteenth century, and the building is wonderfully good considering +that it is one of the latest important monuments of the Moghal period. +Six miles to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> the south of Safdar Jang's tomb the entrance to the Kutb +Minár enclosure is reached. The great Kuwwat ul Islám mosque of +Kutbuddín Aibak (page 204) was constructed out of the materials of a +Jain temple which stood on the site. Evidence of this is to be found in +the imperfectly defaced sculptures on the pillars. An iron pillar nearly +24 feet in height dating back probably to the sixth century stands in +the court. The splendid column known as the Kutb Minár (page <a href='#Page_205'><b>205</b></a>), begun +by Kutbuddín and completed by his successor Shams ud dín Altamsh, was +the minaret of the mosque from which the <i>mu'azzin</i> called the faithful +to prayer. The disappointment that may be felt when it is seen from a +distance is impossible on a nearer view. Its height is now 238 feet, but +it was formerly surmounted "by a majestic cupola of red granite." Close +by is the Alai Darwaza, a magnificent gateway built by Alá ud dín +Tughlak in 1310, about 90 years after the Minár was finished. Five miles +east of the Kutb are the cyclopean ruins of Tughlakábád (page <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Delhi past and present.</b>—The Delhi of Aurangzeb was as much a camp as a +city. When the Emperor moved to Agra or Kashmír the town was emptied of +a large part of its inhabitants. It contained one or two fine <i>bazárs</i>, +and nobles and rich merchants and shopkeepers had good houses, set +sometimes in pleasant gardens. But the crowds of servants and followers +occupied mud huts, whose thatched roofs led to frequent and widespread +fires. In that insanitary age these may have been blessings in disguise. +"In Delhi," wrote Bernier, "there is no middle state. A man must either +be of the highest rank or live miserably.... For two or three who wear +decent apparel there may always be reckoned seven or eight poor, ragged, +and miserable beings." The ordinary street architecture of modern Delhi +is mean enough, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> posterity will not open an eyelid to look at the +public buildings which its present rulers have erected in the city. But +at least the common folk of Delhi are better housed, fed, and clad than +ever before. It is now a clean well-managed town with a good water +supply, and it has become an important railway centre and a thriving +place of trade. Since 1881 the population has steadily increased from +173,393 to 232,837 in 1911. In 1911-12 the imports into Delhi City from +places outside the Panjáb amounted to 9,172,302 maunds. There are some +fifteen cotton ginning, spinning, and weaving mills, besides flour +mills, iron foundries, two biscuit manufactories, and a brewery. The +city is well supplied with hospitals including two for women only. +Higher education has been fostered by S. Stephen's College in charge of +the Cambridge Missionary brotherhood. The Hindu college has not been +very successful. Delhi has had famous "hakíms," practising the Yúnáni or +Arabic system of medicine, which is taught in a flourishing school known +as the Madrasa i Tibbiya.</p> + +<p><b>Imperial Darbárs.</b>—In this generation the plain to the north of the +Ridge has been the scene of three splendid <i>darbárs</i>. When on 1st +January, 1877, Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India +(<i>Kaisar i Hind</i>) it seemed fitting that the proclamation of the fact to +the princes and peoples of India should be made by Lord Lytton at the +old seat of imperial power. On 1st January, 1903, Lord Curzon held a +<i>darbár</i> on the same spot to proclaim the coronation of King Edward the +VIIth. Both these splendid ceremonies were surpassed by the <i>darbár</i> of +12th December, 1911, when King George and Queen Mary were present in +person, and the Emperor received the homage of the ruling chiefs, the +great officials, and the leading men of the different provinces. The +King and Queen entered Delhi on 7th December, and in the week that +followed the craving of the Indian peoples<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> for "<i>darshan</i>" or a sight +of their sovereign was abundantly gratified. None who saw the spectacles +of that historic week will ever forget them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig146" id="fig146"></a> +<img src="images/img146.jpg" width="500" height="222" alt="Fig. 146. Darbár Medal." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 146. Darbár Medal.</span> +</div> + +<p>New Imperial Capital.—The turn of Fortune's Wheel has again made Delhi +an imperial city. The transfer of the seat of government from Calcutta +announced by the King Emperor at the <i>darbár</i>, is now being carried out. +The site will probably extend from Safdar Jang's tomb to a point lying +to the west of Firoz Sháh's citadel.</p> + +<p><b>Lahore</b> (31.34 N., 74.21 E.). The capital of the Panjáb lies on the east +bank of the Ráví, which once flowed close to the Fort, but has moved a +mile or two to the west. In high floods the waters still spread over the +lowlands between the Ráví and the Fort. Lahore lies nearly halfway +between Delhi and Pesháwar, being nearer to the latter than to the +former.</p> + +<p><b>Early History.</b>—Practically we know nothing of its history till Mahmúd +conquered the Panjáb and put a garrison in a fort at Lahore. Henceforth +its history was intimately connected with Muhammadan rule in India. +Whether north-western India was ruled from Ghazní or from Delhi, the +chief provincial governor had his headquarters at Lahore. In the best +days of Moghal rule<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> Agra and Lahore were the two capitals of the +Empire. Lahore lay on the route to Kábul and Kashmír, and it was +essential both to the power and to the pleasures of the Emperors that it +should be strongly held and united to Delhi and Agra by a Royal or +<i>Bádsháhí</i> Road. The City and the Suburbs in the reign of Sháhjahán +probably covered three or four times the area occupied by the town in +the days of Sikh rule. All round the city are evidences of its former +greatness in ruined walls and domes.</p> + +<p><b>The Civil Station.</b>—The Anárkalí gardens and the buildings near them +mark the site of the first Civil Station. John Lawrence's house, now +owned by the Rája of Punch, is beyond the Chauburjí on the Multán Road. +The Civil Lines have stretched far to the south-east in the direction of +the Cantonment, which till lately took its name from the tomb of Mian +Mír, Jahangír's spiritual master. The soil is poor and arid. Formerly +the roads were lined with dusty tamarisks. But of late better trees have +been planted, and the Mall is now quite a fine thoroughfare. The +Lawrence Hall Gardens and the grounds of Government House show what can +be done to produce beauty out of a bad soil when there is no lack of +water. There is little to praise in the architecture or statuary of +modern Lahore. The marble canopy over Queen Victoria's statue is however +a good piece of work. Of the two cathedrals the Roman Catholic is the +better building. The Montgomery Hall with the smaller Lawrence Hall +attached, a fine structure in a good position in the public gardens, is +the centre of European social life in Lahore. Government House is close +by, on the opposite side of the Mall. Its core, now a unique and +beautiful dining-room with domed roof and modern oriental decoration, is +the tomb of Muhammad Kásim Khán, a cousin of Akbar. Jamadár Khushál +Singh, a well-known man in Ranjít Singh's reign, built a house round the +tomb. After annexation, Henry<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> Lawrence occupied it for a time, and Sir +Robert Montgomery adopted it as Government House. It is now much +transformed. Beyond Government House on the road to the Cantonment are +the Club and the Panjáb Chiefs' College, the only successful attempt in +Lahore to adapt oriental design to modern conditions.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig147" id="fig147"></a> +<img src="images/img147.jpg" width="600" height="570" alt="Fig. 147. Street in Lahore." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 147. Street in Lahore.</span> +</div> + + +<p><b>The Indian City.</b>—In its streets and <i>bazárs</i> Lahore is a truly eastern +city, and far more interesting than Delhi, so far as private buildings +are concerned. In public edifices it possesses some fine examples of +Moghal architecture. Every visitor should drive through the town to the +Fort past Wazír Khán's mosque. Under British rule the height of the city +wall has been reduced by one-half and the moat filled in and converted +into a garden. Wazír Khán's mosque founded in 1634 by a Panjábí<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> +minister of Sháhjahán, is a noble building profusely adorned with glazed +tiles and painted panels. The Golden Mosque was constructed 120 years +later about the same time as Safdar Jang's tomb at Delhi. The palace +fort, built originally by Akbar, contains also the work of his three +successors. The Shísh Mahal or Hall of Mirrors, which witnessed the +cession of the Panjáb to the Queen of England, was begun by Sháhjahán +and finished by Aurangzeb. The armoury contains a curious collection of +weapons. The Bádsháhí Mosque opposite with its beautiful marble domes +and four lofty minarets of red sandstone was founded in 1673 in the +reign of Aurangzeb. The cupolas were so shaken by an earthquake in 1840 +that they had to be removed. Mahárája Ranjít Singh used the mosque as a +magazine. In the space between it and the Fort he laid out the pretty +orange garden known as the Huzúrí Bágh and set in it the marble +<i>báradarí</i> which still adorns it. Close by are his own tomb and that of +Arjan Dás, the fifth Guru.</p> + +<p><b>Buildings outside Lahore.</b>—The best example of Moghal architecture is +not at Lahore itself, but at Shahdara across the Ráví. Here in a fine +garden is the Mausoleum of Jahángír with its noble front and four +splendid towers. It enshrines an exquisite sarcophagus, which was +probably once in accordance with the Emperor's wish open to the sunlight +and the showers. Near by are the remains of the tombs of his beautiful +and imperious consort, Nur Jahán, and of her brother Asaf Khán, father +of the lady of the Táj. Another building associated with Jahángír is +Anárkali's tomb beside the Civil Secretariat. The white marble +sarcophagus is a beautiful piece of work placed now in most +inappropriate surroundings. The tomb was reared by the Emperor to +commemorate the unhappy object of his youthful love. Half-a-mile off on +the Multán road is the Chauburjí, once the gateway of the Garden<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> of +Zebunnissa a learned daughter of Aurangzeb. The garden has disappeared, +but the gateway, decorated with blue and green tiles, though partially +ruined, is still a beautiful object. On the other side of Lahore on the +road to Amritsar are the Shalimár Gardens laid out by Sháhjahán for the +ladies of his court. When the paved channels are full and the fountains +are playing, and the lights of earthen lamps are reflected in the water, +Shalimár is still a pleasant resort.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig148" id="fig148"></a> +<img src="images/img148.jpg" width="600" height="440" alt="Fig. 148. Sháhdara." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 148. Sháhdara.</span> +</div> + +<p>The Museum in Anárkalí contains much of interest to Indians and +Europeans. The "house of wonders" is very popular with the former. It +includes a very valuable collection of Buddhist sculptures. Opposite the +museum is the famous Zamzama gun (page <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Growth of Lahore.</b> As the headquarters of an important Government and of +a great railway system<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> Lahore has prospered. Owing to the influx of +workers the population has risen rapidly from 157,287 in 1881 to 228,687 +in 1911. The railway alone affords support to 30,000 people, of whom +8000 are employed in the workshops.</p> + +<p><b>Amritsar</b> (31.38 N., 74.53 E.) is a modern town founded in the last +quarter of the sixteenth century by the fourth Guru, Rám Dás, on a site +granted to him by Akbar. Here he dug the Amrita Saras or Pool of +Immortality, leaving a small platform in the middle as the site of that +Har Mandar, which rebuilt is to-day, under the name of the Darbár Sáhib, +the centre of Sikh devotion. The fifth Guru, Arjan Dás, completed the +Har Mandar. Early in the eighteenth century Amritsar became without any +rival the Mecca of the Sikhs, who had now assumed an attitude of warlike +resistance to their Muhammadan rulers. Once and again they were driven +out, but after the victory at Sirhind in 1763 they established +themselves securely in Amritsar, and rebuilt the temple which Ahmad Sháh +had burned. Ranjít Singh covered the Darbár Sáhib with a copper gilt +roof, whence Englishmen commonly call it the Golden Temple. He laid out +the Rám Bágh, still a beautiful garden, and constructed the strong fort +of Govindgarh outside the walls.</p> + +<p><b>Trade and Manufactures.</b>—Amritsar lies in a hollow close to a branch of +the Upper Bárí Doáb Canal. Waterlogging is a great evil and accounts for +the terrible epidemics of fever, which have occurred from time to time. +The population has fluctuated violently, and at the last census was +152,756, or little larger than in 1881. Long before annexation the shawl +industry was famous. The caprice of fashion a good many years ago +decreed its ruin, but carpet weaving, for which Amritsar is still +famous, fortunately did something to fill the gap. Amritsar has also +been an entrepôt of trade with other Asiatic countries.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> It has imported +raw silk from Bokhára, and later from China, and woven it into cloth. It +has dealt in China tea, but that is a decreasing trade, in opium from +Afghánistán, and in <i>charas</i> from Central Asia. There is a considerable +export of foreign piece goods to Kashmír and the N. W. F. Province.</p> + +<p><b>Multán</b> (30.1 N., 71.3 E.), though now the smallest of the four great +towns of the Panjáb, is probably the most ancient. It is very doubtful +whether it is the fortress of the Malloi, in storming which Alexander +was wounded. But when Hiuen Tsang visited it in 741 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> it was a +well-known place with a famous temple of the Sun God. Muhammad Kásim +conquered it in 712 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> (page <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>). It was not till the savage +Karmatian heretics seized Multán towards the end of the tenth century +that the temple, which stood in the fort, was destroyed. It was +afterwards rebuilt, but was finally demolished by order of Aurangzeb, +who set up in its place a mosque. Under the Moghals Multán was an +important town, through which the trade with Persia passed. Its later +history has already been noticed (pages 183 and 186).</p> + +<p><b>The Fort</b> contains the celebrated Prahládpurí temple, much damaged during +the siege in 1848, but since rebuilt. Its proximity to the tomb of +Baháwal Hakk, a very holy place in the eyes of the Muhammadans of the +S.W. Panjáb and Sindh, has at times been a cause of anxiety to the +authorities. Baháwal Hakk and Bába Faríd, the two great saints of the +S.W. Panjáb, were contemporaries and friends. They flourished in the +thirteenth century, and it probably would be true to ascribe largely to +their influence the conversion of the south-west Panjáb to Islám, which +was so complete and of which we know so little. The tomb of Baháwal Hakk +was much injured during the siege, but afterwards repaired. Outside is a +small monument marking the resting place of the brave old Nawáb +Muzaffar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> Khán. Another conspicuous object is the tomb of Rukn ud dín +'Alam, grandson of Baháwal Hakk. An obelisk in the fort commemorates the +deaths of the two British officers who were murdered on the outbreak of +the revolt. A simpler epitaph would have befitted men who died in the +execution of their duty.</p> + +<p><b>Trade and Manufactures.</b>—Though heat and dust make the climate of Multán +trying, it is a very healthy place. The population rose steadily from +68,674 in 1881 to 99,243 in 1911. The chief local industries are silk +and cotton weaving and the making of shoes. Multán has also some +reputation for carpets, glazed pottery and enamel, and of late for tin +boxes. A special feature of its commerce is the exchange of piece goods, +shoes, and sugar for the raw silk, fruits, spices, and drugs brought in +by Afghán traders. The Civil Lines lie to the south of the city and +connect it with the Cantonment, which is an important military station.</p> + +<p><b>Pesháwar</b> (34.1 N., 71.35 E.) is 276 miles from Lahore and 190 from +Kábul. There is little doubt that the old name was Purushapura, the town +of Purusha, though Abu Rihan (Albiruni), a famous Arab geographer, who +lived in the early part of the eleventh century, calls it Parsháwar, +which Akbar corrupted into Pesháwar, or the frontier fort. As the +capital of King Kanishka it was in the second century of the Christian +era a great centre of Buddhism (page <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a>). Its possession of Buddha's +alms bowl and of yet more precious relics of the Master deposited by +Kanishka in a great <i>stupa</i> (page <a href='#Page_203'><b>203</b></a>) made it the first place to be +visited by the Chinese pilgrims who came to India between 400 and 630 +<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> Hiuen Tsang tells us the town covered 40 li or 6¾ miles. Its +position on the road to Kábul made it a place of importance under the +Moghal Empire. On its decline Pesháwar became part of the dominions of +the Durání rulers of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> Kábul, and finally fell into the hands of Ranjít +Singh. His Italian general Avitabile ruled it with an iron rod. In 1901 +it became the capital of the new N. W. F. Province.</p> + +<p><b>The Town</b> lies near the Bára stream in a canal-irrigated tract. On the +north-west it is commanded by the Bála Hissár, a fort outside the walls. +The suburbs with famous fruit gardens are on the south side, and the +military and civil stations to the west. The people to be seen in the +<i>bazárs</i> of Pesháwar are more interesting than any of its buildings. The +Gor Khatrí, part of which is now the <i>tahsíl</i>, from which a bird's-eye +view of the town can be obtained, was successively the site of a +Buddhist monastery, a Hindu temple, a rest-house built by Jahángír's +Queen, Nur Jahán, and the residence of Avitabile. The most noteworthy +Muhammadan building is Muhabbat Khán's mosque. Avitabile used to hang +people from its minarets. The Hindu merchants live in the quarter known +as Andar Shahr, the scene of destructive fires in 1898 and 1913. +Pesháwar is now a well-drained town with a good water supply. It is an +entrepôt of trade with Kábul and Bokhára. From the former come raw silk +and fruit, and from the latter gold and silver thread and lace <i>en +route</i> to Kashmír. The Kábulí and Bokháran traders carry back silk +cloth, cotton piece goods, sugar, tea, salt, and Kashmír shawls.</p> + +<p><b>Simla</b> (31.6 N., 77.1 E.) lies on a spur of the Central Himálaya at a +mean height exceeding 7000 feet. A fine hill, Jakko, rising 1000 feet +higher, and clothed with <i>deodár</i>, oak, and rhododendron, occupies the +east of the station and many of the houses are on its slopes. The other +heights are Prospect Hill and Observatory Hill in the western part of +the ridge. Viceregal Lodge is a conspicuous object on the latter, and +below, between it and the Annandale race-course, is a fine glen, where +the visitor in April from the dry and dusty plains can gather<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> yellow +primroses (Primula floribunda) from the dripping rocks. The beautiful +Elysium Hill is on a small spur running northwards from the main ridge. +Simla is 58 miles by cart road from Kálka, at the foot of the hills, and +somewhat further by the narrow gauge railway.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 474px;"> +<a name="fig149" id="fig149"></a> +<img src="images/img149.jpg" width="474" height="600" alt="Fig. 149. Trans-border traders in Pesháwar." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 149. Trans-border traders in Pesháwar.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>History.</b>—Part of the site was retained at the close of the Gurkha war +in 1816, and the first English house, a wooden cottage with a thatched +roof, was built three years later. The first Governor General to spend +the summer in Simla was Lord Amherst in 1827. After the annexation of +the Panjáb in 1849 Lord Dalhousie went there every year, and from 1864 +Simla may be said to have become the summer capital of India. It became +the summer headquarters of the Panjáb Government twelve years later. The +thirty houses of 1830 have now increased to about 2000. Six miles +distant on the beautiful Mahásu Ridge the Viceroy has a "Retreat," and +on the same ridge and below it at Mashobra there are a number of +European houses. There are excellent hotels in Simla, and the cold +weather tourist can pay it a very pleasant visit, provided he avoids the +months of January and February.</p> + +<p><b>Srínagar</b> (34.5 N., 74.5 E.), the summer capital of the Mahárája of +Kashmír, is beautifully situated on both banks of the river Jhelam at a +level of 5250 feet above the sea. To the north are the Hariparvat or +Hill of Vishnu with a rampart built by Akbar and the beautiful Dal lake. +Every visitor must be rowed up its still waters to the Násím Bágh, a +grove of plane (<i>chenâr</i>) trees, laid out originally in the reign of the +same Emperor. Between the lake and the town is the Munshí Bágh, in and +near which are the houses of Europeans including the Residency.