summaryrefslogtreecommitdiff
path: root/24562.txt
diff options
context:
space:
mode:
Diffstat (limited to '24562.txt')
-rw-r--r--24562.txt11072
1 files changed, 11072 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/24562.txt b/24562.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..028ee9e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/24562.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11072 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province, and
+Kashmir, by Sir James McCrone Douie
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir
+
+
+Author: Sir James McCrone Douie
+
+
+
+Release Date: February 10, 2008 [eBook #24562]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PANJAB, NORTH-WEST FRONTIER
+PROVINCE, AND KASHMIR***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Suzanne Lybarger, Asad Razzaki, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+ file which includes the original illustrations and maps.
+ See 24562-h.htm or 24562-h.zip:
+ (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/5/6/24562/24562-h/24562-h.htm)
+ or
+ (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/5/6/24562/24562-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+ Text enclosed between tilde characters was in bold face
+ in the original book (~this text is bold~).
+
+
+
+
+
+THE PANJAB, NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE AND KASHMIR
+
+by
+
+SIR JAMES DOUIE, M.A., K.C.S.I.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Seema Publications
+Seema Publications C-3/19, R. P. Bagh, Delhi-110007.
+First Indian Edition 1974
+
+Printed in India at Deluxe Offset Press, Daya Basti, Delhi-110035 and
+Published by Seema Publications, Delhi-110007.
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+In his opening chapter Sir James Douie refers to the fact that the area
+treated in this volume--just one quarter of a million square miles--is
+comparable to that of Austria-Hungary. The comparison might be extended;
+for on ethnographical, linguistic and physical grounds, the geographical
+unit now treated is just as homogeneous in composition as the Dual
+Monarchy. It is only in the political sense and by force of the ruling
+classes, temporarily united in one monarch, that the term
+_Osterreichisch_ could be used to include the Poles of Galicia, the
+Czechs of Bohemia and Moravia, the Szeklers, Saxons and more numerous
+Rumanians of Transylvania, the Croats, Slovenes and Italians of
+"Illyria," with the Magyars of the Hungarian plain.
+
+The term _Punjabi_ much more nearly, but still imperfectly, covers the
+people of the Panjab, the North-West Frontier Province, Kashmir and the
+associated smaller Native States. The Sikh, Muhammadan and Hindu Jats,
+the Kashmiris and the Rajputs all belong to the tall, fair, leptorrhine
+Indo-Aryan main stock of the area, merging on the west and south-west
+into the Biluch and Pathan Turko-Iranian, and fringed in the hill
+districts on the north with what have been described as products of the
+"contact metamorphism" with the Mongoloid tribes of Central Asia. Thus,
+in spite of the inevitable blurring of boundary lines, the political
+divisions treated together in this volume, form a fairly clean-cut
+geographical unit.
+
+Sir James Douie, in this work, is obviously living over again the happy
+thirty-five years which he devoted to the service of North-West India:
+his accounts of the physiography, the flora and fauna, the people and
+the administration are essentially the personal recollections of one who
+has first studied the details as a District Officer and has afterwards
+corrected his perspective, stage by stage, from the successively higher
+view-point of a Commissioner, the Chief Secretary, Financial
+Commissioner, and finally as Officiating Lieut.-Governor. No one could
+more appropriately undertake the task of an accurate and
+well-proportioned thumb-nail sketch of North-West India and, what is
+equally important to the earnest reader, no author could more obviously
+delight in his subject.
+
+ T. H. H.
+
+ ALDERLEY EDGE,
+
+ _March 9th, 1916._
+
+
+
+
+NOTE BY AUTHOR
+
+
+My thanks are due to the Government of India for permission to use
+illustrations contained in official publications. Except where otherwise
+stated the numerous maps included in the volume are derived from this
+source. My obligations to provincial and district gazetteers have been
+endless. Sir Thomas Holdich kindly allowed me to reproduce some of the
+charts in his excellent book on _India_. The accuracy of the sections on
+geology and coins may be relied on, as they were written by masters of
+these subjects, Sir Thomas Holland and Mr R. B. Whitehead, I.C.S.
+Chapter XVII could not have been written at all without the help
+afforded by Mr Vincent Smith's _Early History of India_. I have
+acknowledged my debts to other friends in the "List of Illustrations."
+
+ J. M. D.
+
+ _8 May 1916._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+ CHAP. PAGE
+
+ I. Areas and Boundaries 1
+
+ II. Mountains, Hills, and Plains 8
+
+ III. Rivers 32
+
+ IV. Geology and Mineral Resources 50
+
+ V. Climate 64
+
+ VI. Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees 71
+
+ VII. Forests 86
+
+ VIII. Beasts, Birds, Fishes, and Insects 90
+
+ IX. The People: Numbers, Races, and Languages 96
+
+ X. The People: Religions 114
+
+ XI. The People: Education 122
+
+ XII. Roads and Railways 127
+
+ XIII. Canals 132
+
+ XIV. Agriculture and Crops 142
+
+ XV. Handicrafts and Manufactures 152
+
+ XVI. Exports and Imports 159
+
+ XVII. History: Pre-Muhammadan Period, 500 B.C.-1000 A.D. 160
+
+ XVIII. History: Muhammadan Period, 1000 A.D.-1764 A.D. 168
+
+ XIX. History: Sikh Period, 1764 A.D.-1849 A.D. 181
+
+ XX. History: British Period, 1849 A.D.-1913 A.D. 188
+
+ XXI. Archaeology and Coins 200
+
+ XXII. Administration: General 212
+
+ XXIII. Administration: Local 217
+
+ XXIV. Revenue and Expenditure 219
+
+ XXV. Panjab Districts and Delhi 224
+
+ XXVI. The Panjab Native States 271
+
+ XXVII. The North-west Frontier Province 291
+
+ XXVIII. Kashmir and Jammu 314
+
+ XXIX. Cities 325
+
+ XXX. Other Places of Note 347
+
+
+ TABLES
+
+ I. Tribes of Panjab including Native States and of
+ N.W.F. Province 359
+
+ II. Rainfall, Cultivation, Population, and Land
+ Revenue 360
+
+ III. Agricultural Diagrams 362
+
+ IV. Crops 364
+
+ V. Revenue and Expenditure of Panjab 366
+
+
+ Index 367
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+ FIG. PAGE
+
+ 1. Arms of Panjab 1
+
+ 2. Orographical Map (Holdich's _India_) 9
+
+ 3. Nanga Parvat (Watson's _Gazetteer of Hazara_) 11
+
+ 4. Burzil Pass (Sir Aurel Stein) 13
+
+ 5. Rotang Pass (J. Coldstream) 15
+
+ 6. Mt Haramukh (Sir Aurel Stein) 16
+
+ 7. R. Jhelam in Kashmir--View towards Mohand Marg
+ (Sir Aurel Stein) 18
+
+ 8. Near Naran in Kagan Glen, Hazara (Watson's
+ _Gazetteer of Hazara_) 19
+
+ 9. Muztagh-Karakoram and Himalayan Ranges in
+ Kashmir (Holdich's _India_) 21
+
+ 10. The Khaibar Road (Holdich's _India_) 23
+
+ 11. Panjab Rivers (Holdich's _India_) 33
+
+ 12. The Indus at Attock (Sir Aurel Stein) 37
+
+ 13. Indus at Kafirkot, D.I. Khan dt. (Sir Aurel Stein) 38
+
+ 14. Fording the River at Lahore (E. B. Francis) 42
+
+ 15. Bias at Manali (J. Coldstream) 44
+
+ 16. Rainfall of different Seasons (Blanford) 62, 63
+
+ 17. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for January
+ (Blanford) 65
+
+ 18. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for July
+ (Blanford) 66
+
+ 19. Banian or Bor trees (Sir Aurel Stein) 75
+
+ 20. Deodars and Hill Temple (J. Coldstream) 80
+
+ 21. Firs in Himalaya (J. Coldstream) 82
+
+ 22. Chinars (Sir Aurel Stein) 83
+
+ 23. Rhododendron campanulatum (J. Coldstream) 84
+
+ 24. Big Game in Ladakh 92
+
+ 25. Yaks (J. Coldstream) 93
+
+ 26. Black Buck 95
+
+ 27. Map showing density of population (_Panjab Census
+ Report_, 1911) 97
+
+ 28. Map showing increase and decrease of population
+ (_Panjab Census Report_, 1911) 98
+
+ 29. Map showing density of population in N.W.F.
+ Province (_N.W. Provinces Census Report_, 1911) 99
+
+ 30. Map showing density of population in Kashmir
+ (_Kashmir Census Report_, 1911) 100
+
+ 31. Jat Sikh Officers (Nand Ram) 103
+
+ 32. Blind Beggar (E. B. Francis) 107
+
+ 33. Dards (Sir Aurel Stein) 108
+
+ 34. Map showing races (from _The People of India_,
+ by Sir Herbert Risley. With permission of
+ W. Thacker and Co., London) 109
+
+ 35. Map showing distribution of languages (_Panjab
+ Census Report_, 1911) 111
+
+ 36. Map showing distribution of religions (_Panjab
+ Census Report_, 1911) 115
+
+ 37. Raghunath Temple, Jammu 116
+
+ 38. Golden Temple, Amritsar (Mrs B. Roe) 117
+
+ 39. Mosque in Lahore City (E. B. Francis) 118
+
+ 40. God and Goddess, Chamba (H.H. the Raja of
+ Chamba) 120
+
+ 41. A Kulu godling and his attendants (J. Coldstream) 121
+
+ 42. A School in the time preceding annexation 124
+
+ 43. Poplar lined road to Srinagar (Miss M. B. Douie) 128
+
+ 44. Map showing railways 129
+
+ 45. Map--Older Canals 134
+
+ 46. Map--Canals 137
+
+ 47. Map of Canals of Peshawar district 141
+
+ 48. Persian Wheel Well and Ekka (Sir Aurel Stein) 143
+
+ 49. A drove of goats--Lahore (E. B. Francis) 144
+
+ 50. A steep bit of hill cultivation, Hazara (Watson's
+ _Gazetteer of Hazara_) 146
+
+ 51. Preparing rice field in the Hills (J. Coldstream) 147
+
+ 52. Carved doorway (Sir Aurel Stein) 151
+
+ 53. Shoemaker's craft (Baden Powell _Panjab Manufactures_) 153
+
+ 54. Carved windows (Sir Aurel Stein) 155
+
+ 55. Papier mache work of Kashmir (Baden Powell
+ _Panjab Manufactures_) 156
+
+ 56. The Potter 157
+
+ 57. Coin--obverse and reverse of Menander 163
+
+ 58. Martand Temple (Miss Griffiths) 166
+
+ 59. Baba Nanak and the Musician Mardana 174
+
+ 60. Guru Govind Singh 176
+
+ 61. Maharaja Ranjit Singh 182
+
+ 62. Maharaja Kharak Singh 185
+
+ 63. Nao Nihal Singh 185
+
+ 64. Maharaja Sher Singh 185
+
+ 65. Zamzama Gun (E. B. Francis) 187
+
+ 66. Sir John Lawrence (from picture in National Portrait
+ Gallery) 189
+
+ 67. John Nicholson's Monument at Delhi (Lady Douie) 190
+
+ 68. Sir Robert Montgomery 191
+
+ 69. Panjab Camels at Lahore (E. B. Francis) 193
+
+ 70. Sir Charles Aitchison (Bourne and Shepherd) 194
+
+ 71. Sir Denzil Ibbetson (Albert Jenkins) 198
+
+ 72. Sir Michael O'Dwyer (R. Ramlal Bhairulal and Son) 199
+
+ 73. Group of Chamba Temples (H.H. the Raja of Chamba) 201
+
+ 74. Payer Temple--Kashmir (Sir Aurel Stein) 202
+
+ 75. Reliquary (Government of India) 203
+
+ 76. Colonnade in Kuwwat ul Islam Mosque 204
+
+ 77. Kutb Minar (Miss M. B. Douie) 205
+
+ 78. Tomb of Emperor Tughlak Shah (Miss M. B. Douie) 206
+
+ 79. Jama Masjid, Delhi 207
+
+ 80. Tomb of Humayun (Miss M. B. Douie) 207
+
+ 81. Badshahi Mosque, Lahore (E. B. Francis) 208
+
+ 82. Coins 210
+
+ 83. Skeleton District Map of Panjab 223
+
+ 84. Delhi Enclave 225
+
+ 85. Hissar district with portions of the Phulkian States
+ etc. 226
+
+ 86. Rohtak district 228
+
+ 87. Gurgaon district 230
+
+ 88. Karnal district 231
+
+ 89. Ambala district with Kalsia 233
+
+ 90. Kangra district 235
+
+ 91. Bias at Manali (J. Coldstream) 237
+
+ 92. Religious Fair in Kulu (J. Coldstream) 238
+
+ 93. Kulu Women (J. Coldstream) 239
+
+ 94. Hoshyarpur district 240
+
+ 95. Jalandhar district and Kapurthala 242
+
+ 96. Ludhiana district and adjoining Native States 243
+
+ 97. Ferozepore district and Faridkot 244
+
+ 98. Gurdaspur district 246
+
+ 99. Sialkot district 247
+
+ 100. Gujranwala district 248
+
+ 101. Amritsar district 250
+
+ 102. Lahore district 251
+
+ 103. Gujrat district 252
+
+ 104. Jhelam district 254
+
+ 105. Rawalpindi district 255
+
+ 106. Shop in Murree Bazar (Lady Douie) 256
+
+ 107. Attock district 257
+
+ 108. Mianwali district 259
+
+ 109. Shahpur district 261
+
+ 110, Montgomery district 263
+
+ 111. Lyallpur district 264
+
+ 112. Jhang district 265
+
+ 113. Multan district 266
+
+ 114. Muzaffargarh district 268
+
+ 115. Dera Ghazi Khan district 269
+
+ 116. Maharaja of Patiala (C. Vandyk) 272
+
+ 117. Maharaja of Jind 277
+
+ 118. Maharaja Sir Hira Singh of Nabha (Bourne and
+ Shepherd) 278
+
+ 119. Maharaja of Kapurthala 279
+
+ 120. Raja of Faridkot (Julian Rust) 280
+
+ 121. Nawab of Bahawalpur 281
+
+ 122. Native States of Chamba, Mandi, Suket, Bilaspur 284
+
+ 123. Raja Surindar Bikram Parkash of Sirmur 285
+
+ 124. Raja of Chamba (F. Bremner) 287
+
+ 125. Bashahr (Sketch Map by H. W. Emerson) 289
+
+ 126. Sir Harold Deane (F. Bremner) 292
+
+ 127. North-west Frontier Province 293
+
+ 128. Dera Ismail Khan district 294
+
+ 129. Bannu district 295
+
+ 130. Kohat district 297
+
+ 131. Peshawar district 298
+
+ 132. Hazara district 300
+
+ 133. Sir George Roos Keppel (Maull and Fox) 303
+
+ 134. Tribal Territory north of Peshawar 304
+
+ 135. Tribal Territory to west of N.W.F. Province 308
+
+ 136. Khaibar Rifles 310
+
+ 137. North Waziristan Militia and Border Post 313
+
+ 138. Maharaja of Kashmir 315
+
+ 139. Jammu and Kashmir 316
+
+ 140. Takht i Suliman in Winter (Sir Aurel Stein) 318
+
+ 141. Ladakh Hills (Mrs Wynyard Brown) 320
+
+ 142. Zojila Pass (Mrs Wynyard Brown) 322
+
+ 143. Delhi Mutiny Monument 327
+
+ 144. Kashmir Gate, Delhi 328
+
+ 145. Map of Delhi City 329
+
+ 146. Darbar Medal 334
+
+ 147. Street in Lahore (E. B. Francis) 336
+
+ 148. Shahdara 338
+
+ 149. Trans-border traders in Peshawar 343
+
+ 150. Mosque of Shah Hamadan (F. Bremner) 345
+
+
+ Map of territories of Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir _at end of volume_
+ Map of Panjab _at end of volume_
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+AREAS AND BOUNDARIES
+
+
+~Introductory.~--Of the provinces of India the Panjab must always have a
+peculiar interest for Englishmen. Invasions by land from the west have
+perforce been launched across its great plains. The English were the
+first invaders who, possessing sea power, were able to outflank the
+mountain ranges which guard the north and west of India. Hence the
+Panjab was the last, and not the first, of their Indian conquests, and
+the courage and efficiency of the Sikh soldiery, even after the guiding
+hand of the old Maharaja Ranjit Singh was withdrawn, made it also one of
+the hardest. The success of the early administration of the province,
+which a few years after annexation made it possible to use its resources
+in fighting men to help in the task of putting down the mutiny, has
+always been a matter of just pride, while the less familiar story of the
+conquests of peace in the first sixty years of British rule may well
+arouse similar feelings.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Arms of Panjab.]
+
+~Scope of work.~--A geography of the Panjab will fitly embrace an account
+also of the North-West Frontier Province, which in 1901 was severed
+from it and formed into a separate administration, of the small area
+recently placed directly under the government of India on the transfer
+of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi, and of the native states in
+political dependence on the Panjab Government. It will also be
+convenient to include Kashmir and the tribal territory beyond the
+frontier of British India which is politically controlled from Peshawar.
+The whole tract covers ten degrees of latitude and eleven of longitude.
+The furthest point of the Kashmir frontier is in 37 deg. 2' N., which is
+much the same as the latitude of Syracuse. In the south-east the Panjab
+ends at 27 deg. 4' N., corresponding roughly to the position of the
+southernmost of the Canary Islands. Lines drawn west from Peshawar and
+Lahore would pass to the north of Beirut and Jerusalem respectively.
+Multan and Cairo are in the same latitude, and so are Delhi and
+Teneriffe. Kashmir stretches eastwards to longitude 80 deg. 3' and the
+westernmost part of Waziristan is in 69 deg. 2' E.
+
+~Distribution of Area.~--The area dealt with is roughly 253,000 square
+miles. This is but two-thirteenths of the area of the Indian Empire, and
+yet it is less by only 10,000 square miles than that of Austria-Hungary
+including Bosnia and Herzegovina. The area consists of:
+
+ sq. miles
+
+ (1) The Panjab 97,000
+ (2) Native States dependent on Panjab Government 36,500
+ (3) Kashmir 81,000
+ (4) North West Frontier Province 13,000
+ (5) Tribal territory under the political control of the Chief
+ Commissioner of North West Frontier Province, roughly 25,500
+
+Approximately 136,000 square miles may be classed as highlands and
+117,000 as plains, and these may be distributed as follows over the
+above divisions:
+
+ Highlands Plains
+ sq. miles sq. miles
+
+ (1) Panjab, British 11,000 86,000
+ (2) Panjab, Native States 12,000 24,500
+ (3) Kashmir 81,000 --
+ (4) North West Frontier Province 6,500 6,500
+ (5) Tribal Territory 25,500 --
+
+On the north the highlands include the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan
+(Siwalik) tracts to the south and east of the Indus, and north of that
+river the Muztagh-Karakoram range and the bleak salt plateau beyond that
+range reaching almost up to the Kuenlun mountains. To the west of the
+Indus they include those spurs of the Hindu Kush which run into Chitral
+and Dir, the Buner and Swat hills, the Safed Koh, the Waziristan hills,
+the Suliman range, and the low hills in the trans-Indus districts of the
+North West Frontier Province.
+
+~Boundary with China.~--There is a point to the north of Hunza in Kashmir
+where three great mountain chains, the Muztagh from the south-east, the
+Hindu Kush from the south-west, and the Sarikol (an offshoot of the
+Kuenlun) from the north-east, meet. It is also the meeting-place of the
+Indian, Chinese, and Russian empires and of Afghanistan. Westwards from
+this the boundary of Kashmir and Chinese Turkestan runs for 350 miles
+(omitting curves) through a desolate upland lying well to the north of
+the Muztagh-Karakoram range. Finally in the north-east corner of Kashmir
+the frontier impinges on the great Central Asian axis of the Kuenlun.
+From this point it turns southwards and separates Chinese Tibet from the
+salt Lingzi Thang plains and the Indus valley in Kashmir, and the
+eastern part of the native state of Bashahr, which physically form a
+portion of Tibet.
+
+~Boundary with United Provinces.~--The south-east corner of Bashahr is a
+little to the north of the great Kedarnath peak in the Central Himalaya
+and of the source of the Jamna. Here the frontier strikes to the west
+dividing Bashahr from Teri Garhwal, a native state under the control of
+the government of the United Provinces. Turning again to the south it
+runs to the junction of the Tons and Jamna, separating Teri Garhwal from
+Sirmur and some of the smaller Simla Hill States. Henceforth the Jamna
+is with small exceptions the boundary between the Panjab and the United
+Provinces.
+
+~Boundary with Afghanistan.~--We must now return to our starting-point at
+the eastern extremity of the Hindu Kush, and trace the boundary with
+Afghanistan. The frontier runs west and south-west along the Hindu Kush
+to the Dorah pass dividing Chitral from the Afghan province of Wakhan,
+and streams which drain into the Indus from the head waters of the Oxus.
+At the Dorah pass it turns sharply to the south, following a great spur
+which parts the valley of the Chitral river (British) from that of its
+Afghan affluent, the Bashgol. Below the junction of the two streams at
+Arnawai the Chitral changes its name and becomes the Kunar. Near this
+point the "Durand" line begins. In 1893 an agreement was made between
+the Amir Abdurrahman and Sir Mortimer Durand as representative of the
+British Government determining the frontier line from Chandak in the
+valley of the Kunar, twelve miles north of Asmar, to the Persian border.
+Asmar is an Afghan village on the left bank of the Kunar to the south of
+Arnawai. In 1894 the line was demarcated along the eastern watershed of
+the Kunar valley to Nawakotal on the confines of Bajaur and the country
+of the Mohmands.
+
+Thence the frontier, which has not been demarcated, passes through the
+heart of the Mohmand country to the Kabul river and beyond it to our
+frontier post in the Khaibar at Landikhana.
+
+From this point the line, still undemarcated, runs on in a
+south-westerly direction to the Safed Koh, and then strikes west along
+it to the Sikaram mountain near the Paiwar Kotal at the head of the
+Kurram valley. From Sikaram the frontier runs south and south-east
+crossing the upper waters of the Kurram, and dividing our possessions
+from the Afghan province of Khost. This line was demarcated in 1894.
+
+At the south of the Kurram valley the frontier sweeps round to the west
+leaving in the British sphere the valley of the Tochi. Turning again to
+the south it crosses the upper waters of the Tochi and passes round the
+back of Waziristan by the Shawal valley and the plains about Wana to
+Domandi on the Gomal river, where Afghanistan, Biluchistan, and the
+North West Frontier Province meet. The Waziristan boundary was
+demarcated in 1895.
+
+~Political and Administrative Boundaries.~--The boundary described above
+defines spheres of influence, and only in the Kurram valley does it
+coincide with that of the districts for whose orderly administration we
+hold ourselves responsible. All we ask of Wazirs, Afridis, or Mohmands
+is to leave our people at peace; we have no concern with their quarrels
+or blood feuds, so long as they abide in their mountains or only leave
+them for the sake of lawful gain. Our administrative boundary, which
+speaking broadly we took over from the Sikhs, usually runs at the foot
+of the hills. A glance at the map will show that between Peshawar and
+Kohat the territory of the independent tribes comes down almost to the
+Indus. At this point the hills occupied by the Jowaki section of the
+Afridi tribe push out a great tongue eastwards. Our military frontier
+road runs through these hills, and we actually pay the tribesmen of the
+Kohat pass for our right of way. Another tongue of tribal territory
+reaches right down to the Indus, and almost severs the Peshawar and
+Hazara districts. Further north the frontier of Hazara lies well to the
+east of the Indus.
+
+~Frontier with Biluchistan.~--At Domandi the frontier turns to the east,
+and following the Gomal river to its junction with the Zhob at Kajuri
+Kach forms the boundary of the two British administrations. Henceforth
+the general direction of the line is determined by the trend of the
+Suliman range. It runs south to the Vehoa pass, where the country of the
+Pathans of the North West Frontier Province ends and that of the Hill
+and Plain Biluches subject to the Panjab Government begins. From the
+Vehoa pass to the Kaha torrent the line is drawn so as to leave Biluch
+tribes with the Panjab and Pathan tribes with the Biluchistan Agency.
+South of the Kaha the division is between Biluch tribes, the Marris and
+Bugtis to the west being managed from Quetta, and the Gurchanis and
+Mazaris, who are largely settled in the plains, being included in Dera
+Ghazi Khan, the trans-Indus district of the Panjab. At the south-west
+corner of the Dera Ghazi Khan district the Panjab, Sind, and Biluchistan
+meet. From this point the short common boundary of the Panjab and Sind
+runs east to the Indus.
+
+~The Southern Boundary.~--East of the Indus the frontier runs south-east
+for about fifty miles parting Sind from the Bahawalpur State, till a
+point is reached where Sind, Rajputana, and Bahawalpur join. A little
+further to the east is the southern extremity of Bahawalpur at 70 deg. 8' E.
+and 27 deg. 5' N. From this point a line drawn due east would at a distance
+of 370 miles pass a few miles to the north of the south end of Gurgaon
+and a few miles to the south of the border of the Narnaul tract of
+Patiala. Between Narnaul and the south-east corner of the Bahawalpur
+State the great Rajputana desert, mainly occupied in this quarter by
+Bikaner, thrusts northwards a huge wedge reaching almost up to the
+Sutlej. To the west of the wedge is Bahawalpur and to the east the
+British district of Hissar. The apex is less than 100 miles from Lahore,
+while a line drawn due south from that city to latitude 27'5 deg. north
+would exceed 270 miles in length. The Jaipur State lies to the south and
+west of Narnaul, while Gurgaon has across its southern frontiers Alwar
+and Bharatpur, and near the Jamna the Muttra district of the United
+Provinces.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+MOUNTAINS, HILLS, AND PLAINS
+
+
+~The Great Northern Rampart.~--The huge mountain rampart which guards the
+northern frontier of India thrusts out in the north-west a great bastion
+whose outer walls are the Hindu Kush and the Muztagh-Karakoram ranges.
+Behind the latter with a general trend from south-east to north-west are
+the great valley of the Indus to the point near Gilgit where it turns
+sharply to the south, and a succession of mountain chains and glens
+making up the Himalayan tract, through which the five rivers of the
+Panjab and the Jamna find their way to the plains. To meet trans-Indus
+extensions of the Himalaya the Hindu Kush pushes out from its main axis
+great spurs to the south, flanking the valleys which drain into the
+Indus either directly or through the Kabul river.
+
+~The Himalaya.~--Tibet, which from the point of view of physical geography
+includes a large and little known area in the Kashmir State to the north
+of the Karakoram range, is a lofty, desolate, wind swept plateau with a
+mean elevation of about 15,000 feet. In the part of it situated to the
+north of the north-west corner of Nipal lies the Manasarowar lake, in
+the neighbourhood of which three great Indian rivers, the Tsanpo or
+Brahmaputra, the Sutlej, and the Indus, take their rise. The Indus flows
+to the north-west for 500 miles and then turns abruptly to the south to
+seek its distant home in the Indian Ocean. The Tsanpo has a still
+longer course of 800 miles eastwards before it too bends southwards to
+flow through Assam into the Bay of Bengal. Between the points where
+these two giant rivers change their direction there extends for a
+distance of 1500 miles the vast congeries of mountain ranges known
+collectively as the "Himalaya" or "Abode of Snow." As a matter of
+convenience the name is sometimes confined to the mountains east of the
+Indus, but geologically the hills of Buner and Swat to the north of
+Peshawar probably belong to the same system. In Sanskrit literature the
+Himalaya is also known as "Himavata," whence the classical Emodus.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Orographical Map.]
+
+~The Kumaon Himalaya.~--The Himalaya may be divided longitudinally into
+three sections, the eastern or Sikkim, the mid or Kumaon, and the
+north-western or Ladakh. With the first we are not concerned. The Kumaon
+section lies mainly in the United Provinces, but it includes the sources
+of the Jamna, and contains the chain in the Panjab which is at once the
+southern watershed of the Sutlej and the great divide between the two
+river systems of Northern India, the Gangetic draining into the Bay of
+Bengal, and the Indus carrying the enormous discharge of the north-west
+Himalaya, the Muztagh-Karakoram, and the Hindu Kush ranges into the
+Indian Ocean. Simla stands on the south-western end of this watershed,
+and below it the Himalaya drops rapidly to the Siwalik foot-hills and to
+the plains. Jakko, the _deodar_-clad hill round which so much of the
+life of the summer capital of India revolves, attains a height of 8000
+feet. The highest peak within a radius of 25 miles of Simla is the Chor,
+which is over 12,000 feet high, and does not lose its snow cap till May.
+Hattu, the well-known hill above Narkanda, which is 40 miles from Simla
+by road, is 1000 feet lower. But further west in Bashahr the higher
+peaks range from 16,000 to 22,000 feet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Nanga Parvat.]
+
+~The Inner Himalaya or Zanskar Range.~--The division of the Himalaya into
+the three sections named above is convenient for descriptive purposes.
+But its chief axis runs through all the sections. East of Nipal it
+strikes into Tibet not very far from the source of the Tsanpo, is soon
+pierced by the gorge of the Sutlej, and beyond it forms the southern
+watershed of the huge Indus valley. In the west this great rampart is
+known as the Zanskar range. For a short distance it is the boundary
+between the Panjab and Kashmir, separating two outlying portions of the
+Kangra district, Lahul and Spiti, from Ladakh. In this section the peaks
+are from 19,000 to 21,000 feet high, and the Baralacha pass on the road
+from the Kulu valley in Kangra to Leh, the capital of Ladakh, is at an
+elevation of about 16,500 feet. In Kashmir the Zanskar or Inner Himalaya
+divides the valley of the Indus from those of the Chenab and Jhelam. It
+has no mountain to dispute supremacy with Everest (29,000 feet), or
+Kinchinjunga in the Eastern Himalaya, but the inferiority is only
+relative. The twin peaks called Nun and Kun to the east of Srinagar
+exceed 23,000 feet, and in the extreme north-west the grand mountain
+mass of Nanga Parvat towers above the Indus to a height of 26,182 feet.
+The lowest point in the chain is the Zojila (11,300 feet) on the route
+from Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir, to Leh on the Indus
+
+The road from Srinagar to Gilgit passes over the Burzil pass at an
+elevation of 13,500 feet.
+
+The Zojila is at the top of the beautiful valley of the Sind river, a
+tributary of the Jhelam. The lofty Zanskar range blocks the inward flow
+of the monsoon, and once the Zojila is crossed the aspect of the country
+entirely changes. The land of forest glades and green pastures is left
+behind, and a region of naked and desolate grandeur begins.
+
+ "The waste of snow ... is the frontier of barren Tibet, where sandy
+ wastes replace verdant meadows, and where the wild ridges, jutting
+ up against the sky, are kept bare of vegetation, their strata
+ crumbling under the destructive action of frost and water, leaving
+ bare ribs of gaunt and often fantastic outline.... The colouring of
+ the mountains is remarkable throughout Ladakh and nowhere more so
+ than near the Fotula (a pass on the road to Leh to the south of the
+ Indus gorge).... As we ascend the peaks suggest organ pipes, so
+ vertical are the ridges, so jagged the ascending outlines. And each
+ pipe is painted a different colour ... pale slate green, purple,
+ yellow, grey, orange, and chocolate, each colour corresponding with
+ a layer of the slate, shale, limestone, or trap strata" (Neve's
+ _Picturesque Kashmir_, pp. 108 and 117).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Burzil Pass.]
+
+In all this desolation there are tiny oases where level soil and a
+supply of river water permit of cultivation and of some tree growth.
+
+~Water divide near Baralacha and Rotang Passes in Kulu.~--We have seen
+that the Indus and its greatest tributary, the Sutlej, rise beyond the
+Himalaya in the Tibetan plateau. The next great water divide is in the
+neighbourhood of the Baralacha pass and the Rotang pass, 30 miles to the
+south of it. The route from Simla to Leh runs at a general level of 7000
+to 9000 feet along or near the Sutlej-Jamna watershed to Narkanda (8800
+feet). Here it leaves the Hindustan-Tibet road and drops rapidly into
+the Sutlej gorge, where the Luri bridge is only 2650 feet above sea
+level. Rising steeply on the other side the Jalauri pass on the
+watershed between the Sutlej and the Bias is crossed at an elevation of
+10,800 feet. A more gradual descent brings the traveller to the Bias at
+Larji, 3080 feet above sea level. The route then follows the course of
+the Bias through the beautiful Kulu valley to the Rotang pass (13,326
+feet), near which the river rises. The upper part of the valley is
+flanked on the west by the short, but very lofty Bara Bangahal range,
+dividing Kulu from Kangra and the source of the Bias from that of the
+Ravi. Beyond the Rotang is Lahul, which is divided by a watershed from
+Spiti and the torrents which drain into the Sutlej. On the western side
+of this watershed are the sources of the Chandra and Bhaga, which unite
+to form the river known in the plains as the Chenab.
+
+~Mid Himalaya or Pangi Range.~--The Mid Himalayan or Pangi range, striking
+west from the Rotang pass and the northern end of the Bara Bangahal
+chain, passes through the heart of Chamba dividing the valley of the
+Chenab (Pangi) from that of the Ravi. After entering Kashmir it crosses
+the Chenab near the Kolahoi cone (17,900 feet) and the head waters of
+the Jhelam. Thence it continues west over Haramukh (16,900 feet), which
+casts its shadow southwards on the Wular lake, to the valley of the
+Kishnganga, and probably across it to the mountains which flank the
+magnificent Kagan glen in Hazara.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Rotang Pass.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Mt Haramukh.]
+
+~Outer Himalaya or Dhauladhar-Pir Panjal Range.~--The Outer Himalaya also
+starts from a point near the Rotang pass, but some way to the south of
+the offset of the Mid Himalayan chain. Its main axis runs parallel to
+the latter, and under the name of the Dhauladhar (white ridge) forms the
+boundary of the Chamba State and Kangra, behind whose headquarters, at
+Dharmsala it stands up like a huge wall. It has a mean elevation of
+15,000 feet, but rises as high as 16,000. It passes from Chamba into
+Bhadarwah in Kashmir, and crossing the Chenab is carried on as the Pir
+Panjal range through the south of that State. With an elevation of only
+14,000 or 15,000 feet it is a dwarf as compared with the giants of the
+Inner Himalayan and Muztagh-Karakoram chains. But it hides them from the
+dwellers in the Panjab, and its snowy crest is a very striking picture
+as seen in the cold weather from the plains of Rawalpindi, Jhelam, and
+Gujrat. The Outer Himalaya is continued beyond the gorges of the Jhelam
+and Kishnganga rivers in Kajnag and the hills of the Hazara district.
+Near the eastern extremity of the Dhauladhar section of the Outer
+Himalaya it sends out southwards between Kulu and Mandi a lower
+offshoot. This is crossed by the Babbu (9480 feet) and Dulchi passes,
+connecting Kulu with Kangra through Mandi. Geologically the Kulu-Mandi
+range appears to be continued to the east of the Bias and across the
+Sutlej over Hattu and the Chor to the hills near Masuri (Mussoorie), a
+well-known hill station in the United Provinces. Another offshoot at the
+western end of the Dhauladhar passes through the beautiful hill station
+of Dalhousie, and sinks into the low hills to the east of the Ravi,
+where it leaves Chamba and enters the British district of Gurdaspur.
+
+~River Valleys and Passes in the Himalaya.~--While these principal chains
+can be traced from south-east to north-west over hundreds of miles it
+must be remembered that the Himalaya is a mountain mass from 150 to 200
+miles broad, that the main axes are linked together by subsidiary cross
+chains dividing the head waters of great rivers, and flanked by long and
+lofty ridges running down at various angles to the gorges of these
+streams and their tributaries. The typical Himalayan river runs in a
+gorge with mountains dipping down pretty steeply to its sides. The lower
+slopes are cultivated, but the land is usually stony and uneven, and as
+a whole the crops are not of a high class. The open valleys of the
+Jhelam in Kashmir and of the Bias in Kulu are exceptions. Passes in the
+Himalaya are not defiles between high cliffs, but cross the crest of a
+ridge at a point where the chain is locally depressed, and snow melts
+soonest. In the Outer and Mid Himalaya the line of perpetual snow is at
+about 16,000 feet, but for six months of the year the snow-line comes
+down 5000 feet lower. In the Inner Himalaya and the Muztagh-Karakoram,
+to which the monsoon does not penetrate, the air is so dry that less
+snow falls and the line is a good deal higher.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. R. Jhelam in Kashmir--View towards Mohand Marg.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Near Naran in Kagan Glen, Hazara.]
+
+~Himalayan Scenery.~--Certain things strike any observant traveller in the
+Himalaya. One is the comparative absence of running or still water,
+except in the height of the rainy season, away from the large rivers.
+The slope is so rapid that ordinary falls of rain run off with great
+rapidity. The mountain scenery is often magnificent and the forests are
+beautiful, but the absence of water robs the landscape of a charm which
+would make it really perfect. Where this too is present, as in the
+valley of the Bias in Kulu and those of the Jhelam and its tributaries
+in Kashmir and Hazara, the eye has its full fruition of content.
+Another is the silence of the forests. Bird and beast are there, but
+they are little in evidence. A third feature which can hardly be missed
+is the contrast between the northern and the southern slopes. The former
+will often be clothed with forest while the latter is a bare stony slope
+covered according to season with brown or green grass interspersed with
+bushes of indigo, barberry, or the hog plum (Prinsepia utilis). The
+reason is that the northern side enjoys much more shade, snow lies
+longer, and the supply of moisture is therefore greater. The grazier for
+the same reason is less tempted to fire the hill side in order to
+promote the growth of grass, a practice which is fatal to all forest
+growth. The rich and varied flora of the Himalaya will be referred to
+later.
+
+~Muztagh-Karakoram Ranges.~--The Muztagh-Karakoram mountains form the
+northern watershed of the Indus. The range consists of more than one
+main axis. The name Karakoram is appropriated to the eastern part of the
+system which originates at E. longitude 79 deg. near the Pangong lake in the
+Tibetan plateau a little beyond the boundary of Kashmir. Beyond the
+Karakoram pass (18,550 ft.) is a lofty bleak upland with salt lakes
+dotted over its surface. Through this inhospitable region and over the
+Karakoram pass and the Sasser-la (17,500 ft.) the trade route from
+Yarkand to Leh runs. The road is only open for three months in the year,
+and the dangers and hardships are great. In 1898 Dr Bullock Workman and
+his wife marched along it across the Shyok river, up the valley of the
+Nubra, and over the Sasser-la to the Karakoram pass. The scenery is an
+exaggeration of that described by Dr Neve as seen on the road from the
+Zoji-la to Leh. There is a powerful picture of its weird repellent
+grandeur in the Workmans' book entitled _In the Ice World of Himalaya_
+(pp. 28-29, 30-32). The poet who had found ideas for a new Paradiso in
+the Vale of Kashmir might here get suggestions for a new Inferno.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Muztagh-Karakoram and Himalayan Ranges in
+Kashmir.]
+
+The Karakoram range culminates in the north-west near the Muztagh pass
+in a group of majestic peaks including K 2 or Mount Godwin Austen
+(28,265 feet), Gasherbrum, and Masherbrum, which tower over and feed the
+vast Boltoro glacier. The first of these giants is the second largest
+mountain in the world. The Duke of the Abruzzi ascended it to the height
+of 24,600 feet, and so established a climbing record. The Muztagh chain
+carries on the northern bastion to the valley of the Hunza river and
+the western extremity of the Hindu Kush. It has several peaks exceeding
+25,000 feet. The most famous is Rakiposhi which looks down on Hunza from
+a height of 25,550 feet.
+
+~The Hindu Kush.~--The Muztagh chain from the south-east, the Sarikol from
+the north-east, and the Hindu Kush from the south-west, meet at a point
+to the north of Hunza. The last runs westward and south-westward for
+about 200 miles to the Dorah pass (14,800 feet), separating the valleys
+which drain into the Indus from the head waters of the Oxus, and Hunza
+and Gilgit in Kashmir and Chitral in British India from the Afghan
+province of Wakhan. The highest point in the main axis, Sad Istragh
+(24,171 feet), is in this section. But the finest mountain scenery in
+the Hindu Kush is in the great spurs it thrusts out southwards to flank
+the glens which feed the Gilgit and Chitral rivers. Tirach Mir towers
+above Chitral to a height of 25,426 feet. From Tibet to the Dorah pass
+the northern frontier of India is impregnable. It is pierced by one or
+two difficult trade routes strewn with the bones of pack animals, but no
+large army has ever marched across it for the invasion of India. West of
+the Dorah pass the general level of the Hindu Kush is a good deal lower
+than that of its eastern section. The vital point in the defences of
+India in this quarter lies near Charikar to the north of Kabul, where
+the chain thins out, and three practicable passes debouch on the valley
+of the Kabul river. It is this fact that gives the town of Kabul its
+great strategic importance. The highest of the three passes, the Kaoshan
+or Hindu Kush (dead Hindu), crosses the chain at an elevation of 14,340
+feet. It took its own name from the fate that befel a Hindu army when
+attempting to cross it, and has handed it on to the whole range. It is
+the pass which the armies of Alexander and Babar used. The historical
+road for the invasion of India on this side has been by Charikar and the
+valley of the Kabul river to its junction with the Kunar below
+Jalalabad, thence up the Kunar valley and over one of the practicable
+passes which connect its eastern watershed with the Panjkora and Swat
+river valleys, whence the descent on Peshawar is easy. This is the route
+by which Alexander led the wing of the Grecian army which he commanded
+in person, and the one followed by Babar in 1518-19. Like Alexander,
+Babar fought his way through Bajaur, and crossed the Indus above Attock.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. The Khaibar Road.]
+
+~The Khaibar.~--A British force advancing on Kabul from Peshawar has never
+marched by the Kunar and Kabul valley route. It has always taken the
+Khaibar road, which only follows the Kabul river for less than one-third
+of the 170 miles which separate Peshawar from the Amir's capital. The
+military road from Peshawar to Landikhana lies far to the south of the
+river, from which it is shut off by difficult and rugged country held by
+the Mohmands.
+
+~Safed Koh.~--From Landikhana the political boundary runs south-west to
+the Safed Koh (white mountain) and is continued westwards along that
+range to the Paiwar Kotal or pass (8450 feet). The Safed Koh forms the
+watershed of the Kabul and Kurram rivers. It is a fine pine clad chain
+with a general level of 12,000 feet, and its skyline is rarely free from
+snow. It culminates in the west near Paiwar Kotal in Sikaram (15,620
+feet). To the west of the Peshawar and Kohat districts is a tangle of
+hills and valleys formed by outlying spurs of the Safed Koh. This
+difficult country is in the occupation of Afridis and Orakzais, who are
+under our political control.
+
+~The Kurram Valley.~--The line of advance into Afghanistan through the
+Kurram valley is easy, and Lord Roberts used it when he marched towards
+Kabul in 1898. After the war we annexed the valley, leaving however the
+head waters of the Kurram in Afghan territory. The road to Kabul leaves
+the river far to the south before it crosses our frontier at Paiwar
+Kotal.
+
+~Waziristan Hills.~--Between the Kurram valley and the Gomal river is a
+large block of very rough mountainous country known as Waziristan from
+the turbulent clan which occupies it. In the north it is drained by the
+Tochi. Westwards of the Tochi valley the country rises into lofty
+mountains. The upper waters of the Tochi and its affluents drain two
+fine glens known as Birmal and Shawal to the west of the country of the
+Mahsud Wazirs. The Tochi valley is the direct route from India to
+Ghazni, and nine centuries ago, when that decayed town was the capital
+of a powerful kingdom, it must often have heard the tramp of armed men.
+The loftiest peaks in Waziristan, Shuidar (11,000 feet) and Pirghal
+(11,600 feet), overhang Birmal. Further south, Wana, our post in
+south-west Waziristan, overlooks from its plateau the Gomal valley.
+
+~The Gomal Pass as a trade route.~--East of Kajuri Kach the Gomal flows
+through tribal territory to the Gomal pass from which it debouches into
+the plains of the Dera Ismail Khan district. "The Gomal route is the
+oldest of all trade routes. Down it there yearly pours a succession of
+_kafilas_ (caravans) led and followed up by thousands of well-armed
+Pathan traders, called Powindahs, from the plains of Afghanistan to
+India. The Powindahs mostly belong to the Ghilzai tribes, and are not
+therefore true Afghans[1]. Leaving their women and children encamped
+within British territory on our border, and their arms in the keeping of
+our frontier political officials, the Powindah makes his way southwards
+with his camel loads of fruit and silk, bales of camel and goat hair or
+sheepskin goods, carpets and other merchandise from Kabul and Bokhara,
+and conveys himself through the length and breadth of the Indian
+peninsula.... He returns yearly to the cool summits of the Afghan hills
+and the open grassy plains, where his countless flocks of sheep and
+camels are scattered for the summer grazing" (Holdich's _India_, pp.
+80-81).
+
+~Physical features of hilly country between Peshawar and the Gomal
+river.~--The physical features of the hill country between Peshawar and
+the Gomal pass may best be described in the words of Sir Thomas Holdich:
+
+ "Natural landscape beauty, indeed, may here be measured to a
+ certain extent by altitude. The low ranges of sun-scorched,
+ blackened ridge and furrow formation which form the approaches to
+ the higher altitudes of the Afghan upland, and which are almost as
+ regularly laid out by the hand of nature in some parts of the
+ frontier as are the parallels ... of the engineer who is besieging
+ a fortress--these are by no means 'things of beauty,' and it is
+ this class of formation and this form of barren desolation that is
+ most familiar to the frontier officer.... Shades of delicate purple
+ and grey will not make up for the absence of the living green of
+ vegetation.... But with higher altitudes a cooler climate and
+ snow-fed soil is found, and as soon as vegetation grasps a
+ root-hold there is the beginning of fine scenery. The upper
+ pine-covered slopes of the Safed Koh are as picturesque as those of
+ the Swiss Alps; they are crowned by peaks whose wonderful altitudes
+ are frozen beyond the possibility of vegetation, and are usually
+ covered with snow wherever snow can lie. In Waziristan, hidden away
+ in the higher recesses of its great mountains, are many valleys of
+ great natural beauty, where we find the spreading poplar and the
+ ilex in all the robust growth of an indigenous flora.... Among the
+ minor valleys Birmal perhaps takes precedence by right of its
+ natural beauty. Here are stretches of park-like scenery where
+ grass-covered slopes are dotted with clumps of _deodar_ and pine
+ and intersected with rivulets hidden in banks of fern; soft green
+ glades open out to view from every turn in the folds of the hills,
+ and above them the silent watch towers of Pirghal and Shuidar ...
+ look down from their snow-clad heights across the Afghan uplands to
+ the hills beyond Ghazni." (Holdich's _India_, pp. 81-82.)
+
+~The Suliman Range.~--A well-marked mountain chain runs from the Gomal to
+the extreme south-west corner of the Dera Ghazi Khan district where the
+borders of Biluchistan, Sind, and the Panjab meet. It culminates forty
+miles south of the Gomal in the fine Kaisargarh mountain (11,295 feet),
+which is a very conspicuous object from the plains of the Derajat. On
+the side of Kaisargarh there is a shrine called Takht i Suliman or
+Throne of Solomon, and this is the name by which Englishmen usually know
+the mountain, and which has been passed on to the whole range.
+Proceeding southwards the general elevation of the chain drops
+steadily. But Fort Munro, the hill station of the Dera Ghazi Khan
+district, 200 miles south of the Takht, still stands 6300 feet above sea
+level, and it looks across at the fine peak of Ekbhai, which is more
+than 1000 feet higher. In the south of the Dera Ghazi Khan district the
+general level of the chain is low, arid the Giandari hill, though only
+4160 feet above the sea, stands out conspicuously. Finally near where
+the three jurisdictions meet the hills melt into the Kachh Gandava
+plain. Sir Thomas Holdich's description of the rugged Pathan hills
+applies also to the Suliman range. Kaisargarh is a fine limestone
+mountain crowned by a forest of the edible _chilgoza_ pine. But the
+ordinary tree growth, where found at all, is of a much humbler kind,
+consisting of gnarled olives and dwarf palms.
+
+~Passes and torrents in Suliman Hills.~--The drainage of the western
+slopes of the Suliman range finding no exit on that side has had to wear
+out ways for itself towards the plains which lie between the foot of the
+hills and the Indus. This is the explanation of the large number of
+passes, about one hundred, which lead from the plains into the Suliman
+hills. The chief from north to south are the Vehoa, the Sangarh, the
+Khair, the Kaha, the Chachar, and the Siri, called from the torrents
+which flow through them to the plains. There is an easy route through
+the Chachar to Biluchistan. But unfortunately the water of the torrent
+is brackish.
+
+~Sub Himalaya or Siwaliks.~--In its lowest ridges the Himalaya drops to a
+height of about 5000 feet. But the traveller to any of the summer
+resorts in the mountains passes through a zone of lower hills
+interspersed sometimes with valleys or "duns." These consist of Tertiary
+sandstones, clays, and boulder conglomerates, the debris in fact which
+the Himalaya has dropped in the course of ages. To this group of hills
+and valleys the general name of Siwaliks is given. East of the Jhelam it
+includes the Nahan hills to the north of Ambala, the low hills of
+Kangra, Hoshyarpur, Gurdaspur, and Jammu, and the Pabbi hills in Gujrat.
+But it is to the west of the Jhelam that the system has its greatest
+extension. Practically the whole of the soil of the plains of the
+Attock, Rawalpindi, and Jhelam districts consists of disintegrated
+Siwalik sandstone, and differs widely in appearance and agricultural
+quality from the alluvium of the true Panjab plains. The low hills of
+these districts belong to the same system, but the Salt Range is only in
+part Siwalik. Altogether Siwalik deposits in the Panjab cover an area of
+13,000 square miles. Beyond the Indus the hills of the Kohat district
+and a part of the Suliman range are of Tertiary age.
+
+~The Great Panjab Plain.~--The passage from the highlands to the plains is
+as a rule abrupt, and the contrast between the two is extraordinary.
+This is true without qualification of the tract between the Jamna and
+the Jhelam. It is equally true of British districts west of the Jhelam
+and south of the Salt Range and of lines drawn from Kalabagh on the west
+bank of the Indus southwards to Paniala and thence north-west through
+the Pezu pass to the Waziristan hills. In all that vast plain, if we
+except the insignificant hills in the extreme south-west of the province
+ending to the north in the historic ridge at Delhi, some hillocks of
+gneiss near Tosham in Hissar, and the curious little isolated rocks at
+Kirana, Chiniot, and Sangla near the Chenab and Jhelam, the only
+eminences are petty ridges of windblown sand and the "_thehs_" or mounds
+which represent the accumulated debris of ancient village sites. At the
+end of the Jurassic period and later this great plain was part of a sea
+bed. Far removed as the Indian ocean now is the height above sea level
+of the Panjab plain east of the Jhelam is nowhere above 1000 feet. Delhi
+and Lahore are both just above the 700 feet line. The hills mentioned
+above are humble time-worn outliers of the very ancient Aravalli system,
+to which the hills of Rajputana belong. Kirana and Sangla were already
+of enormous age, when they were islands washed by the waves of the
+Tertiary sea. A description of the different parts of the vast Panjab
+plain, its great stretches of firm loam, and its tracts of sand and sand
+hills, which the casual observer might regard as pure desert, will be
+given in the paragraphs devoted to the different districts.
+
+~The Salt Range.~--The tract west of the Jhelam, and bounded on the south
+by the Salt Range cis-Indus, and trans-Indus by the lines mentioned
+above, is of a more varied character. Time worn though the Salt Range
+has become by the waste of ages, it still rises at Sakesar, near its
+western extremity, to a height of 5000 feet. The eastern part of the
+range is mostly in the Jhelam district, and there the highest point is
+Chail (3700 feet). The hill of Tilla (3242 feet), which is a marked
+feature of the landscape looking westwards from Jhelam cantonment, is on
+a spur running north-east from the main chain. The Salt Range is poorly
+wooded, the dwarf acacia or _phulahi_ (Acacia modesta), the olive, and
+the _sanattha_ shrub (Dodonea viscosa) are the commonest species. But
+these jagged and arid hills include some not infertile valleys, every
+inch of which is put under crop by the crowded population. To geologists
+the range is of special interest, including as it does at one end of the
+scale Cambrian beds of enormous antiquity and at the other rocks of
+Tertiary age. Embedded in the Cambrian strata there are great deposits
+of rock salt at Kheora, where the Mayo mine is situated. At Kalabagh
+the Salt Range reappears on the far side of the Indus. Here the salt
+comes to the surface, and its jagged pinnacles present a remarkable
+appearance.
+
+~Country north of the Salt Range.~--The country to the north of the Salt
+Range included in the districts of Jhelam, Rawalpindi, and Attock is
+often ravine-bitten and seamed with the white sandy beds of torrents.
+Generally speaking it is an arid precarious tract, but there are fertile
+stretches which will be mentioned in the descriptions of the districts.
+The general height of the plains north of the Salt Range is from 1000
+feet to 2000 feet above sea level. The rise between Lahore and
+Rawalpindi is just over a thousand feet. Low hills usually form a
+feature of the landscape, pleasing at a distance or when softened by the
+evening light, but bare and jagged on a nearer view. The chief hills are
+the Margalla range between Hazara and Rawalpindi, the Kalachitta and the
+Khairimurat hills running east and west through Attock and the very dry
+and broken Narrara hills on the right bank of the Indus in the same
+district. Between the Margalla and Kalachitta hills is the Margalla pass
+on the main road from Rawalpindi to the passage of the Indus at Attock,
+and therefore a position of considerable strategical importance. The
+Kalachitta (black and white) chain is so called because the north side
+is formed of nummulitic limestone and the south mainly of a dark purple
+sandstone. The best tree-growth is therefore on the north side.
+
+~Peshawar, Kohat, and Bannu.~--Across the Indus the Peshawar and Bannu
+districts are basins ringed with hills and drained respectively by the
+Kabul and Kurram rivers with their affluents. Between these two basins
+lies the maze of bare broken hills and valleys which make up the Kohat
+district. The cantonment of Kohat is 1700 feet above sea level and no
+hill in the district reaches 5000 feet. Near the Kohat border in the
+south-west of the Peshawar district are the Khattak hills, the
+culmination of which at Ghaibana Sir has a height of 5136 feet, and the
+military sanitarium of Cherat in the same chain is 600 feet lower. On
+the east the Maidani hills part Bannu from Isakhel, the trans-Indus
+_tahsil_ of Mianwali, and on the south the Marwat hills divide it from
+Dera Ismail Khan. Both are humble ranges. The highest point in the
+Marwat hills is Shekhbudin, a bare and dry limestone rock rising to an
+elevation of over 4500 feet.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: They are held to be of Turkish origin.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+RIVERS
+
+
+~The Panjab Rivers.~--"Panjab" is a Persian compound word, meaning "five
+waters," and strictly speaking the word denotes the country between the
+valley of the Jhelam and that of the Sutlej. The intermediate rivers
+from west to east are the Chenab, the Ravi, and the Bias. Their combined
+waters at last flow into the Panjnad or "five rivers" at the south-west
+corner of the Multan district, and the volume of water which 44 miles
+lower down the Panjnad carries into the Indus is equal to the discharge
+of the latter. The first Aryan settlers knew this part of India as the
+land of the seven rivers (_sapla sindhavas_), adding to the five
+mentioned above the Indus and the Sarasvati. The old Vedic name is more
+appropriate than Panjab if we substitute the Jamna for the Sarasvati or
+Sarusti, which is now a petty stream.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Panjab Rivers.]
+
+~River Valleys.~--The cold weather traveller who is carried from Delhi to
+Rawalpindi over the great railway bridges at points chosen because there
+the waters of the rivers are confined by nature, or can be confined by
+art, within moderate limits, has little idea of what one of these rivers
+is like in flood time. He sees that, even at such favoured spots,
+between the low banks there is a stretch of sand far exceeding in width
+the main channel, where a considerable volume of water is running, and
+the minor depressions, in which a sluggish and shallow flow may still
+be found. If, leaving the railway, he crosses a river by some bridge of
+boats or local ferry, he will find still wider expanses of sand
+sometimes bare and dry and white, at others moist and dark and covered
+with dwarf tamarisk. He may notice that, before he reaches the sand and
+the tamarisk scrub, he leaves by a gentle or abrupt descent the dry
+uplands, and passes into a lower, greener, and perhaps to his
+inexperienced eye more fertile seeming tract. This is the valley, often
+miles broad, through which the stream has moved in ever-shifting
+channels in the course of centuries. He finds it hard to realize that,
+when the summer heats melt the Himalayan snows, and the monsoon
+currents, striking against the northern mountain walls, are precipitated
+in torrents of rain, the rush of water to the plains swells the river
+20, 30, 40, or even 50 fold. The sandy bed then becomes full from bank
+to bank, and the silt laden waters spill over into the cultivated
+lowlands beyond. Accustomed to the stable streams of his own land, he
+cannot conceive the risks the riverside farmer in the Panjab runs of
+having fruitful fields smothered in a night with barren sand, or lands
+and well and house sucked into the river-bed. So great and sudden are
+the changes, bad and good, wrought by river action that the loss and
+gain have to be measured up year by year for revenue purposes. Nor is
+the visitor likely to imagine that the main channel may in a few seasons
+become a quite subsidiary or wholly deserted bed. Like all streams, e.g.
+the Po, which flow from the mountains into a flat terrain, the Panjab
+rivers are perpetually silting up their beds, and thus, by their own
+action, becoming diverted into new channels or into existing minor ones,
+which are scoured out afresh. If our traveller, leaving the railway at
+Rawalpindi, proceeds by tonga to the capital of Kashmir, he will find
+between Kohala and Baramula another surprise awaiting him. The noble but
+sluggish river of the lowlands, which he crossed at the town of Jhelam,
+is here a swift and deep torrent, flowing over a boulder bed, and
+swirling round waterworn rocks in a gorge hemmed in by mountains. That
+is the typical state of the Himalayan rivers, though the same Jhelam
+above Baramula is an exception, flowing there sluggishly through a very
+flat valley into a shallow lake.
+
+~The Indus Basin.~--The river Sindh (Sanskrit, Sindhu), more familiar to
+us under its classical name of the Indus, must have filled with
+astonishment every invader from the west, and it is not wonderful that
+they called after it the country that lay beyond. Its basin covers an
+area of 373,000 square miles. Confining attention to Asia these figures,
+large though they seem, are far exceeded by those of the Yangtsze-Kiang.
+The area of which a description is attempted in this book is, with the
+exception of a strip along the Jamna and the part of Kashmir lying
+beyond the Muztagh-Karakoram range, all included in the Indus basin. But
+it does not embrace the whole of it. Part is in Tibet, part in
+Afghanistan and Biluchistan, and part in Sindh, through which province
+the Indus flows for 450 miles, or one-quarter of its whole course of
+1800 miles. It seems likely that the Jamna valley was not always an
+exception, or at least that that river once flowed westwards through
+Rajputana to the Indian ocean. The five great rivers of the Panjab all
+drain into the Indus, and the Ghagar with its tributary, the Sarusti,
+which now, even when in flood, loses itself in the sands of Bikaner,
+probably once flowed down the old Hakra bed in Bahawalpur either into
+the Indus or by an independent bed now represented by an old flood
+channel of the Indus in Sindh, the Hakro or Nara, which passes through
+the Rann of Kachh.
+
+~The Indus outside British India.~--To the north of the Manasarowar lake
+in Tibet is Kailas, the Hindu Olympus. On the side of this mountain the
+Indus is said to rise at a height of 17,000 feet. After a course of 200
+miles or more it crosses the south-east boundary of the Kashmir State at
+an elevation of 13,800 feet. From the Kashmir frontier to Mt Haramosh
+west of Gilgit it flows steadily to the north-west for 350 miles. After
+125 miles Leh, the capital of Ladakh, is reached at a height of 10,500
+feet, and here the river is crossed by the trade route to Yarkand. A
+little below Leh the Indus receives the Zanskar, which drains the
+south-east of Kashmir. After another 150 miles it flows through the
+basin, in which Skardo, the principal town in Baltistan, is situated.
+Above Skardo a large tributary, the Shyok, flows in from the east at an
+elevation of 8000 feet. The Shyok and its affluent, the Nubra, rise in
+the giant glaciers to the south-west of the Karakoram pass. After the
+Skardo basin is left behind the descent is rapid. The river rushes down
+a tremendous gorge, where it appears to break through the western
+Himalaya, skirts Haramosh, and at a point twenty-five miles east of
+Gilgit bends abruptly to the south. Shortly after it is joined from the
+west by the Gilgit river, and here the bed is about 4000 feet above sea
+level. Continuing to flow south for another twenty miles it resumes its
+westernly course to the north of Nanga Parvat and persists in it for 100
+miles. Our political post of Chilas lies in this section on the south
+bank. Fifty or sixty miles west of Chilas the Indus turns finally to the
+south. From Jalkot, where the Kashmir frontier is left, to Palosi below
+the Mahaban mountain it flows for a hundred miles through territory over
+which we only exercise political control. Near Palosi, 812 miles from
+the source, the river enters British India. In Kashmir the Indus and the
+Shyok in some places flow placidly over alluvial flats, and at others
+with a rapid and broken current through narrow gorges. At Skardo their
+united stream is said, even in winter, to be 500 feet wide and nine or
+ten feet deep. If one of the deep gorges, as sometimes happens, is
+choked by a landslip, the flood that follows when the barrier finally
+bursts may spread devastation hundreds of miles away. To the north of
+the fertile Chach plain in Attock there is a wide stretch of land along
+the Indus, which still shows in its stony impoverished soil the effects
+of the great flood of 1841.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. The Indus at Attock.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Indus at Kafirkot, D.I. Khan dt.]
