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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Note on the Resemblances and Differences in
+the Structure and the Development of Brain in Man and the Apes, by Thomas Henry Huxley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
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+Title: Note on the Resemblances and Differences in the Structure and the Development of Brain in Man and the Apes
+
+Author: Thomas Henry Huxley
+
+Posting Date: November 5, 2008 [EBook #2354]
+Release Date: October, 2000
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RESEMBLANCES-DIFFERENCES OF BRAIN ***
+
+
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+Produced by Sue Asscher.  HTML version by Al Haines.
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+
+  NOTE ON THE RESEMBLANCES AND DIFFERENCES IN THE STRUCTURE
+  AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN IN MAN AND APES
+
+
+BY
+
+PROFESSOR T. H. HUXLEY, F.R.S.
+
+
+[This essay is taken from 'The Descent of Man and Selection in relation
+to Sex' by Charles Darwin where it appears at the end of Chapter VII
+which is also the end of Part I.  Footnotes are numbered as they appear
+in 'The Descent of Man.']
+
+
+
+The controversy respecting the nature and the extent of the differences
+in the structure of the brain in man and the apes, which arose some
+fifteen years ago, has not yet come to an end, though the subject
+matter of the dispute is, at present, totally different from what it
+was formerly.  It was originally asserted and re-asserted, with
+singular pertinacity, that the brain of all the apes, even the highest,
+differs from that of man, in the absence of such conspicuous structures
+as the posterior lobes of the cerebral hemispheres, with the posterior
+cornu of the lateral ventricle and the hippocampus minor, contained in
+those lobes, which are so obvious in man.
+
+But the truth that the three structures in question are as well
+developed in apes' as in human brains, or even better; and that it is
+characteristic of all the Primates (if we exclude the Lemurs) to have
+these parts well developed, stands at present on as secure a basis as
+any proposition in comparative anatomy. Moreover, it is admitted by
+every one of the long series of anatomists who, of late years, have
+paid special attention to the arrangement of the complicated sulci and
+gyri which appear upon the surface of the cerebral hemispheres in man
+and the higher apes, that they are disposed after the very same pattern
+in him, as in them.  Every principal gyrus and sulcus of a chimpanzee's
+brain is clearly represented in that of a man, so that the terminology
+which applies to the one answers for the other.  On this point there is
+no difference of opinion.  Some years since, Professor Bischoff
+published a memoir (70.  'Die Grosshirn-Windungen des Menschen;'
+'Abhandlungen der K. Bayerischen Akademie,' B. x. 1868.) on the
+cerebral convolutions of man and apes; and as the purpose of my learned
+colleague was certainly not to diminish the value of the differences
+between apes and men in this respect, I am glad to make a citation from
+him.
+
+"That the apes, and especially the orang, chimpanzee and gorilla, come
+very close to man in their organisation, much nearer than to any other
+animal, is a well known fact, disputed by nobody. Looking at the matter
+from the point of view of organisation alone, no one probably would
+ever have disputed the view of Linnaeus, that man should be placed,
+merely as a peculiar species, at the head of the mammalia and of those
+apes.  Both shew, in all their organs, so close an affinity, that the
+most exact anatomical investigation is needed in order to demonstrate
+those differences which really exist.  So it is with the brains. The
+brains of man, the orang, the chimpanzee, the gorilla, in spite of all
+the important differences which they present, come very close to one
+another" (loc. cit. p. 101).
+
+There remains, then, no dispute as to the resemblance in fundamental
+characters, between the ape's brain and man's:  nor any as to the
+wonderfully close similarity between the chimpanzee, orang and man, in
+even the details of the arrangement of the gyri and sulci of the
+cerebral hemispheres.  Nor, turning to the differences between the
+brains of the highest apes and that of man, is there any serious
+question as to the nature and extent of these differences.  It is
+admitted that the man's cerebral hemispheres are absolutely and
+relatively larger than those of the orang and chimpanzee; that his
+frontal lobes are less excavated by the upward protrusion of the roof
+of the orbits; that his gyri and sulci are, as a rule, less
+symmetrically disposed, and present a greater number of secondary
+plications.  And it is admitted that, as a rule, in man, the
+temporo-occipital or "external perpendicular" fissure, which is usually
+so strongly marked a feature of the ape's brain is but faintly marked.
+But it is also clear, that none of these differences constitutes a
+sharp demarcation between the man's and the ape's brain.  In respect to
+the external perpendicular fissure of Gratiolet, in the human brain for
+instance, Professor Turner remarks:  (71.  'Convolutions of the Human
+Cerebrum Topographically Considered,' 1866, p. 12.)