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> The +splendid plane trees beside the river bank, to which house boats are +moored, and the beautiful gardens attached to some of the houses, make +this a very charming quarter. The Takht i Sulimán to the west of +Srínagar is crowned by a little temple, whose lower walls are of great +age. The town itself is intersected by evil-smelling canals and consists +in the main of a jumble of wooden houses with thatched roofs. Sanitary +abominations have been cleansed from time to time by great fires and +punished<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span> by severe outbreaks of cholera. The larger part of the +existing city is on the left side. The visitor may be content to view +the parts of the town to be seen as he is rowed down the broad waterway +from the Munshí Bágh passing under picturesque wooden bridges, and +beside temples with shining metal roofs and the beautiful mosque of Sháh +Hamadán. On the left bank below the first bridge is the Shergarhí with +the Mahárája's houses and the Government Offices. Opposite is a fine +<i>ghát</i> or bathing place with stone steps. Between the third and fourth +bridges on the right bank is Sháh Hamadán's mosque, a carved cedar house +with Buddhist features, totally unlike the ordinary Indian mosque. The +stone mosque close by on the opposite side, built by Mir Jahán, was +seemingly rejected by Muhammadans as founded by a woman, and is now a +State granary. The Jama Masjid is on the north side, but not on the +river bank. The tomb of the great king, Zain ul Ábidín, is below the +fourth bridge, which bears his name. In the same quarter are the +storehouses of the dealers in carpets and art wares and the Mission +School. The last should be visited by anyone who wishes to see what a +manly education can make of material in some respects unpromising.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig150" id="fig150"></a> +<img src="images/img150.jpg" width="600" height="446" alt="Fig. 150 Mosque of the Sháh Hamadán." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 150 Mosque of the Sháh Hamadán.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXX" id="CHAPTER_XXX"></a>CHAPTER XXX</h2> + +<h3>OTHER PLACES OF NOTE</h3> + + +<h4>I. PANJÁB.</h4> + +<p class="center">(<i>a</i>) <i>Ambála Division.</i></p> + +<p><b>Ambála</b>, 30·2 N.—76·4 E. Population 80,131, of which 54,223 in +Cantonments. A creation of British rule. It became the headquarters of +the Political Agent for the Cis-Sutlej States in 1823, and the +Cantonment was established in 1843. The Native City and the Civil Lines +lie some miles to the N.W. of the Cantonment. Headquarters of district +and division.</p> + +<p><b>Bhiwání</b> (<b>Hissár</b>), 28·5 N.—76·8 E. Headquarters of <i>tahsíl</i> in Hissár. +Population 31,100. On Rewárí—Ferozepore branch of Rájputána—Málwa +Railway. Has a brisk trade with Rájputána.</p> + +<p><b>Hánsí</b> (<b>Hissár</b>), 29·7 N.—75·6 E. Headquarters of <i>tahsil</i>. Population +14,576. A very ancient town. In centre of canal tract of Hissár, and a +local centre of the cotton trade.</p> + +<p><b>Hissár</b>, 29·1 N.—75·4 E. Headquarters of district. Population 17,162. +Founded by the Emperor Firoz Sháh Tughlak, who supplied it with water by +a canal taken from the Jamna. This was the origin of the present Western +Jamna Canal. Is now a place of small importance.</p> + +<p><b>Jagádhrí</b> (<b>Ambála</b>), 30·1 N.—77·2 E. Headquarters of <i>tahsil</i>. Population +12,045. Connected with the N.W. Railway by a light railway. The iron and +brass ware of Jagádhrí are well known.</p> + +<p><b>Kaithal</b> (<b>Karnál</b>), 29·5 N.—76·2 E. Headquarters of subdivision and +<i>tahsil</i>. Population 12,912. A town of great antiquity. Kaithal is a +corruption of Kapisthala—the monkey town, a name still appropriate. +Timúr halted here on his march to Delhi. Was the headquarters of the +Bhais of Kaithal, who held high rank among the Cis-Sutlej Sikh chiefs. +Kaithal lapsed in 1843.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Karnál</b>, 29·4 N.—76·6 E. Headquarters of district. Population 21,961. On +Delhi—Kálka Railway. Till the Western Jamna Canal was realigned it was +most unhealthy, and the Cantonment was given up in 1841 on this account. +The health of the town is still unsatisfactory. Trade unimportant.</p> + +<p><b>Kasauli</b> (<b>Ambála</b>), 30·5 N.—76·6 E. Small hill station overlooking Kálka. +Height 6000 feet. The Pasteur Institute for the treatment of rabies is +at Kasauli, and the Lawrence Military School at Sanáwar, three miles +off.</p> + +<p><b>Pánipat</b> (<b>Karnál</b>), 29·2 N.—76·6 E. Headquarters of <i>tahsíl</i>. Population +26,342. On Delhi—Kálka Railway. An important place in Hindu and +Muhammadan times (pages 172 and 179). Local manufactures, brass vessels, +cutlery, and glass.</p> + +<p><b>Pihowa</b> (<b>Karnál</b>), 29·6 N.—76·3 E. A very sacred place on the holy stream +Sarusti.</p> + +<p><b>Rewárí</b> (<b>Gurgáon</b>), 28·1 N.—76·4 E. Headquarters of <i>tahsil</i>. Population +24,780. Junction of main line and Rewárí—Bhatinda branch of +Rájputána—Málwa Railway. Trade in grain and sugar with Rájputána.</p> + +<p><b>Rúpar</b> (<b>Ambála</b>), 30·6 N.—76·3 E. Headquarters of subdivision and +<i>tahsíl</i>. Population 6935. Exchange market for products of Hills and +Plains. Headworks of Sirhind Canal are at Rúpar.</p> + +<p><b>Sirsa</b> (<b>Hissár</b>), 29·3 N.—75·2 E. Headquarters of subdivision and +<i>tahsil</i>. Population 14,629. Sirsa or Sarsútí was an important place in +Muhammadan times. Deserted in the great famine of 1783 it was refounded +in 1838. On the Rewárí—Bhatinda Branch of the Rájputána—Málwa Railway. +Has a brisk trade with Rájputána.</p> + +<p><b>Thanesar</b> (<b>Karnál</b>), 29·6 N.—76·5 E. See pages 165 and 168. Noted place +of pilgrimage. Headquarters of a <i>tahsíl</i>. Population 4719. The old +Hindu temples were utterly destroyed apparently when Thanesar was sacked +by Mahmúd in 1014. There is a fine tomb of a Muhammadan Saint, Shekh +Chillí.</p> + + +<p class="center">(<i>b</i>) <i>Jalandhar Division.</i></p> + +<p><b>Aliwál</b>, 30·6 N.—75·4 E. Scene of Sir Harry Smith's victory over the +Sikhs on 28th January, 1846.</p> + +<p><b>Dharmsála</b> (<b>Kángra</b>), 32·1 N.—76·1 E. Headquarters of district. On a spur +of the Dhauladhár Range. A Gurkha regiment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> is stationed here. The +highest part of Dharmsála is over 7000 feet, and the scenery is very +fine, but the place is spoiled as a hill station by the excessive +rainfall, which averages over 120 inches. In the earthquake of 1905, +1625 persons, including 25 Europeans, perished.</p> + +<p><b>Fázilka</b> (<b>Ferozepore</b>), 30·3 N.—74·3 E. Headquarters of sub-division and +<i>tahsíl</i>. Population 10,985. Terminus of Fázilka extension of +Rájputána—Málwa Railway, and connected with Ludhiána by a line which +joins the Southern Panjáb Railway at Macleodganj. A grain mart.</p> + +<p><b>Ferozepore</b>, 30·6 N.—74·4 E. Headquarters of district. Population 50,836 +including 26,158 in Cantonment. (See page <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>.)</p> + +<p><b>Ferozesháh</b> (<b>Ferozepore</b>), 30·5 N.—74·5 E. The real name is Pherushahr. +Sir Hugh Gough defeated the Sikhs here after two days' hard fighting on +Dec. 21-22, 1845.</p> + +<p><b>Jalandhar</b>, 31·2 N.—75·3 E. Headquarters of district. Population 69,318, +including 13,964 in Cantonment. The Cantonment lies four miles to the +S.E. of the native town and three miles from the Civil Lines. (See page +<a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a>.)</p> + +<p><b>Jawála Mukhí</b> (<b>Kángra</b>), 31·5 N.—76·2 E. Celebrated place of Hindu +pilgrimage with a famous temple of the goddess Jawálamukhí, built over +some jets of combustible gas.</p> + +<p><b>Kángra</b>, 30·5 N.—76·2 E. Headquarters of <i>tahsíl</i>. Ancient name +Nagarkot. The celebrated temple and the fort of the Katoch kings of +Kángra were destroyed in the earthquake of 1905. (See pages 168, 171, +183.)</p> + +<p><b>Ludhiána</b>, 30·6 N.—75·5 E. Headquarters of district. Population 44,170. +The manufacture of <i>pashmína</i> shawls was introduced in 1833 by +Kashmírís. Ludhiána is well known for its cotton fabrics and turbans (p. +152).</p> + +<p><b>Mudkí</b> (<b>Ferozepore</b>), 30·5 N.—74·5 E. The opening battle of the 1st Sikh +War was fought here on 18th December, 1845.</p> + + +<p class="center">(<i>c</i>) <i>Lahore Division.</i></p> + +<p><b>Batála</b> (<b>Gurdáspur</b>), 30·5 N.—75·1 E. Headquarters of <i>tahsíl</i>. +Population 26,430. Chief town in Gurdáspur district on the +Amritsar—Pathánkot Railway. Cotton, silk, leathern goods, and soap are +manufactured, and there is a large trade in grain and sugar. The Baring +Anglo-Vernacular High School for Christian boys is a well-known +institution.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Dalhousie</b> (<b>Gurdáspur</b>), 33·3 N.—75·6 E. A well-known hill station at +height of 7687 feet, 51 miles N.W. of Pathánkot, from which it is +reached by tonga. The Commissioner of Lahore and the Deputy Commissioner +of Gurdáspur spend part of the hot weather at Dalhousie. It is a very +pretty and healthy place, with the fine Kálatop Forest in Chamba close +by, and is deservedly popular as a summer resort.</p> + +<p><b>Gujránwála</b>, 32·9 N.—74·1 E. Headquarters of district. Population +29,472. An active trade centre. Ranjít Singh was born, and the tomb of +his father, Mahán Singh is, at Gujránwála.</p> + +<p><b>Kasúr</b> (<b>Lahore</b>), 31·8 N—74·3 E. Headquarters of <i>tahsíl</i> in Lahore. +Population 24,783. Between Raiwind and Ferozepore on N.W. Railway, and +has direct railway communication with Amritsar. A very ancient place and +now an active local trade centre.</p> + +<p><b>Nankána-Sáhib</b> (<b>Gujránwala</b>), 31·6 N.—73·8 E. In south of Gujránwála +district on Chichoki—Shorkot Railway. Venerated by Sikhs as the early +home of Bába Nának.</p> + +<p><b>Siálkot</b>, 32·3 N.—74·3 E. Headquarters of district. Population 64,869, +of which 16,274 in Cantonment. A very old place connected with the +legendary history of Raja Sáliváhan and his two sons Púran and Rája +Rasálu. (See also page <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a>.) The Cantonment is about a mile and a half +from the town. Siálkot is an active trade centre. Its hand-made paper +was once well known, but the demand has declined. Tents, tin boxes, +cricket and tennis bats, and hockey sticks, are manufactured.</p> + +<p><b>Tarn Táran</b> (<b>Amritsar</b>), 31·3 N.—74·6 E. Headquarters of <i>tahsíl</i>. +Population 4260. On Amritsar—Kasúr Railway. The tank is said to have +been dug by Guru Arjan and it and the temple beside it are held in great +reverence by the Sikhs. The water is supposed to cure leprosy. The leper +asylum at Tarn Táran in charge of the Rev. E. Guilford of the Church +Missionary Society is an admirable institution. Clay figures of this +popular missionary can be bought in the <i>bazár</i>.</p> + + +<p class="center">(<i>d</i>) <i>Ráwalpindí Division.</i></p> + +<p><b>Attock</b> (<b>Atak</b>), 32·5 N.—72·1 E. The fort was built by Akbar to protect +the passage of the Indus. In the river gorge below is a whirlpool +between two jutting slate rocks, called Kamália and Jamália after two +heretics who were flung into the river in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> Akbar's reign. The bridge +which carries the railway across the Indus still makes Attock a position +of military importance. Population 630.</p> + +<p><b>Bhera</b> (<b>Sháhpur</b>), 32·3 N.—72·6 E. Headquarters of <i>tahsíl</i>. Population +15,202. A very ancient town which was sacked by Mahmúd and two centuries +later by Chingiz Khán. Has an active trade. The wood-carvers of Bhera +are skilful workmen. Woollen felts are manufactured.</p> + +<p><b>Chilianwála</b> (<b>Chelianwála</b>) (<b>Gujrát</b>), 32·7 N.—73·6 E. Famous battlefield +(page <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Gujrát</b>, 32·3 N.—74·5 E. Headquarters of district. Population 19,090. An +old place, famous in recent history for the great battle on 22 February, +1849 (page <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>). Has a brisk local trade.</p> + +<p><b>Hasn Abdál</b> (<b>Attock</b>) 33·5 N.—72·4 E. On N.W. Railway. Shrine of Bába +Walí Kandahárí on hill above village. Below is the Sikh shrine of the +Panja Sáhib, the rock in which bears the imprint of Bába Nának's five +fingers (<i>panja</i>).</p> + +<p><b>Jhelam</b>, 32·6 N.—73·5 E. Headquarters of district and an important +cantonment. Population 19,678, of which 7380 in cantonment. Has only +become a place of any importance under British rule. Is an important +depot for Kashmir timber trade.</p> + +<p><b>Kálabágh</b> (<b>Mianwálí</b>), 32·6 N.—71·3 E. Population 6654. Picturesquely +situated below hills which are remarkable for the fantastic shapes +assumed by salt exposed on the surface. The Kálabágh salt is in favour +from its great purity. The Malik of Kálabágh is the leading man in the +Awán tribe.</p> + +<p><b>Katás</b> (<b>Jhelam</b>), 32·4 N.—72·6 E. A sacred pool in the Salt Range and a +place of Hindu pilgrimage. The tears of Şiva weeping for the loss of +his wife Satí formed the Katáksha pool in the Salt Range and Pushkar at +Ajmer.</p> + +<p><b>Khewra</b> (<b>Jhelam</b>), 32·4 N.—73·3 E. In Salt Range five and a half miles +N.E. of Pinddádankhán. The famous Mayo Salt Mine is here.</p> + +<p><b>Malot</b> (<b>Jhelam</b>), 32·4 N.—72·5 E. Nine miles W. of Katás (see above). +Fort and temple on a spur of the Salt Range. Temple in early Kashmir +style (<i>Archaeological Survey Reports</i>, Vol. v. pp. 85-90).</p> + +<p><b>Mankiála</b> (<b>Manikyála</b>) (<b>Ráwalpindi</b>), 33·3 N.—74·2 E. A little village +close to which are the remains of a great Buddhist <i>stúpa</i> and of a +number of monasteries (page <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Murree</b> (<b>Marrí</b>) (<b>Ráwalpindi</b>), 33·5 N.—73·2 E. Hill Station<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> near Kashmír +road on a spur of the Himálaya—height 7517 feet—39 miles from +Ráwalpindí, from which visitors are conveyed by tonga. The views from +Murree are magnificent and the neighbourhood of the Hazára Galís is an +attraction. But the climate is not really bracing. The summer +headquarters of the Northern Army are at Murree, and before 1876 the +Panjáb Government spent the hot weather there. The Commissioner and +Deputy Commissioner of Ráwalpindí take their work there for several +months.</p> + +<p><b>Murtí</b> (<b>Jhelam</b>), 32·4 N.—72·6 E. In Gandhála valley on bank of Katás +stream. Remains of a Buddhist <i>stúpa</i> and of a Jain temple. +(<i>Archaeological Survey Reports</i>, Vol. II. pp. 88 and 90.)</p> + +<p><b>Ráwalpindí</b>, 33·4 N.—73·7 E. Headquarters of district and division, and +the most important cantonment in Northern India. Population 86,483, of +which 39,841 in Cantonment. It owes its importance entirely to British +rule. Large carrying trade with Kashmír. Contains the N.W. Railway +Locomotive and Carriage works and several private factories, also a +branch of the Murree brewery. There is an important arsenal. The Park, +left fortunately mainly in its natural state, is an attractive feature +of the cantonment.</p> + +<p><b>Rohtás</b> (<b>Jhelam</b>), 32·6 N.—73·5 E. Ten miles N.W. of Jhelam on the far +side of the gorge where the Kahá torrent breaks through a spur of the +Tilla Range. Fine remains of a very large fort built by the Emperor Sher +Sháh Surí.</p> + +<p><b>Sakesar</b> (<b>Sháhpur</b>), 31·3 N.—71·6 E. Highest point of Salt Range, 5010 +feet above sea level. The Deputy Commissioners of Sháhpur, Mianwálí, and +Attock spend part of the hot weather at Sakesar.</p> + +<p><b>Sháhdherí</b> (<b>Ráwalpindí</b>), 33·2 N.—72·5 E. On the Hazára border and near +the Margalla Pass. Site of the famous city of Táxila (Takshasilá). See +pages 161, 165, and 204. Excavation is now being carried out with +interesting results.</p> + +<p><b>Táxila</b>. See Sháhdherí.</p> + + +<p class="center">(<i>e</i>) <i>Multán Division.</i></p> + +<p><b>Chiniot</b> (<b>Jhang</b>), 31·4 N.—73·0 E. Headquarters of <i>tahsíl</i>. Population +14,085. A very old town near the left bank of the Chenáb. Famous for +brasswork and wood-carving. The Muhammadan Khoja traders have large +business connections with Calcutta, Bombay, and Karáchí. Fine mosque of +the time of Sháhjahán.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Kamália</b> (<b>Lyallpur</b>), 30·4 N.—72·4 E. Population 8237. An old town. +Cotton printing with hand blocks is a local industry. The town should +now prosper as it is a station on the Chichoki—Shorkot Road Railway and +irrigation from the Lower Chenáb Canal has reached its neighbourhood.</p> + +<p><b>Lyallpur</b>, 31·3 N.—73·9 E. Fine new Colony town. Headquarters of +district. Population 19,578. Large wheat trade with Karáchí, and has a +number of cotton ginning and pressing factories.</p> + +<p><b>Montgomery</b>, 30·4 N.—73·8 E. Headquarters of district. Population 8129. +May become a place of some importance with the opening of the Lower Bárí +Doáb Canal. Hitherto one of the hottest and dreariest stations in the +Panjáb, but healthy.</p> + +<p><b>Pákpattan</b>, 30·2 N.—73·2 E. Headquarters of <i>tahsíl</i>. Population 7912. +On Sutlej Valley Railway. Anciently known as Ajodhan and was a place of +importance. Contains shrine of the great Saint Faríd ul Hakk wa ud Dín +Shakarganj (1173-1265). Visited by Timúr in 1398. There is a great +annual festival attracting crowds of pilgrims, who come even from +Afghánistán. There is great competition to win eternal bliss by getting +first through the gate at the entrance to the shrine.</p> + + +<h4>II. <span class="smcap">Panjáb Native States</span>.</h4> + +<p><b>Baháwalpur</b>, 29·2 N.—71·5 E. Capital of State on N.W. Railway 65 miles +south of Multán. Population 18,414. There is a large palace built by +Nawáb Muhammad Sadík Muhammad Khán IV in 1882.</p> + +<p><b>Barnála</b> (<b>Patiála</b>), 32·2 N.—75·4 E. Headquarters of Anáhadgarh Nizámat +on Rájpura-Bhatinda branch of N.W. Railway. Population 5341. For the +famous battle see page <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a>.</p> + +<p><b>Bhatinda</b> (<b>Patiála</b>), 30·1 N.—75·0 E. Also called Govindgarh. Old names +are Vikramagarh and Bhatrinda. Historically a place of great interest +(page <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a>). Fell into decay in later Muhammadan times. Is now a great +railway junction and a nourishing grain mart. The large fort is a +conspicuous object for many miles round. Population 15,037.</p> + +<p><b>Brahmaur</b>, 32·3 N.—76·4 E. The old capital of Chamba, now a small +village. Has three old temples. One of Lakshana Deví has an inscription +of Meru Varma, who ruled Chamba in the seventh century.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Chamba</b>, 32·3 N.—76·1 E. Capital of State picturesquely situated on a +plateau above right bank of Ráví. Population 5523. The white palace is a +conspicuous object. There is an excellent hospital and an interesting +museum. The group of temples near the palace is noteworthy (page <a href='#Page_201'><b>201</b></a>). +That of Lakshmí Naráyan perhaps dates from the tenth century. The Ráví +is spanned at Chamba by a fine bridge.</p> + +<p><b>Chíní</b> (<b>Bashahr</b>), 31·3 N.—78·2 E. Headquarters of Kanáwar near the right +bank of Sutlej. Elevation 9085 feet. Was a favourite residence of Lord +Dalhousie. There is a Moravian Mission Station at Chíní.</p> + +<p><b>Kapúrthala</b>, 31·2 N.—75·2 E. Capital of State. Contains Mahárája's +palace. Population 16,367.</p> + +<p><b>Malerkotla</b>, 30·3 N.—75·6 E. Capital of State. Population 23,880.</p> + +<p><b>Mandí</b>, 31·4 N.—76·6 E. Capital of State. Population 7896. On the Biás, +131 miles from Pathánkot, with which it is connected by the +Pathánkot—Palampur—Baijnáth road. There is a fine iron bridge spanning +the Biás. It is a mart for trade with Ladákh and Yárkand.</p> + +<p><b>Nábha</b>, 30·2 N.—76·1 E. Capital of State. Population 13,620, as compared +with 18,468 in 1901. Founded in 1755 by Hamír Singh (page <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a>). Since +irrigation from the Sirhind Canal has been introduced the environs have +become waterlogged and the town is therefore unhealthy.</p> + +<p><b>Náhan</b>, 30·3 N.—77·2 E. Capital of Sirmúr State. Elevation 3207 feet. +Population 6341. There is a good iron foundry at Náhan.</p> + +<p><b>Patiála</b>, 30·2 N.—76·3 E. Capital of State. Population 46,974. On +Rájpura-Bhatinda Branch of N.W. Railway. Contains fine gardens and +modern buildings. The old palace is in the centre of the town. Patiála +is a busy mart for local trade.</p> + +<p><b>Pattan Munára</b> (<b>Baháwalpur</b>), 28·1 N.—70·2 E. There are the ruins here of +a large city and of a Buddhist monastery. They are situated in the south +of the State five miles east of Rahím Yár Khán Station.</p> + +<p><b>Sangrúr</b> (<b>Jínd</b>), 30·1 N.—75·6 E. Became the capital of Jínd State in +1827. Population 9041. On Ludhiána—Dhurí—Jakhal Railway.</p> + +<p><b>Sirhind</b> (<b>Patiála</b>), 30·4 N.—76·3 E. Properly Sahrind. On N.W. Railway. +Population 3843. The idea that the name is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span> Sir-Hind = head of India is +a mistake. An old town of great importance in Muhammadan period (pages +177 and 180). The ruins extend for several miles. There are two fine +tombs known as those of the Master and his Disciple dating probably from +the fourteenth century.</p> + +<p><b>Suí Vehar</b> (<b>Baháwalpur</b>), 29·2 N.—71·3 E. Six miles from Samasata. Site +of a ruined Buddhist <i>stúpa</i>. An inscription found at Suí Vehár belongs +to the reign of Kanishka (page <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Uch</b> (<b>Baháwalpur</b>), 29·1 N.—71·4 E. On the Sutlej near the point where it +joins the Chenáb. Consists now of three villages. But it was in early +Muhammadan times a place of great importance, and a centre of learning. +It is still very sacred in the eyes of Musalmáns.</p> + + +<h4>III. <span class="smcap">North West Frontier Province</span>.</h4> + +<p class="center">(<i>a</i>) <i>Districts.