+
+~The Indus in British India.~--After reaching British India the Indus soon
+becomes the boundary dividing Hazara and Peshawar, two districts of the
+North West Frontier Province. Lower down it parts Peshawar from the
+Panjab district of Attock. In this section after a time the hills recede
+on both sides, and the stream is wide and so shallow that it is fordable
+in places in the cold weather. There are islands, ferry boats and rafts
+can ply, and the only danger is from sudden freshets. Ohind, where
+Alexander crossed, is in this section. A more famous passage is at
+Attock just below the junction of the Kabul river. Here the heights
+again approach the Indus on either bank. The volume of water is vastly
+increased by the union of the Kabul river, which brings down the whole
+drainage of the southern face of the Hindu Kush. From the north it
+receives near Jalalabad the Kunar river, and near Charsadda in Peshawar
+the Swat, which with its affluent the Panjkora drains Dir, Bajaur, and
+Swat. In the cold weather looking northwards from the Attock fort one
+sees the Kabul or Landai as a blue river quietly mingling with the
+Indus, and in the angle between them a stretch of white sand. But during
+floods the junction is the scene of a wild turmoil of waters. At Attock
+there are a railway bridge, a bridge of boats, and a ferry. The bed of
+the stream is 2000 feet over sea level. For ninety miles below Attock
+the river is confined between bare and broken hills, till it finally
+emerges into the plains from the gorge above Kalabagh, where the Salt
+Range impinges on the left bank. Between Attock and Kalabagh the right
+bank is occupied by Peshawar and Kohat and the left by Attock and
+Mianwali. In this section the Indus is joined by the Haro and Soan
+torrents, and spanned at Khushalgarh by a railway bridge. This is the
+only other masonry bridge crossing it in the Panjab. Elsewhere the
+passage has to be made by ferry boats or by boat bridges, which are
+taken down in the rainy season. At Kalabagh the height above sea level
+is less than 1000 feet. When it passes the western extremity of the Salt
+Range the river spreads out into a wide lake-like expanse of waters. It
+has now performed quite half of its long journey. Henceforth it receives
+no addition from the east till the Panjnad in the south-west corner of
+the Muzaffargarh district brings to it the whole tribute of the five
+rivers of the Panjab. Here, though the Indian ocean is still 500 miles
+distant, the channel is less than 300 feet above the sea. From the west
+it receives an important tributary in the Kurram, which, with its
+affluent the Tochi, rises in Afghanistan. The torrents from the Suliman
+Range are mostly used up for irrigation before they reach the Indus, but
+some of them mingle their waters with it in high floods. Below Kalabagh
+the Indus is a typical lowland river of great size, with many sandy
+islands in the bed and a wide valley subject to its inundations.
+Opposite Dera Ismail Khan the valley is seventeen miles across. As a
+plains river the Indus runs at first through the Mianwali district of
+the Panjab, then divides Mianwali from Dera Ismail Khan, and lastly
+parts Muzaffargarh and the Bahawalpur State from the Panjab frontier
+district of Dera Ghazi Khan.
+
+~The Jhelam.~--The Jhelam, the most westernly of the five rivers of the
+Panjab, is called the Veth in Kashmir and locally in the Panjab plains
+the Vehat. These names correspond to the Bihat of the Muhammadan
+historians and the Hydaspes of the Greeks, and all go back to the
+Sanskrit Vitasta. Issuing from a deep pool at Vernag to the east of
+Islamabad in Kashmir it becomes navigable just below that town, and
+flows north-west in a lazy stream for 102 miles through Srinagar, the
+summer capital, into the Wular lake, and beyond it to Baramula. The
+banks are quite low and often cultivated to the river's edge. But across
+the flat valley there is on either side a splendid panorama of
+mountains. From Baramula the character of the Jhelam suddenly changes,
+and for the next 70 miles to Kohala, where the traveller crosses by a
+fine bridge into the Panjab, it rushes down a deep gorge, whose sides
+are formed by the Kajnag mountains on the right, and the Pir Panjal on
+the left, bank. Between Baramula and Kohala there is a drop from 5000 to
+2000 feet. At Domel, the stage before Kohala the Jhelam receives from
+the north the waters of the Kishnganga, and lower down it is joined by
+the Kunhar, which drains the Kagan glen in Hazara. A little above Kohala
+it turns sharply to the south, continuing its character as a mountain
+stream hemmed in by the hills of Rawalpindi on the right bank and of the
+Punch State on the left. The hills gradually sink lower and lower, but
+on the left side only disappear a little above the cantonment of Jhelam,
+where there is a noble railway bridge. From Jhelam onwards the river is
+of the usual plains' type. After dividing the districts of Jhelam (right
+bank) and Gujrat (left), it flows through the Shahpur and Jhang
+districts, falling finally into the Chenab at Trimmu, 450 miles from its
+source. There is a second railway bridge at Haranpur on the Sind Sagar
+line, and a bridge of boats at Khushab, in the Shahpur district. The
+noblest and most-varied scenery in the north-west Himalaya is in the
+catchment area of the Jhelam. The Kashmir valley and the valleys which
+drain into the Jhelam from the north, the Liddar, the Lolab, the Sind,
+and the Kagan glen, display a wealth of beauty unequalled elsewhere. Nor
+does this river wholly lose its association with beauty in the plains.
+Its very rich silt gives the lands on its banks the green charm of rich
+crops and pleasant trees.
+
+~The Chenab.~--The Chenab (more properly Chinab or river of China) is the
+Asikni of the Vedas and the Akesines of the Greek historians. It is
+formed by the union of the Chandra and Bhaga, both of which rise in
+Lahul near the Baralacha pass. Having become the Chandrabhaga the river
+flows through Pangi in Chamba and the south-east of Kashmir. Near
+Kishtwar it breaks through the Pir Panjal range, and thenceforwards
+receives the drainage of its southern slopes. At Akhnur it becomes
+navigable and soon after it enters the Panjab district of Sialkot. A
+little later it is joined from the west by the Tawi, the stream above
+which stands Jammu, the winter capital of Kashmir. The Chenab parts
+Sialkot and Gujranwala on the left bank from Gujrat and Shahpur on the
+right. At Wazirabad, near the point where Sialkot, Gujrat, and
+Gujranwala meet, it is crossed by the Alexandra railway bridge. Leaving
+Shahpur and Gujranwala behind, the Chenab flows through Jhang to its
+junction with the Jhelam at Trimmu. In this section there is a second
+railway bridge at Chund Bharwana. The united stream runs on under the
+name of Chenab to be joined on the north border of the Multan district
+by the Ravi and on its southern border by the Sutlej. Below its junction
+with the latter the stream is known as the Panjnad. In the plains the
+Chenab cannot be called an attractive river, and its silt is far
+inferior to that of the Jhelam.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. Fording the River at Lahore.]
+
+~The Ravi.~--The Ravi was known to the writers of the Vedic hymns as the
+Parushni, but is called in classical Sanskrit Iravati, whence the
+Hydraotes of the Greek historians. It rises near the Rotang pass in
+Kangra, and flows north-west through the southern part of Chamba. Below
+the town of Chamba, it runs as a swift slaty-blue mountain stream, and
+here it is spanned by a fine bridge. Passing on to the north of the hill
+station of Dalhousie it reaches the Kashmir border, and turning to the
+south-west flows along it to Basoli where Kashmir, Chamba, and the
+British district of Gurdaspur meet. At this point it is 2000 feet above
+the sea level. It now forms the boundary of Kashmir and Gurdaspur, and
+finally near Madhopur, where the head-works of the Bari Doab canal are
+situated, it passes into the Gurdaspur district. Shortly after it is
+joined from the north by a large torrent called the Ujh, which rises in
+the Jammu hills. After reaching the Sialkot border the Ravi parts that
+district first from Gurdaspur and then from Amritsar, and, passing
+through the west of Lahore, divides Montgomery and Lyallpur, and flowing
+through the north of Multan joins the Chenab near the Jhang border. In
+Multan there is a remarkable straight reach in the channel known as the
+Sidhnai, which has been utilized for the site of the head-works of a
+small canal. The Degh, a torrent which rises in the Jammu hills and has
+a long course through the Sialkot and Gujranwala districts, joins the
+Ravi when in flood in the north of the Lyallpur district. But its waters
+will now be diverted into the river higher up in order to safeguard the
+Upper Chenab canal. Lahore is on the left bank of the Ravi. It is a mile
+from the cold weather channel, but in high floods the waters have often
+come almost up to the Fort. At Lahore the North Western Railway and the
+Grand Trunk Road are carried over the Ravi by masonry bridges. There is
+a second railway bridge over the Sidhnai reach in Multan. Though the
+Ravi, like the Jhelam, has a course of 450 miles, it has a far smaller
+catchment area, and is really a somewhat insignificant stream. In the
+cold weather, the canal takes such a heavy toll from it that below
+Madhopur the supply of water is mainly drawn from the Ujh, and in
+Montgomery one may cross the bed dryshod for months together. The valley
+of the Ravi is far narrower than those of the rivers described in the
+preceding paragraphs, and the floods are most uncertain, but when they
+occur are of very great value.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. Bias at Manali.]
+
+~The Bias.~--The Bias (Sanskrit, Vipasa; Greek, Hyphasis) rises near the
+Rotang pass at a height of about 13,000 feet. Its head-waters are
+divided from those of the Ravi by the Bara Bangahal range. It flows for
+about sixty miles through the beautiful Kulu valley to Larji (3000
+feet). It has at first a rapid course, but before it reaches Sultanpur
+(4000 feet), the chief village in Kulu, some thirty miles from the
+source, it has become, at least in the cold weather, a comparatively
+peaceful stream fringed with alder thickets. Heavy floods, however,
+sometimes cover fields and orchards with sand and boulders. There is a
+bridge at Manali (6100 feet), a very lovely spot, another below Nagar,
+and a third at Larji. Near Larji the river turns to the west down a bold
+ravine and becomes for a time the boundary between Kulu and the Mandi
+State. Near the town of Mandi, where it is bridged, it bends again, and
+winds in a north-west and westerly direction through low hills in the
+south of Kangra till it meets the Siwaliks on the Hoshyarpur border. In
+this reach there is a bridge of boats at Dera Gopipur on the main road
+from Jalandhar and Hoshyarpur to Dharmsala. Elsewhere in the south of
+Kangra the traveller can cross without difficulty on a small bed
+supported on inflated skins. Sweeping round the northern end of the
+Siwaliks the Bias, having after long parting again approached within
+about fifteen miles of the Ravi, turns definitely to the south, forming
+henceforth the dividing line between Hoshyarpur and Kapurthala (left
+bank) and Gurdaspur and Amritsar (right). Finally above the Harike ferry
+at a point where Lahore, Amritsar, Ferozepur, and Kapurthala nearly
+meet, it falls into the Sutlej. The North Western Railway crosses it by
+a bridge near the Bias station and at the same place there is a bridge
+of boats for the traffic on the Grand Trunk Road. The chief affluents
+are the Chakki, the torrent which travellers to Dharmsala cross by a
+fine bridge twelve miles from the railhead at Pathankot, and the Black
+Bein in Hoshyarpur and Kapurthala. The latter is a winding drainage
+channel, which starts in a swamp in the north of the Hoshyarpur
+district. The Bias has a total course of 390 miles. Only for about
+eighty miles or so is it a true river of the plains, and its floods do
+not spread far.
+
+~The Sutlej.~--The Sutlej is the Shatadru of Vedic hymns and the Zaradros
+of Greek writers. The peasant of the Panjab plains knows it as the Nili
+or Ghara. After the Indus it is the greatest of Panjab rivers, and for
+its source we have to go back to the Manasarowar lakes in Tibet. From
+thence it flows for 200 miles in a north-westerly direction to the
+British frontier near Shipki. A little beyond the Spiti river brings it
+the drainage of the large tract of that name in Kangra and of part of
+Western Tibet. From Shipki it runs for forty miles in deep gorges
+through Kunawar in the Bashahr State to Chini, a beautiful spot near the
+Wangtu bridge, where the Hindustan-Tibet road crosses to the left bank.
+A little below Chini the Baspa flows in from the southeast. The fall
+between the source and Chini is from 15,000 to 7500 feet. There is
+magnificent cliff scenery at Rogi in this reach. Forty miles below Chini
+the capital of Bashahr, Rampur, on the south bank, is only 3300 feet
+above sea level. There is a second bridge at Rampur, and from about this
+point the river becomes the boundary of Bashahr and Kulu, the route to
+which from Simla passes over the Luri bridge (2650 feet) below Narkanda.
+Beyond Luri the Sutlej runs among low hills through several of the Simla
+Hill States. It pierces the Siwaliks at the Hoshyarpur border and then
+turns to the south, maintaining that trend till Rupar and the head-works
+of the Sirhind canal are reached. For the next hundred miles to the Bias
+junction the general direction is west. Above the Harike ferry the
+Sutlej again turns, and flows steadily, though with many windings, to
+the south-west till it joins the Chenab at the south corner of the
+Multan district. There are railway bridges at Phillaur, Ferozepur, and
+Adamwahan. In the plains the Sutlej districts are--on the right bank
+Hoshyarpur, Jalandhar, Lahore, and Montgomery, and on the left Ambala,
+Ludhiana and Ferozepur. Below Ferozepur the river divides Montgomery and
+Multan from Bahawalpur (left bank). The Sutle; has a course of 900
+miles, and a large catchment area in the hills. Notwithstanding the
+heavy toll taken by the Sirhind canal, its floods spread pretty far in
+Jalandhar and Ludhiana and below the Bias junction many monsoon canals
+have been dug which inundate a large area in the lowlands of the
+districts on either bank and of Bahawalpur. The dry bed of the Hakra,
+which can be traced through Bahawalpur, Bikaner, and Sindh, formerly
+carried the waters of the Sutlej to the sea.
+
+~The Ghagar and the Sarusti.~--The Ghagar, once a tributary of the Hakra,
+rises within the Sirmur State in the hills to the east of Kalka. A few
+miles south of Kalka it crosses a narrow neck of the Ambala district,
+and the bridge on the Ambala-Kalka railway is in this section. The rest
+of its course, till it loses itself in the sands of Bikaner, is chiefly
+in Patiala and the Karnal and Hissar districts. It is joined by the Umla
+torrent in Karnal and lower down the Sarusti unites with it in Patiala
+just beyond the Karnal border. It is hard to believe that the Sarusti of
+to-day is the famous Sarasvati of the Vedas, though the little
+ditch-like channel that bears the name certainly passes beside the
+sacred sites of Thanesar and Pehowa. A small sandy torrent bearing the
+same name rises in the low hills in the north-east of the Ambala
+district, but it is doubtful if its waters, which finally disappear into
+the ground, ever reach the Thanesar channel. That seems rather to
+originate in the overflow of a rice swamp in the plains, and in the cold
+weather the bed is usually dry. In fact, till the Sarusti receives above
+Pehowa the floods of the Markanda torrent, it is a most insignificant
+stream. The Markanda, when in flood, carries a large volume of water,
+and below the junction the small channel of the Sarusti cannot carry the
+tribute received, which spreads out into a shallow lake called the
+Sainsa _jhil_. This has been utilized for the supply of the little
+Sarusti canal, which is intended to do the work formerly effected in a
+rude way by throwing _bands_ or embankments across the bed of the
+stream, and forcing the water over the surrounding lands. The same
+wasteful form of irrigation was used on a large scale on the Ghagar and
+is still practised on its upper reaches. Lower down earthen _bands_ have
+been superceded by a masonry weir at Otu in the Hissar district. The
+northern and southern Ghagar canals, which irrigate lands in Hissar and
+Bikaner, take off from this weir.
+
+~Action of Torrents.~--The Ghagar is large enough to exhibit all the three
+stages which a _cho_ or torrent of intermittent flow passes through.
+Such a stream begins in the hills with a well-defined boulder-strewn
+bed, which is never dry. Reaching the plains the bed of a cho becomes a
+wide expanse of white sand, hardly below the level of the adjoining
+country, with a thread of water passing down it in the cold weather. But
+from time to time in the rainy season the channel is full from bank to
+bank and the waters spill far and wide over the fields. Sudden spates
+sometimes sweep away men and cattle before they can get across. If, as
+in Hoshyarpur, the _chos_ flow into a rich plain from hills composed of
+friable sandstone and largely denuded of tree-growth, they are in their
+second stage most destructive. After long delay an Act was passed in
+1900, which gives the government large powers for the protection of
+trees in the Siwaliks and the reclamation of torrent beds in the plains.
+The process of recovery cannot be rapid, but a measure of success has
+already been attained. It must not be supposed that the action of _chos_
+in this second stage is uniformly bad. Some carry silt as well as sand,
+and the very light loam which the great Markanda _cho_ has spread over
+the country on its banks is worth much more to the farmer than the stiff
+clay it has overlaid. Many _chos_ do not pass into the third stage, when
+all the sand has been dropped, and the bed shrinks into a narrow
+ditch-like channel with steep clay banks. The inundations of torrents
+like the Degh and the Ghagar after this stage is reached convert the
+soil into a stiff impervious clay, where flood-water will lie for weeks
+without being absorbed into the soil. In Karnal the wretched and
+fever-stricken tract between the Ghagar and the Sarusti known as the
+Naili is of this character.
+
+~The Jamna.~--The Jamna is the Yamuna of Sanskrit writers. Ptolemy's and
+Pliny's versions, Diamouna and Jomanes, do not deviate much from the
+original. It rises in the Kumaon Himalaya, and, where it first meets the
+frontier of the Simla Hill States, receives from the north a large
+tributary called the Tons. Henceforth, speaking broadly, the Jamna is
+the boundary of the Panjab and the United Provinces. On the Panjab bank
+are from north to south the Sirmur State, Ambala, Karnal, Rohtak, Delhi,
+and Gurgaon. The river leaves the Panjab where Gurgaon and the district
+of Mathra, which belongs to the United Provinces, meet, and finally
+falls into the Ganges at Allahabad. North of Mathra Delhi is the only
+important town on its banks. The Jamna is crossed by railway bridges
+between Delhi and Meerut and between Ambala and Saharanpur.
+
+~Changes in Rivers.~--Allusion has already been made to the changes which
+the courses of Panjab rivers are subject to in the plains. The Indus
+below Kalabagh once ran through the heart of what is now the Thal
+desert. We know that in 1245 A.D. Multan was in the Sind Sagar Doab
+between the Indus and the united streams of the Jhelam, Chenab, and
+Ravi. The Bias had then no connection with the Sutlej, but ran in a bed
+of its own easily to be traced to-day in the Montgomery and Multan
+districts, and joined the Indus between Multan and Uch. The Sutlej was
+still flowing in the Hakra bed. Indeed its junction with the Bias near
+Harike, which probably led to a complete change in the course of the
+Bias, seems only to have taken place within the last 150 years[2].
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 2: Raverty's "The Mehran of Sind and its Tributaries," in
+_Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal_, 1897.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES
+
+
+~Extent of Geological Record.~--Although the main part of the Panjab plain
+is covered by a mantle of comparatively recent alluvium, the provinces
+described in this book display a more complete record of Indian
+geological history than any other similar area in the country. The
+variety is so great that no systematic or sufficient description could
+be attempted in a short chapter, and it is not possible, therefore, to
+do more in these few pages than give brief sketches of the patches of
+unusual interest.
+
+~Aravalli System.~--In the southern and south-eastern districts of the
+Panjab there are exposures of highly folded and metamorphosed rocks
+which belong to the most ancient formations in India. These occupy the
+northern end of the Aravalli hills, which form but a relic of what must
+have been at one time a great mountain range, stretching roughly
+south-south-west through Rajputana into the Bombay Presidency. The
+northern ribs of the Aravalli series disappear beneath alluvial cover in
+the Delhi district, but the rocks still underlie the plains to the west
+and north-west, their presence being revealed by the small promontories
+that peep through the alluvium near the Chenab river, standing up as
+small hills near Chiniot in the Shahpur, Jhang, and Lyallpur districts.
+
+The Salt Range in the Jhelam and Shahpur districts, with a western
+continuation in the Mianwali district to and beyond the Indus, is the
+most interesting part of the Panjab to the geologist. It contains
+notable records of three distinct eras in geological history. In
+association with the well-known beds of rock-salt, which are being
+extensively mined at Kheora, occur the most ancient fossiliferous
+formations known in India, corresponding in age with the middle and
+lower part of the Cambrian system of Europe. These very ancient strata
+immediately overlie the red marls and associated rock-salt beds, and it
+is possible that they have been thrust over bodily to occupy this
+position, as we have no parallel elsewhere for the occurrence of great
+masses of salt in formation older than the Cambrian.
+
+The second fragment of geological history preserved in the Salt Range is
+very much younger, beginning with rocks which were formed in the later
+part of the Carboniferous period. The most remarkable feature in this
+fragment is a boulder-bed, resting unconformably on the Cambrian strata
+and including boulders of various shapes and sizes, which are often
+faceted and striated in a way indicative of glacial action. Several of
+the boulders belong to rocks of a peculiar and unmistakable character,
+such as are found _in situ_ on the western flanks of the Aravalli Range,
+some 750 miles to the south. The glacial conditions which gave rise to
+these boulder-beds were presumably contemporaneous with those that
+produced the somewhat similar formation lying at the base of the great
+coal-bearing system in the Indian peninsula. The glacial boulder-bed
+thus offers indirect evidence as to the age of the Indian coal-measures,
+for immediately above this bed in the Salt Range there occur sandstones
+containing fossils which have affinities with the Upper Carboniferous
+formations of Australia, and on these sandstones again there lie
+alternations of shales and limestones containing an abundance of fossils
+that are characteristic of the Permo-Carboniferous rocks of Russia.
+These are succeeded by an apparently conformable succession of beds of
+still younger age, culminating in a series of shales, sandstones, and
+limestones of unmistakably Triassic age.
+
+There is then an interruption in the record, and the next younger series
+preserved occurs in the western part of the Salt Range as well as in the
+hills beyond the Indus. This formation is of Upper Jurassic age,
+corresponding to the well-known beds of marine origin preserved in
+Cutch. Then follows again a gap in the record, and the next most
+interesting series of formations found in the Salt Range become of great
+importance from the economic as well as from the purely scientific point
+of view; these are the formations of Tertiary age.
+
+The oldest of the Tertiary strata include a prominent limestone
+containing Nummulitic fossils, which are characteristic of these Lower
+Tertiary beds throughout the world. Here, as in many parts of
+North-Western India, the Nummulitic limestones are associated with coal
+which has been largely worked. The country between the Salt Range
+plateau and the hilly region away to the north is covered by a great
+stretch of comparatively young Tertiary formations, which were laid down
+in fresh water after the sea had been driven back finally from this
+region. The incoming of fresh-water conditions was inaugurated by the
+formation of beds which are regarded as equivalent in age to those known
+as the Upper Nari in Sind and Eastern Baluchistan, but the still later
+deposits, belonging to the well-known Siwalik series, are famous on
+account of the great variety and large size of many of the vertebrate
+fossil remains which they have yielded. In these beds to the north of
+the Salt Range there have been found remains of Dinotherium, forms
+related to the ancestors of the giraffe and various other mammals, some
+of them, like the Sivatherium, Mastodon, and Stegodon, being animals of
+great size. On the northern side of the Salt Range three fairly
+well-defined divisions of the Siwalik series have been recognised, each
+being conspicuously fossiliferous--a feature that is comparatively rare
+in the Siwalik hills further to the south-east, where these rocks were
+first studied. The Siwalik series of the Salt Range are thus so well
+developed that this area might be conveniently regarded as the type
+succession for the purpose of correlating isolated fragmentary
+occurrences of the same general series in northern and western India. To
+give an idea as to the age of these rocks, it will be sufficient to
+mention that the middle division of the series corresponds roughly to
+the well-known deposits of Pikermi and Samos.
+
+~Kashmir~ deserves special mention, as it is a veritable paradise for the
+geologist. Of the variety of problems that it presents one might mention
+the petrological questions connected with the intrusion of the great
+masses of granite, and their relation to the slates and associated
+metamorphic rocks. Of fossiliferous systems there is a fine display of
+material ranging in age from Silurian to Upper Trias, and additional
+interest is added by the long-continued volcanic eruptions of the
+"Panjal trap." Students of recent phenomena have at their disposal
+interesting problems in physiography, including a grand display of
+glaciers, and the extensive deposits of so-called _karewas_, which
+appear to have been formed in drowned valleys, where the normal
+fluviatile conditions are modified by those characteristic of lakes. The
+occurrence of sapphires in Zanskar gives the State also an interest to
+the mineralogist and connoisseur of gem-stones.
+
+Of this kaleidoscopic assemblage of questions the ones of most immediate
+interest are connected with the Silurian-Trias succession in the Kashmir
+valley, for here we have a connecting-link between the marine formations
+of the Salt Range area and those which are preserved in greater
+perfection in Spiti and other parts of the Tibetan highlands, stretching
+away to the south-east at the back of the great range of crystalline
+snow-covered peaks.
+
+In this interesting part of Kashmir the most important feature to Indian
+geologists is the occurrence of plant remains belonging to genera
+identical with those that occur in the lower part of the great
+coal-bearing formation of Peninsular India, known as the Gondwana
+system. Until these discoveries were made in Kashmir about ten years ago
+the age of the base of the Gondwanas was estimated only on indirect
+evidence, partly due to the assumption that glacial conditions in the
+Salt Range and those at the base of the Gondwanas were contemporaneous,
+and partly due to analogy with the coal measures of Australia and South
+Africa. In Kashmir the characteristic plant remains of the Lower
+Gondwanas are found associated with marine fossils in great abundance,
+and these permit of a correlation of the strata with the upper part of
+the Carboniferous system of the European standard stratigraphical scale.
+
+Kashmir seems to have been near the estuary of one of the great rivers
+that formerly flowed over the ancient continent of _Gondwanaland_ (when
+India and South Africa formed parts of one continental mass) into the
+great Eurasian Ocean known as _Tethys_. As the deposits formed in this
+great ocean give us the principal part of our data for forming a
+standard stratigraphical scale, the plants which were carried out to sea
+become witnesses of the kind of flora that flourished during the main
+Indian coal period; they thus enable us with great precision to fix the
+position of the fresh-water Gondwanas in comparison with the marine
+succession.
+
+~Spiti.~--With a brief reference to one more interesting patch among the
+geological records of this remarkable region, space will force us to
+pass on to consideration of minerals of economic value. The line of
+snow-covered peaks, composed mainly of crystalline rocks and forming a
+core to the Himalaya in a way analogous to the granitic core of the
+Alps, occupies what was once apparently the northern shore of
+Gondwanaland, and to the north of it there stretched the great ocean of
+Tethys, covering the central parts of Asia and Europe, one of its
+shrunken relics being the present Mediterranean Sea. The bed of this
+ocean throughout many geological ages underwent gradual depression and
+received the sediments brought down by the rivers from the continent
+which stretched away to the south. The sedimentary deposits thus formed
+near the shore-line or further out in deep water attained a thickness of
+well over 20,000 feet, and have been studied in the _tahsil_ of Spiti,
+on the northern border of Kumaon, and again on the eastern Tibetan
+plateau to the north of Darjeeling. A reference to the formations
+preserved in Spiti may be regarded as typical of the geological history
+and the conditions under which these formations were produced.
+
+~Succession of Fossiliferous Beds.~--In age the fossiliferous beds range
+from Cambrian right through to the Tertiary epoch; between these
+extremes no single period was passed without leaving its records in some
+part of the great east-to-west Tibetan basin. At the base of the whole
+succession there lies a series of schists which have been largely
+metamorphosed, and on these rest the oldest of the fossiliferous series,
+which, on account of their occurring in the region of snow, has been
+named the _Haimanta system_. The upper part of the Haimanta system has
+been found to contain the characteristic trilobites of the Cambrian
+period of Europe. Over this system lie beds which have yielded in
+succession Ordovician and Silurian fossils, forming altogether a compact
+division which has been distinguished locally as the _Muth system_. Then
+follows the so-called _Kanawar system_, which introduces Devonian
+conditions, followed by fossils characteristic of the well-known
+mountain limestone of Europe.
+
+Then occurs a break in the succession which varies in magnitude in
+different localities, but appears to correspond to great changes in the
+physical geography which widely affect the Indian region. This break
+corresponds roughly to the upper part of the Carboniferous system of
+Europe, and has been suggested as a datum line for distinguishing in
+India an older group of fossiliferous systems below (formed in an area
+that has been distinguished by the name _Dravidian_), from the younger
+group above, which has been distinguished by the name _Aryan_.
+
+During the periods that followed this interruption the bed of the great
+Eurasian Ocean seems to have subsided persistently though
+intermittently. As the various sediments accumulated the exact position
+of the shore-line must have changed to some extent to give rise to the
+conditions favourable for the formation at one time of limestone, at
+another of shale and at other times of sandy deposits. The whole column
+of beds, however, seems to have gone on accumulating without any folding
+movements, and they are consequently now found lying apparently in
+perfect conformity stage upon stage, from those that are Permian in age
+at the base, right through the Mesozoic group, till the time when
+Tertiary conditions were inaugurated and the earth movements began which
+ultimately drove back the ocean and raised the bed, with its accumulated
+load of sediments, into the great folds that now form the Himalayan
+Range. This great mass of Aryan strata includes an enormous number of
+fossil remains, giving probably a more complete record of the gradual
+changes that came over the marine fauna of Tethys than any other area of
+the kind known. One must pass over the great number of interesting
+features still left unmentioned, including the grand architecture of the
+Sub-Himalaya and the diversity of formations in different parts of the
+Frontier Province; for the rest of the available space must be devoted
+to a brief reference to the minerals of value.
+
+~Rock-salt~, which occurs in abundance, is possibly the most important
+mineral in this area. The deposits most largely worked are those which
+occur in the well-known Salt Range, covering parts of the districts of
+Jhelam, Shahpur, and Mianwali. Near the village of Kheora the main seam,
+which is being worked in the Mayo mines, has an aggregate thickness of
+550 feet, of which five seams, with a total thickness of 275 feet,
+consist of salt pure enough to be placed on the table with no more
+preparation than mere pulverising. The associated beds are impregnated
+with earth, and in places there occur thin layers of potash and
+magnesian salts. In this area salt quarrying was practised for an
+unknown period before the time of Akbar, and was continued in a
+primitive fashion until it came under the control of the British
+Government with the occupation of the Panjab in 1849. In 1872 systematic
+mining operations were planned, and the general line of work has been
+continued ever since, with an annual output of roughly 100,000 tons.
+
+Open quarries for salt are developed a short distance to the
+east-north-east of Kalabagh on the Indus, and similar open work is
+practised near Kohat in the North West Frontier Province, where the
+quantity of salt may be regarded as practically inexhaustible. At
+Bahadur Khel the salt lies at the base of the Tertiary series, and can
+be traced for a distance of about eight miles with an exposed thickness
+of over 1000 feet, sometimes standing up as hills of solid salt above
+the general level of the plains. In this area the production is
+naturally limited by want of transport and the small local demand, the
+total output from the quarries being about 16,000 tons per annum. A
+small quantity of salt (generally about 4000 tons a year), is raised
+also from open quarries in the Mandi State, where the rock-salt beds,
+distinctly impure and earthy, lie near the junction between Tertiary
+formations and the older unfossiliferous groups.
+
+~Coal~ occurs at numerous places in association with the Nummulitic
+limestones of Lower Tertiary age, in the Panjab, in the North West
+Frontier Province, and in the Jammu division of Kashmir. The largest
+output has been obtained from the Salt Range, where mines have been
+opened up on behalf of the North Western Railway. The mines at Dandot in
+the Jhelam district have considerable fluctuations in output, which,
+however, for many years ranged near 50,000 tons. These mines, having
+been worked at a financial loss, were finally abandoned by the Railway
+Company in 1911, but a certain amount of work is still being continued
+by local contractors. At Bhaganwala, 19 miles further east, in the
+adjoining district of Shahpur, coal was also worked for many years for
+the North Western State Railway, but the maximum output in any one year
+never exceeded 14,000 tons, and in 1900, owing to the poor quality of
+material obtained, the collieries were closed down. Recently, small
+outcrop workings have been developed in the same formation further west
+on the southern scarp of the Salt Range at Tejuwala in the Shahpur
+district.
+
+~Gold~ to a small amount is washed from the gravel of the Indus and some
+other rivers by native workers, and large concessions have been granted
+for systematic dredging, but these enterprises have not yet reached the
+commercially paying stage.
+
+~Other Metals.~--Prospecting has been carried on at irregular intervals in
+Kulu and along the corresponding belt of schistose rocks further west in
+Kashmir and Chitral. The copper ores occur as sulphides along certain
+bands in the chloritic and micaceous schists, similar in composition and
+probably in age to those worked further east in Kumaon, in Nipal, and in
+Sikkim. In Lahul near the Shigri glacier there is a lode containing
+~antimony~ sulphide with ores of ~zinc~ and ~lead~, which would almost
+certainly be opened up and developed but for the difficulty of access
+and cost of transport to the only valuable markets.
+
+~Petroleum~ springs occur among the Tertiary formations of the Panjab and
+Biluchistan, and a few thousand gallons of oil are raised annually.
+Prospecting operations have been carried on vigorously during the past
+two or three years, but no large supplies have so far been proved. The
+principal oil-supplies of Burma and Assam have been obtained from rocks
+of Miocene age, like those of Persia and the Caspian region, but the
+most promising "shows" in North West India have been in the older
+Nummulitic formations, and the oil is thus regarded by some experts as
+the residue of the material which has migrated from the Miocene beds
+that probably at one time covered the Nummulitic formations, but have
+since been removed by the erosive action of the atmosphere.
+
+~Alum~ is manufactured from the pyritous shales of the Mianwali district,
+the annual output being generally about 200 to 300 tons. Similar shales
+containing pyrites are known to occur in other parts of this area, and
+possibly the industry might be considerably extended, as the annual
+requirements of India, judged by the import returns, exceed ten times
+the native production of alum.
+
+~Borax~ is produced in Ladakh and larger quantities are imported across
+the frontier from Tibet. In the early summer one frequently meets herds
+of sheep being driven southwards across the Himalayan passes, each sheep
+carrying a couple of small saddle-bags laden with borax or salt, which
+is bartered in the Panjab bazars for Indian and foreign stores for the
+winter requirements of the snow-blocked valleys beyond the frontier.
+
+~Sapphires.~--The sapphires of Zanskar have been worked at intervals since
+the discovery of the deposit in 1881, and some of the finest stones in
+the gem market have been obtained from this locality, where work is,
+however, difficult on account of the great altitude and the difficulty
+of access from the plains.
+
+~Limestone.~--Large deposits of Nummulitic limestone are found in the
+older Tertiary formations of North-West India. It yields a pure lime and
+is used in large quantities for building purposes. The constant
+association of these limestones with shale beds, and their frequent
+association with coal, naturally suggest their employment for the
+manufacture of cement; and special concessions have recently been given
+by the Panjab Government with a view of encouraging the development of
+the industry. The nodular impure limestone, known generally by the name
+of _kankar_, contains sufficient clay to give it hydraulic characters
+when burnt, and much cement is thus manufactured. The varying
+composition of _kankar_ naturally results in a product of irregular
+character, and consequently cement so made can replace Portland cement
+only for certain purposes.
+
+~Slate~ is quarried in various places for purely local use. In the Kangra
+valley material of very high quality is obtained and consequently
+secures a wide distribution, limited, however, by competition with
+cheaply made tiles.
+
+~Gypsum~ occurs in large quantities in association with the rock-salt of
+the Salt Range, but the local demand is small. There are also beds of
+potash and magnesian salts in the same area, but their value and
+quantity have not been thoroughly proved.
+
+[Illustration: January-February.]
+
+[Illustration: March to May.]
+
+
+ _Normal Rainfall._
+
+ I. N.W.F. Province. II. Kashmir.
+ III. Panjab E. and N. IV. Panjab S.W.
+
+
+Fig. 16. Rainfall of different Seasons.
+
+[Illustration: June to September.]
+
+[Illustration: October to December.]
+
+
+ _Normal Rainfall._
+
+ I. N.W.F. Province II. Kashmir.
+ III. Panjab E. and N. IV. Panjab S.W.
+
+
+Fig. 16 (_cont._). Rainfall of different Seasons.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CLIMATE
+
+
+~Types of Climate.~--The climate of the Panjab plains is determined by
+their distance from the sea and the existence of formidable mountain
+barriers to the north and west. The factor of elevation makes the
+climate of the Himalayan tracts very different from that of the plains.
+Still more striking is the contrast between the Indian Himalayan climate
+and the Central Asian Trans-Himalayan climate of Spiti, Lahul, and
+Ladakh.
+
+~Zones.~--A broad division into six zones may be recognised:
+
+ A 1. Trans-Himalayan.
+ B 2. Himalayan.
+ C. Plains 3. North Western.
+ 4. Submontane.
+ 5. Central and South Eastern.
+ 6. South Western.
+
+~Trans-Himalayan Climate.~--Spiti, Lahul, and Ladakh are outside the
+meteorological influences which affect the rest of the Indian Empire.
+The lofty ranges of the Himalaya interpose an almost insurmountable
+barrier between them and the clouds of the monsoon. The rainfall is
+extraordinarily small, and, considering the elevation of the inhabited
+parts, 10,000 to 14,000 feet, the snowfall there is not heavy. The air
+is intensely dry and clear, and the daily and seasonal range of
+temperature is extreme. Leh, the capital of Ladakh (11,500 feet), has an
+average rainfall (including snow) of about 3 inches. The mean
+temperature is 43 deg. Fahr., varying from 19 deg. in January to 64 deg. in July.
+But these figures give no idea of the rigours of the severe but healthy
+climate. The daily range is from 25 to 30 degrees, or double what we are
+accustomed to in England. Once 17 deg. below zero was recorded. In the rare
+dry clear atmosphere the power of the solar rays is extraordinary.
+"Rocks exposed to the sun may be too hot to lay the hand upon at the
+same time that it is freezing in the shade."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for January.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18. Average Barometric and Wind Chart for July.]
+
+~The Indian Zones--Meteorological factors.~--The distribution of pressure
+in India, determined mainly by changes of temperature, and itself
+determining the direction of the winds and the character of the weather,
+is shown graphically in figures 17 and 18. The winter or north-east
+monsoon does not penetrate into the Panjab, where light westernly and
+northernly winds prevail during the cold season. What rain is received
+is due to land storms originating beyond the western frontier. The
+branch of the summer or south-west monsoon which chiefly affects the
+Panjab is that which blows up the Bay of Bengal. The rain-clouds
+striking the Eastern Himalaya are deflected to the west and forced up
+the Gangetic plain by south-westernly winds. The lower ranges of the
+Panjab Himalaya receive in this way very heavy downpours. The rain
+extends into the plains, but exhausts itself and dies away pretty
+rapidly to the south and west. The Bombay branch of the monsoon mostly
+spends itself on the Ghats and in the Deccan. But a part of it
+penetrates from time to time to the south-east Panjab, and, if it is
+sucked into the Bay current, the result is widespread rain.
+
+~Himalayan Zone.~--The impressions which English people get of the climate
+of the Himalaya, or in Indian phrase "the Hills," are derived mainly
+from stations like Simla and Murree perched at a height of from 6500 to
+7500 feet on the outer ranges. The data of meteorologists are mainly
+taken from the same localities. Places between 8000 and 10,000 feet in
+height and further from the plains enjoy a finer climate, being both
+cooler and drier in summer. But they are less accessible, and weakly
+persons would find the greater rarity of the air trying.
+
+In the first fortnight of April the plains become disagreeably warm, and
+it is well to take European children to the Hills. The Panjab Government
+moves to Simla in the first fortnight of May. By that time Simla is
+pretty warm in the middle of the day, but the nights are pleasant. The
+mean temperature of the 24 hours in May and June is 65 deg. or 66 deg., the mean
+maximum and minimum being 78 deg. and 59 deg.. Thunderstorms with or without
+hail are not uncommon in April, May, and June. In a normal year the
+monsoon clouds drift up in the end of June, and the next three months
+are "the Rains." Usually it does not rain either all day or every day;
+but sometimes for weeks together Simla is smothered in a blanket of grey
+mist. Normally the rain comes in bursts with longer or shorter breaks
+between. About the third week of September the rains often cease quite
+suddenly, the end being usually proclaimed by a thunderstorm. Next
+morning one wakes to a new heaven and a new earth, a perfectly cloudless
+sky, and clean, crisp, cool air. This ideal weather lasts for the next
+three months. Even in December the days are made pleasant by bright
+sunshine, and the range of temperature is much less than in the plains.
+In the end of December or beginning of January the night thermometer
+often falls lower at Ambala and Rawalpindi than at Simla and Murree.
+After Christmas the weather becomes broken, and in January and February
+falls of snow occur. It is a disagreeable time, and English residents
+are glad to descend to the plains. In March also the weather is often
+unsettled. The really heavy falls of snow occur at levels much higher
+than Simla. These remarks apply _mutatis mutandis_ to Dharmsala,
+Dalhousie, and Murree. Owing to its position right under a lofty
+mountain wall Dharmsala is a far wetter place than Simla. Murree gets
+its monsoon later, and the summer rainfall is a good deal lighter. In
+winter it has more snow, being nearer the source of origin of the
+storms. Himalayan valleys at an elevation of 5000 feet, such as the Vale
+of Kashmir, have a pleasant climate. The mean temperature of Srinagar
+(5255 feet) varies from 33 deg. in January to 75 deg. in July, when it is
+unpleasantly hot, and Europeans often move to Gulmarg. Kashmir has a
+heavy snowfall even in the Jhelam valley. Below 4000 feet, especially in
+confined river valleys the Himalayan climate is often disagreeably hot
+and stuffy.
+
+~Climate of the Plains.~--The course of the seasons is the same in the
+plains. The jaded resident finds relief when the rains cease in the end
+of September. The days are still warm, but the skies are clear, the air
+dry, and the nights cool. November is rainless and in every way a
+pleasant month. The clouds begin to gather before Christmas, but rain
+often holds off till January. Pleasant though the early months of the
+cold weather are, they lay traps for the unwary. In October and November
+the daily range of temperature is very large, exceeding 30 deg., and the
+fall at sunset very sudden. Care is needed to avoid a chill and the
+fever that follows. Clear and dry though the air is, the blue of the
+skies is pale owing to a light dust haze in the upper atmosphere. For
+the same reason the Himalayan snows except after rain are veiled from
+dwellers in the plains at a distance of 30 miles from the foot-hills.
+The air in these months before the winter rains is wonderfully still. In
+the three months after Christmas the Panjab is the pathway of a series
+of small storms from the west, preceded by close weather and occurring
+usually at intervals of a few weeks. After a day or two of wet weather
+the sky clears, and the storm is followed by a great drop in the
+temperature. The traveller who shivers after a January rain-storm finds
+it hard to believe that the Panjab plain is a part of the hottest region
+of the Old World which stretches from the Sahara to Delhi. If he had to
+spend the period from May to July there he would have small doubts on
+the subject. The heat begins to be unpleasant in April, when hot
+westernly winds prevail. An occasional thunderstorm with hail relieves
+the strain for a little. The warmest period of the year is May and June.
+But the intense dry heat is healthier and to many less trying than the
+mugginess of the rainy season. The dust-storms which used to be common
+have become rarer and lighter with the spread of canal irrigation in the
+western Panjab. The rains ought to break at Delhi in the end of June and
+at Lahore ten days or a fortnight later. There is often a long break
+when the climate is particularly trying. The nights are terribly hot.
+The outer air is then less stifling than that of the house, and there is
+the chance of a little comparative coolness shortly before dawn. Many
+therefore prefer to sleep on the roof or in the verandah. September,
+when the rains slacken, is a muggy, unpleasant, and unhealthy month. But
+in the latter half of it cooler nights give promise of a better time.
+
+~Special features of Plain Zones.~--The submontane zone has the most
+equable and the pleasantest climate in the plains. It has a rainfall of
+from 30 to 40 inches, five-sevenths or more of which belongs to the
+monsoon period (June-September). The north-western area has a longer and
+colder winter and spring. In the end of December and in January the keen
+dry cold is distinctly trying. The figures in Statement I, for
+Rawalpindi and Peshawar, are not very characteristic of the zone as a
+whole. The average of the rainfall figures, 13 inches for Peshawar and
+32 for Rawalpindi, would give a truer result. The monsoon rains come
+later and are much less abundant than in the submontane zone. Their
+influence is very feeble in the western and south-western part of the
+area. On the other hand the winter rains, are heavier than in any other
+part of the province. Delhi and Lahore represent the extreme conditions
+of the central and south-eastern plains. The latter is really on the
+edge of the dry south-western area. The eastern districts of the zone
+have a shorter and less severe cold weather than the western, an earlier
+and heavier monsoon, but scantier winter rains. The total rainfall
+varies from 16 to 30 inches. The south-western zone, with a rainfall of
+from 5 to 15 inches, is the driest part of India proper except northern
+Sindh and western Rajputana. Neither monsoon current affects it much. At
+Multan there are only about fifteen days in the whole year on which any
+rain falls.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HERBS, SHRUBS, AND TREES
+
+
+~Affinities of Panjab Flora.~--It is hopeless to describe except in the
+broadest outline the flora of a tract covering an area of 250,000 square
+miles and ranging in altitude from a few hundred feet to a height 10,000
+feet above the limit of flowering plants. The nature of the vegetation
+of any tract depends on rainfall and temperature, and only secondarily
+on soil. A desert is a tract with a dry substratum and dry air, great
+heat during some part of the year, and bright sunshine. The soil may be
+loam or sand, and as regards vegetation a sandy desert is the worst
+owing to the rapid drying up of the subsoil after rain. In the third of
+the maps appended to Schimper's _Plant Geography_ by far the greater
+part of the area dealt with in this book is shown as part of the vast
+desert extending from the Sahara to Manchuria. Seeing that the monsoon
+penetrates into the province and that it is traversed by large snow-fed
+rivers the Panjab, except in parts of the extreme western and
+south-western districts, is not a desert like the Sahara or Gobi,
+and Schimper recognised this by marking most of the area as
+semi-desert. Still the flora outside the Hills and the submontane
+tract is predominantly of the desert type, being xerophilous or
+drought-resisting. The adaptations which enable plants to survive in a
+tract deficient in moisture are of various kinds. The roots may be
+greatly developed to enable them to tap the subsoil moisture, the
+leaves may be reduced in size, converted into thorns, or entirely
+dispensed with, in order to check rapid evaporation, they may be covered
+with silky or felted hairs, a modification which produces the same
+result, or their internal tissue may be succulent or mucilaginous. In
+the plants of the Panjab plains there is no difficulty in recognising
+these features of a drought-resisting flora. Schimper's map shows in the
+north-east of the area a wedge thrust in between the plains' desert and
+the dry elevated alpine desert cut off from the influence of the monsoon
+by the lofty barrier of the Inner Himalaya. This consists of two parts,
+monsoon forest, corresponding roughly with the Himalayan area Cis Ravi
+above the 5000 feet contour, and dry woodland of a semi-tropical stamp,
+consisting, of the adjoining foot-hills and submontane tract. This wedge
+is in fact treated as part of the zone, which in the map (after Drude)
+prefixed to Willis' _Manual and Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and
+Ferns_, is called Indo-Malayan, and which embraces the Malayan
+Archipelago and part of North Australia, Burma, and practically the
+whole of India except the Panjab, Sindh, and Rajputana. In Drude's map
+the three countries last mentioned are included in a large zone called
+"the Mediterranean and Orient." This is a very broad classification, and
+in tracing the relationships of the Panjab flora it is better to treat
+the desert area of North Africa, which in Tripoli and Egypt extends to
+the coast, apart from the Mediterranean zone. It is a familiar fact
+that, as we ascend lofty mountains like those of the Himalaya, we pass
+through belts or regions of vegetation of different types. The air
+steadily becomes rarer and therefore colder, especially at night, and at
+the higher levels there is a marked reduction in the rainfall. When the
+alpine region, which in the Himalaya may be taken as beginning at 11,000
+feet, is reached, the plants have as a rule bigger roots, shorter
+stems, smaller leaves, but often larger and more brilliantly coloured
+flowers. These are adaptations of a drought-resisting kind.
+
+~Regions.~--In this sketch it will suffice to divide the tract into six
+regions:
+
+ Plains 1. Panjab dry plain.
+
+ 2. Salt Range and North West Plateau, from
+ the frontier to Pabbi Hills.
+
+ 3. Submontane Hills on east bank of Jhelam.
+
+ Hills 4. Sub-Himalaya, 2000-5000 feet.
+
+ 5. Temperate Himalaya, 5000-11,000 feet.
+
+ 6. Alpine Himalaya, 11,000-16,000 feet.
+
+Of course a flora does not fit itself into compartments, and the changes
+of type are gradual.
+
+~Panjab Dry Plain.~--The affinities of the flora of the Panjab plains
+south of the Salt Range and the submontane tract are, especially in the
+west, with the desert areas of Persia, Arabia, and North Africa, though
+the spread of canal irrigation is modifying somewhat the character of
+the vegetation. The soil and climate are unsuited to the growth of large
+trees, but adapted to scrub jungle of a drought-resisting type, which at
+one time covered very large areas from the Jamna to the Jhelam. The soil
+on which this sparse scrub grew is a good strong loam, but the rainfall
+was too scanty and the water-level too deep to admit of much cultivation
+outside the valleys of the rivers till the labours of canal engineers
+carried their waters to the uplands. East of the Sutlej the Bikaner
+desert thrusts northwards a great wedge of sandy land which occupies a
+large area in Bahawalpur, Hissar, Ferozepur, and Patiala. Soil of this
+description is free of forest growth, and the monsoon rainfall in this
+part of the province is sufficient to encourage an easy, but very
+precarious, cultivation of autumn millets and pulses. The great Thal
+desert to the south of the Salt Range between the valleys of the Jhelam
+and the Indus has a similar soil, but the scantiness of the rainfall has
+confined cultivation within much narrower limits. Between the Sutlej and
+the Jhelam the uplands between the river valleys are known locally as
+Bars. The largest of the truly indigenous trees of the Panjab plains are
+the _farash_ (Tamarix articulata) and the thorny _kikar_ (Acacia
+Arabica). The latter yields excellent wood for agricultural implements,
+and fortunately it grows well in sour soils. Smaller thorny acacias are
+the _nimbar_ or _raunj_ (Acacia leucophloea) and the _khair_ (Acacia
+Senegal). The dwarf tamarisk, _pilchi_ or _jhao_ (Tamarix dioica), grows
+freely in moist sandy soils near rivers. The scrub jungle consists
+mostly of _jand_ (Prosopis spicigera), a near relation of the Acacias,
+_jal_ or _van_ (Salvadora oleoides), and the coral-flowered _karil_ or
+leafless caper (Capparis aphylla). All these show their desert
+affinities, the _jand_ by its long root and its thorns, the _jal_ by its
+small leathery leaves, and the _karil_ by the fact that it has managed
+to dispense with leaves altogether. The _jand_ is a useful little tree,
+and wherever it grows the natural qualities of the soil are good. The
+sweetish fruit of the _jal_, known as _pilu_, is liked by the people,
+and in famines they will even eat the berries of the leafless caper.
+Other characteristic plants of the Panjab plains are under Leguminosae,
+the _khip_ (Crotalaria burhia), two Farsetias (_farid ki buti_), and the
+_jawasa_ or camel thorn (Alhagi camelorum), practically leafless, but
+with very long and stout spines; under Capparidaceae several Cleomes,
+species of Corchorus (Tiliaceae), under Zygophyllaceae three
+Mediterranean genera, Tribulus, Zygophyllum, and Fagonia, under
+Solanaceae several Solanums and Withanias, and various salsolaceous
+Chenopods known as _lana_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19. Banian or Bor trees.]
+
+In the sandier tracts the _ak_ (Calotropis procera, N.O.
+Asclepiadaceae), the _harmal_ (Peganum harmala, N.O. Rutaceae), and the
+colocynth gourd (Citrullus colocynthis, N.O. Cucurbitaceae), which,
+owing to the size of its roots, manages to flourish in the sands of
+African and Indian deserts, grow abundantly. Common weeds of cultivation
+are Fumaria parviflora, a near relation of the English fumitory, Silene
+conoidea, and two Spergulas (Caryophyllaceae), and Sisymbrium Irio
+(Cruciferae). A curious little Orchid, Zeuxine sulcata, is found growing
+among the grass on canal banks. The American yellow poppy, Argemone
+Mexicana, a noxious weed, has unfortunately established itself widely in
+the Panjab plain. Two trees of the order Leguminosae, the _shisham_ or
+_tali_ (Dalbergia Sissoo) and the _siris_ (Albizzia lebbek), are
+commonly planted on Panjab roads. The true home of the former is in
+river beds in the low hills or in ravines below the hills. But it is a
+favourite tree on roads and near wells throughout the province, and
+deservedly so, for it yields excellent timber. The _siris_ on the other
+hand is an untidy useless tree. The _kikar_ might be planted as a
+roadside tree to a greater extent. Several species of figs, especially
+the _pipal_ (Ficus religiosa) and _bor_ or banian (Ficus Indica) are
+popular trees.
+
+~Salt Range and North-West Plains.~---Our second region may be taken as
+extending from the Pabbi hills on the east of the Jhelam in Gujrat to
+our administrative boundary beyond the Indus, its southern limit being
+the Salt Range. Here the flora is of a distinctly Mediterranean type.
+Poppies are as familiar in Rawalpindi as they are in England or Italy,
+and Hypecoum procumbens, a curious Italian plant of the same order, is
+found in Attock. The abundance of Crucifers is also a Mediterranean
+feature. Eruca sativa, the oil-seed known as _taramira_ or _jamian_,
+which sows itself freely in waste land and may be found growing even on
+railway tracks in the Rawalpindi division, is an Italian and Spanish
+weed. Malcolmia strigosa, which spreads a reddish carpet over the
+ground, and Malcolmia Africana are common Crucifers near Rawalpindi. The
+latter is a Mediterranean species. The Salt Range genera Diplotaxis and
+Moricandia are Italian, and the peculiar Notoceras Canariensis found in
+Attock is also a native of the Canary Islands. Another order,
+Boraginaceae, which is very prominent in the Mediterranean region, is
+also important in the North-West Panjab, though the showier plants of
+the order are wanting. One curious Borage, Arnebia Griffithii, seems to
+be purely Asiatic. It has five brown spots on its petals, which fade and
+disappear in the noonday sunshine. These are supposed to be drops of
+sweat which fell from Muhammad's forehead, hence the plant is called
+_paighambari phul_ or the prophet's flower. Among Composites Calendulas
+and Carthamus oxyacantha or the _pohli_, a near relation of the
+Carthamus which yields the saffron dye, are abundant. Both are common
+Mediterranean genera. Silybum Marianum, a handsome thistle with large
+leaves mottled with white, extends from Britain to Rawalpindi.
+Interesting species are Tulipa stellata and Tulipa chrysantha. The
+latter is a Salt Range plant, as is the crocus-like Merendera Persica,
+and the yellow Iris Aitchisoni. A curious plant found in the same hills
+is the cactus-like Boucerosia (N.O. Asclepiadaceae), recalling to
+botanists the more familiar Stapelias of the same order. Another
+leafless Asclepiad, Periploca aphylla, which extends westwards to Arabia
+and Nubia and southwards to Sindh, is, like Boucerosia, a typical
+xerophyte adapted to a very dry soil and atmosphere. The thorny Acacias,
+A. eburnea and A. modesta (vern. _phulahi_), of the low bare hills of
+the N.W. Panjab are also drought-resisting plants.
+
+~Submontane Region.~--The Submontane region consists of a broad belt below
+the Siwaliks extending from the Jamna nearly to the Jhelam, and may be
+said to include the districts of Ambala, Karnal (part), Hoshyarpur,
+Kangra (part), Hazara (part), Jalandhar, Gurdaspur, Sialkot, Gujrat
+(part). In its flora there is a strong infusion of Indo-Malayan
+elements. An interesting member of it is the Butea frondosa, a small
+tree of the order Leguminosae. It is known by several names, _dhak_,
+_chichra_, _palah_, and _palas_. Putting out its large orange-red
+flowers in April it ushers in the hot weather. It has a wide range from
+Ceylon to Bengal, where it has given its name to the town of Dacca and
+the battlefield of Plassy (Palasi). From Bengal it extends all the way
+to Hazara. There can be no doubt that a large part of the submontane
+region was once _dhak_ forest. Tracts in the north of Karnal--Chachra,
+in Jalandhar--Dardhak, and in Gujrat--Palahi, have taken their names
+from this tree. It coppices very freely, furnishes excellent firewood
+and good timber for the wooden frames on which the masonry cylinders of
+wells are reared, it exudes a valuable gum, its flowers yield a dye, and
+the dry leaves are eaten by buffaloes. A tree commonly planted near
+wells and villages in the submontane tract is the _dhrek_ (Melia
+azedarach, N.O. Meliaceae), which is found as far west as Persia and is
+often called by English people the Persian lilac. The _bahera_
+(Terminalia belerica, N.O. Combretaceae), a much larger tree, is
+Indo-Malayan. Common shrubs are the _marwan_ (Vitex negundo, N.O.
+Verbenaceae), Plumbago Zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae), the _bansa_ or
+_bhekar_ (Adhatoda vasica, N.O. Acanthaceae). The last is Indo-Malayan.
+Among herbs Cassias, which do not occur in Europe, are common. The
+curious cactus-like Euphorbia Royleana grows abundantly and is used for
+making hedges.
+
+~Sub-Himalaya.~--A large part of the Sub-Himalayan region belongs to the
+Siwaliks. The climate is fairly moist and subject to less extremes of
+heat and cold than the regions described above. A strong infusion of
+Indo-Malayan types is found and a noticeable feature is the large number
+of flowering trees and shrubs. Such beautiful flowering trees as the
+_simal_ or silk-cotton tree (Bombax Malabaricum, N.O. Malvaceae), the
+_amaltas_ (Cassia fistula), Albizzia mollis and Albizzia stipulata,
+Erythrina suberosa, Bauhinia purpurea and Bauhinia variegata, all
+belonging to the order Leguminosae, are unknown in Europe, but common in
+the Indo-Malayan region. This is true also of Oroxylum Indicum (N.O.
+Bignoniaceae) with its remarkable long sword-like capsules, and of the
+_kamila_ (Mallotus Philippinensis), which abounds in the low hills, but
+may escape the traveller's notice as its flowers have no charm of form
+or colour. He will in spring hardly fail to observe another Indo-Malayan
+tree, the _dhawi_ (Woodfordia floribunda, N.O. Lythraceae) with its
+bright red flowers. Shrubs with conspicuous flowers are also common,
+among which may be noted species of Clematis, Capparis spinosa, Kydia
+calycina, Mimosa rubicaulis, Hamiltonia suaveolens, Caryopteris
+Wallichiana, and Nerium Oleander. The latter grows freely in sandy
+torrent beds. Rhus cotinus, which reddens the hillsides in May, is a
+native also of Syria, Italy, and Southern France. Other trees to be
+noticed are a wild pear (Pyrus pashia), the olive (Olea cuspidata), the
+_khair_ (Acacia catechu) useful to tanners, the _tun_ (Cedrela toona),
+whose wood is often used for furniture, the _dhaman_ (Grewia
+oppositifolia, N.O. Tiliaceae), and several species of fig. The most
+valuable products however of the forests of the lower hills are the
+_chir_ or _chil_ pine (Pinus longifolia), and a giant grass, the bamboo
+(Dendrocalamus strictus), which attains a height of from 20 to 40 feet.
+Shrubs which grow freely on stony hills are the _sanattha_ or _mendru_
+(Dodonaea viscosa, N.O. Sapindaceae), which is a valuable protection
+against denudation, as goats pass it by, the _garna_, which is a species
+of Carissa, and Plectranthus rugosus. Climbers are common. The great
+Hiptage madablota (N.O. Malpighiaceae), the Bauhinia Vahlii or elephant
+creeper, and some species of the parasitic Loranthus, deserve mention,
+also Acacia caesia, Pueraria tuberosa, Vallaris Heynei, Porana
+paniculata, and several vines, especially Vitis lanata with its large
+rusty leaves. Characteristic herbs are the sweet-scented Viola patrinii,
+the slender milkwort; Polygala Abyssinica, a handsome pea, Vigna
+vexillata, a borage, Trichodesma Indicum, a balsam, Impatiens balsamina,
+familiar in English gardens, the beautiful delicate little blue
+Evolvulus alsinoides, the showy purple convolvulus, Ipomaea hederacea,
+and a curious lily, Gloriosa superba.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20. Deodars and Hill Temple.]
+
+~Temperate Himalaya.~--The richest part of the temperate Himalayan flora
+is probably in the 7500-10,000 zone. Above 10,000 feet sup-alpine
+conditions begin, and at 12,000 feet tree growth becomes very scanty and
+the flora is distinctly alpine. The _chir_ pine so common in
+sub-Himalayan forests extends up to 6500 feet. At this height and 1000
+feet lower the _ban_ oak (Quercus incana), grey on the lower side of the
+leaf, which is so common at Simla, abounds. Where the _chil_ stops, the
+_kail_ or blue pine (Pinus excelsa), after the _deodar_ the most
+valuable product of Himalayan forests, begins. Its zone may be taken as
+from 7000 to 9000 feet. To the same zone belong the _kelu_ or _deodar_
+(Cedrus Libani), the glossy leaved _mohru_ oak (Quercus dilatata),
+whose wood is used for making charcoal, and two small trees of the Heath
+order, Rhododendron arborea and Pieris ovalifolia. The former in April
+and May lightens up with its bright red flowers the sombre Simla
+forests. The _kharshu_ or rusty-leaved oak (Quercus semecarpifolia)
+affects a colder climate than its more beautiful glossy-leaved relation,
+and may almost be considered sub-alpine. It is common on Hattu, and the
+oaks there present a forlorn appearance after rain with funereal mosses
+dripping with moisture hanging from their trunks. The firs, Picea
+morinda, with its grey tassels, and Abies Pindrow with its dark green
+yew-like foliage, succeed the blue pine. Picea may be said to range from
+8000 to 10,000 feet, and the upper limit of Abies is from 1000 to 2000
+feet higher. These splendid trees are unfortunately of small commercial
+value. The yew, Taxus baccata, is found associated with them. Between
+5000 and 8000 feet, besides the oaks and other broad-leaved trees
+already noticed, two relations of the dogwood, Cornus capitata and
+Cornus macrophylla, a large poplar, Populus ciliata, a pear, Pyrus
+lanata, a holly, Ilex dipyrena, an elm and its near relation, Celtis
+australis, and species of Rhus and Euonymus, may be mentioned. Cornus
+capitata is a small tree, but it attracts notice because the heads of
+flowers surrounded by bracts of a pale yellow colour have a curious
+likeness to a rose, and the fruit is in semblance not unlike a
+strawberry. Above 8000 feet several species of maple abound. The
+_chinar_ or Platanus orientalis, found as far west as Sicily, grows to
+splendid proportions by the quiet waterways of the Vale of Kashmir. The
+undergrowth in temperate Himalayan forests consists largely of
+barberries, Desmodiums, Indigoferas, roses, brambles, Spiraeas,
+Viburnums, honeysuckles with their near relation, Leycesteria formosa,
+which has been introduced into English shrubberies. The great vine,
+Vitis Himalayana, whose leaves turn red in autumn, climbs up many of the
+trees. Of the flowers it is impossible to give any adequate account. The
+flora is distinctly Mediterranean in type; the orders in Collett's
+_Flora Simlensis_ which are not represented in the Italian flora contain
+hardly more than 5 per cent. of the total genera. The plants included in
+some of these non-Mediterranean orders are very beautiful, for example,
+the Begonias, the Amphicomes (Bignoniaceae), Chirita bifolia and
+Platystemma violoides (Gesneraceae), and Hedychium (Scitamineae). More
+important members of the flora are species of Clematis, including the
+beautiful white Clematis montana, anemones, larkspurs, columbine,
+monkshoods, St John's worts, geraniums, balsams, species of Astragalus,
+Potentillas, Asters, ragworts, species of Cynoglossum, gentians and
+Swertias, Androsaces and primroses, Wulfenia and louseworts, species of
+Strobilanthes, Salvias and Nepetas, orchids, irises, Ophiopogon, Smilax,
+Alliums, lilies, and Solomon's seal. Snake plants (Arisaema) and their
+relation Sauromatum guttatum of the order Araceae are very common in the
+woods. The striped spathe in some species of Arisaema bears a curious
+resemblance to the head of a cobra uplifted to strike. Orchids decrease
+as one proceeds westwards, but irises are much more common in Kashmir
+than in the Simla hills. The Kashmir fritillaries include the beautiful
+Crown Imperial.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21. Firs in Himalaya.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22. Chinars.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23. Rhododendron campanulatum.]