+
+"In some brains it appears simply as an indentation of the margin of
+the hemisphere, but, in others, it extends for some distance more or
+less transversely outwards.  I saw it in the right hemisphere of a
+female brain pass more than two inches outwards; and on another
+specimen, also the right hemisphere, it proceeded for four-tenths of an
+inch outwards, and then extended downwards, as far as the lower margin
+of the outer surface of the hemisphere.  The imperfect definition of
+this fissure in the majority of human brains, as compared with its
+remarkable distinctness in the brain of most Quadrumana, is owing to
+the presence, in the former, of certain superficial, well marked,
+secondary convolutions which bridge it over and connect the parietal
+with the occipital lobe.  The closer the first of these bridging gyri
+lies to the longitudinal fissure, the shorter is the external
+parieto-occipital fissure" (loc. cit. p. 12).
+
+The obliteration of the external perpendicular fissure of Gratiolet,
+therefore, is not a constant character of the human brain.  On the
+other hand, its full development is not a constant character of the
+higher ape's brain.  For, in the chimpanzee, the more or less extensive
+obliteration of the external perpendicular sulcus by "bridging
+convolutions," on one side or the other, has been noted over and over
+again by Prof. Rolleston, Mr. Marshall, M. Broca and Professor Turner.
+At the conclusion of a special paper on this subject the latter writes:
+(72.  Notes more especially on the bridging convolutions in the Brain
+of the Chimpanzee, 'Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,'
+1865-6.)
+
+"The three specimens of the brain of a chimpanzee, just described,
+prove, that the generalisation which Gratiolet has attempted to draw of
+the complete absence of the first connecting convolution and the
+concealment of the second, as essentially characteristic features in
+the brain of this animal, is by no means universally applicable.  In
+only one specimen did the brain, in these particulars, follow the law
+which Gratiolet has expressed.  As regards the presence of the superior
+bridging convolution, I am inclined to think that it has existed in one
+hemisphere, at least, in a majority of the brains of this animal which
+have, up to this time, been figured or described.  The superficial
+position of the second bridging convolution is evidently less frequent,
+and has as yet, I believe, only been seen in the brain (A) recorded in
+this communication.  The asymmetrical arrangement in the convolutions
+of the two hemispheres, which previous observers have referred to in
+their descriptions, is also well illustrated in these specimens" (pp.
+8, 9).
+
+Even were the presence of the temporo-occipital, or external
+perpendicular, sulcus, a mark of distinction between the higher apes
+and man, the value of such a distinctive character would be rendered
+very doubtful by the structure of the brain in the Platyrrhine apes.
+In fact, while the temporo-occipital is one of the most constant of
+sulci in the Catarrhine, or Old World, apes, it is never very strongly
+developed in the New World apes; it is absent in the smaller
+Platyrrhini; rudimentary in Pithecia (73. Flower, 'On the Anatomy of
+Pithecia Monachus,' 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society,' 1862.);
+and more or less obliterated by bridging convolutions in Ateles.
+
+A character which is thus variable within the limits of a single group
+can have no great taxonomic value.
+
+It is further established, that the degree of asymmetry of the
+convolution of the two sides in the human brain is subject to much
+individual variation; and that, in those individuals of the Bushman
+race who have been examined, the gyri and sulci of the two hemispheres
+are considerably less complicated and more symmetrical than in the
+European brain, while, in some individuals of the chimpanzee, their
+complexity and asymmetry become notable.  This is particularly the case
+in the brain of a young male chimpanzee figured by M. Broca.  ('L'ordre
+des Primates,' p. 165, fig. 11.)
+
+Again, as respects the question of absolute size, it is established
+that the difference between the largest and the smallest healthy human
+brain is greater than the difference between the smallest healthy human
+brain and the largest chimpanzee's or orang's brain.
+
+Moreover, there is one circumstance in which the orang's and
+chimpanzee's brains resemble man's, but in which they differ from the
+lower apes, and that is the presence of two corpora candicantia--the
+Cynomorpha having but one.
+
+In view of these facts I do not hesitate in this year 1874, to repeat
+and insist upon the proposition which I enunciated in 1863:  (74.
+'Man's Place in Nature,' p. 102.)
+
+"So far as cerebral structure goes, therefore, it is clear that man
+differs less from the chimpanzee or the orang, than these do even from
+the monkeys, and that the difference between the brain of the
+chimpanzee and of man is almost insignificant when compared with that
+between the chimpanzee brain and that of a Lemur."