</i></p> + +<p><b>Abbottábád</b>, 34·9 N.—73·1 E. Headquarters of district and a cantonment +with four battalions of Gurkhas. Population 11,506. At south end of +Orash Plain 4120 feet above sea level. Appropriately named after Captain +James Abbott (page <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Bannu.</b> See Edwardesábád.</p> + +<p><b>Cherát</b> (<b>Pesháwar</b>), 33·5 N.—71·5 E. Small hill sanitarium in Pesháwar +near Kohát border, 4500 feet above sea level.</p> + +<p><b>Dera Ismail Khán</b>, 31·5 N.—70·6 E. Headquarters of district and a +cantonment. Population 35,131, including 5730 in cantonment. The Powinda +caravans pass through Dera Ismail Khán on their march to and from India.</p> + +<p><b>Dungagalí</b> (<b>Hazára</b>), 34·6 N.—73·2 E. Small sanitarium, elevation 7800 +feet, in Hazára Galís, two miles from Nathiagalí. Moshpurí rises above +it to a height of 9232 feet.</p> + +<p><b>Edwardesábád</b> (<b>Bannu</b>), 33·0 N.—70·4 E. Headquarters of Bannu district +and a cantonment. Founded by Lieutenant (afterwards Sir Herbert) +Edwardes in 1848. Population 16,865. It is unhealthy owing to the heavy +irrigation in the neighbourhood.</p> + +<p><b>Fort Lockhart</b> (<b>Kohát</b>), 33·3 N.—70·6 E. Important military outpost on +Samána Range, elevation 6743 feet. Saragarhí, heroically defended by +twenty-one Sikhs in 1897 against several thousand Orakzais, is in the +neighbourhood.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Kohát</b>, 33·3 N.—71·3 E. Headquarters of district and a cantonment. +Population 22,654, including 5957 in Cantonment. On Khushálgarh—Thal +Branch of N.W. Railway.</p> + +<p><b>Mansehra</b> (<b>Hazára</b>), 34·2 N.—73·1 E. Headquarters of <i>tahsíl</i>. The two +rock edicts of Aşoka are in the neighbourhood (pages 163 and 202).</p> + +<p><b>Nathiagalí</b> (<b>Hazára</b>), 34·5 N.—73·6 E. Summer headquarters of Chief +Commissioner of N.W.F. Province in Hazára Galís. Elevation 8200 feet. It +is a beautiful little hill station. Míran Jáni (9793 feet) is close by, +and on a clear day Nanga Parvat can be seen in the far distance.</p> + +<p><b>Naushahra</b> (<b>Pesháwar</b>), 34 N.—72 E. Population 25,498, including 14,543 +in cantonment. On railway 27 miles east of Pesháwar. Risálpura, a new +cavalry cantonment, is in the neighbourhood.</p> + +<p><b>Shekḥbudín</b>, 32·2 N.—70·5 E. Small hill station on Níla Koh on border +of Dera Ismail Khán and Bannu districts. Elevation 4516 feet. It is on a +bare limestone rock with very scanty vegetation and is hot in summer in +the daytime. Water is scarce. The Deputy Commissioners of Bannu and Dera +Ismail Khán spend part of the hot weather at Shekḥbudín.</p> + +<p><b>Thal</b> (<b>Kohát</b>), 33·2 N.—70·3 E. Important military outpost at entrance of +Kurram Valley. Terminus of Khushálgarh—Thal branch of N.W. Railway.</p> + +<p><b>Thandiání</b> (<b>Hazára</b>), 34·1 N.—73·2 E. Small hill station in Galís sixteen +miles N.E. of Abbottábád. Elevation about 8800 feet. A beautifully +situated place chiefly resorted to by residents of Abbottábád and +Missionaries.</p> + + +<p class="center">(<i>b</i>) <i>Agencies and Independent Territory.</i></p> + +<p><b>Ali Masjid</b> (<b>Khaibar</b>), 34·2 N.—71·5 E. Village and fort in Khaibar, +10¼ miles from Jamrúd. Elevation 2433 feet.</p> + +<p><b>Ambela</b> (<b>Indep. Territory</b>), 34·2 N.—72·4 E. Pass in Buner, which gave +its name to the Ambela campaign of 1863 (page <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Chakdarra</b> (<b>Dír</b>, <b>Swát</b>, and <b>Chitrál</b>), 34·4 N.—72·8 E. Military post to +N.E. of Malakand Pass on south bank of Swát River.</p> + +<p><b>Chitrál</b>, 35·5 N.—71·5 E. A group of villages forming capital of Chitrál +State. There is a small <i>bazár</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Jamrúd</b> (<b>Khaibar</b>), 34 N.—71·2 E. Just beyond Pesháwar boundary at mouth +of Khaibar. Terminus of railway. 10½ miles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span> west of Pesháwar. There +is a fort and a large <i>sarai</i>. Elevation 1670 feet.</p> + +<p><b>Landí Kotal</b> (<b>Khaibar</b>), 34·6 N.—71·8 E. 20 miles from Jamrúd. Fort +garrisoned by Khaibar Rifles at highest point of Khaibar route. +Elevation 3373 feet. Afghán frontier 6 miles beyond.</p> + +<p><b>Malakand</b> (<b>Dír</b>, <b>Swát</b>, and <b>Chitrál</b>), 34·3 N.—71·6 E. Pass leading into +Swát Valley from Pesháwar district.</p> + +<p><b>Míram Sháh</b> (<b>N. Wazíristán</b>), 33·6 N.—70·7 E. Headquarters of North +Wazíristán Agency in Tochí Valley 3050 feet above the sea.</p> + +<p><b>Parachinár</b> (<b>Kurram</b>), 33·5 N.—70·4 E. Headquarters of Kurram Agency and +of Kurram Militia. Climate temperate. Population 2364.</p> + +<p><b>Wána</b> (<b>S. Wazíristán</b>), 37·2 N.—69·4 E. Headquarters of South Wazíristán +Agency. In a wide valley watered by Wána Toi. There is much irrigation +and the place is unhealthy, though the elevation of the Valley is from +4300 to 5800 feet.</p> + + +<h4>IV. <span class="smcap">Kashmír and Jammu</span>.</h4> + +<p><b>Báramúla</b>, 34·1 N.—74·2 E. Situated at the point where the Jhelam gorge +ends and the Vale of Kashmír begins. Travellers who intend to go to +Srínagar by water board their house boats here. There is an excellent +poplar-lined road from Báramúla to Srínagar and a bad road to Gulmarg.</p> + +<p><b>Chilás</b>, 35·4 N.—74·2 E. See page <a href='#Page_323'><b>323</b></a>.</p> + +<p><b>Gulmarg</b>, 34·1 N.—74·4 E. S.W. of Srínagar. It is a favourite hot +weather resort of Europeans. The Mahárája has a house here. The forest +scenery is beautiful, especially on the way to the limit of trees at +Khilanmarg. Good golf links on beautiful turf.</p> + +<p><b>Gurais</b>, 34·7 N.—74·8 E. A beautiful valley drained by the head waters +of the Kishnganga. It lies between Bandipura and the Burzil Pass on the +road to Gilgit.</p> + +<p><b>Hunza</b>, 36·4 N.—74·7 E. (See page <a href='#Page_323'><b>323</b></a>.) Hunza is a group of villages. +The Rajá's (or Tham's) fort, Baltit castle, at an elevation of 7000 feet +is splendidly situated in full view of Rakaposhi, distant 20 miles. It +is overhung by the enormous mass of snow peaks said to be called in the +language of the country Boiohaghurduanasur (the peak of the galloping +horse).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Islámábád</b>, 33·4 N.—75·1 E. About 40 miles by river from Srínagar, near +the point where the Jhelam ceases to be navigable. Achabal and Mártand +are easily visited from Islámábád, and it is the starting point for the +Liddar Valley and Pahlgam. It is a dirty insanitary place.</p> + +<p><b>Jammu</b>, 32·4 N.—74·5 E. Capital of the Jammu province and winter +residence of the Mahárája. Connected with Siálkot by rail. Situated +above the ravine in which the Tawí flows. At a distance the white-washed +temples with gilded pinnacles look striking. The town was once much more +prosperous than it is to-day.</p> + +<p><b>Leh</b>, 34·2 N.—77·5 E. Capital of Ladákh. On the Indus 11,500 feet above +sea-level. The meeting place of caravans from India and Yárkand. The +Central Asian caravans arrive in Autumn, when the <i>bazár</i>, in a wide +street lined with poplars, becomes busy. The Wazír Wazárat has his +headquarters here, and there is a small garrison in the mud fort. The +old palace of the Gyalpo (King) is a large pile on a ridge overhanging +the town. There are Moravian and Roman Catholic missions at Leh.</p> + +<p><b>Mártand</b>, 33·4 N.—75·1 E. Remains of a remarkable temple of the Sun god +three miles east of Islámábád (pages 166 and 201).</p> + +<p><b>Payer</b> (erroneously <b>Payech</b>). Nineteen miles from Srínagar containing a +beautiful and well-preserved temple of the Sun god, dated variously from +the fifth to the thirteenth century (page <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Punch</b>, 33·4 N.—74·9 E. Capital of the <i>jágír</i> of the Rája of Punch, a +feudatory of the Kashmír State. 3300 feet above sea level. There is a +brisk trade in grain and <i>ghí</i>. Decent roads connect Punch with +Ráwalpindí and Urí on the Jhelam. Cart Road into Kashmír. Kashmírís call +the place Prunts and its old name was Parnotsa.</p> + +<p><b>Skardo</b>, 35·3 N.—75·6 E. Old capital of Báltistán. 7250 feet above +sea-level. In a sandy basin lying on both sides of the Indus, and about +five miles in width. A <i>tahsíldár</i> is stationed at Skardo.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span></p> + + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Table I.</span> <i>Tribes of Panjáb (including Native States) and N.W.F. +Province</i><a name="FNanchor_1_4" id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>.</h4> + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%" cellspacing="0" summary="Table I."> + +<tr> + +<th align="center" colspan="3"> Landholding etc.</th> +<th align="center" colspan="3">Traders</th> +<th align="center" colspan="3">Artizans and menials</th> +<th align="center" colspan="3">Impure Castes</th> + +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Tribe</td> +<td align="right">Panjáb<br />p.c.</td> +<td align="right">N.W.F.P.<br />p.c.</td> +<td align="left">Tribe</td> +<td align="right">Panjáb<br />p.c.</td> +<td align="right">N.W.F.P.<br />p.c.</td> +<td align="left">Tribe</td> +<td align="right">Panjáb<br />p.c.</td> +<td align="right">N.W.F.P.<br />p.c.</td> +<td align="left">Tribe</td> +<td align="right">Panjáb<br />p.c.</td> +<td align="right">N.W.F.P.<br />p.c.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Jats</td> +<td align="right">20.5</td> +<td align="right">3.9</td> +<td align="left">Aroras</td> +<td align="right">2.8</td> +<td align="right">3.1</td> +<td align="left">Lohárs and<br />Tarkháns<a name="FNanchor_2_4" id="FNanchor_2_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_4" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></td> +<td align="right">4.0</td> +<td align="right">3.3</td> +<td align="left">Chúhra<a name="FNanchor_8_4" id="FNanchor_8_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_4" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></td> +<td align="right">5.1</td> +<td align="right"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Rajputs</td> +<td align="right">6.8</td> +<td align="right">.7</td> +<td align="left">Khatrís</td> +<td align="right">1.8</td> +<td align="right">1.2</td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="left">Chamár<a name="FNanchor_9_4" id="FNanchor_9_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_4" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></td> +<td align="right">4.7</td> +<td align="right"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Arains and<br />Kambohs</td> +<td align="right"> 4.8</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="left">Banias</td> +<td align="right">1.7</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="left">Juláhas<a name="FNanchor_3_4" id="FNanchor_3_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_4" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></td> +<td align="right">2.6</td> +<td align="right">1.7</td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Brahmans</td> +<td align="right"> 4.2</td> +<td align="right">.6</td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="left">Jhínwar and<br />Máchhi<a name="FNanchor_10_4" id="FNanchor_10_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></td> +<td align="right">2.6</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Gújars</td> +<td align="right">2.5</td> +<td align="right">5.2</td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="left">Kumhár<a name="FNanchor_5_4" id="FNanchor_5_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_4" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></td> +<td align="right">2.3</td> +<td align="right">1.0</td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Biloch</td> +<td align="right">2.2</td> +<td align="right">1.2</td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="left">Nai<a name="FNanchor_6_4" id="FNanchor_6_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_4" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></td> +<td align="right">1.4</td> +<td align="right">1.1</td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Awán</td> +<td align="right">1.8</td> +<td align="right">12.6</td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="left">Telí<a name="FNanchor_7_4" id="FNanchor_7_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_4" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></td> +<td align="right">1.2</td> +<td align="right">.3</td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Shekhs inc.<br />Kureshí</td> +<td align="right">1.7</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Kanet</td> +<td align="right">1.7</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Sainís, Málís,<br />Malliárs</td> +<td align="right">1.3</td> +<td align="right">1.8</td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Patháns</td> +<td align="right">1.2</td> +<td align="right">38.3</td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Saiyyíds</td> +<td align="right">1.0</td> +<td align="right">4.4</td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +<td align="right"> </td> +</tr> + + + +</table></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_4" id="Footnote_1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_4"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>Only tribes amounting in number to 1 p.c. of total population shown.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_4" id="Footnote_2_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_4"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>Blacksmiths and Carpenters.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_4" id="Footnote_3_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_4"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>Weavers.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_4" id="Footnote_10_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>Water carriers.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_4" id="Footnote_5_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_4"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>Potter.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_4" id="Footnote_6_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_4"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>Barber.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_4" id="Footnote_7_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_4"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>Oilman.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_4" id="Footnote_8_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_4"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>Scavenger.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_4" id="Footnote_9_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_4"><span class="label">[9]</span></a>Leather-worker.</p></div> + + + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span></p> + + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Table II.</span> <i>Rainfall, Cultivation, Population, and Land Revenue.</i></h4> + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%" cellspacing="0" summary="Table II."> + + +<tr> +<th align="left" style="width: 12%;" rowspan="2">Zone</th> +<th align="left" style="width: 13%;" rowspan="2">District</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 8%;" rowspan="2">Rainfall in Inches</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 8%;" rowspan="2">No. of Masonary Wells</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 8%;" rowspan="2">Cultivated Area<br />Acres 1922-1912</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 5%;" colspan="7">Classes of Cultivation, p.c.</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 8%;" rowspan="2">Population 1911</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 8%;" rowspan="2">Land Revenue in 1911-1912 in hundreds of rupees</th> +</tr> + +<tr> + +<th align="right" style="width: 5%;">Well</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 5%;">Canal</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 5%;">Abí</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 5%;">Total Irrd.</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 5%;">Moist</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 5%;">Dry</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 5%;">Total Unirrd.</th> + +</tr> + + +<tr> +<td align="left" rowspan="9">Mountain and<br />Submontane</td> +<td align="left">Kánga</td> +<td align="right">125</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">587,826</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">20</td> +<td align="right">20</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">80</td> +<td align="right">80</td> +<td align="right">770,386</td> +<td align="right">9,267</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Simla</td> +<td align="right">68</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">9,984</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">90</td> +<td align="right">94</td> +<td align="right">39,320</td> +<td align="right">175</td> +</tr> + + +<tr> +<td align="left">Ambála</td> +<td align="right">35</td> +<td align="right">2,154</td> +<td align="right">750,515</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">90</td> +<td align="right">94</td> +<td align="right">689,970</td> +<td align="right">11,477</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Hoshyárpur</td> +<td align="right">36</td> +<td align="right">6,841</td> +<td align="right">722,122</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">92</td> +<td align="right">92</td> +<td align="right">918,569</td> +<td align="right">14,225</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Total British<br />dts. Panjáb</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">9,000</td> +<td align="right">2,070,447</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">6½</td> +<td align="right">10½</td> +<td align="right">1½</td> +<td align="right">88</td> +<td align="right">89½</td> +<td align="right">2,418,245</td> +<td align="right">35,144<br />(1.10.0)<a name="FNanchor_1_5" id="FNanchor_1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_5" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Hazára<br />(N.W.F.P.)</td> +<td align="right">46</td> +<td align="right">353</td> +<td align="right">430,872</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">90</td> +<td align="right">90</td> +<td align="right">603,028</td> +<td align="right">5,129<br />(1.3.1)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Kashmír and<br />Jammu</td> +<td align="right">35<a name="FNanchor_3_5" id="FNanchor_3_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_5" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">1,750,056</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">32</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">68</td> +<td align="right">2,893,066</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Indus Valley<a name="FNanchor_2_5" id="FNanchor_2_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_5" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></td> +<td align="right">5<a name="FNanchor_4_5" id="FNanchor_4_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_5" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">121,952</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">100</td> +<td align="right">210,315<a name="FNanchor_10_5" id="FNanchor_10_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></td> +<td align="right">—</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Total Kashmír</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">1,872,008</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">30</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">70</td> +<td align="right">3,103,381</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left" rowspan="7">North Central<br /> Panjáb Plain<br />(British Districts)</td> +<td align="left">Gujrát</td> +<td align="right">28</td> +<td align="right">10,221</td> +<td align="right">845,023</td> +<td align="right">26</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">26</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">68</td> +<td align="right">74</td> +<td align="right">784,011</td> +<td align="right">8,445</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Siálkot</td> +<td align="right">35</td> +<td align="right">23,010</td> +<td align="right">941,558</td> +<td align="right">54</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">58</td> +<td align="right">9</td> +<td align="right">33</td> +<td align="right">42</td> +<td align="right">979,553</td> +<td align="right">14,847</td> +</tr> + + + +<tr> +<td align="left">Gurdáspur</td> +<td align="right">35</td> +<td align="right">6,439</td> +<td align="right">844,403</td> +<td align="right">16</td> +<td align="right">11</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">27</td> +<td align="right">14</td> +<td align="right">59</td> +<td align="right">73</td> +<td align="right">836,771</td> +<td align="right">15,410</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Amritsar</td> +<td align="right">24</td> +<td align="right">12,386</td> +<td align="right">787,229</td> +<td align="right">31</td> +<td align="right">31</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">62</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">34</td> +<td align="right">38</td> +<td align="right">880,728</td> +<td align="right">12,746</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Jalandhar</td> +<td align="right">28</td> +<td align="right">28,289</td> +<td align="right">695,571</td> +<td align="right">44</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">44</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">51</td> +<td align="right">56</td> +<td align="right">801,920</td> +<td align="right">14,871</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Ludhiána</td> +<td align="right">28</td> +<td align="right">9,991</td> +<td align="right">754,373</td> +<td align="right">19</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">26</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">70</td> +<td align="right">74</td> +<td align="right">517,192</td> +<td