+
+~Alpine Himalaya.~--In the Alpine Himalaya the scanty tree-growth is
+represented by willows, junipers, and birches. After 12,000 or 12,500
+feet it practically disappears. A dwarf shrub, Juniperus recurva, is
+found clothing hillsides a good way above the two trees of the same
+genus. Other alpine shrubs which may be noticed are two rhododendrons,
+which grow on cliffs at an elevation of 10,000 to 14,000 feet, R.
+campanulatum and R. lepidotum, Gaultheria nummularioides with its
+black-purple berry, and Cassiope fastigiata, all belonging to the order
+Ericaceae. The herbs include beautiful primulas, saxifrages, and
+gentians, and in the bellflower order species of Codonopsis and
+Cyananthus. Among Composites may be mentioned the tansies, Saussureas,
+and the fine Erigeron multiradiatus common in the forest above Narkanda.
+In the bleak uplands beyond the Himalaya tree-growth is very scanty, but
+in favoured localities willows and the pencil cedar, Juniperus
+pseudosabina, are found. The people depend for fuel largely on a hoary
+bush of the Chenopod order, Eurotia ceratoides. In places a profusion of
+the red Tibetan roses, Rosa Webbiana, lightens up the otherwise dreary
+scene.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+FORESTS
+
+
+~Rights of State in Waste.~--Under Indian rule the State claimed full
+power of disposing of the waste, and, even where an exclusive right in
+the soil was not maintained, some valuable trees, e.g. the _deodar_ in
+the Himalaya, were treated as the property of the Raja. Under the tenure
+prevailing in the hills the soil is the Raja's, but the people have a
+permanent tenant right in any land brought under cultivation with his
+permission. In Kulu the British Government asserted its ownership of the
+waste. In the south-western Panjab, where the scattered hamlets had no
+real boundaries, ample waste was allotted to each estate, and the
+remainder was claimed as State property.
+
+~Kinds of Forest.~--The lands in the Panjab over which authority, varying
+through many degrees from full ownership unburdened with rights of user
+down to a power of control exercised in the interests of the surrounding
+village communities, may be roughly divided into
+
+ (_a_) Mountain forests;
+
+ (_b_) Hill forests;
+
+ (_c_) Scrub and grass _Jangal_ in the Plains.
+
+The first are forests of _deodar_, blue pine, fir, and oak in the
+Himalaya above the level of 5000 feet. The hill forests occupy the
+lower spurs, the Siwaliks in Hoshyarpur, etc., and the low dry hills of
+the north-west. A strong growth of _chir_ pine (Pinus longifolia) is
+often found in the Himalaya between 3000 and 5000 feet. Below 3000 feet
+is scrub forest, the only really valuable product being bamboo. The
+hills in the north-western districts of the Panjab and N.W.F. Province,
+when nature is allowed to have its way, are covered with low scrub
+including in some parts a dwarf palm (Nannorhops Ritchieana), useful for
+mat making, and with a taller, but scantier growth of _phulahi_ (Acacia
+modesta) and wild olive. What remains of the scrub and grass _jangal_ of
+the plains is to be found chiefly in the Bar tracts between the Sutlej
+and the Jhelam. Much of it has disappeared, or is about to disappear,
+with the advance of canal irrigation. Dry though the climate is the Bar
+was in good seasons a famous grazing area. The scrub consisted mainly of
+_jand_ (Prosopis spicigera), _jal_ (Salvadora oleoides), the _karil_
+(Capparis aphylla) and the _farash_ (Tamarix articulata).
+
+~Management and Income of Forests.~--The Forest Department of the Panjab
+has existed singe 1864, when the first Conservator was appointed. In
+1911-12 it managed 8359 square miles in the Panjab consisting of:
+
+ Reserved Forests 1844 square miles
+ Protected " 5203 " "
+ Unclassed " 1312 " "
+
+It was also in charge of 235 square miles of reserved forest in the
+Hazara district of the N.W.F. Province, and of 364 miles of fine
+mountain forest in the native State of Bashahr. In addition a few
+reserved forests have been made over as grazing areas to the Military
+Department, and Deputy Commissioners are in charge of a very large area
+of unclassed forest.
+
+No forest can be declared "reserved" or "protected" unless it is owned
+in whole or in part by the State. It is enough if the trees or some of
+them are the property of the Government. In order to safeguard all
+private rights a special forest settlement must be made before a forest
+can be declared to be "reserved." In the case of a protected forest it
+is enough if Government is satisfied that the rights of the State and of
+private persons have been recorded at a land revenue settlement. After
+deducting income belonging to the year 1909-10 realized in 1910-11, the
+average income of the two years ending 1911-12 was L81,805 (Rs.
+1,227,082) and the average expenditure L50,954 (Rs. 764,309).
+
+~Sources of Income.~--In the mountain forests the chief source of income
+is the _deodar_, which is valuable both for railway sleepers and as
+building timber. The blue pine is also of commercial value. _Deodar_,
+blue pine, and some _chir_ are floated down the rivers to depots in the
+plains. Firwood is inferior to cedar and pine, and the great fir forests
+are too remote for profitable working at present. There are fine
+mountain forests in Chitral, on the Safed Koh, and in Western
+Waziristan, but these have so far not even been fully explored. The
+value of the hill forests may be increased by the success which has
+attended the experimental extraction of turpentine from the resin of the
+_chir_ pine. The bamboo forests of Kangra are profitable. At present an
+attempt is being made to acclimatize several species of Eucalyptus in
+the low hills. The scrub _jangal_ in the plains yields good fuel. As the
+area is constantly shrinking it is fortunate that the railways have
+ceased to depend on this source of supply, coal having to a great extent
+taken the place of wood. To prevent shortage of fuel considerable areas
+in the tracts commanded by the new canals are being reserved for
+irrigated forests. A forest of this class covering an area of 37 square
+miles and irrigated from the Upper Bari Doab Canal has long existed at
+Changa Manga in the Lahore district.
+
+~Forests in Kashmir.~--The extensive and valuable Kashmir forests are
+mountain and hill forests, the former, which cover much the larger area
+yielding, _deodar_, blue pine, and firs, and the latter _chir_ pine. The
+total area exceeds 2600 square miles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+BEASTS, BIRDS, FISHES, AND INSECTS
+
+
+~Fauna.~--With the spread of cultivation and drainage the Panjab plains
+have ceased to be to anything like the old extent the haunt of wild
+beasts and wild fowl. The lion has long been extinct and the tiger has
+practically disappeared. Leopards are to be found in low hills, and
+sometimes stray into the plains. Wolves are seen occasionally, and
+jackals are very common. The black buck (Antilope cerricapra) can still
+be shot in many places. The graceful little _chinkara_ or ravine deer
+(Gazella Bennetti) is found in sandy tracts, and the hogdeer or _parha_
+(Cervus porcinus) near rivers. The _nilgai_ (Boselaphus tragocamelus) is
+less common. Monkeys abound in the hills and in canal-irrigated tracts
+in the Eastern districts, where their sacred character protects them
+from destruction, though they do much damage to crops. Peafowl are to be
+seen in certain tracts, especially in the eastern Panjab. They should
+not be shot where the people are Hindus or anywhere near a Hindu shrine.
+The great and lesser bustards and several kinds of sand grouse are to be
+found in sandy districts. The grey partridge is everywhere, and the
+black can be got near the rivers. The _sisi_ and the _chikor_ are the
+partridges of the hills, which are also the home of fine varieties of
+pheasants including the _monal_. Quail frequent the ripening fields in
+April and late in September. Duck of various kinds abound where there
+are _jhils_, and snipe are to be got in marshy ground. The green
+parrots, crows, and vultures are familiar sights. Both the sharp-nosed
+(Garialis Gangetica, vern. _gharial_) and the blunt-nosed (Crocodilus
+palustris, vern. magar) crocodiles haunt the rivers. The fish are
+tasteless; the _rohu_ and _mahseer_ are the best. Poisonous snakes are
+the _karait_, the _cobra_, and Russell's viper. The first is sometimes
+an intruder into houses. Lizards and mongooses are less unwelcome
+visitors. White ants attack timber and ruin books, and mosquitoes and
+sandflies add to the unpleasant features of the hot weather. The best
+known insect pest is the locust, but visitations on a large scale are
+rare. Of late years much more damage has been done by an insect which
+harbours in the cotton bolls.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24. Big game in Ladakh.
+
+KEY: 1, 3, 7, 9, Chiru or Tibetan Antelope. 2, Argali or Ovis Ammon. 4,
+6, 8, Bharal or Ovis nahura. 5, Yak or Bos grunniens. 10, 11, 12, Urial
+or Ovis Vignei. 13, Bear skin.]
+
+~Game of the Mountains.~--If sport in the plains has ceased to be first
+rate, it is otherwise in the hills. Some areas and the heights at which
+the game is to be found are noted below:
+
+ (_a_) Goats and goat-antelopes:
+
+ 1. Ibex (Capra Sibirica) 10,000-14,000 ft.
+ Kashmir, Lahul, Bashahr.
+
+ 2. Markhor (Capra Falconeri). Kashmir, Astor,
+ Gilgit, Suliman hills.
+
+ 3. Thar (Hemitragus jemlaicus), 9000-14,000
+ ft. Kashmir, Chamba.
+
+ 4. Gural (Cemas goral), 3000-8000 ft. Kashmir,
+ Chamba, Simla hills, Bashahr.
+
+ 5. Serow (Nemorhaedus bubalinus), 6000-12,000
+ ft. From Kashmir eastwards.
+
+ (_b_) Sheep:
+
+ 1. Bharal (Ovis nahura), 10,000-12,000 ft. and
+ over. Ladakh, Bashahr.
+
+ 2. Argali (Ovis Ammon). Ladakh.
+
+ 3. Urial (Ovis Vignei) Salt Range, Suliman
+ hills.
+
+ (_c_) Antelopes:
+
+ 1. Chiru or Tibetan Antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni).
+ Ladakh.
+
+ (_d_) Oxen--Yak (Bos grunniens). Ladakh. The
+ domesticated _yak_ is invaluable as a beast of
+ burden in the Trans-Himalayan tract. The
+ royal fly whisk or _chauri_ is made from pure
+ white yak tails.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. Yaks.]
+
+ (_e_) Stag:
+
+ 1. Barasingha (Cervus Duvanceli). Foot of
+ Himalaya in Kashmir.
+
+ (_f_) Bears:
+
+ 1. Red or Brown (Ursus Arctos), 10,000-13,000
+ ft. Kashmir, Chamba, Bashahr, etc.
+
+ 2. Black (Ursus torquatus), 6000-12,000 ft.
+ Same regions, but at lower elevations.
+ The small bear of the southern Suliman
+ hills known as _mam_ is now considered a
+ variety of the black bear.
+
+ (_g_) Leopards:
+
+ 1. Snow Leopard (Felis Uncia), 9000-15,000 ft.
+ Kashmir, Chamba, Bashahr.
+
+ 2. Ordinary Leopard (Felis Pardus). Lower
+ hills.
+
+
+SHOOTING IN HILLS
+
+~Shooting in Hills.~--The finest shooting in the north-west Himalaya is
+probably to be got in Ladakh and Baltistan, but the trip is somewhat
+expensive and requires more time than may be available. In many areas
+licenses have to be obtained, and the conditions limit the number of
+certain animals, and the size of heads, that may be shot. For example,
+the permit in Chamba may allow the shooting of two red bear and two
+_thar_, and when these have been got the sportsman must turn his
+attention to black bear and _gural_. Any one contemplating a shooting
+expedition in the Himalaya should get from one who has the necessary
+experience very complete instructions as to weapons, tents, clothing,
+stores, etc.
+
+
+SPORT IN THE PLAINS
+
+(_a_) ~Black Buck Shooting.~--To get a good idea of what shooting in the
+plains is like Major Glasford's _Rifle and Romance in the Indian Jungle_
+may be consulted. As regards larger game the favourite sport is black
+buck shooting. A high velocity cordite rifle is dangerous to the country
+people, and some rifle firing black powder should be used. It is well to
+reach the home of the herd soon after sunrise while it is still in the
+open, and not among the crops. There will usually be one old buck in
+each herd. He himself is not watchful, but his does are, and the herd
+gallops off with great leaps at the first scent of danger, the does
+leading and their lord and master bringing up the rear. If by dint of
+careful and patient stalking you get to some point of vantage, say 100
+yards from the big buck, it is worth while to shoot. Even if the bullet
+finds its mark the quarry may gallop 50 yards before it drops. Good
+heads vary from 20" to 24" or even more.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26. Black buck.]
+
+(_b_) ~Small game in Plains.~--The cold weather shooting begins with the
+advent of the quail in the end of September and ends when they reappear
+among the ripening wheat in April. The duck arrive from the Central
+Asian lakes in November and duck and snipe shooting lasts till February
+in districts where there are _jhils_ and swampy land. For a decent shot
+30 couple of snipe is a fair bag. To get duck the _jhil_ should be
+visited at dawn and again in the evening, and it is well to post several
+guns in favourable positions in the probable line of flight. 40 or 50
+birds would be a good morning's bag. In drier tracts the bag will
+consist of partridges and a hare or two, or, if the country is sandy,
+some sand-grouse and perhaps a bustard.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE PEOPLE: NUMBERS, RACES, AND LANGUAGES
+
+
+~Growth of Population.~--It is probable that in the 64 years since
+annexation the population of the Panjab has increased by from 40 to 50
+per cent. The first reliable census was taken in 1881. The figures for
+the four decennial enumerations are:
+
+ |-------------------------------------------------------------|
+ | | | | |
+ | | Panjab | N.W.F. | Kashmir |
+ |Year |----------------------------------| Province | |
+ | | British | Native | Total | | |
+ | | | States | | | |
+ |-------------------------------------------------------------|
+ |1881 |17,274,597 |3,861,683 |21,136,280 |1,543,726 | |
+ |1891 |19,009,368 |4,263,280 |23,272,648 |1,857,504 |2,543.952|
+ |1901 |20,330,337 |4,424,398 |24,754,735 |2,041,534 |2,905,578|
+ |1911 |19,974,956 |4,212,974 |24,187,730 |2,196,933 |3,158,126|
+ |-------------------------------------------------------------|
+
+~Incidence of Population in Panjab.~--The estimated numbers of independent
+tribes dwelling within the British sphere of influence is 1,600,000. The
+incidence of the population on the total area of the Panjab including
+native States is 177 per square mile, which may be compared with 189 in
+France and 287 in the British Isles. As the map shows, the density is
+reduced by the large area of semi-desert country in the south-west and
+by the mountainous tract in the north-east. The distribution of the
+population is the exact opposite of that which prevails in Great
+Britain. There are only 174 towns as compared with 44,400 villages, and
+nearly nine-tenths of the people are to be found in the latter. Some of
+the so-called towns are extremely small, and the average population per
+town is but 14,800 souls. There are no large towns in the European
+sense. The biggest, Delhi and Lahore, returned respectively 232,837 and
+228,687 persons.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27. Map showing density of population.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28. Map showing increase and decrease of
+population.]
+
+~Growth stopped by Plague.~--The growth of the population between 1881 and
+1891 amounted to 10 p.c. Plague, which has smitten the Panjab more
+severely than any other province, appeared in 1896, and its effect was
+seen in the lower rate of expansion between 1891 and 1901.
+Notwithstanding great extensions of irrigation and cultivation in the
+Rechna Doab the numbers declined by 2 p.c. between 1901 and 1911. In the
+ten years from 1901 to 1910 in the British districts alone over two
+million people died of plague and the death-rate was raised to 12 p.c.
+above the normal. It actually exceeded the birth-rate by 2 p.c. Of the
+total deaths in the decade nearly one in four was due to plague. The
+part which has suffered most is the rich submontane tract east of the
+Chenab, Lahore and Gujranwala, and some of the south-eastern districts.
+A glance at the map will show how large the loss of population has been
+there. It is by no means entirely due to plague. The submontane
+districts were almost over-populated, and many of their people have
+emigrated as colonists, tenants, and labourers to the waste tracts
+brought under cultivation by the excavation of the Lower Chenab and
+Jhelam canals. The districts which have received very marked additions
+of population from this cause are Jhang (21 p.c.), Shahpur (30 p.c.), and
+Lyallpur (45 p.c.). Deaths from plague have greatly increased the
+deficiency of females, which has always been a noteworthy feature. In
+1911 the proportion had very nearly fallen to four females for every
+five males.
+
+~Increase and Incidence in N.W.F. Province.~--The incidence of the
+population in the area covered by the five districts of the N.W.F.
+Province is 164 per square mile. The district figures are given in the
+map in the margin. The increase between 1901 and 1911 in these districts
+was 7-1/2 p.c. There have been no severe outbreaks of plague like those
+which have decimated the population of some of the Panjab districts.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29. Map showing density of population in N.W.F.
+Province.]
+
+General figures for the territory of the Maharaja of Kashmir are
+meaningless. In the huge Indus valley the incidence is only 4 persons
+per sq. mile. In Jammu and Kashmir it is 138. The map taken from the
+Census Report gives the details. The increase in the decade was on
+paper 8-1/2 p.c., distributed between 5-1/4 in Jammu, 12 in Kashmir, and
+14 in the Indus valley. A great part of the increase in the last must be
+put down to better enumeration.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30. Map showing density of population in Kashmir.]
+
+~Health and duration of life.~--The climate of the Panjab plains has
+produced a vigorous, but not a long-lived, race. The mean age of the
+whole population in the British districts is only 25. The normal
+birth-rate of the Panjab is about 41 per 1000, which exceeds the English
+rate in the proportion of 5 to 3. In 1910 the recorded birth-rate in the
+N.W.F. Province was 38 per 1000. Till plague appeared the Panjab
+death-rate averaged 32 or 33 per 1000, or more than double that of
+England. The infantile mortality is enormous, and one out of every four
+or five children fails to survive its first year. The death-rate in the
+N.W.F. Province was 27 per 1000 in 1910. In the ten years ending 1910
+plague pushed up the average death-rate in the Panjab to 43-1/2 per
+1000. Even now malarial fever is a far worse foe than plague. The
+average annual deaths in the ten years ending 1910 were:
+
+ Fevers 450,376
+ Plague 202,522
+ Other diseases 231,473
+ -------
+ Total 884,371
+ -------
+
+Fever is very rife in October and November, and these are the most
+unhealthy months in the year, March and April being the best. The
+variations under fevers and plague from year to year are enormous. In
+1907 the latter claimed 608,685 victims, and the provincial death-rate
+reached the appalling figure of 61 per 1000. Next year the plague
+mortality dropped to 30,708, but there were 697,058 deaths from fever.
+There is unfortunately no reason to believe that plague has spent its
+force or that the people as a whole will in the near future generally
+accept the protective measures of inoculation and evacuation.
+Vaccination, the prejudice against which has largely disappeared, has
+robbed the small-pox goddess of many offerings. As a general cause of
+mortality the effect of cholera in the Panjab is now insignificant. But
+it is still to be feared in the Kashmir valley, especially in the
+picturesque but filthy summer capital. Syphilis is very common in the
+hill country in the north-east of the province. Blindness and leprosy
+are both markedly on the decrease. Both infirmities are common in
+Kashmir, especially the former. The rigours of the climate in a large
+part of the State force the people to live day and night for the seven
+winter months almost entirely in dark and smoky huts, and it is small
+wonder that their eyesight is ruined.
+
+~Occupations.~--The Panjab is preeminently an agricultural country, and
+the same is true in an almost greater degree of the N.W.F. Province and
+Kashmir. The typical holding is that of the small landowner tilling from
+3 to 10 acres with his own hands with or without help from village
+menials. The tenant class is increasing, but there are still three
+owners to two tenants. Together they make up 50 p.c. of the population
+of the Panjab, and 5 p.c. is added for farm labourers. Altogether,
+according to the census returns 58 p.c. of the population depends for
+its support on the soil, 20.5 on industries, chiefly the handicrafts of
+the weaver, potter, leather worker, carpenter, and blacksmith, 9.4 on
+trade, 2.5 on professions, and 9.6 on other sources of livelihood.
+
+~Measures taken to protect agriculturists.~--In a country owned so largely
+by small farmers, the first task of the Government must be to secure
+their welfare and contentment. Before plague laid its grasp on the rich
+central districts it was feared that they were becoming congested, and
+the canal colonization schemes referred to in a later chapter were
+largely designed to relieve them. But there is a much subtler foe to
+whose insidious attacks small owners are liable, the temptation to abuse
+their credit till their acres are loaded with mortgages and finally
+lost. So threatening had this economic disease for years appeared that
+at last in 1900 the Panjab Alienation of Land Act was passed, which
+forbade sales by people of agricultural tribes to other classes without
+the sanction of the district officer, and greatly restricted the power
+of mortgaging. The same restrictions are in force in the N.W.F.
+Province. The Act is popular with those for whose benefit it was
+devised, and has effected its object of checking land alienation and
+probably to some extent discouraged extravagance. It has been
+supplemented by a still more valuable measure, the Co-operative Credit
+Societies Act. The growth of these societies in the Panjab has been very
+remarkable, a notable contrast to the very slow advance of the similar
+movement in England. In 1913-14 there were 3261 village banks with
+155,250 members and a working capital of 133-3/4 _lakhs_ or L885,149,
+besides 38 central banks with a capital of 42-3/4 _lakhs_ or about
+L285,000. Village banks held deposits amounting to nearly 37 _lakhs_,
+more than half of which was received from non-members, and lent out
+71-1/2 _lakhs_ in the year to their members.
+
+~Tribal Composition.~--Table I based on the Census returns shows the
+percentages of the total population belonging to the chief tribes. The
+classification into "land-holding, etc." is a rough one.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31. Jat Sikh Officers (father and son).]
+
+~Jats.~--The Panjab is _par excellence_ the home of the Jats. Everywhere
+in the plains, except in the extreme north-west corner of the province,
+they form a large element in the population. In the east they are
+Hindus, in the centre Sikhs and Muhammadans, and in the west
+Muhammadans. The Jat is a typical son of the soil, strong and sturdy,
+hardworking and brave, a fine soldier and an excellent farmer, but
+slow-witted and grasping. The Sikh Jat finds an honourable outlet for
+his overflowing energy in the army and in the service of the Crown
+beyond the bounds of India. When he misses that he sometimes takes to
+dacoity. Unfortunately he is often given to strong drink, and, when his
+passions or his greed are aroused, can be exceedingly brutal. Jat in the
+Western Panjab is applied to a large number of tribes, whose ethnical
+affinities are somewhat dubious.
+
+~Rajputs.~--Rajputs are found in considerable numbers all over the
+province except in a few of the western and south-western districts. As
+farmers they are much hampered by caste rules which forbid the
+employment of their women in the fields, and the prohibition of widow
+remarriage is a severe handicap. They are generally classed as poor
+cultivators, and this is usually, but by no means universally, a true
+description. The Dogra Rajputs of the low hills are good soldiers. They
+are numerous in Kangra and in the Jammu province of Kashmir.
+
+~Brahmans.~--The Brahmans of the eastern plains and north-eastern hills
+are mostly agriculturists, and the Muhial Brahman of the north-western
+districts is a landowner and a soldier. In the hills the Brahman is
+often a shopkeeper. The priestly Brahman is found everywhere, but his
+spiritual authority has always been far less in the Panjab than in most
+parts of India.
+
+~Biluches.~--When the frontier was separated off the Biluch district of
+Dera Ghazi Khan with its strong tribal organization under chiefs or
+_tumandars_ was left in the Panjab. The Biluches are a frank, manly,
+truthful race, free from fanaticism and ready as a rule to follow their
+chiefs. They are fine horsemen. Unfortunately it is difficult to get
+them to enlist.
+
+~Pathans.~--Both politically and numerically the Pathans are the
+predominant tribe in the N.W.F. Province, and are of importance in parts
+of the Panjab districts of Attock and Mianwali. The Pathan is a democrat
+and often a fanatic, more under the influence of _mullahs_ than of the
+_maliks_ or headmen of his tribe. He has not the frank straightforward
+nature of the Biluch, is untiring in pursuit of revenge, and is not free
+from cruelty. But, when he has eaten the _Sarkar's_ salt, he is a very
+brave and dashing soldier, and he is a faithful host to anyone whom he
+has admitted under his roof.
+
+~Awans.~--The home of the Awan in the Panjab is the Salt Range and the
+parts of Attock and Mianwali, lying to the north of it, and this tract
+of country is known as the Awankari. In the N.W.F. Province they are,
+after the Pathans, by far the largest tribe, and are specially numerous
+in Peshawar and Hazara.
+
+~Shekhs.~--Of the Shekhs about half are Kureshis, Sadikis, and Ansaris of
+foreign origin and high social standing. The rest are new converts to
+Islam, often of the sweeper caste originally.
+
+~Saiyyids.~--Saiyyids are unsatisfactory landowners, and are kept going by
+the offerings of their followers. They are mostly Shias. It is not
+necessary to believe that they are all descended from the Prophet's
+son-in-law, Ali. A native proverb with pardonable exaggeration says:
+"The first year I was a weaver (Julaha), the next year a Shekh. This
+year, if prices rise, I shall be a Saiyyid."
+
+~Trading Castes.~--Aroras are the traders of the S.W. Panjab and of the
+N.W.F. Province. They share the Central Panjab with the Khatris, who
+predominate in the north-western districts. The Khatri of the
+Rawalpindi division is often a landowner and a first-class fighting
+man. Some of our strongest Indian civil officials have been Aroras. In
+the Delhi division the place of the Arora and Khatri is taken by the
+Bania, and in Kangra by the Sud or the Brahman. Khojas and Parachas are
+Muhammadan traders.
+
+~Artizans and Menials.~--Among artizans and menials Sunars (goldsmiths),
+Rajes (masons), Lohars (blacksmiths), and Tarkhans (carpenters) take the
+first rank.
+
+~Impure Castes.~--The vast majority of the impure castes, the
+"untouchables" of the Hindu religion, are scavengers and workers in
+leather. The sweeper who embraces Islam becomes a Musalli. The Sikh
+Mazhbis, who are the descendants of sweeper converts, have done
+excellent service in our Pioneer regiments. The Hindu of the Panjab in
+his avoidance of "untouchables" has never gone to the absurd lengths of
+the high caste Madrasi, and the tendency is towards a relaxation of
+existing restrictions.
+
+~Mendicants.~--Men of religion living on charity, wandering _fakirs_, are
+common sights, and beggars are met with in the cities, who sometimes
+exhibit their deformities with unnecessary insistence.
+
+~Kashmiris.~--According to the census return the number of Kashmiri
+Musulmans, who make up 60 p.c. of the inhabitants of the Jhelam valley,
+was 765,442. They are no doubt mostly descendants of various Hindu
+castes, perhaps in the main of Hill Brahmans, but Islam has wiped out
+all tribal distinctions. Sir Walter Lawrence wrote of them: "The
+Kashmiri is unchanged in spite of the splendid Moghal, the brutal
+Afghan, and the bully Sikh. Warriors and statesmen came and went; but
+there was no egress, and no wish ... in normal times to leave their
+homes. The outside world was far, and from all accounts inferior to the
+pleasant valley.... So the Kashmiris lived their self-centred life,
+conceited, clever, and conservative."
+
+The Hindu Kashmiri Pandits numbered 55,276.
+
+~Tribes of Jammu.~--Agricultural Brahmans are numerous in the Jammu
+province. Thakkars and Meghs are important elements of the population of
+the outer hills. The former are no doubt by origin Rajputs, but they
+have cast off many Rajput customs. The Meghs are engaged in weaving and
+agriculture, and are regarded as more or less impure by the higher
+castes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32. Blind Beggar.]
+
+~Gujars.~--Gujars in the Maharaja's territories are almost always
+graziers. In 1911 they numbered 328,003.
+
+~Dard Tribes of Astor and Gilgit.~--The people of Astor and Gilgit are
+Dards speaking Shina and professing Islam. Sir Aurel Stein wrote of
+them: "The Dard race which inhabits the valleys N. of (the Inner
+Himalaya) as far as the Hindu Kush is separated from the Kashmiri
+population by language as well as by physical characteristics.... There
+is little in the Dard to enlist the sympathies of the casual observer.
+He lacks the intelligence, humour, and fine physique of the Kashmiri,
+and, though undoubtedly far braver than the latter, has none of the
+independent spirit and manly bearing which draw us towards the Pathan
+despite all his failings. But I can never see a Dard without thinking of
+the thousands of years of struggle they have carried on with the harsh
+climate and the barren soil of their mountains[3]."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33. Dards.]
+
+~Kanjutis.~--The origin of the Kanjutis of Hunza is uncertain, and so are
+the relationships of their language.
+
+~Mongoloid Population of Ladakh.~--The population of Ladakh and Baltistan
+is Mongoloid, but the Baltis (72,439) have accepted Islam and polygamy,
+while the Ladakhis have adhered to Buddhism and polyandry.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34. Map showing races.]
+
+~Ethnological theories.~--In _The People of India_ the late Sir Herbert
+Risley maintained that the inhabitants of Rajputana, nearly the whole of
+the Panjab, and a large part of Kashmir, whatever their caste or social
+status, belonged with few exceptions to a single racial type, which he
+called Indo-Aryan. The Biluches of Dera Ghazi Khan and the Pathans of
+the N.W.F. Province formed part of another group which he called
+Turko-Iranian. The people of a strip of territory on the west of the
+Jamna he held to be of the same type as the bulk of the inhabitants of
+the United Provinces, and this type he called Aryo-Dravidian. Finally
+the races occupying the hills in the north-east and the adjoining part
+of Kashmir were of Mongol extraction, a fact which no one will dispute.
+Of the Indo-Aryan type Sir Herbert Risley wrote: "The stature is mostly
+tall, complexion fair, eyes dark, hair on face plentiful, head long,
+nose narrow and prominent, but not specially long." He believed that the
+Panjab was occupied by Aryans, who came into the country from the west
+or north-west with their wives and children, and had no need to contract
+marriages with the earlier inhabitants. The Aryo-Dravidians of the
+United Provinces resulted from a second invasion or invasions, in which
+the Aryan warriors came alone and had to intermarry with the daughters
+of the land, belonging to the race which forms the staple of the
+population of Central India and Madras. This theory was based on
+measurements of heads and noses, and it seems probable that deductions
+drawn from these physical characters are of more value than any evidence
+based on the use of a common speech. But it is hard to reconcile the
+theory with the facts of history even in the imperfect shape in which
+they have come down to us, or to believe that Sakas, Yuechi, and White
+Huns (see historical section) have left no traces of their blood in the
+province. If such there are, they may perhaps be found in some of the
+tribes on both sides of the Salt Range, such as Gakkhars, Janjuas, Awans
+Tiwanas, Ghebas, and Johdras, who are fine horsemen and expert
+tent-peggers, not "tall heavy men without any natural aptitude for
+horsemanship," as Sir Herbert Risley described his typical Panjabi (p.
+59 of his book).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35. Map showing distribution of languages.]
+
+~Languages.~--In the area dealt with in this book no less than eleven
+languages are spoken, and the dialects are very numerous. It is only
+possible to tabulate the languages and indicate on the map the
+localities in which they are spoken. For the Panjab the figures of the
+recent census are:
+
+ A 1. Tibeto-Chinese 41,607
+
+ B. Aryan:
+ (_a_) Iranian: 2. Pashtu 67,174
+ 3. Biluchi 70,675
+ 4. Kohistani 26
+
+ (_b_) Indian: 5. Kashmiri 7,190
+ 6. Pahari 993,363
+ 7. Lahndi 4,253,566
+ 8. Sindhi 24
+ 9. Panjabi 14,111,215
+ 10. Western Hindi 3,826,467
+ 11. Rajasthani 725,850
+
+The eastern part of the Indus valley in Kashmir forming the provinces of
+Ladakh and Baltistan is occupied by a Mongol population speaking
+Tibeto-Chinese dialects. Kashmiri is the language of Kashmir Proper, and
+various dialects of the Shina-Khowar group comprehensively described as
+Kohistani are spoken in Astor, Gilgit, and Chilas, and to the west of
+Kashmir territory in Chitral and the Kohistan or mountainous country at
+the top of the Swat river valley. Though Kashmiri and the Shina-Khowar
+tongues belong to the Aryan group, their basis is supposed to be
+non-Sanskritic, and it is held that there is a strong non-Sanskritic or
+Pisacha element also in Lahndi or western Panjabi, which is also the
+prevailing speech in the Hazara and Dera Ismail Khan districts of the
+N.W.F. Province, and is spoken in part of the Jammu province of Kashmir.
+Pashtu is the common language in Peshawar, Kohat, and Bannu, and is
+spoken on the western frontiers of Hazara and Dera Ismail Khan, and in
+the independent tribal territory in the west between the districts of
+the N.W.F. Province and the Durand Line and immediately adjoining the
+Peshawar district on the north. Rajasthani is a collective name for the
+dialects of Rajputana, which overflow into the Panjab, occupying a
+strip along the southern frontier from Bahawalpur to Gurgaon. The
+infiltration of English words and phrases into the languages of the
+province is a useful process and as inevitable as was the enrichment of
+the old English speech by Norman-French. But for the present the results
+are apt to sound grotesque, when the traveller, who expects a train to
+start at the appointed time, is told: "_tren late hai, lekin singal down
+hogaya_" (the train is late, but the signal has been lowered), or the
+criticism is passed on a popular officer: "_bahut affable hai, lekin
+hand shake nahin karta_" (very affable, but doesn't shake hands).
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 3: _Sand Buried Ruins Of Khotan_, pp. 14-15.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE PEOPLE (_continued_): RELIGIONS
+
+
+~Religions in N.W.F. Province.~--In the N.W.F. Province an overwhelming
+majority of the population professes Islam. In 1911 there were 2,039,994
+Musalmans as compared with 119,942 Hindus, 30,345 Sikhs, and 6585
+Christians.
+
+~Religions in Kashmir.~--In Kashmir the preponderance of Muhammadans is
+not so overwhelming. The figures are:
+
+ Muhammadans 2,398,320
+ Hindus 690,390
+ Buddhists 36,512
+ Sikhs 31,553
+
+The Hindus belong mostly to the Jammu province, where nearly half of the
+population professes that faith. The people of Kashmir, Baltistan, Astor
+and Gilgit, Chilas and Hunza Nagar, are Musalmans. The Ladakhis are
+Buddhists.
+
+~Religions in Panjab.~--The distribution by religions of the population of
+the Panjab and its native States in 1911 was:
+
+ Muhammadans 12,275,477 or 51 p.c.
+ Hindus 8,773,621 or 36 p.c.
+ Sikhs 2,883,729 or 12 p.c.
+ Others, chiefly Christian (199,751) 254,923 or 1 p.c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36. Map showing distribution of religions.]
+
+The strength of the Muhammadans is in the districts west of the Bias and
+the Sutlej below its junction with the Bias. 83 p.c. of the subjects of
+the Nawab of Bahawalpur are also Muhammadans. In all this western region
+there are few Hindus apart from the shopkeepers and traders. On the
+other hand the hill country in the north-east is purely Hindu, except on
+the borders of Tibet, where the scanty population professes Buddhism.
+While Hinduism is the predominant faith in the south-east, quite a
+fourth of the people there are Musalmans. Sikhs nowhere form a majority.
+The districts in the eastern part of the Central Plains where they
+constitute more than one-fifth of the population are indicated in the
+map. In six districts, Lahore, Montgomery, Gujranwala, Lyallpur,
+Hoshyarpur, and Ambala the proportion is between 10 and 20 p.c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37. Raghunath Temple, Jammu.]
+
+~Growth and Decline in numbers.~--There was a slight rise in the number of
+Muhammadans between 1901 and 1911. Their losses in the central
+districts, where the plague scourge has been heaviest, were
+counterbalanced by gains in the western tract, where its effect has been
+slight. On the other hand the decrease under Hindus amounts to nearly
+15 p.c. The birth-rate is lower and the death-rate higher among Hindus
+than among Musalmans, and their losses by plague in the central and some
+of the south-eastern districts have been very heavy. A change of
+sentiment on the part of the Sikh community has led to many persons
+recording themselves as Sikhs who were formerly content to be regarded
+as Hindus. It must be remembered that one out of four of the recorded
+Hindus belongs to impure castes, who even in the Panjab pollute food and
+water by their touch and are excluded from the larger temples. Since
+1901 a considerable number of Chuhras or Sweepers have been converted to
+Islam and Christianity.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38. Golden Temple, Amritsar.]
+
+~Sikhs.~--Notwithstanding heavy losses by plague Sikhs have increased by
+37 p.c. A great access of zeal has led to many more Sikhs becoming
+_Kesdharis_. _Sajhdharis_ or _Munas_, who form over one-fifth of the
+whole Sikh community, were in 1901 classed as Hindus. They are followers
+of Baba Nanak, cut their hair, and often smoke. When a man has taken the
+"_pahul_," which is the sign of his becoming a _Kesdhari_ or follower of
+Guru Govind, he must give up the _hukka_ and leave his hair unshorn. The
+future of Sikhism is with the _Kesdharis_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39. Mosque in Lahore City.]
+
+~Muhammadans.~--In the eastern districts the conversions to Islam were
+political, and Hindu and Muhammadan Rajputs live peaceably together in
+the same village. The Musalmans have their mosque for the worship of
+Allah, but were, and are still, not quite sure that it is prudent wholly
+to neglect the godlings. The conversion of the western Panjab was the
+result largely of missionary effort. _Piri muridi_ is a great
+institution there. Every man should be the "_murid_" or pupil of some
+holy man or _pir_, who combines the functions in the Roman Catholic
+Church of spiritual director in this world and the saint in heaven. The
+_pir_ may be the custodian of some little saint's tomb in a village, or
+of some great shrine like that of Baba Farid at Pakpattan, or Bahawal
+Hakk at Multan, or Taunsa Sharif in Dera Ghazi Khan, or Golra in
+Rawalpindi. His own holiness may be more official than personal. About
+1400 A.D. the Kashmiris were offered by their Sultan Sikandar the choice
+between conversion and exile, and chose the easier alternative. Like the
+western Panjabis they are above all things saint-worshippers. The
+ejaculations used to stimulate effort show this. The embankment builder
+in the south-western Panjab invokes the holy breath of Bahawal Hakk, and
+the Kashmiri boatman's cry "Ya Pir, dast gir," "Oh Saint, lend me a
+hand," is an appeal to their national saint.
+
+~Effect of Education.~--The Musalmans of the western Panjab have a great
+dislike to Sikhs, dating from the period of the political predominance
+of the latter. So far the result of education has been to accentuate
+religious differences and animosities. Both Sikhs and Musalmans are
+gradually dropping ideas and observances retained in their daily life
+after they ceased to call themselves Hindus. On the other hand, within
+the Hindu fold laxity is now the rule rather than the exception, and the
+neglect of the old ritual and restrictions is by no means confined to
+the small but influential reforming minority which calls itself Arya
+Samaj.
+
+~Christians.~--The number of Christians increased threefold between 1901
+and 1911. The Presbyterian missionaries have been especially successful
+in attracting large numbers of outcastes into the Christian Church.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40. God and Goddess, Chamba.]
+
+~Hinduism in the Panjab.~--Hinduism has always been, and to-day is more
+than ever, a very elastic term. The Census Superintendent, himself a
+high caste Hindu, wrote: "The definition which would cover the Hindu of
+the modern times is that he should be born of parents not belonging to
+some recognised religion other than Hinduism, marry within the same
+limits, believe in God, respect the cow, and cremate the dead." There is
+room in its ample folds for the Arya Samajist, who rejects idol worship
+and is divesting himself of caste prejudices and marriage restrictions,
+and the most orthodox Sanatan dharmist, who carries out the whole
+elaborate daily ritual of the Brahmanical religion, and submits to all
+its complicated rules; for the ordinary Hindu trader, who is equally
+orthodox by profession, but whose ordinary religious exercises are
+confined to bathing in the morning; for the villager of the eastern
+districts, who often has the name of Parameshvar or the Supreme Lord on
+his lips, but who really worships the godlings, Guga Pir, Sarwar or
+Sultan Pir, Sitla (the small-pox goddess), and others, whose little
+shrines we see round the village site; and for the childish idolaters of
+Kulu, who carry their local deities about to visit each other at fairs,
+and would see nothing absurd in locking them all up in a dungeon if rain
+held off too long.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41. A Kulu godling and his attendants.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE PEOPLE (_continued_): EDUCATION
+
+
+~Educational progress.~--According to the census returns of 1911 there are
+not four persons per 100 in the province who are "literate" in the sense
+of being able to read and write a letter. The proportion of literacy
+among Hindus and Sikhs is three times as great as among Muhammadans. In
+1911-12 one boy in six of school-going age was at school or college and
+one girl in 37. This may seem a meagre result of sixty years of work,
+for the Government and Christian missionaries, who have had an
+honourable connection with the educational history of the province,
+began their efforts soon after annexation, and a Director of Public
+Instruction was appointed as long ago as 1856. But a country of small
+peasant farmers is not a very hopeful educational field, and the rural
+population was for long indifferent or hostile. If an ex-soldier of the
+_Khalsa_ had expressed his feelings, he would have used words like those
+of the "Old Pindari" in Lyall's poem, while the Muhammadan farmer, had
+he been capable of expressing his hostility, might have argued that the
+teaching his son could get in a village school would help him not at all
+in his daily work. Things are better now. We have improved our scheme of
+teaching, and of late raised the pay of the teachers, which is, however,
+still hardly adequate. Till a better class of teachers can be secured
+for primary schools, the best educational theories will not bear fruit
+in practice. The old indifference is weakening, and the most hopeful
+sign is the increasing interest taken in towns in female education, a
+matter of the first importance for the future of the country.
+
+~Present position.~--The present position is as follows:--The Government
+has made itself directly or indirectly responsible for the education of
+the province. At the headquarters of each district there is a high
+school for boys controlled by the Education Department. In each district
+there are Government middle schools, Anglo-vernacular or Vernacular,
+and primary schools, managed by the Municipal Committees and District
+Boards. Each middle school has a primary, and each high school a primary
+and a middle, department. For the convenience of pupils who cannot
+attend school while living at home hostels are attached to many middle
+and high schools. Fees are very moderate. In middle schools, where the
+income covers 56 p.c. of the expenditure, they range from R. 1 (16
+pence) monthly in the lowest class in which they are levied to Rs. 4 (5
+shillings) in the highest class. In rural primary schools the children
+of agriculturists are exempt because they pay local rate, and others,
+when not exempt on the score of poverty, pay nominal fees. Besides the
+Government schools there are aided schools of the above classes usually
+of a sectarian character, and these, if they satisfy the standards laid
+down, receive grants. There is a decreasing, but still considerable,
+class of private schools, which make no attempt to satisfy the
+conditions attached to these grants. The _mullah_ in the mosque teaches
+children passages of the Kuran by rote, or the shopkeeper's son is
+taught in a Mahajani school native arithmetic and the curious script in
+which accounts are kept. A boys' school of a special kind is the Panjab
+Chiefs' College at Lahore, intended for the sons of princes and men of
+high social position.
+
+~Technical Schools.~--In an agricultural country like the Panjab there is
+not at present any large field for technical schools. The best are the
+Mayo School of Art and the Railway Technical School at Lahore. The
+latter is successful because its pupils can readily find employment in
+the railway workshops. Mr Kipling, the father of the poet, when
+principal of the former, did much for art teaching, and the present
+principal, Bhai Ram Singh, is a true artist. The Government Engineering
+School has recently been remodelled and removed to Rasul, where the
+head-works of the Lower Jhelam canal are situated.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42. A School in the time preceding annexation.
+
+(_From a picture book said to have been prepared for the Maharaja Dalip
+Singh._)]
+
+~Female Education.~--Female education is still a tender plant, but of late
+growth has been vigorous. The Victoria May School in Lahore founded in
+1908 has developed into the Queen Mary College, which provides an
+excellent education for girls of what may be called the upper middle
+class. There is a separate class for married ladies. Hitherto they have
+only been reached by the teaching given in their own homes by missionary
+ladies, whose useful work is now being imitated by the Hindu community
+in Lahore. There is an excellent Hindu Girls' Boarding School in
+Jalandhar. The Sikhs and the body of reformers known as the Dev Samaj
+have good girls' schools at Ferozepore. The best mission schools are the
+Kinnaird High School at Lahore and the Alexandra School at Amritsar. The
+North India School of Medicine for Women at Ludhiana, also a missionary
+institution, does admirable work. In the case of elementary schools the
+difficulty of getting qualified teachers is even greater than as regards
+boys' schools.
+
+~Education of European Children.~--There are special arrangements for the
+education of European and Anglo-Indian children. In this department the
+Roman Catholics have been active and successful. The best schools are
+the Lawrence Asylum at Sanawar, Bishop Cotton's School, Auckland House,
+and St Bede's at Simla, St Denys', the Lawrence Asylum, and the Convent
+School at Murree.
+
+~The Panjab University.~--The Panjab University was constituted in 1882,
+but the Government Arts College and Oriental College, the Medical
+College and the Law School at Lahore, which are affiliated with it, are
+of older date. The University is an examining body like London
+University. Besides the two Arts Colleges under Government management
+mentioned above there are nine private Arts Colleges aided by Government
+grants and affiliated to the University. Four of these are in Lahore,
+two, the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic and the Dial Singh Colleges, are Hindu
+institutions, one, the Islamia College, is Muhammadan, the fourth is the
+popular and efficient Forman Christian College. Four out of five art
+students read in Lahore. Of the Arts colleges outside Lahore the most
+important is the St Stephen's College at Delhi. The Khalsa School and
+College at Amritsar is a Sikh institution. The Veterinary College at
+Lahore is the best of its kind in India, and the Agricultural College at
+Lyallpur is a well-equipped institution, which at present attracts few
+pupils, but may play a very useful role in the future. There is little
+force in the reproach that we built up a super-structure of higher
+education before laying a broad foundation of primary education. There
+is more in the charge that the higher educational food we have offered
+has not been well adapted to the intellectual digestions of the
+recipients.
+
+~Education in N.W.F. Province, Native States, and I Kashmir.~--The Panjab
+Native States and Kashmir are much more backward as regards education
+than the British Province. As is natural in a tract in which the
+population is overwhelmingly Musalman by religion and farming by trade
+the N.W.F. Province lags behind the Panjab. Six colleges in the States
+and the N.W.F. Province are affiliated to the Panjab University.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+ROADS AND RAILWAYS
+
+
+~Roads.~--The alignment of good roads in the plains of the Panjab is easy,
+and the deposits of calcareous nodules or _kankar_ often found near the
+surface furnish good metalling material. In the west the rainfall is so
+scanty and in many parts wheeled traffic so rare that it is often wise
+to leave the roads unmetalled. There are in the Panjab over 2000 miles
+of metalled, and above 20,000 miles of unmetalled roads. The greatest
+highway in the world, the Grand Trunk, which starts from Calcutta and
+ends at Peshawar, passes through the province from Delhi in the
+south-east to Attock in the extreme north-west corner, and there crosses
+the Indus and enters the N.W.F. Province. The greater part of the
+section from Karnal to Lahore had been completed some years before the
+Mutiny, that from Lahore to Peshawar was finished in 1863-64. A great
+loop road connects our arsenal at Ferozepore with the Grand Trunk Road
+at Lahore and Ludhiana. The fine metalled roads from Ambala to Kalka,
+and Kalka to Simla have lost much of their importance since the railway
+was brought to the hill capital. Beyond Simla the Kalka-Simla road is
+carried on for 150 miles to the Shipki Pass on the borders of Tibet,
+being maintained as a very excellent hill road adapted to mule carriage.
+A fine tonga road partly in the plains and partly in the hills joins
+Murree with Rawalpindi. From Murree it drops into the Jhelam valley
+crossing the river and entering Kashmir at Kohala. It is carried up the
+gorge of the Jhelam to Baramula and thence through the Kashmir valley to
+Srinagar. A motor-car can be driven all the way from Rawalpindi to
+Srinagar. In the N.W.F. Province a great metalled road connects
+Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu, and Dera Ismail Khan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43. Poplar lined road to Srinagar.]
+
+~Railways. Main Lines.~--It is just over fifty years since the first
+railway, a short line joining Lahore and Amritsar, was opened in 1862.
+Three years later Lahore was linked up with Multan and the small
+steamers which then plied on the Indus. Amritsar was connected with
+Delhi in 1870, and Lahore with Peshawar in 1883. The line from Peshawar
+to Lahore, and branching thence to Karachi and Delhi may be considered
+the Trunk Line. The railway service has been enormously developed in the
+past thirty years. In 1912 there were over 4000 miles of open lines.
+There are now three routes from Delhi to Lahore:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44. Map showing railways.]
+
+(_a_) The N.W. Railway _via_ Meerut and Saharanpur (on east of Jamna),
+and Ambala, Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Amritsar;
+
+(_b_) The Southern Panjab Railway _via_ Jind, Rohtak, Bhatinda, and
+Ferozepore;
+
+(_c_) The Delhi-Ambala-Kalka branch of the East Indian Rallway from
+Delhi through Karnal to Ambala, and thence by the N.W. Railway. This is
+the shortest route.
+
+The Southern Panjab Railway also connects Delhi with Karachi through its
+junction with the N.W. Railway at Samasata to the south of Bahawalpur.
+Another route is by a line passing through Rewari and the Merta
+junction. Karachi is the natural seaport of the central and western
+Panjab. The S.P. Railway now gives an easy connection with Ferozepore
+and Ludhiana, and the enormous export of wheat, cotton, etc. from the
+new canal colonies is carried by several lines which converge at
+Khanewal, a junction on the main line, a little north of Multan.
+
+~Railways. Minor Lines.~--The Sind Sagar branch starting from Lala Musa
+between Lahore and Amritsar with smaller lines taking off further north
+at Golra and Campbellpur serves the part of the province lying north of
+the Salt Range. These lines converge at Kundian in the Mianwali
+district, and a single line runs thence southwards to points on the
+Indus opposite Dera Ismail Khan and Dera Ghazi Khan, and turning
+eastwards rejoins the trunk line at Sher Shah near Multan. There are a
+number of branch lines in the plains, some owned by native States.
+Strategically a very important one is that which crossing the Indus by
+the Khushalgarh bridge unites Rawalpindi with Kohat. The only hill
+railway is that from Kalka to Simla. A second is now under construction
+which, when completed, will connect Rawalpindi with Srinagar. All these
+lines with the exception of the branch of the E.I. Railway mentioned
+above are worked by the staff of the N. W. State Railway, whose manager
+controls inside and outside the Panjab some 5000 miles of open line. The
+interest earned in 1912 was 4-1/2 p.c., a good return when it is
+considered that the parts of the system to the north of the Salt Range
+and the Sind Sagar railway were built primarily for strategic reasons.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+CANALS
+
+
+~Importance of Canals.~--One need have no hesitation in placing among the
+greatest achievements of British rule in the Panjab the magnificent
+system of irrigation canals which it has given to the province. Its
+great alluvial plain traversed by large rivers drawing an unfailing
+supply of water from the Himalayan snows affords an ideal field for the
+labours of the canal engineer. The vastness of the arid areas which
+without irrigation yield no crops at all or only cheap millets and
+pulses makes his works of inestimable benefit to the people and a source
+of revenue to the State.
+
+~Canals before annexation.~--In the west of the province we found in
+existence small inundation canals dug by the people with some help from
+their rulers. These only ran during the monsoon season, when the rivers
+were swollen. In 1626 Shahjahan's Persian engineer, Ali Mardan Khan,
+brought to Delhi the water of the canal dug by Firoz Shah as a monsoon
+channel and made perennial by Akbar. But during the paralysis of the
+central power in the eighteenth century the channels became silted up.
+The same able engineer dug a canal from the Ravi near Madhopur to water
+the royal gardens at Lahore. What remained of this work at annexation
+was known as the Hasli.
+
+~Extent of Canal Irrigation.~--In 1911-12, when the deficiency of the
+rainfall made the demand for water keen, the canals of the Panjab and
+the N.W.F. Province irrigated 8-1/2 millions of acres. The figures are:
+
+_Panjab_
+
+ A. Permanent Canals Acres Interest earned %
+
+ 1. Western Jamna 775,450 7-3/4
+ 2. Sirhind 1,609,458 8
+ 3. Upper Bari Doab 1,156,808 11-1/2
+ 4. Lower Chenab 2,334,090 34
+ 5. Lower Jhelam 801,649 10-1/3
+ B. Monsoon Canals 1,654,437
+ Total 8,331,892
+
+_N.W. Frontier Province_
+
+ Acres Interest earned %
+
+ Lower Swat River 157,650 9-3/4
+ Two minor Canals 67,510
+ Total 225,160
+
+On the Sirhind Canal, on which the demand fluctuates greatly with the
+character of the season, the area was twice the normal. The three canals
+of the Triple Project will, when fully developed, add 1,871,000 acres to
+the irrigated area of the Panjab, and the Upper Swat Canal will increase
+that of the N.W.F. Province by 381,000 acres. The canals will therefore
+in a year of drought be able to water over ten millions of acres without
+taking account of possible extensions if a second canal should be drawn
+from the Sutlej. The money spent from imperial funds on Panjab canals
+has exceeded twelve millions sterling, and no money has ever been better
+spent. In, when the area irrigated was a good deal less than in, the
+value of the crops raised by the use of canal water was estimated at
+about 207 millions of rupees or nearly L14,000,000. It is only possible
+to note very briefly the steps by which this remarkable result has been
+achieved.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45. Map--Older Canals.]
+
+~Western Jamna Canal.~--Soon after the assumption of authority at Delhi in
+1803 the question of the old Canal from the Jamna was taken up. The
+Delhi Branch was reopened in 1819, and the Hansi Branch six years later.
+In the famine year nearly 400,000 acres were irrigated. For more than
+half a century that figure represented the irrigating capacity of the
+canal. The English engineers in the main retained the faulty Moghal
+alignment, and waterlogging of the worst description developed. The
+effect on the health of the people was appalling. After long delay the
+canal was remodelled. The result has been most satisfactory in every
+way. In the last decade of the nineteenth century the Sirsa Branch and
+the Nardak Distributary were added, to carry water to parts of the
+Karnal and Hissar districts where any failure of the monsoon resulted in
+widespread loss of crops. If a scheme to increase the supply can be
+carried out, further extension in tracts now very liable to famine will
+become possible. In the six years ending the interest earned exceeded 8
+p.c.
+
+~Upper Bari Doab Canal.~--The headworks of the Upper Bari Doab Canal are
+above Madhopur near the point where the Ravi leaves the hills. The work
+was started soon after annexation, but only finished in 1859. Irrigation
+has grown from 90,000 acres in to 533,000 in, 861,000 in 1900-1, and
+1,157,000 in. The later history of the canal consists mainly of great
+extensions in the arid Lahore district, and the irrigation there is now
+three-fifths of the whole. In parts of Amritsar, and markedly near the
+city, waterlogging has become a grave evil, but remedial measures have
+now been undertaken. The interest earned on the capital expenditure in
+the six years ending averaged 11-1/2 p.c.
+
+~Sirhind Canal.~--A quarter of a century passed after the Upper Bari Doab
+Canal began working before the water of the Sutlej was used for
+irrigation. The Sirhind Canal weir is at Rupar where the river emerges
+from the Siwaliks. Patiala, Jind, and Nabha contributed to the cost, and
+own three of the five branches. But the two British branches are
+entitled to nearly two-thirds of the water, which is utilized in the
+Ludhiana and Ferozepore districts and in the Faridkot State. The soil of
+the tract commanded is for the most part a light sandy loam, and in
+years of good rainfall it repays dry cultivation. The result is that the
+area watered fluctuates largely. But in the six years ending the
+interest earned averaged 7 p.c., and the power of expansion in a bad
+year is a great boon to the peasantry.
+
+~Canal extensions in Western Panjab.~--In the last quarter of a century
+the chief task of the Canal Department in the Panjab has been the
+extension of irrigation to the Rechna and Jech Doabs and the lower part
+of the Bari Doab. All three contained large areas of waste belonging to
+the State, mostly good soil, but incapable of cultivation owing to the
+scanty rainfall. Colonization has therefore been an important part of
+all the later canal projects. The operations have embraced the
+excavation of five canals.
+
+~Lower Chenab Canal.~--The Lower Chenab Canal is one of the greatest
+irrigation works in the world, the area commanded being 3-1/3 million
+acres, the average discharge four or five times that of the Thames at
+Teddington, and the average irrigated area 2-1/4 million acres. There
+are three main branches, the Rakh, the Jhang, and the Gugera. The supply
+is secured by a great weir built across the Chenab river at Khanki in
+the Gujranwala district, and the irrigation is chiefly in the
+Gujranwala, Lyallpur, and Jhang districts. In the four years ending the
+average interest earned was 28 p.c., and in future the rate should
+rarely fall below 30 p.c. The capital expenditure has been a little over
+L2,000,000. The interest charges were cleared about five years after the
+starting of irrigation, and the capital has already been repaid to the
+State twice over.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46. Map--Canals.]
+
+~Lower Jhelam Canal.~--The Lower Jhelam Canal, which waters the tract
+between the Jhelam and Chenab in the Shahpur and Jhang districts, is a
+smaller and less profitable work. The culturable commanded area is about
+one million acres. The head-works are at Rasul in the Gujrat district.
+Irrigation began in 1901. In the four years ending 1911-12 the average
+area watered was 748,000 acres and the interest earned exceeded 10 p.c.
+
+~Triple Project--Upper Jhelam and Upper Chenab Canals and Lower Bari Doab
+Canal.~--The Lower Chenab Canal takes the whole available supply of the
+Chenab river. But it does not command a large area in the Rechna Doab
+lying in the west of Gujranwala, in which rain cultivation is very risky
+and well cultivation is costly. No help can be got from the Ravi, as the
+Upper Bari Doab Canal exhausts its supply. Desirable as the extension of
+irrigation in the areas mentioned above is, the problem of supplying it
+might well have seemed insuperable. The bold scheme known as the Triple
+Project which embraces the construction of the Upper Jhelam, Upper
+Chenab, and Lower Bari Doab Canals, is based on the belief that the
+Jhelam river has even in the cold weather water to spare after feeding
+the Lower Jhelam Canal. The true _raison d'etre_ of the Upper Jhelam
+Canal, whose head-works are at Mangla in Kashmir a little north of the
+Gujrat district, is to throw a large volume of water into the Chenab at
+Khanki, where the Lower Chenab Canal takes off, and so set free an equal
+supply to be taken out of the Chenab higher up at Merala in Sialkot,
+where are the head-works of the Upper Chenab Canal. But the Upper Jhelam
+Canal will also water annually some 345,000 acres in Gujrat and Shahpur.
+The Upper Chenab Canal will irrigate 648,000 acres mostly in Gujranwala,
+and will be carried across the Ravi by an aqueduct at Balloke in the
+south of Lahore. Henceforth the canal is known as the Lower Bari Doab,
+which will water 882,000 acres, mostly owned by the State, in the
+Montgomery and Multan districts. On the other two canals the area of
+Government land is not large. The Triple Project is approaching
+completion, and irrigation from the Upper Chenab Canal has begun. The
+engineering difficulties have been great, and the forecast does not
+promise such large gains as even the Lower Jhelam Canal. But a return of
+7-1/2 p.c. is expected.
+
+~Monsoon or Inundation Canals.~--The numerous monsoon or inundation
+canals, which take off from the Indus, Jhelam, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej,
+though individually petty works, perform an important office in the
+thirsty south-western districts. By their aid a _kharif_ crop can be
+raised without working the wells in the hot weather, and with luck the
+fallow can be well soaked in autumn, and put under wheat and other
+spring crops. For the maturing of these crops a prudent cultivator
+should not trust to the scanty cold weather rainfall, but should
+irrigate them from a well. The Sidhnai has a weir, but may be included
+in this class, for there is no assured supply at its head in the Ravi in
+the winter. In 1910-11 the inundation canals managed by the State
+watered 1,800,000 acres. There are a number of private canals in
+Ferozepore, Shahpur, and the hill district of Kangra. In Ferozepore the
+district authorities take a share in the management.
+
+~Colonization of Canal Lands.~--The colonization of huge areas of State
+lands has been an important part of new canal schemes in the west of the
+Panjab. When the Lower Chenab Canal was started the population of the
+vast Bar tract which it commands consisted of a few nomad cattle owners
+and cattle thieves. It was a point of honour to combine the two
+professions. Large bodies of colonists were brought from the crowded
+districts of the central Panjab. The allotments to peasants usually
+consisted of 55 acres, a big holding for a man who possibly owned only
+four or five acres in his native district. There were larger allotments
+known as yeoman and capitalist grants, but the peasants are the only
+class who have turned out quite satisfactory farmers. Colonization began
+in 1892 and was practically complete by 1904, when over 1,800,000 acres
+had been allotted. To save the peasants from the evils which an
+unrestricted right of transfer was then bringing on the heads of many
+small farmers in the Panjab it was decided only to give them permanent
+inalienable tenant right. The Panjab Alienation of Land Act, No. XIII of
+1900, has supplied a remedy generally applicable, and the peasant
+grantees are now being allowed to acquire ownership on very easy terms.
+The greater part of the colony is in the new Lyallpur district, which
+had in 1911 a population of 857,511 souls.
+
+On the Lower Jhelam Canal the area of colonized land exceeds 400,000
+acres. A feature of colonization on that canal is that half the area is
+held on condition of keeping up one or more brood mares, the object
+being to secure a good class of remounts. Succession to these grants is
+governed by primogeniture. On the Lower Bari Doab Canal a very large
+area is now being colonized.
+
+~Canals of the N.W.F. Province.~--Hemmed in as the N.W.F. Province is
+between the Indus and the Hills, its canals are insignificant as
+compared with the great irrigation works of the Panjab. The only ones of
+any importance are in the Peshawar Valley. These draw their supplies
+from the Kabul, Bara, and Swat rivers, but the works supplied by the
+first two streams only command small areas. The Lower Swat Canal was
+begun in 1876, but the tribesmen were hostile and the diggers had to
+sleep in fortified enclosures. The work was not opened till 1885. A reef
+in the river has made it possible to dispense with a permanent weir. The
+country is not an ideal one for irrigation, being much cut up by
+ravines. But a large area has been brought under command, and the
+irrigation has more than once exceeded 170,000 acres. In 1911-12 it was
+157,650 acres, and the interest earned was 9-3/4 p.c. The Upper Swat
+Canal, which was opened in April 1914, was a more ambitious project,
+involving the tunnelling at the Malakand of 11,000 feet of solid rock.