+
+In the paper to which I have referred, Professor Bischoff does not deny
+the second part of this statement, but he first makes the irrelevant
+remark that it is not wonderful if the brains of an orang and a Lemur
+are very different; and secondly, goes on to assert that, "If we
+successively compare the brain of a man with that of an orang; the
+brain of this with that of a chimpanzee; of this with that of a
+gorilla, and so on of a Hylobates, Semnopithecus, Cynocephalus,
+Cercopithecus, Macacus, Cebus, Callithrix, Lemur, Stenops, Hapale, we
+shall not meet with a greater, or even as great a, break in the degree
+of development of the convolutions, as we find between the brain of a
+man and that of an orang or chimpanzee."
+
+To which I reply, firstly, that whether this assertion be true or
+false, it has nothing whatever to do with the proposition enunciated in
+'Man's Place in Nature,' which refers not to the development of the
+convolutions alone, but to the structure of the whole brain.  If
+Professor Bischoff had taken the trouble to refer to p. 96 of the work
+he criticises, in fact, he would have found the following passage:
+"And it is a remarkable circumstance that though, so far as our present
+knowledge extends, there IS one true structural break in the series of
+forms of Simian brains, this hiatus does not lie between man and the
+manlike apes, but between the lower and the lowest Simians, or in other
+words, between the Old and New World apes and monkeys and the Lemurs.
+Every Lemur which has yet been examined, in fact, has its cerebellum
+partially visible from above; and its posterior lobe, with the
+contained posterior cornu and hippocampus minor, more or less
+rudimentary.  Every marmoset, American monkey, Old World monkey, baboon
+or manlike ape, on the contrary, has its cerebellum entirely hidden,
+posteriorly, by the cerebral lobes, and possesses a large posterior
+cornu with a well-developed hippocampus minor."
+
+This statement was a strictly accurate account of what was known when
+it was made; and it does not appear to me to be more than apparently
+weakened by the subsequent discovery of the relatively small
+development of the posterior lobes in the Siamang and in the Howling
+monkey.  Notwithstanding the exceptional brevity of the posterior lobes
+in these two species, no one will pretend that their brains, in the
+slightest degree, approach those of the Lemurs.  And if, instead of
+putting Hapale out of its natural place, as Professor Bischoff most
+unaccountably does, we write the series of animals he has chosen to
+mention as follows:  Homo, Pithecus, Troglodytes, Hylobates,
+Semnopithecus, Cynocephalus, Cercopithecus, Macacus, Cebus, Callithrix,
+Hapale, Lemur, Stenops, I venture to reaffirm that the great break in
+this series lies between Hapale and Lemur, and that this break is
+considerably greater than that between any other two terms of that
+series.  Professor Bischoff ignores the fact that long before he wrote,
+Gratiolet had suggested the separation of the Lemurs from the other
+Primates on the very ground of the difference in their cerebral
+characters; and that Professor Flower had made the following
+observations in the course of his description of the brain of the Javan
+Loris:  (75.  'Transactions of the Zoological Society,' vol. v. 1862.)
+
+"And it is especially remarkable that, in the development of the
+posterior lobes, there is no approximation to the Lemurine, short
+hemisphered brain, in those monkeys which are commonly supposed to
+approach this family in other respects, viz. the lower members of the
+Platyrrhine group."
+
+So far as the structure of the adult brain is concerned, then, the very
+considerable additions to our knowledge, which have been made by the
+researches of so many investigators, during the past ten years, fully
+justify the statement which I made in 1863.  But it has been said,
+that, admitting the similarity between the adult brains of man and
+apes, they are nevertheless, in reality, widely different, because they
+exhibit fundamental differences in the mode of their development.  No
+one would be more ready than I to admit the force of this argument, if
+such fundamental differences of development really exist.  But I deny
+that they do exist.  On the contrary, there is a fundamental agreement
+in the development of the brain in men and apes.
+
+Gratiolet originated the statement that there is a fundamental
+difference in the development of the brains of apes and that of
+man--consisting in this; that, in the apes, the sulci which first make
+their appearance are situated on the posterior region of the cerebral
+hemispheres, while, in the human foetus, the sulci first become visible
+on the frontal lobes.  (76. "Chez tous les singes, les plis posterieurs
+se developpent les premiers; les plis anterieurs se developpent plus
+tard, aussi la vertebre occipitale et la parietale sont-elles
+relativement tres-grandes chez le foetus.  L'Homme presente une
+exception remarquable quant a l'epoque de l'apparition des plis
+frontaux, qui sont les premiers indiques; mais le developpement general
+du lobe frontal, envisage seulement par rapport a son volume, suit les
+memes lois que dans les singes:"  Gratiolet, 'Memoire sur les plis
+cerebres de l'Homme et des Primateaux,' p. 39, Tab. iv, fig. 3.)