align="right">11,103</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Total</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">90,336</td> +<td align="right">4,868,157</td> +<td align="right">32</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">41</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">52</td> +<td align="right">59</td> +<td align="right">4,800,175</td> +<td align="right">77,422<br />(1.9.5)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left" rowspan="9">North-West<br />Area</td> +<td align="left">Ráwalpíndí</td> +<td align="right">33</td> +<td align="right">947</td> +<td align="right">598,371</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">99</td> +<td align="right">99</td> +<td align="right">547,827</td> +<td align="right">6,754</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Jhelam</td> +<td align="right">26</td> +<td align="right">4,103</td> +<td align="right">754,585</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">92</td> +<td align="right">96</td> +<td align="right">511,175</td> +<td align="right">7,576</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Attock</td> +<td align="right">19</td> +<td align="right">6,850</td> +<td align="right">1,031,962</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">96</td> +<td align="right">97</td> +<td align="right">519,273</td> +<td align="right">6,741</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Mianwáli</td> +<td align="right">12</td> +<td align="right">7,128</td> +<td align="right">748,255</td> +<td align="right">17</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">19</td> +<td align="right">38½</td> +<td align="right">42½</td> +<td align="right">81</td> +<td align="right">341,377</td> +<td align="right">4,866</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Total Panjáb</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">19,028</td> +<td align="right">3,133,173</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">83</td> +<td align="right">93</td> +<td align="right">1,919,652</td> +<td align="right">25,937<br />(0.13.3)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Pesháwar</td> +<td align="right">13</td> +<td align="right">6,597</td> +<td align="right">894,803</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">33</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">38½</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">59½</td> +<td align="right">61½</td> +<td align="right">865,009</td> +<td align="right">11,375</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Kohát</td> +<td align="right">18</td> +<td align="right">467</td> +<td align="right">327,949</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">12</td> +<td align="right">12½</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">87</td> +<td align="right">87½</td> +<td align="right">222,690</td> +<td align="right">2,755</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Bannu</td> +<td align="right">13</td> +<td align="right">11</td> +<td align="right">523,688</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">24</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">24</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">76</td> +<td align="right">76</td> +<td align="right">256,086</td> +<td align="right">3,040</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Total<br />N.W.F.P.</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">7,075</td> +<td align="right">1,746,440</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">24½</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">30</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">69</td> +<td align="right">70</td> +<td align="right">1,343,785</td> +<td align="right">17,170<br />(0.15.8)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left" rowspan="11">South-Western<br />Plains</td> +<td align="left">Gujránwála</td> +<td align="right">24</td> +<td align="right">10,926</td> +<td align="right">1,179,348</td> +<td align="right">37</td> +<td align="right">40</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">77</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">19</td> +<td align="right">23</td> +<td align="right">923,419</td> +<td align="right">10,497</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Lahore</td> +<td align="right">21</td> +<td align="right">13,828</td> +<td align="right">1,462,108</td> +<td align="right">31</td> +<td align="right">43½</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">75½</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">19½</td> +<td align="right">24½</td> +<td align="right">1,036,158</td> +<td align="right">11,301</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Sháhpur</td> +<td align="right">14</td> +<td align="right">6,403</td> +<td align="right">1,267,566</td> +<td align="right">14</td> +<td align="right">55</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">69</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">25</td> +<td align="right">31</td> +<td align="right">648,989</td> +<td align="right">8,701</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Jhang</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">11,588</td> +<td align="right">723,733</td> +<td align="right">36</td> +<td align="right">46</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">82</td> +<td align="right">16</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">18</td> +<td align="right">515,526</td> +<td align="right">6,429</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Lyallpur</td> +<td align="right">9</td> +<td align="right">121</td> +<td align="right">1,373,892</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">99</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">99</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">857,711</td> +<td align="right">12,736</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Lyallpur</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">10,472</td> +<td align="right">815,355</td> +<td align="right">27</td> +<td align="right">28</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">56</td> +<td align="right">25</td> +<td align="right">19</td> +<td align="right">44</td> +<td align="right">555,219</td> +<td align="right">6,225</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Multán</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">20,132</td> +<td align="right">1,081,030</td> +<td align="right">58½</td> +<td align="right">26</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">85½</td> +<td align="right">13½</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">14½</td> +<td align="right">814,871</td> +<td align="right">15,865</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Muzaffargarh</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">14,053</td> +<td align="right">553,643</td> +<td align="right">36</td> +<td align="right">33</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">73</td> +<td align="right">27</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">27</td> +<td align="right">569,461</td> +<td align="right">7,316</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Dera Ghází<br />Khán</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">9,564</td> +<td align="right">1,035,011</td> +<td align="right">25½</td> +<td align="right">16</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">42</td> +<td align="right">53½</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">56</td> +<td align="right">499,860</td> +<td align="right">5,752</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Total Panjáb<br />districts</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">97,087</td> +<td align="right">9,491,686</td> +<td align="right">28</td> +<td align="right">46</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">75</td> +<td align="right">14½</td> +<td align="right">10½</td> +<td align="right">25</td> +<td align="right">6,420,814</td> +<td align="right">84,822<br />(0.14.4)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">D.I. Khán<br />N.W.F.P.</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">795</td> +<td align="right">544,746</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">17</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">26</td> +<td align="right">11</td> +<td align="right">63</td> +<td align="right">74</td> +<td align="right">256,120</td> +<td align="right">3,062<br />(0.9.0)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left" rowspan="8">South-Eastern<br />Plains<br />(British<br />Districts)</td> +<td align="left">Karnál</td> +<td align="right">30</td> +<td align="right">7,827</td> +<td align="right">1,148,876</td> +<td align="right">13</td> +<td align="right">21</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">37</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">57</td> +<td align="right">63</td> +<td align="right">799,787</td> +<td align="right">10,833</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Delhi<a name="FNanchor_6_5" id="FNanchor_6_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_5" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">7,133</td> +<td align="right">555,057</td> +<td align="right">19</td> +<td align="right">18</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">37</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">57</td> +<td align="right">63</td> +<td align="right">657,604</td> +<td align="right">8,563</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Gurgaon</td> +<td align="right">26</td> +<td align="right">6,594</td> +<td align="right">988,613</td> +<td align="right">13</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">24</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +<td align="right">72½</td> +<td align="right">76</td> +<td align="right">643,177</td> +<td align="right">12,182</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Gurgaon</td> +<td align="right">21</td> +<td align="right">2,450</td> +<td align="right">974,200</td> +<td align="right">4½</td> +<td align="right">30</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">34½</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">65½</td> +<td align="right">65½</td> +<td align="right">541,489</td> +<td align="right">9,660</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Rohtak</td> +<td align="right">21</td> +<td align="right">2,450</td> +<td align="right">974,200</td> +<td align="right">4½</td> +<td align="right">30</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">34½</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">65½</td> +<td align="right">65½</td> +<td align="right">541,489</td> +<td align="right">9,660</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Hissár</td> +<td align="right">16</td> +<td align="right">720</td> +<td align="right">2,691,478</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">11¼</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">11¼</td> +<td align="right">2¼</td> +<td align="right">86½</td> +<td align="right">88¾</td> +<td align="right">804,809</td> +<td align="right">8,582</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Ferozepore</td> +<td align="right">21</td> +<td align="right">7,940</td> +<td align="right">2,248,322</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">40½</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">47½</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">50½</td> +<td align="right">52½</td> +<td align="right">959,657</td> +<td align="right">12,066</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Total Panjáb<br />districts</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">32,664</td> +<td align="right">8,606,546</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">22½</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">29½</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +<td align="right">67</td> +<td align="right">70½</td> +<td align="right">4,306,523</td> +<td align="right">61,886<br />(0.11.6)</td> +</tr> + + + + + + +</table></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_5" id="Footnote_1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_5"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>Rate per cultivated acre in rupees (Rupee 1 = 16 pence).</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_5" id="Footnote_2_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_5"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>= Ladákh, Baltistán, Astor, and Gilgit.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_5" id="Footnote_3_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_5"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>At Jammu.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_5" id="Footnote_4_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_5"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>At Gilgit. Leh 3, Skardo 5.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_5" id="Footnote_10_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>Including Frontier <i>Iláka</i> 264,750.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_5" id="Footnote_6_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_5"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>The Delhi district has been broken + up, and, with the exception of the area now administered by the Government of India, has been divided between + Rohtak and Gurgaon.</p></div> + + + + + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h4> +<span class="smcap">Table III.</span> <i>Diagrams relating to Cultivation.</i></h4> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 583px;"> +<img src="images/imgtable3atb.jpg" width="583" height="700" alt="" title="Table III." /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/imgtable3a.jpg">View larger image</a></span> +</div> + +<p><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/imgtable3btb.jpg" width="600" height="495" alt="" title="Table III." /> + +<span class="link"><a href="images/imgtable3b.jpg">View larger image</a></span></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span><br /> +</p> + + + + +<p>[1] Only tribes amounting in number to 1 p.c. of total population shown.</p> + +<h4>TABLE IV. <i>Percentages of Principal Crops</i><a name="FNanchor_1_9" id="FNanchor_1_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_9" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>.</h4> + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%" cellspacing="0" summary="Table IV."> + +<tr> +<th align="left" style="width: 12%;" rowspan="2">Zone</th> +<th align="left" style="width: 13%;" rowspan="2">District</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 6%;" rowspan="2">Wheat</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 6%;" rowspan="2">Barley</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 6%;" rowspan="2">Rape <i>Toria</i><br />and<br /><i>Tara Mira</i></th> +<th align="center" style="width: 9%;" colspan="2">Pulses</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 6%;" rowspan="2">Fodder<br />(both<br />harvests)</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 6%;" rowspan="2">Maize</th> +<th align="center" style="width: 9%;" colspan="2">Millets</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 6%;" rowspan="2">Rice</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 6%;" rowspan="2">Cotton</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 6%;" rowspan="2">Cane</th> +<th align="right" style="width: 9%;" rowspan="2">Other crops<br />(both harvests)</th> +</tr> + +<tr> + +<th align="right">Gram</th> +<th align="right">Other Pulses<br />(both harvests)</th> +<th align="right">Bájra</th> +<th align="right">Jowár</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left" rowspan="9">Mountain and<br />Submontane<br />Zone</td> +<td align="right">Kángra</td> +<td align="right">32</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">21</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">15</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">14½</td> + +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Simla</td> +<td align="right">31</td> +<td align="right">15</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">13</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">32</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Ambála</td> +<td align="right">26</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">17</td> +<td align="right">9</td> +<td align="right">11</td> +<td align="right">10½</td> +<td align="right">1½</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Hoshyárpur</td> +<td align="right">33</td> +<td align="right">1½</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">17</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">17½</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">7½<br /> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Total Panjáb<br />districts</td> +<td align="right">30</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">13</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">16</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">11<br /> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Hazára N.W.F.P.</td> +<td align="right">26</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">1½</td> +<td align="right">43</td> +<td align="right">1½</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">2<br /> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Kashmír and Jammu</td> +<td align="right">21</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="center" colspan="2">7</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">38</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">9</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Indus Valley</td> +<td align="right">29</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="center" colspan="2">12</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">47</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right"> <br />Total Kashmír</td> +<td align="right"> <br />23</td> +<td align="right"> <br />4</td> +<td align="right"> <br />—</td> +<td align="center" colspan="2"> <br />8</td> +<td align="right"> <br />—</td> +<td align="right"> <br />35½</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right"> <br />—</td> +<td align="right"> <br />8</td> +<td align="right"> <br />—</td> +<td align="right"> <br />—</td> +<td align="right"> <br />12½</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left" rowspan="7">North Central<br />Panjáb Plain<br />(British Districts)</td> +<td align="right">Gujrát</td> +<td align="right">42</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">15</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">1½</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Siálkot</td> +<td align="right">43</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">15</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">1½</td> +<td align="right">1½</td> +<td align="right">6½</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Gurdáspur</td> +<td align="right">36</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">13</td> +<td align="right">11</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">6½</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">4½</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Amritsar</td> +<td align="right">36</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">16</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">20</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">4½</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Jalandhar</td> +<td align="right">33</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">15</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">23</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Ludhiána</td> +<td align="right">28</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">11</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">12<br /> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Total</td> +<td align="right">37</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">11</td> +<td align="right">18</td> +<td align="right">14</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +<td align="right">4½<br /> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left" rowspan="9">North-West<br />Area</td> +<td align="right">Ráwalpindí </td> +<td align="right">41</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">19</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">17</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Jhelam</td> +<td align="right">47</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">21</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Attock</td> +<td align="right">50</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">9</td> +<td align="right">7½</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">19</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Mianwálí</td> +<td align="right">34</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">19</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">19</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">4½<br /> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Total Panjáb<br />Districts</td> +<td align="right">43</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">11</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">19</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">1½</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">5<br /> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Pesháwar</td> +<td align="right">36½</td> +<td align="right">16</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">18½</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">4½</td> +<td align="right">1½</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Kohát</td> +<td align="right">43</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">27½</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Bannu</td> +<td align="right">49</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">24</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">1¼</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">1¼</td> +<td align="right">4<br /> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Total N.W.F.P.