+The commanded area is nearly 450,000 acres, including 40,000 beyond our
+administrative frontier. The estimated cost is Rs. 18,240,000 or over
+L1,200,000 and the annual irrigation expected is 381,562 acres.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ { Kabul River Canal.
+ Areas commanded by { L. Swat Canal.
+ { U. Swat Canal.
+
+Fig. 47. Map of Canals of Peshawar district.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+AGRICULTURE AND CROPS
+
+
+~Classification by Zones.~--In order to give an intelligible account of
+the huge area embraced by the Panjab, N.W.F. Province, and Kashmir it is
+necessary to make a division of the area into zones. Classification must
+be on very broad lines based on differences of altitude, rainfall, and
+soil, leading to corresponding differences in the cultivation and the
+crops. For statistical purposes districts must be taken as a whole,
+though a more accurate classification would divide some of them between
+two zones.
+
+~Classes of Cultivation.~--The broadest division of cultivation is into
+irrigated and unirrigated, the former including well (_chahi_), canal
+(_nahri_), and _abi_. The last term describes a small amount of land
+watered from tanks or _jhils_ in the plains and a larger area in the
+hills irrigated by _kuhls_ or small artificial channels. "Unirrigated"
+embraces cultivation dependent on rain (_barani_) or on flooding or
+percolation from rivers (_sailab_). (See Table II.)
+
+~Harvests.~--There are two harvests, the autumn or _kharif_, and the
+spring or _rabi_. The autumn crops are mostly sown in June and July and
+reaped from September to December. Cotton is often sown in March. Cane
+planted in March and cut in January and February is counted as a
+_kharif_ crop. The spring crops are sown from the latter part of
+September to the end of December. They are reaped in March and April.
+Roughly in the Panjab three-fifths of the crops belong to the spring
+harvest. In the N.W.F. Province the proportion is somewhat higher. In
+Kashmir the autumn crop is by far the more important.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48. Persian Wheel Well and Ekka.]
+
+~Implements of Husbandry and Wells.~--The implements of husbandry are
+simple but effective in a land where as a rule there is no advantage in
+stirring up the soil very deep. With his primitive plough (_hal_) and a
+wooden clodcrusher (_sohaga_) the peasant can produce a tilth for a crop
+like cane which it would be hard to match in England. There are two
+kinds of wells, the _charsa_ or rope and bucket well and the _harat_ or
+Persian wheel.
+
+~Rotations.~--The commonest rotation in ordinary loam soils is to put in a
+spring and autumn crop in succession and then let the land lie fallow
+for a year. Unless a good deal of manure is available this is the course
+to follow, even in the case of irrigated land. Some poor hard soils are
+only fit for crops of coarse rice sown after the embanked fields have
+been filled in the monsoon by drainage from surrounding waste. Other
+lands are cropped only in the autumn because the winter rainfall is very
+scanty. Flooded lands are often sown only for the spring harvest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49. A drove of goats--Lahore.]
+
+~Cattle, Sheep, and Goats.~--In 1909 there were in the British districts
+of the Panjab 4-1/4 million bullocks and 625,000 male buffaloes
+available to draw 2,169,000 ploughs and 288,000 carts, thresh the corn,
+and work a quarter of a million wells, besides sugar, oil, and flour
+mills. The cattle of the hills, N.W. Panjab, and riverain tracts are
+undersized, but in the uplands of the Central Panjab and S.E. districts
+fine oxen are used. The horned cattle share 18 millions of pasture land,
+much extremely poor, with 4 million sheep and 5-1/2 million goats.
+Hence the enormous area devoted to fodder crops.
+
+~Zones.~--Six zones can be distinguished, but, as no district is wholly
+confined to the mountain zone, it must for statistical purposes be
+united to the submontane zone:
+
+ (_a_) Mountain above 5000 feet Panjab--Kangra, Simla, Native
+ States in Hills, Ambala,
+ Hoshyarpur.
+
+ (_b_) Submontane N.W.F. Province. Hazara,
+ Kashmir--whole
+
+ (_c_) North Central Plain Panjab--Gujrat, Sialkot, Gurdaspur,
+ Amritsar, Jalandhar,
+ Ludhiana, Kapurthala,
+ Malerkotla, Powadh
+ tract in Phulkian States.
+
+ (_d_) North-West Area Panjab--Rawalpindi, Jhelam,
+ Attock, Mianwali.
+ N.W.F.P.--Peshawar, Kohat,
+ Bannu.
+
+ (_e_) South-Western Plains Panjab--Gujranwala, Lahore,
+ Shahpur, Jhang, Lyallpur,
+ Montgomery, Multan,
+ Muzaffargarh, Dera Ghazi
+ Khan, Bahawalpur.
+ N.W.F.P.--Dera Ismail Khan.
+
+ (_f_) South-Eastern Area Panjab--Karnal, Rohtak, Gurgaon,
+ Hissar, Ferozepore,
+ Faridkot, Jangal tract in
+ Phulkian States, Native
+ States territory adjoining
+ Gurgaon and Rohtak.
+
+~Mountain and Submontane Zones.~--In the Mountain Zone the fields are
+often very minute, consisting of narrow terraces supported by stone
+revetments built up the slopes of hills. That anyone should be ready to
+spend time and labour on such unpromising material is a sign of pressure
+of population on the soil, which is a marked feature of some hill
+tracts.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50. A steep bit of hill cultivation, Hazara.]
+
+Below 8000 feet the great crop is maize. Potatoes have been introduced
+near our hill stations. The chief pulse of the mountain zone is _kulath_
+(Dolichos biflorus), eaten by the very poor. Wheat ascends to 8000 or
+9000 feet, and at the higher levels is reaped in August. Barley is grown
+at much greater heights. Buckwheat (_ugal_, _trumba_, _drawi_),
+amaranth (_chaulai_, _ganhar_, _sariara_), and a tall chenopod (_bathu_)
+are grown in the mountain zone. Buckwheat is common on poor stony lands.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51. Preparing rice field in the Hills.]
+
+The only comparatively flat land is on the banks above river beds, which
+are devoted to rice cultivation, the water being conducted to the
+embanked fields by an elaborate system of little canals or _kuhls_. This
+is the only irrigation in the mountains, and is much valued. The
+Submontane Zone has a rainfall of from 30 to 40 inches. Well irrigation
+is little used and the dry crops are generally secure. Wheat and maize
+are the great staples, but gram and _chari_, i.e. _jowar_ grown for
+fodder, are also important. Some further information about Kashmir
+agriculture will be found in a later chapter. For full details about
+classes of cultivation and crops in all the zones Tables II, III and IV
+should be consulted.
+
+~North Central Panjab Plain.~--The best soils and the finest tillage are
+to be found in the North Central Zone. Gujrat has been included in it,
+though it has also affinities in the north with the North-West area, and
+in the south with the South-Western plain. The rainfall varies from 25
+to 35 inches. One-third of the cultivated area is protected by wells,
+and the well cultivation is of a very high class in Ludhiana and
+Jalandhar, where heavily manured maize is followed by a fine crop of
+wheat, and cane is commonly grown. In parts of Sialkot and Gujrat the
+well cultivation is of a different type, the area served per well being
+large and the object being to protect a big acreage of wheat in the
+spring harvest. The chief crops in this zone are wheat and _chari_. The
+latter is included under "Other Fodder" in Tables III and IV.
+
+~North-Western Area.~--The plateau north of the Salt Range has a very
+clean light white sandy loam soil requiring little ploughing and no
+weeding. It is often very shallow, and this is one reason for the great
+preference for cold weather crops. _Kharif_ crops are more liable to be
+burned up. Generally speaking the rainfall is from 15 to 25 inches, the
+proportion falling in the winter and spring being larger than elsewhere.
+There is, except in Peshawar and Bannu, where the conditions involve a
+considerable divergence from the type of this zone, practically no canal
+irrigation. The well irrigation is unimportant and in most parts
+consists of a few acres round each well intensively cultivated with
+market-gardening crops. The dry crops are generally very precarious. In
+Mianwali the Indus valley is a fine tract, but the harvests fluctuate
+greatly with the extent of the floods. The Thal in Mianwali to the south
+of the Sind Sagar railway is really a part of the next zone.
+
+~The South-Western Plains.~--This zone contains nine districts. With the
+exception of the three on the north border of the zone they have a
+rainfall of from 5 to 10 inches. Of these six arid districts, only one,
+Montgomery, has any dry cultivation worth mentioning. In the zone as a
+whole three-fourths of the cultivation is protected by canals or wells,
+or by both. In the lowlands near the great rivers cultivation depends on
+the floods brought to the land direct or through small canals which
+carry water to parts which the natural overflow would not reach. In the
+uplands vast areas formerly untouched by the plough have been brought
+under tillage by the help of perennial canals, and the process of
+reclamation is still going on. The Thal is a large sandy desert which
+becomes more and more worthless for cultivation as one proceeds
+southwards. In the north the people have found out of late years that
+this unpromising sand can not only yield poor _kharif_ crops, but is
+worth sowing with gram in the spring harvest. The expense is small, and
+a lucky season means large profits. In Dera Ghazi Khan a large area of
+"_pat_" below the hills is dependent for cultivation on torrents. The
+favourite crop in the embanked fields into which the water is diverted
+is _jowar_.
+
+~The South-Eastern Plains.~--In the south-eastern Panjab except in Hissar
+and the native territory on the border of Rajputana, the rainfall is
+from 20 to 30 inches. In Hissar it amounts to some 15 inches. These are
+averages; the variations in total amount and distribution over the
+months of the year are very great. In good seasons the area under dry
+crops is very large, but the fluctuations in the sown acreage are
+extraordinary, and the matured is often far below the sown area. The
+great crops are gram and mixtures of wheat or barley with gram in the
+spring, and _bajra_ in the autumn, harvest. Well cultivation is not of
+much importance generally, though some of it in the Jamna riverain is
+excellent. The irrigated cultivation depends mainly on the Western Jamna
+and Sirhind canals, and the great canal crops are wheat and cotton. This
+is the zone in which famine conditions are still most to be feared.
+
+In the Panjab as a whole about one-third of the cultivated area is
+yearly put under wheat, which with _bajra_ and maize is the staple food
+of the people. A large surplus of wheat and oil-seeds is available for
+export.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52. Carved doorway.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+HANDICRAFTS AND MANUFACTURES
+
+
+~Handicrafts.~--The chief handicrafts of the province are those of the
+weaver, the shoemaker, the carpenter, the potter, and the worker in
+brass and copper. The figures of the 1911 census for each craft
+including dependents were: weavers 883,000; shoemakers 540,000;
+carpenters 381,000; potters and brickmakers 349,000; metalworkers
+240,000. The figures for weavers include a few working in factories. The
+hand-spun cotton-cloth is a coarse strong fabric known as "_khaddar_"
+with a single warp and weft. "_Khes_" is a better article with a double
+warp and weft. "_Susi_" is a smooth cloth with coloured stripes used for
+women's trousers. A superior kind of checked "_khes_" known as
+"_gabrun_" is made at Ludhiana. The native process of weaving is slow
+and the weavers are very poor. The Salvation Army is trying to introduce
+an improved hand loom. Fine "_lungis_" or turbans of cotton with silk
+borders are made at Ludhiana, Multan, Peshawar, and elsewhere. Effective
+cotton printing is carried on by very primitive methods at Kot Kamalia
+and Lahore. Ludhiana and Lahore turn out cotton _daris_ or rugs. Coarse
+woollen blankets or _lois_ are woven at various places, and coloured
+felts or _namdas_ are made at Ludhiana, Khushab, and Peshawar. Excellent
+imitations of Persian carpets are woven at Amritsar, and the Srinagar
+carpets do credit to the Kashmiris' artistic taste. The best of the
+Amritsar carpets are made of _pashm_, the fine underwool of the Tibetan
+sheep, and _pashmina_ is also used as a material for _choghas_
+(dressing-gowns), etc. Coarse woollen cloth or _pattu_ is woven in the
+Kangra hills for local use. At Multan useful rugs are made whose fabric
+is a mixture of cotton and wool. More artistic are the Biluch rugs made
+by the Biluch women with geometrical patterns. These are excellent in
+colouring. They are rather difficult to procure as they are not made for
+sale. The weaving of China silk is a common industry in Amritsar,
+Bahawalpur, Multan, and other places. The _phulkari_ or silk embroidery
+of the village maidens of Hissar and other districts of the Eastern
+Panjab, and the more elaborate gold and silver wire embroideries of the
+Delhi _bazars_, are excellent. The most artistic product of the plains
+is the ivory carving of Delhi. As a wood-carver the Panjabi is not to be
+compared with the Kashmiri. His work is best fitted for doorways and the
+bow windows or _bokharchas_ commonly seen in the streets of old towns.
+The best carvers are at Bhera, Chiniot, Amritsar, and Batala. The
+European demand has produced at Simla and other places an abundant
+supply of cheap articles of little merit. The inlaid work of Chiniot and
+Hoshyarpur is good, as is the lacquer-work of Pakpattan. The papier
+mache work of Kashmir has much artistic merit (Fig. 55), and some of the
+repousse silver work of Kashmir is excellent.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53. Shoemaker's craft.]
+
+The craft of the _thathera_ or brass worker is naturally most prominent
+in the Eastern Panjab, because Hindus prefer brass vessels for cooking
+purposes. Delhi is the great centre, but the trade is actively carried
+on at other places, and especially at Jagadhri.
+
+Unglazed pottery is made practically in every village. The blue
+enamelled pottery of Multan and the glazed Delhi china ware are
+effective. The manufacture of the latter is on a very petty scale.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54. Carved windows.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55. Papier mache work ~of~ Kashmir.]
+
+~Factories.~--The factory industries of the Panjab are still very small.
+In 1911 there were 268 factories employing 28,184 hands. The typical
+Panjab factory is a little cotton ginning or pressing mill. The grinding
+of flour and husking of rice are sometimes part of the same business.
+The number of these mills rose in the 20 years ending 1911 from 12 to
+202, and there are complaints that there are now too many factories.
+Cotton-spinning has not been very successful and the number of mills in
+1911, eight, was the same as in 1903-4. The weaving is almost entirely
+confined to yarn of low counts. Part is used by the hand-loom weavers
+and part is exported to the United Provinces. Good woollen fabrics are
+turned out at a factory at Dhariwal in the Gurdaspur district. There
+were in 1911 fifteen flour mills, ten ironworks, three breweries, and
+one distillery.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56. The Potter.
+
+(_From a picture book said to have been prepared for Maharaja Dalip
+Singh._)]
+
+~Joint-Stock Companies.~--The Panjab has not reached the stage where the
+joint-stock business successfully takes the place of the family banking
+or factory business. In 1911 there were 194 joint-stock companies. But
+many of these were provident societies, the working of which has been
+attended with such abuses that a special act has been passed for their
+control. A number of banks and insurance companies have also sprung up
+of late years. Of some of these the paid up capital is absurdly small,
+and the recent collapse of the largest and of two smaller native banks
+has drawn attention to the extremely risky nature of the business done.
+Of course European and Hindu family banking businesses of the old type
+stand on quite a different footing. Some of the cotton and other mills
+are joint-stock concerns.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+EXPORTS AND IMPORTS
+
+
+~Trade.~--In 1911-12 the exports from the Panjab, excluding those by land
+to Central Asia, Ladakh, and Afghanistan, were valued at Rs.
+27,63,21,000 (L18,421,000), of which 61 p.c. went to Karachi and about
+10 p.c. to Calcutta and Bombay. Of the total 27 p.c. consisted of wheat,
+nearly the whole of which was dispatched to Karachi. All other grains
+and pulses were about equal in value to the wheat. "Gram and other
+pulses" (18 p.c. of total exports) was the chief item. Raw cotton
+accounts for 15, and oil-seeds for 10 p.c. The imports amounted in value
+to Rs. 30,01,28,000 (L20,008,000), little more than one-third being
+received from Karachi. Cotton piece goods (Foreign 22, Indian 8-1/2
+p.c.) make up one-third of the total. The other important figures are
+sugar 12, and metals 11 p.c. The land trade with Afghanistan, Central
+Asia, and Ladakh is insignificant, but interesting as furnishing an
+example of modes of transport which have endured for many centuries, and
+of the pursuit of gain often under appalling physical difficulties.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+HISTORY--PRE-MUHAMMADAN PERIOD, 500 B.C.--1000 A.D.
+
+
+~In Hindu period relations of Panjab were with western kingdoms.~--The
+large tract included in the British province of the Panjab which lies
+between the Jamna and the Ghagar is, having regard to race, language,
+and past history, a part of Hindustan. Where "Panjab" is used without
+qualification in this section the territories west of the Ghagar and
+south of Kashmir are intended. The true relations of the Panjab and
+Kashmir during the Hindu period were, except for brief intervals, with
+Persia, Afghanistan, and Turkistan rather than with the great kingdoms
+founded in the valley of the Ganges and the Jamna.
+
+~Normal division into petty kingdoms and tribal confederacies.~--The
+normal state of the Panjab in early times was to be divided into a
+number of small kingdoms and tribal republics. Their names and the areas
+which they occupied varied from time to time. Names of kingdoms that
+have been rescued from oblivion are Gandhara, corresponding to Peshawar
+and the valley of the Kabul river, Urasa or Hazara, where the name is
+still preserved in the Orash plain, Taxila, which may have corresponded
+roughly to the present districts of Rawalpindi and Attock with a small
+part of Hazara, Abhisara or the low hills of Jammu, Kashmir, and
+Trigartta, with its capital Jalandhara, which occupied most of the
+Jalandhar division north of the Sutlej and the states of Chamba, Suket,
+and Mandi. The historians of Alexander's campaigns introduce us also to
+the kingdoms of the elder Poros on both banks of the Jhelam, of the
+younger Poros east of the Chenab, and of Sophytes (Saubhuti) in the
+neighbourhood of the Salt Range. We meet also with tribal confederacies,
+such as in Alexander's time those of the Kathaioi on the upper, and of
+the Malloi on the lower, Ravi.
+
+~Invasion by Alexander, 327-325 B.C.~--The great Persian king, Darius, in
+512 B.C. pushed out the boundary of his empire to the Indus, then
+running in a more easternly course than to-day[4]. The army with which
+Xerxes invaded Greece included a contingent of Indian bowmen[5]. When
+Alexander overthrew the Persian Empire and started on the conquest of
+India, the Indus was the boundary of the former. His remarkable campaign
+lasted from April, 327 B.C., when he led an army of 50,000 or 60,000
+Europeans across the Hindu Kush into the Kabul valley, to October, 325,
+when he started from Sindh on his march to Persia through Makran. Having
+cleared his left flank by a campaign in the hills of Buner and Swat, he
+crossed the Indus sixteen miles above Attock near Torbela. The King of
+Taxila, whose capital was near the Margalla pass on the north border of
+the present Rawalpindi district, had prudently submitted as soon as the
+Macedonian army appeared in the Kabul valley. From the Indus Alexander
+marched to Taxila, and thence to the Jhelam (Hydaspes), forming a camp
+near the site now occupied by the town of that name in the country of
+Poros. The great army of the Indian king was drawn up to dispute the
+passage probably not very far from the eastern end of the present
+railway bridge. Favoured by night and a monsoon rain-storm--it was the
+month of July, 326 B.C.--Alexander succeeded in crossing some miles
+higher up into the Karri plain under the low hills of Gujrat. Here,
+somewhere near the line now occupied by the upper Jhelam Canal, the
+Greek soldiers gave the first example of a feat often repeated since,
+the rout of a large and unwieldy Indian army by a small, but mobile and
+well-led, European force. Having defeated Poros, Alexander crossed the
+Chenab (Akesines), stormed Sangala, a fort of the Kathaioi on the upper
+Ravi (Hydraotes) and advanced as far as the Bias (Hyphasis). But the
+weary soldiers insisted that this should be the bourn of their eastward
+march, and, after setting up twelve stone altars on the farther side,
+Alexander in September, 326 B.C., reluctantly turned back. Before he
+left the Panjab he had hard fighting with the Malloi on the lower Ravi,
+and was nearly killed in the storm of one of their forts. Alexander
+intended that his conquests should be permanent, and made careful
+arrangements for their administration. But his death in June, 323 B.C.,
+put an end to Greek rule in India. Chandra Gupta Maurya expelled the
+Macedonian garrisons, and some twenty years later Seleukos Nicator had
+to cede to him Afghanistan.
+
+~Maurya Dominion and Empire of Asoka, 323-231 B.C.~--Chandra Gupta is
+the Sandrakottos, to whose capital at Pataliputra (Patna) Seleukos sent
+Megasthenes in 303 B.C. The Greek ambassador was a diligent and truthful
+observer, and his notes give a picture of a civilized and complex system
+of administration. If Chandra Gupta was the David, his grandson,
+Asoka, was the Solomon of the first Hindu Empire. His long reign,
+lasting from 273 to 231 B.C., was with one exception a period of
+profound peace deliberately maintained by an emperor who, after his
+conversion to the teaching of Gautama Buddha, thought war a sin.
+Asoka strove to lead his people into the right path by means of pithy
+abstracts of the moral law of his master graven on rocks and pillars. It
+is curious to remember that this missionary king was peacefully ruling a
+great empire in India during the twenty-four years of the struggle
+between Rome and Carthage, which we call the first Punic War. Of the
+four Viceroys who governed the outlying provinces of the empire one had
+his headquarters at Taxila. One of the rock edicts is at Mansehra in
+Hazara and another at Shahbazgarhi in Peshawar. From this time and for
+many centuries the dominant religion in the Panjab was Buddhism, but the
+religion of the villages may then have been as remote from the State
+creed as it is to-day from orthodox Brahmanism.
+
+~Graeco-Bactrian and Graeco-Parthian Rule.~--The Panjab slipped from the
+feeble grasp of Asoka's successors, and for four centuries it looked
+not to the Ganges, but to the Kabul and the Oxus rivers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57. Coin--obverse and reverse of Menander.]
+
+Up to the middle of the first century of our era it was first under
+Graeco-Bactrian, and later under Graeco-Parthian, rule directly, or
+indirectly through local rulers with Greek names or Saka Satraps. The
+Sakas, one of the central Asian shepherd hordes, were pushed out of
+their pastures on the upper Jaxartes by another horde, the Yuechi.
+Shadowy Hellenist Princes have left ~us~ only their names on coins; one
+Menander, who ruled about 150 B.C., is an exception. He anticipated the
+feats of later rulers of Kabul by a temporary conquest of North-Western
+India, westwards to the Jamna and southwards to the sea.
+
+~The Kushan Dynasty.~--The Yuechi in turn were driven southward to the
+Oxus and the Kabul valley and under the Kushan dynasty established their
+authority in the Panjab about the middle of the first century. The most
+famous name is that of Kanishka, who wrested from China Kashgar,
+Yarkand, and Khotan, and assembled ~a~ notable council of sages of the law
+in Kashmir. His reign may be dated from 120 to 150 A.D. His capital was
+at Purushapura (Peshawar), near which he built the famous relic tower of
+Buddha, 400 feet high. Beside the tower was a large monastery still
+renowned in the ninth and tenth centuries as a home of sacred learning.
+The rule of Kushan kings in the Panjab lasted till the end of the first
+quarter of the third century. To their time belong the Buddhist
+sculptures found in the tracts near their Peshawar capital (see also
+page 204).
+
+~The Gupta Empire.~--Of the century preceding the establishment in 320
+B.C. of the Gupta dynasty at Patna we know nothing. The Panjab probably
+again fell under the sway of petty rajas and tribal confederacies,
+though the Kushan rule was maintained in Peshawar till 465 A.D., when it
+was finally blotted out by the White Huns. These savage invaders soon
+after defeated Skanda Gupta, and from this blow the Gupta Empire never
+recovered. At the height of its power in 400 A.D. under Chandra Gupta
+II, known as Vikramaditya, who is probably the original of the
+Bikramajit of Indian legends, it may have reached as far west as the
+Chenab.
+
+~The White Huns or Ephthalites.~--In the beginning of the sixth century
+the White Hun, Mahirakula, ruled the Panjab from Sakala, the modern
+Sialkot. He was a worshipper of Siva, and a deadly foe of the
+Buddhist cult, and has been described as a monster of cruelty.
+
+The short-lived dominion of the White Huns was destroyed by the Turks
+and Persians about the year 565 A.D.
+
+~Panjab in seventh century A.D.~--From various sources, one of the most
+valuable being the Memoirs of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Hiuen Tsang,
+who travelled in India from 630 to 644 A.D., we know something of
+Northern India in the first half of the seventh century. Hiuen Tsang was
+at Kanauj as a guest of a powerful king named Harsha, whose first
+capital was at Thanesar, and who held a suzerainty over all the rajas
+from the Brahmaputra to the Bias. West of that river the king of Kashmir
+was also overlord of Taxila, Urasa, Parnotsa (Punch), Rajapuri (Rajauri)
+and Sinhapura, which seems to have included the Salt Range. The Peshawar
+valley was probably ruled by the Turki Shahiya kings of Kabul. The rest
+of the Panjab was divided between a kingdom called by Hiuen Tsang
+Tsekhia, whose capital was somewhere near Sialkot, and the important
+kingdom of Sindh, in which the Indus valley as far north as the Salt
+Range was included. Harsha died in 647 A.D. and his empire collapsed.
+
+~Kashmir under Hindu Kings.~--For the next century China was at the height
+of its power. It established a suzerainty over Kashmir, Udyana (Swat),
+Yasin, and Chitral. The first was at this period a powerful Hindu
+kingdom. Its annals, as recorded in Kalhana's Rajatarangini, bear
+henceforward a real relation to history. In 733 A.D. King Muktapida
+Lalitaditya received investiture from the Chinese Emperor. Seven years
+later he defeated the King of Kanauj on the Ganges. A ruler who carried
+his arms so far afield must have been very powerful in the Northern
+Panjab. The remains of the wonderful Martand temple, which he built in
+honour of the Sun God, are a standing memorial of his greatness. The
+history of Kashmir under its Hindu kings for the next 400 years is for
+the most part that of a wretched people ground down by cruel tyrants. A
+notable exception was Avantidharman--855-883 A.D.--whose minister,
+Suyya, carried out very useful drainage and irrigation works.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58. Martand Temple.]
+
+~The Panjab, 650-1000 A.D.~--We know little of Panjab history in the 340
+years which elapsed between the death of Harsha and the beginning of the
+Indian raids of the Sultans of Ghazni in 986-7 A.D. The conquest of the
+kingdom of Sindh by the Arab general, Muhammad Kasim, occurred some
+centuries earlier, in 712 A.D. Multan, the city of the Sun-worshippers,
+was occupied, and part at least of the Indus valley submitted to the
+youthful conqueror. He and his successors in Sindh were tolerant rulers.
+No attempt was made to occupy the Central Panjab, and when the Turkish
+Sultan, Sabaktagin, made his first raid into India in 986-7 A.D., his
+opponent was a powerful raja named Jaipal, who ruled over a wide
+territory extending from the Hakra to the frontier hills on the
+north-west. His capital was at Bhatinda. Just about the time when the
+rulers of Ghazni were laying the train which ended at Delhi and made it
+the seat of a great Muhammadan Empire, that town was being founded in
+993-4 A.D. by the Tunwar Rajputs, who then held sway in that
+neighbourhood.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 4: See Sykes' _History of Persia_, pp. 179-180; also Herodotos
+III. 94 and 98 and IV. 44.]
+
+[Footnote 5: "The Indians clad with garments made of cotton had bows of
+cane and arrows of cane tipped with iron."--Herodotos VII. 65.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+HISTORY (_continued_). THE MUHAMMADAN PERIOD, 1000-1764 A.D.
+
+
+~The Ghaznevide Raids.~--In the tenth century the Turks were the
+janissaries of the Abbaside Caliphs of Baghdad, and ambitious soldiers
+of that race began to carve out kingdoms. One Alptagin set up for
+himself at Ghazni, and was succeeded in 976 A.D. by his slave
+Sabaktagin, who began the long series of Indian raids which stained with
+blood the annals of the next half-century. His son, Mahmud of Ghazni, a
+ruthless zealot and robber abroad, a patron of learning and literature
+at home, added the Panjab to his dominions. In the first 26 years of the
+eleventh century he made seventeen marauding excursions into India. In
+the first his father's opponent, Jaipal, was beaten in a vain effort to
+save Peshawar. Ten years later his successor, Anandpal, at the head of a
+great army, again met the Turks in the Khaibar. The valour of the
+Ghakkars had practically won the day, when Anandpal's elephant took
+fright, and this accident turned victory into rout. In one or other of
+the raids Multan and Lahore were occupied, and the temples of Kangra
+(Nagarkot) and Thanesar plundered. In 1018 the Turkish army marched as
+far east as Kanauj. The one permanent result of all these devastations
+was the occupation of the Panjab. The Turks made Lahore the capital.
+
+~Decline of Buddhism.~--The iconoclastic raids of Mahmud probably gave the
+_coup de grace_ to Buddhism. Its golden age may be put at from 250 B.C.
+to 200 A.D. Brahmanism gradually emerged from retirement and reappeared
+at royal courts. It was quite ready to admit Buddha to its pantheon, and
+by so doing it sapped the doctrine he had taught. The Chinese pilgrim,
+Fahien, in the early part of the fifth century could still describe
+Buddhism in the Panjab as "very flourishing," and he found numerous
+monasteries. The religion seems however to have largely degenerated into
+a childish veneration of relics.
+
+~Conquest of Delhi.~--For a century and a quarter after the death of
+Mahmud in 1030 A.D. his line maintained its sway over a much diminished
+empire. In 1155 the Afghan chief of Ghor, Ala ud din, the "World-burner"
+(Jahan-soz), levelled Ghazni with the ground. For a little longer the
+Ghaznevide Turkish kings maintained themselves in Lahore. Between 1175
+and 1186 Muhammad Ghori, who had set up a new dynasty at Ghazni,
+conquered Multan, Peshawar, Sialkot, and Lahore, and put an end to the
+line of Mahmud. The occupation of Sirhind brought into the field Prithvi
+Raja, the Chauhan Rajput king of Delhi. In 1191 he routed Muhammad Ghori
+at Naraina near Karnal. But next year the Afghan came back with a huge
+host, and this time on the same battlefield fortune favoured him.
+Prithvi Raja was taken and killed, and Muhammad's slave, Kutbuddin
+Aibak, whom he left to represent him in India, soon occupied Delhi. In
+1203 Muhammad Ghori had to flee for his life after a defeat near the
+Oxus. The Ghakkars seized the chance and occupied Lahore. But the old
+lion, though wounded, was still formidable. The Ghakkars were beaten,
+and, it is said, converted. A year or two later they murdered their
+conqueror in his tent near the Indus.
+
+~Turkish and Afghans Sultans of Delhi.~--He had no son, and his strong
+viceroy, Kutbuddin Aibak, became in 1206 the first of the 33 Muhammadan
+kings, who in five successive dynasties ruled from Delhi a kingdom of
+varying dimensions, till the last of them fell at Panipat in 1526, and
+Babar, the first of the Moghals, became master of their red fort palace.
+The blood-stained annals of these 320 years can only be lightly touched
+on. Under vigorous rulers like the Turki Slave kings, Altamsh
+(1210-1236) and Balban (1266-1287), a ferocious and masterful boor like
+Ala ud din Khalji (1296-1316), or a ferocious but able man of culture
+like Muhammad Tughlak (1325-1351), the local governors at Lahore and
+Multan were content to be servants. In the frequent intervals during
+which the royal authority was in the hands of sottish wastrels, the
+chance of independence was no doubt seized.
+
+~Mongol Invasions.~--In 1221 the Mongol cloud rose on the north-west
+horizon. The cruelty of these camel-riding Tatars and the terror they
+inspired may perhaps be measured by the appalling picture given of their
+bestial appearance. In 1221, Chingiz Khan descended on the Indus at the
+heels of the King of Khwarizm (Khiva), and drove him into Sindh. Then
+there was a lull for twenty years, after which the Mongol war hordes
+ruined and ravaged the Panjab for two generations. Two great Panjab
+governors, Sher Khan under Balban and Tughlak under Ala ud din Khalji,
+maintained a gallant struggle against these savages. In 1297 and 1303
+the Mongols came to the gates of Delhi, but the city did not fall, and
+soon after they ceased to harry Northern India. During these years the
+misery of the common people must often have been extreme. When foreign
+raids ceased for a time they were plundered by their own rulers. In the
+Panjab the fate of the peasantry must have depended chiefly on the
+character of the governor for the time being, and of the local
+feudatories or _zamindars_, who were given the right to collect the
+State's share of the produce on condition of keeping up bodies of armed
+men for service when required.
+
+~The Invasion of Timur.~--The long reign of Muhammad Tughlak's successor,
+Firoz Shah (1351-1388), son of a Hindu Rajput princess of Dipalpur,
+brought relief to all classes. Besides adopting a moderate fiscal
+policy, he founded towns like Hissar and Fatehabad, dug canals from the
+Jamna and the Sutlej, and carried out many other useful works. On his
+death the realm fell into confusion. In 1398-99 another appalling
+calamity fell upon it in the invasion of Timurlang (Tamerlane), Khan of
+Samarkand. He entered India at the head of 90,000 horsemen, and marched
+by Multan, Dipalpur, Sirsa, Kaithal, and Panipat to Delhi. What lust of
+blood was to the Mongols, religious hatred was to Timur and his Turks.
+Ten thousand Hindus were put to the sword at Bhatner and 100,000
+prisoners were massacred before the victory at Delhi. For the three
+days' sack of the royal city Timur was not personally responsible. Sated
+with the blood of lakhs of infidels sent "to the fires of Hell" he
+marched back through Kangra and Jammu to the Indus. Six years later the
+House of Tughlak received a deadly wound when the Wazir, Ikbal Khan,
+fell in battle with Khizr Khan, the governor of Multan.
+
+~The later Dynasties.~--The Saiyyids, who were in power from 1414 to 1451,
+only ruled a small territory round Delhi. The local governors and the
+Hindu chiefs made themselves independent. Sikandar Lodi (1488-1518)
+reduced them to some form of submission, but his successor, Ibrahim,
+drove them into opposition by pushing authority further than his power
+justified. An Afghan noble, Daulat Khan, rebelled in the Panjab. There
+is always an ear at Kabul listening to the first sounds of discord and
+weakness between Peshawar and Delhi. Babar, a descendant of Timur, ruled
+a little kingdom there. In 1519 he advanced as far as Bhera. Five years
+later his troops burned the Lahore _bazar_, and sacked Dipalpur. The
+next winter saw Babar back again, and this time Delhi was his goal. On
+the 21st of April, 1526, a great battle at Panipat again decided the
+fate of India, and Babar entered Delhi in triumph.
+
+~Akbar and his successors.~--He soon bequeathed his Indian kingdom to his
+son Humayun, who lost it, but recovered it shortly before his death by
+defeating Sikandar Sur at Sirhind. In 1556 Akbar succeeded at the age of
+13, and in the same year Bahram Khan won for his master a great battle
+at Panipat and seated the Moghals firmly on the throne. For the next
+century and a half, till their power declined after the death of
+Aurangzeb in 1707, Kabul and Delhi were under one rule, and the Panjab
+was held in a strong grasp. When it was disturbed the cause was
+rebellions of undutiful sons of the reigning Emperor, struggles between
+rival heirs on the Emperor's death, or attempts to check the growing
+power of the Sikh Gurus. The empire was divided into _subahs_, and the
+area described in this book embraced _subahs_ Lahore and Multan, and
+parts of _subahs_ Delhi and Kabul. Kashmir and the trans-Indus tract
+were included in the last.
+
+~The Sultans of Kashmir.~--The Hindu rule in Kashmir had broken down by
+the middle of the twelfth century. A long line of Musalman Sultans
+followed. Two notable names emerge in the end of the fourteenth and the
+first half of the fifteenth century, Sikandar, the "Idol-breaker," who
+destroyed most of the Hindu temples and converted his people to Islam,
+and his wise and tolerant successor, Zain-ul-abidin. Akbar conquered
+Kashmir in 1587.
+
+~Moghal Royal Progresses to Kashmir.~--His successors often moved from
+Delhi by Lahore, Bhimbar, and the Pir Panjal route to the Happy Valley
+in order to escape the summer heats. Bernier has given us a graphic
+account of Aurangzeb's move to the hills in 1665. On that occasion his
+total following was estimated to amount to 300,000 or 400,000 persons,
+and the journey from Delhi to Lahore occupied two months. The burden
+royal progresses on this scale must have imposed on the country is
+inconceivable. Jahangir died in his beloved Kashmir. He planted the road
+from Delhi to Lahore with trees, set up as milestones the _kos minars_,
+some of which are still standing, and built fine _sarais_ at various
+places.
+
+~Prosperity of Lahore under Akbar, Jahangir, and Shahjahan.~--The reigns
+of Akbar and of his son and grandson were the heyday of Lahore. It was
+the halfway house between Delhi and Kashmir, and between Agra and Kabul.
+The Moghal Court was often there. Akbar made the city his headquarters
+from 1584 to 1598. Jahangir was buried and Shahjahan was born at Lahore.
+The mausoleum of the former is at Shahdara, a mile or two from the city.
+Shahjahan made the Shalimar garden, and Ali Mardan Khan's Canal, the
+predecessor of our own Upper Bari Doab Canal, was partly designed to
+water it. Lahore retained its importance under Aurangzeb, till he became
+enmeshed in the endless Deccan wars, and his successor, Bahadur Shah,
+died there in 1712.
+
+~Baba Nanak, the first Guru.~--According to Sikh legend Babar in one of
+his invasions had among his prisoners their first Guru, Baba Nanak, and
+tried to make him a Musalman. Nanak was born in 1469 at Talwandi, now
+known as Nankana Sahib, 30 miles to the south-west of Lahore, and died
+twelve years after Babar's victory at Panipat. He journeyed all over
+India, and, if legend speaks true, even visited Mecca. His propaganda
+was a peaceful one. A man of the people himself, he had a message to
+deliver to a peasantry naturally impatient of the shackles of orthodox
+Hinduism. Sikhism is the most important of all the later dissents from
+Brahmanism, which represent revolts against idolatry, priestly
+domination, and the bondage of caste and ritual. These things Nanak
+unhesitatingly condemned, and in the opening lines of his Japji, the
+morning service which every true Sikh must know by heart, he asserted in
+sublime language the unity of God.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59. Baba Nanak and the Musician Mardana.]
+
+~The Gurus between Nanak and Govind.~--The first three successors of Nanak
+led the quiet lives of great eastern saints. They managed to keep on
+good terms with the Emperor and generally also with his local
+representatives. The fifth Guru, Arjan (1581-1606), began the welding of
+the Sikhs into a body fit to play a part in secular politics. He
+compiled their sacred book, known as the _Granth Sahib_, and made
+Amritsar the permanent centre of their faith. The tenets of these early
+Gurus chimed in with the liberal sentiments of Akbar, and he treated
+them kindly. Arjan was accused of helping Khusru, Jahangir's rebellious
+son, and is alleged to have died after suffering cruel tortures.
+
+Hitherto there had been little ill-will between monotheistic Sikhs and
+Muhammadans. Henceforth there was ever-increasing enmity. The peasant
+converts to the new creed had many scores against Turk officials to pay
+off, while the new leader Hargovind (1606-1645), had the motive of
+revenge. He was a Guru of a new type, a lover of horses and hawks, and a
+man of war. He kept up a bodyguard, and, when danger threatened, armed
+followers flocked to his standard. The easy-going Jahangir (1605-1627)
+on the whole treated him well. Shahjahan (1627-1659) was more strict or
+less prudent, and during his reign there were several collisions between
+the imperial troops and the Guru's followers. Hargovind was succeeded
+by his grandson, Har Rai (1645-1661). The new Guru was a man of peace.
+Har Rai died in 1661, having nominated his younger son, Harkrishn, a
+child of six, as his successor. His brother, Ram Rai, disputed his
+claim, but Aurangzeb confirmed Harkrishn's appointment. He died of small
+pox in 1664 and was succeeded by his uncle, Teg Bahadur (1664-1675),
+whose chief titles to fame are his execution in 1675, his prophecy of
+the coming of the English, and the fact that he was the father of the
+great tenth Guru, Govind. It is said that when in prison at Delhi he
+gazed southwards one day in the direction of the Emperor's _zanana_.
+Charged with this impropriety, he replied: "I was looking in the
+direction of the Europeans, who are coming to tear down thy _pardas_ and
+destroy thine empire."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60. Guru Govind Singh.]
+
+~Guru Govind Singh.~--When Govind (1675-1708) succeeded his father,
+Aurangzeb had already started on the course of persecution which fatally
+weakened the pillars of Turkish rule. Govind grew up with a rooted
+hatred of the Turks, and a determination to weld his followers into a
+league of fighting men or _Khalsa_ (Ar. _khalis_ = pure), admission into
+which was by the _pahul_, a form of military baptism. Sikhs were
+henceforth to be _Singhs_ (lions). They were forbidden to smoke, and
+enjoined to wear the five k's, _kes_, _kangha_, _kripan_, _kachh_, and
+_kara_ (uncut hair, comb, sword, short drawers, and steel bracelet). He
+established himself at Anandpur beyond the Hoshyarpur Siwaliks. Much of
+his life was spent in struggles with his neighbours, the Rajput Hill
+Rajas, backed from time to time by detachments of imperial troops from
+Sirhind. In 1705 two of his sons were killed fighting and two young
+grandsons were executed at Sirhind. He himself took refuge to the south
+of the Sutlej, but finally decided to obey a summons from Aurangzeb, and
+was on the way to the Deccan when the old Emperor died. The Guru took
+up his residence on the banks of the Godavari, and died there in 1708.
+
+~Banda.~--Before his death he had converted the Hindu ascetic Banda, and
+sent him forth on a mission of revenge. Banda defeated and slew the
+governor of Sirhind, Wazir Khan, and sacked the town. Doubtless he
+dreamed of making himself Guru. But he was really little more than a
+condottiere, and his orthodoxy was suspect. He was defeated and captured
+in 1715 at Gurdaspur. Many of his followers were executed and he himself
+was tortured to death at Delhi, where the members of an English mission
+saw a ghastly procession of Sikh prisoners with 2000 heads carried on
+poles. The blow was severe, and for a generation little was heard of the
+Sikhs.
+
+~Invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah.~--The central power was weak, and
+a new era of invasions from the west began. Nadir Shah, the Turkman
+shepherd, who had made himself master of Persia, advanced through the
+Panjab. Zakaria Khan, the governor of Lahore, submitted and the town was
+saved from sack. A victory at Karnal left the road to Delhi open, and in
+March, 1738, the Persians occupied the capital. A shot fired at Nadir
+Shah in the Chandni Chauk led to the nine hours' massacre, when the
+Dariba ran with blood, and 100,000 citizens are said to have perished.
+The Persians retired laden with booty, including the peacock throne and
+the Kohinur diamond. The Sikhs harassed detachments of the army on its
+homeward march. Nadir Shah was murdered nine years later, and his power
+passed to the Afghan leader, the Durani Ahmad Shah.
+
+Between 1748 and 1767 this remarkable man, who could conquer but could
+not keep, invaded India eight times. Lahore was occupied in 1748, but at
+Sirhind the skill of Mir Mannu, called Muin ul Mulk, gave the advantage
+to the Moghals. Ahmad Shah retreated, and Muin ul Mulk was rewarded
+with the governorship of the Panjab. He was soon forced to cede to the
+Afghan the revenue of four districts. His failure to fulfil his compact
+led to a third invasion in 1752, and Muin ul Mulk, after a gallant
+defence of Lahore, had to submit. In 1755-56 Ahmad Shah plundered Delhi
+and then retired, leaving his son, Timur, to represent him at Lahore.
+Meanwhile the Sikhs had been gathering strength. Then, as now, they
+formed only a fraction of the population. But they were united by a
+strong hatred of Muhammadan rule, and in the disorganized state of the
+country even the loose organization described below made them
+formidable. Owing to the weakness of the government the Panjab became
+dotted over with forts, built by local chiefs, who undoubtedly lived
+largely by plunder. The spiritual organization under a Guru being gone,
+there gradually grew up a political and military organization into
+twelve _misls_, in which "a number of chiefs agreed, after a somewhat
+democratic and equal fashion, to fight under the general orders of some
+powerful leader" against the hated Muhammadans. The _misls_ often fought
+with one another for a change. In the third quarter of the eighteenth
+century _Sardar_ Jassa Singh of Kapurthala, head of the Ahluwalia
+_misl_, was the leading man among the Sikhs. Timur having defiled the
+tank at Amritsar, Jassa Singh avenged the insult by occupying Lahore in
+1756, and the Afghan prince withdrew across the Indus. Adina Beg, the
+governor of the Jalandhar Doab, called in the Mahrattas, who drove the
+Sikhs out in 1758. Ahmad Shah's fifth invasion in 1761 was rendered
+memorable by his great victory over the Mahratta confederacy at Panipat.
+When he returned to Kabul, the Sikhs besieged his governor, Zin Khan, in
+Sirhind. Next year Ahmad Shah returned, and repaid their audacity by a
+crushing defeat near Barnala.
+
+They soon rallied, and, in 1763, under Jassa Singh Ahluwalia and Raja
+Ala Singh of Patiala razed Sirhind to the ground. After the sack the
+Sikh horsemen rode over the plains between Sirhind and Karnal, each man
+claiming for his own any village into which in passing he had thrown
+some portion of his garments. This was the origin of the numerous petty
+chiefships and confederacies of horsemen, which, along with the Phulkian
+States, the British Government took under its protection in 1808. In
+1764 the chiefs of the Bhangi _misl_ occupied Lahore.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+HISTORY (_continued_). THE SIKH PERIOD, 1764-1849 A.D.
+
+
+~Rise of Ranjit Singh.~--The Bhangis held Lahore with brief intervals for
+25 years. In 1799, Ranjit Singh, basing his claim on a grant from Shah
+Zaman, the grandson of Ahmad Shah, drove them out, and inaugurated the
+remarkable career which ended with his death in 1839. When he took
+Lahore the future Maharaja was only nineteen years of age. He was the
+head of the Sukarchakia _misl_, which had its headquarters at
+Gujranwala. Mean in appearance, his face marked and one eye closed by
+the ravages of smallpox, he was the one man of genius the Jat tribe has
+produced. A splendid horseman, a bold leader, a cool thinker untroubled
+with scruples, an unerring judge of character, he was bound to rise in
+such times. He set himself to put down every Sikh rival and to profit by
+the waning of the Durani power to make himself master of their
+possessions in the Panjab. Pluck, patience, and guile broke down all
+opposition among the Manjha Sikhs. The Sikh chiefs to the south of the
+Sutlej were only saved from the same fate by throwing themselves in 1808
+on the protection of the English, who six years earlier had occupied
+Delhi, and by taking under their protection the blind old Emperor, Shah
+Alam, had virtually proclaimed themselves the paramount power in India.
+For 44 years he had been only a piece in the game played by Mahrattas,
+Rohillas, and the English in alliance with the Nawab Wazir of Oudh.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61. Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
+
+(_From a picture book said to have been prepared for Maharaja Dalip
+Singh._)]
+
+~British supremacy established in India.~--In the first years of the
+nineteenth century the Marquess of Wellesley had made up his mind that
+the time was ripe to grasp supreme power in India. The motive was
+largely self-preservation. India was included in Napoleon's vast plans
+for the overthrow of England, and Sindhia, with his army trained in
+European methods of warfare by French officers, seemed a likely
+confederate. Colonel Arthur Wellesley's hard-won battle at Assaye in
+September, 1803, and Lord Lake's victories on the Hindan and at Laswari
+in the same year, decided the fate of India. Delhi was occupied, and
+Daulat Rao Sindhia ceded to the company territory reaching from Fazilka
+on the Sutlej to Delhi on the Jamna, and extending along that river
+northwards to Karnal and southwards to Mewat. Fazilka and a large part
+of Hissar then formed a wild desert tract called Bhattiana, over which
+no effective control was exercised till 1818. In 1832 "the Delhi
+territory" became part of the North-West Provinces, from which it was
+transferred to the Panjab after the Mutiny.
+
+~Relations of Ranjit Singh with English.~--In December, 1808, Ranjit Singh
+was warned that by the issue of the war with Sindhia the Cis-Sutlej
+chiefs had come under British protection. The Maharaja was within an ace
+of declaring war, or let the world think so, but his statesmanlike
+instincts got the better of mortified ambition, and in April, 1809, he
+signed a treaty pledging himself to make no conquests south and east of
+the Sutlej. The compact so reluctantly made was faithfully observed. In
+1815, as the result of war with the Gurkhas, the Rajput hill states
+lying to the south of the Sutlej came under British protection.
+
+~Extension of Sikh Kingdom in Panjab.~--As early as 1806, when he reduced
+Jhang, Ranjit Singh began his encroachments on the possessions of the
+Duranis in the Panjab. Next year, and again in 1810 and 1816, Multan was
+attacked, but the strong fort was not taken till 1818, when the old
+Nawab, Muzaffar Khan, and five of his sons, fell fighting at the gate.
+Kashmir was first attacked in 1811 and finally annexed in 1819. Called
+in by the great Katoch Raja of Kangra, Sansar Chand, in 1809, to help
+him against the Gurkhas, Ranjit Singh duped both parties, and became
+master of the famous fort. Many years later he annexed the whole of the
+Kangra hill states. By 1820 the Maharaja was supreme from the Sutlej to
+the Indus, though his hold on Hazara was weak. Peshawar became tributary
+in 1823, but it was kept in subjection with much difficulty. Across the
+Indus the position of the Sikhs was always precarious, and revenue was
+only paid when an armed force could be sent to collect it. As late as
+1837 the great Sikh leader, Hari Singh Nalwa, fell fighting with the
+Afghans at Jamrud. The Barakzai, Dost Muhammad, had been the ruler of
+Kabul since 1826. In 1838, when the English launched their ill-starred
+expedition to restore Shah Shuja to his throne, Ranjit Singh did not
+refuse his help in the passage through the Panjab. But he was worn out
+by toils and excesses, and next year the weary lion of the Panjab died.
+He had known how to use men. He employed Jat blades and Brahman and
+Muhammadan brains. Khatris put both at his service. The best of his
+local governors was Diwan Sawan Mal, who ruled the South-West Panjab
+with much profit to himself and to the people. After 1820 the three
+Jammu brothers, Rajas Dhian Singh, Suchet Singh, and Gulab Singh, had
+great power.
+
+~Successors of Ranjit Singh.~--From 1839 till 1846 an orgy of bloodshed
+and intrigue went on in Lahore. Kharak Singh, the Maharaja's son, died
+in 1840, and on the same day occurred the death of his son Nao Nihal
+Singh, compassed probably by the Jammu Rajas. Sher Singh, and then the
+child, Dalip Singh, succeeded. In September, 1843, Maharaja Sher Singh,
+his son Partab Singh, and Raja Dhian Singh were shot by Ajit Singh and
+Lehna Singh of the great Sindhanwalia house. The death of Dhian Singh
+was avenged by his son, Hira Singh, who proclaimed Dalip Singh as
+Maharaja and made himself chief minister. When he in turn was killed
+Rani Jindan, the mother of Dalip Singh, her brother Jowahir Singh, and
+her favourite, Lal Singh, took the reins.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62. Maharaja Kharak Singh.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63. Nao Nihal Singh.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64. Maharaja Sher Singh.
+
+(_From a picture book said to have been prepared for Maharaja Dalip
+Singh._)]
+
+~The First Sikh War and its results.~--In 1845 these intriguers, fearing
+the _Khalsa_ army which they could not control, yielded to its cry to be
+led across the Sutlej in the hope that its strength would be broken in
+its conflict with the Company's forces. The valour displayed by the Sikh
+soldiery on the fields of Mudki, Ferozeshah (Pherushahr), and Sobraon
+was rendered useless by the treachery of its rulers, and Lahore was
+occupied in February, 1846. By the treaty signed on 9th March, 1846, the
+Maharaja ceded the territories in the plains between the Sutlej and
+Bias, and in the hills between the Bias and the Indus. Kashmir and
+Hazara were made over by the Company to Raja Gulab Singh for a payment
+of 75 lakhs, but next year he induced the Lahore Darbar to take over
+Hazara and give him Jammu in exchange. After Raja Lal Singh had been
+banished for instigating Shekh Imam ud din to resist the occupation of
+Kashmir by Gulab Singh, an agreement was executed, in December, 1846,
+between the Government and the chief Sikh _Sardars_ by which a Council
+of Regency was appointed to be controlled by a British Resident at
+Lahore. The office was given to Henry Lawrence.
+
+~The Second Sikh War.~--These arrangements were destined to be
+short-lived. Diwan Sawan Mal's son, Mulraj, mismanaged Multan and was
+ordered to resign. In April, 1848, two English officers sent to instal
+his Sikh successor were murdered. Herbert Edwardes, with the help of
+Muhammadan tribesmen and Bahawalpur troops, shut up Mulraj in Multan,
+but the fort was too strong for the first British regular force, which
+arrived in August, and it did not fall till January, 1849. During that
+winter a formidable Sikh revolt against English domination broke out.
+Its leader was _Sardar_ Chatar Singh, Governor of Hazara. The troops
+sent by the _Darbar_ to Multan under Chatar Singh's son, Sher Singh,
+marched northwards in September to join their co-religionists.
+
+On the 13th of January, 1849, Lord Gough fought a very hardly contested
+battle at Chilianwala. If this was but a doubtful victory, that won six
+weeks later at Gujrat was decisive. On 12th March, 1849, the soldiers of
+the _Khalsa_ in proud dejection laid down their weapons at the feet of
+the victor, and dispersed to their homes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65. Zamzama Gun[6].]
+
+~Annexation.~--The cause they represented was in no sense a national one.
+The Sikhs were a small minority of the population, the bulk of the
+people being Muhammadans, to whom the English came as deliverers. On the
+30th of March, 1849, the proclamation annexing the Panjab was read at
+Lahore.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 6: This gun, known to the readers of _Kim_, stands on the
+Lahore Mall. Whoever possesses it is supposed to be ruler of the
+Panjab.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+HISTORY (_continued_). THE BRITISH PERIOD, 1849-1913
+
+
+~Administrative Arrangements in Panjab.~--Lord Dalhousie put the
+government of the province under a Board of Administration consisting of
+the two Lawrences, Henry and John, and Charles Mansel. The Board was
+abolished in 1853 and its powers vested in a Chief Commissioner. A
+Revenue or Financial Commissioner and a Judicial Commissioner were his
+principal subordinates. John Lawrence, the first and only Chief
+Commissioner of the Panjab, became its first Lieutenant-Governor on the
+1st of January, 1859. The raising of the Panjab to the full rank of an
+Indian province was the fitting reward of the great part which its
+people and its officers, with their cool-headed and determined chief,
+had played in the suppression of the Mutiny. The overthrow of the
+_Khalsa_ left the contending parties with the respect which strong men
+feel for each other; the services of the Sikhs in 1857 healed their
+wounded pride and removed all soreness.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66. Sir John Lawrence.]
+
+~Administration, 1849-1859.~--When John Lawrence laid down his office in
+the end of February, 1859, ten years of work by himself and the able
+officers drafted by Lord Dalhousie into the new province had established
+order on a solid foundation. A strong administration suited to a manly
+and headstrong people had been organised. In the greater part of the
+province rights in land had been determined and recorded. The principle
+of a moderate assessment of the land revenue had been laid down and
+partially carried out in practice. The policy of canal and railway
+development, which was to have so great a future in the Panjab, had been
+definitely started. The province had been divided into nine divisions
+containing 33 districts. The Divisional Commissioners were
+superintendents of revenue and police with power to try the gravest
+criminal offences and to hear appeals in civil cases. The Deputy
+Commissioner of districts had large civil, criminal, and fiscal powers.
+A simple criminal and civil code was enforced. The peace of the frontier
+was secured by a chain of fortified outposts watching the outlets from
+the hills, behind which were the cantonments at the headquarters of the
+districts linked together by a military road. The posts and the
+cantonments except Peshawar were garrisoned by the Frontier Force, a
+splendid body of troops consisting ultimately of seven infantry and
+five cavalry regiments, with some mule batteries. This force was till
+1885 subject to the orders of the Lieutenant Governor. It never wanted
+work, for before the Mutiny troops had to be employed seventeen times
+against the independent tribesmen. East of the Indus order was secured
+by the disarmament of the people, the maintenance, in addition to civil
+police, of a strong body of military police, and the construction of
+good roads. Just before Lawrence left the construction of the
+Amritsar-Multan railway was begun, and a few weeks after his departure
+the Upper Bari Doab Canal was opened.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67. John Nicolson's Monument at Delhi.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68. Sir Robert Montgomery.]
+
+~Administration, 1859-1870.~--The next eleven years occupied by the
+administrations of Sir Robert Montgomery and Sir Donald Macleod were a
+quiet time in which results already achieved were consolidated. The
+Penal Code was extended to the Panjab in 1862, and a Chief Court with a
+modest establishment of two judges in 1865 took the place of the
+Judicial Commissioner. In the same year a Settlement Commissioner was
+appointed to help the Financial Commissioner in the control of land
+revenue settlements. Two severe famines marked the beginning and the
+close of this period. Omitting the usual little frontier excitements, it
+is necessary to mention the troublesome Ambela campaign in 1863 in the
+country north of Peshawar, which had for its object the breaking up of
+the power of a nest of Hindustani fanatics, and the Black Mountain
+expedition, in 1868, on the Hazara border, in which no fewer than 15,000
+men were employed. Sir Henry Durand, who succeeded Sir Donald Macleod,
+after seven months of office lost his life by an accident in the
+beginning of 1871.
+
+~Administration, 1871-1882.~--The next eleven years divided between the
+administrations of Sir Henry Davies (1871-1877) and Sir Robert Egerton
+(1877-1882) produced more striking events. In 1872 a small body of
+fanatics belonging to a Sikh sect known as Kukas or Shouters marched
+from the Ludhiana district and attacked the headquarters of the little
+Muhammadan State of Malerkotla. They were repulsed and 68 men
+surrendered to the Patiala authorities. The Deputy Commissioner of
+Ludhiana blew 49 of them from the guns, and the rest were executed after
+summary trial by the Commissioner. Such strong measures were not
+approved by the Government, but it must be remembered that these madmen
+had killed ten and wounded seventeen men, and that their lives were
+justly forfeit. On the 1st of January, 1877, Queen Victoria's
+assumption of the title of Empress of India (_Kaisar-i-Hind_) was
+announced at a great _Darbar_ at Delhi. In 1877 Kashmir, hitherto
+controlled by the Lieutenant-Governor, was put directly under the
+Government of India. The same year and the next the province was tried
+by famine, and in 1878-80 it was the base from which our armies marched
+on Kabul and Kandahar, while its resources in camels were strained to
+supply transport. Apart from this its interest in the war was very great
+because it is the chief recruiting ground of the Indian army and its
+chiefs sent contingents to help their suzerain. The first stage of the
+war was closed by the treaty of Gandamak in May, 1879, by which Yakub
+Khan surrendered any rights he possessed over Khaibar and the Kurram as
+far as Shutargardan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69. Panjab Camels--Lahore.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70. Sir Charles Aitchison.]
+
+~Administration, 1882-1892.~--During the Lieutenant-Governorships of Sir
+Charles Aitchison (1882-1887) and Sir James Lyall (1887-1892) there was
+little trouble on the western frontier. In 1891 the need had arisen of
+making our power felt up to the Pamirs. The setting up of a British
+agency at Gilgit was opposed in 1891 by the fighting men of Hunza and
+Nagar. Colonel Durand advanced rapidly with a small force and when a
+determined assault reduced the strong fort of Nilt, trouble was at an
+end once and for all. Within the Panjab the period was one of quiet
+development. The Sirhind Canal was opened in 1882, and the weir at
+Khanki for the supply of the Lower Chenab Canal was finished in 1892.
+New railways were constructed. Lord Ripon's policy of Local
+Self-government found a strong supporter in Sir Charles Aitchison, and
+Acts were passed dealing with the constitution and powers of municipal
+committees and district boards. In 1884 and 1885 a large measure of
+reorganization was carried out. A separate staff of divisional,
+district, and subordinate civil judges was appointed. The divisional
+judges were also sessions judges. The ten commissioners were reduced to
+six, and five of them were relieved of all criminal work by the sessions
+judges. The Deputy Commissioner henceforth was a Revenue Collector and
+District Magistrate with large powers in criminal cases. The revenue
+administration was at the same time being improved by the reforms
+embodied in the Panjab Land Revenue and Tenancy Acts passed at the
+beginning of Sir James Lyall's administration.
+
+~Administration, 1892-1902.~--The next two administrations, those of Sir
+Dennis Fitzpatrick (1892-97) and Sir Mackworth Young (1897-1902) were
+crowded with important events. Throughout the period the colonization of
+the vast area of waste commanded by the Lower Chenab Canal was carried
+out, and the Lower Jhelam Canal was formally opened six months before
+Sir Mackworth Young left. The province suffered from famine in 1896-97
+and again in 1899-1900. In October, 1897, a worse enemy appeared in the
+shape of plague, but its ravages were not very formidable till the end
+of the period. The Panjab was given a small nominated Legislative
+Council in 1897, which speedily proved itself a valuable instrument for
+dealing with much-needed provincial legislation. But the most important
+Panjab Act of the period, XIII of 1900, dealing with Land Alienation was
+passed by the Viceroy's Legislative Council. In 1901 a Political Agent
+was appointed as the intermediary between the Panjab Government and the
+Phulkian States. On the frontier the conclusion of the Durand Agreement
+in 1893 might well have raised hopes of quiet times. But the reality was
+otherwise. The establishment of a British officer at Wana to exercise
+control over Southern Waziristan in 1894 was forcibly resisted by the
+Mahsud Wazirs, and an expedition had to be sent into their country. The
+Mehtar or Chief of Chitral, who was in receipt of a subsidy from the
+British Government, died in 1892. A period of great confusion followed
+fomented by the ambitions of Umra Khan of Jandol. Finally we recognised
+as Mehtar the eldest son, who had come uppermost in the struggle, and
+sent an English officer as British Agent to Chitral. Umra Khan got our
+protege murdered, and besieged the Agent in the Chitral fort. He
+withdrew however on the approach of a small force from Gilgit.
+Shuja-ul-Mulk was recognised as Mehtar. This little trouble occurred in
+1895. Two years later a storm-cloud suddenly burst over the frontier,
+such as we had never before experienced. It spread rapidly from the
+Tochi to Swat, tribe after tribe rising and attacking our posts. It is
+impossible to tell here the story of the military measures taken against
+the different offending tribes. The most important was the campaign in
+Tirah against the Orakzais and Afridis, in which 30,000 men were engaged
+for six months. In 1900 attacks on the peace of the border by the Mahsud
+Wazirs had to be punished by a blockade, and in the cold weather of
+1901-2 small columns harried the hill country to enforce their
+submission. By this time the connection of the Panjab Government with
+frontier affairs, which had gradually come to involve responsibility
+with little real power, had ceased. On the 25th of October, 1901, the
+North-West Frontier Province was constituted and Colonel (afterwards Sir
+Harold) Deane became its first Chief Commissioner, an office which he
+held till 1908, when he was succeeded by Major (now Sir George) Roos
+Keppel.