+
+This general statement is based upon two observations, the one of a
+Gibbon almost ready to be born, in which the posterior gyri were "well
+developed," while those of the frontal lobes were "hardly indicated"
+(77.  Gratiolet's words are (loc. cit. p. 39): "Dans le foetus dont il
+s'agit les plis cerebraux posterieurs sont bien developpes, tandis que
+les plis du lobe frontal sont a peine indiques."  The figure, however
+(Pl. iv, fig. 3), shews the fissure of Rolando, and one of the frontal
+sulci plainly enough. Nevertheless, M. Alix, in his 'Notice sur les
+travaux anthropologiques de Gratiolet' ('Mem. de la Societe
+d'Anthropologie de Paris,' 1868, page 32), writes thus: "Gratiolet a eu
+entre les mains le cerveau d'un foetus de Gibbon, singe eminemment
+superieur, et tellement rapproche de l'orang, que des naturalistes
+tres-competents l'ont range parmi les anthropoides.  M. Huxley, par
+exemple, n'hesite pas sur ce point. Eh bien, c'est sur le cerveau d'un
+foetus de Gibbon que Gratiolet a vu LES CIRCONVOLUTIONS DU LOBE
+TEMPORO-SPHENOIDAL DEJA DEVELOPPEES LORSQU'IL N'EXISTENT PAS ENCORE DE
+PLIS SUR LE LOBE FRONTAL.  Il etait donc bien autorise a dire que, chez
+l'homme les circonvolutions apparaissent d'a en w, tandis que chez les
+singes elles se developpent d'w en a."), and the other of a human
+foetus at the 22nd or 23rd week of uterogestation, in which Gratiolet
+notes that the insula was uncovered, but that nevertheless "des
+incisures sement de lobe anterieur, une scissure peu profonde indique
+la separation du lobe occipital, tres-reduit, d'ailleurs des cette
+epoque.  Le reste de la surface cerebrale est encore absolument lisse."
+
+Three views of this brain are given in Plate II, figs. 1, 2, 3, of the
+work cited, shewing the upper, lateral and inferior views of the
+hemispheres, but not the inner view.  It is worthy of note that the
+figure by no means bears out Gratiolet's description, inasmuch as the
+fissure (antero-temporal) on the posterior half of the face of the
+hemisphere is more marked than any of those vaguely indicated in the
+anterior half.  If the figure is correct, it in no way justifies
+Gratiolet's conclusion:  "Il y a donc entre ces cerveaux [those of a
+Callithrix and of a Gibbon] et celui du foetus humain une difference
+fondamental.  Chez celui-ci, longtemps avant que les plis temporaux
+apparaissent, les plis frontaux, ESSAYENT d'exister."
+
+Since Gratiolet's time, however, the development of the gyri and sulci
+of the brain has been made the subject of renewed investigation by
+Schmidt, Bischoff, Pansch (78.  'Ueber die typische Anordnung der
+Furchen und Windungen auf den Grosshirn-Hemispharen des Menschen und
+der Affen,' 'Archiv fur Anthropologie,' iii. 1868.), and more
+particularly by Ecker (79. 'Zur Entwicklungs Geschichte der Furchen und
+Windungen der Grosshirn-Hemispharen im Foetus des Menschen.'  'Archiv
+fur Anthropologie,' iii. 1868.), whose work is not only the latest, but
+by far the most complete, memoir on the subject.
+
+The final results of their inquiries may be summed up as follows:--
+
+1.  In the human foetus, the sylvian fissure is formed in the course of
+the third month of uterogestation.  In this, and in the fourth month,
+the cerebral hemispheres are smooth and rounded (with the exception of
+the sylvian depression), and they project backwards far beyond the
+cerebellum.
+
+2.  The sulci, properly so called, begin to appear in the interval
+between the end of the fourth and the beginning of the sixth month of
+foetal life, but Ecker is careful to point out that, not only the time,
+but the order, of their appearance is subject to considerable
+individual variation.  In no case, however, are either the frontal or
+the temporal sulci the earliest.
+
+The first which appears, in fact, lies on the inner face of the
+hemisphere (whence doubtless Gratiolet, who does not seem to have
+examined that face in his foetus, overlooked it), and is either the
+internal perpendicular (occipito-parietal), or the calcarine sulcus,
+these two being close together and eventually running into one another.
+As a rule the occipito-parietal is the earlier of the two.