</td> +<td align="right">41</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">8½</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">13½</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">4<br /> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left" rowspan="12">South-Western<br />Plains</td> +<td align="right">Gujránwála</td> +<td align="right">40</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">15½</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">12</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Lahore</td> +<td align="right">37</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">16</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">15</td> +<td align="right">4½</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">9</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Shahpur</td> +<td align="right">44</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Jhang</td> +<td align="right">47</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">4½</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">5½</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">13½</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Lyallpur</td> +<td align="right">42½</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">13</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">4½</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">9</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Montgomery</td> +<td align="right">41</td> +<td align="right">1½</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">13</td> +<td align="right">4½</td> +<td align="right">17</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Multán</td> +<td align="right">41</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">13</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">9</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">8½</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Muzaffargarh</td> +<td align="right">44½</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">6½</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Dera Ghází Khán</td> +<td align="right">27</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +<td align="right">5½</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">9</td> +<td align="right">23</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Dera Ghází Khán</td> +<td align="right">27</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +<td align="right">5½</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">9</td> +<td align="right">23</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">2<br /> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Total Panjáb</td> +<td align="right">40½</td> +<td align="right">1½</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">9</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">10</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">8½<br /> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">D.I. Khán<br />N.W.F.P.</td> +<td align="right">31</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">13</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">22</td> +<td align="right">9</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">9½<br /> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left" rowspan="9">South-Eastern<br />Plains<br />(British Districts)</td> +<td align="right">Ráwalpindí </td> +<td align="right">41</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">19</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">17</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Karnál</td> +<td align="right">21</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">26½</td> +<td align="right">4½</td> +<td align="right">6½</td> +<td align="right">5½</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">11½</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Rohtak</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">34½</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">21</td> +<td align="right">14</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">6½</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">1½</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Gurgáon</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">13</td> +<td align="right">1½</td> +<td align="right">20</td> +<td align="right">12</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">25</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Hissar</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">28</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">26</td> +<td align="right">6½</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">9½</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Ferozepore</td> +<td align="right">28</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">31½</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Total Panjáb<br />districts</td> +<td align="right">14</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">28½</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">1½</td> +<td align="right">15</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +<td align="right">½</td> +<td align="right">7½</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Grand total<br />Panjáb</td> +<td align="right">31</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">16</td> +<td align="right">6½</td> +<td align="right">8½</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">9</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +<td align="right">2½</td> +<td align="right">4½</td> +<td align="right">1½</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Grand total<br />N.W.F.P.</td> +<td align="right">36</td> +<td align="right">8½</td> +<td align="right">3</td> +<td align="right">7</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +<td align="right">3½</td> +<td align="right">16½</td> +<td align="right">8</td> +<td align="right">4</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">2</td> +<td align="right">1</td> +<td align="right">6</td> +</tr> + +</table></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_9" id="Footnote_1_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_9"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>In case of Panjáb districts figures relate to <i>Kharif</i> 1910 and +<i>Rabi</i> 1911.</p></div> + + + + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span></p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Table V</span> <i>Revenue and Expenditure</i>, 1911-12.</h4> + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%" cellspacing="0" summary="Table V."> + +<tr> +<th align="left" style="width: 24%;" rowspan="3">Heads</th> +<th align="center" style="width: 38%;" colspan="3">Income</th> +<th align="center" style="width: 38%;" colspan="3">Expenditure</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<th align="right" rowspan="2">Total in<br />Rs. 000</th> +<th align="center" colspan="2">Provincial</th> +<th align="right" rowspan="2">Total in<br />Rs. 000</th> +<th align="center" colspan="2">Provincial</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<th align="right">Share</th> +<th align="right">Amount in<br />Rs. 000</th> +<th align="right">Share</th> +<th align="right">Amount in<br />Rs. 000</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Land Revenue</td> +<td align="right">3,47,92</td> +<td align="right">Half</td> +<td align="right">1,73,96</td> +<td align="right">47,76</td> +<td align="right">Whole</td> +<td align="right">47,76</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Stamps</td> +<td align="right">52,57</td> +<td align="right">Half</td> +<td align="right">26,29</td> +<td align="right">1,77</td> +<td align="right">Half</td> +<td align="right">89</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Excise</td> +<td align="right">64,00</td> +<td align="right">Half</td> +<td align="right">32,00</td> +<td align="right">1,71</td> +<td align="right">Half</td> +<td align="right">86</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Income-tax</td> +<td align="right">16,22</td> +<td align="right">Half</td> +<td align="right">8,11</td> +<td align="right">11</td> +<td align="right">Half</td> +<td align="right">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Forests</td> +<td align="right">13,10</td> +<td align="right">Whole</td> +<td align="right">13,10</td> +<td align="right">7,64</td> +<td align="right">Whole</td> +<td align="right">7,65</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Registration</td> +<td align="right">3,16</td> +<td align="right">Whole</td> +<td align="right">3,16</td> +<td align="right">1,20</td> +<td align="right">Whole</td> +<td align="right">1,20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">General Administration</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">18,33</td> +<td align="right">Various</td> +<td align="right">13,65</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Law and Justice<br />—Courts</td> +<td align="right">4,35</td> +<td align="right">Whole</td> +<td align="right">4,35</td> +<td align="right">42,18</td> +<td align="right">Whole</td> +<td align="right">42,18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Law and Justice<br />—Jails</td> +<td align="right">3,41</td> +<td align="right">Whole</td> +<td align="right">3,41</td> +<td align="right">12,24</td> +<td align="right">Whole</td> +<td align="right">12,24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Police</td> +<td align="right">1,80</td> +<td align="right">Whole</td> +<td align="right">1,80</td> +<td align="right">58,57</td> +<td align="right">Whole</td> +<td align="right">58,57</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Education</td> +<td align="right">3,64</td> +<td align="right">Whole</td> +<td align="right">3,64</td> +<td align="right">23,27</td> +<td align="right">Whole</td> +<td align="right">23,27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Irrigation—<br />Major Works</td> +<td align="right">2,13,08</td> +<td align="right">Half</td> +<td align="right">1,06,54</td> +<td align="right">1,36,42</td> +<td align="right">Half</td> +<td align="right">68,21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Irrigation—<br />Minor Works</td> +<td align="right">7,99</td> +<td align="right">Various</td> +<td align="right">56</td> +<td align="right">11,17</td> +<td align="right">Various</td> +<td align="right">1,07</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Civil Works</td> +<td align="right">6,93</td> +<td align="right">Various</td> +<td align="right">6,20</td> +<td align="right">67,90</td> +<td align="right">Various</td> +<td align="right">62,70</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Medical</td> +<td align="right">6,93</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">Whole</td> +<td align="right">21,20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">All other heads<a name="FNanchor_1_11" id="FNanchor_1_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_11" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td> +<td align="right">27,60</td> +<td align="right">Nil and<br />various</td> +<td align="right">16,21</td> +<td align="right">56,96</td> +<td align="right">Whole various<br />and nil</td> +<td align="right">41,29<br /> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Total</td> +<td align="right">8,03,93</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">3,99,33</td> +<td align="right">5,13,25</td> +<td align="right">—</td> +<td align="right">4,02,79</td> +</tr> + + +</table></div> + + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_11" id="Footnote_1_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_11"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>Under Income "Salt," "Tribute," "Interest," "Miscellaneous," and +"All other heads." Under Expenditure "Political," "Scientific," +"Pensions," "Stationery," "All other items."</p></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="kashmir" id="kashmir"></a> +<img src="images/imgkashmirmaptb.jpg" width="700" height="542" alt="" title="Kashmir" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/imgkashmirmap.jpg">View larger image</a></span> +</div> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> +<a name="punjab" id="punjab"></a> +<img src="images/imgpunjab-maptb.jpg" width="700" height="565" alt="" title="Punjab" /> +<span class="link"><a href="images/imgpunjab-map.jpg">View larger image</a></span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> + + + +<ul class="none"><li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abbott, Captain J.; <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>, <a href='#Page_300'><b>300</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abbottábád; <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a>, <a href='#Page_303'><b>303</b></a>, <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Adamwahán railway bridge; <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>, <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Adína Beg; <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Administration, British; <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>-<a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">General; <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a>-<a href='#Page_221'><b>221</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Local; <a href='#Page_222'><b>222</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Afghán War; 1878-1880 <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Afrídís <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>, <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a>, <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Agriculture <a href='#Page_101'><b>101</b></a>, <a href='#Page_102'><b>102</b></a>, <a href='#Page_143'><b>143</b></a>, Tables II, III, IV</span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Agriculturists, Legislation to protect; <a href='#Page_102'><b>102</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Agror; <a href='#Page_303'><b>303</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ahírs; <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a>, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ahmad Sháh; <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a>, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aitchison, Sir Charles; <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Akazais; <a href='#Page_303'><b>303</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Akbar; <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ála Singh, Rája; <a href='#Page_273'><b>273</b></a>, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alá ud dín; <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alexander the Great; <a href='#Page_161'><b>161</b></a>-<a href='#Page_162'><b>162</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alexandra railway bridge; <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ali Masjid; <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alptagin; <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Altamsh; <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alum; <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amb; <a href='#Page_303'><b>303</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ambála division; <a href='#Page_225'><b>225</b></a>-<a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">district; <a href='#Page_233'><b>233</b></a>-<a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town and cantonment; <a href='#Page_347'><b>347</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ambela; <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a>, <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>, <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amritsar district; <a href='#Page_249'><b>249</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>, <a href='#Page_339'><b>339</b></a>, <a href='#Page_340'><b>340</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anandpál Rája; <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arains; <a href='#Page_242'><b>242</b></a>, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>, <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aravallís; <a href='#Page_50'><b>50</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Archaeology; <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a>-<a href='#Page_208'><b>208</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Areas; <a href='#Page_2'><b>2</b></a>-<a href='#Page_3'><b>3</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arjan Guru; <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aroras; <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aşoka; <a href='#Page_162'><b>162</b></a>, <a href='#Page_163'><b>163</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Attock, Fort; <a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a>, <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a>, <a href='#Page_350'><b>350</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Attock district; <a href='#Page_257'><b>257</b></a>, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aurangzeb; <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a>, <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Awáns; <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a>, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a>-<a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a>, <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>-<a href='#Page_300'><b>300</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bábar; <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a>, <a href='#Page_273'><b>273</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bábusar pass; <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Baháwalpur State; <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a>-<a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_353'><b>353</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bajaur; <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Balban; <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bánda; <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Banias; <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bannu district; <a href='#Page_295'><b>295</b></a>, <a href='#Page_296'><b>296</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bár; <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bára river; <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a>, <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Báralácha pass; <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>, <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Báramúla; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>, <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bárí Doáb Canal, Upper; <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a>, <a href='#Page_249'><b>249</b></a>, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lower; <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Barnála; <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a>, <a href='#Page_353'><b>353</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bashahr State; <a href='#Page_287'><b>287</b></a>-<a href='#Page_290'><b>290</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Báspa river; <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a>, <a href='#Page_289'><b>289</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bazár valley; <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bein torrent; <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bhakkar; <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bhittannís; <a href='#Page_294'><b>294</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bhupindar Singh, Mahárája of Patiála; <a href='#Page_275'><b>275</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bhure Singh, Rája of Chamba; <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Biás river; <a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a>-<a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>, <a href='#Page_162'><b>162</b></a>, <a href='#Page_237'><b>237</b></a>, <a href='#Page_249'><b>249</b></a>, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">railway bridge; <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Biláspur State; <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Biloches; <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a>, <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a>, <a href='#Page_269'><b>269</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Birmal; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Black buck; <a href='#Page_94'><b>94</b></a>, <a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Black Mountain Expedition; <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boltoro glacier; <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Borax; <a href='#Page_60'><b>60</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boundaries; <a href='#Page_3'><b>3</b></a>-<a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brahmans; <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a>, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>, <a href='#Page_240'><b>240</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brijindar Singh, Rája of Farídkot; <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buddhism; <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a>, <a href='#Page_115'><b>115</b></a>, <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>, <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a>, <a href='#Page_289'><b>289</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bunhár torrent; <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Burzil pass; <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Canals; <a href='#Page_132'><b>132</b></a>-<a href='#Page_141'><b>141</b></a>, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carving in wood and ivory; <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Castes; <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chagarzais; <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chail; <a href='#Page_29'><b>29</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chakdarra; <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>, <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a>, <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chakkí torrent; <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chamba