+
+~Administration, 1902-1913.~--The last eleven years have embraced the
+Lieutenant Governorship of Sir Charles Rivaz (1902-1907), the too brief
+administration of Sir Denzil Ibbetson (1907-1908), and that of Sir Louis
+Dane (1908-1913). Throughout the period plague has been a disturbing
+factor, preventing entirely the growth of population which the rapid
+development of the agricultural resources of the province would
+otherwise have secured. It was among the causes stimulating the unrest
+which came to a head in 1907. A terrible earthquake occurred in 1905.
+Its centre was in Kangra, where 20,000 persons perished under the ruins
+of their houses. The colonization of the Crown waste on the Lower Jhelam
+Canal was nearly finished during Sir Charles Rivaz's administration.
+Before he left the Triple Canal Project, now approaching completion, had
+been undertaken. Other measures of importance to the rural population
+were the passing of the Co-operative Credit Societies' Act in 1903, and
+the organization in 1905 of a provincial Agricultural Department. The
+seditious movement which troubled Bengal had its echo in some parts of
+the Panjab in the end of 1906 and the spring of 1907. A bill dealing
+with the rights and obligations of the Crown tenants in the new Canal
+Colonies was at the time before the Local Legislature. Excitement
+fomented from outside spread among the prosperous colonists on the Lower
+Chenab Canal. There was a disturbance in Lahore in connection with the
+trial of a newspaper editor, the ringleaders being students. When Sir
+Denzil Ibbetson took the reins into his strong hands in March, 1907, the
+position was somewhat critical. The disturbance at Lahore was followed
+by a riot at Rawalpindi. The two leading agitators were deported, a
+measure which was amply justified by their reckless actions and which
+had an immediate effect. Lord Minto decided to withhold his assent from
+the Colony Bill, and it has recently been replaced by a measure which
+has met with general acceptance. When Sir Denzil Ibbetson took office he
+was already suffering from a mortal disease. In the following January he
+gave up the unequal struggle, and shortly afterwards died. Sir Louis
+Dane became Lieutenant Governor in May, 1908. A striking feature of his
+administration was the growth of co-operative credit societies or
+village banks. At the Coronation _Darbar_ on 12th December, 1911, the
+King-Emperor announced the transfer of the capital of India to Delhi. As
+a necessary consequence the city and its suburbs were severed from the
+province, with which they had been connected for 55 years. In 1913 Sir
+Louis Dane was succeeded by Sir Michael O'Dwyer.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71. Sir Denzil Ibbetson.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72. Sir Michael O'Dwyer.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+ARCHAEOLOGY AND COINS
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73. Group of Chamba Temples.]
+
+~Hindu and Buddhist Remains.~--The scholar who ended his study of Indian
+history with the close of the first millennium of the Christian era
+would expect to find a fruitful field for the study of ancient monuments
+of the Hindu faith in the plains of the Panjab. He would look for a
+great temple of the Sun God at Multan, and at places like Lahore and
+Kangra, Thanesar and Pihowa, for shrines rich with graven work outside
+and with treasures of gold and precious stones within. But he would look
+in vain. The Muhammadan invaders of the five centuries which elapsed
+between Mahmud of Ghazni and the Moghal Babar were above all things
+idol-breakers, and their path was marked by the destruction and
+spoliation of temples. Even those invaders who remained as conquerors
+deemed it a pious work to build their mosques with the stones of ruined
+fanes. The transformation, as in the case of the great Kuwwat ul Islam
+mosque beside the Kutb Minar, did not always involve the complete
+obliteration of idolatrous emblems. Kangra was not too remote to be
+reached by invading armies, and the visitor to Nurpur on the road from
+Pathankot to Dharmsala can realize how magnificent some of the old Hindu
+buildings were, and how utterly they were destroyed. The smaller
+buildings to be found in the remoter parts of the hills escaped, and
+there are characteristic groups of stone temples at Chamba and still
+older shrines dating from the eighth century at Barmaur and Chitradi in
+the same state. The ruins of the great temple of the Sun, built by
+Lalitaditya in the same period, at Martand[7] near Islamabad in the
+Kashmir State are very striking. The smaller, but far better preserved,
+temple at Payer is probably of much later date. Round the pool of Katas,
+one of Siva's eyes, a great place of Hindu pilgrimage in the Salt
+Range, there is little or nothing of antiquarian value, but there are
+interesting remains at Malot in the same neighbourhood. It is possible
+that when the mounds that mark the sites of ancient villages come to be
+excavated valuable relics of the Hindu period will be brought to light.
+The forces of nature or the violence of man have wiped out all traces of
+the numerous Buddhist monasteries which the Chinese pilgrims found in
+the Panjab. Inscriptions of Asoka? graven on rocks survive at
+Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra in the North-West Frontier Province. Two
+pillars with inscriptions of the Missionary Emperor stand at Delhi. They
+were brought from Topra near the Jamna in Ambala and from Meerut by
+Firoz Shah. The traveller by train from Jhelam to Rawalpindi can see to
+the west of the line at Mankiala a great _stupa_ raised to celebrate the
+self-sacrifice of the Bodhisattva who gave his life to feed a starving
+tigress. There is a ruined _stupa_ at Sui Vihar in the Bahawalpur State.
+The Chinese pilgrims described the largest of Indian _stupas_ built by
+Kanishka near Peshawar to enshrine precious relics of Gautama Buddha and
+a great monastery beside it. Recent excavations have proved the truth
+of the conjecture that the two mounds at Shahji ki dheri covered the
+remains of these buildings, and the six-sided crystal reliquary
+containing three small fragments of bone has after long centuries been
+disinterred and is now in the great pagoda at Rangoon. In the Lahore
+museum there is a rich collection of the sculptures recovered from the
+Peshawar Valley, the ancient Gandhara. They exhibit strong traces of
+Greek influence. The best age of Gandhara sculpture was probably over
+before the reign of Kanishka. The site of the famous town of Taxila is
+now a protected area, and excavation there may yield a rich reward.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74. Payer Temple.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75. Reliquary.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76. Colonnade in Kuwwat ul Islam Mosque.]
+
+~Muhammadan Architecture.~--The Muhammadan architecture of North-Western
+India may be divided into three periods:
+
+ (_a_) The Pathan 1191-1320
+ (_b_) The Tughlak 1320-1556
+ (_c_) The Moghal 1556-1753
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77. Kutb Minar.]
+
+In the Pathan period the royal builders drew their inspiration from
+Ghazni, but their work was also much affected by Hindu influences for
+two reasons. They used the materials of Hindu temples in constructing
+their mosques and they employed masons imbued with the traditions of
+Hindu art. The best specimens of this period are to be found in the
+group of buildings in Old Delhi or _Kila' Rai Pithora_, close to
+Mahrauli and eleven miles to the south of the present city. These
+buildings are the magnificent _Kuwwat ul Islam_ (Might of Islam) Mosque
+(1191-1225), with its splendid tower, the _Kutb Minar_ (1200-1220), from
+which the _mu'azzin_ called the faithful to prayer, the tomb of the
+Emperor Altamsh (1238), and the great gateway built in 1310 by Ala ud
+din Khalji. In the second period, named after the house that occupied
+the imperial throne when it began, all traces of Hindu influence have
+vanished, and the buildings display the austere and massive grandeur
+suited to the faith of the desert prophet unalloyed by foreign elements.
+This style in its beginning is best seen in the cyclopean ruins of
+Tughlakabad and the tomb of the Emperor Tughlak Shah, and in some
+mosques in and near Delhi. Its latest phase is represented by Sher
+Shah's mosque in the Old Fort or _Purana Kila'_. To some the simple
+grandeur of this style will appeal more strongly than the splendid, but
+at times almost effeminate, beauty of the third period. Noted examples
+of Moghal architecture in the Panjab are to be found in Shahjahari's red
+fort palace and _Jama' Masjid_ at New Delhi or Shahjahanabad,
+Humayun's tomb on the road from Delhi to Mahrauli, the fort palace, the
+Badshahi and Wazir Khan's mosques, at Lahore, and Jahangir's mausoleum
+at Shahdara. A very late building in this style is the tomb of Nawab
+Safdar Jang (1753) near Delhi. A further account of some of the most
+famous Muhammadan buildings will be found in the paragraphs devoted to
+the chief cities of the province. The architecture of the British period
+scarcely deserves notice.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78. Tomb of Emperor Tughlak Shah.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79. Jama Masjid, Delhi.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80. Tomb of Emperor Humayun.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81. Badshahi Mosque, Lahore.]
+
+~Coins.~--Among the most interesting of the archaeological remains are the
+coins which are found in great abundance on the frontier and all over
+the Panjab. These take us back through the centuries to times before
+the invasion of India by Alexander, and for the obscure period
+intervening between the Greek occupation of the Frontier and the
+Muhammadan conquest, they are our main source of history. The most
+ancient of the Indian monetary issues are the so-called punch-marked
+coins, some of which were undoubtedly in existence before the Greek
+invasion. Alexander himself left no permanent traces of his progress
+through the Panjab and Sindh, but about the year 200 B.C., Greeks from
+Bactria, an outlying province of the Seleukidan Empire, once more
+appeared on the Indian Frontier, which they effectively occupied for
+more than a century. They struck the well-known Graeco-Bactrian coins;
+the most famous of the Indo-Greek princes were Apollodotos and Menander.
+Towards the close of this dynasty, parts of Sindh and Afghanistan were
+conquered by Saka Scythians from Central Asia. They struck what are
+termed the Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins bearing names in
+legible Greek legends--Manes, Azes, Azilises, Gondophares, Abdagases.
+Both Greeks and Sakas were overthrown by the Kushans. The extensive gold
+and copper Kushan currency, with inscriptions in the Greek script,
+contains the names of Kadphises, Kanishka, Huvishka, and others. In
+addition to the coins of these foreign dynasties, there are the purely
+Indian currencies, e.g. the coins of Taxila, and those bearing the names
+of such tribes as the Odumbaras, Kunindas, and Yaudheyas. The White Huns
+overthrew the Kushan Empire in the fifth century. After their own fall
+in the sixth century, there are more and more debased types of coinage
+such as the ubiquitous _Gadhiya paisa_, a degraded Sassanian type. In
+the ninth century we again meet with coins bearing distinct names, the
+"bull and horseman" currency of the Hindu kings of Kabul. We have now
+reached the beginning of the Muhammadan rule in India. Muhammad bin
+Sam was the founder of the first Pathan dynasty of Delhi, and was
+succeeded by a long line of Sultans. The Pathan and Moghal coins bear
+Arabic and Persian legends. There were mints at Lahore, Multan,
+Hafizabad, Kalanaur, Derajat, Peshawar, Srinagar and Jammu. An issue of
+coins peculiar to the Panjab is that of the Sikhs. Their coin legends,
+partly Persian, partly Panjabi, are written in the Persian and Gurmukhi
+scripts. Amongst Sikh mints were Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Dera,
+Anandgarh, Jhang, and Kashmir.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82. Coins.
+
+1. Silver punch-marked coin. 2. Drachma of Sophytes (Panjab Satrap about
+time of Alexander). 3. Hemidrachma of Azes. 4. Copper coin of Taxila. 5.
+Silver Kuninda coin. 6. Stater of Wema Kadphises. 7. Stater of Kanishka.
+8. Later Kushan stater. 9. White Hun silver piece. 10. Gadhiya _paisa_.
+11. Silver coin of Spalapati Deva, Hindu King of Kabul.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 7: See page 166.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+ADMINISTRATION--GENERAL
+
+
+~Panjab Districts.~--The administrative unit in the Panjab is the district
+in charge of a Deputy Commissioner. The districts are divided into
+_tahsils_, each on the average containing four, and are grouped together
+in divisions managed by Commissioners. There are 28 districts and five
+divisions. An ordinary Panjab district has an area of 2000 to 3000
+square miles and contains from 1000 to 2000 village estates. Devon, the
+third in size of the English counties, is about equal to an average
+Panjab district.
+
+~Branches of Administration.~--The provincial governments of India are
+organized in three branches, Executive, Judicial, and Revenue, and a
+number of special departments, such as Forests and Irrigation. Under
+"Judicial" there are two subdivisions, civil and criminal. The tendency
+at first is for powers in all three branches to be concentrated in the
+hands of single individuals, development tends to specialization, but it
+is a matter of controversy how far the separation of executive and
+magisterial functions can be carried without jeopardy to the common
+weal.
+
+~The Lieutenant Governor.~--At the head of the whole administration is the
+Lieutenant Governor, who holds office for five years. He has a strong
+Secretariat to help in the dispatch of business. The experiment of
+governing the Panjab by a Board was speedily given up, and for sixty
+years it has enjoyed the advantage of one man government, the Lieutenant
+Governor controlling all subordinate authorities and being himself only
+controlled by the Governor General in Council. The independence of the
+Courts in the exercise of judicial functions is of course safeguarded.
+
+~Official hierarchy.~--The following is a list of the official hierarchy
+in the different branches of the administration:
+
+ _A._ Lieutenant Governor.
+ _B._ Five Judges of Chief Court (_j_).
+ _C._ Two Financial Commissioners (_r_).
+ _D._ Five Commissioners, (_e_) and (_r_).
+ _E._ Sixteen Divisional and Sessions Judges (_j_).
+ _F._ Deputy Commissioners, (_e_), (_r_) and (_crim_).
+ _G._ District Judges (_civ_).
+ _H._ Subordinate Judges (_civ_).
+ _J._ Assistant and Extra Assistant Commissioners, (_e_), (_j_) and (_r_).
+ _K._ Tahsildars (_e_), (_r_) and (_crim_).
+ _L._ _Munsifs_ (_civ_).
+ _M._ _Naib-Tahsildars_, (_e_) (_r_) and (_j_).
+
+The letters in brackets indicate the classes of functions which the
+official concerned usually exercises. Translated into a diagram we have
+the following:
+
+ Lieutenant Governor
+
+ Judicial Executive Revenue
+
+ Chief Court Financial
+ Commissioners
+
+ Divisional and Sessions Judges Commissioners
+
+ Civil Criminal
+
+ District Judges Deputy Commissioners
+
+ Asst. and Extra Asst.
+ Commissioners
+ Subordinate
+ Judges
+ _Tahsildars_
+ _Munsifs_
+ _Naib-Tahsildars_
+
+~Tahsildars and Assistant and Extra Assistant Commissioners.~--Thus the
+chain of executive authority runs down to the _tahsildar's_ assistant or
+_naib_ through the Commissioner and the Deputy Commissioner, the
+_tahsildar_ being directly responsible to the latter. The Assistant and
+Extra Assistant Commissioners are the Deputy Commissioner's Assistants
+at headquarters, and as such are invested with powers in all branches.
+The _tahsildar_, a very important functionary, is in charge of a
+_tahsil_. He is linked on to the village estates by a double chain, one
+official consisting of the _kanungos_ and the _patwaris_ or village
+accountants whom they supervise, the other non-official consisting of
+the village headmen and the _zaildars_, each of whom is the intermediary
+between the revenue and police staffs and the villages.
+
+~Subdivisional Officers.~--In some heavy districts one or more _tahsils_
+are formed into a subdivision and put in charge of a resident Assistant
+or Extra Assistant Commissioner, exercising such independent authority
+as the Deputy Commissioner thinks fit to entrust to him.
+
+~The Deputy Commissioner and his Assistants.~--As the officer responsible
+for the maintenance of order the Deputy Commissioner is District
+Magistrate and has large powers both for the prevention and punishment
+of crime. The District Superintendent is his Assistant in police
+matters. The Civil Surgeon is also under his control, and he has an
+Indian District Inspector of Schools to assist him in educational
+business. The Deputy Commissioner is subject to the control of the
+Divisional Commissioner.
+
+~Financial Commissioners.~--In all matters connected with land, excise,
+and income tax administration the Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner
+are subject to the control of the Financial Commissioners, who are also
+the final appellate authority in revenue cases. As chief district
+revenue officer the Deputy Commissioner's proper title is "Collector," a
+term which indicates his responsibility for the realization of all
+Government revenues. In districts which are canal irrigated the amount
+is in some cases very large.
+
+~Settlement Officers, etc.~--With the periodical revisions of the land
+revenue assessment the Deputy Commissioner has no direct concern. That
+very responsible duty is done by a special staff of Settlement Officers,
+selected chiefly from among the Assistant Commissioners and working
+under the Commissioners and Financial Commissioners. The Director of
+Land Records, the Registrar of Co-operative Credit Societies, and in
+some branches of his work the Director of Agriculture and Industries,
+are controlled by the Financial Commissioners.
+
+~The Chief Court.~--It must be admitted that Panjabis are very litigious
+and that in some tracts they are extremely vindictive and reckless of
+human life. The volume of litigation is swollen by the fact that the
+country is one of small-holders subject as regards inheritance and other
+matters to an uncodified customary law, which may vary from tribe to
+tribe and tract to tract. A suit is to the Panjabi a rubber, the last
+game of which he will play in Lahore, if the law permits. It is not
+therefore extraordinary that the Chief Court constituted in 1865 with
+two judges has now five, and that even this number has in the past
+proved insufficient. In the same way the cadre of divisional and
+sessions judges had in 1909 to be raised from 12 to 16.
+
+~Administration of N. W. F. Province.~--In the N. W. F. Province no
+Commissioner is interposed between the district officers and the Chief
+Commissioner, under whom the Revenue Commissioner and the Judicial
+Commissioner occupy pretty much the position of the Financial
+Commissioners and the Chief Court in the Panjab.
+
+~Departments.~--The principal departments are the Railway, Post Office,
+Telegraphs, and Accounts, under the Government of India, and Irrigation,
+Roads and Buildings, Forests, Police, Medical, and Education, under the
+Lieutenant Governor. In matters affecting the rural population, as a
+great part of the business of the Forest Department must do, the
+Conservator of Forests is subject to the control of the Financial
+Commissioners, whose relations with the Irrigation Department are also
+very intimate.
+
+~Legislative Council.~--From 1897 to 1909 the Panjab had a local
+Legislative Council of nine nominated members, which passed a number of
+useful Acts. Under 9 Edward VII, cap. 4, an enlarged council with
+increased powers has been constituted. It consists of 24 members of whom
+eight are elected, one by the University, one by the Chamber of
+Commerce, three by groups of Municipal and cantonment committees, and
+three by groups of district boards. The other sixteen members are
+nominated by the Lieutenant Governor, and at least six of them must be
+persons not in Government service. The right of interpellation has been
+given, and also some share in shaping the financial arrangements
+embodied in the annual budget.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+ADMINISTRATION--LOCAL
+
+
+~Municipalities.~--It is matter for reflection that, while the effect of
+British administration has been to weaken self-government in villages,
+half a century of effort has failed to make it a living thing in towns
+and districts. The machinery exists, but outside a few towns the result
+is poor. The attempt was made on too large a scale, municipal
+institutions being bestowed on places which were no more than villages
+with a _bazar_. This has been partially corrected of late years. A new
+official entity, the "notified area," has been invented to suit the
+requirements of such places. While there were in 1904 139 municipalities
+and 48 notified areas, in 1911-12 the figures were 107 and 104
+respectively. Even in the latter year 32 of the municipalities had
+incomes not exceeding L1000 (Rs. 15,000). The total income of the 104
+towns was Rs. 71,41,000 (L476,000), of which Rs. 44,90,000 (L300,000)
+were derived from taxation. Nearly 90 p.c. of the taxation was drawn
+from octroi, a hardy plant which has survived much economic criticism.
+The expenditure was Rs. 69,09,000 (L461,000), of which Rs. 40,32,000
+(L269,000) fall under the head of "Public Health and Convenience." The
+incidence of taxation was Rs. 2.6 or a little over three shillings a
+head.
+
+~District Boards.~--The district boards can at present in practice only be
+treated as consultative bodies, and well handled can in that capacity
+play a useful role. Their income is mainly derived from the local rate,
+a surcharge of one-twelfth on the land revenue. In 1911-12 the income
+was Rs. 53,74,000 (L358,000) and the expenditure Rs. 54,44,500
+(L363,000). The local rate contributed 51 p.c. and contributions from
+Government 23 p.c. of the former figure. Public works took up 41 and
+Education about 20 p.c. of the expenditure.
+
+~Elections.~--Some of the seats in most of the municipalities and boards
+are filled by election when any one can be induced to vote. Public
+spirit is lacking and, as a rule, except when party or sectarian spirit
+is rampant, the franchise is regarded with indifference.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE
+
+
+~Financial Relations with Government of India.~--Local governments
+exercise their financial powers in strict subordination to the
+Government of India, which alone can borrow, and which requires the
+submission for its sanction of the annual provincial budgets. To ensure
+a reasonable amount of decentralization the Supreme Government has made
+financial contracts with the provinces under which they receive definite
+shares of the receipts, and are responsible for definite shares of the
+expenditure, under particular heads. The existing contract dates only
+from 1911-12 (see Table V).
+
+~Income and Expenditure.~--Excluding income from railways, post offices,
+telegraphs, salt, and sales of excise opium, which are wholly imperial,
+the revenue of the Panjab in 1911-12 was L5,057,000 (Rs. 758,56,000), of
+which the provincial share was L2,662,200 (Rs. 399,33,000), to which
+have to be added L251,800 (Rs. 37,77,000) on account of assignments made
+by the Government of India to the province. This brought up the total to
+L2,914,000 (Rs. 437,10,000). The expenditure was L2,691,933 (Rs.
+403,79,000). This does not include L983,000 spent from loan funds on
+irrigation works, chiefly the great Triple Project. The large
+expenditure on railways is imperial. Of the gross income more than
+three-fourths is derived from the land (Land Revenue, 46 p.c.,
+Irrigation, chiefly canal water rates, 29 p.c., and Forests, 1-3/4
+p.c.). The balance consists of Excise 8-1/2 p.c., Stamps, 7 p.c., Income
+Tax over 2 p.c., and other heads 5-3/4 p.c.
+
+~Land Revenue.~--Certain items are included under the Land Revenue head
+which are no part of the assessment of the land. The real land revenue
+of the Panjab is about L2,000,000 and falls roughly at the rate of
+eighteen pence per cultivated acre (Table II). It is not a land tax, but
+an extremely moderate quit rent. In India the ruler has always taken a
+share of the produce of the land from the persons in whom he recognised
+a permanent right to occupy it or arrange for its tillage. The title of
+the Raja to his share and the right of the occupier to hold the land he
+tilled and pass it on to his children both formed part of the customary
+law of the country. Under Indian rule the Raja's share was often
+collected in kind, and the proportion of the crop taken left the tiller
+of the soil little or nothing beyond what was needed for the bare
+support of himself and his family. What the British Government did was
+to commute the share in kind into a cash demand and gradually to limit
+its amount to a reasonable figure. The need of moderation was not
+learned without painful experience, but the Panjab was fortunate in this
+that, except as regards the Delhi territory, the lesson had been learned
+and a reasonable system evolved in the United Provinces before the
+officers it sent to the Panjab began the regular assessments of the
+districts of the new province. A land revenue settlement is usually made
+for a term of 20 or 30 years. Since 1860 the limit of the government
+demand has been fixed at one-half of the rental, but this figure is very
+rarely approached in practice. Between a quarter and a third would be
+nearer the mark. A large part of the land is tilled by the owners, and
+the rent of the whole has to be calculated from the data for the part,
+often not more than a third or two-fifths of the whole, cultivated by
+tenants at will. The calculation is complicated by the fact that kind
+rents consisting of a share of the crop are in most places commoner than
+cash rents and are increasing in favour. The determination of the cash
+value of the rent where the crop is shared is a very difficult task.
+There is a large margin for error, but there can be no doubt that the
+net result has almost always been undervaluation. It is probable that
+the share of the produce of the fields which the land revenue absorbs
+rarely exceeds one-seventh and is more often one-tenth or less. A clear
+proof of the general moderation of Panjab assessments is furnished by
+the fact that in the three years ending 1910-11 the recorded prices in
+sales amounted to more than Rs. 125 per rupee of land revenue of the
+land sold, which may be taken as implying a belief on the part of
+purchasers that the landlord's rent is not double, but five or six times
+the land revenue assessment, for a man would hardly pay Rs. 125 unless
+he expected to get at least six or seven rupees annual profit.
+
+~Fluctuating Assessments.~--The old native plan of taking a share of the
+crop, though it offered great opportunity for dishonesty on both sides,
+had at least the merit of roughly adjusting the demand to the character
+of the seasons. It was slowly realized that there were parts of the
+province where the harvests were so precarious that even a very moderate
+fixed cash assessment was unsuitable. Various systems of fluctuating
+cash assessment have therefore been introduced, and one-fourth of the
+total demand is now of this character, the proportion having been
+greatly increased by the adoption of the fluctuating principle in the
+new canal colonies.
+
+~Suspensions and Remissions.~--Where fixity is retained the strain in bad
+seasons is lessened by a free use of suspensions, and, if the amounts of
+which the collection has been deferred accumulate owing to a succession
+of bad seasons, resort is had to remission.
+
+~Irrigation Income and Expenditure.~--In a normal year in the Panjab over
+one-fourth of the total crops is matured by the help of Government
+Canals, and this proportion will soon be largely increased. In 1911-12
+the income from canals amounted to L1,474,000, and the working expenses
+to L984,000, leaving a surplus of L490,000. Nearly the whole of the
+income is derived from water rates, which represent the price paid by
+the cultivator for irrigation provided by State expenditure. The rates
+vary for different crops and on different canals. The average incidence
+may be roughly put at Rs. 4 or a little over five shillings per acre. In
+calculating the profit on canals allowance is made for land revenue
+dependent on irrigation, amounting to nearly L400,000.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83. Skeleton District Map of Panjab.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+PANJAB DISTRICTS AND DELHI
+
+
+~Districts and Divisions.~--The Panjab now consists of 28 districts
+grouped in five divisions. In descriptions of districts and states
+boundaries, railways, and roads, which appear on the face of the inset
+maps, are omitted. Details regarding cultivation and crops will be found
+in Tables II, III and IV, and information as to places of note in
+Chapter XXX. The revenue figures of Panjab districts in this chapter
+relate to the year 1911-12.
+
+~Delhi Enclave.~--On the transfer of the capital of India to Delhi part of
+the area of the old district of that name comprising 337 estates was
+removed from the jurisdiction of the Panjab Government and brought under
+the immediate authority of the Government of India (Act No. XIII of
+1912). The remainder of the district was divided between Rohtak and
+Gurgaon, and the headquarters of the Delhi division were transferred to
+Ambala.
+
+The area of the new province is only 528 square miles, and the
+population including that of the City is estimated at 396,997. The
+cultivated area is 340 square miles, more than half of which is
+cultivated by the owners themselves. The principal agricultural tribe is
+the Hindu Jats, who are hard-working and thrifty peasant farmers. The
+land revenue is Rs. 4,00,203 (L26,680). The above figures only relate to
+the part of the enclave formerly included in the Panjab[8]. The head of
+the administration has the title of Chief Commissioner.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84. Delhi Enclave.]
+
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+14,832 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+10,650 sq. m.
+Pop. 3,704,608;
+68 p.c. H.[9]
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 66,99,136
+= L446,609.]
+
+~The Ambala division~--includes four of the five districts of the
+South-Eastern Plains, the submontane district of Ambala, and the hill
+district of Simla. It is with the exception of Lahore the smallest
+division, but it ranks first in cultivated area and third in population.
+It is twice the size of Wales and has twice its population. The
+Commissioner is in political charge of the hill state of Sirmur and of
+five petty states in the plains.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85. Hissar with portions of Phulkian States etc.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 5213 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+4201 sq.m.
+Pop. 804,809;
+67 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 9,76,749
+= L67,117.]
+
+~Hissar District.~--Hissar is the south-western district of the division
+and has a long common boundary with Bikaner. It is divided into five
+_tahsils_, Hissar, Hansi, Bhiwani, Fatehabad, and Sirsa. There are four
+natural divisions, Nali, Bagar, Rohi, and Hariana. The overflow of the
+Ghagar, which runs through the north of the district, has transformed
+the lands on either bank into hard intractable clay, which yields
+nothing to the husbandman without copious floods. This is the Nali. The
+Bagar is a region of rolling sand stretching along the Bikaner border
+from Sirsa to Bhiwani. In Sirsa to the east of the Bagar is a plain of
+very light reddish loam known as the Rohi, partly watered by the Sirhind
+Canal. South of the Ghagar the loam in the east of the district is
+firmer, and well adapted to irrigation, which much of it obtains from
+branches of the Western Jamna Canal. This tract is known as Hariana, and
+has given its name to a famous breed of cattle. The Government cattle
+farm at Hissar covers an area of 65 square miles. North of the Fatehabad
+_tahsil_ and surrounded by villages belonging to the Phulkian States is
+an island of British territory called Budhlada. It belongs to the Jangal
+Des, and has the characteristic drought-resisting sandy loam and sand of
+that tract. Much of Budhlada is watered by the Sirhind Canal. Of the
+total area of the district only about 9 p.c. is irrigated. The water
+level is so far from the surface that well irrigation is usually
+impossible, and the source of irrigation is canals.
+
+Hissar suffered severely from the disorders which followed on the
+collapse of the Moghal Empire and its ruin was consummated by the
+terrible famine of 1783. The starving people died or fled and for years
+the country lay desolate. It passed into the hands of the British 20
+years later, but for another 20 years our hold on this outlying
+territory was loose and ineffective. In 1857 the troops at Hansi,
+Hissar, and Sirsa rose and killed all the Europeans who fell into their
+hands. The Muhammadan tribes followed their example, and for a time
+British authority ceased to exist. The district was part of the Delhi
+territory transferred to the Panjab in 1858.
+
+The rainfall is scanty, averaging 15 inches, and extremely capricious.
+No other district suffers so much from famine as Hissar. The crops are
+extraordinarily insecure, with a large surplus in a good season and
+practically nothing when the rains fail badly. They consist mainly of
+the cheap pulses and millets. With such fluctuating harvests it is
+impossible to collect the revenues with any regularity, and large sums
+have to be suspended in bad seasons.
+
+Such industries as exist are mostly in Hansi and Bhiwani, where there
+are mills for ginning and pressing cotton. Cotton cloths tastefully
+embroidered with silk, known as _phulkaris_, are a well-known local
+product.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2248 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1815 sq. m.
+Pop. 714,834.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 16,66,364
+= L111,091.]
+
+~Rohtak~--became a British possession in 1803, but it was not till after
+the Mutiny that it was brought wholly under direct British
+administration. The old district consisted of the three _tahsils_ of
+Rohtak, Gohana, and Jhajar, but on the breaking up of the Delhi district
+the Sonepat _tahsil_ was added.
+
+Rohtak is practically a purely agricultural tract with large villages,
+but no towns of any importance. By far the most important agricultural
+tribe is the Hindu Jats. They are strong-bodied sturdy farmers, who keep
+fine oxen and splendid buffaloes, and live in large and well organized
+village communities. 37 p.c. of the cultivation is protected by canal
+and well irrigation, the former being by far the more important. The
+district consists mainly of a plain of good loam soil. There have been
+great canal extensions in this plain, which under irrigation is very
+fertile, yielding excellent wheat, cotton, and cane. There is a rich
+belt of well irrigation in the Jamna valley, and in the south of the
+district there are parts where wells can be profitably worked. Belts of
+uneven sandy land are found especially in the west and south. The dry
+cultivation is most precarious, for the rainfall is extremely variable.
+In the old district it averages 20 inches. But averages in a tract like
+Rohtak mean very little. The chief crops are the two millets and gram.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2264 sq.m.
+Cultd Area,
+1701 sq. m.
+Pop. 729,167.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 15,98,333
+= L106,556.]
+
+~Gurgaon~ contains six _tahsils_, Rewari, Gurgaon, Nuh, Firozpur,
+Palwal, and Ballabgarh. The southern part of the district projects into
+Rajputana, and in its physical and racial characteristics really belongs
+to that region.
+
+Rewari is the only town of any importance. It has a large trade with
+Rajputana. Apart from this the interests of the district are
+agricultural. In Gurgaon the Jamna valley is for the most part narrow
+and very poor. The plain above it in the Palwal _tahsil_ has a fertile
+loam soil and is irrigated by the Agra Canal. The Hindu Jats of this
+part of the district are good cultivators. The rest of Gurgaon consists
+mostly of sand and sandy loam and low bare hills. In Rewari the skill
+and industry of the Hindu Ahirs have produced wonderful results
+considering that many of the wells are salt and much of the land very
+sandy. The lazy and thriftless Meos of the southern part of the district
+are a great contrast to the Ahirs. They are Muhammadans.
+
+About a quarter of the area is protected by irrigation from wells, the
+Agra Canal, and embankments or "_bands_," which catch and hold up the
+hill drainages. Owing to the depth and saltness of many of the wells the
+cultivation dependent on them is far from secure, and the "_band_"
+irrigation is most precarious. The large dry area is subject to
+extensive and complete crop failures. The average rainfall over a series
+of years is 24 inches, but its irregularities from year to year are
+extreme. The district is a poor one, and for its resources bears the
+heaviest assessment in the Panjab. It requires the most careful revenue
+management. There are brine wells at Sultanpur, but the demand for the
+salt extracted is now very small.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3153 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1744 sq. m.
+Pop. 799,787;
+70 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 12,92,620
+=L86,175.]
+
+~Karnal~ is midway in size between Rohtak and Hissar. One-third of the
+cultivation is now protected by irrigation, two-fifths of the irrigation
+being from wells and three-fifths from the Western Jamna Canal. There
+are four _tahsils_, Thanesar, Karnal, Kaithal, and Panipat. The
+peasantry consists mostly of hardworking Hindu Jats, but there are also
+many Hindu and Muhammadan Rajput villages. The chief towns are Panipat,
+Karnal, and Kaithal.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 88._]
+
+The district falls broadly into two divisions, the boundary between them
+being the southern limit of the floods of the Sarusti in years of heavy
+rainfall. The marked features of the northern division is the effect
+which the floods of torrents of intermittent flow, the Sarusti,
+Markanda, Umla, and Ghagar have on agriculture. Some tracts are included
+like the Andarwar and the outlying villages of the Powadh[10] in Kaithal
+which are fortunately unaffected by inundation, and have good well
+irrigation. The country between the Umla and Markanda in Thanesar gets
+rich silt deposits and is generally fertile. The Kaithal Naili is the
+tract affected by the overflow of the Sarusti, Umla, and Ghagar. It is a
+wretched fever-stricken region where a short lived race of weakly people
+reap precarious harvests. The southern division is on the whole a much
+better country. It includes the whole of Karnal and Panipat, the south
+of Kaithal, and a small tract in the extreme east of the Thanesar
+_tahsil_. North of Karnal the Jamna valley or Khadir is unhealthy and
+has in many parts a poor soil. South of Karnal it is much better in
+every respect. Above the Khadir is the Bangar, a plain of good loam.
+North of Karnal its cultivation is protected by wells and the people are
+in fair circumstances. South of that town it is watered by the Western
+Jamna Canal. Another slight rise brings one to the Nardak of the Karnal
+and Kaithal _tahsils_. Till the excavation of the Sirsa branch of the
+Western Jamna Canal and of the Nardak Distributary much of the Nardak
+was covered with _dhak_ jangal, and the cultivation was of the most
+precarious nature, for in this part of the district the rainfall is both
+scanty and capricious, and well cultivation is only possible in the
+north. The introduction of canal irrigation has effected an enormous
+change. Wheat and gram are the great crops.
+
+Historically Karnal is one of the most interesting districts. The Nardak
+is the scene of the great struggle celebrated in the Mahabharata. The
+district contains the holy city of Thanesar, once the capital of a great
+Hindu kingdom. It has found climate a more potent instrument of ruin
+than the sword of Mahmud of Ghazni, who sacked it in 1014. It still on
+the occasion of Eclipse fairs attracts enormous crowds of pilgrims.
+Pihowa is another very sacred place. Naraina, a few miles to the
+north-west of Karnal, was the scene of two famous fights[11], and three
+times, in 1526, 1556, and 1761, the fate of India was decided at
+Panipat.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1851 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1174 sq. m.
+Pop. 689,970.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 11,47,688
+= L76,513]
+
+~Ambala~ is a submontane district of very irregular
+shape. It includes two small hill tracts,
+Morni and Kasauli. There is little irrigation,
+for in most parts the rainfall is ample.
+Wheat is the chief crop. The population
+has been declining in the past 20 years.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 89.]
+
+The only town of importance is Ambala. Jagadhri is a busy little place
+now connected through private enterprise by a light railway with the N.
+W. Railway. The district consists of two parts almost severed from one
+another physically and wholly different as regards people, language, and
+agricultural prosperity. The Rupar subdivision in the north-west beyond
+the Ghagar has a fertile soil, and, except in the Nali, as the tract
+flooded by the Ghagar is called, a vigorous Jat peasantry, whose native
+tongue is Panjabi. The three south-eastern _tahsils_, Ambala,
+Naraingarh, and Jagadhri, are weaker in every respect. The loam is often
+quite good, but interspersed with it are tracts of stubborn clay largely
+put under precarious rice crops. The Jats are not nearly so good as
+those of Rupar, and Rajputs, who are mostly Musulmans, own a large
+number of estates.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 101 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+15 sq. m.
+Pop. in Feb.
+1911, 39,320.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 17,484
+= L1166.]
+
+Simla consists of three little tracts in the hills known as Bharauli,
+Kotkhai, and Kotgarh, and of patches of territory forming the
+cantonments of Dagshai, Subathu, Solon, and Jutogh, the site of the
+Lawrence Military School at Sanawar, and the great hill station of
+Simla. Bharauli lies south-west of Simla in the direction of Kasauli.
+Kotkhai is in the valley of the Giri, a tributary of the Jamna. Kotgarh
+is on the Sutlej and borders on the Bashahr State. The Deputy
+Commissioner of Simla is also Superintendent or Political Officer of 28
+hill states.
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+19,934 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+7762 sq. m.
+Pop. 3,967,724.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 61,64,172
+= L410,945.]
+
+~Jalandhar Division.~--More than half the area of the Jalandhar division
+is contributed by the huge district of Kangra, which stretches from the
+Plains to the lofty snowy ranges on the borders of Tibet. The other
+districts are Hoshyarpur in the submontane zone, Jalandhar and Ludhiana,
+which belong to the Central Plains, and Ferozepore, which is part of the
+South-Eastern Panjab. Sikhs are more numerous than in any other
+division, but are outnumbered by both Hindus and Muhammadans. The
+Commissioner has political charge of the hill states of Mandi and Suket
+and of Kapurthala in the Plains.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 9878 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+918 sq. m.
+Pop. 770,386;
+94 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 9,26,661
+= L61,777.]
+
+~Kangra~ is the largest district in the Panjab. It includes three tracts
+of very different character:
+
+(_a_) Spiti and Lahul, area exceeding 4400 square miles, forming part of
+Tibet;
+
+(_b_) Kulu and Saraj;
+
+(_c_) Kangra proper, area 2939 square miles.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90.]
+
+Lahul, Spiti, Kulu, and Saraj form a subdivision in charge of an
+Assistant Commissioner. The people of Kangra are Hindus. Islam never
+penetrated into these hills as a religion, though the Rajput Rajas of
+Kangra became loyal subjects of the Moghal Emperors. In its last days
+Ranjit Singh called in as an ally against the Gurkhas remained as a
+hated ruler. The country was ceded to the British Government in 1846.
+The Rajas were chagrined that we did not restore to them their royal
+authority, but only awarded them the status of _jagirdars_. An outbreak,
+which was easily suppressed, occurred in 1848. Since then Kangra has
+enjoyed 65 years of peace. A Gurkha regiment is stationed at the
+district headquarters at Dharmsala. The cultivation ranges from the rich
+maize and rice fields of Kulu and Kangra to the poor buckwheat and
+_kulath_ on mountain slopes. Rice is irrigated by means of _kuhls_,
+ingeniously constructed channels to lead the water of the torrents on to
+the fields.
+
+~Spiti and Lahul.~--Spiti, or rather Piti, is a country of great rugged
+mountains, whose bare red and yellow rocks rise into crests of
+everlasting snow showing clear under a cloudless blue sky. There is no
+rain, but in winter the snowfall is heavy. The highest of the mountains
+exceeds 23,000 feet. Piti is drained by the river of the same name,
+which after passing through Bashahr falls I into the Sutlej at an
+elevation of 11,000 feet. Of the few villages several stand at a height
+of from 13,000 to 14,000 feet. The route to Piti from Kulu passes over
+the Hamtu Pass (14,200 feet) and the great Shigri glacier. The people
+are Buddhists. They are governed by their hereditary ruler or Nono
+assisted by five elders, the Assistant Commissioner exercising a general
+supervision. Indian laws do not apply to the sparse population of this
+remote canton, which has a special regulation of its own. Lahul lies to
+the west of Piti, from which it is separated by a lofty range. It is
+entered from Kulu by the Rotang Pass (13,000 feet) and the road from it
+to Ladakh passes over the Baralacha (16,350 feet). The whole country is
+under snow from December to April, but there is very little rain. The
+two streams, the Chandra and Bhaga, which unite to form the Chenab, flow
+through Lahul and the few villages are situated at a height of 10,000
+feet in their elevated valleys. The people are Buddhists. In summer the
+population is increased by "Gaddi" shepherds from Kangra, who drive lean
+flocks in the beginning of June over the Rotang and take them back from
+the Alpine pastures in the middle of September fat and well liking.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91. Bias at Manali.]
+
+~Kulu and Saraj.~--The Kulu Valley, set in a mountain frame and with the
+Bias, here a highland stream, running through the heart of it, is one of
+the fairest parts of the Panjab Himalaya. Manali, at the top of the
+Valley on the road to the Rotang, is a very beautiful spot. Kulu is
+connected with Kangra through Mandi by the Babbu and Dulchi passes. The
+latter is generally open the whole year round. The headquarters are at
+Sultanpur, but the Assistant Commissioner lives at Nagar. In Kulu the
+cultivation is often valuable and the people are well off. The climate
+is good and excellent apples and pears are grown by European settlers.
+Inner and outer Saraj are connected by the Jalaori Pass on the watershed
+of the Sutlej and Bias. Saraj is a much rougher and poorer country than
+Kulu. There are good _deodar_ forests in the Kulu subdivision. In 1911
+the population of Kulu, Saraj, Lahul, and Piti, numbered 124,803. The
+Kulu people are a simple folk in whose primitive religion local godlings
+of brass each with his little strip of territory take the place of the
+Brahmanic gods. It is a quaint sight to see their ministers carrying
+them on litters to the fair at Sultanpur, where they all pay their
+respects to a little silver god known as Raghunathji, who is in a way
+their suzerain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92. Religious Fair in Kulu.]
+
+Kangra proper is bounded on the north by the lofty wall of the Dhaula
+Dhar and separated from Kulu by the mountains of Bara Bangahal. It
+consists of the five _tahsils_ of Kangra, Palampur, Nurpur, Dera, and
+Hamirpur. The first two occupy the rich and beautiful Kangra Valley.
+They are separated from the other three _tahsils_ by a medley of low
+hills with a general trend from N.W. to S.E. They are drained by the
+Bias, and are much more broken and poorer than the Kangra Valley. The
+tea industry, once important, is now dead so far as carried on by
+English planters. The low hills have extensive _chir_ pine forests. They
+have to be managed mainly in the interests of the local population, and
+are so burdened with rights that conservation is a very difficult
+problem. In 1911 the population of the five _tahsils_ amounted to
+645,583. The most important tribes are Brahmans, Rajputs, and
+hardworking Girths. The hill Brahman is usually a farmer pure and
+simple.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93. Kulu Women.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2247 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1128 sq. m.
+Pop. 918,569;
+54 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 14,22,527
+= L494,835.]
+
+~Hoshyarpur~ became a British possession in 1846 after the first Sikh
+War. It is a typically submontane district. A line of low bare hills
+known as the Solasinghi Range divides it from Kangra. Further west the
+Katar dhar, a part of the Siwaliks, runs through the heart of the
+district. Between these two ranges lies the fertile Jaswan Dun
+corresponding to the Una _tahsil_. The other three _tahsils_,
+Garhshankar, Hoshyarpur, and Dasuya, are to the west of the Katar dhar.
+Una is drained by the Soan, a tributary of the Sutlej. The western
+_tahsils_ have a light loam soil of great fertility, except where it has
+been overlaid by sand from the numerous _chos_ or torrents which issue
+from the Siwaliks. The denudation of that range was allowed to go on for
+an inordinate time with disastrous results to the plains below. At last
+the Panjab Land Preservation (_Chos_) Act II of 1890 gave the Government
+power to deal with the evil, but it will take many years to remedy the
+mischief wrought by past inaction. The rainfall averages about 32 inches
+and the crops are secure. The population has fallen off by 93,000 in 20
+years, a striking instance of the ravages of plague. The chief tribes
+are Jats, Rajputs, and Gujars.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1431 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1069 sq. m.
+Pop. 801,920;
+45 p.c. M.
+33 p.c. H.
+22 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 14,77,661
+= L98,511.]
+
+~Jalandhar District.~--Modern though the town of Jalandhar looks it was
+the capital of a large Hindu kingdom, which included also Hoshyarpur,
+Mandi, Suket, and Chamba, and in the ninth century was a rival of
+Kashmir (page 160). The present district is with the exception of Simla
+the smallest, and for its size the richest, in the province. It contains
+four _tahsils_, Nawashahr, Phillaur, Jalandhar, and Nakodar. About 45
+p.c. of the cultivation is protected by 28,000 wells. Behind the long
+river frontage on the Sutlej is the Bet, divided by a high bank from the
+more fertile uplands. The soil of the latter is generally an excellent
+loam, but there is a good deal of sand in the west of the district. The
+rainfall averages about 26 inches and the climate is healthy. The well
+cultivation is the best in the Panjab. Between 1901 and 1911 the
+population declined by 13 p.c. Jats and Arains, both excellent
+cultivators, are the predominant tribes. British rule dates from 1846.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1452 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1143 sq. m.
+Pop. 517,192;
+40 p.c. S.
+35 p.c. M
+25 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 11,57,399
+= L77,160.]
+
+~Ludhiana~ on the opposite bank of the Sutlej is also a very small
+district. It consists of a river Bet and Uplands with generally speaking
+a good loam soil. But there are very sandy outlying estates in the
+Jangal Des surrounded by Patiala and Jind villages. There are three
+_tahsils_, Samrala, Ludhiana, and Jagraon. Of the cultivated area 26
+p.c. is irrigated, from wells (19) and from the Sirhind Canal (7). Wheat
+and gram are the principal crops. Between 1901 and 1911 the population
+fell from 673,097 to 517,192, the chief cause of decline being plague.
+
+Sturdy hard-working Jats are the backbone of the peasantry. They furnish
+many recruits to the Army. Ludhiana is a thriving town and an important
+station on the N.W. Railway. Our connection with Ludhiana began in 1809,
+and the district assumed practically its present shape in 1846 after the
+first Sikh War.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 4286 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+3504 sq. m.
+Pop. 959,657;
+44 p.c. M.
+29 p.c. H.
+27 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 11,79,924
+= L78,661.]
+
+~Ferozepore~ is a very large district. The Faridkot State nearly cuts it
+in two. The northern division includes the _tahsils_ of Ferozepore,
+Zira, and Moga, the last with an outlying tract known as Mahraj, which
+forms an island surrounded by the territory of several native states.
+The southern division contains the _tahsils_ of Muktsar and Fazilka. Our
+connection with Ferozepore began in 1809, and, when the widow of the
+last Sikh chief of Ferozepore died in 1835, we assumed direct
+responsibility for the administration of a considerable part of the
+district. Two of the great battles of the first Sikh War, Mudki and
+Ferozeshah or more properly Pherushahr, were fought within its borders.
+Mamdot with an area of about 400 square miles ceased to be independent
+in 1855, but the descendant of the last ruler still holds it in _jagir_.
+Fazilka was added in 1864 when the Sirsa district was broken up. Of the
+cultivated area 47-1/2 p.c. is irrigated by the Sirhind Canal, the Grey
+Inundation Canals, and wells. For the most part the district is divided
+into three tracts, the riverain, Hithar or Bet, with a poor clay soil
+and a weak population, the Utar, representing river deposits of an older
+date when the Sutlej ran far west of its present bed, and the Rohi, an
+upland plain of good sandy loam, now largely irrigated by the Sirhind
+Canal. The Grey Canals furnish a far less satisfactory source of
+irrigation to villages in the Bet and Utar. In different parts of this
+huge district the rainfall varies from 10 to 22 inches. The chief crops
+are gram and wheat. The Jats are the chief tribe. In the Uplands they
+are a fine sturdy race, but unfortunately they are addicted to strong
+drink, and violent crime is rife. Ferozepore has a large cantonment and
+arsenal and a big trade in grain. It is an important railway junction.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+12,387 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+7924 sq. m.
+Pop 4,656,629;
+57 p.c. M.
+24 p.c. H.
+16 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 70,53,856
+= L470,257.]
+
+~Lahore Division.~--Lahore is the smallest division, but the first in
+population. Its political importance is great as the home of the Sikhs
+of the Manjha, and because the capital of the province and the sacred
+city of the _Khalsa_ are both within its limits. It contains the five
+districts of Gurdaspur, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Lahore, and Amritsar. The
+Commissioner is in political charge of the Chamba State.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1809 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1281 sq. m.
+Pop. 836,771;
+49 p.c. M.
+34 p.c. H.
+14-1/2 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 17,68,412
+= L117,894.]
+
+~Gurdaspur~ is a submontane district with a good rainfall and a large
+amount of irrigation. The crops are secure except in part of the
+Shakargarh _tahsil_. 27 p.c. of the cultivated area is irrigated, 16 by
+wells and 11 by the Upper Bari Doab Canal. Irrigation is only allowed
+from the Canal for the Autumn harvest. The chief crop is wheat and the
+area under cane is unusually large. Of late years plague has been very
+fatal and the population fell from 940,334 in 1901 to 836,771 in 1911.
+Jats, Rajputs, Arains, Gujars, and Brahmans, are the chief agricultural
+tribes, the first being by far the most important element. There are
+four _tahsils_, Batala, Gurdaspur, and Pathankot in the Bari Doab, and
+Shakargarh to the west of the Ravi. Batala is one of the most fertile
+and prosperous tracts in the Panjab and Gurdaspur is also thriving.
+Pathankot is damp, fever stricken, and unprosperous. It lies mostly in
+the plains but contains a considerable area in the low hills and higher
+up two enclaves, Bakloh and Dalhousie, surrounded by Chamba villages.
+Shakargarh is much more healthy, and is better off than Pathankot. There
+is good duck and snipe shooting to be got in some parts of the district,
+as the drainage from the hills collects in swamps and _jhils_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99.]
+
+Area, 1991 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1427 sq. m.
+Pop. 979,553;
+62 p.c. M.
+25 p.c. H.
+ 8 p.c. S.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 14,79,390
+= L98,626.
+
+~Sialkot~ is another secure and fully cultivated submontane district. It
+lies wholly in the Rechna Doab and includes a small well-watered hilly
+tract, Bajwat, on the borders of Jammu. The Ravi divides Sialkot from
+Amritsar an the Chenab separates it from Gujrat. The Degh and some
+smaller torrents run through the district. In the south there is much
+hard sour clay, part hitherto unculturable. But irrigation from the
+Upper Chenab Canal will give a new value to it. There are five
+_tahsils_, Zafarwal, Sialkot, Daska, Pasrur, and Raya. The chief crop is
+wheat which is largely grown on the wells, numbering 22,000. The
+pressure of the population on the soil was considerable, but since 1891
+the total has fallen from 1,119,847 to 979,553 as the result of plague
+and emigration to the new canal colonies. Christianity has obtained a
+considerable number of converts in Sialkot. The Jats form the backbone
+of the peasantry. Rajputs and Arains are also important tribes, but
+together they are not half as numerous as the Jats.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 4802 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+2166 sq. m.
+Pop. 923,419.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 15,43,440
+= L102,896.]
+
+~Gujranwala~ is a very large district in the Rechna Doab, with five
+_tahsils_, Wazirabad, Gujranwala, Sharakpur, Hafizabad, and Khangah
+Dogran. The rainfall varies from 20 inches on the Sialkot border to ten
+or eleven in the extreme south-west corner of the district. Gujranwala
+is naturally divided into three tracts: the Riverain of the Ravi and
+Chenab, the Bangar or well tract, and the Bar once very partially
+cultivated, but now commanded by the Lower and Upper Chenab Canals.
+Enormous development has taken place in the Hafizabad and Khangah Dogran
+_tahsils_ in the 20 years since the Lower Chenab Canal was opened. Of
+late years the rest of the district has suffered from plague and
+emigration, and has not prospered. But a great change will be effected
+by irrigation from the Upper Chenab Canal, which is just beginning. In
+the east of the district much sour clay will become culturable land, and
+the Bar will be transformed as in the two _tahsils_ watered by the older
+canal. Of the cultivated area 73-1/2 p.c. is irrigated, 36-1/2 from
+wells and 37 from canals. The chief crops are wheat and gram. There is,
+as is usual in the Western Panjab, a great preponderance of Spring
+crops. The Jats are far and away the strongest element in the
+population.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1601 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1184 sq. m.
+Pop. 880,728;
+46 p.c. M.
+29 p.c. S.
+24 p.c. H.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 12,70,799
+= L84,720.]
+
+~Amritsar~ is a small district lying in the Bari Doab between Gurdaspur
+and Lahore. 62 p.c. of the cultivated area is irrigated, half from
+12,000 wells and half from the Upper Bari Doab Canal. Unfortunately much
+waterlogging exists, due to excessive use of canal water and defective
+drainage. Measures are now being taken to deal with this great evil,
+which has made the town of Amritsar and other parts of the district
+liable to serious outbreaks of fever. There are two small riverain
+tracts on the Bias and Ravi and a poor piece of country in Ajnala
+flooded by the Sakki. The main part of the district is a monotonous
+plain of fertile loam. The two western _tahsils_, Amritsar and Tarn
+Taran, are prosperous, Ajnala is depressed. The rainfall is moderate
+averaging 21 or 22 inches, and the large amount of irrigation makes the
+harvests secure. The chief crops are wheat and gram.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101.]
+
+The Sikh Jats of the Manjha to the south of the Grand Trunk Road form by
+far the most important element in the population. Between 1901 and 1911
+there was a falling off from 1,023,828 to 880,728. Besides its religious
+importance the town of Amritsar is a great trade centre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2824 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1866 sq. m.
+Pop. 1,036,158.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 991,815
+= L66,121.]
+
+~Lahore~ lies in the Bari Doab to the south-west of Amritsar. It is a
+much larger district, though, like Amritsar, it has only three
+_tahsils_, Lahore, Kasur, and Chunian. 76 p.c. of the cultivated area is
+irrigated, 23 from wells and 53 from canals. There has been an enormous
+extension of irrigation from the Upper Bari Doab Canal in the past 30
+years. Accordingly, though the rainfall is somewhat scanty, the crops
+are generally secure. The principal are wheat and gram. The district
+consists of the Riverain on the Bias and Ravi, the latter extending to
+both sides of the river, and the plain of the Manjha, largely held by
+strong and energetic Sikh Jats. In the Ravi valley industrious Arains
+predominate. Railway communications are excellent. Trade activity is not
+confined to the city of Lahore. Kasur, Chunian, and Raiwind are
+important local centres.
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+21,361 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+8099 sq.m.
+Pop. 3,353,052;
+87 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 50,43,587
+= L336,239.]
+
+The ~Rawalpindi Division~ occupies the N.W. of the Panjab. It is in area
+the second largest division, but in population the smallest. Five-sixths
+of the people profess the faith of Islam. It includes six districts,
+Gujrat, Jhelam, Rawalpindi, Attock, Mianwali, and Shahpur. This is the
+division from which the Panjab Musalmans, who form so valuable an
+element in our army, are drawn.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2357 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1369 sq. m.
+Pop. 784,011.
+Land Rev.
+Ra. 887,220
+= L59,148.]
+
+~Gujrat~ lies in the Jech Doab. The two northern _tahsils_, Gujrat and
+Kharian, have many of the features of a submontane tract. In the former
+the Pabbi, a small range of low bare hills, runs parallel to the Jhelam,
+and the outliers of the Himalaya in Kashmir are not far from the
+northern border of the district. The uplands of these two _tahsils_
+slope pretty rapidly from N.E. to S.W., and contain much light soil.
+They are traversed by sandy torrents, dry in winter, but sometimes very
+destructive in the rains. Phalia on the other hand is a typical plain's
+_tahsil_. It has on the Chenab a wide riverain, which also separates the
+uplands of the Gujrat _tahsil_ from that river. The Jhelam valley is
+much narrower. Above the present Chenab alluvial tract there is in
+Phalia a well tract known as the Hithar whose soil consists of older
+river deposits, and at a higher level a Bar, which will now receive
+irrigation from the Upper Jhelam Canal and become a rich agricultural
+tract. 26 p.c. of the cultivated area is irrigated from wells. Jats and
+Gujars are the great agricultural tribes, the former predominating. The
+climate is mild and the rainfall sufficient. The chief crops are wheat
+and _bajra_.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2813 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1162 sq. m.
+Pop. 511,575;
+88 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Ra. 752,758
+= L50,183.]
+
+The ~Jhelam district~ lies to the north of the river of the same name.
+The district is divided into three _tahsils_, Jhelam, Chakwal, Pind
+Dadan Khan. The river frontage is long, extending for about 80 miles,
+and the river valley is about eight miles wide. The district contains
+part of the Salt Range, from the eastern end of which the Nili and Tilla
+spurs strike northwards, enclosing very broken ravine country called the
+Khuddar. The Pabbi tract, embracing the Chakwal _tahsil_ and the north
+of the Jhelam _tahsil_, is much less broken, though it too is scored by
+deep ravines and traversed by torrents, mostly flowing north-west into
+the Sohan river. Two large torrents, the Kaha and the Bunhar, drain into
+the Jhelam. There are some fertile valleys enclosed in the bare hills of
+the Salt Range. The average rainfall is about 20 inches and the climate
+is good. It is hot in summer, but the cold weather is long, and
+sometimes for short periods severe. There is little irrigation and the
+harvests are by no means secure. The chief crops are wheat and _bajra_.
+The country breeds fine horses, fine cattle, and fine men. Numerically
+Jats, Rajputs, and Awans are the principal tribes, but the Janjuas and
+Gakkhars, though fewer in number, are an interesting element in the
+population, having great traditions behind them. Awans, Janjuas, and
+Gakkhars supply valuable recruits to the army. Most of the villages are
+far from any railway.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2010 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+937 sq. m.
+Pop. 547,827;
+83 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 674,650
+= L44,977.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105.]
+
+~Rawalpindi~ is the smallest district in the division. Along the whole
+eastern border the Jhelam, which runs in a deep gorge, divides it from
+Kashmir. There are four _tahsils_, Murree, Kahuta, Rawalpindi, and Gujar
+Khan. The first is a small wedge of mountainous country between Kashmir
+and Hazara. The hills are continued southwards at a lower level in the
+Kahuta _tahsil_ parallel with the Jhelam. The greater part of the
+district consists of a high plateau of good light loam, in parts much
+eaten into by ravines. Where, as often happens, it is not flat the
+fields have to be carefully banked up. The plateau is drained by the
+Sohan and the Kanshi. The latter starting in the south of Kahuta runs
+through the south-east of the Gujar Khan _tahsil_, and for some miles
+forms the boundary of the Rawalpindi and Jhelam districts. The district
+is very fully cultivated except in the hills. In the plains the rainfall
+is sufficient and the soil very cool and clean, except in the extreme
+west, where it is sometimes gritty, and, while requiring more, gets
+less, rain. The chief crops are wheat, the _Kharif_ pulses and _bajra_.
+The climate is good. The cold weather is long, and, except in January
+and February, when the winds from the snows are very trying, it is
+pleasant. In the plains the chief tribes are Rajputs and Awans. Gakkhars
+are of some importance in Kahuta. In the Murree the leading tribes are
+the Dhunds and the Sattis, the latter a fine race, keen on military
+service.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106. Shop in Murree Bazar.]
+
+~Rawalpindi~ is the largest cantonment in Northern India. From it the
+favourite hill station of Murree is easily reached, and soon after
+leaving Murree the traveller crosses the Jhelam by the Kohala bridge and
+enters the territory of the Maharaja of Kashmir.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 4025 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1678 sq. m.
+Pop. 519,273;
+91 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 672,851
+=L44,857.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107.]
+
+~Attock district.~--Though Attock is twice the size of Rawalpindi it has
+a smaller population. Nature has decreed that it should be sparsely
+peopled. The district stretches from the Salt Range on the south to the
+Hazara border on the north. It contains itself the fine Kalachitta range
+in the north, the small and barren Khairi Murat range in the centre, and
+a line of bare hills running parallel with the Indus in the west. That
+river forms the western boundary for 120 miles, dividing Attock from
+Peshawar and Kohat. It receives in the Attock district two tributaries,
+the Haro and the Soan. There are four _tahsils_, Attock, Fatehjang,
+Pindigheb, and Talagang. The northern _tahsil_ of Attock is most
+favoured by nature. It contains the Chach plain, part of which has a
+rich soil and valuable well irrigation, also on the Hazara border a
+small group of estates watered by cuts from the Haro. The south of the
+_tahsil_ is partly sandy and partly has a dry gritty or stony soil. Here
+the crops are very insecure. The rest of the district is a plateau. The
+northern part consists of the _tahsils_ of Fatehjang and Pindigheb
+drained by the Soan and its tributary the Sil. The southern is occupied
+by _tahsil_ Talagang, a rough plateau with deep ravines and torrents
+draining northwards into the Soan. In the valleys of the Sil and Soan
+some good crops are raised. The soil of the plateau is very shallow, and
+the rainfall being scanty the harvest is often dried up. The chief crops
+are wheat and _bajra_. Awans form the bulk of the agricultural
+population.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 5395 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1020 sq. m.
+Pop. 341,377;
+88 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 359,836
+= L23,989.]
+
+~Mianwali~ is one of the largest districts, but has the smallest
+population of any except Simla. The Indus has a course of about 180
+miles in Mianwali. In the north it forms the boundary between the
+Mianwali _tahsil_ and the small Isakhel _tahsil_ on the right bank. In
+the south it divides the huge Bhakkar _tahsil_, which is bigger than an
+average district, from the Dera Ismail Khan district of the N.W.F.