+
+3.  At the latter part of this period, another sulcus, the
+"posterio-parietal," or "Fissure of Rolando" is developed, and it is
+followed, in the course of the sixth month, by the other principal
+sulci of the frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes.  There
+is, however, no clear evidence that one of these constantly appears
+before the other; and it is remarkable that, in the brain at the period
+described and figured by Ecker (loc. cit. pp. 212-213, Taf. II, figs.
+1, 2, 3, 4), the antero-temporal sulcus (scissure parallele) so
+characteristic of the ape's brain, is as well, if not better developed
+than the fissure of Rolando, and is much more marked than the proper
+frontal sulci.
+
+Taking the facts as they now stand, it appears to me that the order of
+the appearance of the sulci and gyri in the foetal human brain is in
+perfect harmony with the general doctrine of evolution, and with the
+view that man has been evolved from some ape-like form; though there
+can be no doubt that form was, in many respects, different from any
+member of the Primates now living.
+
+Von Baer taught us, half a century ago, that, in the course of their
+development, allied animals put on at first, the characters of the
+greater groups to which they belong, and, by degrees, assume those
+which restrict them within the limits of their family, genus, and
+species; and he proved, at the same time, that no developmental stage
+of a higher animal is precisely similar to the adult condition of any
+lower animal.  It is quite correct to say that a frog passes through
+the condition of a fish, inasmuch as at one period of its life the
+tadpole has all the characters of a fish, and if it went no further,
+would have to be grouped among fishes.  But it is equally true that a
+tadpole is very different from any known fish.
+
+In like manner, the brain of a human foetus, at the fifth month, may
+correctly be said to be, not only the brain of an ape, but that of an
+Arctopithecine or marmoset-like ape; for its hemispheres, with their
+great posterior lobster, and with no sulci but the sylvian and the
+calcarine, present the characteristics found only in the group of the
+Arctopithecine Primates.  But it is equally true, as Gratiolet remarks,
+that, in its widely open sylvian fissure, it differs from the brain of
+any actual marmoset.  No doubt it would be much more similar to the
+brain of an advanced foetus of a marmoset.  But we know nothing
+whatever of the development of the brain in the marmosets.  In the
+Platyrrhini proper, the only observation with which I am acquainted is
+due to Pansch, who found in the brain of a foetal Cebus Apella, in
+addition to the sylvian fissure and the deep calcarine fissure, only a
+very shallow antero-temporal fissure (scissure parallele of Gratiolet).
+
+Now this fact, taken together with the circumstance that the
+antero-temporal sulcus is present in such Platyrrhini as the Saimiri,
+which present mere traces of sulci on the anterior half of the exterior
+of the cerebral hemispheres, or none at all, undoubtedly, so far as it
+goes, affords fair evidence in favour of Gratiolet's hypothesis, that
+the posterior sulci appear before the anterior, in the brains of the
+Platyrrhini.  But, it by no means follows, that the rule which may hold
+good for the Platyrrhini extends to the Catarrhini.  We have no
+information whatever respecting the development of the brain in the
+Cynomorpha; and, as regards the Anthropomorpha, nothing but the account
+of the brain of the Gibbon, near birth, already referred to.  At the
+present moment there is not a shadow of evidence to shew that the sulci
+of a chimpanzee's, or orang's, brain do not appear in the same order as
+a man's.
+
+Gratiolet opens his preface with the aphorism:  "Il est dangereux dans
+les sciences de conclure trop vite."  I fear he must have forgotten
+this sound maxim by the time he had reached the discussion of the
+differences between men and apes, in the body of his work.  No doubt,
+the excellent author of one of the most remarkable contributions to the
+just understanding of the mammalian brain which has ever been made,
+would have been the first to admit the insufficiency of his data had he
+lived to profit by the advance of inquiry.  The misfortune is that his
+conclusions have been employed by persons incompetent to appreciate
+their foundation, as arguments in favour of obscurantism.  (80.  For
+example, M. l'Abbe Lecomte in his terrible pamphlet, 'Le Darwinisme et
+l'origine de l'Homme,' 1873.)
+
+But it is important to remark that, whether Gratiolet was right or
+wrong in his hypothesis respecting the relative order of appearance of
+the temporal and frontal sulci, the fact remains; that before either
+temporal or frontal sulci, appear, the foetal brain of man presents
+characters which are found only in the lowest group of the Primates
+(leaving out the Lemurs); and that this is exactly what we should
+expect to be the case, if man has resulted from the gradual
+modification of the same form as that from which the other Primates
+have sprung.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Note on the Resemblances and
+Differences in the Structure and the Development of Brain in Man and the Apes, by Thomas Henry Huxley
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