State; <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>, <a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_201'><b>201</b></a>, <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chamberlain, Sir Neville; <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chamkannís; <a href='#Page_310'><b>310</b></a>, <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chandrabhága river; <a href='#Page_2'><b>2</b></a>, <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">(see also Chenáb)</span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chandra Gupta; <a href='#Page_162'><b>162</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chatar Singh, Sardar; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>-<a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chenáb river; <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>, <a href='#Page_247'><b>247</b></a>, <a href='#Page_249'><b>249</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>, <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>, <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a>, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cherát; <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a>, <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chilás; <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a>, <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a>, <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chilianwála; <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>, <a href='#Page_351'><b>351</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chingiz Khán; <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chíní; <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a>, <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a>, <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chitrál; <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>, <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a>, <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a>, <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chitrál and Dír levies; <a href='#Page_313'><b>313</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cholera; <a href='#Page_101'><b>101</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chor mountain; <a href='#Page_285'><b>285</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chos; <a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Christians; <a href='#Page_119'><b>119</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chund Bharwána railway bridge; <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Climate; <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a>-<a href='#Page_70'><b>70</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coal; <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coins <a href='#Page_208'><b>208</b></a>-<a href='#Page_211'><b>211</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colleges; <a href='#Page_125'><b>125</b></a>, <a href='#Page_126'><b>126</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colonization of Canal lands; <a href='#Page_136'><b>136</b></a>, <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a>, <a href='#Page_140'><b>140</b></a>, <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Co-operative Credit Societies; <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>, <a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Crops; <a href='#Page_146'><b>146</b></a>-<a href='#Page_150'><b>150</b></a>, Tables III-IV</span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cultivation; <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a>-<a href='#Page_150'><b>150</b></a>, Tables II-III</span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dalhousie, Lord; <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dalhousie hill station; <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a>, <a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a>, <a href='#Page_350'><b>350</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dalíp Singh, Mahárája; <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dandot; <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dane, Sir Louis; <a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Darbár 1877; <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a>-<a href='#Page_333'><b>333</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">1903; <a href='#Page_333'><b>333</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Coronation 1911; <a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a>, <a href='#Page_333'><b>333</b></a>, <a href='#Page_334'><b>334</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dards; <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a>, <a href='#Page_108'><b>108</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Darius; <a href='#Page_161'><b>161</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Darwesh Khel; <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Daulat Ráo Sindhia; <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Daur valley; <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Davies, Sir Henry; <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Deane, Sir Harold; <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Degh torrent; <a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a>, <a href='#Page_247'><b>247</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Delhi; <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>, <a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a>, <a href='#Page_205'><b>205</b></a>-<a href='#Page_208'><b>208</b></a>, <a href='#Page_224'><b>224</b></a>, <a href='#Page_225'><b>225</b></a>, <a href='#Page_325'><b>325</b></a>-<a href='#Page_334'><b>334</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Delhi-Ambála-Kalka Railway; <a href='#Page_130'><b>130</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Deodár; <a href='#Page_80'><b>80</b></a>, <a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a>, <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a>, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dera Gopípur; <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dera Gházi Khán district; <a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a>-<a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dera Ismail Khán district; <a href='#Page_294'><b>294</b></a>, <a href='#Page_295'><b>295</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town and cantonment; <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dharmsála; <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a>, <a href='#Page_238'><b>238</b></a>, <a href='#Page_348'><b>348</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dhauladhár; <a href='#Page_16'><b>16</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dhúnds; <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dír; <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>-<a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Domel; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dorah pass; <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dor river; <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>, <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dost Muhammad, Amír; <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Drishaks; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dujána State; <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dungagalí; <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Durand, Colonel; <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Durand, Sir Henry; <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Durand Line; <a href='#Page_4'><b>4</b></a>, <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>, <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a>, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a>, <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Earthquake of 1905; <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Education; <a href='#Page_119'><b>119</b></a>, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a>-<a href='#Page_126'><b>126</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Edwardes, Sir Herbert; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Edwardesábád; <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egerton, Sir Robert; <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ekbhai mountain; <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ethnology; <a href='#Page_109'><b>109</b></a>, <a href='#Page_110'><b>110</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Expenditure, Provincial; <a href='#Page_219'><b>219</b></a>-<a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a>, Table V</span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Exports and Imports; <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Factories; <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a>, <a href='#Page_157'><b>157</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Famines; <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Farídkot State; <a href='#Page_244'><b>244</b></a>, <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fateh Singh, Sardár of Kapúrthala; <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fauna; <a href='#Page_90'><b>90</b></a>-<a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ferozepore district; <a href='#Page_243'><b>243</b></a>-<a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">railway bridge; <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town and cantonment; <a href='#Page_349'><b>349</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ferozesháh, battle of; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>, <a href='#Page_244'><b>244</b></a>, <a href='#Page_349'><b>349</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fever, mortality from; <a href='#Page_100'><b>100</b></a>, <a href='#Page_101'><b>101</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Finance; <a href='#Page_219'><b>219</b></a>-<a href='#Page_222'><b>222</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fitzpatrick, Sir Dennis; <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flora; <a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a>-<a href='#Page_85'><b>85</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fluctuating assessments; <a href='#Page_221'><b>221</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Forests; <a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a>-<a href='#Page_89'><b>89</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fort Lockhart; <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fort Munro; <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a>, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fossils; <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a>, <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a>-<a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fotulá; <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gaddís; <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gajpat Singh, Sardár of Jind; <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Game; <a href='#Page_91'><b>91</b></a>-<a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gandamak, treaty of; <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gandgarh hills; <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ghagar torrent; <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>, <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a>, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a>, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a>, <a href='#Page_233'><b>233</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ghaibana Sir; <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ghakkhars; <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>, <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a>, <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a>, <a href='#Page_300'><b>300</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ghaznevide raids; <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Giandári hill; <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gilgit; <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>, <a href='#Page_321'><b>321</b></a>, <a href='#Page_323'><b>323</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Girí river; <a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a>, <a href='#Page_285'><b>285</b></a>, <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gírths; <a href='#Page_240'><b>240</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Godwin Austen Mt; <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gold; <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a>, <a href='#Page_322'><b>322</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gomal pass; <a href='#Page_25'><b>25</b></a>, <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gough, Lord; <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Govind Singh, Guru; <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a>, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Granth Sáhib; <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grey Inundation Canals; <a href='#Page_244'><b>244</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gújars; <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a>, <a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a>, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>, <a href='#Page_300'><b>300</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gujránwála district; <a href='#Page_249'><b>249</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_350'><b>350</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gujrát battle; <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">district; <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_351'><b>351</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guláb Singh, Rája; <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a>, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>, <a href='#Page_219'><b>219</b></a>, <a href='#Page_314'><b>314</b></a>, <a href='#Page_323'><b>323</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gulmarg; <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gupta Empire; <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gurais; <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gurchánís; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gurdáspur district; <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>, <a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gurgáon district; <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a>, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gurkhas; <a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a>, <a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a>, <a href='#Page_289'><b>289</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gurus, Sikh; <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>-<a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hakra river; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Handicrafts; <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a>-<a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hangu; <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Haramukh mountain; <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Haríke ferry; <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hari Singh Nalwa, Sardár; <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Haro river; <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a>, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a>, <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>, <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a>, <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Harvests; <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hasanzais; <a href='#Page_303'><b>303</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hattu mountains; <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hazára district; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>, <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a>-<a href='#Page_303'><b>303</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Himálaya; <a href='#Page_8'><b>8</b></a>-<a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a>, <a href='#Page_67'><b>67</b></a>, <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hindkís; <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hindu Kush; <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a>, <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>, <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hindur; <a href='#Page_287'><b>287</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hindus and Hinduism; <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a>-<a href='#Page_118'><b>118</b></a>, <a href='#Page_119'><b>119</b></a>, <a href='#Page_120'><b>120</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Híra Singh Sir, Rája of Nadha; <a href='#Page_278'><b>278</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hissár district; <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a>-<a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_347'><b>347</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">History; <a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a>-<a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hiuen Tsang; <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hoshyárpur district; <a href='#Page_240'><b>240</b></a>, <a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a>, <a href='#Page_278'><b>278</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Humáyun; <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hunza town; <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hunza and Nagar; <a href='#Page_323'><b>323</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hunza-Nagar levies; <a href='#Page_313'><b>313</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">war; <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a>, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ibbetson, Sir Denzil; <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>, <a href='#Page_198'><b>198</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Imperial Service troops; <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a>, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a>, <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a>, <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Income and Expenditure; <a href='#Page_219'><b>219</b></a>, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a>, Table V</span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indus river; <a href='#Page_34'><b>34</b></a>-<a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>, <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a>, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a>, <a href='#Page_281'><b>281</b></a>, <a href='#Page_296'><b>296</b></a>, <a href='#Page_300'><b>300</b></a>, <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inundation Canals; <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Islámábád; <a href='#Page_358'><b>358</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jagatjít Singh, Mahárája of Kapúrthala; <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jahángír; <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>, <a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a>, <a href='#Page_208'><b>208</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jains; <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jalandhar district; <a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a>, <a href='#Page_242'><b>242</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town and cantonment; <a href='#Page_349'><b>349</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jalandhara kingdom; <a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jálkot; <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jammu State; <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a>, <a href='#Page_314'><b>314</b></a>-<a href='#Page_317'><b>317</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_358'><b>358</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jamna river; <a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a>, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jamna Western Canal; <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a>, <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jamrúd; <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Janjúas; <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jassa Singh, Ahluwáha Sardár; <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jats; <a href='#Page_103'><b>103</b></a>, <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a>, <a href='#Page_234'><b>234</b></a>, <a href='#Page_240'><b>240</b></a>, <a href='#Page_242'><b>242</b></a>, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a>, <a href='#Page_249'><b>249</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jhang district; <a href='#Page_265'><b>265</b></a>, <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jhelam Canal, Lower; <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a>, <a href='#Page_137'><b>137</b></a>, <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>, <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>, <a href='#Page_265'><b>265</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Upper; <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jhelam district; <a href='#Page_253'><b>253</b></a>, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">river; <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>, <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>, <a href='#Page_253'><b>253</b></a>, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a>, <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>, <a href='#Page_265'><b>265</b></a>, <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town and cantonment; <a href='#Page_351'><b>351</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jind; <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a>, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a>, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Joint Stock Companies; <a href='#Page_157'><b>157</b></a>, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jowákis; <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a>, <a href='#Page_310'><b>310</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jubbal