+Province. It is joined from the west by the Kurram, which has a short
+course in the south of the Isakhel _tahsil_. The Salt Range extends into
+the district, throwing off from its western extremity a spur which runs
+north to the Indus opposite Kalabagh. Four tracts may be distinguished,
+two large and two small. North and east of the Salt Range is the Khuddar
+or ravine country, a little bit of the Awankari or Awan's land, which
+occupies a large space in Attock. West of the Indus in the north the
+wild and desolate Bhangi-Khel glen with its very scanty and scattered
+cultivation runs north to the Kohat Hills. The rest of the district
+consists of the wide and flat valley of the Indus and the Thal or
+Uplands. In the north the latter includes an area of strong thirsty
+loam, but south of the railway it is a huge expanse of sand rising
+frequently into hillocks and ridges with some fertile bottoms of better
+soil. Except in the north the Thal people used to make their living
+almost entirely as shepherds and camel owners. There were scattered
+little plots of better soil where wells were sunk, and the laborious and
+careful cultivation was and is Dutch in its neatness. Some millets were
+grown in the autumn and the sandhills yielded melons. The people have
+now learned that it is worth while to gamble with a spring crop of gram,
+and this has led to an enormous extension of the cultivated area. But
+even now in Mianwali this is a comparatively small fraction of the total
+area. There is a small amount of irrigation from wells and in the
+neighbourhood of Isakhel from canal cuts from the Kurram. Owing to the
+extreme scantiness of the rainfall the riverain depends almost entirely
+on the Indus floods, to assist the spread of which a number of
+embankments are maintained. Everywhere in Mianwali the areas both of
+crops sown and of crops that ripen fluctuate enormously, and much of the
+revenue has accordingly been put on a fluctuating basis. The chief crops
+are wheat, _bajra_, and gram. Jats[12] are in a great majority
+Cis-Indus, but Pathans are important in Isakhel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 4791 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1933 sq. m.
+Pop. 648,989.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 16,96,272
+= L113,085.]
+
+~Shahpur~ is also a very large district with the three _tahsils_ of
+Bhera, Shahpur, and Sargodha in the Jech Doab, and on the west of the
+Jhelam the huge Khushab _tahsil_, which in size exceeds the other three
+put together. The principal tribes are Jats Cis-Jhelam, Awans in the
+Salt Range, and Jats and Tiwanas in Khushab. The Tiwana Maliks have
+large estates on both sides of the river and much local influence. East
+of the Jhelam the colonization of the Bar after the opening of the Lower
+Jhelam Canal has led to a great increase of population and a vast
+extension of the cultivated area, 71 p.c. of which is irrigated. The
+part of the district in the Jech Doab consists of the river valleys of
+the Chenab and Jhelam, the Utar, and the Bar. The Chenab riverain is
+poor, the Jhelam very fertile with good well irrigation. In the north of
+the district the Utar, a tract of older alluvium, lies between the
+present valley of the Jhelam and the Bar. It has hitherto been largely
+irrigated by public and private inundation canals, but this form of
+irrigation may be superseded by the excavation of a new distributary
+from the Lower Jhelam Canal. Till the opening of that canal the Bar was
+a vast grazing area with a little cultivation on scattered wells and in
+natural hollows. North of the Kirana Hill the soil is excellent and the
+country is now a sheet of cultivation. In the south of the Bar much of
+the land is too poor to be worth tillage. The Khushab _tahsil_ consists
+of the Jhelam riverain, the Salt Range with some fertile valleys hidden
+amid barren hills, the Mohar below the hills with a thirsty soil
+dependent on extremely precarious torrent floods, and the Thal, similar
+to that described on page 260. The rainfall of the district is scanty
+averaging eleven or twelve inches. The chief crops are wheat, _bajra_
+and _jowar_, _chari_ and cotton.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+28,652 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+9160 sq. m.
+Pop. 3,772,728;
+78 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 81,48,103
+= L542,872.]
+
+The ~Multan~ division consists of the six districts of the S.W. Panjab,
+Montgomery, Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargarh, and Dera Ghazi Khan.
+Muhammadans are in an overwhelming majority. Wheat and cotton are the
+chief crops.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 4649 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1080 sq. m.
+Pop. 535,299;
+75 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 434,563
+= L28,971.]
+
+The ~Montgomery~ district takes its name from Sir Robert Montgomery
+(page 192). It lies in the Bari Doab between the Sutlej and the Ravi. It
+consists of the two Ravi _tahsils_ of Gugera and Montgomery, and the two
+Sutlej _tahsils_ of Dipalpur and Pakpattan. The trans-Ravi area of the
+Montgomery district was transferred to Lyallpur in April, 1913. It is
+included in the figures for area and population given in the margin.
+
+The backbone of the district is a high and dry tract known as the Ganji
+or Bald Bar. The advent of the Lower Bari Doab Canal will entirely
+change the character of this desert. Its south-eastern boundary is a
+high bank marking the course of the old bed of the Bias. Below this is
+the wide Sutlej valley. The part beyond the influence of river floods
+depends largely on the Khanwah and Sohag Para inundation Canals. The
+Ravi valley to the north-west of the Bar is naturally fertile and has
+good well irrigation. But it has suffered much by the failure of the
+Ravi floods.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110.]
+
+
+The peasantry belongs largely to various tribes described vaguely as
+Jats. The most important are Kathias, Wattus, and Kharrals. The last
+gave trouble in 1857 and were severely punished. The Dipalpur Kambohs
+are much more hard-working than these semi-pastoral Jats. There is
+already a small canal colony on the Sohag Para Canals and arrangements
+for the colonization of the Ganji Bar are now in progress.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3156 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+2224 sq. m.
+Pop. 857,711;
+61 p.c. M.
+18 p.c. H.
+17 p.c. S.
+ 4 p.c. Ch.[13]
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 37,55,139
+= L237,009.]
+
+The ~Lyallpur district~ occupies most of the Sandal Bar, which a quarter
+of a century ago was a desert producing scrub jungle and, if rains were
+favourable, excellent grass. It was the home of a few nomad graziers.
+The area of the district, which was formed in 1904 and added to from
+time to time, has been taken out of the Crown Waste of the Jhang and
+Montgomery districts on its colonization after the opening of the Lower
+Chenab Canal. Some old villages near the present borders of these two
+districts have been included. The colonization of the Sandal Bar has
+been noticed on pages 139-140. The figures for area and population given
+in the margin are for the district as it was before the addition of the
+trans-Ravi area of Montgomery.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111.]
+
+Lyallpur is divided into the four _tahsils_ of Lyallpur, Jaranwala,
+Samundri, and Toba Tek Singh. It consists almost entirely of a flat
+plain of fertile loam with fringes of poor land on the eastern, western,
+and southern edges. The cultivated area is practically all canal
+irrigated. The rainfall of 10 inches does not encourage dry cultivation.
+The chief crops are wheat, the oil seed called _toria_, cotton, and
+gram. The area of the first much exceeds that of the other three put
+together. There is an enormous export of wheat and oil seeds to Karachi.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3363 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1214 sq. m.
+Pop. 515,526;
+82 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 11,67,965
+= L77,864.]
+
+~Jhang~ now consists of a wedge of country lying between Lyallpur on the
+east and Shahpur, Mianwali, and Muzaffargarh on the west. It contains
+the valleys of the Chenab and Jhelam rivers, which unite to the
+south-west of the district headquarters and flow as a single stream to
+the southern boundary. The valley of the Jhelam is pretty and fertile,
+that of the Chenab exactly the reverse. In the west of the district part
+of the Thal is included in the boundary. The high land between the river
+valleys is much of it poor. Irrigation from the Lower Jhelam Canal is
+now available. There is a fringe of high land on the east of the Chenab
+valley, partly commanded by the Lower Chenab Canal. Jhang is divided
+into the three large _tahsils_ of Jhang, Chiniot, and Shorkot. The
+rainfall is about ten inches and the summer long and very hot. The chief
+crops are wheat, _jowar_, and _chari_. The Sials are few in number, but
+are the tribe that stands highest in rank as representing the former
+rulers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 6107 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1756 sq. m.
+Pop. 814,871;
+82 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 13,74,472
+= L91,631.]
+
+~Multan~ occupies the south of the Bari Doab. The Ravi flows from east
+to west across the north of the district and falls into the Chenab
+within its boundary. The Sutlej meets the combined stream of the Jhelam,
+Chenab, and Ravi at the south-west corner of the district.
+
+A part of the Kabirwala _tahsil_ lies beyond the Ravi. The other four
+_tahsils_ are Multan, Shujabad, Lodhran, and Mailsi. In a very hot
+district with an average rainfall of six inches cultivation must depend
+on irrigation or river floods. The present sources of irrigation are
+inundation canals from the Chenab and Sutlej supplemented by well
+irrigation, and the Sidhnai Canal from the Ravi. The district consists
+of the river valleys, older alluvial tracts slightly higher than these
+valleys, but which can be reached by inundation canals[14], and the high
+central Bar, which is a continuation of the Ganji Bar in Montgomery.
+Part of this will be served by the new Lower Bari Doab Canal. The
+population consists mainly of miscellaneous tribes grouped together
+under the name of Jats, the ethnological significance of which in the
+Western Panjab is very slight. They are Muhammadans. The district is
+well served by railways.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 6052 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1163 sq. m.
+Pop. 569,461;
+87 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 873,491
+= L58,233.]
+
+~Muzaffargarh~ is with the exception of Kangra the biggest Panjab
+district. It forms a large triangle with its apex in the south at the
+junction of the Indus and Panjnad. On the west the Indus forms the
+boundary for 180 miles. On the east Muzaffargarh has a river boundary
+with Bahawalpur and Multan, but, where it marches with Jhang, is
+separated from it by the area which that district possesses in the Sind
+Sagar Doab. There are four _tahsils_, Leia, Sinanwan, Muzaffargarh, and
+Alipur, the first being equal in area to a moderately sized district.
+The greater part of Leia and Sinanwan is occupied by the Thal. The
+southern tongue of the Thal extends into the Muzaffargarh _tahsil_. The
+rest of that district is a heavily inundated or irrigated tract, the
+part above flood level being easily reached by inundation canals. Dry
+cultivation is impossible with a yearly rainfall of about six inches.
+The chief crop is wheat. In the south of the district the people live in
+frail grass huts, and when the floods are out transfer themselves and
+their scanty belongings to wooden platforms.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 5325 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1723 sq. m.
+Pop. 499,860;
+88 p.c. M.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 542,473
+= L36,165.]
+
+~Dera Ghazi Khan district.~--When the N. W. Frontier Province was
+separated from the Panjab, the older province retained all the
+trans-Indus country in which Biluches were the predominant tribe. The
+Panjab therefore kept Dera Ghazi Khan. It has a river frontage on the
+Indus about 230 miles in length and on the west is bounded by the
+Suliman Range, part of which is included within the district. The Deputy
+Commissioner of Dera Ghazi Khan and the Commissioner of Multan spend
+part of the hot weather at Fort Munro. The wide Indus valley is known as
+the Sindh. The tract between it and the Hills is the Pachadh. It is
+seamed by hill torrents, three of which, the Vehoa, the Sangarh, and the
+Kaha, have a thread of water even in the cold season. The heat in summer
+is extreme, and the _luh_, a moving current of hot air, claims its human
+victims from time to time. The cultivation in the Sindh depends on the
+river floods and inundation canals, helped by wells. In the Pachadh dams
+are built to divert the water of the torrents into embanked fields. The
+cultivated area is recorded as 1723 square miles, but this is enormously
+in excess of the cropped areas, for a very large part of the embanked
+area is often unsown. The encroachments of the Indus have enforced the
+transfer of the district headquarters from Dera Ghazi Khan to a new town
+at Choratta. Biluches are the dominant tribe both in numbers and
+political importance. They with few exceptions belong to one or other of
+the eight organized clans or tumans, Kasranis, Sori Lunds, Khosas,
+Lagharis, Tibbi Lunds, Gurchanis, Drishaks, and Mazaris. The most
+important clans are Mazaris, Lagharis, and Gurchanis. Care has been
+taken to uphold the authority of the chiefs. The Deputy Commissioner is
+political officer for such of the independent Biluch tribes across the
+administrative frontier as are not included in the Biluchistan Agency.
+Regular troops have all been removed from the district. The peace of the
+borderland is maintained by a tribal militia under the command of a
+British officer.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 8: Some estates lying to the east of the Jamna and belonging
+to the United Provinces have recently been added to the enclave.]
+
+[Footnote 9: H. = Hindu, M. = Muhammadan, S. = Sikh.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Not shown in map.]
+
+[Footnote 11: See page 169.]
+
+[Footnote 12: This leading tribe in the Panjab is known as Jat in the
+Hindi-speaking Eastern districts and as Jat elsewhere.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Ch.=Christian.]
+
+[Footnote 14: There is a project for improving the water-supply of
+inundation canals in the west of the district by building a weir across
+the Chenab below its junction with the Jhelam.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+THE PANJAB NATIVE STATES
+
+
+1. _The Phulkian States_
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 7599 sq. m.
+Pop. 1,928,724.
+Rev.
+Rs. 118,00,000
+= L786,666.]
+
+~Phulkian States.~--The three Phulkian States of Patiala, Jind, and
+Nabha form a political agency under the Panjab Government. They occupy,
+with Bahawalpur and Hissar, the bulk of that great wedge of light loam
+and sand which Rajputana, physically considered, pushes northwards
+almost to the Sutlej. In the Phulkian States this consists of two
+tracts, the Powadh and the Jangal Des. The former, which occupies the
+north and north-east of their territory, possesses a light fertile loam
+soil and a very moderate natural water level, so that well irrigation is
+easy. The Jangal Des is a great tract of sandy loam and sand in the
+south-west. Water lies too deep for the profitable working of wells, but
+the harvests are far less insecure than one would suppose looking to the
+scantiness of the rainfall. The soil is wonderfully cool and
+drought-resisting. The dry cultivation consists of millets in the
+Autumn, and of gram and mixed crops of wheat or barley and gram in the
+Spring, harvest. The three states have rather more than a one-third
+share in the Sirhind Canal, their shares _inter se_ being Patiala 83.6,
+Nabha 8.8, and Jind 7.6. Portions of the Powadh and Jangal Des are
+irrigated. In the case of the Powadh there has been in some places over
+irrigation considering how near the surface the water table is. The
+Nirwana _tahsil_ in Patiala and the part of Jind which lies between
+Karnal and Rohtak is a bit of the Bangar tract of the south-eastern
+Panjab, with a strong loam soil and a naturally deep water level. The
+former receives irrigation from the Sirsa, and the latter from the
+Hansi, branch of the Western Jamna Canal. The outlying tracts to the
+south of Rohtak and Gurgaon, acquired after the Mutiny, are part of the
+dry sandy Rajputana desert, in which the _Kharif_ is the chief harvest,
+and the millets and gram the principal crops. In addition Patiala has an
+area of 294 square miles of territory immediately below and in the Simla
+Hills. The territory of the Phulkian States is scattered and intermixed,
+and they have islands in British districts and _vice versa_, a natural
+result of their historic origin and development.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116. Maharaja of Patiala.]
+
+Phul was the sixth in descent from Baryam, a Sidhu Jat, to whom Babar
+gave the _Chaudhrayat_ of the wild territory to the south-west of Delhi,
+making him in effect a Lord of the Marches.
+
+_Tree showing relationship of the three Houses_.
+
+ Phul
+ |
+ +-------+-------------+
+ Tiloka Rama
+ +------+------+ |
+Gurditta Sukhchen Raja Ala Singh
+ | | of Patiala
+ | |
+Suratya Raja Gajpat Singh
+ | of Jind
+ |
+Raja Hamir Singh
+of Nabha
+
+The century and more which elapsed between the grant and Phul's death in
+1652 were filled with continual fighting with the Bhattis. Phul's second
+son Rama obtained from the Governor of Sirhind the _Chaudhrayat_ of the
+Jangal Des. When Ahmad Shah defeated the Sikhs near Barnala in 1762,
+Rama's son, Ala Singh, was one of his prisoners. He was a chief of such
+importance that his conqueror gave him the title of Raja and the right
+to coin money. But Ala Singh found it prudent to join next year in the
+capture of Sirhind. From the division of territory which followed the
+separate existence of the Phulkian States begins. The manner in which
+they came in 1809 under British protection has already been related. The
+Raja of Patiala was our ally in the Gurkha War in 1814, and received the
+Pinjaur _tahsil_. The active loyalty displayed in 1857 was suitably
+rewarded by accessions of territory. The right of adoption was
+conferred, and special arrangements made to prevent lapse, if
+nevertheless the line in any state failed.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 5412 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+4515 sq. m.
+Pop. 1,407,659;
+40 p.c. H.
+38 p.c. S.
+22 p.c. M.
+Rev.
+Rs. 82,00,000
+=L546,666.]
+
+~Patiala~ occupies five-sevenths of the Phulkian inheritance The
+predominant agricultural tribe is the Jats, over three-fourths of whom
+are Sikhs. The cultivated area is four-fifths of the total area. Over
+one-fourth of the former is irrigated, 27 p.c. from wells, and the rest
+from the two canals. In an area extending with breaks from Simla to the
+Rajputana desert the variations of agriculture are of course extreme.
+The state is excellently served by railways.
+
+~Nizamats.~--There are five _nizamats_ or districts, Pinjaur, Amargarh,
+Karmgarh, Anahadgarh, and Mohindargarh. Their united area is equivalent
+to that of two ordinary British districts. The Pinjaur _nizamat_ with
+headquarters at Rajpura covers only 825 square miles. Of its four
+_tahsils_ Pinjaur contains the submontane and hill tract, part of the
+latter being quite close to Simla. The other three _tahsils_ Rajpura,
+Bannur, and Ghanaur are in the Powadh. The Amargarh _nizamat_ with an
+area of 855 square miles comprises the three _tahsils_ of Fatehgarh,
+Sahibgarh, and Amargarh. The first two are rich and fertile well tracts.
+Amargarh is in the Jangal Des to the south-west of Sahibgarh. It
+receives irrigation from the Kotla branch of the Sirhind Canal. The
+Karmgarh _nizamat_ with an area of 1835 square miles contains the four
+_tahsils_ of Patiala, Bhawanigarh, Sunam, and Nirwana. The headquarters
+are at Bhawanigarh. The first three are partly in the Powadh, and partly
+in the Jangal Des. Nirwana is in the Bangar. There is much irrigation
+from the Sirhind and Western Jamna Canals. The Anahadgarh _nizamat_ lies
+wholly in the Jangal Des. It has an area of 1836 square miles, and is
+divided into three _tahsils_, Anahadgarh, Bhikhi, and Govindgarh. The
+headquarters are at Barnala or Anahadgarh. The Mohindarpur _nizamat_
+lies far away to the south on the borders of Jaipur and Alwar (see map
+on page 226). Its area is only 576 miles and it has two _tahsils_,
+Mohindargarh or Kanaud and Narnaul. Kanaud is the headquarters.
+
+The history down to 1763 has already been related. Raja Ala Singh died
+in 1765 and was succeeded by his grandson Amar Singh (1765-1781), who
+was occupied in continual warfare with his brother and his neighbours,
+as became a Sikh chieftain of those days. His son, Sahib Singh
+(1781-1813), came under British protection in 1809. Karm Singh
+(1813-1845), his successor, was our ally in the Gurkha War. Maharaja
+Narindar Singh, K.C.S.I. (1845-1862), was a wise and brave man, who gave
+manful and most important help in 1857. His son, Maharaja Mohindar Singh
+(1862-1876), succeeded at the age of ten and died 14 years later. His
+eldest son, Maharaja Rajindar Singh (1876-1900), was only four when he
+succeeded and died at the age of 28. Another long minority, that of the
+present Maharaja Bhupindar Singh, only came to an end a few years ago.
+In the last fifty years Patiala has in consequence of three minorities
+been governed, and as a rule successfully governed, for long periods by
+Councils of Regency. The State in 1879 sent a contingent of 1100 men to
+the Afghan War. It maintains an Imperial Service Force consisting of two
+fine regiments of infantry and one of cavalry. Maharaja Rajindar Singh
+went with one of these regiments to the Tirah Expedition.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1259 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1172 sq. m.
+Pop. 248,887;
+78 p.c. H. and J.[15]
+14 p.c. M.
+ 8 p.c. S.
+Rev.
+Rs. 19,00,000
+= L126,666.]
+
+~Jind.~--A third of the population of Jind consists of Hindu and Sikh
+Jats. There are two _nizamats_, Sangrur and Jind, the latter divided
+into the _tahsils_ of Jind and Dadri (map on page 226). The Sangrur
+villages are interspersed among those of the other Phulkian States, and
+form a part of the Jangal Des. Jind is in the Bangar, and Dadri,
+separated from Jind by the Rohtak district, is partly in Hariana and
+partly in the sandy Rajputana desert. The rainfall varies from 17 inches
+at Sangrur to ten inches at Dadri. Sangrur is irrigated by the Sirhind,
+and Jind by the Western Jamna, Canal. Dadri is a dry sandy tract, in
+which the Autumn millets are the chief crop. The revenue in 1911-12 was
+19 _lakhs_ (L126,700). For imperial service Jind keeps up a fine
+battalion of infantry 600 strong. The real founder of the state was
+Gajpat Singh, who was a chief of great vigour. He conquered Jind and in
+1774 deprived his relative, the chief of Nabha, of Sangrur. He died in
+1789. His successor, Raja Bhag Singh, was a good ally of the British
+Government. He died after a long and successful career in 1819. His son,
+Fateh Singh, only survived him by three years. Sangat Singh succeeded to
+troublous times and died childless in 1834. His second cousin, Raja
+Sarup Singh, was only allowed to inherit the territory acquired by
+Gajpat Singh, from whom he derived his claim. But the gallant and
+valuable services rendered by Raja Sarup Singh in 1857 enabled him to
+enlarge his State by the grant of the Dadri territory and of thirteen
+villages near Sangrur. He died in 1864. His son Raghubir Singh
+(1864-1887) was a vigorous and successful ruler. He gave loyal help in
+the Kuka outbreak and in the Second Afghan War. His grandson, the
+present Maharaja Ranbir Singh, K.C.S.I., was only eight when he
+succeeded, and Jind was managed by a Council of Regency for a number of
+years. Full powers were given to the chief in 1899.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117. Maharaja of Jind.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 928 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+806 sq. m.
+Pop. 248,887;
+51 p.c. H. and J.
+31 p.c. S.
+18 p.c. M.
+Rev.
+Rs. 17,00,000
+= L113,300.]
+
+~Nabha~ consists of twelve patches of territory in the north scattered
+among the possessions of Patiala, Jind, and Faridkot, and two other
+patches in the extreme south on the border of Gurgaon. The northern
+section of the state is divided into the eastern _nizamat_ of Amloh in
+the Powadh and the western _nizamat_ of Phul in the Jangal Des. Both now
+receive irrigation from the Sirhind Canal. The Bawal _nizamat_ is part
+of the arid Rajputana desert. Jats, who are mostly Sikhs, constitute 30
+p.c. of the population.
+
+The State is well served by railways, Nabha itself being on the
+Rajpura-Bhatinda line. The Maharaja maintains a battalion of infantry
+for imperial service. Hamir Singh, one of the chiefs who joined in the
+capture of Sirhind, may be considered the first Raja. He died in 1783
+and was succeeded by his young son, Jaswant Singh. When he grew to
+manhood Jaswant Singh proved a very capable chief and succeeded in
+aggrandising his State, which he ruled for 57 years. His son, Deoindar
+Singh (1840--47), was deposed, as he was considered to have failed to
+support the British Government when the Khalsa army crossed the Sutlej
+in 1845. A fourth of the Nabha territory was confiscated. Bharpur Singh,
+who became chief in 1857, did excellent service at that critical time,
+and the Bawal _nizamat_ was his reward. He was succeeded by his brother,
+Bhagwan Singh, in 1863. With Bhagwan Singh the line died out in 1871,
+but under the provisions of the _sanad_ granted after the Mutiny a
+successor was selected from among the Badrukhan chiefs in the person of
+the late Maharaja Sir Hira Singh. No choice could have been more happy.
+Hira Singh for 40 years ruled his State on old fashioned lines with much
+success. Those who had the privilege of his friendship will not soon
+forget the alert figure wasted latterly by disease, the gallant bearing,
+or the obstinate will of a Sikh chieftain of a type now departed. His
+son, Maharaja Ripudaman Singh, succeeded in 1911.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118. Maharaja Sir
+Hira Singh.]
+
+
+2. _Other Sikh States_
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 630 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+424 sq. m.
+Pop. 268,163.
+Rev.
+Rs. 14,00,000
+= L93,333,
+exclusive of
+Rs. 13,00,000
+= L86,666
+derived from the
+Oudh estates.]
+
+~Kapurthala.~--The main part consists of a strip of territory mostly in
+the valley of the Bias, and interposed between that river and Jalandhar.
+This is divided into the four _tahsils_ of Bholath, Dhilwan, Kapurthala,
+and Sultanpur. There is a small island of territory in Hoshyarpur, and a
+much larger one, the Phagwara _tahsil_, projecting southwards from the
+border of that district into Jalandhar. Two-thirds of the area is
+cultivated and the proportion of high-class crops is large. The chief
+agricultural tribes are the Muhammadan Arains and the Jats, most of whom
+are Sikhs.
+
+The real founder of the Kapurthala house was Sardar Jassa Singh
+Ahluwalia, who in 1763, when Sirhind fell, was the leading Sikh chief in
+the Panjab. He captured Kapurthala in 1771 and made it his headquarters,
+and died in 1783. A distant relative, Bagh Singh, succeeded. His
+successor, Fateh Singh, was a sworn brother of Ranjit Singh, with whom
+he exchanged turbans. But an alliance between the weak and the strong is
+not free from fears, and in 1826 Fateh Singh, who had large possessions
+south of the Sutlej, fled thither and asked the protection of the
+British Government. He returned however to Kapurthala in 1827, and the
+Maharaja never pushed matters with Fateh Singh to extremities. The
+latter died in 1836. His successor, Nihal Singh, was a timid man, and
+his failure to support the British in 1845 led to the loss of his
+Cis-Sutlej estates. In 1849 he took the English side and was given the
+title of Raja. Randhir Singh succeeded in 1852. His conspicuous services
+in the Mutiny were rewarded with the grant of estates in Oudh. The
+present Maharaja, Sir Jagatjit Singh Bahadur, G.C.S.I., is a grandson of
+Randhir Singh. He was a young child when he succeeded in 1877. The State
+maintains a battalion of infantry for imperial service.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119. Maharaja Sir Jagatjit Singh Bahadur, G.C.S.I.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 642 sq. m.
+Pop. 130,925.
+Rev.
+Rs. 11,50,000
+= L76,666.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120. Raja Brijindar Singh.]
+
+~Faridkot~ is a small wedge of territory which almost
+divides the Ferozepore district in two. The
+population is composed of Sikhs 42-1/2, Hindus
+and Jains 29, and Musalmans 28-1/2 p.c. Sikh
+Jats are the strongest tribe. The country
+is flat. In the west it is very sandy, but in the east
+the soil is firmer and is
+irrigated in part by the Sirhind
+Canal. The Chief, like
+the Phulkians, is a Sidhu
+Barar Jat, and, though not
+a descendant of Phul, unites
+his line with the Phulkians
+further back. The present
+Raja, Brijindar Singh, is 17
+years of age, and the State
+is managed by a Council of
+Regency.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 168 sq.m.
+Pop. 55,915.
+Rev.
+Rs. 221,000
+= L14,733.]
+
+~Kalsia~ consists of a number of patches of territory in Ambala and an
+enclave in Ferozepore known as Chirak. The founder of the State was one
+of the Jats from the Panjab, who swept over Ambala after the capture of
+Sirhind in 1763, and carved out petty principalities, of which Kalsia is
+the only survivor (page 180). The capital is Chachrauli, eight or nine
+miles north-west of Jagadhri. The present Chief, Sardar Ravi Sher Singh,
+is a minor.
+
+
+3. _The Muhammadan States_
+
+[Sidenote: Area,
+15,917 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1853 sq. m.
+Pop. 780,641;
+84 p.c. M.
+Rev.
+Rs. 35,00,000
+= L233,333.]
+
+~Bahawalpur~ is by far the largest of the Panjab States. But the greater
+part of it is at present desert, and the population, except in the river
+tract, is very sparse. Bahawalpur stretches from Ferozepore on the north
+to the Sindh border. It has a river frontage exceeding 300 miles on the
+Sutlej, Panjnad, and Indus. The cultivated area in 1903-4 was 1451
+square miles, and of this 83 p.c. was irrigated and 10 p.c. flooded. The
+rainfall is only five inches and the climate is very hot. South and east
+of the rivers is a tract of low land known as the "Sindh," which widens
+out to the south. It is partly flooded and partly irrigated by
+inundation canals with the help of wells. Palm groves are a conspicuous
+feature in the Sindh. Behind it is a great stretch of strong loam or
+"_pat_," narrow in the south, but widening out in the north. It is
+bounded on the south-east by a wide depression known as the Hakra,
+probably at one time the bed of the Sutlej. At present little
+cultivation is possible in the _pat_, but there is some hope that a
+canal taking out on the right bank of the Sutlej in Ferozepore may bring
+the water of that river back to it. South of the Hakra is a huge tract
+of sand and sand dunes, known as the Rohi or Cholistan, which is part of
+the Rajputana desert. There are three _nizamats_, Minchinabad in the
+north, Bahawalpur in the middle, and Khanpur in the south. The capital,
+Bahawalpur, is close to the bridge at Adamwahan by which the N.W.
+Railway crosses the Sutlej. The ruling family belongs to the Abbasi
+Daudpotra clan, and came originally from Sindh. Sadik Muhammad Khan, who
+received the title of Nawab from Nadir Shah, when he invaded the Derajat
+in 1739, may be considered the real founder of the State. The Nawab
+Muhummad Bahawal Khan III, threatened with invasion by Maharaja Ranjit
+Singh, made a treaty with the British Government in 1833. He was our
+faithful ally in the first Afghan War, and gave valuable help against
+Diwan Mulraj in 1848. The next three reigns extending from 1852 to 1866
+were brief and troubled. Nawab Sadik Muhummad Khan IV, who succeeded in
+1866, was a young child, and for the next thirteen years the State was
+managed by Captain Minchin and Captain L. H. Grey as Superintendents.
+The young Nawab was installed in 1879, and henceforth ruled with the
+help of a Council. In the Afghan War of 1879-1880 Bahawalpur did very
+useful service. The Nawab died in 1899. A short minority followed during
+which Colonel L. H. Grey again became Superintendent. The young Nawab,
+Muhammad Bahawal Khan V, had but a brief reign. He was succeeded by the
+present Chief, Nawab Sadik Muhummad Khan V, a child of eight or nine
+years. The State is managed by a Council aided by the advice of the
+political Agent. From 1903 to 1913, the Agent for the Phulkian States
+was in charge, but a separate Agent has recently been appointed for
+Bahawalpur and Faridkot. An efficient camel corps is maintained for
+imperial service.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121. Nawab Sadik Muhammad Khan.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 167 sq. m.
+Pop. 71,144.
+Rev.
+Rs. 900,000
+= L60,000.]
+
+~Malerkotla~ consists of a strip of territory to the south of the
+Ludhiana district. The capital is connected with Ludhiana by railway.
+The Nawab keeps up a company of Sappers and Miners for imperial service.
+He is an Afghan, and his ancestor held a position of trust under the
+Moghal Empire, and became independent on its decline. The independence
+of his successor was menaced by Maharaja Ranjit Singh when Malerkotla
+came under British protection in 1809.
+
+~Pataudi, Dujana, and Loharu.~--The three little Muhammadan States of
+Loharu, Dujana, and Pataudi are relics of the policy which in the
+opening years of the nineteenth century sought rigorously to limit our
+responsibilities to the west of the Jamna. Together they have an area of
+275 square miles, a population of 59,987 persons, and a revenue of Rs.
+269,500 (L18,000). The Chief of Loharu, Nawab Amir ud din Ahmad Khan,
+K.C.I.E., is a man of distinction.
+
+
+4. _Hindu Hill States_
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1200 sq. m.
+pop. 181,110.
+Rev.
+Rs. 500,000
+= L33,333.]
+
+~Mandi~ is a tract of mountains and valleys drained by the Bias. With
+Suket, with which for many generations it formed one kingdom, it is a
+wedge thrust up from the Sutlej between Kangra and Kulu. Three-fifths of
+the area is made up of forests and grazing lands. The _deodar_ and blue
+pine forests on the Kulu border are valuable. At Guma and Drang an
+impure salt, fit for cattle, is extracted from shallow cuttings. A
+considerable part of the revenue is derived from the price and duty. The
+chiefs are Chandarbansi Rajputs. The direct line came to an end in 1912
+with the death of Bhawani Sen, but to prevent lapse the British
+Government has chosen as successor a distant relative, Jogindar Singh,
+who is still a child.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 420 sq. m.
+Pop. 54,928.
+Rev.
+Rs. 200,000
+= L13,333.]
+
+~Suket~ lies between Mandi and the Sutlej. Its Raja, Ugar Sen, like his
+distant relative, the Raja of Mandi, came under British protection in
+1846. His great-grandson, Raja Bhim Sen, is the present chief.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1198 sq. m.
+Pop. 138,520.
+Rev.
+Rs. 600,000
+= L40,000.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123. The late Raja Surindar Bikram Parkash, K.C.S.I.,
+of Sirmur.]
+
+~Sirmur~ (~Nahan~) lies to the north of the Ambala district, and
+occupies the greater part of the catchment area of the Giri, a tributary
+of the Jamna. It is for the most part a mountain tract, the Chor to the
+north of the Giri rising to a height of 11,982 feet. The capital, Nahan
+(3207 feet), near the southern border is in the Siwalik range. In the
+south-east of the State is the rich valley known as the Kiarda Dun,
+reclaimed and colonized by Raja Shamsher Parkash. There are valuable
+_deodar_ and _sal_ forests. A good road connects Nahan with Barara on
+the N.W. Railway. In 1815 the British Government having driven out the
+Gurkhas put Fateh Parkash on the throne of his ancestors. His troops
+fought on the English side in the first Sikh War. His successors, Raja
+Sir Shamsher Parkash, G.C.S.I. (1856-98), and Raja Sir Surindar Bikram
+Parkash, K.C.S.I. (1898-1911), managed their State with conspicuous
+success. The present Raja, Amar Parkash, is 25 years of age. In the
+second Afghan War in 1880, Sirmur sent a contingent to the frontier, and
+the Sappers and Miners, which it keeps up for imperial service,
+accompanied the Tirah Expedition of 1897.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3216 sq. m.
+Pop. 135,989.
+Rev. 4 _lakhs_
+= L26,700.]
+
+~Chamba~ lies to the N. of Kangra from which it is divided by the
+Dhauladhar (map, p. 284). The southern and northern parts of the State
+are occupied respectively by the basins of the Ravi and the Chandrabhaga
+or Chenab. Chamba is a region of lofty mountains with some fertile
+valleys in the south and west. Only about one-nineteenth of the area is
+cultivated. The snowy range of the Mid-Himalaya separates the Ravi
+valley from that of the Chandrabhaga, and the great Zanskar chain with
+its outliers occupies the territory beyond the Chenab, where the
+rainfall is extremely small and Tibetan conditions prevail. The State
+contains fine forests and excellent sport is to be got in its mountains.
+There are five _wazarats_ or districts, Brahmaur or Barmaur, Chamba,
+Bhattoyat, Chaura, and Pangi.
+
+The authentic history of this Surajbansi Rajput principality goes back
+to the seventh century. It came into the British sphere in 1846. During
+part of the reign of Raja Sham Singh (1873-1904), the present Raja, Sir
+Bhure Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., administered the State as Wazir, filling
+a difficult position with loyalty and honour. He is a Rajput gentleman
+of the best type. The Raja owns the land of the State, but the people
+have a permanent tenant right in cultivated land.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124. Raja Sir Bhure Singh, K.C.S.I., C.I.E.]
+
+~Simla Hill States.~--The Deputy Commissioner of Simla is political
+officer with the title of Superintendent of nineteen, or, including the
+tributaries of Bashahr, Keonthal, and Jubbal, of 28 states with a total
+area of 6355 square miles, a population of 410,453, and revenues
+amounting to a little over ten _lakhs_ (L66,000). The States vary in
+size from the patch of four square miles ruled by the Thakur of Bija to
+the 388r square miles included in Bashahr. Only four other States have
+areas exceeding 125 square miles, namely, Bilaspur (448), Keonthal
+(359), Jubbal (320), and Hindur or Nalagarh (256). Excluding feudatories
+the revenues vary from Rs. 900 (or a little over L1 a week) in Mangal to
+Rs. 190,000 (L12,666) in Bilaspur. The chiefs are all Rajputs, who came
+under our protection at the close of the Gurkha War.
+
+The watershed of the Sutlej and Jamna runs through the tract. The range
+which forms the watershed of the Sutlej and the Jamna starts from the
+Shinka Pass on the south border of Bashahr and passes over Hattu and
+Simla. In Bashahr it divides the catchment areas of the Rupin and Pabar
+rivers, tributaries of the Tons and therefore of the Jamna, from those
+of the Baspa and the Nogli, which are affluents of the Sutlej. West of
+Bashahr the chief tributary of the Jamna is the Giri and of the Sutlej
+the Gambhar, which rises near Kasauli. In the east Bashahr has a large
+area north of the Sutlej drained by its tributary the Spiti and smaller
+streams. In the centre the Sutlej is the northern boundary of the Simla
+Hill States. In the west Bilaspur extends across that river. The east of
+Bashahr is entirely in the Sutlej basin.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 448 sq. m.
+Pop. 93,107.
+Rev. Rs. 190,000
+= L12,666.]
+
+~Bilaspur.~--This is true also of Bilaspur or Kahlur (map, p. 284),
+which has territory on both banks of the river. The capital, Bilaspur,
+is on the left bank only 1455 feet above sea level. The present Raja
+Bije Chand, C.S.I., succeeded in 1889.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3881 sq. m.
+Pop. 93,203.
+Rev. Rs. 95,000
+= L6233.]
+
+~Bashahr.~--The chain which forms the watershed of the Sutlej and Jamna
+rises from about 12,000 feet at Hattu in the west to nearly 20,000 feet
+on the Tibet border. Two peaks in the chain exceed 20,000 feet. Further
+north Raldang to the east of Chini is 21,250 feet high, and in the
+north-east on the Tibet border there are two giants about 1000 feet
+higher. Generally speaking the Sutlej runs in a deep gorge but at Chini
+and Sarahan the valley widens out. The main valley of the Pabar is not
+so narrow as that of the Sutlej, while the side valleys descend in easy
+slopes to the river beds. The Baspa has a course of 35 miles. In the
+last ten miles it falls 2000 feet and is hemmed in by steep mountains.
+Above this gorge the Baspa valley is four or five miles wide and
+consists of a succession of plateaux rising one above the other from the
+river's banks. Bashahr is divided into two parts, Bashahr proper and
+Kunawar. The latter occupies the Sutlej valley in the north-east of the
+State. It covers an area of about 1730 square miles and is very sparsely
+peopled. In the north of Kunawar the predominant racial type is
+Mongoloid and the religion is Buddhism. The capital of Bashahr, Rampur,
+on the left bank of the Sutlej is at an elevation of 3300 feet. The
+Gurkhas never succeeded in conquering Kunawar. They occupied Bashahr,
+but in 1815 the British Government restored the authority of the Raja.
+The present chief, Shamsher Singh, is an old man, who succeeded as long
+ago as 1850. He is incapable of managing the State and an English
+officer is at present in charge.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125. Bashahr.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 15: J.=Jain.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+THE NORTH WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE
+
+
+1. _Districts_
+
+~The Province.~--The N. W. F. Province consists of five British
+districts, Dera Ismail Khan, Bannu, Kohat, Peshawar, and Hazara with a
+total area of 13,193 square miles, of which rather less than one-third
+is cultivated. Of the cultivated area 70 p.c. depends solely on the
+rainfall. In addition the Chief Commissioner as Agent to the Governor
+General controls beyond the administrative boundary territory occupied
+by independent tribes, which covers approximately an area of 25,500
+square miles. In 1911 the population of British districts was 2,196,933
+and that of tribal territory is estimated to exceed 1,600,000. In the
+districts 93 persons in every hundred profess the creed of Islam and
+over 38 p.c. are Pathans.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 3780 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+851 sq. m.
+Pop. 256,120.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 306,240
+= L20,416.]
+
+~Dera Ismail Khan~ lies to the north of Dera Ghazi Khan and is very
+similar to it in its physical features. It is divided into the three
+_tahsils_ of Tank, Dera Ismail Khan, and Kulachi. It has a long river
+frontage on the west, and is bounded on the east by the Suliman Range.
+The Kachchhi of Dera Ismail Khan corresponds to the Sindh of Dera Ghazi
+Khan, but is much narrower and is not served by inundation canals,
+except in the extreme north, where the Paharpur Canal has recently been
+dug. It depends on floods and wells. The Daman or "Skirt" of the hills
+is like the Pachadh of Dera Ghazi Khan a broad expanse of strong clayey
+loam or _pat_ seamed by torrents and cultivated by means of dams and
+embanked fields. The climate is intensely hot in summer, and the average
+rainfall only amounts to ten inches. Between one-fourth and one-fifth of
+the area is cultivated. The Pachadh is a camel-breeding tract.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126. Sir Harold Deane.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127. NORTH-WEST FRONTIER-PROVINCE]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128. Map of Dera Ismail Khan with trans-border
+territory of Largha Sheranis and Ustaranas.]
+
+Pathans predominate in the Daman and Jats in the Kachchhi. The
+Bhittannis in the north of the district are an interesting little tribe.
+The hill section lies outside our administrative border, but like the
+Largha Sheranis in the south are under the political control of the
+Deputy Commissioner. A good metalled road, on which there is a _tonga_
+service, runs northwards from Dera Ismail Khan to Bannu.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 1641 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+818 sq. m.
+Pop. 250,086.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 304,004
+= L20,267.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129.]
+
+~Bannu.~--The small Bannu district occupies a basin surrounded by hills
+and drained by the Kurram and its affluent, the Tochi. It is cut off
+from the Indus by the Isakhel _tahsil_ of Mianwali and by a horn of the
+Dera Ismail Khan district. Bannu is now connected with Kalabagh in
+Mianwali by a narrow gauge railway. An extension of this line from Laki
+to Tank in the Dera Ismail Khan district has been sanctioned. There are
+two _tahsils_, Bannu and Marwat. The cultivated area is about one-half
+of the total area. About 30 p.c. of the cultivation is protected by
+irrigation from small canals taking out of the streams. Most of the
+irrigation is in the Bannu _tahsil_. The greater part of Marwat is a dry
+sandy tract yielding in favourable seasons large crops of gram. But the
+harvests on unirrigated land are precarious, for the annual rainfall is
+only about 12 inches. The irrigated land in Bannu is heavily manured and
+is often double-cropped. Wheat accounts for nearly half of the whole
+crops of the district. The Marwats are a frank manly race of good
+physique. The Bannuchis are hard-working, but centuries of plodding toil
+on a wet soil has spoiled their bodily development, and had its share in
+imparting to their character qualities the reverse of admirable. The
+Deputy Commissioner has also political charge of some 17,884 tribesmen
+living across the border. There are good metalled roads to Dera Ismail
+Khan and Kohat, and also one on the Tochi route.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2973 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+512 sq. m.
+Pop. 222,690.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 275,462
+= L18,364.]
+
+~Kohat~ is a large district, but most of it is unfit for tillage and
+only one-sixth is actually cultivated. The chief crops are wheat, 44,
+and _bajra_, 26 p.c. The district stretches east and west for 100 miles
+from Khushalgarh on the Indus to Thal at the mouth of the Kurram valley.
+The two places are now connected by a railway which passes through the
+district headquarters at Kohat close to the northern border. There are
+three _tahsils_, Kohat, Hangu, and Teri, the last a wild tract of bare
+hills and ravines occupying the south of the district and covering more
+than half its area. Two small streams, the Kohat Toi and the Teri Toi,
+drain into the Indus. The rainfall is fair, but very capricious. The
+cold weather lasts long and the chill winds that blow during part of it
+are very trying. The chief tribes are the Bangash Pathans of Hangu and
+the Khattak Pathans of Teri. The Khan of Teri is head of the Khattaks, a
+manly race which sends many soldiers to our army. He enjoys the revenue
+of the _tahsil_ subject to a quit rent of Rs. 20,000.
+
+~Hangu~ contains in Upper and Lower Miranzai the most fertile land in
+the district, but the culturable area of the _tahsil_ is small and only
+one-tenth of it is under the plough. Perennial streams run through the
+Miranzai valleys, and the neighbouring hills support large flocks of
+sheep and goats. Kohat contains a number of salt quarries, the most
+important being at Bahadur Khel near the Bannu border. The Thal
+subdivision consisting of the Hangu _tahsil_ is in charge of an
+Assistant Commissioner who manages our political relations with
+transfrontier tribes living west of Fort Lockhart on the Samana Range.
+The Deputy Commissioner is in direct charge of the Pass Afridis and the
+Jowakis and Orakzais in the neighbourhood of Kohat. He and his Assistant
+between them look after our relations with 144,000 trans-border Pathans.
+The Samana Rifles, one of the useful irregular corps which keep the
+peace of the Borderland, have their headquarters at Hangu.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131.]
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2611 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+1398 sq. m.
+Pop. 865,000
+Land Rev
+Rs. 11,37,504
+= L75,834.]
+
+~Peshawar~ is a large basin encircled by hills. The gorge of the Indus
+separates it from Attock and Hazara. The basin is drained by the Kabul
+river, whose chief affluents in Peshawar are the Swat and the Bara. The
+district is divided into the five _tahsils_ of Peshawar, Charsadda,
+Naushahra, Mardan, and Swabi. The last two form the Mardan subdivision.
+Nearly 40 p.c. of the cultivation is protected by irrigation mainly from
+canals large and small. The most important are the Lower Swat, the Kabul
+River, and the Bara River, Canals. The irrigated area will soon be much
+increased by the opening of the Upper Swat Canal. The cold weather
+climate is on the whole pleasant, though too severe in December and
+January. The three months from August to October are a very unhealthy
+time. The soil except in the stony lands near the hills is a fertile
+loam. The cold weather rainfall is good, and the Spring harvest is by
+far the more important of the two. Wheat is the chief crop. Half of the
+people are Pathans, the rest are known generically as Hindkis. The
+principal Hindki tribe is that of the Awans. Besides managing his own
+people the Deputy Commissioner has to supervise our relations with
+240,000 independent tribesmen across the border. The Assistant
+Commissioner at Mardan, where the Corps of Guides is stationed, is in
+charge of our dealings with the men of Buner and the Yusafzai border.
+The N.W. Railway runs past the city of Peshawar to Jamrud, and there is
+a branch line from Naushahra to Dargai at the foot of the Malakand Pass.
+
+[Sidenote: Area, 2858 sq. m.
+Cultd area,
+673 sq. m.
+Pop. 603,028.
+Land Rev.
+Rs. 512,897
+= L34,193.]
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132.]
+
+~Hazara~ is a typical montane and submontane district with a copious
+rainfall and a good climate. It has every kind of cultivation from
+narrow terraced _kalsi_ fields built laboriously up steep mountain
+slopes to very rich lands watered by canal cuts from the Dor or Haro.
+Hazara is divided into three _tahsils_, Haripur, Abbottabad, and
+Mansehra. Between a fourth and a fifth of this area is culturable and
+cultivated. In this crowded district the words are synonymous. The above
+figure does not include the 204 square miles of Feudal Tanawal. The
+rainfall is copious and the crops generally speaking secure. The
+principal are maize 42 and wheat 25 p.c. Hazara was part of the
+territory made over to Raja Gulab Singh in 1846, but he handed it back
+in exchange for some districts near Jammu. The maintenance of British
+authority in Hazara in face of great odds by the Deputy Commissioner,
+Captain James Abbott, during the Second Sikh War is a bright page in
+Panjab history, honourable alike to himself and his faithful local
+allies. The population is as mixed as the soils. Pathans are numerous,
+but they are split up into small tribes. The Swatis of Mansehra are the
+most important section. After Pathans Gujars and Awans are the chief
+tribes. The Gakkhars, though few in number, hold much land and a
+dominant position in the Khanpur tract on the Rawalpindi border. The
+Deputy Commissioner is also responsible for our relations with 98,000
+trans-border tribesmen. The district is a wedge interposed between
+Kashmir on the east and Peshawar and the tribal territory north of
+Peshawar on the west. The Indus becomes the border about eight miles to
+the north of Amb, and the district consists mainly of the areas drained
+by its tributaries the Unhar, Siran, Dor, and Haro. On the eastern side
+the Jhelam is the boundary with Kashmir from Kohala to a point below
+Domel, where the Kunhar meets it. Thence the Kunhar is the boundary to
+near Garhi Habibullah. To the south of Garhi the watershed of the Kunhar
+and Jhelam is close to these rivers and the country is very rough and
+poor. West of Garhi it is represented by the chain which separates the
+Kunhar and Siran Valleys and ends on the frontier at Musa ka Musalla
+(13,378 feet). This chain includes one peak over 17,000 feet, Mali ka
+Parvat, which is the highest in the district. The Kunhar rises at the
+top of the Kagan Glen, where it has a course of about 100 miles to
+Balakot. Here the glen ends, for the fall between Balakot and Garhi
+Habibullah is comparatively small. There is a good mule road from Garhi
+Habibullah to the Babusar Pass at the top of the Kagan Glen, and beyond
+it to Chilas. There are rest-houses, some very small, at each stage from
+Balakot to Chilas. The Kagan is a beautiful mountain glen. At places the
+narrow road looks sheer down on the river hundreds of feet below,
+rushing through a narrow gorge with the logs from the _deodar_ forests
+tossing on the surface, and the sensation, it must be confessed, is not
+wholly pleasant. But again it passes close to some quiet pretty stretch
+of this same Kunhar. There are side glens, one of which opposite Naran
+contains the beautiful Safarmulk Lake. Near the top of the main glen the
+Lulusar Lake at a height of 11,167 feet and with an average depth of 150
+feet is passed on the left. In the lower part of the glen much maize is
+grown. As one ascends almost the last crop to be seen is a coarse barley
+sown in June and reaped in August. Where the trees and the crops end the
+rich grass pastures begin. Kagan covers between one-third and
+one-fourth of the whole district. The Siran flows through the beautiful
+Bhogarmang Glen, at the foot of which it receives from the west the
+drainage of the Konsh Glen. Forcing its way through the rough Tanawal
+hills, it leaves Feudal Tanawal and Badhnak on its right, and finally
+after its junction with the Dor flows round the north of the Gandgarh
+Range and joins the Indus below Torbela. The bare Gandgarh Hills run
+south from Torbela parallel with the Indus. The Dor rises in the hills
+to the south of Abbottabad and drains the Haripur plain. A range of
+rough hills divides the Dor valley from that of the Haro, which again is
+separated from Rawalpindi by the Khanpur Range. To the west of the Siran
+the Unhar flows through Agror and Feudal Tanawal, and joins the Indus a
+little above Amb. Irrigation cuts are taken from all these streams, and
+the irrigated cultivation is often of a very high character. The best
+cultivation of the district is in the Haripur plain and the much smaller
+Orash and Pakhli plains and in the Haro valley. There is much
+unirrigated cultivation in the first, and it is generally secure except
+in the dry tract in the south-west traversed by the new railway from
+Sarai Kala. The little Orash plain below Abbottabad is famous for its
+maize and the Pakhli plain for its rice.
+
+Feudal Tanawal is a very rough hilly country between the Siran on the
+east and the Black Mountain and the river Indus on the west. It is the
+appanage of the Khans of Amb and Phulra.
+
+North of Feudal Tanawal is Agror. In 1891 the rights of the last Khan
+were declared forfeit for abetment of raids by trans-bordermen.
+
+There are fine forests in Hazara, but unfortunately the _deodar_ is
+confined to the Kagan Glen and the Upper Siran. Nathiagali, the summer
+headquarters of the Chief Commissioner, is in the Dungagali Range. The
+Serai Kala-Srinagar railway will run through Hazara. There is a good
+mule road from Murree to Abbottabad through the Galis.
+
+
+2. _Tribal Territory_
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133. Sir George Roos Keppel.]
+
+Feudal Tanawal mentioned above occupies the southern corner of the tract
+of independent tribal territory lying between the Hazara border and the
+Indus. North of Tanawal on the left bank of the river a long narrow
+chain known as the Black Mountain rises in its highest peaks to a height
+of nearly 10,000 feet. The western slopes are occupied by Hasanzais,
+Akazais, and Chagarzais, who are Pathans belonging to the great
+Yusafzai clan, and these three sections also own lands on the right bank
+of the Indus. They have been very troublesome neighbours to the British
+Government. The eastern slopes of the Black Mountain are occupied by
+Saiyyids and Swatis, and the latter also hold the glens lying further
+north, the chief of which is Allai.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134.]
+
+The mountainous tract on the Peshawar border lying to the west of
+Tanawal and the territory of the Black Mountain tribes formed part of
+the ancient Udyana, and its archaeological remains are of much interest.
+It is drained by the Barandu, a tributary of the Indus. Its people are
+mainly Yusafzai Pathans, the principal section being the Bunerwals.
+These last bear a good character for honesty and courage, but are slaves
+to the teachings of their _mullas_. The Yusafzais have been bad
+neighbours. The origin of the trouble is of old standing, dating back to
+the welcome given by the tribesmen in 1824 to a band of Hindustani
+fanatics, whose leader was Saiyyid Ahmad Shah of Bareilly. Their
+headquarters, first at Sitana and afterwards at Malka, became Caves of
+Adullam for political refugees and escaped criminals, and their
+favourite pastime was the kidnapping of Hindu shopkeepers. In 1863 a
+strong punitive expedition under Sir Neville Chamberlain suffered heavy
+losses before it succeeded in occupying the Ambela Pass. The door being
+forced the Yusafzais themselves destroyed Malka as a pledge of their
+submission. Our political relations with the Yusafzais are managed by
+the Assistant Commissioner at Mardan.
+
+The rest of the tribal territory between the Peshawar district and the
+Hindu Kush is included in the Dir, Swat, and Chitral political agency.
+It is a region of mountains and valleys drained by the Swat, Panjkora,
+and Chitral or Yarkhun rivers, all three affluents of the Kabul river.
+Six tracts are included in the Agency.
+
+(_a_) ~Swat.~--A railway now runs from Naushahra in the Peshawar district
+to Dargai, which lies at the foot of the Malakand, a little beyond our
+administrative boundary. An old Buddhist road crosses the pass and
+descends on the far side into Swat. We have a military post at Chakdarra
+on the Swat river, and a military road passing through Dir connects
+Chakdarra with Kila Drosh in Chitral. Most of the Swatis, who are
+Yusafzais of the Akozai section, occupy a rich valley above 70 miles in
+length watered by the Swat river above its junction with the Panjkora.
+Rice is extensively grown, and a malarious environment has affected the
+physique and the character of the people. The Swati is priest-ridden and
+treacherous. Even his courage has been denied, probably unjustly. Swati
+fanaticism has been a source of much trouble on the Peshawar border. The
+last serious outbreak was in 1897, when a determined, but unsuccessful,
+attack was made on our posts at Chakdarra and the Malakand Pass. The
+Swatis are Yusafzai Pathans of the Akozai clan, and are divided into
+five sections, one of which is known as Ranizai.
+
+(_b_) ~Sam Ranizai.~--A small tract between the Peshawar border and the
+hills is occupied by the Sam Ranizais, who were formerly servants and
+tenants of the Ranizais, but are now independent.
+
+(_c_) ~Utman Khel.~--The country of the Utman Khels begins where the
+Peshawar boundary turns to the south. This tribe occupies the tract on
+both sides of the Swat river to the west of Swat and Sam Ranizai. On the
+south-west the Swat river divides the Utman Khels from the Mohmands.
+Their country is very barren, but a good many of them cultivate land in
+the Peshawar district. The Utman Khels are quite independent of the
+surrounding tribes and have been troublesome neighbours to ourselves.
+
+(_d_) ~Bajaur.~--Bajaur is a very mountainous tract lying to the
+north-west of the Utman Khel country and between it and the Durand line.
+It includes four valleys, through which flow the Rud river and its
+affluents with the exception of that known as Jandol. The valley of the
+last is now included in Dir. The Rud, also known as the Bajaur, is a
+tributary of the Panjkora. The people consist mainly of Mamunds and
+other sections of the Tarkanri clan, which is related to the Yusafzais.
+They own a very nominal allegiance to the Khan of Nawagai, who is
+recognised as the hereditary head of the Tarkanris. They manage their
+affairs in quasi-republican fashion through a council consisting of the
+particular party which for the time being has got the upper hand.
+
+(_e_) ~Dir.~--Dir is the mountainous country drained by the Panjkora and
+its tributaries, to the north of its junction with the Rud river in
+Bajaur. It is separated from Chitral by the Uchiri Range, which forms
+the watershed of the Panjkora and Kunar rivers. The military road to
+Kila Drosh crosses this chain by the Lowari Pass at a height of 10,200
+feet. The people of Dir are mostly Yusafzais, relations of the Swatis,
+whom they much resemble in character. They pay one-tenth of their
+produce to their overlord, the Khan of Dir, when he is strong enough to
+take it. The higher parts of the country have a good climate and contain
+fine _deodar_ forests. The Khan derives much of his income from the
+export of timber, which is floated down the Panjkora and Swat rivers.
+
+(_f_) ~Chitral.~--The Pathan country ends at the Lowari Pass. Beyond,
+right up to the main axis of the Hindu Kush, is Chitral. It comprises
+the basin of the Yarkhun or Chitral river from its distant source in the
+Shawar Shur glacier to Arnawai, where it receives from the west the
+waters of the Bashgul, and is thenceforth known as the Kunar. Its
+western boundary is the Durand line, which follows a lofty chain
+sometimes called the Kafiristan range. Another great spur of the Hindu
+Kush known as the Shandur range divides Chitral on the east from the
+basin of the Yasin river and the territories included in the Gilgit
+Agency (see Chapter XXVIII). Chitral is a fine country with a few
+fertile valleys, good forests below 11,000 feet, and splendid, if
+desolate, mountains in the higher ranges. The Chitralis are a quiet
+pleasure-loving people, fond of children and of dancing, hawking, and
+polo. They are no cowards and no fanatics, but have little regard for
+truth or good faith. The common language is Khowar (see page 112). The
+chief, known as the Mehtar, has his headquarters at Chitral, a large
+village on the river of the same name. It is dominated at a distance by
+the great snow peak of Tirach Mir (see page 22). The British garrison is
+stationed at Kila Drosh on the river bank about halfway between Chitral
+and the Lowari Pass[16].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135.]
+
+~Mohmands and Mallagoris.~--South of the Utman Khel country and north of
+the Khaibar are the rugged and barren hills held by that part of the
+Mohmand tribe which lives inside the Durand line. The clan can muster
+about 20,000 fighting men and is as convenient a neighbour as a nest of
+hornets. The southern edge of the tract, where it abuts on the Khaibar,
+is held by the little Mallagori tribe, which is independent of the
+Mohmands. Their country is important strategically because a route
+passes through it by which the Khaibar can be outflanked. It is included
+in the charge of the Political Agent for the Khaibar.
+
+~Afridis.~--The pass and the tract lying to the south of it including the
+Bazar valley and part of Tirah are the home of the six sections of the
+Pass Afridis, the most important being the Zakha Khel, whose winter home
+is in the Khaibar and the Bazar valley, a barren glen hemmed in by
+barren hills, the entrance to which is not far from Ali Masjid. Its
+elevation is 3000 to 4000 feet. The valleys in Tirah proper, where the
+Pass Afridis for the most part spend the summer, are two or three
+thousand feet higher. When the snow melts there is excellent pasturage.
+The climate is pleasant in summer, but bitterly cold in winter. The Bara
+river with its affluents drains the glens of Tirah. The Aka Khel
+Afridis, who have no share in the Pass allowances, own a good dear of
+land in the lower Bara valley and winter in the adjoining hills. The
+fighting strength of the above seven sections may be put at 21,000. When
+they have been able to unite they have shown themselves formidable
+enemies, for they are a strong and manly race, and they inhabit a very
+difficult country[17]. But the Afridi clan is torn by dissensions. Blood
+feuds divide house from house, and the sections are constantly at feud
+one with another. Apart from other causes of quarrel there is the
+standing division into two great factions, Gar and Samil, which prevails
+among Afridis and Orakzais. Afridis enlist freely in our regiments and
+in the Khaibar Rifles, and have proved themselves excellent soldiers.
+The eighth section of the Afridis, the Adam Khel, who hold the Kohat
+Pass and the adjoining hills, have very little connection with the rest
+of the clan. The Jowakis, against whom an expedition had to be sent in
+the cold weather of 1877-78, are a sub-section of the Adam Khel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136. Khaibar Rifles.]
+
+~Orakzais, Chamkannis, and Zaimukhts.~--The Orakzais, who in numbers are
+even stronger than the Pass and Aka Khel Afridis, occupy the south of
+Tirah, the Samana Range on the border of Kohat, and the valley of the
+Khanki river. The tribal territory extends westwards as far as the
+Khurmana, a tributary of the Kurram. The Orakzais do some trade and Sikh
+_banias_ and artizans are to be found in some of their villages. The
+clan is honey-combed with feuds. North-west of the Orakzais beyond the
+Khurmana are the Chamkannis, and on the south is a small tribe of
+vigorous mountaineers called Zaimukhts. One of these Zaimukhts, Sarwar
+Khan, nicknamed Chikai, was a notorious frontier robber, and a person of
+considerable importance on the border till his death in 1903.
+
+~The Kurram Valley.~--The Kurram Valley, which is drained by the Kurram
+river and its affluents, lies to the south of the lofty Safed Koh range,
+and reaches from Thal in Kohat to the Peiwar Kotal on the borders of
+Afghan Khost. It has an area of nearly 1300 square miles and in 1911 the
+population was estimated at 60,941 souls. Though under British
+administration, it does not form a part of any British district. The
+people are Pathans of various clans, the predominant element being the
+Turis, who are Shias by religion and probably of Turkish origin. It was
+at their request that the valley was annexed in 1892. The political
+agent has his headquarters at Parachinar in Upper Kurram, which is
+divided from Lower Kurram by a spur of the Khost hills, through which
+the river has cut a passage. Such part of the Indian penal law as is
+suitable has been introduced, and civil rights are governed by the
+customary law of the Turis. A complete record of rights in land and
+water has been framed, and the land revenue demand is 88,000 rupees
+(L5889). Upper Kurram is a wide and fertile valley set in a frame of
+pine-clad hills. It is not fully cultivated, but has great
+possibilities, especially in the matter of fruit growing. The snowfall
+is heavy in winter, but the summer climate is excellent. Lower Kurram is
+a poor and narrow glen unpleasantly hot and cold according to the season
+of the year. Parachinar is connected with the railhead at Thal by a
+good _tonga_ road.
+
+~Waziristan.~--The country of the Darwesh Khel and Mahsud Wazirs extends
+from the Kurram valley to the Gomal river. It is divided into the North
+Waziristan (2300 square miles) and the South Waziristan (2700 square
+miles) Agencies. North Waziristan consists of four valleys and some
+barren plateaux. The principal valley is that of Daur (700 square miles)
+drained by the Tochi. In 1894 the Dauris sought refuge from Darwesh Khel
+inroads by asking for British administration. In the eyes of the Darwesh
+Khel they are a race of clodhoppers. Their sole virtue consists in
+patient spade industry in the stiff rich soil of their valley, their
+vices are gross, and their fanaticism is extreme. The political agent's
+headquarters are at Miram Shah. South Waziristan is the home of the
+troublesome Mahsuds, who can muster 11,000 fighting men. But parts of
+the country, e.g. the Wana plain, are held by the Darwesh Khel. Much of
+South Waziristan consists of bare hills and valleys and stony plains
+scored with torrents, which are dry most of the year. The streams are
+salt. Part of the hinterland is however a more inviting tract with
+grassy uplands and hills clad with oak, pine, and _deodar_. Wana, where
+the political agent has his headquarters, was occupied on the invitation
+of the Darwesh Khel in 1894.
+
+~Sheranis.~--The Sherani country stretches along the Dera Ismail Khan
+border from the Gomal to the Vihoa torrent. The Largha or lower part has
+been under direct administration since 1899, the Upper part belongs to
+the Biluchistan Agency.
+
+~Tribal Militias.~--In the greater part of India beyond the border there
+is no British administration. Respect for our authority and the peace of
+the roads are upheld, and raiding on British territory is restrained,
+by irregular forces raised from among the tribesmen. There are Hunza and
+Nagar levies, Chitral and Dir levies, Khaibar Rifles, Samana Rifles, and
+Kurram, North Waziristan, and South Waziristan militias.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137. North Waziristan Militia and Border Post.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 16: For recent history see page 196.]
+
+[Footnote 17: See page 196.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+KASHMIR AND JAMMU
+
+
+~Kashmir.~--Some account has already been given of the topography and
+scenery of the wide territory, covering an area about equal to that of
+the Panjab less the Ambala division, ruled by the Maharaja of Kashmir
+and Jammu. The population, races, languages, and religions have been
+referred to in Chapters IX and X.
+
+~Modern history.~--Some mention has been made of the early history of
+Kashmir (pages 165, 166, 172, 173). Even the hard Sikh rule was a relief
+to a country which had felt the tyranny of the Durani governors who
+succeeded the Moghals. Under the latter small kingships had survived in
+the Jammu hills, but the Jammuwal Rajas met at Ranjit Singh's hands the
+same fate as the Kangra Rajas. Three cadets of the Jammu royal house,
+the brothers Dhian Singh, Suchet Singh, and Gulab Singh, were great men
+at his court. In 1820 he made the last Raja of Jammu. Gulab Singh was a
+man fit for large designs. In 20 years he had made himself master of
+Bhadrawah, Kishtwar, Ladakh, and Baltistan, and held the casket which
+enclosed the jewel of Kashmir. He acquired the jewel itself for 75 lakhs
+by treaty with the British at the close of the first Sikh war.
+
+Excluding a large but little-known and almost uninhabited tract beyond
+the Muztagh and Karakoram mountains, the drainage of which is northwards
+into Central Asia, the country consists of the valleys of the Chenab,
+Jhelam, and Indus, that of the last amounting to three-fourths of the
+whole. There is a trifling area to the west of Jammu, which contains the
+head-waters of small streams which find their way into the Ravi.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138. Maharaja of Kashmir.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139. Sketch Map of Chenab and Jhelam Valleys (Jammu
+and Kashmir).]
+
+~Divisions.~--The following broad divisions may be recognised:
+
+ 1. Chenab Valley (_a_) Plain and Kandi or Low Hills.
+ (_b_) Uplands of Kishtwar and Bhadrawah.
+
+ 2. Jhelam Valley (_a_) Vale of Kashmir with adjoining glens and hills.
+ (_b_) Gorge below Baramula and Kishnganga Valley.
+
+ 3. Indus Valley (_a_) Ladakh including Zanskar and Rupshu.
+ (_b_) Baltistan.
+ (_c_) Astor and Gilgit.
+
+~Chenab Valley.~--(_a_) _Plain and Kandi._ This tract extends from Mirpur
+on the Jhelam to Kathua near the Ravi and close to the head-works of the
+Upper Bari Doab Canal at Madhopur. It is coterminous with the Panjab
+districts of Jhelam, Gujrat, Sialkot, and Gurdaspur, and comprises four
+of the five districts of the Jammu Province, Mirpur, Riasi, Jammu, and
+Jasrota, and a part of the fifth, Udhampur. The plain is moist and
+unhealthy. The rough country behind with a stony and thirsty red soil
+covered in its natural state with _garna_ (Carissa spinarum), _sanatan_
+(Dodonaea viscosa), and _bhekar_ (Adhatoda vasica) does not suffer in
+this respect. The chief crops of the Kandi are wheat, barley, and rape
+in the spring, and maize and _bajra_ in the autumn, harvest. Behind the
+Kandi is a higher and better tract, including Naoshera, with wide
+valleys, in which maize replaces _bajra_.
+
+(_b_) _Uplands._ The greater part of the Upper Chenab Valley is occupied
+by Kishtwar and _Jagir_ Bhadrawah. The rainfall is heavy and there is
+copious irrigation from _kuhls_ (page 142), but elevation and rapid
+drainage make the climate healthy. In the upper parts snow and cold
+winds sometimes prevent the ripening of the crops. The poppy is grown in
+Kishtwar and Bhadrawah. Kishtwar is a part of the Udhampur district.
+
+~Jhelam Valley.~--(_a_) _Vale of Kashmir with adjoining glens and
+mountains._ This first division of the Jhelam Valley extends from the
+source above Vernag to Baramula, and embraces not only the Vale of
+Kashmir, over 80 miles long and from 20 to 25 miles in breadth, but the
+glens which drain into it and the mountains that surround it. It
+therefore includes cultivation of all sorts from rich irrigated rice
+fields to narrow plots terraced up mountain slopes on which buckwheat
+and the beardless Tibetan barley are grown. The administrative divisions
+are the _wazarat_ or district of South Kashmir and the southern part of
+North Kashmir. The central valley has an elevation of 6000 feet. It was
+undoubtedly once a lake bed. Shelving fan-shaped "_karewas_" spread out
+into it from the bases of the hills. The object of the Kashmiri is to
+raise as much rice as he possibly can on the alluvium of his valley and
+on the rich soil deposited on the banks of mountain streams. Manure and
+facilities for irrigation exist in abundance, and full use is made of
+them in the cultivation of the favourite crop. _Kangni_ takes the place
+of rice in many fields if there is any deficiency of water. On reclaimed
+swamps near the Jhelam heavy crops of maize are raised. The tillage for
+wheat and barley is as careless as that for rice is careful. The
+cultivation of saffron (Crocus sativus) on _karewas_ is famous, but the
+area is now limited, as the starving people ate up the bulbs in the
+great famine of 1877 and recovery is slow. Saffron is used as a pigment
+for the sectarian marks on the forehead of the orthodox Hindu and also
+as a condiment. The little floating vegetable gardens on the Dal lake
+are a very curious feature. The "_demb_" lands on the borders of the
+same lake are a rich field for the market gardener's art. He fences a
+bit of land with willows, and deposits on it weeds and mud from the lake
+bed. He is of the boatman or Hanz caste, whose reputation is by no means
+high, and can himself convey by water his vegetables and fruits to the
+Srinagar market. The production of fruit in Kashmir is very large, and
+the extension of the railway to Srinagar should lead to much improvement
+in the quality and in the extent of the trade. It may also improve the
+prospects of sericulture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140. Takht i Suliman in Winter.]
+
+(_b_) _Jhelam Gorge and Valley of Kishnganga._ The Jhelam gorge below
+Baramula is narrow and the cultivation is usually terraced. The
+Kishnganga joins the Jhelam near Muzaffarabad. The Muzaffarabad district
+includes the Jhelam gorge and the lower part of the valley of the
+Kishnganga. The upper part is in the Uttarmachhipura _tahsil_ of the
+district of North Kashmir.
+
+~Indus Valley.~--(_a_) _Ladakh including Zanskar and Rupshu._ Some
+description of Ladakh and its scenery has already been given in Chapter
+II. It may be divided into Rupshu, Zanskar, and Ladakh proper with Leh
+as its centre. Rupshu in the south-east is a country of great brackish
+lakes in no part less than 13,500 feet above sea level. At such a height
+cultivation must be very difficult, but a little beardless Tibetan
+barley is raised. The scanty population consists mainly of nomad
+shepherds. In Ladakh the people are divided into shepherds or
+_champas_, who roam over the Alpine pastures, and Ladakhis, who till
+laboriously every available patch of culturable land in the river
+valleys. Though both are Buddhists they rarely intermarry. Zanskar to
+the N.W. of Rupshu is drained by the river of the same name, which flows
+northwards to join the Indus below Leh. It forms part of the Kargil
+_tahsil_. Zanskar is a bleak inaccessible region where the people and
+cattle remain indoors for six months of the year. Its breed of ponies is
+famous. In Ladakh proper cultivation ranges from 9000 to 15,000 feet.
+The sandy soil must be manured and irrigated, and is often refreshed by
+top-dressings of fresh earth from the hill sides. The crops are wheat
+and barley, rape, lucerne, peas and beans, in spring, and buckwheat,
+millets, and turnips, in autumn. There is a great lack of wood for
+building and for fuel, and the deficiency in the latter case has to be
+supplied by cow-dung cakes. Notwithstanding their hard life the people
+are cheerful and fairly well off, for polyandry has prevented
+overcrowding.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141. Ladakh Hills.]
+
+(_b_) _Baltistan._ In Baltistan, which lies to the N.W. of Ladakh, they
+are Muhammadans and there is much more pressure on the soil. They are a
+cheery race and very fond of polo. To support their families the men
+have to work as carriers on the roads to Leh and Gilgit. They tend the
+cattle in the pastures, keep the irrigation channels and the walls of
+the terraced fields in repair, and do the ploughing. The rest of the
+work of cultivation is left to the women. The climate is very severe and
+most of the rivers are frozen in winter. On the other hand near the
+Indus on the Skardo plain (7250 feet) and in the Rondu gorge further
+west, the heat is intense in July and August. The dreary treeless stony
+Deosai Plains on the road to Kashmir have an elevation of 13,000 feet.
+The cultivation and crops are much the same as in Ladakh. Excellent
+fruit is grown, and there is a considerable export of apricots. Gold
+washing is carried on with profit.
+
+Ladakh and Baltistan together form the Ladakh _wazarat_, divided into
+the three _tahsils_ of Ladakh, Kargil, and Skardo.
+
+(_c_) _Astor and Gilgit._--Where the Gilgit road from Kashmir descends
+from the Burzil pass (13,500 feet) the country of Astor is reached. It
+is drained by the Astor river, which joins the Indus to the south of
+Bunji. The bridge which crosses it at Ramghat is only 3800 feet above
+sea level. The village of Astor itself is at a height of 7853 feet. The
+cultivation is of the same description as that in Baltistan. The aspect
+of the country is bleak till the Indus is crossed, and Gilgit (4890
+feet) is reached. Here there is a fertile well-watered oasis from which
+on every side great mountain peaks are visible. The lands are heavily
+manured. Rice, maize, millet, buckwheat, cotton, wheat, barley, rape,
+and lucerne are grown. There is a second and easier road to Gilgit
+from India over the Babusar pass at the top of the Kagan Glen in Hazara.
+But the posts are sent by the Kashmir road. The Astoris and Gilgitis are
+a simple easy-going folk, and, like the Baltis, very fond of polo. A
+British Political Agent is stationed at Gilgit. He is responsible to the
+Government of India for the administration of Hunza, Nagar, and Yasin,
+and of the little republics in the neighbourhood of Chilas. Hunza and
+Nagar lie to the north of Gilgit near the junction of the Muztagh and
+Hindu Kush ranges, and Yasin far to the west about the upper waters of
+the Gilgit river.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142. Zojila Pass (page 12).]
+
+In Astor and Gilgit also Gulab Singh's Dogras replaced the Sikh troops.
+But across the Indus Gulab Singh was never strong, and after 1852 that
+river was his boundary. He died in 1857, having proved himself a hard
+and unscrupulous, but a capable and successful ruler. His son, Randhir
+Singh, was a better man, but a worse king. A good Hindu, tolerant, and a
+friend of learning, he had not the force of character to control the
+corrupt official class, and the people suffered much in consequence. He
+was a loyal ally in the Mutiny. In 1860 his forces recovered Gilgit, a
+conquest which for years after was a fruitful source of suffering to his
+Cis-Indus subjects. The present Maharaja, Sir Pratap Singh, G.C.S.I.,
+succeeded in 1885. While he lived his brother, Raja Amar Singh, played a
+very important part in Kashmir affairs. From 1887 to 1905 the
+administration was managed by a small council, of which after 1891 the
+Maharaja was President and Raja Amar Singh Vice-President. It was
+abolished in 1905. There are now under the Maharaja a chief minister and
+ministers in charge of the home and revenue departments. Judicial
+business is controlled by the Judge of the High Court. Death sentences
+must be confirmed by the Maharaja. The highest executive officers are
+the governors of Jammu and Kashmir, and the _Wazirs Wazarat_ of Ladakh
+and Gilgit. In Jammu and Kashmir each of the eight districts is in
+charge of a _Wazir Wazarat_. In connection with the land revenue
+settlement, forests, etc., the services of British officers have been
+lent to the State. The Government of India is represented at Srinagar by
+a Resident, and a political agent at Gilgit exercises a general
+supervision over the _Wazir Wazarat_.
+
+During the reign of the present Maharaja great reforms have been
+effected. The construction of the Gilgit road has done away with the
+blood tax, which the conveyance of supplies to that remote post formerly
+involved. The land revenue settlement has largely substituted cash for
+kind payments and done away with many abuses. Official corruption and
+oppression have been scotched, but would speedily revive if vigilance
+were relaxed. The different peoples ruled by the Maharaja are easily
+governed if properly treated, and violent crime is rare.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_Note._ In the map appended to Dr Arthur Neve's _Thirty Years in
+Kashmir_ the heights of Gasherbrum and Masherbrum (see page 21) are
+given respectively as 26,360 and 25,560 feet, and that of Hidden Peak,
+S.E. of Gasherbrum, as 26,470 feet. These with _K2_ are the highest
+mountains round the Baltoro Glacier. Further east is the Siachen, "the
+greatest glacier in Asia," which feeds the Nubra river (page 36). N.E.
+of the Siachen is the Teram Kangri mountain, the height of which does
+not probably exceed 25,000 feet. The actual height of the Nun Kun (page
+12) is 23,447 feet. Dr Neve gives that of the Karakoram Pass as 18,110
+feet, not 18,550 as stated on page 20.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+CITIES
+
+
+~Delhi~ (28.38 N., 77.13 E.).--Of imperial cities the most interesting are
+those which have felt the tragedies as well as enjoyed the glories of
+Empire. From this point of view Delhi, notwithstanding its small extent
+and modern foundation, may be grouped with Rome, Constantinople, and
+Paris. In the matter of size it is in the same class as Edinburgh. The
+present Delhi or Shahjahanabad is a creation of the middle of the
+seventeenth century, and the oldest of the Delhis in the neighbourhood
+goes back only to the fourth century of our era. The latter endured for
+six or seven centuries. It was the capital of the Tunwar and Chauhan
+Rajas, and takes its second name of Rai Pithora's Kila' or Fort from the
+last Hindu King of Delhi, the famous Prithvi Raja. The early Muhammadan
+kings occupied it and adorned it with splendid buildings. Firoz Shah
+Tughlak's city of Firozabad occupied part of the present Delhi and the
+country lying immediately to the south of it. The other so-called towns
+Siri, Tughlakabad, and Indarpat or Purana Kila' (Old Fort) were
+fortified royal residences round which other dwelling-houses and shops
+sprang up.
+
+The visitor to Delhi will be repaid if he can devote a week to the City
+and the neighbourhood. It is impossible here to give any adequate
+account of the objects of historic and architectural interest. No
+visitor should be without Mr H. C. Fanshawe's _Delhi Past and Present_,
+a work of great interest. The value of the text is enhanced by good maps
+and excellent illustrations. In the Civil Station, which lies to the
+north of the City and east of the Ridge, is Ludlow Castle, from the roof
+of which General Wilson and his Staff watched the assault on 14th
+September, 1857, when Delhi was retaken. Ludlow Castle is now the Delhi
+Club. Between it and the northern rampart of the City, a defence against
+the Mahrattas built by British officers fifty years earlier, grim
+fighting took place on that historic day when the little British and
+Indian force, till then rather besieged than besiegers, was at last
+strong enough to attack. Here are the sites of the four batteries which
+breached that rampart, and here is the grave of John Nicholson and the
+statue recently erected in his honour (page 190). The Ridge to which the
+little army had clung obstinately from May to September in scorching
+heat and drenching rain, undismayed by repeated assaults and the ravages
+of cholera, starts about half-a-mile to the west of the Mori bastion, at
+the north-west corner of the city wall, and runs north by east to
+Wazirabad on an old bed of the Jamna. Ascending to the Flagstaff Tower
+one looks down to-day on the Circuit House and the site of the principal
+camps at the great _darbar_ of 1911. Here was the old Cantonment and its
+parade ground, on which the main encampment of the British force stood
+in 1857. The position was strong, being defended by the ridge on the
+east and the Najafgarh Canal on the west. It is open to the south, where
+are the Savzi Mandi (Vegetable Market), now the site of factories, and
+the Roshanara Gardens. It was on this side that the mutineers made their
+most dangerous attacks. The road along the Ridge from the Flagstaff
+Tower passes the Chauburji Mosque and Hindu Rao's house, which was the
+principal target of the City batteries and was gallantly held by Major
+Reid with his Sirmur Gurkhas, the Guides, and the 60th Rifles. Beyond
+Hindu Rao's house is one of the stone pillars of Asoka, which Firoz
+Shah Tughlak transported to Delhi. Still further south is the Mutiny
+Memorial. As one reads the tale of the losses of the different regiments
+one realizes in some measure the horrors and the heroism of which the
+Ridge was witness.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143. Delhi Mutiny Monument.
+
+'In memory of the officers and soldiers, British and native, of the
+Delhi Field Force who were killed in action or died of wounds or disease
+between the 30th May and 20th September 1857.'
+
+'This monument has been erected by the comrades who lament their loss
+and by the Govmt: they served so well.']
+
+~The City.~--When visiting the City from the Civil Lines it is well to
+follow the road, which passing the Kudsia Gardens leads straight to the
+Kashmir Gate, one of two places in India (the Lucknow Residency is the
+other) which must stir with grateful pride the heart of the most
+phlegmatic of Englishmen. The road from the Gate to the Fort and the
+Jama Masjid is rich in memories of the Mutiny. It has on its left S.
+James' Church, with memorial tablets within and outside the shot-riddled
+globe which once surmounted its dome. Further on are the obelisk to the
+telegraph officers who stuck to their posts on the fatal 11th of May,
+and on a gateway of the Old Magazine a record of the heroism of the nine
+devoted men, who blew it up, losing five of their number in the
+explosion. Passing under the railway bridge one comes out on the open
+space in front of Shahjahan's palace fort, which was finished about 1648
+A.D. To the beautiful buildings erected by his father Aurangzeb added
+the little Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque. But he never lived at Delhi
+after 1682. The palace is therefore associated with the tragedies and
+squalor of the decline and fall of the Moghal Empire rather than with
+its glories. In 1739 it was robbed of the Kohinur and the Peacock throne
+by Nadir Shah, in 1788 it saw the descendants of Akbar tortured and the
+aged Emperor blinded by the hateful Ghulam Kadir, and on 16th May, 1857
+the mutineers massacred fifty Christians captive within its walls. When
+viewing the public and private halls of audience, known as the Diwan i
+'Am and the Diwan i Khass, it is however natural to think rather of
+scenes of splendour such as Bernier described when Aurangzeb sat in
+royal apparel on the Peacock throne with a king's ransom in the aigrette
+of his turban and the rope of pearls which hung from his neck. On such
+an occasion, the pillars of the Diwan i 'Am were hung with gold brocades
+and the floors covered with rich silken carpets. Half the court outside
+was occupied by a magnificent tent and the arcade galleries surrounding
+it were decked with brocades and covered with costly carpets. The marble
+Diwan i Khass with its lovely pillars decorated with gold and precious
+stones is surely the most splendid withdrawing room that a monarch ever
+possessed. There is nothing in the Moorish palace at Granada which can
+for a moment be compared with these two halls. For a description of them
+and of the other buildings in the Fort the reader must refer to Mr
+Fanshawe's book. In the Viceroyalty of Lord Curzon and since much has
+been done to restore their surroundings to some semblance of their
+former state. But the heavy British barracks occupied by the little
+garrison are very incongruous with the remains of Moghal grandeur.
+Leaving the Fort by the Southern or Delhi Gate and turning to the right
+one is faced by the Jama Masjid, another monument of the taste of
+Shahjahan. The gateway and the lofty ascent into this House of God are
+very fine. The mosque in the regular beauty and grandeur of its lines,
+appealing to the sublimity rather than to the mystery of religion, is a
+fitting symbol of the faith for whose service it was raised. South of
+the Jama Masjid in a part of the city once included in Firozabad stands
+the Kalan or Kala Masjid with low cupolas and heavy square black
+pillars, a striking example of the sombre architecture of the Tughlak
+period. A narrow street called the Dariba leads from the Jama Masjid to
+the wide Chandni (Silver) Chauk. The Dariba was formerly closed by the
+Khuni Darwaza or Gate of Blood, so called because here occurred that
+terrible massacre of the citizens of Delhi which Nadir Shah witnessed
+from the neighbouring Golden Mosque. Besides its width there is nothing
+remarkable about the Chandni Chauk. But the visitor in quest of silver
+work, jewellery, or embroidery will find there many shopkeepers ready to
+cater for his wants. It was while passing down the Chandni Chauk in an
+elephant procession on 23rd December, 1912, that Lord Hardinge was
+wounded by a bomb thrown from one of the houses. From the Chauk one may
+pass through the Queen's Gardens and Road to the opening in the wall
+where the Kabul Gate once stood and so leave the City. A tablet in the
+vicinity marks the spot where John Nicholson fell.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144. Kashmir Gate.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145. Map of Delhi City.]
+
+When visiting the old Delhis it is a good plan to drive again through
+the City and to leave it by the Delhi Gate. Humayun's tomb, an early and
+simple, but striking, specimen of Moghal architecture, is reached at a
+distance of four miles along the Mathra road. Outside the City the road
+first leaves on the left side the ruined citadel of Firoz Shah
+containing the second Asoka pillar. North and south of this citadel
+the town of Firozabad once lay. It ended where the Purana Kila' or Old
+Fort, the work of Sher Shah and Humayun, now stands, a conspicuous
+object from the road about three miles from Delhi. The red sandstone
+gateway very narrow in proportion to its height is a noble structure,
+and within the walls is Sher Shah's mosque. The fort and mosque are the
+last important works of the second or Tughlak period. Hindus call the
+site of the Old Fort, Indarpat. If any part of Delhi has a claim to
+antiquity it is this, for it is alleged to be one of the five "pats" or
+towns over which the war celebrated in the Mahabharata was waged. A
+recent cleaning of part of the interior of the fort brought to light
+bricks belonging to the Gupta period. From Humayun's tomb a cross road
+leads to the Gurgaon road and the Kutb. But the visitor who has seen
+enough of buildings for the day may proceed further down the Mathra road
+and reach the headworks of the Agra Canal at Okhla by a side road. The
+view looking back to Delhi up the Jamna is fine.
+
+~The Kutb Minar.~--Starting for the Kutb from Humayun's tomb (page 207)
+the Dargah of the great Chisti saint and political intriguer, Nizam ud
+din Aulia, is passed on the left. He died in 1324 A.D. Just at the point
+where the cross road meets the Gurgaon road is the tomb of Safdar Jang,
+the second of the Nawab Wazirs of Oudh. He died after the middle of the
+eighteenth century, and the building is wonderfully good considering
+that it is one of the latest important monuments of the Moghal period.
+Six miles to the south of Safdar Jang's tomb the entrance to the Kutb
+Minar enclosure is reached. The great Kuwwat ul Islam mosque of
+Kutbuddin Aibak (page 204) was constructed out of the materials of a
+Jain temple which stood on the site. Evidence of this is to be found in
+the imperfectly defaced sculptures on the pillars. An iron pillar nearly
+24 feet in height dating back probably to the sixth century stands in
+the court. The splendid column known as the Kutb Minar (page 205), begun
+by Kutbuddin and completed by his successor Shams ud din Altamsh, was
+the minaret of the mosque from which the _mu'azzin_ called the faithful
+to prayer. The disappointment that may be felt when it is seen from a
+distance is impossible on a nearer view. Its height is now 238 feet, but
+it was formerly surmounted "by a majestic cupola of red granite." Close
+by is the Alai Darwaza, a magnificent gateway built by Ala ud din
+Tughlak in 1310, about 90 years after the Minar was finished. Five miles
+east of the Kutb are the cyclopean ruins of Tughlakabad (page 206).
+
+~Delhi past and present.~--The Delhi of Aurangzeb was as much a camp as a
+city. When the Emperor moved to Agra or Kashmir the town was emptied of
+a large part of its inhabitants. It contained one or two fine _bazars_,
+and nobles and rich merchants and shopkeepers had good houses, set
+sometimes in pleasant gardens. But the crowds of servants and followers
+occupied mud huts, whose thatched roofs led to frequent and widespread
+fires. In that insanitary age these may have been blessings in disguise.
+"In Delhi," wrote Bernier, "there is no middle state. A man must either
+be of the highest rank or live miserably.... For two or three who wear
+decent apparel there may always be reckoned seven or eight poor, ragged,
+and miserable beings." The ordinary street architecture of modern Delhi
+is mean enough, and posterity will not open an eyelid to look at the
+public buildings which its present rulers have erected in the city. But
+at least the common folk of Delhi are better housed, fed, and clad than
+ever before. It is now a clean well-managed town with a good water
+supply, and it has become an important railway centre and a thriving
+place of trade. Since 1881 the population has steadily increased from
+173,393 to 232,837 in 1911. In 1911-12 the imports into Delhi City from
+places outside the Panjab amounted to 9,172,302 maunds. There are some
+fifteen cotton ginning, spinning, and weaving mills, besides flour
+mills, iron foundries, two biscuit manufactories, and a brewery. The
+city is well supplied with hospitals including two for women only.
+Higher education has been fostered by S. Stephen's College in charge of
+the Cambridge Missionary brotherhood. The Hindu college has not been
+very successful. Delhi has had famous "hakims," practising the Yunani or
+Arabic system of medicine, which is taught in a flourishing school known
+as the Madrasa i Tibbiya.
+
+~Imperial Darbars.~--In this generation the plain to the north of the
+Ridge has been the scene of three splendid _darbars_. When on 1st
+January, 1877, Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India
+(_Kaisar i Hind_) it seemed fitting that the proclamation of the fact to
+the princes and peoples of India should be made by Lord Lytton at the
+old seat of imperial power. On 1st January, 1903, Lord Curzon held a
+_darbar_ on the same spot to proclaim the coronation of King Edward the
+VIIth. Both these splendid ceremonies were surpassed by the _darbar_ of
+12th December, 1911, when King George and Queen Mary were present in
+person, and the Emperor received the homage of the ruling chiefs, the
+great officials, and the leading men of the different provinces. The
+King and Queen entered Delhi on 7th December, and in the week that
+followed the craving of the Indian peoples for "_darshan_" or a sight
+of their sovereign was abundantly gratified. None who saw the spectacles
+of that historic week will ever forget them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146. Darbar Medal.]
+
+New Imperial Capital.--The turn of Fortune's Wheel has again made Delhi
+an imperial city. The transfer of the seat of government from Calcutta
+announced by the King Emperor at the _darbar_, is now being carried out.
+The site will probably extend from Safdar Jang's tomb to a point lying
+to the west of Firoz Shah's citadel.
+
+~Lahore~ (31.34 N., 74.21 E.). The capital of the Panjab lies on the east
+bank of the Ravi, which once flowed close to the Fort, but has moved a
+mile or two to the west. In high floods the waters still spread over the
+lowlands between the Ravi and the Fort. Lahore lies nearly halfway
+between Delhi and Peshawar, being nearer to the latter than to the
+former.
+
+~Early History.~--Practically we know nothing of its history till Mahmud
+conquered the Panjab and put a garrison in a fort at Lahore. Henceforth
+its history was intimately connected with Muhammadan rule in India.
+Whether north-western India was ruled from Ghazni or from Delhi, the
+chief provincial governor had his headquarters at Lahore. In the best
+days of Moghal rule Agra and Lahore were the two capitals of the
+Empire. Lahore lay on the route to Kabul and Kashmir, and it was
+essential both to the power and to the pleasures of the Emperors that it
+should be strongly held and united to Delhi and Agra by a Royal or
+_Badshahi_ Road. The City and the Suburbs in the reign of Shahjahan
+probably covered three or four times the area occupied by the town in
+the days of Sikh rule. All round the city are evidences of its former
+greatness in ruined walls and domes.
+
+~The Civil Station.~--The Anarkali gardens and the buildings near them
+mark the site of the first Civil Station. John Lawrence's house, now
+owned by the Raja of Punch, is beyond the Chauburji on the Multan Road.
+The Civil Lines have stretched far to the south-east in the direction of
+the Cantonment, which till lately took its name from the tomb of Mian
+Mir, Jahangir's spiritual master. The soil is poor and arid. Formerly
+the roads were lined with dusty tamarisks. But of late better trees have
+been planted, and the Mall is now quite a fine thoroughfare. The
+Lawrence Hall Gardens and the grounds of Government House show what can
+be done to produce beauty out of a bad soil when there is no lack of
+water. There is little to praise in the architecture or statuary of
+modern Lahore. The marble canopy over Queen Victoria's statue is however
+a good piece of work. Of the two cathedrals the Roman Catholic is the
+better building. The Montgomery Hall with the smaller Lawrence Hall
+attached, a fine structure in a good position in the public gardens, is
+the centre of European social life in Lahore. Government House is close
+by, on the opposite side of the Mall. Its core, now a unique and
+beautiful dining-room with domed roof and modern oriental decoration, is
+the tomb of Muhammad Kasim Khan, a cousin of Akbar. Jamadar Khushal
+Singh, a well-known man in Ranjit Singh's reign, built a house round the
+tomb. After annexation, Henry Lawrence occupied it for a time, and Sir
+Robert Montgomery adopted it as Government House. It is now much
+transformed. Beyond Government House on the road to the Cantonment are
+the Club and the Panjab Chiefs' College, the only successful attempt in
+Lahore to adapt oriental design to modern conditions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 147. Street in Lahore.]
+
+~The Indian City.~--In its streets and _bazars_ Lahore is a truly eastern
+city, and far more interesting than Delhi, so far as private buildings
+are concerned. In public edifices it possesses some fine examples of
+Moghal architecture. Every visitor should drive through the town to the
+Fort past Wazir Khan's mosque. Under British rule the height of the city
+wall has been reduced by one-half and the moat filled in and converted
+into a garden. Wazir Khan's mosque founded in 1634 by a Panjabi
+minister of Shahjahan, is a noble building profusely adorned with glazed
+tiles and painted panels. The Golden Mosque was constructed 120 years
+later about the same time as Safdar Jang's tomb at Delhi. The palace
+fort, built originally by Akbar, contains also the work of his three
+successors. The Shish Mahal or Hall of Mirrors, which witnessed the
+cession of the Panjab to the Queen of England, was begun by Shahjahan
+and finished by Aurangzeb. The armoury contains a curious collection of
+weapons. The Badshahi Mosque opposite with its beautiful marble domes
+and four lofty minarets of red sandstone was founded in 1673 in the
+reign of Aurangzeb. The cupolas were so shaken by an earthquake in 1840
+that they had to be removed. Maharaja Ranjit Singh used the mosque as a
+magazine. In the space between it and the Fort he laid out the pretty
+orange garden known as the Huzuri Bagh and set in it the marble
+_baradari_ which still adorns it. Close by are his own tomb and that of
+Arjan Das, the fifth Guru.
+
+~Buildings outside Lahore.~--The best example of Moghal architecture is
+not at Lahore itself, but at Shahdara across the Ravi. Here in a fine
+garden is the Mausoleum of Jahangir with its noble front and four
+splendid towers. It enshrines an exquisite sarcophagus, which was
+probably once in accordance with the Emperor's wish open to the sunlight
+and the showers. Near by are the remains of the tombs of his beautiful
+and imperious consort, Nur Jahan, and of her brother Asaf Khan, father
+of the lady of the Taj. Another building associated with Jahangir is
+Anarkali's tomb beside the Civil Secretariat. The white marble
+sarcophagus is a beautiful piece of work placed now in most
+inappropriate surroundings. The tomb was reared by the Emperor to
+commemorate the unhappy object of his youthful love. Half-a-mile off on
+the Multan road is the Chauburji, once the gateway of the Garden of
+Zebunnissa a learned daughter of Aurangzeb. The garden has disappeared,
+but the gateway, decorated with blue and green tiles, though partially
+ruined, is still a beautiful object. On the other side of Lahore on the
+road to Amritsar are the Shalimar Gardens laid out by Shahjahan for the
+ladies of his court. When the paved channels are full and the fountains
+are playing, and the lights of earthen lamps are reflected in the water,
+Shalimar is still a pleasant resort.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148. Shahdara.]
+
+The Museum in Anarkali contains much of interest to Indians and
+Europeans. The "house of wonders" is very popular with the former. It
+includes a very valuable collection of Buddhist sculptures. Opposite the
+museum is the famous Zamzama gun (page 187).
+
+~Growth of Lahore.~ As the headquarters of an important Government and of
+a great railway system Lahore has prospered. Owing to the influx of
+workers the population has risen rapidly from 157,287 in 1881 to 228,687
+in 1911. The railway alone affords support to 30,000 people, of whom
+8000 are employed in the workshops.
+
+~Amritsar~ (31.38 N., 74.53 E.) is a modern town founded in the last
+quarter of the sixteenth century by the fourth Guru, Ram Das, on a site
+granted to him by Akbar. Here he dug the Amrita Saras or Pool of
+Immortality, leaving a small platform in the middle as the site of that
+Har Mandar, which rebuilt is to-day, under the name of the Darbar Sahib,
+the centre of Sikh devotion. The fifth Guru, Arjan Das, completed the
+Har Mandar. Early in the eighteenth century Amritsar became without any
+rival the Mecca of the Sikhs, who had now assumed an attitude of warlike
+resistance to their Muhammadan rulers. Once and again they were driven
+out, but after the victory at Sirhind in 1763 they established
+themselves securely in Amritsar, and rebuilt the temple which Ahmad Shah
+had burned. Ranjit Singh covered the Darbar Sahib with a copper gilt
+roof, whence Englishmen commonly call it the Golden Temple. He laid out
+the Ram Bagh, still a beautiful garden, and constructed the strong fort
+of Govindgarh outside the walls.
+
+~Trade and Manufactures.~--Amritsar lies in a hollow close to a branch of
+the Upper Bari Doab Canal. Waterlogging is a great evil and accounts for
+the terrible epidemics of fever, which have occurred from time to time.
+The population has fluctuated violently, and at the last census was
+152,756, or little larger than in 1881. Long before annexation the shawl
+industry was famous. The caprice of fashion a good many years ago
+decreed its ruin, but carpet weaving, for which Amritsar is still
+famous, fortunately did something to fill the gap. Amritsar has also
+been an entrepot of trade with other Asiatic countries. It has imported
+raw silk from Bokhara, and later from China, and woven it into cloth. It
+has dealt in China tea, but that is a decreasing trade, in opium from
+Afghanistan, and in _charas_ from Central Asia. There is a considerable
+export of foreign piece goods to Kashmir and the N. W. F. Province.
+
+~Multan~ (30.1 N., 71.3 E.), though now the smallest of the four great
+towns of the Panjab, is probably the most ancient. It is very doubtful
+whether it is the fortress of the Malloi, in storming which Alexander
+was wounded. But when Hiuen Tsang visited it in 741 A.D. it was a
+well-known place with a famous temple of the Sun God. Muhammad Kasim
+conquered it in 712 A.D. (page 166). It was not till the savage
+Karmatian heretics seized Multan towards the end of the tenth century
+that the temple, which stood in the fort, was destroyed. It was
+afterwards rebuilt, but was finally demolished by order of Aurangzeb,
+who set up in its place a mosque. Under the Moghals Multan was an
+important town, through which the trade with Persia passed. Its later
+history has already been noticed (pages 183 and 186).
+
+~The Fort~ contains the celebrated Prahladpuri temple, much damaged during
+the siege in 1848, but since rebuilt. Its proximity to the tomb of
+Bahawal Hakk, a very holy place in the eyes of the Muhammadans of the
+S.W. Panjab and Sindh, has at times been a cause of anxiety to the
+authorities. Bahawal Hakk and Baba Farid, the two great saints of the
+S.W. Panjab, were contemporaries and friends. They flourished in the
+thirteenth century, and it probably would be true to ascribe largely to
+their influence the conversion of the south-west Panjab to Islam, which
+was so complete and of which we know so little. The tomb of Bahawal Hakk
+was much injured during the siege, but afterwards repaired. Outside is a
+small monument marking the resting place of the brave old Nawab
+Muzaffar Khan. Another conspicuous object is the tomb of Rukn ud din
+'Alam, grandson of Bahawal Hakk. An obelisk in the fort commemorates the
+deaths of the two British officers who were murdered on the outbreak of
+the revolt. A simpler epitaph would have befitted men who died in the
+execution of their duty.
+
+~Trade and Manufactures.~--Though heat and dust make the climate of Multan
+trying, it is a very healthy place. The population rose steadily from
+68,674 in 1881 to 99,243 in 1911. The chief local industries are silk
+and cotton weaving and the making of shoes. Multan has also some
+reputation for carpets, glazed pottery and enamel, and of late for tin
+boxes. A special feature of its commerce is the exchange of piece goods,
+shoes, and sugar for the raw silk, fruits, spices, and drugs brought in
+by Afghan traders. The Civil Lines lie to the south of the city and
+connect it with the Cantonment, which is an important military station.
+
+~Peshawar~ (34.1 N., 71.35 E.) is 276 miles from Lahore and 190 from
+Kabul. There is little doubt that the old name was Purushapura, the town
+of Purusha, though Abu Rihan (Albiruni), a famous Arab geographer, who
+lived in the early part of the eleventh century, calls it Parshawar,
+which Akbar corrupted into Peshawar, or the frontier fort. As the
+capital of King Kanishka it was in the second century of the Christian
+era a great centre of Buddhism (page 164). Its possession of Buddha's
+alms bowl and of yet more precious relics of the Master deposited by
+Kanishka in a great _stupa_ (page 203) made it the first place to be
+visited by the Chinese pilgrims who came to India between 400 and 630
+A.D. Hiuen Tsang tells us the town covered 40 li or 6-3/4 miles. Its
+position on the road to Kabul made it a place of importance under the
+Moghal Empire. On its decline Peshawar became part of the dominions of
+the Durani rulers of Kabul, and finally fell into the hands of Ranjit
+Singh. His Italian general Avitabile ruled it with an iron rod. In 1901
+it became the capital of the new N. W. F. Province.
+
+~The Town~ lies near the Bara stream in a canal-irrigated tract. On the
+north-west it is commanded by the Bala Hissar, a fort outside the walls.
+The suburbs with famous fruit gardens are on the south side, and the
+military and civil stations to the west. The people to be seen in the
+_bazars_ of Peshawar are more interesting than any of its buildings. The
+Gor Khatri, part of which is now the _tahsil_, from which a bird's-eye
+view of the town can be obtained, was successively the site of a
+Buddhist monastery, a Hindu temple, a rest-house built by Jahangir's
+Queen, Nur Jahan, and the residence of Avitabile. The most noteworthy
+Muhammadan building is Muhabbat Khan's mosque. Avitabile used to hang
+people from its minarets. The Hindu merchants live in the quarter known
+as Andar Shahr, the scene of destructive fires in 1898 and 1913.
+Peshawar is now a well-drained town with a good water supply. It is an
+entrepot of trade with Kabul and Bokhara. From the former come raw silk
+and fruit, and from the latter gold and silver thread and lace _en
+route_ to Kashmir. The Kabuli and Bokharan traders carry back silk
+cloth, cotton piece goods, sugar, tea, salt, and Kashmir shawls.
+
+~Simla~ (31.6 N., 77.1 E.) lies on a spur of the Central Himalaya at a
+mean height exceeding 7000 feet. A fine hill, Jakko, rising 1000 feet
+higher, and clothed with _deodar_, oak, and rhododendron, occupies the
+east of the station and many of the houses are on its slopes. The other
+heights are Prospect Hill and Observatory Hill in the western part of
+the ridge. Viceregal Lodge is a conspicuous object on the latter, and
+below, between it and the Annandale race-course, is a fine glen, where
+the visitor in April from the dry and dusty plains can gather yellow
+primroses (Primula floribunda) from the dripping rocks. The beautiful
+Elysium Hill is on a small spur running northwards from the main ridge.
+Simla is 58 miles by cart road from Kalka, at the foot of the hills, and
+somewhat further by the narrow gauge railway.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149. Trans-border traders in Peshawar.]
+
+~History.~--Part of the site was retained at the close of the Gurkha war
+in 1816, and the first English house, a wooden cottage with a thatched
+roof, was built three years later. The first Governor General to spend
+the summer in Simla was Lord Amherst in 1827. After the annexation of
+the Panjab in 1849 Lord Dalhousie went there every year, and from 1864
+Simla may be said to have become the summer capital of India. It became
+the summer headquarters of the Panjab Government twelve years later. The
+thirty houses of 1830 have now increased to about 2000. Six miles
+distant on the beautiful Mahasu Ridge the Viceroy has a "Retreat," and
+on the same ridge and below it at Mashobra there are a number of
+European houses. There are excellent hotels in Simla, and the cold
+weather tourist can pay it a very pleasant visit, provided he avoids the
+months of January and February.
+
+~Srinagar~ (34.5 N., 74.5 E.), the summer capital of the Maharaja of
+Kashmir, is beautifully situated on both banks of the river Jhelam at a
+level of 5250 feet above the sea. To the north are the Hariparvat or
+Hill of Vishnu with a rampart built by Akbar and the beautiful Dal lake.
+Every visitor must be rowed up its still waters to the Nasim Bagh, a
+grove of plane (_chenar_) trees, laid out originally in the reign of the
+same Emperor. Between the lake and the town is the Munshi Bagh, in and
+near which are the houses of Europeans including the Residency. The
+splendid plane trees beside the river bank, to which house boats are
+moored, and the beautiful gardens attached to some of the houses, make
+this a very charming quarter. The Takht i Suliman to the west of
+Srinagar is crowned by a little temple, whose lower walls are of great
+age. The town itself is intersected by evil-smelling canals and consists
+in the main of a jumble of wooden houses with thatched roofs. Sanitary
+abominations have been cleansed from time to time by great fires and
+punished by severe outbreaks of cholera. The larger part of the
+existing city is on the left side. The visitor may be content to view
+the parts of the town to be seen as he is rowed down the broad waterway
+from the Munshi Bagh passing under picturesque wooden bridges, and
+beside temples with shining metal roofs and the beautiful mosque of Shah
+Hamadan. On the left bank below the first bridge is the Shergarhi with
+the Maharaja's houses and the Government Offices. Opposite is a fine
+_ghat_ or bathing place with stone steps. Between the third and fourth
+bridges on the right bank is Shah Hamadan's mosque, a carved cedar house
+with Buddhist features, totally unlike the ordinary Indian mosque. The
+stone mosque close by on the opposite side, built by Mir Jahan, was
+seemingly rejected by Muhammadans as founded by a woman, and is now a
+State granary. The Jama Masjid is on the north side, but not on the
+river bank. The tomb of the great king, Zain ul Abidin, is below the
+fourth bridge, which bears his name. In the same quarter are the
+storehouses of the dealers in carpets and art wares and the Mission
+School. The last should be visited by anyone who wishes to see what a
+manly education can make of material in some respects unpromising.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 150 Mosque of the Shah Hamadan.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+OTHER PLACES OF NOTE
+
+
+I. PANJAB.
+
+(_a_) _Ambala Division._
+
+~Ambala~, 30.2 N.--76.4 E. Population 80,131, of which 54,223 in
+Cantonments. A creation of British rule. It became the headquarters of
+the Political Agent for the Cis-Sutlej States in 1823, and the
+Cantonment was established in 1843. The Native City and the Civil Lines
+lie some miles to the N.W. of the Cantonment. Headquarters of district
+and division.
+
+~Bhiwani~ (~Hissar~), 28.5 N.--76.8 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_ in Hissar.
+Population 31,100. On Rewari--Ferozepore branch of Rajputana--Malwa
+Railway. Has a brisk trade with Rajputana.
+
+~Hansi~ (~Hissar~), 29.7 N.--75.6 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_. Population
+14,576. A very ancient town. In centre of canal tract of Hissar, and a
+local centre of the cotton trade.
+
+~Hissar~, 29.1 N.--75.4 E. Headquarters of district. Population 17,162.
+Founded by the Emperor Firoz Shah Tughlak, who supplied it with water by
+a canal taken from the Jamna. This was the origin of the present Western
+Jamna Canal. Is now a place of small importance.
+
+~Jagadhri~ (~Ambala~), 30.1 N.--77.2 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
+Population 12,045. Connected with the N.W. Railway by a light railway.
+The iron and brass ware of Jagadhri are well known.
+
+~Kaithal~ (~Karnal~), 29.5 N.--76.2 E. Headquarters of subdivision and
+_tahsil_. Population 12,912. A town of great antiquity. Kaithal is a
+corruption of Kapisthala--the monkey town, a name still appropriate.
+Timur halted here on his march to Delhi. Was the headquarters of the
+Bhais of Kaithal, who held high rank among the Cis-Sutlej Sikh chiefs.
+Kaithal lapsed in 1843.
+
+~Karnal~, 29.4 N.--76.6 E. Headquarters of district. Population 21,961. On
+Delhi--Kalka Railway. Till the Western Jamna Canal was realigned it was
+most unhealthy, and the Cantonment was given up in 1841 on this account.
+The health of the town is still unsatisfactory. Trade unimportant.
+
+~Kasauli~ (~Ambala~), 30.5 N.--76.6 E. Small hill station overlooking
+Kalka. Height 6000 feet. The Pasteur Institute for the treatment of
+rabies is at Kasauli, and the Lawrence Military School at Sanawar, three
+miles off.
+
+~Panipat~ (~Karnal~), 29.2 N.--76.6 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
+Population 26,342. On Delhi--Kalka Railway. An important place in Hindu
+and Muhammadan times (pages 172 and 179). Local manufactures, brass
+vessels, cutlery, and glass.
+
+~Pihowa~ (~Karnal~), 29.6 N.--76.3 E. A very sacred place on the holy
+stream Sarusti.
+
+~Rewari~ (~Gurgaon~), 28.1 N.--76.4 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
+Population 24,780. Junction of main line and Rewari--Bhatinda branch of
+Rajputana--Malwa Railway. Trade in grain and sugar with Rajputana.
+
+~Rupar~ (~Ambala~), 30.6 N.--76.3 E. Headquarters of subdivision and
+_tahsil_. Population 6935. Exchange market for products of Hills and
+Plains. Headworks of Sirhind Canal are at Rupar.
+
+~Sirsa~ (~Hissar~), 29.3 N.--75.2 E. Headquarters of subdivision and
+_tahsil_. Population 14,629. Sirsa or Sarsuti was an important place in
+Muhammadan times. Deserted in the great famine of 1783 it was refounded
+in 1838. On the Rewari--Bhatinda Branch of the Rajputana--Malwa Railway.
+Has a brisk trade with Rajputana.
+
+~Thanesar~ (~Karnal~), 29.6 N.--76.5 E. See pages 165 and 168. Noted
+place of pilgrimage. Headquarters of a _tahsil_. Population 4719. The
+old Hindu temples were utterly destroyed apparently when Thanesar was
+sacked by Mahmud in 1014. There is a fine tomb of a Muhammadan Saint,
+Shekh Chilli.
+
+
+(_b_) _Jalandhar Division._
+
+~Aliwal~, 30.6 N.--75.4 E. Scene of Sir Harry Smith's victory over the
+Sikhs on 28th January, 1846.
+
+~Dharmsala~ (~Kangra~), 32.1 N.--76.1 E. Headquarters of district. On a
+spur of the Dhauladhar Range. A Gurkha regiment is stationed here. The
+highest part of Dharmsala is over 7000 feet, and the scenery is very
+fine, but the place is spoiled as a hill station by the excessive
+rainfall, which averages over 120 inches. In the earthquake of 1905,
+1625 persons, including 25 Europeans, perished.
+
+~Fazilka~ (~Ferozepore~), 30.3 N.--74.3 E. Headquarters of sub-division
+and _tahsil_. Population 10,985. Terminus of Fazilka extension of
+Rajputana--Malwa Railway, and connected with Ludhiana by a line which
+joins the Southern Panjab Railway at Macleodganj. A grain mart.
+
+~Ferozepore~, 30.6 N.--74.4 E. Headquarters of district. Population
+50,836 including 26,158 in Cantonment. (See page 245.)
+
+~Ferozeshah~ (~Ferozepore~), 30.5 N.--74.5 E. The real name is
+Pherushahr. Sir Hugh Gough defeated the Sikhs here after two days' hard
+fighting on Dec. 21-22, 1845.
+
+~Jalandhar~, 31.2 N.--75.3 E. Headquarters of district. Population
+69,318, including 13,964 in Cantonment. The Cantonment lies four miles
+to the S.E. of the native town and three miles from the Civil Lines.
+(See page 241.)
+
+~Jawala Mukhi~ (~Kangra~), 31.5 N.--76.2 E. Celebrated place of Hindu
+pilgrimage with a famous temple of the goddess Jawalamukhi, built over
+some jets of combustible gas.
+
+~Kangra~, 30.5 N.--76.2 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_. Ancient name
+Nagarkot. The celebrated temple and the fort of the Katoch kings of
+Kangra were destroyed in the earthquake of 1905. (See pages 168, 171,
+183.)
+
+~Ludhiana~, 30.6 N.--75.5 E. Headquarters of district. Population
+44,170. The manufacture of _pashmina_ shawls was introduced in 1833 by
+Kashmiris. Ludhiana is well known for its cotton fabrics and turbans (p.
+152).
+
+~Mudki~ (~Ferozepore~), 30.5 N.--74.5 E. The opening battle of the 1st
+Sikh War was fought here on 18th December, 1845.
+
+
+(_c_) _Lahore Division._
+
+~Batala~ (~Gurdaspur~), 30.5 N.--75.1 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
+Population 26,430. Chief town in Gurdaspur district on the
+Amritsar--Pathankot Railway. Cotton, silk, leathern goods, and soap are
+manufactured, and there is a large trade in grain and sugar. The Baring
+Anglo-Vernacular High School for Christian boys is a well-known
+institution.
+
+~Dalhousie~ (~Gurdaspur~), 33.3 N.--75.6 E. A well-known hill station at
+height of 7687 feet, 51 miles N.W. of Pathankot, from which it is
+reached by tonga. The Commissioner of Lahore and the Deputy Commissioner
+of Gurdaspur spend part of the hot weather at Dalhousie. It is a very
+pretty and healthy place, with the fine Kalatop Forest in Chamba close
+by, and is deservedly popular as a summer resort.
+
+~Gujranwala~, 32.9 N.--74.1 E. Headquarters of district. Population
+29,472. An active trade centre. Ranjit Singh was born, and the tomb of
+his father, Mahan Singh is, at Gujranwala.
+
+~Kasur~ (~Lahore~), 31.8 N--74.3 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_ in Lahore.
+Population 24,783. Between Raiwind and Ferozepore on N.W. Railway, and
+has direct railway communication with Amritsar. A very ancient place and
+now an active local trade centre.
+
+~Nankana-Sahib~ (~Gujranwala~), 31.6 N.--73.8 E. In south of Gujranwala
+district on Chichoki--Shorkot Railway. Venerated by Sikhs as the early
+home of Baba Nanak.
+
+~Sialkot~, 32.3 N.--74.3 E. Headquarters of district. Population 64,869,
+of which 16,274 in Cantonment. A very old place connected with the
+legendary history of Raja Salivahan and his two sons Puran and Raja
+Rasalu. (See also page 165.) The Cantonment is about a mile and a half
+from the town. Sialkot is an active trade centre. Its hand-made paper
+was once well known, but the demand has declined. Tents, tin boxes,
+cricket and tennis bats, and hockey sticks, are manufactured.
+
+~Tarn Taran~ (~Amritsar~), 31.3 N.--74.6 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
+Population 4260. On Amritsar--Kasur Railway. The tank is said to have
+been dug by Guru Arjan and it and the temple beside it are held in great
+reverence by the Sikhs. The water is supposed to cure leprosy. The leper
+asylum at Tarn Taran in charge of the Rev. E. Guilford of the Church
+Missionary Society is an admirable institution. Clay figures of this
+popular missionary can be bought in the _bazar_.
+
+
+(_d_) _Rawalpindi Division._
+
+~Attock~ (~Atak~), 32.5 N.--72.1 E. The fort was built by Akbar to
+protect the passage of the Indus. In the river gorge below is a
+whirlpool between two jutting slate rocks, called Kamalia and Jamalia
+after two heretics who were flung into the river in Akbar's reign. The
+bridge which carries the railway across the Indus still makes Attock a
+position of military importance. Population 630.
+
+~Bhera~ (~Shahpur~), 32.3 N.--72.6 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_.
+Population 15,202. A very ancient town which was sacked by Mahmud and
+two centuries later by Chingiz Khan. Has an active trade. The
+wood-carvers of Bhera are skilful workmen. Woollen felts are
+manufactured.
+
+~Chilianwala~ (~Chelianwala~) (~Gujrat~), 32.7 N.--73.6 E. Famous
+battlefield (page 187).
+
+~Gujrat~, 32.3 N.--74.5 E. Headquarters of district. Population 19,090.
+An old place, famous in recent history for the great battle on 22
+February, 1849 (page 187). Has a brisk local trade.
+
+~Hasn Abdal~ (~Attock~) 33.5 N.--72.4 E. On N.W. Railway. Shrine of Baba
+Wali Kandahari on hill above village. Below is the Sikh shrine of the
+Panja Sahib, the rock in which bears the imprint of Baba Nanak's five
+fingers (_panja_).
+
+~Jhelam~, 32.6 N.--73.5 E. Headquarters of district and an important
+cantonment. Population 19,678, of which 7380 in cantonment. Has only
+become a place of any importance under British rule. Is an important
+depot for Kashmir timber trade.
+
+~Kalabagh~ (~Mianwali~), 32.6 N.--71.3 E. Population 6654. Picturesquely
+situated below hills which are remarkable for the fantastic shapes
+assumed by salt exposed on the surface. The Kalabagh salt is in favour
+from its great purity. The Malik of Kalabagh is the leading man in the
+Awan tribe.
+
+~Katas~ (~Jhelam~), 32.4 N.--72.6 E. A sacred pool in the Salt Range and
+a place of Hindu pilgrimage. The tears of Siva weeping for the loss of
+his wife Sati formed the Kataksha pool in the Salt Range and Pushkar at
+Ajmer.
+
+~Khewra~ (~Jhelam~), 32.4 N.--73.3 E. In Salt Range five and a half
+miles N.E. of Pinddadankhan. The famous Mayo Salt Mine is here.
+
+~Malot~ (~Jhelam~), 32.4 N.--72.5 E. Nine miles W. of Katas (see above).
+Fort and temple on a spur of the Salt Range. Temple in early Kashmir
+style (_Archaeological Survey Reports_, Vol. v. pp. 85-90).
+
+~Mankiala~ (~Manikyala~) (~Rawalpindi~), 33.3 N.--74.2 E. A little
+village close to which are the remains of a great Buddhist _stupa_ and
+of a number of monasteries (page 202).
+
+~Murree~ (~Marri~) (~Rawalpindi~), 33.5 N.--73.2 E. Hill Station near
+Kashmir road on a spur of the Himalaya--height 7517 feet--39 miles from
+Rawalpindi, from which visitors are conveyed by tonga. The views from
+Murree are magnificent and the neighbourhood of the Hazara Galis is an
+attraction. But the climate is not really bracing. The summer
+headquarters of the Northern Army are at Murree, and before 1876 the
+Panjab Government spent the hot weather there. The Commissioner and
+Deputy Commissioner of Rawalpindi take their work there for several
+months.
+
+~Murti~ (~Jhelam~), 32.4 N.--72.6 E. In Gandhala valley on bank of Katas
+stream. Remains of a Buddhist _stupa_ and of a Jain temple.
+(_Archaeological Survey Reports_, Vol. II. pp. 88 and 90.)
+
+~Rawalpindi~, 33.4 N.--73.7 E. Headquarters of district and division,
+and the most important cantonment in Northern India. Population 86,483,
+of which 39,841 in Cantonment. It owes its importance entirely to
+British rule. Large carrying trade with Kashmir. Contains the N.W.
+Railway Locomotive and Carriage works and several private factories,
+also a branch of the Murree brewery. There is an important arsenal. The
+Park, left fortunately mainly in its natural state, is an attractive
+feature of the cantonment.
+
+~Rohtas~ (~Jhelam~), 32.6 N.--73.5 E. Ten miles N.W. of Jhelam on the
+far side of the gorge where the Kaha torrent breaks through a spur of
+the Tilla Range. Fine remains of a very large fort built by the Emperor
+Sher Shah Suri.
+
+~Sakesar~ (~Shahpur~), 31.3 N.--71.6 E. Highest point of Salt Range,
+5010 feet above sea level. The Deputy Commissioners of Shahpur,
+Mianwali, and Attock spend part of the hot weather at Sakesar.
+
+~Shahdheri~ (~Rawalpindi~), 33.2 N.--72.5 E. On the Hazara border and
+near the Margalla Pass. Site of the famous city of Taxila (Takshasila).
+See pages 161, 165, and 204. Excavation is now being carried out with
+interesting results.
+
+~Taxila~. See Shahdheri.
+
+
+(_e_) _Multan Division._
+
+~Chiniot~ (~Jhang~), 31.4 N.--73.0 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_. Population
+14,085. A very old town near the left bank of the Chenab. Famous for
+brasswork and wood-carving. The Muhammadan Khoja traders have large
+business connections with Calcutta, Bombay, and Karachi. Fine mosque of
+the time of Shahjahan.
+
+~Kamalia~ (~Lyallpur~), 30.4 N.--72.4 E. Population 8237. An old town.
+Cotton printing with hand blocks is a local industry. The town should
+now prosper as it is a station on the Chichoki--Shorkot Road Railway and
+irrigation from the Lower Chenab Canal has reached its neighbourhood.
+
+~Lyallpur~, 31.3 N.--73.9 E. Fine new Colony town. Headquarters of
+district. Population 19,578. Large wheat trade with Karachi, and has a
+number of cotton ginning and pressing factories.
+
+~Montgomery~, 30.4 N.--73.8 E. Headquarters of district. Population 8129.
+May become a place of some importance with the opening of the Lower Bari
+Doab Canal. Hitherto one of the hottest and dreariest stations in the
+Panjab, but healthy.
+
+~Pakpattan~, 30.2 N.--73.2 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_. Population 7912.
+On Sutlej Valley Railway. Anciently known as Ajodhan and was a place of
+importance. Contains shrine of the great Saint Farid ul Hakk wa ud Din
+Shakarganj (1173-1265). Visited by Timur in 1398. There is a great
+annual festival attracting crowds of pilgrims, who come even from
+Afghanistan. There is great competition to win eternal bliss by getting
+first through the gate at the entrance to the shrine.
+
+
+II. PANJAB NATIVE STATES.
+
+~Bahawalpur~, 29.2 N.--71.5 E. Capital of State on N.W. Railway 65 miles
+south of Multan. Population 18,414. There is a large palace built by
+Nawab Muhammad Sadik Muhammad Khan IV in 1882.
+
+~Barnala~ (~Patiala~), 32.2 N.--75.4 E. Headquarters of Anahadgarh Nizamat
+on Rajpura-Bhatinda branch of N.W. Railway. Population 5341. For the
+famous battle see page 179.
+
+~Bhatinda~ (~Patiala~), 30.1 N.--75.0 E. Also called Govindgarh. Old names
+are Vikramagarh and Bhatrinda. Historically a place of great interest
+(page 167). Fell into decay in later Muhammadan times. Is now a great
+railway junction and a nourishing grain mart. The large fort is a
+conspicuous object for many miles round. Population 15,037.
+
+~Brahmaur~, 32.3 N.--76.4 E. The old capital of Chamba, now a small
+village. Has three old temples. One of Lakshana Devi has an inscription
+of Meru Varma, who ruled Chamba in the seventh century.
+
+~Chamba~, 32.3 N.--76.1 E. Capital of State picturesquely situated on a
+plateau above right bank of Ravi. Population 5523. The white palace is a
+conspicuous object. There is an excellent hospital and an interesting
+museum. The group of temples near the palace is noteworthy (page 201).
+That of Lakshmi Narayan perhaps dates from the tenth century. The Ravi
+is spanned at Chamba by a fine bridge.
+
+~Chini~ (~Bashahr~), 31.3 N.--78.2 E. Headquarters of Kanawar near the
+right bank of Sutlej. Elevation 9085 feet. Was a favourite residence of
+Lord Dalhousie. There is a Moravian Mission Station at Chini.
+
+~Kapurthala~, 31.2 N.--75.2 E. Capital of State. Contains Maharaja's
+palace. Population 16,367.
+
+~Malerkotla~, 30.3 N.--75.6 E. Capital of State. Population 23,880.
+
+~Mandi~, 31.4 N.--76.6 E. Capital of State. Population 7896. On the
+Bias, 131 miles from Pathankot, with which it is connected by the
+Pathankot--Palampur--Baijnath road. There is a fine iron bridge spanning
+the Bias. It is a mart for trade with Ladakh and Yarkand.
+
+~Nabha~, 30.2 N.--76.1 E. Capital of State. Population 13,620, as
+compared with 18,468 in 1901. Founded in 1755 by Hamir Singh (page 277).
+Since irrigation from the Sirhind Canal has been introduced the environs
+have become waterlogged and the town is therefore unhealthy.
+
+~Nahan~, 30.3 N.--77.2 E. Capital of Sirmur State. Elevation 3207 feet.
+Population 6341. There is a good iron foundry at Nahan.