State; <a href='#Page_287'><b>287</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kabul; <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a>, <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">river; <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>, <a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a>, <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">canal; <a href='#Page_140'><b>140</b></a>, <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Káfiristan range; <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kágan; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>, <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kahá torrent; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kaisargarh mountain; <a href='#Page_26'><b>26</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kálabágh; <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a>, <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>, <a href='#Page_295'><b>295</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kálachitta range; <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kalsia State; <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kamália; <a href='#Page_353'><b>353</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kambohs; <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kángra district; <a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a>-<a href='#Page_240'><b>240</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town and fort; <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a>, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a>, <a href='#Page_349'><b>349</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kanjútís; <a href='#Page_108'><b>108</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kankar; <a href='#Page_60'><b>60</b></a>, <a href='#Page_127'><b>127</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kaoshan pass; <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kapúrthala State; <a href='#Page_278'><b>278</b></a>, <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Karakoram; <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a>, <a href='#Page_324'><b>324</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Karnál district; <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a>-<a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_348'><b>348</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kashmír, Early History; <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a>, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>, <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Forests; <a href='#Page_89'><b>89</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Population; <a href='#Page_99'><b>99</b></a>, <a href='#Page_100'><b>100</b></a>, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>, <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Territories; <a href='#Page_2'><b>2</b></a>, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>, <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a>, <a href='#Page_16'><b>16</b></a>, <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a>, <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a>, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a>, <a href='#Page_314'><b>314</b></a>, <a href='#Page_324'><b>324</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kashmírí Pandits; <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kasránis; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Katás; <a href='#Page_201'><b>201</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Káthias; <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Keonthal State; <a href='#Page_287'><b>287</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Keppel, Sir George Roos; <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khaibar; <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>, <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rifles; <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a>, <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a>, <a href='#Page_313'><b>313</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khairímúrat hills; <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khánkí weir; <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>, <a href='#Page_310'><b>310</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khánwáh Canal; <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kharrals; <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khatrís; <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khattaks; <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a>, <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kheora Salt Mine; <a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a>, <a href='#Page_351'><b>351</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khojas; <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khosas; <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khost; <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khowar; <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khurmana river; <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Khushálgarh railway bridge; <a href='#Page_130'><b>130</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kila Drosh; <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a>, <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kirána hill; <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kishngangá river; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>, <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>, <a href='#Page_319'><b>319</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kohála; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>, <a href='#Page_257'><b>257</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kohát district; <a href='#Page_296'><b>296</b></a>-<a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">salt; <a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a>, <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a>, <a href='#Page_296'><b>296</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town and cantonment; <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kolahoi mountain; <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kúka rising; <a href='#Page_192'><b>192</b></a>, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kulu; <a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a>, <a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a>, <a href='#Page_237'><b>237</b></a>, <a href='#Page_238'><b>238</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kunar river; <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>, <a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a>, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kunáwar; <a href='#Page_289'><b>289</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kunhár <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>, <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kurram militia; <a href='#Page_313'><b>313</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">river; <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>, <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a>, <a href='#Page_295'><b>295</b></a>, <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">valley; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a>, <a href='#Page_296'><b>296</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ladákh; <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a>, <a href='#Page_65'><b>65</b></a>, <a href='#Page_109'><b>109</b></a>, <a href='#Page_112'><b>112</b></a>, <a href='#Page_319'><b>319</b></a>-<a href='#Page_321'><b>321</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Laghárís; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lahore city; <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>, <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>, <a href='#Page_334'><b>334</b></a>-<a href='#Page_339'><b>339</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">district; <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">division; <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">railway bridge; <a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lahul; <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a>, <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lake, Lord; <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Land Alienation Act, XIII of 1900; <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Land Revenue; <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a>, <a href='#Page_221'><b>221</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Landai river; <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Landí Kotal; <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Languages; <a href='#Page_110'><b>110</b></a>-<a href='#Page_113'><b>113</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lárjí; <a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lawrence Memorial School; <a href='#Page_234'><b>234</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lawrence, Sir Henry; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sir John; <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>-<a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Legislative Council; <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leh; <a href='#Page_35'><b>35</b></a>, <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a>, <a href='#Page_65'><b>65</b></a>, <a href='#Page_358'><b>358</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leprosy; <a href='#Page_101'><b>101</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Liddar valley; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lieutenant Governors; <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>-<a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Local Self Government; <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>, <a href='#Page_217'><b>217</b></a>, <a href='#Page_218'><b>218</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lohárs; <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Loháru State; <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Loláb valley; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lowárí pass; <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a>, <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lower Bárí Doáb Canal; <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chenáb Canal; <a href='#Page_136'><b>136</b></a>, <a href='#Page_137'><b>137</b></a>, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>, <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a>, <a href='#Page_265'><b>265</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jhelam Canal; <a href='#Page_137'><b>137</b></a>, <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>, <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Swát Canal; <a href='#Page_140'><b>140</b></a>, <a href='#Page_141'><b>141</b></a>, <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ludhiána district; <a href='#Page_242'><b>242</b></a>, <a href='#Page_243'><b>243</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_153'><b>153</b></a>, <a href='#Page_349'><b>349</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lulusar lake; <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lunds; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lurí bridge; <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lyall, Sir James; <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lyallpur district; <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a>, <a href='#Page_264'><b>264</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_353'><b>353</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Macleod, Sir Donald; <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mahaban mountain; <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mahirakula; <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mahmúd of Ghazní; <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mahsud Wazírs; <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>, <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Malakand pass; <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>, <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>, <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a>, <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Malerkotla State; <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Máli ká parvat; <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Malka; <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mallagorís; <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a>, <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mamdot; <a href='#Page_244'><b>244</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mamunds; <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Manálí; <a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a>, <a href='#Page_237'><b>237</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mandí State; <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a>, <a href='#Page_284'><b>284</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mangal; <a href='#Page_287'><b>287</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mansehra; <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mardán; <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a>, <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Márkanda torrent; <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mártand temple; <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>, <a href='#Page_358'><b>358</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marwats; <a href='#Page_296'><b>296</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mazárís; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mazhbís; <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Meghs; <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Menander; <a href='#Page_163'><b>163</b></a>, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mendicants; <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Meos; <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Metals; <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mianwálí district; <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a>-<a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Miram Sháh; <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Miranzai; <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Moghal Empire; <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a>-<a href='#Page_180'><b>180</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mohmands; <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a>, <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mongol invasions; <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Montgomery, Sir Robert; <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Montgomery district; <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_353'><b>353</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mudkí battle field; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>, <a href='#Page_282'><b>282</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Muhammad Ghorí; <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Muhammad Tughlak; <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a>, <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Muhammadan Architecture; <a href='#Page_204'><b>204</b></a>-<a href='#Page_208'><b>208</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Muhammadan States; <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a>-<a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Muhammadans; <a href='#Page_118'><b>118</b></a>, <a href='#Page_119'><b>119</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>, <a href='#Page_291'><b>291</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Muín ul Mulk; <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mulráj, Diwán; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>-<a href='#Page_282'><b>282</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Multán district; <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a>, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">division; <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Multán city; <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a>, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a>, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>, <a href='#Page_340'><b>340</b></a>, <a href='#Page_341'><b>341</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">district; <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a>-<a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">division; <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Municipalities; <a href='#Page_217'><b>217</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Murree; <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a>, <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a>, <a href='#Page_303'><b>303</b></a>, <a href='#Page_351'><b>351</b></a>, <a href='#Page_352'><b>352</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Musa ká Musalla mountain; <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Musallís; <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mutiny of 1857; <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Muzaffargarh district; <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a>, <a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nabha State; <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a>, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a>, <a href='#Page_278'><b>278</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nádir Sháh; <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Náhan State; <a href='#Page_285'><b>285</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nálagarh State; <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nanga parvat (mountain); <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Naráina, battlefield of; <a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nardak; <a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nathiagalí; <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Naushahra; <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a>, <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">North West Frontier Province; <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a>, <a href='#Page_291'><b>291</b></a>-<a href='#Page_313'><b>313</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">North Western Railway; <a href='#Page_120'><b>120</b></a>-<a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nun and Kun peaks; <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>, <a href='#Page_324'><b>324</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Occupations; <a href='#Page_101'><b>101</b></a>, <a href='#Page_102'><b>102</b></a>, <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a>-<a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">O'Dwyer, Sir Michael; <a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ohind; <a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Orakzais; <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>, <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a>, <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a>-<a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Otu weir; <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pabar river; <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pabbí hills; <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pahárpur canal; <a href='#Page_292'><b>292</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paiwar Kotal; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pakhlí plain; <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pákpattan; <a href='#Page_353'><b>353</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Palosí; <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pángí; <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a>, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Panipat; <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a>, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a>, <a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a>, <a href='#Page_348'><b>348</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Panjkora river; <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a>, <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a>, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Panjnad river; <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>,</span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parachas; <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parachinár; <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a>, <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pataudí State; <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Patháns; <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a>, <a href='#Page_294'><b>294</b></a>, <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>, <a href='#Page_300'><b>300</b></a>, <a href='#Page_304'><b>304</b></a>, <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Patiála State; <a href='#Page_180'><b>180</b></a>, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a>-<a href='#Page_274'><b>274</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town; <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pattan Munára; <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Payech, see Payer</span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Payer; <a href='#Page_201'><b>201</b></a>, <a href='#Page_358'><b>358</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pesháwar city; <a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a>, <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a>, <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a>, <a href='#Page_341'><b>341</b></a>, <a href='#Page_342'><b>342</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">district; <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a>, <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Petroleum; <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phillaur; <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>, <a href='#Page_243'><b>243</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phulkian