+
+~Patiala~, 30.2 N.--76.3 E. Capital of State. Population 46,974. On
+Rajpura-Bhatinda Branch of N.W. Railway. Contains fine gardens and
+modern buildings. The old palace is in the centre of the town. Patiala
+is a busy mart for local trade.
+
+~Pattan Munara~ (~Bahawalpur~), 28.1 N.--70.2 E. There are the ruins
+here of a large city and of a Buddhist monastery. They are situated in
+the south of the State five miles east of Rahim Yar Khan Station.
+
+~Sangrur~ (~Jind~), 30.1 N.--75.6 E. Became the capital of Jind State in
+1827. Population 9041. On Ludhiana--Dhuri--Jakhal Railway.
+
+~Sirhind~ (~Patiala~), 30.4 N.--76.3 E. Properly Sahrind. On N.W.
+Railway. Population 3843. The idea that the name is Sir-Hind = head of
+India is a mistake. An old town of great importance in Muhammadan period
+(pages 177 and 180). The ruins extend for several miles. There are two
+fine tombs known as those of the Master and his Disciple dating probably
+from the fourteenth century.
+
+~Sui Vehar~ (~Bahawalpur~), 29.2 N.--71.3 E. Six miles from Samasata.
+Site of a ruined Buddhist _stupa_. An inscription found at Sui Vehar
+belongs to the reign of Kanishka (page 164).
+
+~Uch~ (~Bahawalpur~), 29.1 N.--71.4 E. On the Sutlej near the point
+where it joins the Chenab. Consists now of three villages. But it was in
+early Muhammadan times a place of great importance, and a centre of
+learning. It is still very sacred in the eyes of Musalmans.
+
+
+III. NORTH WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE.
+
+(_a_) _Districts._
+
+~Abbottabad~, 34.9 N.--73.1 E. Headquarters of district and a cantonment
+with four battalions of Gurkhas. Population 11,506. At south end of
+Orash Plain 4120 feet above sea level. Appropriately named after Captain
+James Abbott (page 299).
+
+~Bannu.~ See Edwardesabad.
+
+~Cherat~ (~Peshawar~), 33.5 N.--71.5 E. Small hill sanitarium in Peshawar
+near Kohat border, 4500 feet above sea level.
+
+~Dera Ismail Khan~, 31.5 N.--70.6 E. Headquarters of district and a
+cantonment. Population 35,131, including 5730 in cantonment. The Powinda
+caravans pass through Dera Ismail Khan on their march to and from India.
+
+~Dungagali~ (~Hazara~), 34.6 N.--73.2 E. Small sanitarium, elevation 7800
+feet, in Hazara Galis, two miles from Nathiagali. Moshpuri rises above
+it to a height of 9232 feet.
+
+~Edwardesabad~ (~Bannu~), 33.0 N.--70.4 E. Headquarters of Bannu district
+and a cantonment. Founded by Lieutenant (afterwards Sir Herbert)
+Edwardes in 1848. Population 16,865. It is unhealthy owing to the heavy
+irrigation in the neighbourhood.
+
+~Fort Lockhart~ (~Kohat~), 33.3 N.--70.6 E. Important military outpost on
+Samana Range, elevation 6743 feet. Saragarhi, heroically defended by
+twenty-one Sikhs in 1897 against several thousand Orakzais, is in the
+neighbourhood.
+
+~Kohat~, 33.3 N.--71.3 E. Headquarters of district and a cantonment.
+Population 22,654, including 5957 in Cantonment. On Khushalgarh--Thal
+Branch of N.W. Railway.
+
+~Mansehra~ (~Hazara~), 34.2 N.--73.1 E. Headquarters of _tahsil_. The two
+rock edicts of Asoka are in the neighbourhood (pages 163 and 202).
+
+~Nathiagali~ (~Hazara~), 34.5 N.--73.6 E. Summer headquarters of Chief
+Commissioner of N.W.F. Province in Hazara Galis. Elevation 8200 feet. It
+is a beautiful little hill station. Miran Jani (9793 feet) is close by,
+and on a clear day Nanga Parvat can be seen in the far distance.
+
+~Naushahra~ (~Peshawar~), 34 N.--72 E. Population 25,498, including 14,543
+in cantonment. On railway 27 miles east of Peshawar. Risalpura, a new
+cavalry cantonment, is in the neighbourhood.
+
+~Shekhbudin~, 32.2 N.--70.5 E. Small hill station on Nila Koh on border
+of Dera Ismail Khan and Bannu districts. Elevation 4516 feet. It is on a
+bare limestone rock with very scanty vegetation and is hot in summer in
+the daytime. Water is scarce. The Deputy Commissioners of Bannu and Dera
+Ismail Khan spend part of the hot weather at Shekhbudin.
+
+~Thal~ (~Kohat~), 33.2 N.--70.3 E. Important military outpost at
+entrance of Kurram Valley. Terminus of Khushalgarh--Thal branch of N.W.
+Railway.
+
+~Thandiani~ (~Hazara~), 34.1 N.--73.2 E. Small hill station in Galis
+sixteen miles N.E. of Abbottabad. Elevation about 8800 feet. A
+beautifully situated place chiefly resorted to by residents of
+Abbottabad and Missionaries.
+
+
+(_b_) _Agencies and Independent Territory._
+
+~Ali Masjid~ (~Khaibar~), 34.2 N.--71.5 E. Village and fort in Khaibar,
+10-1/4 miles from Jamrud. Elevation 2433 feet.
+
+~Ambela~ (~Indep. Territory~), 34.2 N.--72.4 E. Pass in Buner, which
+gave its name to the Ambela campaign of 1863 (page 191).
+
+~Chakdarra~ (~Dir~, ~Swat~, and ~Chitral~), 34.4 N.--72.8 E. Military
+post to N.E. of Malakand Pass on south bank of Swat River.
+
+~Chitral~, 35.5 N.--71.5 E. A group of villages forming capital of
+Chitral State. There is a small _bazar_.
+
+~Jamrud~ (~Khaibar~), 34 N.--71.2 E. Just beyond Peshawar boundary at
+mouth of Khaibar. Terminus of railway. 10-1/2 miles west of Peshawar.
+There is a fort and a large _sarai_. Elevation 1670 feet.
+
+~Landi Kotal~ (~Khaibar~), 34.6 N.--71.8 E. 20 miles from Jamrud. Fort
+garrisoned by Khaibar Rifles at highest point of Khaibar route.
+Elevation 3373 feet. Afghan frontier 6 miles beyond.
+
+~Malakand~ (~Dir~, ~Swat~, and ~Chitral~), 34.3 N.--71.6 E. Pass leading
+into Swat Valley from Peshawar district.
+
+~Miram Shah~ (~N. Waziristan~), 33.6 N.--70.7 E. Headquarters of North
+Waziristan Agency in Tochi Valley 3050 feet above the sea.
+
+~Parachinar~ (~Kurram~), 33.5 N.--70.4 E. Headquarters of Kurram Agency
+and of Kurram Militia. Climate temperate. Population 2364.
+
+~Wana~ (~S. Waziristan~), 37.2 N.--69.4 E. Headquarters of South
+Waziristan Agency. In a wide valley watered by Wana Toi. There is much
+irrigation and the place is unhealthy, though the elevation of the
+Valley is from 4300 to 5800 feet.
+
+
+IV. KASHMIR AND JAMMU.
+
+~Baramula~, 34.1 N.--74.2 E. Situated at the point where the Jhelam gorge
+ends and the Vale of Kashmir begins. Travellers who intend to go to
+Srinagar by water board their house boats here. There is an excellent
+poplar-lined road from Baramula to Srinagar and a bad road to Gulmarg.
+
+~Chilas~, 35.4 N.--74.2 E. See page 323.
+
+~Gulmarg~, 34.1 N.--74.4 E. S.W. of Srinagar. It is a favourite hot
+weather resort of Europeans. The Maharaja has a house here. The forest
+scenery is beautiful, especially on the way to the limit of trees at
+Khilanmarg. Good golf links on beautiful turf.
+
+~Gurais~, 34.7 N.--74.8 E. A beautiful valley drained by the head waters
+of the Kishnganga. It lies between Bandipura and the Burzil Pass on the
+road to Gilgit.
+
+~Hunza~, 36.4 N.--74.7 E. (See page 323.) Hunza is a group of villages.
+The Raja's (or Tham's) fort, Baltit castle, at an elevation of 7000 feet
+is splendidly situated in full view of Rakaposhi, distant 20 miles. It
+is overhung by the enormous mass of snow peaks said to be called in the
+language of the country Boiohaghurduanasur (the peak of the galloping
+horse).
+
+~Islamabad~, 33.4 N.--75.1 E. About 40 miles by river from Srinagar, near
+the point where the Jhelam ceases to be navigable. Achabal and Martand
+are easily visited from Islamabad, and it is the starting point for the
+Liddar Valley and Pahlgam. It is a dirty insanitary place.
+
+~Jammu~, 32.4 N.--74.5 E. Capital of the Jammu province and winter
+residence of the Maharaja. Connected with Sialkot by rail. Situated
+above the ravine in which the Tawi flows. At a distance the white-washed
+temples with gilded pinnacles look striking. The town was once much more
+prosperous than it is to-day.
+
+~Leh~, 34.2 N.--77.5 E. Capital of Ladakh. On the Indus 11,500 feet above
+sea-level. The meeting place of caravans from India and Yarkand. The
+Central Asian caravans arrive in Autumn, when the _bazar_, in a wide
+street lined with poplars, becomes busy. The Wazir Wazarat has his
+headquarters here, and there is a small garrison in the mud fort. The
+old palace of the Gyalpo (King) is a large pile on a ridge overhanging
+the town. There are Moravian and Roman Catholic missions at Leh.
+
+~Martand~, 33.4 N.--75.1 E. Remains of a remarkable temple of the Sun god
+three miles east of Islamabad (pages 166 and 201).
+
+~Payer~ (erroneously ~Payech~). Nineteen miles from Srinagar containing a
+beautiful and well-preserved temple of the Sun god, dated variously from
+the fifth to the thirteenth century (page 202).
+
+~Punch~, 33.4 N.--74.9 E. Capital of the _jagir_ of the Raja of Punch, a
+feudatory of the Kashmir State. 3300 feet above sea level. There is a
+brisk trade in grain and _ghi_. Decent roads connect Punch with
+Rawalpindi and Uri on the Jhelam. Cart Road into Kashmir. Kashmiris call
+the place Prunts and its old name was Parnotsa.
+
+~Skardo~, 35.3 N.--75.6 E. Old capital of Baltistan. 7250 feet above
+sea-level. In a sandy basin lying on both sides of the Indus, and about
+five miles in width. A _tahsildar_ is stationed at Skardo.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+TABLE I. _Tribes of Panjab (including Native States) and N.W.F.
+Province[1]._
+
+ ------------------------------+------------------------+---------------------------+-------------------------
+ Landholding etc. | Traders | Artizans and menials | Impure Castes
+ --------------+------+--------+--------+------+--------+-----------+------+--------+---------+------+--------
+ Tribe |Panjab|N.W.F.P.| Tribe |Panjab|N.W.F.P.| Tribe |Panjab|N.W.F.P.| Tribe |Panjab|N.W.F.P.
+ | p.c. | p.c. | | p.c. | p.c. | | p.c. | p.c. | | p.c. | p.c.
+ --------------+------+--------+--------+------+--------+-----------+------+--------+---------+------+--------
+ Jats | 20.5 | 3.9 | Aroras | 2.8 | 3.1 |Lohars and | | |Chuhra[8]| 5.1 |
+ Rajputs | 6.8 | .7 | Khatris| 1.8 | 1.2 |Tarkhans[2]| 4.0 | 3.3 |Chamar[9]| 4.7 |
+ Arains and | | | Banias | 1.7 | -- |Julahas[3] | 2.6 | 1.7 | | |
+ Kambohs | 4.8 | -- | | | |Jhinwar and| | | | |
+ Brahmans | 4.2 | .6 | | | | Machhi[4] | 2.6 | --- | | |
+ Gujars | 2.5 | 5.2 | | | |Kumhar[5] | 2.3 | 1.0 | | |
+ Biloch | 2.2 | 1.2 | | | |Nai[6] | 1.4 | 1.1 | | |
+ Awan | 1.8 | 12.6 | | | |Teli[7] | 1.2 | .3 | | |
+ Shekhs inc. | | | | | | | | | | |
+ Kureshi | 1.7 | | | | | | | | | |
+ Kanet | 1.7 | -- | | | | | | | | |
+ Sainis, Malis,| | | | | | | | | | |
+ and Malliars | 1.3 | 1.8 | | | | | | | | |
+ Pathans | 1.2 | 38.3 | | | | | | | | |
+ Saiyyids | 1.0 | 4.4 | | | | | | | | |
+ --------------+------+--------+--------+------+--------+-----------+------+--------+---------+------+--------
+
+ [1] Only tribes amounting in number to 1 p.c. of total population shown.
+
+ [2] Blacksmiths and Carpenters.
+
+ [3] Weavers.
+
+ [4] Water carriers.
+
+ [5] Potter.
+
+ [6] Barber.
+
+ [7] Oilman.
+
+ [8] Scavenger.
+
+ [9] Leather-worker.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+TABLE II. _Rainfall, Cultivation, Population, and Land Revenue._
+
+ ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+-------------------------------------------------+----------+-----------
+ | | | | | Classes of Cultivation, p.c. |Population| Land
+ Zone | District |Rainfall|No. of |Cultivated+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+ 1911 |Revenue
+ | | in |Masonry| Area | | | | | | | | |in 1911-12
+ | |inches |Wells | Acres | Well | Canal| Abi |Total |Moist | Dry |Total | |in hundreds
+ | | | | 1911-12 | | | |Irrd. | | |Unirrd.| |of rupees
+ ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+ |Kanga | 125 | 5 | 587,826 | -- | -- |20 |20 | -- |80 | 80 | 770,386| 9,267
+ |Simla | 68 | -- | 9,984 | -- | -- | 7 | 7 | -- |93 | 93 | 39,320| 175
+ |Ambala | 35 | 2,154 | 750,515 | 4 | -- | 2 | 6 | 4 |90 | 94 | 689,970| 11,477
+ |Hoshyarpur | 36 | 6,841 | 722,122 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 8 | -- |92 | 92 | 918,569| 14,225
+ | | | | | | | | | | | | |
+ |Total British| -- | 9,000 |2,070,447 | 3 | 1 | 6-1/2|10-1/2| 1-1/2|88 | 89-1/2| 2,418,245| 35,144
+ Mountain |dts. Panjab | | | | | | | | | | | |(1.10.0[1])
+ and +-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+ Submontane| Hazara | | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | (N.W.F.P.) | 46 | 353 | 430,872 | -- | -- |10 |10 | -- |90 | 90 | 603,028| 5,129
+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | (1.3.1)
+ +-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+ |Kashmir and | | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | Jammu | 35[3] | -- |1,750,056 | -- | -- | -- |32 | -- | -- | 68 | 2,893,066| --
+ |Indus | | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | Valley[2] | 5[4] | -- | 121,952 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |100 | 210,315| --
+ | | | | | | | | | | | | |
+ |Total Kashmir| -- | -- |1,872,008 | -- | -- | -- |30 | -- | -- | 70 | 3,103,381| --
+ ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+ | Gujrat | 28 |10,221 | 845,023 |26 | -- | -- |26 | 6 |68 | 74 | 784,011| 8,445
+ North | Sialkot | 35 |23,010 | 941,558 |54 | 1 | 3 |58 | 9 |33 | 42 | 979,553| 14,847
+ Central | Gurdaspur | 35 | 6,439 | 844,403 |16 |11 | -- |27 |14 |59 | 73 | 836,771| 15,410
+ Panjab | Amritsar | 24 |12,386 | 787,229 |31 |31 | -- |62 | 4 |34 | 38 | 880,728| 12,746
+ Plain | Jalandhar | 28 |28,289 | 695,571 |44 | -- | -- |44 | 5 |51 | 56 | 801,920| 14,871
+ (British | Ludhiana | 28 | 9,991 | 754,373 |19 | 7 | -- |26 | 4 |70 | 74 | 517,192| 11,103
+ Districts)| | | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | Total | |90,336 |4,868,157 |32 | 8 | 1 |41 | 7 |52 | 59 | 4,800,175| 77,422
+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | (1.9.5)
+ ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+
+ ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+ |Rawalpindi | 33 | 947 | 598,371 | 1/2| -- | 1/2| 1 | -- |99 | 99 | 547,827| 6,754
+ |Jhelam | 26 | 4,103 | 754,585 | 4 | -- | -- | 4 | 4 |92 | 96 | 511,175| 7,576
+ |Attock | 19 | 6,850 |1,031,962 | 2-1/2| -- | 1 | 3-1/2| 1 |96 | 97 | 519,273| 6,741
+ |Mianwali | 12 | 7,128 | 748,255 |17 | 2 | -- |19 |38-1/2|42-1/2| 81 | 341,377| 4,866
+ | | | | | | | | | | | | |
+ North- |Total Panjab | -- |19,028 |3,133,173 | 6 | 1/2| 1/2| 7 |10 |83 | 93 | 1,919,652| 25,937
+ West | | | | | | | | | | | | | (0.13.3)
+ Area +-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+ |Peshawar | 13 | 6,597 | 894,803 | 5 |33 | 1/2|38-1/2| 2 |59-1/2| 61-1/2| 865,009| 11,375
+ |Kohat | 18 | 467 | 327,949 | 1/2| -- |12 |12-1/2| 1/2|87 | 87-1/2| 222,690| 2,755
+ |Bannu | 13 | 11 | 523,688 | -- |24 | -- |24 | -- |76 | 76 | 256,086| 3,040
+ | | | | | | | | | | | | |
+ |Total | -- | 7,075 |1,746,440 | 3 |24-1/2| 2-1/2|30 | 1 |69 | 70 | 1,343,785| 17,170
+ | N.W.F.P. | | | | | | | | | | | | (0.15.8)
+ ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+ |Gujranwala | 24 |10,926 |1,179,348 |37 |40 | -- |77 | 4 |19 | 23 | 923,419| 10,497
+ |Lahore | 21 |13,828 |1,462,108 |31 |43-1/2| 1 |75-1/2| 5 |19-1/2| 24-1/2| 1,036,158| 11,301
+ |Shahpur | 14 | 6,403 |1,267,566 |14 |55 | -- |69 | 6 |25 | 31 | 648,989| 8,701
+ |Jhang | 10 |11,588 | 723,733 |36 |46 | -- |82 |16 | 2 | 18 | 515,526| 6,429
+ |Lyallpur | 9 | 121 |1,373,892 | -- |99 | -- |99 | 1 | -- | 1 | 857,711| 12,736
+ South- |Montgomery | 10 |10,472 | 815,355 |27 |28 | 1 |56 |25 |19 | 44 | 555,219| 6,225
+ Western |Multan | 7 |20,132 |1,081,030 |58-1/2|26 | 1 |85-1/2|13-1/2| 1 | 14-1/2| 814,871| 15,865
+ Plains |Muzaffargarh | 6 |14,053 | 553,643 |36 |33 | 4 |73 |27 | -- | 27 | 569,461| 7,316
+ |Dera Ghazi | | | | | | | | | | | |
+ | Khan | 6 | 9,564 |1,035,011 |25-1/2|16 | 2-1/2|42 |53-1/2| 2-1/2| 56 | 499,860| 5,752
+ | | | | | | | | | | | | |
+ |Total Panjab | -- |97,087 |9,491,686 |28 |46 | 1 |75 |14-1/2|10-1/2| 25 | 6,420,814| 84,822
+ | districts | | | | | | | | | | | | (0.14.4)
+ +-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+ |D.I. Khan | 8 | 795 | 544,746 | 1 |17 | 8 |26 |11 |63 | 74 | 256,120| 3,062
+ | N.W.F.P. | | | | | | | | | | | | (0.9.0)
+ ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+ |Karnal | 30 | 7,827 |1,148,876 |13 |21 | -- |34 |10 |56 | 66 | 799,787| 10,833
+ |Delhi[6] | -- | 7,133 | 555,057 |19 |18 | -- |37 | 6 |57 | 63 | 657,604| 8,563
+ South- |Gurgaon | 26 | 6,594 | 988,613 |13 |10 | 1 |24 | 3-1/2|72-1/2| 76 | 643,177| 12,182
+ Eastern |Rohtak | 21 | 2,450 | 974,200 | 4-1/2|30 | -- |34-1/2| -- |65-1/2| 65-1/2| 541,489| 9,660
+ Plains |Hissar | 16 | 720 |2,691,478 | -- |11-1/4| -- |11-1/4| 2-1/4|86-1/2| 88-3/4| 804,809| 8,582
+ (British |Ferozepore | 21 | 7,940 |2,248,322 | 7 |40-1/2| -- |47-1/2| 2 |50-1/2| 52-1/2| 959,657| 12,066
+ Districts)| | | | | | | | | | | | |
+ |Total Panjab | -- |32,664 |8,606,546 | 7 |22-1/2| -- |29-1/2| 3-1/2|67 | 70-1/2| 4,306,523| 61,886
+ | districts | | | | | | | | | | | | (0.11.6)
+ ----------+-------------+--------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+----------+-----------
+
+ [1] Rate per cultivated acre in rupees (Rupee 1 = 16 pence).
+
+ [2] = Ladakh, Baltistan, Astor, and Gilgit.
+
+ [3] At Jammu.
+
+ [4] At Gilgit. Leh 3, Skardo 5.
+
+ [5] Including Frontier _Ilaka_ 264,750.
+
+ [6] The Delhi district has been broken
+ up, and, with the exception of the area now administered by the Government of India, has been divided between
+ Rohtak and Gurgaon.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+ TABLE III. _Diagrams relating to Cultivation._
+
+ PANJAB
+
+ [Illustration: (_a_) Harvests and Irrigation
+
+ Rabi 59 p.c.
+ Irrigated Rabi 25/59
+
+ Kharif 41 p.c.
+ Irrigated Kharif 13/41]
+
+ [Illustration: (_b_) Classes of Land
+
+ Abi 1 p.c.
+ Canal 24 p.c.
+ Dry 49 p.c.
+ Moist 8 p.c.
+ Well 18 p.c.]
+
+ N.W.F. PROVINCE
+
+ (_a_) Harvests
+
+ Rabi 64 p.c.
+ Kharif 36 p.c.
+
+ [Illustration: (B) Classes of Land
+
+ Abi 6 p.c.
+ Well 2 p.c.
+ Canal 19 p.c.
+ Dry 70 p.c.
+ Moist 3 p.c.]
+
+
+ PANJAB
+
+ [Illustration: (_c_) Crops
+
+ Wheat 31 p.c.
+ Other Crops 15-1/2 p.c.
+ Cotton 4-1/2 p.c.
+ Other Pulses 6-1/2 p.c.
+ Fodder 8-1/2 p.c.
+ Maize 4 p.c.
+ Millets (grain) 14 p.c.
+ Gram 16 p.c.]
+
+ N.W.F. PROVINCE
+
+ [Illustration: (_c_) Crops
+
+ Wheat 36 p.c.
+ Other Crops 19-1/2 p.c.
+ Other Pulses 3-1/2 p.c.
+ Fodder 3-1/2 p.c.
+ Maize 16-1/2 p.c.
+ Millets 12 p.c.
+ Cotton 2 p.c.
+ Gram 7 p.c.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Only tribes amounting in number to 1 p.c. of total population shown.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+TABLE IV. _Percentages of Principal Crops_[1].
+
+ KEY:
+ ** = (both harvests)
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ | | | | | | | | |
+ | | | | Rape | Pulses | | |
+ | | | |_Toria_|------+------| | |
+ Zone | Districts |Wheat |Barley| and | |Other |Fodder|Maize |
+ | | | |_Tara_ | Gram |Pulses| ** | |
+ | | | |_mira_ | | ** | | |
+ ----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+ |Kangra |32 | 7 | 1 | 4 | 4 | -- |21 |
+ |Simla |31 |15 | -- | -- | 3 | -- |13 |
+ |Ambala |26 | 2 | 1 |17 | 9 |11 |10-1/2|
+ |Hoshyarpur |33 | 1-1/2| 1 |17 | 5 | 7 |17-1/2|
+ Mountain | | | | | | | | |
+ |Total Panjab |30 | 3 | 1 |13 | 6 | 6 |16 |
+ and | districts | | | | | | | |
+ |------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+ Submontane| | | | | | | | |
+ |Hazara N.W.F.P. |26 |10 | 1 |-- |10 | 1-1/2|43 |
+ Zone |------------------+------+------+-------+-------- ----+------+------+
+ | | | | | \_________/ | | |
+ |Kashmir and Jammu |21 | 4 | -- | 7 | -- |38 |
+ |Indus Valley |29 | 4 | -- | 12 | -- | 7 |
+ |------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+ |Total Kashmir |23 | 4 | -- | 8 | -- |35-1/2| -- |
+ ----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+ |Gujrat |42 | 4 | 1 | 8 | 7 | 8 | 2-1/2|
+ North |Sialkot |43 | 6 | 1 | 3 | 5 |15 | 8 |
+ Central |Gurdaspur |36 | 4 | 1 | 7 |13 |11 | 8 |
+ Panjab |Amritsar |36 | 2 | 3 |16 | 3 |20 | 5 |
+ Plain |Jalandhar |33 | 1 | -- |15 | 7 |23 |10 |
+ (British |Ludhiana |28 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 8 |11 | 7 |
+ districts)| | | | | | | | |
+ |Total |37 | 3 | 1 |11 | 8 |14 | 7 |
+ ----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+ |Rawalpindi |41 | 2 | 1 | 1 |19 | 2-1/2| 8 |
+ |Jhelam |47 | 2 | 2 | 3 |10 | 5 | 1 |
+ |Attock |50 | 2 | 2 | 9 | 7-1/2| 2-1/2| 2-1/2|
+ North- |Mianwali |34 | 4 | 3 |19 |10 | 2 | -- |
+ | | | | | | | | |
+ West |Total Panjab |43 | 2 | 2 | 7 |11 | 3-1/2| 3 |
+ | districts | | | | | | | |
+ Area |------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+ |Peshawar |36-1/2|16 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 7 |18-1/2|
+ |Kohat |43 | 2-1/2| 1 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 8 |
+ |Bannu |49 | 4 | -- |24 | 1/2| 4 | 8 |
+ | | | | | | | | |
+ |Total N.W.F.P. |41 |10 | 1 | 8-1/2| 2-1/2| 5 |13-1/2|
+ ----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+ |Gujranwala |40 | 3 | 4 |15-1/2| 3 |12 | 2-1/2|
+ |Lahore |37 | 1 | 6 |16 | 1 |15 | 4-1/2|
+ |Shahpur |44 | 1 | 7 | 7 | 3 |10 | 2 |
+ |Jhang |47 | 1 | 2 | 4-1/2| 4 |10 | 2 |
+ South- |Lyallpur |42-1/2| 1/2| 13 | 8 | 2-1/2| 5 | 4-1/2|
+ |Montgomery |41 | 1-1/2| 2 |13 | 4-1/2|17 | 3 |
+ Western |Multan |41 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 6 |13 | 1/2|
+ |Muzaffargarh |44-1/2| 3 | 2 | 8 |10 | 7 | -- |
+ Plains |Dera Ghazi Khan |27 | 1 | 10 | 3-1/2| 5-1/2| 5 | -- |
+ | | | | | | | | |
+ |Total Panjab d |40-1/2| 1-1/2| 6 | 9 | 4 |10 | 2 |
+ | districts | | | | | | | |
+ |------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+ |D.I. Khan N.W.F.P.|31 | 2 | 13 | 8 | 3 | 1/2| -- |
+ ----------+------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+ |Karnal |21 | 2 | 5 |26-1/2| 4-1/2| 6-1/2| 5-1/2|
+ |Rohtak | 8 | 2-1/2| 1 |34-1/2| 7 | 2 | -- |
+ |Gurgaon | 8 |13 | 1-1/2|20 |12 | 4 | -- |
+ South- |Hissar | 4 | 7 | 4 |28 | 8 | 4 | -- |
+ Eastern |Ferozepore |28 | 7 | 4 |31-1/2| 4 | 8 | 2-1/2|
+ Plains | | | | | | | | |
+ (British |Total Panjab |14 | 6 | 3 |28-1/2| 7 | 5 | 1-1/2|
+ Districts)| districts | | | | | | | |
+ |------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+
+ |Grand total Panjab|31 | 3-1/2| 4 |16 | 6-1/2| 8-1/2| 4 |
+ | " N.W.F.P.|36 | 8-1/2| 3 | 7 | 3-1/2| 3-1/2|16-1/2|
+ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ | | | | | | | |
+ | Millets | | | | | |
+ |-------+-------| | | |Other | |
+ | | | Rice |Cotton|Cane |Crops | Districts | Zone
+ |_Bajra_|_Jowar_| | | | ** | |
+ | | | | | | | |
+ + ------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
+ | -- | -- |15 | 1/2|1 |14-1/2|Kangra |
+ | -- | -- | 6 | -- |-- |32 |Simla |
+ | 1-1/2| 1 | 7 | 6 |2 | 6 |Ambala |
+ | 1/2| 1 | 4 | 2 |3 | 7-1/2|Hoshyarpur |
+ | | | | | | | |Mountain
+ | 1/2| 1/2| 8 | 3 |2 |11 |Total Panjab |
+ | | | | | | | districts |and
+ +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|
+ | | | | | | | |Submontane
+ | 1-1/2| 1 | 3 | 1 |-- | 2 |Hazara N.W.F.P. |
+ +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|Zone
+ | | | | | | | |
+ | -- | -- | 9 | -- |-- |21 |Kashmir and Jammu |
+ | -- | -- | 1 | -- |-- |47 |Indus Valley |
+ +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|
+ | -- | 8 | -- | -- | |21-1/2|Total Kashmir |
+ +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
+ | 15 | 6 | 1 | 1-1/2|1 | 1 |Gujrat |
+ | 1-1/2| 1-1/2| 6-1/2| 2 |4 | 3-1/2|Sialkot |North
+ | 1/2| 1/2| 6-1/2| 1 |7 | 4-1/2|Gurdaspur |Central
+ | -- | -- | 4-1/2| 4 |3 | 3-1/2|Amritsar |Panjab
+ | -- | -- | -- | 3-1/2|3-1/2| 4 |Jalandhar |Plain
+ | 1/2| 3 | -- | 2 |2 |12 |Ludhiana |(British
+ | | | | | | | |districts)
+ | 3 | 2 | 3 | 2-1/2|3-1/2| 4-1/2|Total |
+ +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
+ | 17 | 4 | -- | 1 |-- | 3-1/2|Rawalpindi |
+ | 21 | 2 | -- | 2 |-- | 5 |Jhelam |
+ | 19 | 2-1/2| -- | 2 |-- | 1 |Attock |
+ | 19 | 4 | -- | 1/2|-- | 4-1/2|Mianwali |North-
+ | | | | | | | |
+ | 19 | 3 | -- | 1-1/2|-- | 5 |Total Panjab | West
+ | | | | | | | districts |
+ +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------| Area
+ | 1 | 4-1/2| 1-1/2| 4 |3 | 3 |Peshawar |
+ | 27-1/2| 2 | 1 | 1 | -- | 3 |Kohat |
+ | 3 | 1-1/4| 1/2| 1/2|1-1/4| 4 |Bannu |
+ | | | | | | | |
+ | 6 | 3 | 1 | 2-1/2|2 | 4 |Total N.W.F.P. |
+ +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
+ | 2-1/2| 3 | 5 | 5 |2-1/2| 2 |Gujranwala |
+ | 1 | 1 | 2-1/2| 9 |1 | 5 |Lahore |
+ | 10 | 3-1/2| 1 | 8 | 1/2| 3 |Shahpur |
+ | 2 | 8 | 1/2| 5-1/2|-- |13-1/2|Jhang |
+ | 1/2| 1 | -- | 9 |2-1/2|11 |Lyallpur |South-
+ | 1 | 2 | 3 | 5 |-- | 7 |Montgomery |
+ | 4 | 8 | 3 | 9 |-- | 8-1/2|Multan | Western
+ | 3 | 2 | 7 | 6 |1 | 6-1/2|Muzaffargarh |
+ | 9 | 23 | 8 | 6 |-- | 2 |Dera Ghazi Khan | Plains
+ | | | | | | | |
+ | 3-1/2| 4 | 3 | 7 |1 | 8-1/2|Total Panjab |
+ | | | | | | | districts |
+ +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|
+ | 22 | 9 | -- | 2 | -- | 9-1/2|D.I. Khan N.W.F.P.|
+ +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------+------------------+----------
+ | 5 | 11-1/2| 4 | 6 |2 | 1/2|Karnal |
+ | 21 | 14 | -- | 6-1/2|2 | 1-1/2|Rohtak |
+ | 25 | 5 | -- | 8 | 1/2| 3 |Gurgaon |
+ | 26 | 6-1/2| -- | 3 |-- | 9-1/2|Hissar |South-
+ | 3 | 6 | -- | -- |-- | 6 |Ferozepore | Eastern
+ | | | | | | | | Plains
+ | 15 | 8 | 1/2| 3-1/2| 1/2| 7-1/2|Total Panjab |(British
+ | | | | | | | districts |Districts)
+ +-------+-------+------+------+-----+------|------------------|
+ | 9 | 5 | 2-1/2| 4-1/2|1-1/2| 4 |Grand total Panjab|
+ | 8 | 4 | 1 | 2 |1 | 6 | " N.W.F.P.|
+ -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+[1] In case of Panjab districts figures relate to _Kharif_ 1910 and
+_Rabi_ 1911.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+TABLE V _Revenue and Expenditure_, 1911-12.
+
+ +-------------------+-------------------------+--------------------------+
+ | | Income | Expenditure |
+ | +---------+---------------+--------+-----------------|
+ | Heads | | Provincial | | Provincial |
+ | | +---------------+--------+--------+--------|
+ | |Total in | |Total in| | |
+ | |Rs. 000 |Share |Amount |Rs. 000 | Share |Amount |
+ | | | |in | | |in |
+ | | | |Rs. 000| | |Rs. 000 |
+ |-------------------+---------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------|
+ |Land Revenue |3,47,92 | Half |1,73,96| 47,76| Whole |47,76 |
+ |Salt | 38,16 | Nil | -- | 4,82| Nil | -- |
+ |Stamps | 52,57 | Half | 26,29| 1,77| Half | 89 |
+ |Excise | 64,00 | Half | 32,00| 1,71| Half | 86 |
+ |Income-tax | 16,22 | Half | 8,11| 11 | Half | 5 |
+ |Forests | 13,10 | Whole | 13,10| 7,64| Whole | 7,65 |
+ |Registration | 3,16 | Whole | 3,16| 1,20| Whole | 1,20 |
+ |General | | | | | | |
+ |Administration | -- | -- | -- | 18,33|Various |13,65 |
+ |Law and Justice | | | | | | |
+ | --Courts | 4,35 | Whole | 4,35| 42,18| Whole |42,18 |
+ |Law and Justice | | | | | | |
+ | --Jails | 3,41 | Whole | 3,41| 12,24| Whole |12,24 |
+ |Police | 1,80 | Whole | 1,80| 58,57| Whole |58,57 |
+ |Education | 3,64 | Whole | 3,64| 23,27| Whole |23,27 |
+ |Irrigation-- | | | | | | |
+ | Major Works | 2,13,08 | Half |1,06,54| 1,36,42| Half |68,21 |
+ |Irrigation-- | | | | | | |
+ | Minor Works | 7,99 |Various| 56 | 11,17|Various |1,07 |
+ |Civil Works | 6,93 |Various| 6,20| 67,90|Various |62,70 |
+ |Medical | -- | -- | -- | 21,20| Whole |21,20 |
+ |All other heads[1] | 27,60 |Nil and| 16,21| 56,96| Whole, |41,29 |
+ | |various| | |various,| |
+ | | | | | and | |
+ | | | | | nil | |
+ --------------------+---------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------|
+ Total |8,03,93 | -- |3,99,33|5,13,25 | -- |4,02,79 |
+ --------------------+---------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+
+
+[1] Under Income "Salt," "Tribute," "Interest," "Miscellaneous," and
+"All other heads." Under Expenditure "Political," "Scientific,"
+"Pensions," "Stationery," "All other items."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ Abbott, Captain J.; 299, 300
+
+ Abbottabad; 302, 303, 355
+
+ Adamwahan railway bridge; 46, 283
+
+ Adina Beg; 179
+
+ Administration, British 1849-1913; 188-195
+ General; 212-221
+ Local; 222
+
+ Afghan War; 1878-1880 193
+
+ Afridis; 196, 297, 309
+
+ Agriculture; 101, 102, 143, Tables II, III, IV
+
+ Agriculturists, Legislation to protect; 102
+
+ Agror; 303
+
+ Ahirs; 230, 231
+
+ Ahmad Shah; 178, 179
+
+ Aitchison, Sir Charles; 194
+
+ Akazais; 303
+
+ Akbar; 172
+
+ Ala Singh, Raja; 273, 274
+
+ Ala ud din; 169
+
+ Alexander the Great; 161-162
+
+ Alexandra railway bridge; 41
+
+ Ali Masjid; 356
+
+ Alptagin; 168
+
+ Altamsh; 170
+
+ Alum; 59
+
+ Amb; 303
+
+ Ambala division; 225-235
+ district; 233-235
+ town and cantonment; 347
+
+ Ambela; 192, 305, 356
+
+ Amritsar district; 249
+ town; 175, 339, 340
+
+ Anandpal Raja; 168
+
+ Arains; 242, 245, 248, 252, 279
+
+ Aravallis; 50
+
+ Archaeology; 200-208
+
+ Areas; 2-3
+
+ Arjan Guru; 175
+
+ Aroras; 105, 106
+
+ Asoka; 162, 163
+
+ Attock, Fort; 37, 38, 350
+
+ Attock district; 257, 258
+
+ Aurangzeb; 172, 177
+
+ Awans; 105, 254, 258-260, 299-300
+
+
+ Babar; 172, 273
+
+ Babusar pass; 301
+
+ Bahawalpur State; 280-283
+ town; 353
+
+ Bajaur; 306
+
+ Balban; 170
+
+ Banda; 178
+
+ Banias; 106
+
+ Bannu district; 295, 296
+ town; 355
+
+ Bar; 261, 262, 267
+
+ Bara river; 298, 309
+
+ Baralacha pass; 12, 236
+
+ Baramula; 40, 357
+
+ Bari Doab Canal, Upper; 135, 249, 251
+ Lower; 138, 262
+
+ Barnala; 179, 353
+
+ Bashahr State; 287-290
+
+ Baspa river; 288, 289
+
+ Bazar valley; 309
+
+ Bein torrent; 45
+
+ Bhakkar; 258
+
+ Bhittannis; 294
+
+ Bhupindar Singh, Maharaja of Patiala; 275
+
+ Bhure Singh, Raja of Chamba; 286
+
+ Bias river; 43-45, 162, 237, 249, 251
+ railway bridge; 45
+
+ Bilaspur State; 288
+
+ Biloches; 104, 105, 268, 269
+
+ Birmal; 24
+
+ Black buck; 94, 95
+
+ Black Mountain Expedition; 191
+
+ Boltoro glacier; 21
+
+ Borax; 60
+
+ Boundaries; 3-6
+
+ Brahmans; 104, 106, 240
+
+ Brijindar Singh, Raja of Faridkot; 280
+
+ Buddhism; 114, 115, 169, 236, 289
+
+ Bunhar torrent; 254
+
+ Burzil pass; 12
+
+
+ Canals; 132-141, 197
+
+ Carving in wood and ivory; 154
+
+ Castes; 105, 106
+
+ Chagarzais; 302
+
+ Chail; 29
+
+ Chakdarra; 305, 306, 356
+
+ Chakki torrent; 45
+
+ Chamba State; 245, 246
+ town; 201, 354
+
+ Chamberlain, Sir Neville; 305
+
+ Chamkannis; 310, 311
+
+ Chandrabhaga river; 2, 41, 286
+ (see also Chenab)
+
+ Chandra Gupta; 162
+
+ Chatar Singh, Sardar; 186-187
+
+ Chenab river; 41, 247, 249, 252, 261, 266, 267
+
+ Cherat; 31, 355
+
+ Chilas; 36, 301, 357
+
+ Chilianwala; 187, 351
+
+ Chingiz Khan; 170
+
+ Chini; 44, 288, 354
+
+ Chitral; 196, 305, 307, 308, 356
+
+ Chitral and Dir levies; 313
+
+ Cholera; 101
+
+ Chor mountain; 285
+
+ Chos; 241
+
+ Christians; 119
+
+ Chund Bharwana railway bridge; 41
+
+ Climate; 64-70
+
+ Coal; 58
+
+ Coins 208-211
+
+ Colleges; 125, 126
+
+ Colonization of Canal lands; 136, 139, 140, 263
+
+ Co-operative Credit Societies; 197, 199
+
+ Crops; 146-150, Tables III-IV
+
+ Cultivation; 142-150, Tables II-III
+
+
+ Dalhousie, Lord; 188
+
+ Dalhousie hill station; 68, 246, 350
+
+ Dalip Singh, Maharaja; 184
+
+ Dandot; 58
+
+ Dane, Sir Louis; 199
+
+ Darbar 1877; 193-333
+ 1903; 333
+ Coronation 1911; 199, 333, 334
+
+ Dards; 107, 108
+
+ Darius; 161
+
+ Darwesh Khel; 312
+
+ Daulat Rao Sindhia; 183
+
+ Daur valley; 312
+
+ Davies, Sir Henry; 191
+
+ Deane, Sir Harold; 197
+
+ Degh torrent; 42, 247
+
+ Delhi; 169, 199, 205-208, 224, 225, 325-334
+
+ Delhi-Ambala-Kalka Railway; 130
+
+ Deodar; 80, 86, 302, 307
+
+ Dera Gopipur; 44
+
+ Dera Ghazi Khan district; 268-270
+
+ Dera Ismail Khan district; 294, 295
+ town and cantonment; 355
+
+ Dharmsala; 68, 238, 348
+
+ Dhauladhar; 16
+
+ Dhunds; 256
+
+ Dir; 305-307
+
+ Domel; 40
+
+ Dorah pass; 22
+
+ Dor river; 299, 301
+
+ Dost Muhammad, Amir; 184
+
+ Drishaks; 270
+
+ Dujana State; 283
+
+ Dungagali; 355
+
+ Durand, Colonel; 194
+
+ Durand, Sir Henry; 191
+
+ Durand Line; 4, 196, 306, 307, 308
+
+
+ Earthquake of; 1905 197
+
+ Education; 119, 121-126
+
+ Edwardes, Sir Herbert; 186
+
+ Edwardesabad; 355
+
+ Egerton, Sir Robert; 191
+
+ Ekbhai mountain; 27
+
+ Ethnology; 109, 110
+
+ Expenditure, Provincial; 219-220, Table V
+
+ Exports and Imports; 159
+
+
+ Factories; 156, 157
+
+ Famines; 195, 227
+
+ Faridkot State; 244, 280
+
+ Fateh Singh, Sardar of Kapurthala; 279
+
+ Fauna; 90-95
+
+ Ferozepore district; 243-245
+ railway bridge; 46
+ town and cantonment; 349
+
+ Ferozeshah, battle of; 186, 244, 349
+
+ Fever, mortality from; 100, 101
+
+ Finance; 219-222
+
+ Fitzpatrick, Sir Dennis; 195
+
+ Flora; 71-85
+
+ Fluctuating assessments; 221
+
+ Forests; 86-89
+
+ Fort Lockhart; 355
+
+ Fort Munro; 27, 270
+
+ Fossils; 53, 55-57
+
+ Fotula; 12
+
+
+ Gaddis; 236
+
+ Gajpat Singh, Sardar of Jind; 276
+
+ Game; 91-95
+
+ Gandamak, treaty of; 193
+
+ Gandgarh hills; 302
+
+ Ghagar torrent; 46, 47, 227, 231, 233
+
+ Ghaibana Sir; 31
+
+ Ghakkhars; 168, 169, 254, 256, 300
+
+ Ghaznevide raids; 168
+
+ Giandari hill; 27
+
+ Gilgit; 194, 321, 323
+
+ Giri river; 235, 285, 288
+
+ Girths; 240
+
+ Godwin Austen Mt; 21
+
+ Gold; 59, 322
+
+ Gomal pass; 25, 312
+
+ Gough, Lord; 187
+
+ Govind Singh, Guru; 177, 178
+
+ Granth Sahib; 175
+
+ Grey Inundation Canals; 244
+
+ Gujars; 107, 241, 245, 252, 300
+
+ Gujranwala district; 249
+ town; 350
+
+ Gujrat battle; 187
+ district; 252
+ town; 351
+
+ Gulab Singh, Raja; 184, 186, 219, 314, 323
+
+ Gulmarg; 357
+
+ Gupta Empire; 164
+
+ Gurais; 357
+
+ Gurchanis; 270
+
+ Gurdaspur district; 245, 246
+
+ Gurgaon district; 229, 230
+
+ Gurkhas; 235, 274, 289
+
+ Gurus, Sikh; 173-178
+
+
+ Hakra river; 40
+
+ Handicrafts; 152-156
+
+ Hangu; 297
+
+ Haramukh mountain; 14
+
+ Harike ferry; 44
+
+ Hari Singh Nalwa, Sardar; 184
+
+ Haro river; 38, 258, 299, 301, 302
+
+ Harvests; 142
+
+ Hasanzais; 303
+
+ Hattu mountains; 288
+
+ Hazara district; 186, 298-303
+
+ Himalaya; 8-20, 67, 68
+
+ Hindkis; 299
+
+ Hindu Kush; 22, 23, 305, 307
+
+ Hindur; 287
+
+ Hindus and Hinduism; 114-118, 119, 120
+
+ Hira Singh Sir, Raja of Nadha; 278
+
+ Hissar district; 226-228
+ town; 347
+
+ History; 160-199
+
+ Hiuen Tsang; 165
+
+ Hoshyarpur district; 240, 241, 278
+
+ Humayun; 172
+
+ Hunza town; 357
+
+ Hunza and Nagar; 323
+
+ Hunza-Nagar levies; 313
+ war; 194, 195
+
+
+ Ibbetson, Sir Denzil; 197, 198
+
+ Imperial Service troops; 276, 277, 279, 283
+
+ Income and Expenditure; 219, 286, Table V
+
+ Indus river; 34-39, 260, 270, 281, 296, 300, 302
+
+ Inundation Canals; 139, 262, 267
+
+ Islamabad; 358
+
+
+ Jagatjit Singh, Maharaja of Kapurthala; 279
+
+ Jahangir; 173, 175, 208
+
+ Jains; 280
+
+ Jalandhar district; 241, 242
+ town and cantonment; 349
+
+ Jalandhara kingdom; 241
+
+ Jalkot; 36
+
+ Jammu State; 107, 314-317
+ town; 358
+
+ Jamna river; 48, 49
+
+ Jamna Western Canal; 133, 135
+
+ Jamrud; 356
+
+ Janjuas; 254
+
+ Jassa Singh, Ahluwaha Sardar; 279
+
+ Jats; 103, 104, 234, 240, 242, 245, 248, 249, 252, 254
+
+ Jhang district; 265, 266
+
+ Jhelam Canal, Lower; 133, 137, 138, 261, 265
+ Upper; 138, 252
+
+ Jhelam district; 253, 254
+ river; 39, 40, 253, 254, 261, 265, 301
+ town and cantonment; 351
+
+ Jind; 271, 276, 277
+
+ Joint Stock Companies; 157, 158
+
+ Jowakis; 297, 310
+
+ Jubbal State; 287
+
+
+ Kabul; 22, 165
+ river; 23, 37, 298
+ canal; 140, 298
+
+ Kafiristan range; 307
+
+ Kagan; 40, 301
+
+ Kaha torrent; 270
+
+ Kaisargarh mountain; 26
+
+ Kalabagh; 38, 39, 295
+
+ Kalachitta range; 30, 258
+
+ Kalsia State; 280
+
+ Kamalia; 353
+
+ Kambohs; 263
+
+ Kangra district; 235-240
+ town and fort; 168, 171, 183, 349
+
+ Kanjutis; 108
+
+ Kankar; 60, 127
+
+ Kaoshan pass; 22
+
+ Kapurthala State; 278, 279
+ town; 356
+
+ Karakoram; 20, 324
+
+ Karnal district; 230-232
+ town; 348
+
+ Kashmir, Early History; 165, 166, 172
+ Forests; 89
+ Population; 99, 100, 106, 107
+ Territories; 2, 12, 14, 16, 20, 21, 193, 314, 324
+
+ Kashmiri Pandits; 107
+
+ Kasranis; 270
+
+ Katas; 201
+
+ Kathias; 263
+
+ Keonthal State; 287
+
+ Keppel, Sir George Roos; 197
+
+ Khaibar; 23, 309
+ Rifles; 308, 309, 313
+
+ Khairimurat hills; 30, 258
+
+ Khanki weir; 195, 310
+
+ Khanwah Canal; 263
+
+ Kharrals; 263
+
+ Khatris; 105, 106
+
+ Khattaks; 297, 298
+
+ Kheora Salt Mine; 51, 351
+
+ Khojas; 104
+
+ Khosas; 170
+
+ Khost; 311
+
+ Khowar; 308
+
+ Khurmana river; 311
+
+ Khushalgarh railway bridge; 130
+
+ Kila Drosh; 307, 308
+
+ Kirana hill; 261
+
+ Kishnganga river; 40, 261, 319
+
+ Kohala; 40, 257
+
+ Kohat district; 296-298
+ salt; 57, 58, 296
+ town and cantonment; 356
+
+ Kolahoi mountain; 14
+
+ Kuka rising; 192, 193
+
+ Kulu; 17, 235, 237, 238
+
+ Kunar river; 23, 37, 307
+
+ Kunawar; 289
+
+ Kunhar 40, 301
+
+ Kurram militia; 313
+ river; 39, 260, 295, 311
+ valley; 24, 296
+
+
+ Ladakh; 64, 65, 109, 112, 319-321
+
+ Lagharis; 270
+
+ Lahore city; 169, 173, 334-339
+ district; 251, 252
+ division; 245
+ railway bridge; 43
+
+ Lahul; 64, 236
+
+ Lake, Lord; 183
+
+ Land Alienation Act, XIII of 1900; 196
+
+ Land Revenue; 220, 221
+
+ Landai river; 38
+
+ Landi Kotal; 357
+
+ Languages; 110-113
+
+ Larji; 43
+
+ Lawrence Memorial School; 234
+
+ Lawrence, Sir Henry; 186, 188
+ Sir John; 188-191
+
+ Legislative Council; 195, 216
+
+ Leh; 35, 64, 65, 358
+
+ Leprosy; 101
+
+ Liddar valley; 40
+
+ Lieutenant Governors; 188-199
+
+ Local Self Government; 195, 217, 218
+
+ Lohars; 106, 152
+
+ Loharu State; 283
+
+ Lolab valley; 40
+
+ Lowari pass; 307, 308
+
+ Lower Bari Doab Canal; 138, 262, 267
+ Chenab Canal; 136, 137, 195, 263, 265
+ Jhelam Canal; 137, 138, 197, 260
+ Swat Canal; 140, 141, 298
+
+ Ludhiana district; 242, 243
+ town; 153, 349
+
+ Lulusar lake; 301
+
+ Lunds; 270
+
+ Luri bridge; 45
+
+ Lyall, Sir James; 194
+
+ Lyallpur district; 263, 264
+ town; 353
+
+
+ Macleod, Sir Donald; 191
+
+ Mahaban mountain; 36
+
+ Mahirakula; 164
+
+ Mahmud of Ghazni; 168
+
+ Mahsud Wazirs; 196, 312
+
+ Malakand pass; 299, 305, 306, 357
+
+ Malerkotla State; 283
+ town; 354
+
+ Mali ka parvat; 301
+
+ Malka; 305
+
+ Mallagoris; 308, 309
+
+ Mamdot; 244
+
+ Mamunds; 306
+
+ Manali; 43, 237
+
+ Mandi State; 283, 284
+ town; 354
+
+ Mangal; 287
+
+ Mansehra; 356
+
+ Mardan; 298, 299
+
+ Markanda torrent; 47
+
+ Martand temple; 166, 358
+
+ Marwats; 296
+
+ Mazaris; 270
+
+ Mazhbis; 106
+
+ Meghs; 107
+
+ Menander; 163, 164
+
+ Mendicants; 106
+
+ Meos; 229
+
+ Metals; 59
+
+ Mianwali district; 258-260
+
+ Miram Shah; 357
+
+ Miranzai; 297
+
+ Moghal Empire; 171-180
+
+ Mohmands; 308, 309
+
+ Mongol invasions; 170
+
+ Montgomery, Sir Robert; 191
+
+ Montgomery district; 261, 262
+ town; 353
+
+ Mudki battle field; 186, 282
+
+ Muhammad Ghori; 169
+
+ Muhammad Tughlak; 170, 171
+
+ Muhammadan Architecture; 204-208
+
+ Muhammadan States; 280-283
+
+ Muhammadans; 118, 119, 252, 262, 291
+
+ Muin ul Mulk; 179
+
+ Mulraj, Diwan; 186-282
+
+ Multan district; 266, 267
+ division; 262
+
+ Multan city; 154, 166, 183, 186, 340, 341
+ district; 266-267
+ division; 262
+
+ Municipalities; 217
+
+ Murree; 68, 256, 303, 351, 352
+
+ Musa ka Musalla mountain; 301
+
+ Musallis; 106
+
+ Mutiny of 1857; 227
+
+ Muzaffargarh district; 267, 268
+
+
+ Nabha State; 271, 277, 278
+ town; 354
+
+ Nadir Shah; 178
+
+ Nahan State; 285
+ town; 354
+
+ Nalagarh State; 207
+
+ Nanga parvat (mountain); 12
+
+ Naraina, battlefield of; 232
+
+ Nardak; 232
+
+ Nathiagali; 356
+
+ Naushahra; 298, 356
+
+ North West Frontier Province; 197, 291-313
+
+ North Western Railway; 120-131
+
+ Nun and Kun peaks; 12, 324
+
+
+ Occupations; 101, 102, 105, 106, 152-156
+
+ O'Dwyer, Sir Michael; 199
+
+ Ohind; 37
+
+ Orakzais; 196, 297, 309-311
+
+ Otu weir; 47
+
+
+ Pabar river; 288
+
+ Pabbi hills; 252
+
+ Paharpur canal; 292
+
+ Paiwar Kotal; 24
+
+ Pakhli plain; 302
+
+ Pakpattan; 353
+
+ Palosi; 36
+
+ Pangi; 14, 286
+
+ Panipat; 172, 179, 232, 348
+
+ Panjkora river; 38, 306, 307
+
+ Panjnad river; 41, 382
+
+ Parachas; 106
+
+ Parachinar; 311, 357
+
+ Pataudi State; 283
+
+ Pathans; 105, 260, 294, 299, 300, 304, 311
+
+ Patiala State; 180, 271-274
+ town; 354
+
+ Pattan Munara; 354
+
+ Payech, see Payer
+
+ Payer; 201, 358
+
+ Peshawar city; 160, 164, 169, 184, 341, 342
+ district; 298, 299
+
+ Petroleum; 59
+
+ Phillaur; 46, 243
+
+ Phulkian States; 196, 271-278
+
+ Pihowa; 232, 348
+
+ Pirghal mountain; 24
+
+ Piti, _See_ Spiti
+
+ Plague; 97-99, 100, 195, 245
+
+ Population; 96-113
+
+ Pottery; 152, 156
+
+ Powindahs; 25
+
+ Pressure, barometric; 65-67
+
+ Punch; 358
+
+
+ Railways; 128-131
+
+ Rajput Hill Chiefs (Simla); 288
+
+ Rajputs; 104, 240, 241, 245, 248, 254, 288
+
+ Raldang mountain; 288
+
+ Rampur ;45, 289
+
+ Ranbir Singh, Maharaja of Jind; 277
+
+ Ranjit Singh, Maharaja; 181-184
+
+ Ravi river; 41-43, 247, 251, 262, 266, 267, 286
+
+ Rawalpindi cantonment and town; 256, 352
+ district; 255-257
+ division; 252
+
+ Religions, Kashmir; 114
+ N. W. F. Province; 114
+ Panjab; 114-117
+
+ Ripon, Lord; 195
+
+ Ripudaman Singh, Maharaja of Nabha; 270
+
+ Rivaz, Sir Charles 197
+
+ Rivers; 32-49
+
+ Road, Grand Trunk; 127
+
+ Roads; 127, 128
+
+ Rogi cliffs; 45
+
+ Rohtak district; 228, 229
+
+ Roos-Keppel, Sir George; 197
+
+ Rotang pass; 14, 236
+
+ Rupar; 46, 348
+
+
+ Sabaktagin; 167, 168
+
+ Sadik Muhammad Khan, Nawab of Bahawalpur; 281, 282
+
+ Sad Istragh mountains; 22
+
+ Safarmulk lake; 301
+
+ Safed Koh range; 24, 311
+
+ Saiyyids; 105, 304
+
+ Sakesar; 29, 352
+
+ Sakki stream; 250
+
+ Salt; 57, 58
+
+ Salt Range ;29, 30, 253, 254, 257, 258, 262
+ Geology of; 51-53
+ Flora of; 76, 77
+
+ Samana range; 297
+ Rifles; 297, 298
+
+ Sam Ranizai; 306
+
+ Sangrur; 276, 354
+
+ Sansar Chand, Raja; 183
+
+ Sapphires; 60
+
+ Saraj; 235, 237
+
+ Sarusti torrent; 46, 47, 231, 232
+ canal; 47
+
+ Sasserla; 20
+
+ Sattis; 256
+
+ Shah Alam, Emperor; 181
+
+ Shahjahan; 173
+
+ Shah Shuja; 184
+
+ Shahpur district; 260-262
+
+ Shawal; 24
+
+ Shekhbudin; 31, 356
+
+ Shekhs; 105
+
+ Sher Khan; 170
+
+ Sher Singh Maharaja; 184
+
+ Shigri glacier; 236
+
+ Shipki pass; 45
+
+ Shooting; 94, 95
+
+ Shuidar mountain; 24
+
+ Shyok river; 36
+
+ Sialkot district; 247
+ town and cantonment; 164, 350
+
+ Sials; 266
+
+ Sidhnai canal; 139, 267
+
+ Sikandar Lodi; 171
+
+ Sikaram mountain; 24
+
+ Sikh Jats; 104, 250, 252, 276, 280
+ wars; 186, 187
+ religion; 117, 118
+
+ Sil torrent; 258
+
+ Simla district; 254
+ hill station; 67, 68, 342-344
+ Hill States; 287-290
+
+ Sind valley; 40
+
+ Sirhind canal; 135, 136, 195, 227, 245, 271, 275, 276, 280
+
+ Sirhind, town; 177, 180, 354, 355
+
+ Sirmur State; 285
+
+ Siwaliks; 27, 52, 53
+
+ Skardo; 36, 321
+
+ Smallpox; 101
+
+ Soan torrent (Hoshyarpur); 241
+ (Rawalpindi), _see_ Sohan
+
+ Sobraon, battle of; 186
+
+ Sohag Para Canals; 262
+
+ Sohan torrent; 38, 253, 256
+
+ Southern Panjab Railway; 130
+
+ Spiti; 55, 235, 236
+ river; 45, 288
+
+ Stupas; 202
+
+ Suds; 106
+
+ Suliman range; 26, 27, 270, 290
+
+ Sultanpur (Kulu); 238
+
+ Sultanpur (Kapurthala); 278
+
+ Sunars; 106
+
+ Surindar Bikram Parkash, late Raja of Sirmur; 285, 286
+
+ Sutlej inundation canals; 267
+ river; 45, 46, 245, 262, 266, 281, 288
+
+
+ Takht i Suliman mountain; 26
+ hill (Kashmir); 318
+
+ Tamerlane. _See_ Timur
+
+ Tanawal; 302, 303
+
+ Tanawal hills; 302
+
+ Tarkanris; 307
+
+ Tarkhans (carpenters); 106, 152
+
+ Teri; 296
+
+ Thakkars; 107
+
+ Thal desert; 149, 259-261, 262, 265, 267
+
+ Thal (Kohat); 297, 311, 356
+
+ Thandiani; 356
+
+ Thanesar; 165, 168, 232, 348
+
+ Tilla hill; 29
+
+ Timur (Tamerlane); 171
+
+ Tirach Mir mountain; 22, 308
+
+ Tirah Campaign; 176
+
+ Tiwanas; 260
+
+ Tochi valley; 24, 296
+
+ Tons, river; 48
+
+ Torrents, action of; 47, 48
+
+ Trade; 159
+
+ Traders; 105, 106
+
+ Tribal militias; 312
+
+ Triple Canal Project; 138, 197
+
+ Tumans Biloch; 270
+
+ Turis; 311
+
+
+ Uch; 355
+
+ Uchiri range; 307
+
+ Udyana; 304
+
+ Ujh torrent; 42
+
+ Umra Khan; 196
+
+ Unhar river; 302
+
+ University, Panjab; 125, 126
+
+ Upper Bari Doab Canal; 135, 191, 247, 249, 251
+ Chenab Canal; 138, 139, 249
+ Jhelam Canal; 138, 139, 252
+ Swat Canal; 141, 298
+
+ Utman Khel; 306
+
+
+ Vaccination; 101
+
+
+ Wana; 24, 196, 312, 357
+
+ Wattus; 263
+
+ Waziristan; 312
+ hills; 24
+ militias; 313
+
+ Wazirs Darwesh Khel; 312
+ Madsud; 312
+
+ Weavers; 102, 152, 154
+
+ Wellesley, Marquis of; 182
+ Arthur; 183
+
+ Wells; 143, 144
+
+ Western Jamna Canal; 135, 227, 232, 273, 276
+
+ Wular lake; 40
+
+
+ Yakub Khan, Amir; 194
+
+ Yarkhun river; 305, 307
+
+ Yasin river; 307
+
+ Young, Sir Mackworth; 195
+
+ Yusafzais; 299, 304, 305, 306
+
+
+ Zaimukhts; 310
+
+ Zakaria Khan; 178
+
+ Zakha Khel; 309
+
+ Zamzama gun; 187
+
+ Zanskar; 320
+ Himalaya; 10, 286
+ river; 36
+
+ Zojila; 12
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PANJAB, NORTH-WEST FRONTIER
+PROVINCE, AND KASHMIR***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 24562.txt or 24562.zip *******
+
+
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/5/6/24562
+
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://www.gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
+paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works. See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+ the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+ you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is
+ owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+ has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+ Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments
+ must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+ prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+ returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+ sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+ address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+ the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+ you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+ does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+ License. You must require such a user to return or
+ destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+ and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+ Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+ money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+ electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+ of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+ distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf.
+
+
+Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact
+
+For additional contact information:
+ Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+ Chief Executive and Director
+ gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit:
+https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate
+
+
+Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+ https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
generated by cgit v1.2.3 (git 2.25.1) at 2026-04-10 05:34:25 +0000