States; <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a>-<a href='#Page_278'><b>278</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pihowa; <a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a>, <a href='#Page_348'><b>348</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pírghal mountain; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pití, <i>See</i> Spití</span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Plague; <a href='#Page_97'><b>97</b></a>-<a href='#Page_99'><b>99</b></a>, <a href='#Page_100'><b>100</b></a>, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Population; <a href='#Page_96'><b>96</b></a>-<a href='#Page_113'><b>113</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pottery; <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a>, <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Powindahs; <a href='#Page_25'><b>25</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pressure, barometric; <a href='#Page_65'><b>65</b></a>-<a href='#Page_67'><b>67</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Punch; <a href='#Page_358'><b>358</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Railways; <a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a>-<a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rájput Hill Chiefs (Simla); <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rájputs; <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a>, <a href='#Page_240'><b>240</b></a>, <a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a>, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a>, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a>, <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Raldang mountain; <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rámpur ;<a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>, <a href='#Page_289'><b>289</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ranbir Singh, Mahárája of Jínd; <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ranjít Singh, Mahárája; <a href='#Page_181'><b>181</b></a>-<a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ráví river; <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>-<a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a>, <a href='#Page_247'><b>247</b></a>, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>, <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a>, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a>, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ráwalpindi cantonment and town; <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a>, <a href='#Page_352'><b>352</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">district; <a href='#Page_255'><b>255</b></a>-<a href='#Page_257'><b>257</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">division; <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Religions, Kashmír; <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">N. W. F. Province; <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Panjáb; <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a>-<a href='#Page_117'><b>117</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ripon, Lord; <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ripudaman Singh, Mahárája of Nábha; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rivaz, Sir Charles <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rivers; <a href='#Page_32'><b>32</b></a>-<a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Road, Grand Trunk; <a href='#Page_127'><b>127</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roads; <a href='#Page_127'><b>127</b></a>, <a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rogí cliffs; <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rohtak district; <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a>, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roos-Keppel, Sir George; <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rotang pass; <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a>, <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rúpar; <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>, <a href='#Page_348'><b>348</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sabaktagin; <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a>, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sádik Muhammad Khán, Nawáb of Baháwalpur; <a href='#Page_281'><b>281</b></a>, <a href='#Page_282'><b>282</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sad Istragh mountains; <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Safarmulk lake; <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Safed Koh range; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a>, <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saiyyids; <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_304'><b>304</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sakesar; <a href='#Page_29'><b>29</b></a>, <a href='#Page_352'><b>352</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sakkí stream; <a href='#Page_250'><b>250</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salt; <a href='#Page_57'><b>57</b></a>, <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salt Range ;<a href='#Page_29'><b>29</b></a>, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>, <a href='#Page_253'><b>253</b></a>, <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a>, <a href='#Page_257'><b>257</b></a>, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Geology of; <a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a>-<a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Flora of; <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a>, <a href='#Page_77'><b>77</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Samána range; <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rifles; <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a>, <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sam Ránízai; <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sangrúr; <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a>, <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sansár Chand, Rája; <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sapphires; <a href='#Page_60'><b>60</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saráj; <a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a>, <a href='#Page_237'><b>237</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sarusti torrent; <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>, <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a>, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a>, <a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">canal; <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sasserlá; <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sattís; <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sháh Álam, Emperor; <a href='#Page_181'><b>181</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sháhjahán; <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sháh Shuja; <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sháhpur district; <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a>-<a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shawal; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shekhbudín; <a href='#Page_31'><b>31</b></a>, <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shekhs; <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sher Khán; <a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sher Singh Mahárája; <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shigrí glacier; <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shipkí pass; <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shooting; <a href='#Page_94'><b>94</b></a>, <a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shuidár mountain; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shyok river; <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sialkot district; <a href='#Page_247'><b>247</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">town and cantonment; <a href='#Page_164'><b>164</b></a>, <a href='#Page_350'><b>350</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Siáls; <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sídhnai canal; <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a>, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sikandar Lodí; <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sikarám mountain; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sikh Jats; <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a>, <a href='#Page_250'><b>250</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a>, <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">wars; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">religion; <a href='#Page_117'><b>117</b></a>, <a href='#Page_118'><b>118</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sil torrent; <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Simla district; <a href='#Page_254'><b>254</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">hill station; <a href='#Page_67'><b>67</b></a>, <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a>, <a href='#Page_342'><b>342</b></a>-<a href='#Page_344'><b>344</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hill States; <a href='#Page_287'><b>287</b></a>-<a href='#Page_290'><b>290</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sind valley; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sirhind canal; <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a>, <a href='#Page_136'><b>136</b></a>, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a>, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a>, <a href='#Page_275'><b>275</b></a>, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a>, <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sirhind, town; <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a>, <a href='#Page_180'><b>180</b></a>, <a href='#Page_354'><b>354</b></a>, <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sirmúr State; <a href='#Page_285'><b>285</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Siwaliks; <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a>, <a href='#Page_52'><b>52</b></a>, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Skárdo; <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a>, <a href='#Page_321'><b>321</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Smallpox; <a href='#Page_101'><b>101</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Soán torrent (Hoshyárpur); <a href='#Page_241'><b>241</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">(Ráwalpindí), <i>see</i> Sohán</span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sobráon, battle of; <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sohág Pára Canals; <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sohán torrent; <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a>, <a href='#Page_253'><b>253</b></a>, <a href='#Page_256'><b>256</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Southern Panjáb Railway; <a href='#Page_130'><b>130</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spití; <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a>, <a href='#Page_235'><b>235</b></a>, <a href='#Page_236'><b>236</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">river; <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>, <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stúpas; <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Súds; <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sulimán range; <a href='#Page_26'><b>26</b></a>, <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a>, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a>, <a href='#Page_290'><b>290</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sultánpur (Kulu); <a href='#Page_238'><b>238</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sultánpur (Kapúrthala); <a href='#Page_278'><b>278</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sunárs; <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Surindar Bikram Parkásh, late Rája of Sirmúr; <a href='#Page_285'><b>285</b></a>, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sutlej inundation canals; <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">river; <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>, <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>, <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a>, <a href='#Page_281'><b>281</b></a>, <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Takht i Sulimán mountain; <a href='#Page_26'><b>26</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">hill (Kashmír); <a href='#Page_318'><b>318</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tamerlane. <i>See</i> Timúr</span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tanáwal; <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a>, <a href='#Page_303'><b>303</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tanáwal hills; <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tarkanrís; <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tarkháns (carpenters); <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Terí; <a href='#Page_296'><b>296</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thakkars; <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thal desert; <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a>, <a href='#Page_259'><b>259</b></a>-<a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>, <a href='#Page_265'><b>265</b></a>, <a href='#Page_267'><b>267</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thal (Kohát); <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a>, <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a>, <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thandiáni; <a href='#Page_356'><b>356</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thanesar; <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a>, <a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a>, <a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a>, <a href='#Page_348'><b>348</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tilla hill; <a href='#Page_29'><b>29</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Timúr (Tamerlane); <a href='#Page_171'><b>171</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tirach Mir mountain; <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a>, <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tirah Campaign; <a href='#Page_176'><b>176</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tiwánas; <a href='#Page_260'><b>260</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tochí valley; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a>, <a href='#Page_296'><b>296</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tons, river; <a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Torrents, action of; <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a>, <a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trade; <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Traders; <a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a>, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tribal militias; <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Triple Canal Project; <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>, <a href='#Page_197'><b>197</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Túmans Biloch; <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Turís; <a href='#Page_311'><b>311</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uch; <a href='#Page_355'><b>355</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uchiri range; <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Udyána; <a href='#Page_304'><b>304</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ujh torrent; <a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Umra Khán; <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Unhár river; <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">University, Panjáb; <a href='#Page_125'><b>125</b></a>, <a href='#Page_126'><b>126</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Upper Bárí Doáb Canal; <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a>, <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>, <a href='#Page_247'><b>247</b></a>, <a href='#Page_249'><b>249</b></a>, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chenáb Canal; <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>, <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a>, <a href='#Page_249'><b>249</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jhelam Canal; <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>, <a href='#Page_139'><b>139</b></a>, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Swát Canal; <a href='#Page_141'><b>141</b></a>, <a href='#Page_298'><b>298</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Utman Khel; <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vaccination; <a href='#Page_101'><b>101</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wána; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a>, <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>, <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a>, <a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wattús; <a href='#Page_263'><b>263</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wazíristán; <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">hills; <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">militias; <a href='#Page_313'><b>313</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wazírs Darwesh Khel; <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Madsud; <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Weavers; <a href='#Page_102'><b>102</b></a>, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a>, <a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wellesley, Marquis of; <a href='#Page_182'><b>182</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arthur; <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wells; <a href='#Page_143'><b>143</b></a>, <a href='#Page_144'><b>144</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Western Jamna Canal; <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a>, <a href='#Page_227'><b>227</b></a>, <a href='#Page_232'><b>232</b></a>, <a href='#Page_273'><b>273</b></a>, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wular lake; <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yakúb Khán, Amir; <a href='#Page_194'><b>194</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yárkhun river; <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yasín river; <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Young, Sir Mackworth; <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yúsafzais; <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>, <a href='#Page_304'><b>304</b></a>, <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>, <a href='#Page_306'><b>306</b></a></span></li> + + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zaimukhts; <a href='#Page_310'><b>310</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zakaria Khán; <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zakha Khel; <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zamzama gun; <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zanskár; <a href='#Page_320'><b>320</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Himálaya; <a href='#Page_10'><b>10</b></a>, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a></span></li> +<li><span style="margin-left: 2em;">river; <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a></span></li> + +<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zojilá; <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a></span></li> +</ul> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> They are held to be of Turkish origin.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Raverty's "The Mehran of Sind and its Tributaries," in +<i>Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>, 1897.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Sand Buried Ruins Of Khotan</i>, pp. 14-15.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> See Sykes' <i>History of Persia</i>, pp. 179-180; also Herodotos +III. 94 and 98 and IV. 44.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> "The Indians clad with garments made of cotton had bows of +cane and arrows of cane tipped with iron."—Herodotos VII. 65.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> This gun, known to the readers of <i>Kim</i>, stands on the +Lahore Mall. Whoever possesses it is supposed to be ruler of the +Panjáb.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> See page <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Some estates lying to the east of the Jamna and belonging to the +United Provinces have recently been added to the enclave.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> H. = Hindu, M. = Muhammadan, S. = Sikh.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Not shown in map.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> See page <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> This leading tribe in the Panjáb is known as Ját in the Hindi-speaking +Eastern districts and as Jat elsewhere.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Ch.=Christian.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> There is a project for improving the water-supply of inundation +canals in the west of the district by building a weir across the Chenáb +below its junction with the Jhelam.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> J.=Jain.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> For recent history see page <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> See page <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>.</p></div> + + +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PANJAB, NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE, AND KASHMIR***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 24562-h.txt or 24562-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/5/6/24562">http://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/5/6/24562</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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